Merseburg
Town in Saxony-Anhalt, Germany

Merseburg () is a town in central Germany in southern Saxony-Anhalt, situated on the river Saale, and approximately 14 km south of Halle (Saale) and 30 km west of Leipzig. It is the capital of the Saalekreis district. It had a diocese founded by Archbishop Adalbert of Magdeburg.
The University of Merseburg is located within the town. Merseburg has around 35,000 inhabitants.
Geography.
The town Merseburg consists of Merseburg proper and the following four "Ortschaften" or municipal divisions:
Administrative reforms.
Venenien was incorporated into Merseburg on 1 January 1949. The parish Kötzschen followed on 1 July 1950. Since 30 May 1994, Meuschau is part of Merseburg. Trebnitz, previously part of Kreypau, followed in 2003. Beuna was annexed on 1 January 2009. Geusa is a part of Merseburg since 1 January 2010.
History.
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Historical affiliations
 Bishopric of Merseburg 1004-1565

 Electorate of Saxony 1565-1657

 Duchy of Saxe-Merseburg 1657-1738

 Poland-Saxony 1738-1763

 Electorate of Saxony 1763-1806

 Kingdom of Saxony 1806-1815

 Kingdom of Prussia 1815-1871

 German Empire 1871-1918

 Weimar Republic 1918-1933

 Nazi Germany 1933-1945

 Allied-occupied Germany 1945-1949

 East Germany 1949-1990

 1990-present
Pre-history and Middle Ages.
Merseburg was first mentioned in 850. King Henry the Fowler built a royal palace at Merseburg; in the 933 Battle of Riade, he gained his great victory over the Hungarians in the vicinity.
Thietmar, appointed in 973, became the first bishop of the newly created bishopric of Prague in Bohemia. Prague had been part of the archbishopric of Mainz for a hundred years before that. From 968 until the Protestant Reformation, Merseburg was the seat of the Bishop of Merseburg, and in addition to being for a time the residence of the margraves of Meissen, it was a favorite residence of the German kings during the 10th, 11th and 12th centuries. Fifteen diets were held here during the Middle Ages, during which time its fairs enjoyed the importance which was afterwards transferred to those of Leipzig. After Ekkehard's treacherous death on 3 April 1002, Bolesław I Chrobry took Merseburg and Meissen, and then Milsko with Bautzen and Strehla, with the help of the local Slavic population. The German princes accepted the sovereignty of the Polish prince in these areas. Some historians believe that since the convention in Gniezno, the Brave might have had certain rights to the German throne after Otto III, guaranteed by some succession document. Merseburg was later the site of a failed assassination attempt on Polish ruler Bolesław I Chrobry in 1002. The town suffered severely during the German Peasants' War and also during the Thirty Years' War.
17th century to 20th century.
From 1657 to 1738 Merseburg was the residence of the Dukes of Saxe-Merseburg, after which it fell to the Electorate of Saxony. In 1815 following the Napoleonic Wars, the town became part of the Prussian Province of Saxony.
Merseburg is where the Merseburg Incantations were rediscovered in 1841. Written down in Old High German, they are hitherto the only preserved German documents with a heathen theme. One of them is a charm to release warriors caught during battle, and the other is a charm to heal a horse's sprained foot.
At the beginning of the 20th century, Merseburg was transformed into an industrial town, largely due to the pioneering work done by Carl Bosch and Friedrich Bergius, who laid down the scientific fundamentals of the catalytic high-pressure ammonia synthesis from 1909 to 1913. The nearby Leuna works continue this tradition of chemical industry. The "Merseburger Tageblatt" was published as a local newspaper in Merseburg.
Merseburg was badly damaged in World War II. In 23 air raids, 6,200 dwellings were completely or partly destroyed. The historic town centre was almost completely destroyed.
Briefly part of Saxony-Anhalt after the war, it was then administered within the "Bezirk" Halle in East Germany. It became part of Saxony-Anhalt again after the reunification of Germany.
Demographics.
Like many towns in the former East Germany, Merseburg has had a general decline in population since German Reunification despite annexing and merging with a number of smaller nearby villages.
Population of Merseburg "(from 1960, population on 31 December, unless otherwise indicated)":
Sights.
Among the notable buildings of Merseburg are the Merseburg Cathedral of St John the Baptist (founded 1015, rebuilt in the 13th and 16th centuries) and the episcopal palace (15th century). The cathedral-and-palace ensemble also features a palace garden.
Other sights include the Merseburg House of Trades with a cultural stage and the German Museum of Chemistry, Merseburg.
Arts and culture.
The Merseburg Palace Festival with the Historical Pageant, the International Palace-Moat Concerts, Merseburg Organ Days and the Puppet Show Festival Week are events celebrated every year.
Transport.
Merseburg station is located on the Halle–Bebra railway. Leipzig/Halle Airport is 25 kilometers away.
Merseburg is connected with the Halle (Saale) tramway network. A tram ride from Halle's city centre to Merseburg takes about 50 minutes.
Twin towns – sister cities.
Merseburg is twinned with:
References.
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Ludwig Friedrich Otto Baumgarten-Crusius
Ludwig Friedrich Otto Baumgarten-Crusius (31 July 1788 – 31 May 1843) was a German Protestant theologian and divine born in Merseburg. He was the brother of philologist Detlev Karl Wilhelm Baumgarten-Crusius (1786-1845).
Life.
In 1805 he entered the University of Leipzig, where he studied theology and philology, becoming a university minister in 1810. In 1812 he became an associate professor of theology at the University of Jena, where in 1817, he attained a full professorship. He would remain at Jena for the rest of his life.
He was considered a champion of religious liberty, a theme that was expressed throughout his various writings. Early in his career, he was influenced by the metaphysics of Schelling, a belief system that he ultimately abandoned as his career progressed.
With the exception of church history, he lectured on all branches of so-called theoretical theology, especially on New Testament exegesis, Biblical theology, dogmatic ethics, and the history of dogma. His comprehensive knowledge, accurate scholarship and wide sympathies gave unusual value to his lectures and treatises, especially those on the development of church doctrine.
Literary works.
His published works are many, the most important being:
References.
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Detlev Karl Wilhelm Baumgarten-Crusius
German educator and philologist
Detlev Karl Wilhelm Baumgarten-Crusius (24 January 1786, Dresden – 5 May 1845, Meissen) was a German educator and philologist. He was the older brother of theologian Ludwig Friedrich Otto Baumgarten-Crusius (1788-1842).
From 1810, he served as a vice-principal in Merseburg, afterwards performing similar duties in Dresden (from 1817). In 1833 he was appointed rector at the "Landesschule" in Meissen, where he worked for the remainder of his career.
Baumgarten-Crusius is known for his work in the field of classical philology, in particular, editions of the Roman historian Suetonius. In 1822-24, he published an edition of Homer's Odyssey.
References.
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Cossutia
Roman woman who was engaged to Julius Caesar
