Fifty Shades of Grey
2011 erotic romance novel by E.L. James
Fifty Shades of Grey is a 2011 erotic romance novel by British author E. L. James. It became the first instalment in the "Fifty Shades" novel series that follows the deepening relationship between a college graduate, Anastasia Steele, and a young business magnate, Christian Grey. It contains explicitly erotic scenes featuring elements of sexual practices involving BDSM (bondage/discipline, dominance/submission, and sadism/masochism).
Originally self-published as an ebook and print-on-demand in June 2011, the publishing rights to "Fifty Shades of Grey" were acquired by Vintage Books in March 2012, topping best-seller lists around the world. It has been translated into 52 languages and set a record as the fastest-selling paperback of all time in the United Kingdom. Critical reception of the book, however, has tended towards the negative, with the quality of its prose generally seen as poor, while its portrayal of BDSM has been a target for criticism from a variety of perspectives. Universal Pictures and Focus Features produced an American film adaptation, which was released on 13 February 2015, and was also panned upon release, though it was a box office success.
The second and third volumes of the original trilogy, "Fifty Shades Darker" and "Fifty Shades Freed", were published in 2012. The trilogy had sold over 150 million copies worldwide by October 2017. A version of the novel from Christian's point of view, ', was published in June 2015 as the fourth book, followed by ' in November 2017 and "" in June 2021.
Plot.
21-year-old Anastasia "Ana" Steele is an English literature major at the Washington State University's branch campus in Vancouver, Washington. Her best friend, Katherine "Kate" Kavanagh, writes for the college newspaper. Due to an illness, Kate cannot interview Christian Grey, a wealthy Seattle entrepreneur. Taking Kate's place, Ana finds the 27-year-old Christian both attractive and intimidating. She stumbles through the interview and believes it went poorly. Ana, not expecting to meet Christian again, is surprised when he appears at the hardware store where she works and purchases various items. When Ana mentions that Kate would like a photo for her article, Christian offers to arrange a photo session.
The next day Ana, along with Kate and their photographer friend, José Rodriguez, arrive at Christian's hotel for the photo shoot. Later, Christian asks Ana out for coffee. When he asks if she is dating someone, Ana replies that she is single. After claiming he is not romantic, Christian abruptly ends the date, leaving Ana to believe she is not attractive enough for him. Later, Christian sends Ana a first edition copy of "Tess of the d'Urbervilles". That night, Ana goes out with her friends and ends up drunk dialing Christian, who says he is coming to pick her up. When Ana goes outside for some fresh air, José attempts to kiss her but is stopped by Christian's arrival. Ana leaves with Christian, but not before she discovers that Kate has been flirting with Christian's brother, Elliot. Ana awakens to find herself in Christian's hotel room. He assures her nothing happened but scolds her for her careless behavior. Christian wants to have a sexual relationship with Ana, but she must first fill out some paperwork. He later goes back on this statement to make out with her in the elevator.
Christian flies Ana to Seattle in his helicopter. At his penthouse, Christian makes Ana sign a non-disclosure agreement (NDA) regarding their time together. He also mentions other paperwork, but first takes her to his playroom filled with BDSM objects and gear. Christian informs her that the second contract will be about dominance and submission, and there will be no romantic relationship, only a sexual one. The contract even forbids Ana from touching Christian or making eye contact with him. At this point, Christian realises that Ana is a virgin. Not wanting her first sexual experience to be a BDSM experience, he has conventional sex with her and sleeps in her bed. The following morning, Christian's adoptive mother Grace arrives and is surprised to meet Ana, having never seen her son with a woman. Christian lost his virginity at age 15 to one of his mother's friends, Elena Lincoln, and his previous BDSM relationships failed due to incompatibility. In his first BDSM relationship, he was the submissive. Christian and Ana plan to meet again, and he takes Ana home, where she discovers several job offers.
Over the next few days, Ana receives many packages from Christian. This includes a laptop to replace her broken one and research the BDSM lifestyle in consideration of the contract, which they discuss. Ana becomes overwhelmed by the potential BDSM arrangement and having a non-romantic sexual relationship. Ana leaves and does not see Christian again until her college graduation, where he is the keynote speaker. During this time, Ana agrees to sign the contract. She and Christian meet to discuss it and go over Ana's hard and soft limits. Christian spanks Ana for the first time, and the experience leaves her both enticed and slightly confused. This confusion is exacerbated by Christian's lavish gifts, and the fact that he brings her to meet his family. The two continue with the arrangement without Ana having yet signed the contract. After landing a job with Seattle Independent Publishing (SIP), Ana further bristles under the NDA's restrictions and her complex relationship with Christian. The tension between Ana and Christian comes to a head after Ana asks Christian to punish her in order to show her how extreme a BDSM relationship could be. Christian complies, beating her with a belt. Realizing they are incompatible, a devastated Ana breaks up with Christian and returns to the apartment she shares with Kate.
Background and publication.
The "Fifty Shades" trilogy was developed from a "Twilight" fan fiction series originally titled "Master of the Universe" and published by James episodically on fan fiction websites under the pen name "Snowqueen Icedragon". The piece featured characters named after "Twilight" author Stephenie Meyer's characters in "Twilight", Edward Cullen and Bella Swan. After comments concerning the sexual nature of the material, James removed the story and published it on her own website, FiftyShades.com. Later she rewrote "Master of the Universe" as an original piece, with the principal characters renamed Christian Grey and Anastasia Steele, and removed it from her website before publication. Meyer commented on the series, saying "that's really not my genre, not my thing... Good on her – she's doing well. That's great!"
This reworked and extended version of "Master of the Universe" was split into three parts. The first, titled "Fifty Shades of Grey", was released as an e-book and a print on demand paperback in May 2011 by The Writers' Coffee Shop, a virtual publisher based in Australia. The second volume, "Fifty Shades Darker", was released in September 2011; and the third, "Fifty Shades Freed", followed in January 2012. The Writers' Coffee Shop had a restricted marketing budget and relied largely on book blogs for early publicity, but sales of the novel were boosted by word-of-mouth recommendation. The book's erotic nature and perceived demographic of its fan base as being composed largely of married women over thirty led to the book being dubbed "Mommy Porn" by some news agencies. The book has also reportedly been popular among teenage girls and college women. By the release of the final volume in January 2012, news networks in the United States had begun to report on the "Fifty Shades" trilogy as an example of viral marketing and of the rise in popularity of female erotica, attributing its success to the discreet nature of e-reading devices. Due to the heightened interest in the series, the license to the "Fifty Shades" trilogy was picked up by Vintage Books for re-release in a new and revised edition in April 2012. The attention that the series has garnered has also helped to spark a renewed interest in erotic literature. Many other erotic works quickly became best-sellers following "Fifty Shades"' success, while other popular works, such as Anne Rice's "The Sleeping Beauty" trilogy, have been reissued (this time without pseudonyms) to meet the higher demand.
On 1 August 2012, Amazon UK announced that it had sold more copies of "Fifty Shades of Grey" than it had any individual book in the "Harry Potter" series, although worldwide, at that time, the "Harry Potter" series had sold more than 450 million copies, compared with "Fifty Shades of Grey"'s sales of 60 million copies.
Reception.
"Fifty Shades of Grey" has topped best-seller lists around the world, including those of the United Kingdom and the United States. The series had sold over 125 million copies worldwide by June 2015, while by October 2017 it had sold more than 150 million copies worldwide. The series has been translated into 52 languages, and set a record in the United Kingdom as the fastest-selling paperback of all time.
Critical response.
