Reedley, California
City in the Central Valley of California
Reedley is a city in Fresno County, California, United States. It is located in the San Joaquin Valley, east-southeast of Fresno, at an elevation of . The population at the 2010 census was . Its chief economic source is agriculture, particularly fruit and vegetable cultivation and has thus dubbed itself "The World's Fruit Basket". Reedley is situated along the Kings River, downstream from Centerville.
Reedley hosts several cultural festivals, including but not limited to the Reedley Fiesta, and the Electrical Farm Equipment Parade.
Reedley is named for Thomas Law Reed, a Civil War veteran who gave half of his holdings to the township in 1888.
History.
In the mid-1800s, American Civil War Union veteran Thomas Law Reed settled in Reedley to grow wheat for Gold Rush miners. His donation of land for a railroad station site established the town as the center of the San Joaquin Valley's booming wheat industry. Southern Pacific Railroad officials commemorated his donation by naming the depot in his honor, which the city itself then adopted.
When gold mining fever began to fade, wheat demand slackened. Water from the Kings River was diverted for crop irrigation, and the region's agriculture diversified to include fruits, including grapes, figs, and peaches.
With the establishment of water and railroad services, farming families of European immigrants were recruited, and the settlement was incorporated in 1913, with Ordinance No. 1 adopting and prescribing the style of a Common Seal on February 25, 1913. That same year, the city's first cement sidewalks, sewer system, and fire department, as well as the first of two steel water towers were constructed. Because of proximity, the Reedley post office provided rural mail delivery to the surrounding region, including Route 2 which covered a section of nearby Tulare County (about 5 miles west of Dinuba).
A colony of Plautdietsch-speaking Mennonites, who travelled to California to escape the ecological disaster of the Dust Bowl played an important role in the town's early history, settling in Township 8, an area now known as Navelencia. Reedley contains a community of 25 different Christian churches, including Anglican, Catholic, Armenian, Baptist, and Mennonite congregations. The town is also home to a Buddhist temple. The city's cultural influences include Filipino, Finnish, Lebanese, Korean and Japanese immigrants. Since the 1940s, Reedley has seen a large increase in its Hispanic and Latino immigrant population, who have come to represent the majority of Reedley's ethnic makeup.
In 1988, Reedley celebrated the first 100 years since the construction of its Southern Pacific depot, and the 75th anniversary of incorporation. In 2013, the city celebrated its centennial.
Geography.
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which, of it is land and of it (1.39%) is water.
City Buildings and Services.
Reedley National Bank.
The Reedley National Bank building was built in 1907, when the city was first connected to electricity. The bank has since ceased operation. The building is situated on 1100 G Street.
Mid Valley Times.
Reedley's downtown is the home of the local newspaper the "Mid Valley Times", formerly known as the "Reedley Exponent". The "Exponent" merged with the "Sanger Herald" and the "Dinuba Sentinel" in July 2019 in order to improve circulation.
Jansen Opera House.
The building that houses the Opera House was built in 1903, after a fire destroyed two blocks of downtown Reedley. Danish grain merchant, Jesse Jansen, rallied the downtown shopkeepers to rebuild Reedley's downtown out of brick. The Opera House itself was built at Jansen's personal expense to serve as a cultural and community center. In 1913, the population of Reedley met at the Opera House to vote for incorporation. After the early 1920s, movie houses replaced the popularity of theatre, and the building went into disuse until restoration in 1986. The City of Reedley acquired the building in 2002 by donation.
In 2003, the River City Theatre Company was founded by Mark Norwood, who served as artistic director until his retirement in 2016. The River City Theatre Company currently leases the Opera House and produces musicals and stage plays.
Reedley Municipal Airport.
North of the city and southwest of Mount Campbell, Reedley Municipal Airport () is a public airport, serving southeast Fresno County and northwest Tulare County. There are 21 single-engine aircraft based at Reedley Municipal Airport, and during the 12-month period ending on January 30, 2020, the airport logged 33,000 operations.
City administration and policing.
Government.
Reedley has a Council-City Manager form of municipal government, located at 845 G Street.
Police.
The Reedley Police Department is headquartered at 843 G Street, sharing a building with the city government.
The small communities and area surrounding Reedley are served by the Fresno County Sheriff's Office.
Education.
Kings Canyon Unified School District is a public school system headquartered in Reedley, but also has schools located in the nearby city of Orange Cove, the towns of Dunlap, Miramonte, and the mountain communities. Reedley also offers private educational institutions such as St. La Salle School (Roman Catholic Private K-8) and Immanuel Schools (Mennonite Private K-12). The local community college, Reedley College, offers undergraduate higher education up to an associate degree as well as various certification courses.