Cossutia was a Roman woman who became engaged to Julius Caesar prior to his reaching adulthood. There has been debate among historians on whether the marriage actually occurred.
Biography.
Early life.
Cossutia belonged to a very wealthy equestrian family from Pisa.
Caesar.
Cossutia appealed to Caesar, although the Cossuti were not even "novi homines". She was recommended to Caesar by his father and it is believed that the future dictator of Rome married Cossutia after he began wearing the "toga virilis". Both families issued coins with her image and were inscribed with "Uxor Caesaris". No children sprang from this relation. In 84 BC, after his father's death, Caesar left Cossutia and married Cornelia, as that was more pragmatic than the earlier relation to Cossutia. It is also possible that Caesar chose to leave her to marry Cornelia because he had been nominated as "Flamen Dialis", a role which demanded marriage to a patrician via "confarreatio".
Later years.
Cossutia perhaps died in Pisa, Italy in 84 BC.
Scholarly disagreement.
In the past it was commonly accepted that Caesar and Cossutia were married, but more recent opinions differ. Among those arguing that Caesar was never married to Cossutia are Ludwig Friedrich Otto Baumgarten-Crusius, Napoleon III, Charles Merivale, James Anthony Froude, Theodore Ayrault Dodge, William Warde Fowler, Ernest Gottlieb Sihler, Adolf von Mess, and John Carew Rolfe. The French author Marie-Nicolas Bouillet lists Cossutia first, then Cornelia, Pompeia, and Calpurnia, as wives of Caesar. The ancient historian Plutarch largely ignores Cossutia, but names her as one of Caesar's wives. Suetonius also used the word for an official divorce when describing the separation.
Cultural depictions.
Cossutia appears as a major character in the opera "Young Caesar", and as a minor character in several novels.
References.
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Ernst Ludwig Theodor Henke
German theologian and historian
Ernst Ludwig Theodor Henke (22 February 1804 in Helmstedt – 1 December 1872 in Marburg), was a German theologian and historian, and the son of the theologian Heinrich Henke (1752–1809). He was the father of anatomist Wilhelm von Henke (1834–1896).
From 1820, he studied at the Collegium Carolinum in Braunschweig, then continued his education at the Universities of Göttingen and Jena, where he was influenced by his later father-in-law Jakob Friedrich Fries (1773–1843) and Ludwig Baumgarten-Crusius (1788–1843). In 1826 he received his doctorate of philosophy, later returning to Braunschweig, where he taught classes at the Collegium Carolinum. In 1833 he was appointed an associate professor of church history and exegesis at Jena, followed by a full professorship at the University of Marburg (1839).
References.
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Walter F. Otto
German classical philologist (1874–1958)
Walter Friedrich Gustav Hermann Otto (22 June 1874, in Hechingen – 23 September 1958, in Tübingen) was a German classical philologist particularly known for his work on the meaning and legacy of Greek religion and mythology, especially as represented in his seminal 1929 work "The Homeric Gods".
Life.
Walter F. Otto was born to pharmacist Hermann Ernst Otto in Hechingen (Baden-Württemberg), Germany in 1874. In 1882, after his family moved to Stuttgart, Otto began attending the Eberhard-Ludwigs-Gymnasium. Instead of completing the Abitur, he took the so-called "Konkurs" exam, the successful completion of which secured him admission to the Tübinger Stift.
As was expected of him by the Stift, Otto began studying Protestant theology, but switched to classical philology after two semesters, and continued his studies under professors Otto Crusius, Ludwig Schwabe and Wilhelm Schmid. Schmid convinced Otto to transfer from Tübingen to Bonn, where he completed his studies under Hermann Usener and Franz Bücheler. Bücheler, renowned for his work as a Latinist, influenced the young Otto to such a degree that the latter dedicated the bulk of the following 20 years to topics centred on Roman culture and literature - this, despite the fact that he is principally remembered as a Hellenist.
Otto graduated in 1897 with the thesis "Nomina propria latina oriunda a participiis perfecti" ("Latin Personal Names derived from the Perfect Participle"). Shortly thereafter, he acquired the license to teach in secondary schools. The following year, he became an assistant to the preparations of the "Thesaurus Linguae Latinae" and moved to Munich to carry out his new duties. He served in the positions of editor and author of the "Onomasticum Latinum" until 1911, by which time he had completed his doctoral work under Crusius. In the Fall of that year, Otto was offered and accepted a professorship at Vienna, where he met fellow philologist Hans von Arnim, and the two became close friends.
Two years later, in 1913, Otto transferred to Basel, where he took up the position of "Ordinarius". The following year he transferred again, this time to the newly founded University of Frankfurt, where he remained for next 20 years as professor for classical philology. During this time, he developed a close friendship with Hellenist Karl Reinhardt.
In 1934, the Nazi regime forced Otto to accept the offer to serve as the successor to Paul Maas, who was removed from his position for being of Jewish descent, in Königsberg. From 1933 to 1945, Otto was a member - and from 1935, the administrator - of the "Scientific Committee" of the Nietzsche Archive. In 1939 and 1940, he, together with Karl Reinhardt and Ernesto Grassi, published a yearbook entitled "Geistige Überlieferung" ("Spiritual Tradition"). In the introduction, Otto expressed his concern regarding the destiny of the classical tradition, and the yearbook was subsequently banned by the government. He was able to flee Königsberg in 1944, but through the process lost all of his possessions, including his personal library and manuscripts. From that point until the end of the Second World War, Otto found refuge in Elmau near Garmisch-Partenkirchen in Bavaria, where he entertained the local community with lectures and small theatrical performances.
After the war, Otto was only able to secure positions as a substitute: 1945 in Munich, 1946 in Göttingen and, later, in Tübingen as visiting professor. After the reinstitution of the department in Tübingen, he was a member of the faculty of the university as professor emeritus. In Tübingen, Otto was able to settle in, and found good working conditions and students: at 83, he was still holding lectures and colloquia. He died there in the Fall of 1958 while working on the essay "Die Bahn der Götter" ("The Path of the Gods"). His remains were interred in the Tübingen Woodland Cemetery.
Reception.
In his work on Greek religion and mythology, especially in his studies "The Homeric Gods" (German: "Die Götter Griechenlands"; 1929) and "Dionysos" (1933), Otto emphasized the 'rational' aspects of classical mythology, and thus clearly distinguished his own position from that found in the more traditional school of Hermann Usener. In Otto's description, the faith of the ancient Greeks was a kind of "religion of objective realization" (Reinhardt). This explains the palpable and continuing influence Otto's writings have had, not only on classical philologists such as Karl Kerényi, but particularly on scholars from fields unrelated to philology. For the same reason, his works — particularly "Theophania" (1959) — have been misinterpreted and attacked by Christian theologians as an attempt to revive classical religion. Otto himself described such an interpretation as absurd.