It has received mixed to negative reviews, as most critics noted the poor literary qualities of the work. Salman Rushdie said about the book: "I've never read anything so badly written that got published. It made "Twilight" look like "War and Peace"." Maureen Dowd described the book in "The New York Times" as being written "like a Brontë devoid of talent", and said it was "dull and poorly written". Jesse Kornbluth of "The Huffington Post" said: "As a reading experience, "Fifty Shades" ... is a sad joke, puny of plot".
Princeton professor April Alliston wrote, "Though no literary masterpiece, "Fifty Shades" is more than parasitic fan fiction based on the recent "Twilight" vampire series." "Entertainment Weekly" writer Lisa Schwarzbaum gave the book a "B+" rating and praised it for being "in a class by itself". British author Jenny Colgan in "The Guardian" wrote "It is jolly, eminently readable and as sweet and safe as BDSM (bondage, discipline, sadism and masochism) erotica can be without contravening the trade descriptions act" and also praised the book for being "more enjoyable" than other "literary erotic books". "The Daily Telegraph" noted that the book was "the definition of a page-turner", noting that the book was both "troubling and intriguing". A reviewer for the "Ledger-Enquirer" described the book as guilty fun and escapism, and that it "also touches on one aspect of female existence [female submission]. And acknowledging that fact – maybe even appreciating it – shouldn't be a cause for guilt." "The New Zealand Herald" stated that the book "will win no prizes for its prose" and that "there are some exceedingly awful descriptions," although it was also an easy read; "(If you only) can suspend your disbelief and your desire to – if you'll pardon the expression – slap the heroine for having so little self respect, you might enjoy it." "The Columbus Dispatch" stated that, "Despite the clunky prose, James does cause one to turn the page." "Metro News Canada" wrote that "suffering through 500 pages of this heroine's inner dialogue was torturous, and not in the intended, sexy kind of way". Jessica Reaves, of the "Chicago Tribune", wrote that the "book's source material isn't great literature", noting that the novel is "sprinkled liberally and repeatedly with asinine phrases", and described it as "depressing".
The book garnered some accolades. In December 2012, it won both "Popular Fiction" and "Book of the Year" categories in the UK National Book Awards. In that same month, "Publishers Weekly" named E. L. James the 'Publishing Person of the Year', a decision whose criticism in the "Los Angeles Times" and the "New York Daily News" was referred to by and summarised in "The Christian Science Monitor". Earlier, in April 2012, when E. L. James was listed as one of "Time" magazine's "100 Most Influential People in the World", Richard Lawson of "The Atlantic Wire" criticised her inclusion due to the trilogy's fan fiction beginnings.
Controversy.
"Fifty Shades of Grey" has attracted criticism due to its depictions of BDSM, with many BDSM participants stating that the book confuses the practice with "abuse", and presents it as a pathology to be overcome, as well as showing incorrect and possibly dangerous BDSM techniques.
Coinciding with the release of the book and its surprising popularity, injuries related to BDSM and sex toy use spiked dramatically. In the year after the novel's publishing in 2012, injuries requiring Emergency Room visits increased by over 50% from 2010 (the year before the book was published). This is speculated to be due to people unfamiliar with both the proper use of these toys and the safe practice of bondage and other "kinky" sexual fetishes in attempting to recreate what they had read.
There has also been criticism against the fact that BDSM is a part of the book. Archbishop Dennis Schnurr of Cincinnati said in an early February 2015 letter, "The story line is presented as a romance; however, the underlying theme is that bondage, dominance, and sadomasochism are normal and pleasurable." The feminist anti-pornography organization Stop Porn Culture called for a boycott of the movie based on the book because of its sex scenes involving bondage and violence. By contrast, Timothy Laurie and Jessica Kean argue that "film fleshes out an otherwise legalistic concept like 'consent' into a living, breathing, and at times, uncomfortable interpersonal experience," and "dramatises the dangers of unequal negotiation and the practical complexity of identifying one's limits and having them respected."
Several critics and scientists have expressed concern that the nature of the main couple's relationship is not BDSM at all, but rather is characteristic of an abusive relationship. In 2013, social scientist Professor Amy E. Bonomi published a study wherein multiple professionals read and assessed the books for characteristics of intimate partner violence, or IPV, using the CDC's standards for emotional abuse and sexual violence. The study found that nearly every interaction between Ana and Christian was emotionally abusive in nature, including stalking, intimidation, and isolation. The study group also observed pervasive sexual violence within the CDC's definition, including Christian's use of alcohol to circumvent Ana's ability to consent, and that Ana exhibits classic signs of an abused woman, including constant perceived threat, stressful managing, and altered identity.
A second study in 2014 was conducted to examine the health of women who had read the series, compared with a control group that had never read any part of the novels. The results showed a correlation between having read at least the first book and exhibiting signs of an eating disorder, having romantic partners that were emotionally abusive and/or engaged in stalking behavior, engaging in binge drinking in the last month, and having 5 or more sexual partners before age 24. The authors could not conclude whether women already experiencing these "problems" were drawn to the series, or if the series influenced these behaviors to occur after reading by creating underlying context. The study's lead researcher contends that the books romanticize dangerous behavior and "perpetuate dangerous abuse standards." The study was limited in that only women up to age 24 were studied, and no distinction was made among the reader sample between women who enjoyed the series and those that had a strong negative opinion of it, having only read it out of curiosity due to the media hype or other obligation.
At the beginning of the media hype, Dr. Drew and sexologist Logan Levkoff discussed on "The Today Show" whether the book perpetuated violence against women; Levkoff said that while that is an important subject, this trilogy had nothing to do with it – this was a book about a consensual relationship. Dr. Drew commented that the book was "horribly written" in addition to being "disturbing" but stated that "if the book enhances women's real-life sex lives and intimacy, so be it."
Censorship.
"Fifty Shades of Grey" has often been challenged, banned, and removed in the United States. The book landed on the American Library Association's Top 10 List of Banned and Challenged Books in 2012 (4), 2013 (4), and 2015 (2) because it is sexually explicit and unsuited for the age group; has nudity and offensive language; and for religious viewpoints. Challengers also stated the book was "poorly written", and they were concerned "a group of teenagers will want to try [BDSM]." Ultimately, the book became the eighth-most banned book between 2010 and 2019.
In March 2012, branches of the public library in Brevard County, Florida, removed copies of "Fifty Shades of Grey" from their shelves, with an official statement that it did not meet the selection criteria for the library and that reviews for the book had been poor. A representative for the library stated that it was due to the book's sexual content and that other libraries had declined to purchase copies for their branches. Deborah Caldwell-Stone of the American Library Association commented that "If the only reason you don't select a book is that you disapprove of its content, but there is demand for it, there's a question of whether you're being fair. In a public library there is usually very little that would prevent a book from being on the shelf if there is a demand for the information." Brevard County public libraries later made their copies available to their patrons due to public demand.
In Macaé, Brazil, Judge Raphael Queiroz Campos ruled in January 2013 that bookstores throughout the city must either remove the series entirely from their shelves or ensure that the books are wrapped and placed out of the reach of minors. The judge stated that he was prompted to make such an order after seeing children reading them, basing his decision on a law stating that "magazines and publications whose content is improper or inadequate for children and adolescents can only be sold if sealed and with warnings regarding their content".
In February 2015, the Malaysian Home Ministry banned the "Fifty Shades of Grey" books shortly after banning its film adaptation after permitting them for three years in local bookstores, citing morality-related reasons.
Media.
Film adaptation.