Educational institutions in Reedley:
Elementary
K-8 schools
Middle schools
High schools
Alternative education
Community college
Demographics.
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2010.
At the 2010 census Reedley had a population of . The population density was people per square mile (/km2). The racial makeup of Reedley was () White, 169 () African American, 267 () Native American, 797 () Asian, 8 () Pacific Islander, () from other races, and 998 () from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were persons ().
The census reported that people ( of the population) lived in households, 119 () lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and 130 () were institutionalized.
There were households, out of which () had children under the age of 18 living in them, () were opposite-sex married couples living together, 946 () had a female householder with no husband present, 521 () had a male householder with no wife present. There were 440 () unmarried opposite-sex partnerships, and 39 () same-sex married couples or partnerships. 886 households () were one person and 471 () had someone living alone who was 65 or older. The average household size was 3.65. There were families ( of all households); the average family size was 3.94.
The age distribution was people () under the age of 18, people () aged 18 to 24, people () aged 25 to 44, people () aged 45 to 64, and people () who were 65 or older. The median age was 29.1 years. For every 100 females, there were 104.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 102.7 males.
There were housing units at an average density of per square mile (/km2), of which 6,569 were occupied, of which () were owner-occupied, and () were occupied by renters. The homeowner vacancy rate was 1.8%; the rental vacancy rate was 3.7%. people ( of the population) lived in owner-occupied housing units and people () lived in rental housing units.
2000.
At the 2000 census there were people, households, and families in the city. The population density was people per square mile (/km2). There were housing units at an average density of per square mile (/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 51.76% White, 1.73% Black or African American, 1.21% Native American, 8.83% Asian, 37.72% from other races, and 4.44% from two or more races. 57.59% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
There were households, 46.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 61.5% were married couples living together, 12.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 19.4% were non-families. 15.8% of households were one person and 8.5% were one person aged 65 or older. The average household size was 3.53 and the average family size was 3.87.
The age distribution was 32.1% under the age of 18, 12.2% from 18 to 24, 29.1% from 25 to 44, 15.2% from 45 to 64, and 11.3% 65 or older. The median age was 29 years. For every 100 females, there were 105.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 104.6 males.
The median income for a household in the city was , and the median family income was $. Males had a median income of $ versus $ for females. The per capita income for the city was $. About 18.5% of families and 21.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 31.6% of those under age 18 and 10.4% of those age 65 or over.
References.
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Rob Lock
American basketball player (born 1966)
Robert Alan Lock (born May 22, 1966) is an American former professional basketball player. Lock was born and raised in Reedley, California and played collegiate ball with the University of Kentucky (1984–1988) where he was a solid contributor off the bench and increased his stats every year he played. He entered the 1988 NBA draft and was picked 51st in the third round by the Los Angeles Clippers; however, Lock accepted an offer to play in Italy instead. He did eventually return to play for just 20 games with Clippers during the latter part of the 1988-89 NBA season.
After retiring from basketball, Lock pursued his childhood dream of becoming a pilot. He is currently the owner of Waldo Wright's Flying Service where he gives open cockpit rides to visitors in restored vintage biplanes. The family business is based in Polk City, Florida and is currently the largest provider of open cockpit flights.
References.
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Killing of Amir Locke
2022 police killing in Minnesota
Amir Locke, a 22-year-old Black American man, was fatally shot on February 2, 2022, by SWAT officer Mark Hanneman of the Minneapolis Police Department inside an apartment in Minneapolis, Minnesota, where police were executing a no-knock search warrant in a homicide investigation. The officer-involved shooting was reviewed by the office of Minnesota Attorney General Keith Ellison, the office of Hennepin County attorney Michael Freeman, and the Minnesota Bureau of Criminal Apprehension. Ellison and Freeman declined to file criminal charges against the officer who shot Locke in a report released on April 6, 2022.
Several protests were held in reaction to the shooting. Minneapolis Mayor Jacob Frey imposed a moratorium on most no-knock warrants on February 4. Multiple reviews of the no-knock warrant policy were announced, including by the Minneapolis City Council Policy and Government Oversight Committee and the Minneapolis Office of Police Conduct Review, as well as racial justice activist DeRay Mckesson and professor of police studies Peter Kraska of Eastern Kentucky University in coordination with the city. On April 8, Minneapolis banned "no knock" warrants in a new policy.
In mid-2023, Minnesota state lawmakers enacted restrictions on the use of no-knock warrants, but not a complete ban on their use.
Background.
Persons involved.
Amir Locke was a 22-year-old Black man born in Maplewood, Minnesota, and raised in the Minneapolis–Saint Paul suburbs. According to his mother, Locke was starting a music career and had planned to move to Dallas the week after his death. In the three days leading up to the February 2 shooting, Locke had been staying at his cousin's apartment and sleeping on the couch.