Alfred Baumgarten
Baron Alfred Moritz Friedrich Baumgarten (13 November 1842 – 3 October 1919) was the co-founder and president of the St. Lawrence Sugar Refinery at Montreal, and a life governor of the Montreal General Hospital and Master of Foxhounds for the Montreal Hunt. His house in Montreal's Golden Square Mile is today home to the McGill University Faculty Club.
Family and education.
Alfred Moritz Friedrich Baumgarten was born on 13 November 1842 in Dresden, the son of Dr Moritz Friedrich Oswald Baumgarten, court physician to John, king of Saxony, and Emmy Zocher, a lady-in-waiting to Queen Carola of Saxony.
Baumgarten attended Dresden High School and Dresden Polytechnic School (where he graduated as a chemist), before studying chemistry at the University of Berlin and the University of Göttingen, during which time he received two years' practical experience at the chemical plant at Schöningen. In 1864, he was awarded a doctor of philosophy degree.
Career.
Baumgarten began his career as the manager of a sugar beet house at Hamersleben, remaining there until 1866, when he emigrated to the United States.
New York.
Baumgarten came to New York with the intention of entering the North American chemical industry. He became an assistant in the laboratory of the chemist Charles F. Chandler of the New York School of Mines.
Whilst at the School of Mines, Baumgarten formed a business partnership with C.W. Walter, establishing with him the Laurel Hill Chemical Works, under the name of Walter & Baumgarten. The company later became the Nicholson Company, the largest acid manufacturing works in North America. Baumgarten then moved from the company, when he obtained a management post at the Long Island Sugar refinery.
Montreal.
In 1873, Baumgarten came to Montreal, where he worked as manager of the de Castro Syrup Company. In 1879, he co-founded the St. Lawrence Sugar Refining Company, becoming the company's vice-president and, in 1894, its president.
Baumgarten's training as a chemical engineer enabled him to develop the process of refining sugar beet. The company imported raw sugar from the British West Indies and Europe before refining it into a pure substance. The plant was enlarged several times to accommodate the growth in demand. When the original buildings were destroyed by fire in 1887, a new factory was built at Maisonneuve on a riverside site that allowed the largest ships to unload their cargo near to the factory doors.
By 1908, the company was worth CA$ (1908) and was exporting 300,000 barrels a year. Baumgarten became a wealthy man as a result of his stakes in the company.
In 1911, Baumgarten was appointed as a director of the Bank of Montreal. He was also a director of C. Meredith & Company; vice-president of the Montreal Archaeological Institute, and published several essays on chemistry. He retired in 1912 and was succeeded as president of the St. Lawrence Refinery by John Wilson McConnell, though he remained the principal shareholder and was given the position of honorary president.
Forced resignation from the St. Lawrence Sugar Refining Company.
Prior to the First World War, anti-German sentiment spread through the British Empire, reaching a peak after the outbreak of war in 1914. The St. Lawrence Sugar Refinery was targeted in the local press for allegedly still being "in the hands of enemy Germans". By 1915, McConnell was forced to hold a shareholders' meeting to discuss "the serious menace to the welfare of our business caused by hostile publications in the press against certain persons connected with our company". The company decided that every officeholder with a German-sounding name had to resign his post, and most did. As well as being made to sell his shares, Baumgarten and his brother-in-law, the vice-president and managing director, Otto Wilhelm Donner, all resigned their positions.
These events, as well as the way several of his pre-war associates shunned him as soon as war was declared against Germany, distressed Baumgarten greatly. Some of his close friends stood by him, frustrated by how he had been treated.
During the war, Baumgarten contributed generously towards the Canadian Patriotic Fund, and he offered to let his Montreal town house become a convalescent home for disabled soldiers. However, aspersions were cast that he was a sympathiser and, stories were told that the house was used by the spy Joachim von Ribbentrop.
Family and private life.
In 1885, Baumgarten married Martha Christina Donner, the daughter of John Donner of Altona, Hamburg. The marriage produced two daughters, Mimi Donner Baumgarten (b. 1888), and Elsa Baumgarten (b. 1900). In 1895, he purchased a large house at Sainte-Agathe-des-Monts, which eventually had stables and galleries and dominated the hillside overlooking the lake.
Baumgarten was a life governor of the Montreal General Hospital, the Montreal Western Hospital and the Alexandra Hospital. He enjoyed a prominent place in Montreal's social world. After he retired from public life he spent the greater part of his time at his country house. He died on 3 October 1919, having been in poor health during the last five years of his life. He was buried in the Mount Royal Cemetery in Montreal.
Baumgarten died a wealthy man. In his will, executed in 1919, he left donations to the three hospitals where he had been a governor, and a substantial annual sum for his family, which allowed them to retain the family country house, even after Martha Baumgarten's death in 1953.
Baumgarten House.
In 1880, Baumgarten purchased land on McTavish Street, now located within Montreal's Golden Square Mile for a new mansion, Baumgarten House, which was completed in 1887.
The house had a modest exterior, but the interior was sumptuously decorated and boasted a 'sunken bathtub' (an indoor swimming pool), the first in the city. It was also the first private residence to be fitted with electrical lighting. In 1902 he made further extensions to his home.
The ceiling of the ballroom, from which hung several chandeliers, was supported by marble columns and a minstrels' gallery was suspended from the ceiling with brass cords. The ballroom floor was built on springs to help boost the dancers' feet. Baumgarten personally designed and built the spring floor, which was transplanted to his home from the Montreal Hunt clubhouse when the Hunt relocated.