A film adaptation of the book was produced by Focus Features, Michael De Luca Productions, and Trigger Street Productions, with Universal Pictures and Focus Features securing the rights to the trilogy in March 2012. Universal is also the film's distributor. Charlie Hunnam was originally cast in the role of Christian Grey alongside Dakota Johnson in the role of Anastasia Steele, but Hunnam gave up the part in October 2013, with Jamie Dornan announced for the role on 23 October.
The film was released on 13 February 2015, and although popular at the box office, critical reactions were mixed to negative.
Film soundtrack.
E. L. James announced the film's soundtrack would be released on 10 February 2015. Prior to the soundtrack's release, the first single, "Earned It", by The Weeknd, was released on 24 December 2014. On 7 January 2015, the second single, "Love Me like You Do" by Ellie Goulding was released. Australian singer Sia released the soundtrack's third single, "Salted Wound", on 27 January 2015.
Classical album.
An album of songs selected by E. L. James was released on 11 September 2012 by EMI Classics under the title "Fifty Shades of Grey: The Classical Album", and reached number four on the US "Billboard" classical music albums chart in October 2012. A "Seattle P-I" reviewer favourably wrote that the album would appeal both to fans of the series and to "those who have no intention of reading any of the Grey Shades".
Parodies.
The "Fifty Shades of Grey" trilogy has inspired many parodies in print, in film, online, and on stage. In November 2012, Universal Studios attempted to prevent the release of "Fifty Shades of Grey: A XXX Adaptation", a pornographic film based on the novel, citing copyright and trademark infringement. Smash Pictures, the porn producer, later responded to the lawsuit with a counterclaim that "much or all" of the "Fifty Shades" material was placed in the public domain in its original "Twilight"-based form, but later capitulated and stopped distribution of their film.
On stage.
Stage productions include:
References.
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Fifty Shades Freed
Erotic romance novel by E.L. James
Fifty Shades Freed is the third and final installment of the erotic romance "Fifty Shades Trilogy" by British author E. L. James. After accepting entrepreneur CEO Christian Grey's proposal in "Fifty Shades Darker", Anastasia Steele must adjust not only to married life but to her new husband's wealthy lifestyle and controlling nature. The paperback edition was first published in April 2012.
Plot.
Anastasia 'Ana' Steele and Christian Grey return to Seattle after a long honeymoon. Christian is upset to find that Ana has kept her maiden name at work. Ana reluctantly starts using the name Grey after realizing how important it is to Christian. As a belated wedding gift, Christian gives Seattle Independent Publishing to Ana, planning to rename it Grey Publishing.
While Christian is on a business trip in New York, Anastasia goes out for a drink with longtime friend Kate Kavanagh, doing so against Christian's wishes. Returning home, she finds that her former boss, Jack Hyde, who was fired for attempting to sexually assault her, has been apprehended by the security staff. Duct tape is found in his pocket and in his van there are tranquilizers and a ransom note—all indications that he intended to kidnap her. Hyde is arrested. Angry with Ana for defying him, Christian cuts short his business trip. At Seattle, Christian sulks while Ana sleeps. Eventually, the two argue and Ana berates him for being possessive. She demands more freedom and access to her friends. Christian relents after realizing how much Ana's friends mean to her and that she did the right thing by staying with Kate rather than at home. He later surprises her with a trip to Aspen, with Kate, Elliot, Mia, and Kate's brother, Ethan. While there, Elliot proposes to Kate, who accepts.
Ana's step-father, Ray, is in a medically-induced coma after a car accident. After he awakens a few days later, Ana and Christian arrange to move him to Seattle to recover. It is also Ana's birthday weekend, and Christian surprises her with all her family and friends at a dinner. He gives her a charm bracelet with the charms representing all their "firsts" including an ice cream cone to represent their "vanilla" relationship. Christian also gives her a car. Soon after, Ana learns that she is pregnant. Christian angrily accuses her of getting pregnant on purpose and leaves. He returns the next morning drunk, claiming Ana will choose the baby - whom he believes to be a boy - over him. Ana says it could be a girl, though Christian refuses to accept that due to his sexist nature. Ana becomes furious when she discovers a text message on Christian's phone from his ex-lover Elena Lincoln, the woman who seduced him when he was fifteen and introduced him to the BDSM lifestyle. The message indicates they met for a drink.
The next two mornings, Anastasia and Christian barely speak to each other, though he insists his and Elena's relationship is long-since over. When Christian is away on business for a few days, Ana receives a call from Hyde. He has kidnapped Mia Grey and demands $5 million in two hours. He warns Ana not to tell anyone or he will kill Mia.
Anastasia feigns illness and returns home to escape Taylor, her bodyguard. She takes a gun and goes to the bank. Before collecting the money, the suspicious bank manager calls Christian, who asks Ana what is going on. He initially believes she is leaving him, but realizes something is amiss. She then approaches a waiting car, shocked that Hyde's accomplice is Elizabeth Morgan, her co-worker. Hyde had instructed Ana to ditch her phone, but she tricks him by hiding her phone in the bag of money and handing over the manager's phone to be discarded instead. With her real phone in the bag, Christian and Taylor, who have already learned of Mia's disappearance and called 911, trace Ana's location. When Ana and Liz arrive at Hyde's location, an angry Hyde hits Ana out of vengeance for losing his job and Ana falls to the ground, hitting her head, causing Elizabeth to worry for Ana's safety. Angry, Elizabeth argues with Hyde. With Ana on the ground, and Hyde distracted by Liz, Ana shoots Hyde in the leg. As she starts to black out she hears Christian calling her name.
Ana wakes three days later in the hospital with Christian at her side. Despite still anxious about fatherhood, he realizes how important their baby is to her, and they reconcile. Ana returns home the next day. Christian learns from his private investigator, that he and Hyde had the same foster family. Christian tells Ana about how he met and was seduced by Elena. By introducing Christian to the world of BDSM, Elena helped him. If she had not intervened, he would still be plagued with horrible memories of his mother and would never have managed to control his life. He had been recently looking to talk to someone about his problems, and after not being able to contact his psychiatrist, Dr. Flynn, Christian went to Elena's salon. She took him for a drink and to help him relax. Despite having made a pass at him, Elena realized that Christian loved Ana and agreed to leave on good terms. Christian reassures Ana that she did the right thing to call him out for his behavior, as Flynn had been right; he still has a lot of growing up to do.
The next day, a furious Christian discovers that Elena's ex-husband, Eric Lincoln, had bailed Jack from jail out of spite for her affair with Christian. Christian tells Ana that after learning about the affair, Eric severely beat Elena and divorced her. Despite Christian's urging, Elena refused to press charges against Eric out of guilt for the affair. Christian retaliated by buying out Eric Lincoln's logging company to sell it off. Elizabeth confessed to the police that she was blackmailed by Hyde to be his accomplice.
Seven months later, Ana and Christian have a son named Theodore Raymond Grey, nicknamed Teddy. Two years later, Ana is six months pregnant with their second child, Phoebe.
Elliot and Kate have married and have a two-month-old daughter named Ava. After having BDSM sex, Ana and Christian get ready to celebrate Teddy's second birthday with their family and friends.
Reception.
"Fifty Shades Freed" entered "The New York Times" Best Seller list at number three. In the UK the novel sold over two million copies.
Film adaptation.
Sam Taylor-Johnson, the director of the film adaptation of the first installment of the book series, "Fifty Shades of Grey", confirmed on 6 February 2015 that both "Fifty Shades Freed" and the second book in the trilogy, "Fifty Shades Darker", would also be adapted for film. In November 2015, Universal Studios announced that both films would be shot back-to-back with principal photography scheduled to commence in early 2016. The film released on 9 February 2018.
References.