Mark Hanneman had been a police officer in Minneapolis since 2015 and was a member of the Minneapolis Police Department's SWAT team. According to personnel records released by the department, Hanneman had three past complaints, all closed without disciplinary action. Prior to working with the police department, Hanneman was employed as a police officer in Hutchinson, Minnesota, starting in 2010. After an administrative suspension following the fatal shooting of Locke, Hanneman returned to active duty on February 28, 2022, but did not return to the SWAT team.
Search warrant.
Locke was shot while police were executing a search warrant in relation to a homicide. Locke's cousin, a 17-year old at the time, was a suspect in the fatal shooting of Otis Elder in nearby Saint Paul on January 10, 2022. The Saint Paul Police Department applied for a "knock and announce" warrant, and the Minneapolis police department insisted on a no-knock warrant, according to the St. Paul Police Department. Police also had "probable cause pick up and holds" for three people. Amir Locke was not named in the search warrant and was not a target of the homicide investigation. A Hennepin County judge, Peter Cahill, authorized the release of warrant documents connected to the investigation.
Incident.
On February 2, 2022, police unlocked and opened a door to an apartment at approximately 6:48 a.m. Police body camera footage reviewed by reporters "showed several officers quickly rushing into the apartment at the same time", several yelling "Police! Search warrant!", one officer yelling "Hands, hands!", and another yelling "Get on the ground!" Locke was lying on a couch wrapped in a blanket, and an officer kicked the couch. Locke then sat up and turned toward the officers while holding a gun, and in a still image released by police, his trigger finger is along the barrel of the gun, not the trigger. Hanneman then shot him twice in the chest and once in the wrist. The time from when police entered the unit, to when Locke was shot, was less than 10 seconds.
Locke was treated at the scene and transported to Hennepin Healthcare, where emergency medics pronounced him dead at 7:01 a.m.
Investigations.
Immediately after the shooting, the Minnesota Bureau of Criminal Apprehension opened an investigation and Hanneman was placed on paid administrative leave. An autopsy report published on February 4, 2022, by the Hennepin County Medical Examiner classified the manner of Locke's death to be homicide due to gunshot wounds. The office of the Attorney General of Minnesota and the Hennepin County attorney's office jointly reviewed the case.
On April 6, 2022, state attorney general Keith Ellison and county attorney Michael Freeman jointly announced that they would not file criminal charges against Officer Mark Hanneman for fatally shooting Locke. Ellison and Freeman said in a joint statement that there was not enough evidence to prove beyond a reasonable doubt that Hanneman had violated Minnesota Statutes regarding use-of-force in shooting Locke. Ellison said, "It would be unethical for us to file charges in a case in which we know that we will not able to prevail because the law does not support the charges." The residents of the apartment and officers at the scene of the shooting made statements during the investigation, including Hanneman, who explained his justification for his use of deadly force.
During a news conference that announced the decision to not file charges, Attorney General Ellison said "Amir was a victim. He never should have been called a suspect" and that a gun raised in the direction of a police officer "constitutes a specifically articulable threat". During the press conference, Ellison also advocated for Congress to pass the George Floyd Justice in Policing Act to change some policing practices, increase training and oversight, and enhance federal prosecution of alleged police misconduct.
No-knock warrant moratorium and restrictions.
Following the killing of Amir Locke, Minneapolis Mayor Jacob Frey imposed a moratorium on no-knock warrants on February 4, with an exception for "an imminent threat of harm to an individual or the public and then the warrant must be approved by the Chief", such as hostage situations or extreme domestic violence. On February 7, the Minneapolis City Council Policy and Government Oversight Committee began discussion about no-knock warrants. The Minneapolis Office of Police Conduct Review announced a review of the no-knock warrant policy.
It was announced that racial justice activist DeRay Mckesson and professor of police studies Peter Kraska of Eastern Kentucky University would work with the city to review possible changes to the no-knock warrant policy during the moratorium. Several Minnesota lawmakers announced intentions to consider legislation that would ban most no-knock warrants; Governor Tim Walz indicated he would sign such legislation.
On April 8, 2022, Minneapolis implemented a new ban on "no knock" warrants, described by "NBC News" as "being called one of the strongest of its kind in the nation." Minnesota state lawmakers were unable to reach agreement before the end of the 92nd Minnesota Legislature in mid-2022 on further limits to "no-knock" warrants, after objections by Republicans.
The 93rd Minnesota Legislature in mid-2023 enacted new restrictions on no-knock warrants, but not a complete ban. Beginning July 1, 2023, police had to demonstrate in an application to the courts that a warrant could not reasonably be conducted while no one was home and that the people inside were threatening death or harm to others. Officers were also required to loudly announce themselves before entering.