The Gothic Gallery, which spanned two stories of the house, was designed to resemble a German hunting lodge and was covered by an immense, amber-coloured stained glass skylight. In the early 1900s his home was the favourite Montreal place for Governor-General the Earl of Minto.
After Baumgarten's death in 1919, the house continued to be lived in by his widow and their two daughters. In 1926, McGill University purchased the house for a nominal sum to serve as a residence for the principal of McGill. General Sir Arthur Currie occupied the house until 1935, but it was felt by his successor that the house was too grand for his needs and from 1935 the house was renovated to become the McGill Faculty Club. At this time, the Gothic Gallery was split into two separate floors, the lower of which is now the main dining room, and the upper of which serves as the billiard room.
Montreal Hunt.
Baumgarten was an ardent sportsman and had a passion for horses. From 1882 to 1887, he was the Master of Foxhounds for the Montreal Hunt, rejuvenating the club after the departure of British troops from Canada in 1870. He introduced dinners and dancing after the meet.
In 1881, Baumgarten bought some land on the corner of what is today Mount Royal Avenue and Delormier Avenue.He commissioned the building of new kennels and a clubhouse, that included a banquet room, a billiards room, a ballroom, a swimming pool and a library. The front of the clubhouse featured a long gallery, where the meet could be viewed. The interior was decorated in light oak with burnished brass. The fireplace in the entrance hall was decorated with Dutch tiles depicting hunting scenes. The swimming pool was described as "an oriental plunge bathroom all inlaid with white tiles".
Notes.
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List of German-language philosophers
This is a list of German-language philosophers. The following individuals have written philosophical texts in the German language. Many are categorized as or , but some are neither German nor Austrian by ethnicity or nationality. Each one, however, satisfies at least one of the following criteria:
Reference works such as the following discuss the lives and summarize the works of notable philosophers:
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 * See also* References
Thomas Abbt (1738–1766) "(Macmillan)"
Theodor Adorno (1903–1969) "(Cambridge; Macmillan2; Oxford 1995; Routledge 2000)"
Magdalena Aebi (1898–1980)
Günther Anders (1902–1992)
Karl-Otto Apel (1922–2017) "(Macmillan2)"
Hannah Arendt (1906–1975) "(Macmillan2)"
Richard Avenarius (1843–1896) "(Cambridge; Macmillan2; Oxford 1995; Routledge 2000)"
Franz Xaver von Baader (1765–1841) "(Macmillan2)"
Johann Jakob Bachofen (1815–1887) "(Macmillan2)"
Johann Bernhard Basedow (1723–1790) "(Macmillan2)"
Bruno Bauer (1809–1882) "(Oxford 1995)"
Lewis White Beck (1913-1997) "(Macmillan2)"
Jakob Sigismund Beck (1761–1840) "(Macmillan2)"
Friedrich Eduard Beneke (1798–1854) "(Cambridge; Macmillan2)"
Walter Benjamin (1892–1940) "(Macmillan2; Oxford 1995; Routledge 2000)"
Ernst Bloch (1885–1977) "(Cambridge; Macmillan2; Routledge 2000)"
Hans Blumenberg (1920–1996) "(Metzler)"
Ludwig Boltzmann (1844–1906) "(Oxford 1995)"
Bernhard Bolzano (1781–1848) "(Cambridge; Macmillan2; Oxford 1995; Routledge 2000)"
Franz Brentano (1838–1907) "(Cambridge; Macmillan2; Oxford 1995; Routledge 2000)"
Martin Buber (1878–1965) "(Cambridge; Oxford 1995; Routledge 2000; Stanford)"
Ludwig Büchner (1824–1899) "(Macmillan; Routledge 2000)"
Rudolf Carnap (1891–1970) "(Cambridge; Macmillan2; Oxford 1995; Routledge 2000)"
Ernst Cassirer (1874–1945) "(Cambridge; Macmillan2; Oxford 1995)"
Julie Clodius (1750–1805)
Hermann Cohen (1842–1918) "(Cambridge; Macmillan2; Oxford 1995)"
Christian August Crusius (1715–1775) "(Cambridge; Macmillan2; Routledge 2000)"
Heinrich Czolbe (1819–1873) "(Cambridge)"
Max Dessoir (1867–1947) "(Macmillan)"
Wilhelm Dilthey (1833–1911) "(Cambridge; Macmillan2; Oxford 1995)"
Eugen Dühring (1833–1921) "(Routledge 2000)"
Johann Augustus Eberhard (1739–1809) "(Macmillan2; Routledge 2000)"
Albert Einstein (1879–1955) "(Macmillan)"
Friedrich Engels (1820–1895) "(Oxford 1995)"
Gustav Fechner (1801–1887) "(Cambridge)"
Ludwig Andreas Feuerbach (1804–1872) "(Cambridge; Macmillan2; Oxford 1995)"
Johann Gottlieb Fichte (1762–1814) "(Cambridge; Macmillan2; Oxford 1995)"
Gottlob Frege (1848–1925) "(Cambridge; Macmillan2; Oxford 1995; Routledge 2000)"
Jakob Friedrich Fries (1773–1843) "(Macmillan2; Routledge 2000)"
Hans-Georg Gadamer (1900–2002) "(Cambridge; Macmillan2; Oxford 1995; Routledge 2000)"
Arnold Gehlen (1904–1976) "(Metzler)"
Kurt Gödel (1906–1978) "(Oxford 1995)"
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749–1832)
Johann Christoph Gottsched (1700–1766) "(Macmillan2; Sassen)"
Jürgen Habermas (born 1929) "(Cambridge; Macmillan2; Routledge 2000)"
Ernst Haeckel (1834–1919) "(Macmillan2)"
Johann Georg Hamann (1730–1788) "(Cambridge)"
Karl Robert Eduard von Hartmann (1842–1906) "(Cambridge; Macmillan; Oxford 1995)"
Nicolai Hartmann (1882–1950) "(Cambridge; Macmillan2; Oxford 1995)"
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770–1831) "(Macmillan2; Oxford 1995)"
Martin Heidegger (1889–1976) "(Cambridge; Macmillan; Oxford 1995)"
Carl Gustav Hempel (1905–1997) "(Cambridge; Macmillan2)"
Johann Friedrich Herbart (1776–1841) "(Cambridge; Macmillan2; Routledge 2000)"
Johann Gottfried von Herder (1744–1803) "(Cambridge; Macmillan2; Oxford 1995)"
Heinrich Rudolf Hertz (1857–1894) "(Macmillan2)"
Moses Hess (1812–1875) "(Routledge 2000)"
David Hilbert (1862–1943) "(Cambridge)"
Richard Hönigswald "(Macmillan2)"
Hans Heinz Holz (1927–2011) "(Metzler)"
Max Horkheimer (1895–1973) "(Cambridge; Macmillan2)"
Wilhelm von Humboldt (1767–1835) "(Oxford 1995)"
Edmund Husserl (1859–1938) "(Cambridge; Macmillan2; Oxford 1995; Routledge 1998; Routledge 2000)"
Roman Ingarden (1893–1970) "(Routledge 1998)"
Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi (1743–1819) "(Macmillan2; Oxford 1995)"
Karl Jaspers (1883–1969) "(Cambridge; Macmillan2; Oxford 1995)"
Hans Jonas (1903–1993)
Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) "(Cambridge; Macmillan2; Oxford 1995; Routledge 2000)"
Hermann von Keyserling (1880–1946) "(Macmillan2)"
Ludwig Klages (1872–1956) "(Macmillan2)"
Heinrich von Kleist (1771–1811) "(Cambridge)"
Martin Knutzen (1713–1751) "(Macmillan2)"
Karl C.F. Krause (1781–1832) "(Cambridge; Macmillan2)"
Felix Krueger (1874–1948) "(Macmillan2)"
Oswald Kuelpe (1862–1915) "(Macmillan2)"
Ernst Laas (1837–1885) "(Macmillan2)"
Johann Heinrich Lambert (1728–177