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Fifty Shades (novel series)
Erotic novel series by E. L. James
Fifty Shades is a series of erotic novels by British author E. L. James, initially a trilogy consisting of "Fifty Shades of Grey" (2011), "Fifty Shades Darker" (2012) and "Fifty Shades Freed" (2012). The series traces the deepening relationship between college graduate Anastasia Steele and young businessman Christian Grey. Christian introduces Ana to the world of BDSM.
The author has spoken of her shock at the success of the book: "The explosion of interest has taken me completely by surprise." James has described the "Fifty Shades" trilogy as "my midlife crisis, writ large. All my fantasies in there, and that's it." She did not start to write until January 2009, as she revealed while still active on FanFiction.Net: "I started writing in January 2009 after I finished reading the Twilight saga, and I haven't stopped since. I discovered Fan Fiction in August 2009. Since then I have written two fics and plan on doing at least one more. After that ... who knows?" In August 2013, sales of the trilogy saw James top the "Forbes"' list of the highest-earning authors with earnings of $95 million, which included $5 million for the film rights to "Fifty Shades of Grey". In spite of the success, the books have also been largely panned by critics, with the first entry in particular "being ridiculed by virtually every critic who has read it."
Since 2015 the series has been expanded with a parallel set of novels "as told by Christian": ' follows the events of "Fifty Shades of Grey" but from the perspective of Christian Grey, ' (2017) and "" (2021) do the same for "Fifty Shades Darker" and "Fifty Shades Freed", respectively.
Critical reception.
Salman Rushdie said about the book: "I've never read anything so badly written that got published. It made "Twilight" look like "War and Peace"." Maureen Dowd described the book in "The New York Times" as being written "like a Brontë devoid of talent", and said it was "dull and poorly written". Jesse Kornbluth of "The Huffington Post" said: "As a reading experience, "Fifty Shades" ... is a sad joke, puny of plot".
Princeton professor April Alliston wrote, "Though no literary masterpiece, "Fifty Shades" is more than parasitic fan fiction based on the recent "Twilight" vampire series." "Entertainment Weekly" writer Lisa Schwarzbaum gave the book a "B+" rating and praised it for being "in a class by itself". British author Jenny Colgan in "The Guardian" wrote "It is jolly, eminently readable and as sweet and safe as BDSM (bondage, discipline, sadism and masochism) erotica can be without contravening the trade descriptions act" and also praised the book for being "more enjoyable" than other "literary erotic books". However, "The Telegraph" criticized the book as "treacly cliché" but also wrote that the sexual politics in "Fifty Shades of Grey" will have female readers "discussing it for years to come". A reviewer for the "Ledger-Enquirer" described the book as guilty fun and escapism, but that it "also touches on one aspect of female existence [female submission]. And acknowledging that fact – maybe even appreciating it – shouldn't be a cause for guilt." "The New Zealand Herald" stated that the book "will win no prizes for its prose" and that "there are some exceedingly awful descriptions", but it was also an easy read; "(If you only) can suspend your disbelief and your desire to – if you'll pardon the expression – slap the heroine for having so little self respect, you might enjoy it."
"The Columbus Dispatch" stated that, "Despite the clunky prose, James does cause one to turn the page." "Metro News Canada" wrote that "suffering through 500 pages of this heroine's inner dialogue was torturous, and not in the intended, sexy kind of way". Jessica Reaves, of the "Chicago Tribune", wrote that the "book's source material isn't great literature", noting that the novel is "sprinkled liberally and repeatedly with asinine phrases", and described it as "depressing". The book garnered some accolades. In December 2012, it won both "Popular Fiction" and "Book of the Year" categories in the UK National Book Awards. In that same month, "Publishers Weekly" named E. L. James the 'Publishing Person of the Year', causing an "outcry from the literary world". For example, "What was "Publishers Weekly" thinking?" asked "Los Angeles Times" writer Carolyn Kellogg, while a "New York Daily News" headline read, "Civilization ends: E.L. James named Publishers Weekly's 'Person of the Year'."
Depiction of BDSM.
The "Fifty Shades" trilogy has also attracted criticism due to its depictions of BDSM, with Katie Roiphe of "Newsweek" asking "But why, for women especially, would free will be a burden? ... It may be that power is not always that comfortable, even for those of us who grew up in it; it may be that equality is something we want only sometimes and in some places and in some arenas; it may be that power and all of its imperatives can be boring." "Zap2it"'s Andrea Reiher expressed frustration at Roiphe's depiction of the series, stating that "[b]eing submissive sexually is not tantamount to being the victim of abuse" or that they're "giving up their power or their equality with their partner". Other sites such as Jezebel have responded to the article, with Jezebel listing reasons for "Fifty Shades of Grey"'s popularity, stating that "the vast majority of fans fawn over the emotional relationship Anastasia and Christian have, not about the sex."
In an interview with "Salon", several dominatrices have responded that while submission can be an escape from daily stresses, they also frequently have male clients and that trust is a big factor in dominant/submissive relationships. One interviewed former dominatrix and author, Melissa Febos, stated that even if the book's popularity was a result of women's "current anxieties about equality" that it "doesn't mean that it's 'evidence of unhappiness, or an invalidation of feminism,' ...it might actually be a sign of progress that millions of women are so hungrily pursuing sexual fantasies independent of men." Writing in "The Huffington Post", critic Soraya Chemaly argued that interest in the series was not a trend, but squarely within the tradition and success of the romance category which is driven by tales of virgins, damaged men and submission/dominance themes. Instead, she wrote, the books are notable not for transgressive sex but for how women are using technology to subvert gendered shame by exploring explicit sexual content privately using e-readers. Instead of submission fantasies representing a post-feminist discomfort with power and free will, women's open consumption, sharing and discussion of sexual content is a feminist success. At the beginning of the media hype, Dr. Drew and sexologist Logan Levkoff discussed the book on "The Today Show", about whether "Fifty Shades" perpetuated violence against women; Levkoff said that while that is an important subject, this trilogy had nothing to do with it – this was a book about a consensual relationship. Dr. Drew commented that the book was "horribly written" in addition to being "disturbing" but stated that "if the book enhances women's real-life sex lives and intimacy, so be it." Amy Bonomi, a Human Development and Family Studies professor argues that the relationship portrayed is non-consensual: "Unable to bear the thought of being alone, Christian employs strategies to "trap" Anastasia, including keeping his violent tendencies private, limiting Anastasia's availability of help and support from her friends and family through his nondisclosure agreement and through verbal and nonverbal intimidation, and attempts to convince Anastasia that she finds his punishments pleasurable"
Censorship or removal of books.
In March 2012, branches of the public library in Brevard County, Florida, removed copies of "Fifty Shades of Grey" from their shelves, with an official stating that it did not meet the selection criteria for the library and that reviews for the book had been poor. A representative for the library stated that it was due to the book's sexual content and that other libraries had declined to purchase copies for their branches. Deborah Caldwell-Stone of the American Library Association commented that "If the only reason you don't select a book is that you disapprove of its content, but there is demand for it, there's a question of whether you're being fair. In a public library there is usually very little that would prevent a book from being on the shelf if there is a demand for the information." Brevard County public libraries later made their copies available to their patrons due to public demand.
In Macaé, Brazil, Judge Raphael Queiroz Campos ruled in January 2013 that bookstores throughout the city must either remove the series entirely from their shelves or ensure that the books are wrapped and placed out of the reach of minors. The judge stated that he was prompted to make such an order after seeing children reading them, basing his decision on a law stating that "magazines and publications whose content is improper or inadequate for children and adolescents can only be sold if sealed and with warnings regarding their content".
Film adaptations.
