title: Nuclear Security in Ukraine and the Black Sea Region: New Threats, New Risks, New Consequences
abstract: Nuclear security threats in the Black Sea region went through momentous changes between the 1990s and 2023. Up to 2014 the region was known as the location for the most high-profile cases of nuclear smuggling. In 2014 Ukraine lost control of parts of its territory and borders, which exacerbated the same nuclear security challenges. Attacks on nuclear installations were still seen as unlikely. In 2022 the Russian military did attack Ukrainian nuclear facilities. The Ukrainian nuclear security reg