Nødhavn Ved Norskekysten
Painting by Hans Gude
Nødhavn Ved Norskekysten (English translation: Port of Refuge on the Norwegian Coast or Norwegian Harbor of Refuge) is a painting by Norwegian romanticist painter Hans Gude completed in 1873.
Exhibition history.
The painting was first shown at the World Exhibition in Vienna in 1873 where it won a gold medal. It was later displayed at an international exhibition of art at the Academy of Art in Berlin in 1896 while Gude was a professor at the Academy, and yet later still it was shown in Dresden in 1904, the year after Gude's death.
Scene and style.
The painting shows a realistic rendering of a storm hitting a Norwegian harbor, with a brig stranded in the distant breakers. The painting is divided into a foreground, where women and children watch the rescue effort; a middle ground, where various moored ships bob in the strong waves; and a background, where wavelike rocks enclose the refuge point and bring the eye down to the stranded brig. The colors used are predominantly the blue-grey of the sea and the beige of the reflections on the sea which serve to unify the piece. Various elements of the scene including the waterfront buildings, the groups of figures, and the departing rowboat, would be reused by Gude in later works.
Ownership.
In 1875, the painting was purchased by the Bremen Art Society, although Gude incorrectly identifies them as the Stadtgalerie Bremen in his notes about the sale. In 1907 the painting was transferred to the Kunsthalle Bremen. In 1920 the painting was auctioned off due in part to changing tastes in art and the painting's large size () which made it difficult to store. In 1932 the painting was auctioned off again in Oslo where it was purchased by its current owner.
References.
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Hans Gude
Norwegian painter (1825–1903)
Hans Fredrik Gude (March 13, 1825 – August 17, 1903) was a Norwegian romanticist painter and is considered along with Johan Christian Dahl to be one of Norway's foremost landscape painters. He has been called a mainstay of Norwegian National Romanticism. He is associated with the Düsseldorf school of painting.
Gude's artistic career was not one marked with drastic change and revolution, but was instead a steady progression that slowly reacted to general trends in the artistic world. Gude's early works are of idyllic, sun-drenched Norwegian landscapes which present a romantic, yet still realistic view of his country. Around 1860 Gude began painting seascapes and other coastal subjects. Gude had difficulty with figure drawing initially and so collaborated with Adolph Tidemand in some of his painting, drawing the landscape himself and allowing Tidemand to paint the figures. Later Gude would work specifically on his figures while at Karlsruhe, and so began populating his paintings with them. Gude initially painted primarily with oils in a studio, basing his works on studies he had done earlier in the field. However, as Gude matured as a painter he began to paint en plein air and espoused the merits of doing so to his students. Gude would paint with watercolors later in life as well as gouache in an effort to keep his art constantly fresh and evolving, and although these were never as well received by the public as his oil paintings, his fellow artists greatly admired them.
Gude spent forty-five years as an art professor and so he played an important role in the development of Norwegian art by acting as a mentor to three generations of Norwegian artists. Young Norwegian artists flocked to wherever Gude was teaching, first at the Academy of Art in Düsseldorf and later at the School of Art in Karlsruhe. Gude also served as a professor at the Berlin Academy of Art from 1880 to 1901, although he attracted few Norwegians to the Berlin Academy because by this time Berlin had been surpassed in prestige in the eyes of young Norwegian artists by Paris.
Over the course of his lifetime Gude won numerous medals, was inducted as an honorary member into many art academies, and was awarded the Grand Cross of the Order of St. Olav. He was the father of painter Nils Gude and watercolorist and illustrator Agnes Charlotte Guide. His daughter Sigrid married German sculptor Otto Lessing.
Early life.
Gude was born in Christiania in 1825 the son of Ove Gude, a judge, and Marie Elisabeth Brandt.
Gude began his artistic career with private lessons from Johannes Flintoe, and by 1838 he was attending Flintoe's evening classes at the Royal School of Drawing in Christiania. In the autumn of 1841 Johan Sebastian Welhaven suggested that the young Gude should be sent to Düsseldorf to further his education in the arts.
Academy of Art in Düsseldorf.
At the Academy of Art in Düsseldorf Gude encountered Johann Wilhelm Schirmer – a professor in landscape painting – who advised him to give up his ambitions of being a painter and to return to his regular studies before it was too late. Gude was rejected by the academy, but attracted the attention of Andreas Achenbach who provided him with private lessons.
As a student.
Gude was finally accepted into the academy in the autumn of 1842 and joined Schirmer's landscape painting class where he made quick progress. The landscape painting class at the academy was new at the time, having been founded in 1839 as a counterpart to the more long standing figure painting class. At the time figure painting was considered a more prestigious genre than landscape painting as it was thought only through painting the human body could true beauty be expressed.
Gude, along with most of the class of twelve, received a grade of "good" his first semester and was described as "talented". On his report card for the 1843–44 school year he was the only student to be described as "very talented", and the report for his fourth year said that he "paints Norwegian scenery in a truthful and distinctive manner".
While Gude was a student, two different trends in landscaping were developing at the academy: a romantic trend and a classical trend. The romanticists depicted wild, untamed wildernesses with dark forests, soaring peaks, and rushing water to capture the terrifying and overpowering aspects of nature. They used rich, saturated colors with strong contrast of light and shadow. The classicists were more interested in recreating landscapes from the heroic or mythical past and often set them in the midst of religious or historical events. The classicists focused on lines and clarity in their compositions. It was through Achenbach – Gude's first teacher upon arriving in Düsseldorf – that he was exposed to the romanticist tradition, while it was through his classes with and later time teaching for Schirmer that he was exposed to the classicist traditions.
In 1827 Schirmer and Carl Friedrich Lessing founded a Society for Landscape Composition that would meet a few times each year at Schirmer's home where Schirmer would offer advice on the composition of landscape paintings. Fifteen years later Gude began attending the meetings of the society with other students from his class, but as he progressed to greater levels of realism Gude began to make it clear that he did not agree with the ideas of composition Schirmer put forward during the meetings, saying specifically:
<templatestyles src="Template:Blockquote/styles.css" />I painted a large mountain view for which my studies of the Rondane Mountains provided the subject, and I had severe problems because Schirmer did not approve of the realistic rendering, and his suggestion that I should group the mountains more in accordance with the Classical ideal was impossible for me to accept.
In Düsseldorf Gude met Carl Friedrich Lessing who, while initially aloof, became Gude's friend and colleague. Their relationship was such a close one that Gude's eldest daughter eventually married one of Lessing's sons. The two artists differed in style though, with Lessing painting dramatic, historical works while Gude never once introduced historical events into his own paintings.
Gude served as a student teacher at the academy until 1844, before leaving to live in Christiania. On July 25, 1850, Gude married Betsy Charlotte Juliane Anker (1830–1912), the daughter of General Erik Anker, in Christiania (today called Oslo).
Professorship.
In 1854 Gude was appointed the professor of landscape painting at the academy replacing his former teacher Schirmer. Gude was twenty-nine when appointed, making him the youngest professor at the academy. His appointment was partially political, in a conflict between Rhineland and Prussian interests Gude was seen as a neutral candidate because of his Norwegian roots. Gude was recommended for the position by the current Director of the academy Wilhelm von Schadow, but only after Andreas Achenbach, Oswald Achenbach, and Lessing had refused the post due to lack of suitable pay. In regards to his position and compensation, Gude wrote:
<templatestyles src="Template:Blockquote/styles.css" />About this post of professor I can only say I cannot comprehend why I should not accept pay for being a teacher, since I really have to have pupils. All those who wished that I should be their teacher are here, and poor as church mice. If I become professor, they can now enter the Academy. I will in any case be here for many years, so I might just as well paint in a studio twice as big and grand as any private one, especially if I receive a salary into the bargain. When I become tired of it, I can always hand in my notice.
Throughout his tenure, Gude had private pupils in addition to his normal classes. As a professor Gude taught six hours of class, held two hours of office hours, took turns with other professors supervising the nude drawing class and attended staff meetings. In 1857 Gude handed in his resignation, officially citing family considerations and failing health as his reasons for resigning, although in his memoirs he blamed opposition and backbiting from two of his pupils. The landscape painting professorship was the bottom of the pay scale at the academy, and Gude was one of the few professors to be refused a raise when others received them in 1855. Others have suggested that Gude wished to leave the academy for fear for becoming stuck in a rut artistically. Gude received better treatment from the academy after he turned in his resignation, and it would take him a full five years to finally leave Düsseldorf. Although professors at the academy complained that their teaching prevented them from undertaking more lucrative endeavors, Gude was able to sell enough works to afford a modest house in Düsseldorf which stood in what is now Hofgarten.
Norwegian or German art.
By the mid-19th century the academy in Düsseldorf had become a center for training Norwegian artists, but within Norway there arose a debate as to whether the art was truly Norwegian as it did not originate in Norway, and was in fact produced by artists who had been trained in Germany. The debate was sparked by proposals to build an art school in Norway, and it was therefore essential for supporters of a Norwegian academy to argue that Norwegian values could not be instilled in the artists if they had to go abroad.
In a letter to Jørgen Moe Gude writes that he see possibility for his own development in Düsseldorf, and that even if it would cause him to be known as a German artist instead of a Norwegian, he would not be ashamed of the fact. In defense of Norwegian artists at the academy, Gude writes that they were not simply imitating German artists:
<templatestyles src="Template:Blockquote/styles.css" />If we learn something from Achenbach and Lessing, it is certainly not to our detriment; no one has ever said about me or Tidemand or, so far as I know, any of us Norwegian Düsseldorfers that we copy and imitate.
Gude was convinced that for Norwegian artists at the academy it was impossible to escape their heritage and that Norway influenced their art whether they wanted it to or not. On this subject he wrote:
<templatestyles src="Template:Blockquote/styles.css" />[...] and you, my compatriots in Norway, have no grounds for complaining that we have forgotten the dear, familiar and specific character with which God has endowed our land and our nation. That is so firmly entrenched in our being that it finds expression, whether we like it or not. Do not, therefore, insult us further with such [an accusation]; it hurts our feelings, and thereby proves how unfounded it is, for otherwise it would be easy to treat it with indifference.
Von Schadow however argued the Gude's art was in fact German in an attempt to defend his nomination of Gude to succeed Schirmer. He wrote of Gude that "His education is totally German, his style unwontedly elevated."
Wales.
Many of Gude's peers moved on from the academy in Düsseldorf to other art institutes, but Gude decided to seek more direct contact with nature. Gude had gained a foothold in the British art market in the 1850s after his works were accepted into the galleries of Francis Egerton, 1st Earl of Ellesmere and the Marquess of Lansdowne, and so when an English art dealer and former student of Gude – Mr. Stiff – suggested Gude might find success in England, he was quick to respond. In the autumn of 1862 Gude set off for the Lledr Valley near Conwy. Wales, a place renowned for its picturesque scenery, was already home to a colony of British plein-air artists. While small groups of artists living in the countryside in order to inspire each other, be closer to their subject and escape the city were common, Gude was one of the first Norwegian artists to live in such a manner. Gude rented a house overlooking River Lledr where he painted one of the ancient Roman bridges which was popular with artists of the time.
Gude reports that the British and Welsh landscape painters were disdainful of artists from the continent, and that they used a very different style of painting from the continental artists. Whereas Gude and fellow continental artists would go out in nature and make sketches to act as studies for studio works, the British and Welsh painters set up their easels in the field and worked on their paintings with their subjects in front of them. Gude attempted to improve his reputation among the local painters with exhibitions at the Royal Academy's spring shows in London in 1863 and 1864, but both were flops that Gude described as "useful but bitter medicine". Despite these setbacks – furthered by the strain the trip had put on Gude's finances due to lack of paintings being sold – Gude felt the trip was of great benefit to himself as an artist, writing to his brother-in-law Theodor Kjerulf:
<templatestyles src="Template:Blockquote/styles.css" />It was sad to leave the lovely yet wild scenery that had become so dear to us, and a peaceful, quiet home it had been. My English stay was of great benefit to me in that I freed myself from many of the prevailing studio maxims by being alone and in a landscape so new to me that it forced me to observe more keenly.
While in Wales Gude was visited by Adolph Tidemand together with Frederik Collett, and the three traveled to Caernarvon and Holyhead from which Gude observed his first real Atlantic storm.
Baden School of Art.
In December 1863 Gude was offered and accepted a professorship at the Baden School of Art in Karlsruhe where he would once again succeed Schirmer, and so he left Wales. Gude was hesitant to take the position as he felt that it was working for the enemy but was unable to support himself in Norway due to the lack of an art school. He wrote about his thoughts on the position to Kjerulf, stating:
<templatestyles src="Template:Blockquote/styles.css" />At this time I feel oppressively and profoundly what it means to float about the world without a mother country – now I have obtained a post, and shall serve to the best of my powers the country that may shortly be at open war with my own native land; I shall express no sympathies and be deaf to what goes on beyond the walls of my own studio; that which makes hearts at home beat faster will not exist for me; and how offensive and unbearable it will be to watch the enthusiasm displayed around me for the rights of a German nationality, while my own nation perhaps bleeds to death in a struggle for existence. On the other hand, how serious my commitments are to my wife and children; and I shall use my talents where I am permitted to – at home I can make no use of them, and in two to three years I would come to the end of my career and sink into deep misery with all my children – I am sure of that.
It is suspected that Gude was offered the professorship due to a recommendation from Lessing. When Gude accepted the position at Karlsruhe the flow of Norwegian painters to the Düsseldorf Academy redirected to Karlsruhe, which would produce many of the Norwegian painters of the 1860s and 1870s, among them Frederik Collett, Johan Martin Nielssen, Kitty L. Kielland, Nicolai Ulfsten, Eilif Peterssen, Marcus Grønvold, Otto Sinding, Christian Krohg and Frits Thaulow.
In Karlsruhe Gude continued to faithfully reproduce the landscapes he saw, a style that he passed on to his students by taking them to Chiemsee to paint the lake "en plein air". While on these trips Gude and his pupils often encountered Eduard Schleich the Elder with his own students from Munich who were, as Gude described, only out to capture the mood of the scene and were skeptical of the advantages of painting in the sunshine. Gude also took special interest in how light reflected in water while in Karlsruhe, as well as expanding his study of the human figure. Although Gude rarely portrayed humans for their own sake, he began populating his paintings with convincing, if sometimes anatomically incorrect, individuals.