A film adaptation of the book was produced by Focus Features,


Flora of India
Plants native to India
The flora of India is one of the richest in the world due to the wide range of climate, topology and habitat in the country. There are estimated to be over 18,000 species of flowering plants in India, which constitute some 6-7 percent of the total plant species in the world. India is home to more than 50,000 species of plants, including a variety of endemics. The use of plants as a source of medicines has been an integral part of life in India from the earliest times. There are more than 3000 Indian plant species officially documented as possessing into eight main floristic regions : Western Himalayas, Eastern Himalayas, Assam, Indus plain, Ganges plain, the Deccan, Malabar and the Andaman Islands.
Forests and wildlife resources.
In 1992, 743,534 km2 of land in the country was forested of which 92 percent was government land. This amounts to 22.7 percent land coverage, compared to the recommended 33 percent of the National Forest Policy Resolution 1952. The majority of trees are broad-leaved deciduous, with one-sixth "sal" and one-tenth teak. Coniferous types are found in the northern high altitude regions and largely comprise pines, junipers and "deodars". India's forest cover ranges from the tropical rainforest of the Andaman Islands, Western Ghats, and Northeast India to the coniferous forest of the Himalaya. Between these extremes lie the sal-dominated moist deciduous forest of eastern India; teak-dominated dry deciduous forest of central and southern India; and the babul-dominated thorn forest of the central Deccan and western Gangetic plain. Pine, fir, spruce, cedar, larch and cypress are the timber-yielding plants widely prevalent throughout the hilly regions of India.
References.
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Medical ethnobotany of India
Herbal medicine practiced in India
The medical ethnobotany of India is the study of Indian medicinal plants and their traditional uses. Plants have been used in the Indian subcontinent for treatment of disease and health maintenance for thousands of years, and remain important staples of health and folk medicine for millions. Indians today utilize plants for both primary medical care (principally in Rural and undeserved areas) and as supplementary treatment alongside modern medical science. It is estimated that 70% of rural Indians use traditional plant based remedies for primary healthcare needs. This reliance of plants for medicine is consistent with trends widely observed in the developing world, where between 65% and 80% of people use medicinal plant remedies.
Herbal medicine in India is largely guided by folk medicine, both in codified cultural practices shared widely (Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani), and highly localized practices unique to individual tribes or tribal groups (Adivasi). Between 3,000 and 5,000 species of medicinal plants grow in India with roughly 1,000 threatened with extinction. Of these, more than 2,400 plant species have been documented for medicinal use.
Herbal Ayurveda.
Ayurveda practitioners believe certain plants can restore balance distorted by disease. The vast majority (90%) of Ayurvedic remedies are plant based.
Although firmly rooted in folk medicine, Ayurvedic herbal remedies have been evaluated by laboratory and clinical studies to evaluate treatment efficacy. Some plants used in Ayurveda have biologically active secondary metabolites with potential value. Other remedies do not have established therapeutic value, and some may have deleterious health effects.
At least 700 plants have been identified from Ayurvedic medicinal systems. Although more than 12,000 Sanskrit plant names have been identified in classical Ayurvedic texts (including samhitas and nighantus) there is great difficulty in establishing exact botanical identities of many referenced species. Plants are prepared according to tradition, utilizing specific plant parts as indicated in historical texts. Ayurvedic belief stipulates that certain plant parts (e.g. leaf, flower, root) have specific properties key to treating disease.
Plant properties in Ayurveda.
Ayurvedic medicine is guided by a complex set of cultural, religious, and textual practices. Despite diversity in its application and practice, it operates as a codified system of folk medicine with a coherent methodology. Broadly speaking, Ayurvedic practitioners evaluate plants for medical use by examining 5 purported physical and energetic properties:
Herbal Preparations in Ayurveda.
Processing herbs.
Ayurvedic practitioners process plants with the goal of enhancing absorption. Shelf life and ease of production are additional concerns in herbal preparations. Some common herbal preparations include herbal paste ("kalka"), powder ("curna"), decoction ("kasaya"), teas ("phanta"), jams ("paka"), medicated wines ("arista"), pills ("vati"), and herbal oils ("taila").
Mixed herbal remedies and synergism.
Ayurvedic treatments are usually mixtures of multiple herbs (polyherbal formulations). Ayurvedic practitioners believe that certain herbs, when combined, have complementary effects which can enhance treatment efficacy; this concept is called synergism. The Ayurvedic text "Sarangdhar Samhita" (c. 1300 AD) emphasizes the importance of synergism. One common Ayurvedic remedy (trikatu) is prepared by combining ginger, long pepper, and black pepper as an aid for digestion or gastric distress. Ayurvedic practitioners believe that such combinations can enhance absorption. A 2014 review proposed several mechanisms that may be the basis for therapeutic herbal synergism.
Safety and Medical Efficacy.
Ayurvedic medicine and drug interactions.
Herbal preparations in Ayurveda can impact the absorption (or bioavailability) of pharmaceuticals. Because Ayurveda is often used by practitioners to supplement conventional modern medicine, the interactive effects of Ayurvedic treatments can medically significant. For instance, medicinal plant remedies can interfere with the cytochrome enzyme system (CYP), a network of liver enzymes extremely important in drug metabolism. Inhibiting or potentiating CYP enzymes is the most common adverse effect of herbal remedies on medication absorption. Potentiation of CYP can cause medication activity to drop low beyond the point of therapeutic effect, while inhibition of the CYP system can cause medication levels to spike dangerously high.
Some Ayurvedic medicinal plants ("Silybum marianum, Cannabis" spp.) are CYP3A4 inhibitors. A commonly used antifungal medication, ketoconazole, is processed by the CYP3A4 enzyme. Use of this ketoconazole with any CYP3A4 inhibitor is potentially dangerous and a cause for medical concern. There are countless other herb-pharmaceutical interactions with potentially serious effects.
Responsible Ayurvedic practitioners must take into account how herbal medications can interact with other drugs, or even other concurrent consumed herbals.
Quality control.
While some preparations may be of high quality, many herbal medicines and supplements are not subject to rigorous quality control. Herbal concoctions may contain little-to-nothing of the herb advertised, or may even be contaminated with heavy metals or other toxic substances. This is not an issue relegated to Ayurvedic practice, but is a global phenomenon, even in developed countries.
Recognizing the key importance of herbal medications to healthcare in the developing world, the World Health Organization (WHO) has proposed quality control mechanisms for marketed medicinal plant medicines, including Ayurveda. This includes DNA barcoding to ensure contents of herbal preparations match advertised/labelled species. An important milestone was reached in 2019, when 65% of WHO member states had a documented registration system for herbal medicines, a significant improvement over the previous two decades.
Research into efficacy.
In 2021, a systemic review into Ayurvedic treatments for sinusitis determined the necessity of further rigorous clinical studies before conclusions about safety and efficacy could be reached. A major challenge in assessing Ayurvedic herbal medicines is substantial variation in quality between remedies. Multiple reviews on Ayurveda determined that standardization of quality and herbal contents is required for research. This includes research into herbal contents, therapeutic efficacy, chemical profiling of medicines, and identification of actual therapeutic modes of action (i.e., how the medicines actually work).
Another review found that Ayurvedic herbs could be the basis for research into neuroprotective compounds.
Ethnobotany by region.
India is home to speakers of between 453 and 780 languages with many different cultures and subcultures present across 28 states and 8 union territories. This diversity is reflected in complex regional variation in the usage of herbal medicines. While Ayurveda and other elements of folk medicine are practiced nationally, the tribal peoples of India (Adivasi) have uses for medicinal plants unique to themselves or their geographic locale.
