title: 18. Countermeasures and Sanctions
abstract: The issue of enforcement by means of non-forcible measures is one of the least developed areas of international law. Two legal regimes are relatively clear—non- forcible countermeasures taken by States (countermeasures) and non-forcible measures taken by international organizations (sanctions). The development of a restricted doctrine of countermeasures as the modern accepted form of self-help is considered, along with the partial centralization of coercion in international organizations. The pr
journal: Oxford University Press eBooks