Gude's painted "Fra Chiemsee" while at Karlsruhe. The painting which was shown in Vienna was so enthusiastically received that it was purchased by the Kunsthistorisches Hofmuseum for display, won Gude a number of medals, and earned him membership in the Academy of Fine Arts Vienna.
The school in Karlsruhe was founded by the Grand Duke of Baden whom Gude had good relations with. Because of this fact Gude received better pay than at the Düsseldorf Academy, had spacious and rent-free accommodations and was given generous periods of leave which allowed him to travel in the summer to perform studies for future paintings. Gude served as the director of Karlsruhe from 1866 to 1868 and again from 1869 to 1870, where he introduced several of his own educational principles designed to develop pupil's individual talent. But Gude's reign as director at Karlsruhe was not without resistance to his methods, and it is this opposition that he cites as his reason for visiting the Berlin Academy of Art that as early as 1874 in search of better conditions. Because of Gude's visits to Berlin, his relation with the Grand Duke became strained as the Grand Duke felt that the concessions he had made to Gude were so great that Gude should be grateful and not look for a professorships elsewhere. Gude remained at Karlsruhe for six more years after his first visits to the Berlin Academy of Art, but in 1880 he decided to retire from the Karlsruhe school to take up a position in Berlin.
Berlin Academy of Art.
In 1880 Gude accepted a position to lead the master studio in landscape painting at the Academy of Art in Berlin, a position which gave him a spot on the academy's Senate. The Senate was responsible for upholding "all the artistic interests of the state" and membership was a mark of the highest official recognition of Gude's work.
In 1895 the Christiania Art Society held a comprehensive retrospective of Gude's works including his paintings, oil studies, watercolors, sketches and etchings. When asked what should be shown at the exhibition Gude replied that "[...]perhaps room could be found for studies and drawings; I rather think that these will meet with interest. They are also (unfortunately) of greater artistic value." By the time of the exhibition Gude had abandoned his previous style of painting large-scale compositions based on studies, and was working in mediums other than oil. In Berlin Gude began working more heavily in gouache and watercolor in an effort to preserve the 'freshness' of his art. Although Gude did not heavily exhibit his watercolors they still gained admiration from follow painters, including Harriet Backer who said:
<templatestyles src="Template:Blockquote/styles.css" />I believe that if Gude exhibited watercolours and study drawings, he would have the warmest admirers among painters. [...] Let it rather happen now, while there can be controversy and a row and some lively discussion about his art[...].
Gude would spend a few weeks each summer near the Baltic coast where he drew material for numerous paintings of Ahlbeck and Rügen. Although Gude filled these paintings with more figures than his earlier works, his focus was still on accurately capturing the scene and especially the landscape.
As the century drew to a close the established art academies faced 'secession' movements from groups of artists looking to branch of into different style. Gude rallied around his friend Anton von Werner in defending the academies, going so far as to mock "the so-called Symbolism" movement. As Gude approached the end of his life he felt more and more unable to keep up with the changes in the art world. After a disappointing exhibition in Kristiania in 1902 Gude wrote to Johan Martin Nielssen:
<templatestyles src="Template:Blockquote/styles.css" />All I have heard about it [the exhibition] are your and [Wilhelm] Holter's letters, and that acclaim has consoled me after the scorn I have had to suffer in common with many an elderly artist. You recognized several studies from my portfolios, but all of them were more or less unfinished, and over the last two winters I finished them, truly "con amore". I had serious scruples when I decided to exhibit them, because I knew full well how different the opinion of the modernists is, and it is quite understandable that they want to 'take the helm' alone!
In 1880 Gude had between five and eight students, but this number had shrunk to two or three by 1890. In part this reduction of pupils was due to a lack of interest in the Berlin academy, as explained to Gude by Prince Eugén, Duke of Närke who wrote that he, as well as numerous other young artists, had more of a taste for French art than German.
Gude retired from the Berlin Academy in 1901. He died two years later in Berlin in 1903.
Awards and honors.
Gude was also a member of the Order of the Zähringer Lion, Order of the Red Eagle, and the Order of Franz Joseph.
Academy memberships.
Gude earned membership in the following art academies:
Notes.
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References.
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P. C. Skovgaard
Danish artist (1817–1875)
Peter Christian Thamsen Skovgaard (known as P. C. Skovgaard; 4 April 1817 – 13 April 1875) was a Danish national romantic landscape painter. He is one of the main figures associated with the Golden Age of Danish Painting. He is especially known for his large scale portrayals of the Danish landscape.
Life.
Childhood.
Skovgaard was born near Ringsted to farmer Tham Masmann Skovgaard and his wife Cathrine Elisabeth. The family had to leave the farm when he was six years old. They moved to Vejby in north Sjælland where his father earned his living as a grocer. Already as a young child he impressed his family with his artistic abilities. His mother, who had studied art under flower painter Claudius Ditlev Fritsch, gave him instructions in drawing until he was confirmed and could be sent to Copenhagen for training at the Royal Danish Academy of Art ("Det Kongelige Danske Kunstakademi"). He was also the man who painted the famous "bøgeskov i maj".
Training at the Academy.
He started his training at the Academy in 1831. He did not think much of this training or of that under private lessons starting in 1836 with J. L. Lund, romantic history painter. More advantageous to him, he felt, were the time he spent learning craft painting; the time he spent visiting the Danish Royal Painting Collection, now the National Museum of Art and studying the classical Dutch landscapes in their collection; the outdoors studies he did with friends Christian Gotfred Rump, J. Th. Lundbye, Thorald Læssøe, Dankvart Dreyer and Lorens Frølich; and the many evenings he spent with other young artists at sculptor and Academy professor Herman Ernst Freunds' fashionable house. Christoffer Wilhelm Eckersberg, Academy professor, former Director and long-standing rival of Lund, although not Skovgaard's teacher, played an influential role by encouraging and arranging field studies for Academy students to paint outdoors, including to Jægersborg Dyrehave, an area which Skovgaard featured several times in his mature work.
In 1836 he started at the Academy's School of Model Painting, and exhibited at Charlottenborg for the first time. His painting "Måneskinsstykke med Motiv fra Langebro" (Moonlight Piece with Motif from Langebro) was purchased by Crown Prince Christian Frederick and is now in the collection of the Copenhagen City Museum.
With the attention and encouragement of such highly regarded contemporaries as Niels Lauritz Høyen, art critic, historian and Academy professor whom he admired, and Christian Jürgensen Thomsen, noted archaeologist and museum administrator, Skovgaard got the nerve to focus his career goals on art, and turn away from craft painting.
At first Skovgaard painted more than just landscapes; he also painted portraits, interiors with figures, as well as watercolor illustrations of Hans Christian Andersen's adventure tales, that are now in The Royal Engraving Collection ("Den kongelige Kobberstiksamling").
But landscape painting soon took the better part of his interest and attention. And with this focus he became recognised for his talents in truthfully and ideally depicting the nature of Denmark, based on careful study and on artistic and technical skills and training. He painted numerous paintings in and around Vejby, his family's home area, in these early years, and he showed many different influences before developing his own assured style.