At least 50 million people belong to Adivasi communities, constituting at least 427 tribal groups (with some much higher estimates). Much regional variation in plant use can be attributed to the ethnobotany practiced by Adivasi in rural India. Local variations in climate, ecology, and culture determine the availability and use of medicinal plant species.
Eastern Ghats Range.
The Eastern Ghat Mountain range begins in the state of Odisha, traveling south through Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, terminating finally in Tamil Nadu. The Eastern Ghats, and the accompanying western portion of the central Deccan plateau, are characterized by a tropical savanna climate. Severe dry seasons allow for a landscape dominated by grasslands with sparse trees (savanna ecosystem) or tropical deciduous forests.
These mountains have been home to many tribal peoples since ancient times. In 2017, over 200 tribes were reported in the regions of the Eastern Ghats and Deccan plateau. A summary of ethnobotanical surveys identified 1,800 species of medicinal plants occurring in these regions of India, with 782 species actually used. Medicinal plants are used in codified indigenous healthcare practices, such as Ayurveda, as well as local practices unique to tribes or tribal groupings. Of the ethnic or tribal groups in this region, 54 are reported to utilize plants for their primary medical needs, though only 40 have been surveyed for exact plant species used.
Medicinal plant taxonomy.
The 782 medicinal plants used in this region belong to 132 families. Overwhelmingly, identified plants belonged to the legume, dogbane, orchid, nightshade, and coffee families. Legumes (Fabaceae), the largest single family, accounted for 67 species. The most prolific genera were "Cassia" (Fabaceae) and "Solanum" (Solanaceae), each containing 11 species. By plant habit, utilized plants were herbs (41%), trees (24%), shrubs (22%) and lianas/vines (13%).
75 species of plants used for medicine in the region are unique to the Eastern Ghats.
Local plants and their uses.
Of 782 utilized plants, only 28 species were used by all assessed tribal communities. Plant species were most frequently utilized for issues relating to the stomach and skin disease, with 120 species being used as primary treatments in either of these problem categories.
"Abrus precatorius" was the medicinal plant most widely cited in ethnobotanical surveys of the region. Although parts of the plant are extremely toxic and hazardous when ingested, leaves of this species are utilized for treatment of bronchitis, eczema, hepatitis, skin disease, gynecological disease and in treatment of venomous snake bites. "Aegle marmelos", or Bael, is a tree with religious significance utilized for treatment of gastrointestinal and skin disease. Although used throughout India as a treatment for jaundice, the plant creat (Hindi: kaalmegha) ("Andrographis paniculata") is used in the Eastern Ghats as an anti-malarial.
Tribal communities in this region are noted for the reverence paid to trees in religious practice.
Western Ghats and West Coast.
The Western Ghat Mountain range begins in the southeastern corner of Gujarat, traversing the states of Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, and Kerala. The western portion of these mountains, and the accompanying coastal regions, receive among the highest annual rainfalls of any part of India.The Malabar coast (from Goa to the southernmost part of peninsular India) receives over 250 cm of rain annually. These areas are characterized by a tropical monsoon/tropical wet climate. Coastal areas and much of the mountain slopes contain tropical evergreen and moist deciduous forests, with rain forests in Kerala.
Because of the rain shadow effect, eastern slopes of the Western Ghats and the accompanying portions of the Deccan Plateau are very dry, receiving <40 cm a year. This dry area, affecting eastern Gujarat, Maharasthra, and Karnataka, is classified as semi-arid steppe climate. These areas are qualify as tropical thorny woodland and dry deciduous forest.
The Western Ghats region is a global biodiversity hotspot, with more than 1500 endemic plant species. Though only 5% of India's landmass, the region contains about a third of India's plant species. As many as 35% of plant species here are endemic.
Tribal agriculture has been practiced in the Western Ghats for 4000 years. Tribal communities are usually focused in mountain areas, though some live in lowlands not far from cities, with at least 40 indigenous groups identified. Ethnobotanical surveys have found 2100 medicinal plants growing in this region, with at least 1116 used locally.
At least 50 medicinal plants unique to the Western Ghats and west coast region are threatened with extinction.
Medicinal plant taxonomy.
A 2017 survey found 31 species of shrubs and herbaceous plants used for purported anti-malarial properties. These plants belong to 23 different families, the most important being the legume (4 species), mint (3 species), coffee (2 species) and nightshade (2 species) families.
Local plants and their uses.
104 plant species are used for treatment of fevers and malaria (inclusive of the 31 species specifically used for malaria).
Northeast India.
Northeast India (officially North Eastern Region, NER) is a complex region of eight Indian states and 45 million people. The region borders five countries: Nepal, Bhutan, China (Tibetan Autonomous Region), Myanmar, and Bangladesh. Geographically, Northeast India is bounded on the north by Eastern Himalayan mountains, the east by the Purvanchal/Patkai mountain ranges, and the southwest by the Gangetic plain. The northernmost states of Sikkim and Aryunachal Pradesh are formed by Himalayan valleys. The rugged eastern states (Nagaland, Manipur, and Mizoram) are formed by the Patkai mountains and a series of steep hill ranges. Likewise, Meghalaya is a hilly state stretching across the northern border of Bangladesh. Assam is largely the river valley of the broad Bramaputra river.
Climatically, Northeast India is largely defined by a subtropical climate with massive annual rainfalls. The flat sweep of the Gangetic plain ending in the Himalayas ensures that monsoons are particularly intense; the state of Meghalaya receives more rain than anywhere else on earth (>1200 cm per year).
Northeast India is one of the most ethnically diverse regions in the world. These states contain 130 tribes with 300 distinct subtribes, over 200 ethnic groups, and 220 spoken languages. Many of India's tribal peoples are concentrated here, with the hilly states of Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Mizoram, and Nagaland being 90% Adivasi by population. The largest state by population, Assam contains 30 million people, of which a minority are Adivasi.
At least 4,000 plant species have been documented in Northeast India with others likely undiscovered. The region is among the most biodiverse in India, containing half of all Indian species diversity and more than 25% of Indian endemic plants. 1,953 plants are used by tribal peoples of this region, accounting for 80% of all ethnomedicinal plants documented in India.
Medicinal plant taxonomy.
At least 37 members of the ginger family (Zingiberaceae) have been identified as medicinal plants in NER, 88% of which were found in Arunachal Pradesh. A 2012 survey found the Dimasa tribe (Assam) used non-flowering plants like ferns and cycads. NER has over 80 species of "Rhododendron", with multiple documented ethnomedicinal uses.
Local plants and their uses.
Because NER is one of the most ethnically and botanically diverse places on the planet, broadly characterizing the utilization of medicinal plants here is difficult. Research into the indigenous use of plants in NER has been conducted since the 1970s. One of the most widely cited species in surveys, "Ageratum conyzoides" (flowers, leaves, roots and whole plant) is used for throat pain, helminth infections, arthritis, fever, malaria treatment, dysentery, and liver disease. Studies have identified this plant as carcinogenic. "Mimosa pudica" (sensitive plant) is used as treatment for skin infections, helminths, urological disease, toothaches and as a contraceptive. The rhizome of "Acorus calamus" (calamus, or Vacā in Sanskrit) is documented as a treatment for cough, cold, snake bite, asthma, rheumatic fever, and hemorrhoids. Though calamus is used in NER folk medicine (and in Ayurveda), this plant is considered extremely carcinogenic. "Andrographis paniculata" has been cited for use in stomach pain, malaria, and jaundice. Another plant widely referenced in ethnobotanical surveys, "Callicarpa arborea" is used for skin disease, leukorrhea, and treating scorpion stings.
The Meithei Manipuri people produce herbal vapors for the treatment of 41 diseases, using both single plant species and multi-species concoctions. "Rhododendron arboretum" is used to treat diarrhea, dysentery, throat pain, headaches, and fish bones stuck in throat.
Western Himalayas.
The Western Himalayas region consists of the states of Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand and the union territories of Jammu & Kashmir and Ladakh. The Central (Great) Himalayas are mostly within Nepal though a portion lie within Uttarkand. These states forms part of the foothills of the largest mountains on Earth. Climatically, much of the region is defined by a polar or tundra type climate, but southern portions of Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand are humid subtropical. Vegetation includes alpine shrubs and meadows, subalpine conifer forests, Himalyan broadleaf dry forests, and subtropical deciduous and pine forests. A portion of dry grassland (the Bhabar) is found in lower Uttarakhand. Predominant trees include chir pine, blue pine, deodar, fir, and juniper.
There is substantial ethnic diversity in this region. At the broadest level, these Himalayan regions contain Indic, Tibetan-Burman, and Afghan-Persian speaking peoples.
In the Western Himalayas, Ladakh contains the nomadic mountain Changpas with agricultural Laddakhis, Dardi, and Balti peoples inhabiting valleys. Kashmir Valley (Jammu & Kashmir) and the Pirpanjal valley (Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh) are inhabited by Kashmiris, Gujjars, and Bakkarwal peoples. The Central Himalayas (Uttarakhand) contain the agirucltural Paharis in valley regions and the Tibetan-speaking Bhotiya peoples in the mountains. The Paharis are a diverse group are also found in Kashmir.
Between 4,000 and 5,000 plants are reported in the Western and Central Himalayas. Surveys have identified 1,338 medicinal plant species specifically from the state of Uttarakhand, 948 species from Jammu & Kashmir, and 643 species from Himachal Pradesh.
Medicinal plant taxonomy.
A review found 109 different families of medicinal plants in the former state of Jammu & Kashmir.
Local plants and their uses.
Plants in this region most frequently used in medicinal preparations include "Terminalia chebula, Terminlia bellirica, Emblica officinalis, Glycyrrhiza glabra" (liquorice), "Justicia adhatoda, Withania somnifera", and "Cyperus rotundus".
The rhizome "Curcuma domestica" (turmeric) is used for cuts, burns, and scalds. Fruits of the "Piper nigrum" species (black pepper) are popularly used for colds and coughs. The fruits from "Trachyspermum ammi" (ajawain) and plants from the genus "Ferula" are commonly used to treat gastrointenstinal disorders and in some cases, whooping cough.
Indo-Gangetic Region and central India.
The Indo-Gangetic Region and central Indian region consists of the 13 states of Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Delhi, Gujarat, Haryana, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, and Chandigarh. These are the most populous region of India, with a combined total of almost 900 million people. Geographically, the area is defined by Outer Himalays (Siwalik Mountains) to the north, the sprawling Indo-Gangetic plain in the middle, and the more rugged central India. Central India consists of hills, a portion of the Deccan plateau, and the Aravalli and Satpura mountains. Flat coastal predominates in most of West Bengal. The Western border with Pakistan features the Thar desert, more than half of which lies within Rajasthan.
The dense population of the Indo-Gangetic Region ensures that much of the land is taken up sprawling urban areas and intensive agriculture. The region is climatically diverse, featuring desert, semi-arid areas, coastal areas and the central plain. Multiple forest ecosystems are found here, including tropical wet, tropical moist deciduous forests, tropical semi-evergreen, dry deciduous, and tropical thorn forests in the northern Deccan, Gangetic plains, and in semi-arid regions.
The vast majority of the people are speakers of Hindi languages. Some 90 scheduled tribes are found in these 13 states, including the Bhil and Gond peoples, the two largest Adivasi groups in India, together making up 70% of all members of scheduled tribes. Other tribes surveyed for medicinal plants include the Baiga, Bharia, Halba, Kaul, Korku, Maria, and Sahariya peoples.
Around half of the flowering plants of India are found in these states (11,000-12,000 species). A 2017 survey identified 528 plant species used for medicine in this region. Another study records 610 species used by the tribal people of Rajasthan alone, though this includes food and shelter plants.
Medicinal plant taxonomy.
The 528 medicinal plants used in this region belong to 112 families, the most important being the legume (74 species), mallow (30 species), Asteraceae (29 species), mint (24 species), and dogbane (21 species) families.
Local plants and their uses.
Leaves are the plant part most frequently utilized. "Azadirachta indica" is a frequently cited species in ethnobotanical surveys, and used for the most diverse array of treatments. Local uses include treatment for snake bite, scorpion stings, skin disease, wounds, malaria, eczema, diabetes, even leprosy and tuberculosis.
Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
The Andaman and Nicboar Islands are a union territory located southeast of continental India, consisting of two island chains. These islands have a tropical wet/monsoon climate with tropical rainforest vegetation. The more northerly Andaman Islands have some mixed deciduous forest, with a landscape of steep hills and valleys. Though dominated by a unique rainforest ecosystem, some Nicobar Islands are predominantly grassland and mangrove forests are found throughout coastal areas of both island chains. The islands are home to at least 2650 species of vascular plants and 150 plant families, with around 300 endemic species.
The indigenous inhabitants of the Andaman islands, the Andamanese, number in total less than 500 people. Surviving tribes include the Great Andamanese, the Jarawa, the Onge, and the Sentinelese. The majority of the population is now constituted of people from the Indian mainland (Tamil, Telugu, Oriya, Malayali, North Indian) as well as Bengali and Malayali peoples. Some 2000 Karen people inhabit the city of Mayabunder in Middle Andaman island.
The Nicobarese consist of some 22,000 people who share ancestry with Southeast Asians. On the island of Great Nicobar, the Nichobarese share the island with the Shompen people, a semi-nomadic tribe of hunter-gatherers confined to the island interior. About 200 Shompen people have been documented.
A 2009 study documented 289 plant species used for medicinal purposes by the indigenous peoples of both the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Another study found 150 plant species used for 47 unique treatments by the people of Car Nicobar, the northernmost Nicobar island.
Local plants and their uses.
The indigenous Andamanese have lived a mixed agricultural/hunter-gatherer lifestyle for tens of thousands of years. Food crops consist of rice, coconuts, area, fruit, palm oil and cashews. Turmeric is an important spice used both in medicine and in cooking. The Great Andamanese chew and spray leaves of "Polyalthia jenkinsii" in order to deter bee attacks during honey gathering.
"Alstonia macrophylla" is the plant most widely cited from ethnobotanical studies of both island chains.The bark, root, and leaves of this tree are used in the treatment of fever, gastric disorders, swelling, bone fractures, urinary tract infections, and skin diseases. "Ocimum sanctum" (Holy Basil) is documented as a plant used for cough and cold treatment. The ginger plant "Zingiber squarrosum" has petioles that are chewed to relieve thirst.
References.
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Lagerstroemia
Genus of trees
Lagerstroemia (), commonly known as crape myrtle (also spelled crepe myrtle or crêpe myrtle), is a genus of around 50 species of deciduous and evergreen trees and shrubs native to the Indian subcontinent, southeast Asia, northern Australia, and other parts of Oceania, cultivated in warmer climates around the world. It is a member of the family Lythraceae, which is also known as the loosestrife family. These flowering trees are beautifully colored and are often planted both privately and commercially as ornamentals.
Etymology.
The genus "Lagerstroemia" was first described by Carl Linnaeus. It is named after Swedish merchant Magnus von Lagerström, a director of the Swedish East India Company, who supplied Linnaeus with plants he collected.
Description.