In 1837 and 1838 the Copenhagen Art Union ("Kunstforening"), under the leadership of Høyen, purchased several of his paintings. And in 1839 the Danish Royal Painting Collection ("Den kongelige Malerisamling") purchased the large scale "Udsigt mod Frederiksværk fra Tisvilde Skov" (View to Frederiksværk from Tisvilde Forest). This work distinguishes itself clearly from those landscapes painted by his contemporaries both by the harsh wildness of the subject matter, and by its dark moodiness. This was also atypical of his later work, which was much more peaceful.
In 1841 he made a painting of Frederiksborg Palace, which hangs there today.
During the 1840s he traveled around the country painting views of the landscape, often with friend and contemporary artist Lundbye. One of the landscapes from his home town "I udkanten af landsbyen Vejby, Lundbye sidder ved vejkanten og tegner" (On the Outskirts of Vejby Village, Lundbye Sits at the Side of the Road and Draws) painted in 1843 shows Lundbye at work. Lundbye and Skovgaard spent the summer of 1943 together in the area around Vejby. Another well-known work from this same period is "Havremark ved Vejby" (Oat Field near Vejby).
That same year he traveled to Møn and painted "Parti fra Møns Klint" (View from Møns Klint), which features the island's unique, monumental white chalk cliffs. He depicted Møns Klint from various angles. The painting is in the collection of local "Storstrøms Kunstmuseum" (Storstrøms Art Museum).
That same year he exhibited at Charlottenborg and received the established art world's recognition by winning the Neuhausen prize ("Neuhausenske Præmie") for the painting "Det gamle Egetræ med Storkereden i Nordskoven ved Jægerspris" (The Old Oak Tree with Stork Nest in the North Forest near Jægerspris), which also came into the Danish Royal Painting Collection. This painting shows a strong development in his landscape painting abilities. In 1844 he exhibited "Parti af Sjællands Kyst ved Dronningemøllen, Foraarsdag med uroligt Vejr" (View of Sjælland's Coast by Droningemøllen, Stormy Spring Day) also known as "Åens Udløb" (The Stream's Outflow), which also came into the royal collection.
In 1845 he won the Artists Exhibition Medallion for his large "Udsigt over Skarrit Sø" (View Over Lake Skarrit), which came into the National Collection, as the Danish Royal Painting Collection came to be known around this time. He also exhibited "Parti ved Udkanten af Tisvilde Skov" (View at the Edge of Tisvilde Forest), which was purchased by Høyen's Art Union.
Developing his craft.
Instead of seeking a travel stipend from the Academy, Skovgaard chose to follow his friend Høyen's advice and continue to develop his craft in Denmark using Danish landscapes as his subject matter. In the years to follow he traveled around in northern Sjælland every summer to do studies, which he then reworked as large paintings in his studio every winter. These have resulted in such works as "Sommermiddag i Dyrehaven" (Summer Day in Dyrehaven) painted in 1848, and "Landevej ved Herregaarden Vognserup" (Country Road near Vognserup Estate) painted in 1849. The latter was painted in memory of his friend Lundbye, who died in early 1848. After 1850 he developed a monumental form of expression that held great importance for the following generation of artists.
He was recognized as Denmark's foremost landscape painter, and received many orders for his works. He particularly enjoyed painting at Jægersborg Dyrehave, but often went further north on Sjælland, for example to Hellebæk where he painted "Aften ved Bondedammen" (Evening by the Farm Pond).
Travel to foreign lands.
He traveled out of the county with a stipend from the Academy first in 1854. He spent the winter in Italy, along with both his wife, Høyen and Wilhelm Marstrand. He produced several paintings based on this trip, including two views of Venice, a Roman landscape and a portrait of Høyen preparing to meet the Pope.
Career development.
Shortly after his homecoming in 1855 he painted his well-known "Bøgeskov i maj" (Beech Forest in May) featuring the quintessential Danish beech forest.
In 1860 he became titular professor at the Academy. He traveled to London and Paris in 1862 along with Høyen; his work was exhibited at the World's Exhibition in London that year. He was accepted as member of the Academy in 1864. He traveled again to London and Paris in 1866.
His wife died in 1868, and shortly afterwards he suffered a case of apoplexy. He recovered rather quickly, being able to continue painting soon afterwards with no ill effects.
In 1869 he returned to Italy together with Marstrand under an award from the Ancker Fund ("Anckerske Legat"), and painted several Italian landscapes. That same year he painted "En Skovsø, Sommeraften" (A Forest Lake, Summer Evening) and in 1874 "En Sommerdag i Dyrehaven; et Tordenvejr er trukket forbi og Solen atter kommen frem" (A Summer Day in Dyrehave; a Thunderstorm has Passed and the Sun Comes Out Again), two paintings considered among his most important and harmonious works. The latter was his last large work, and was an important study example of his technique for his students.
He painted portraits of each of his three children between 1871 and 1874. His work was exhibited in the World's Exhibition in Paris in 1878 and 1889, and at the international Art Exhibition in Vienna in 1882.
The results of a fruitful life.
Skovgaard is primarily known for his landscape paintings, and for the special role he played in portraying Denmark's nature; not the spectacular but the ordinary and typical. He mastered both the smaller formats with realistic, impasto depictions of nature and bigger, monumental and detailed compositions. He helped develop a unique Danish art form and sensibility. He had a deep sympathy for the Danish landscape and its uniqueness, especially Denmark's beloved beech forests. Animal life and locals that belonged to the land populated these landscapes. He studied nature diligently, and tried to portray it faithfully, yet ideally, and with a love of his country. He was a master of composition, and in his later works he developed an increasing interest in portraying atmosphere and light. The scale of his paintings was a breakthrough in Danish art.
He is considered one of the leading landscape painters of the 1800s.
His art production and academic career had a large influence on landscape painting's future in Denmark.
He occasionally painted portraits. These skillful works include paintings of his family and children, of fellow artists such as Lundbye (1841), of friends such as Amelie Elisabeth Freunds (1860), H. E. Freunds' wife, and of society's important people such as N.F.S. Grundtvig (1847), whom Skovgaard greatly admired.
His work has been shown both in Denmark and internationally in numerous exhibitions of Danish art, and especially art representative of the Golden Age of Danish Painting. These include exhibitions in London (1907, 1948), Paris (1928, 1984–1985), New York City (1960–1961, 1964), and Rome (1974).
His works are in the collection of many Danish museums including the Danish National Gallery ("Statens Museum for Kunst"), the Hirschsprung Collection, the Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, Copenhagen's City Museum, Thorvaldsens Museum, Ordrupgaard, and local art museums in Aarhus, Horsens, and Ribe.
Another Danish national romantic landscape painters of his generation, in addition to lifelong friend J.T. Lundbye, was Vilhelm Kyhn.
The Skovgaard Museum in Viborg is dedicated to the artistic production of the entire Skovgaard family. A number of paintings by P. C. Skovgaard are in the museum's collection.
Personal life.
P. C. Skovgaard married Georgia Marie Louise Schouw (1828-1868) in 1851. She was the daughter of professor J.F. Schouw, botanist and politician, and was also an artist. She is primarily known for her embroideries, many of which were based on drawings by the leading artists of the day, including Lundbye, Constantin Hansen as well as her husband. They were the parents of Joakim Skovgaard (1856–1933), Niels Skovgaard (1858–1938) and Suzette Holten (1863–1937).
P. C. Skovgaard died on 13 April 1875 in Copenhagen at the age of 58. A religious man, he died quickly after suffering another apoplexy attack as he came out of church with his children. He was buried in Assistens Cemetery ("Assistens Kirkegård") in Copenhagen. His children would follow in his footsteps and become artists.
References.
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Johan Thomas Lundbye
Danish painter and graphic artist (1818–1848)
Johan Thomas Lundbye (1 September 1