Crape myrtles are chiefly known for their colorful and long-lasting flowers, which occur in summer. Most species of "Lagerstroemia" have sinewy, fluted stems and branches with a mottled appearance that arises from having bark that sheds throughout the year. The leaves are opposite and simple, with entire margins, and vary from . While all species are woody in nature, they can range in height from over to under ; most, however, are small to medium, multiple-trunked trees and shrubs. The leaves of temperate species provide autumn color.
Flowers are borne in summer and autumn in panicles of crinkled flowers with a crêpe-like texture. Colors vary from deep purple to red to white, with almost every shade in between. Although no blue-flowered varieties exist, the flowers trend toward the blue end of the spectrum with no orange or yellow except in stamens and pistils. The fruit is a capsule, green and succulent at first, then ripening to dark brown or black dryness. It splits along six or seven lines, producing teeth much like those of the calyx, and releases numerous, small, winged seeds.
Taxonomy.
"Lagerstroemia" species.
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Hybrids
Ecology.
"Lagerstroemia" species are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera (moth and butterfly) species, including "Endoclita malabaricus".
The leaves of "L. parviflora" are fed on by the "Antheraea paphia" moth, which produces the tassar silk, a form of wild silk of commercial importance in India.
Crape myrtles are susceptible to several pests and diseases, most notably, fungus-caused powdery mildew, and more recently, bark scale, caused by aphids leaving a black dark fungal infection in their wake.
Uses.
In their respective climates, both subtropical and tropical species are common in domestic and commercial landscapes. The timber of some species has been used to manufacture bridges, furniture, and railway sleepers, but in Vietnam's Cát Tiên National Park, the dominant stands of "Lagerstroemia calyculata" in secondary forest are thought to have survived (after episodes of logging) due to the low quality of wood.
Cultivation.
Certain species of crape myrtle are used in landscaping and gardening as screens, lawn specimens, shrub borders, and container plants. Since crape myrtles are found in many places, opinions differ as to how to cultivate them in landscaping. Crape myrtles are best cultivated in warmer southern climates, U.S. zones 7–9, and prefer full sun. They occur in a variety of flowering colors and size.
Crape myrtles might have been considered messy in the past, but their seedpods cannot stain concrete, so are best planted near swimming pools, decks, and sidewalks.
The common crape myrtle ("L. indica") from China and Korea was introduced c. 1790 to Charleston, South Carolina, in the United States, by French botanist André Michaux. In the wild, the species is most often found as a multiple-stemmed, large shrub, but 200 years of cultivation have resulted in a huge number of cultivars of widely varying characteristics. Today, crape myrtle varieties can fulfill many landscaping needs, from tidy street trees to dense barrier hedges to fast-growing dwarf types of less than , which can go from seed to bloom in a season (allowing gardeners in places where the plant is not winter-hardy to still enjoy the intense colors of the frilly flowers). In Europe, crape myrtle is common in the south of France, the Iberian Peninsula, and most of Italy; in the United States, it is an iconic plant of gardens across the Southern United States. It has been cultivated in many parts of Australia, but is most common in the areas of the country with a Mediterranean climate such as the south-east and west.
While not as widely known, the Japanese crape myrtle, "L. fauriei", from central and southern Japan, is becoming increasingly important, both as a landscaping plant and as a parent in complex hybrids with "L. indica". This species is distinctly tree-like, with colorful, deciduous bark and dark green leaves, which are more resistant to fungal diseases than are those of its more popular relative. The Japanese name for this tree is , which refers to the smooth, slippery bark. Flowers are as large as those of "L. indica", but are white with only the slightest pink flush appearing in some individuals. Japanese crape myrtle is hardier to cold than many strains of "L. indica", a characteristic (along with fungal resistance, tree form, and colorful bark) that makes it valuable as genetic material for hybridization. Cultivars available include 'Kiowa', 'Fantasy', and 'Townhouse'.
"L. speciosa", known as queen crape myrtle, giant crape myrtle, or "banabá", originates in subtropical and tropical India. It can be grown in any similar climate, but in the United States is suitable only for Florida, southernmost Texas, South Louisiana, coastal southern California, and Hawaii. It is a large evergreen tree with colorful rosy-mauve flowers and striking white bark, suitable for public parks and avenues; only the seed-grown species is commonly available for sale, unlike "L. indica" and "L. fauriei", which have dozens of cultivars.
References.
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Bacillus safensis
Species of bacterium
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Bacillus safensis is a gram-positive, spore-forming, and rod bacterium, originally isolated from a spacecraft in Florida and California. "B. safensis" could have possibly been transported to the planet Mars on spacecraft Opportunity and Spirit in 2004. There are several known strains of this bacterium, all of which belong to the Bacillota phylum of Bacteria. This bacterium also belongs to the large, pervasive genus "Bacillus". "B. safensis" is an aerobic chemoheterotroph and is highly resistant to salt and UV radiation. "B. safensis" affects plant growth, since it is a powerful plant hormone producer, and it also acts as a plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria, enhancing plant growth after root colonization. Strain "B. safensis" JPL-MERTA-8-2 is (so far) the only bacterial strain shown to grow noticeably faster in micro-gravity environments than on the Earth surface.
Discovery and importance.
Thirteen strains of the novel bacterium "Bacillus safensis" were first isolated from spacecraft surfaces and assembly-facility surfaces at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida as well as the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in California. The bacterium gets its name from the JPL Spacecraft Assembly Facility (SAF). Researchers used customary swabbing techniques to detect and collect the bacteria from cleanrooms where the spacecraft were put together in the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. The bacterium was accidentally brought to Mars during space missions due to contamination of clean rooms. Contamination of clean rooms during space travel is an area of concern for planetary protection as it can threaten microbial experimentation and give false positives of other microbial life forms on other planets.
V.V. Kothari and his colleagues from Saurashtra University in Gujarat, India, first isolated another strain, "B. safensis" VK. Strain VK was collected from "Cuminum cyminum", a cumin plant in the desert area of Gujarat, India. Specifically, the bacteria were collected from the rhizosphere of the cumin plant.
Ram S. Singh and colleagues discovered one of the strains, AS-08, in soil samples of root tubers of asparagus plants in a botanical garden at Punjabi University in India. "B. safensis" AS-08 was found to have inulase activity, which is used for the production of fructooligosaccharides and high-fructose corn syrup. Fructooligosaccharides are used as artificial sweeteners and can be found in many commercial food products. Corn syrup is also found in many processed foods.
Davender Kumar and colleagues from Kurukshetra University in India isolated strain DVL-43 from soil samples. This strain was found to possess lipase, which is an important enzyme for fat digestion. Lipases are a class of chemicals that are abundant in nature amongst plants, animals and microorganisms that are widely used in industry for production of food, paper products, detergents and biodiesel fuel.
P. Ravikumar of the Government Arts College at Bharathiar University in India isolated strain PR-2 from explosive-laden soil samples. This strain was identified by its 16S rDNA sequence by Sanger dideoxy sequencing method and deposited in the GenBank in Maryland, U.S. It carries the accession number KP261381 with 885 base pairs of linear DNA and the base count 175 "a" 295 "c" 199 "g" 216 "t".
Physical characteristics and metabolism.
"Bacillus safensis" is a gram-positive, spore-forming rod bacterium. "B. safensis" is also an aerobic chemoheterotroph. Cell size ranges from 0.5 to 0.7 μm in diameter and 1.0–1.2 μm in length. This species is motile, and use polar flagella for locomotion. Many B. safensis strains are considered mesophilic, as they grow optimally in temperatures of , though certain strains exhibit extremophilic tendencies in tolerating salinity,