Reaction.
Family.
Locke's parents called his death an "execution". They added that their son did not live at the apartment. The family said Amir was "a deep sleeper" and may have been startled and "grabbed for his gun". The family also said he had a gun license and a concealed carry permit, and had a gun for protection due to his work for DoorDash. The BCA case file released two months after Locke's death revealed the origin of the gun, which had been purchased in April 2021 by a 25-year old Saint Paul man who declined to be interviewed by investigators.
Minnesota attorney Jeff Storms and civil rights attorneys Ben Crump and Antonio Romanucci were announced by Locke's family as legal counsel. On February 4, Crump stated, "If we've learned anything from Breonna Taylor, it's that we know no-knock warrants have deadly consequences for Black American citizens." At a press conference on February 7, Crump stated, "Warrants create chaotic, confusing circumstances that put everyone present at risk and those people are disproportionately marginalized people of color."
On February 10, family members of Locke and Breonna Taylor held a press conference with Crump, Storms, and Romanucci, and called for a ban on no-knock warrants.
Officials.
On February 3, Minneapolis interim police chief Amelia Huffman said both a knock and no-knock warrant were obtained as part of a St. Paul Police Department homicide investigation so the SWAT team could make its best assessment, and that it was "unclear" if Locke was connected to the St. Paul investigation. A spokesperson for the police department refused to comment due to the ongoing nature of the homicide investigation. Body camera footage was released to the public after Representative Ilhan Omar and members of the Minnesota House of Representatives called for the immediate release of the footage.
Based on a still shot from the body cam footage, Huffman stated "That's the moment when the officer had to make a split-second decision to assess [...] an articulable threat, that the threat was of imminent harm, great bodily harm or death, and that he needed to take action" to protect himself and other officers. Huffman also stated, "Ultimately, that decision of whether that threshold was met will be examined by the county attorney's office that reviews this case." Minnesota Attorney General Keith Ellison stated "Amir Locke's life mattered" when it was announced that his office will work with the Hennepin County attorney's office in its review.
Minnesota Representative Esther Agbaje, who resides in the building where Locke was shot and was home at the time, said "We need to continue to have a serious conversation about what does policing look like in this city, so it's safe—not only for the police officers but also for the people who live here." Minnesota House Majority Leader Ryan Winkler said, "Minnesotans deserve a thorough and impartial investigation into the events that led to Mr. Locke's death, including the Minneapolis Police Department sharing inaccurate information in the immediate aftermath."
Community groups.
On February 2, local civil rights activists held a vigil and asked police and city leaders for more information, including who authorized the SWAT team. On February 4, during a press conference by Interim Chief Amelia Huffman and Mayor Jacob Frey after the body camera footage was released, reporters and community members, including civil rights attorney Nekima Levy Armstrong, challenged Huffman about her initial description of the body camera footage. Huffman had initially stated officers "loudly and repeatedly announced police search warrant before crossing the threshold into the apartment" and then later encouraged people to "make their own assessment" after the footage was released.
On February 7, the Minneapolis NAACP called for a moratorium on no-knock warrants throughout the state, "pending a determination by the Peace Officers Standards and Training (POST) Board as to whether the no-knock procedure is an appropriate use of police power". The American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) noted a lack of a police command to Locke to drop the gun or a warning that he would be shot. The ACLU of Minnesota called for a ban on no-knock warrants.
At George Floyd Square in Minneapolis, a Black Power fist sculpture was wrapped in white blankets in recognition of Locke.
According to Rob Doar, the senior vice president of governmental affairs in the Minnesota Gun Owners Caucus, "Mr. Locke did what many of us might do in the same confusing circumstances, he reached for a legal means of self-defense while he sought to understand what was happening." According to the Chair of the Minnesota Gun Owners Caucus, Bryan Strawser, "Black men, like all citizens, have a right to keep and bear arms. Black men, like all citizens, have the right to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects against unreasonable search and seizure." A statement from the Police Officers Federation of Minneapolis, the local police union, includes: "Policing, particularly with a SWAT team, is a dangerous, high-stress profession where officers are forced to make important split-second decisions in defense of themselves and fellow officers, especially when weapons are involved".
Protests.
In Minneapolis—Saint Paul.
On the evening of February 4, protesters in cars began honking outside Minneapolis City Hall and then moved through downtown towards where the shooting occurred, until about 8:00 p.m. On February 5, hundreds of people in Minneapolis protested Locke's death. On February 6, protesters gathered outside Huffman's home in the Cedar-Isles-Dean neighborhood of Minneapolis to demand her resignation.
On February 8, high school students in St. Paul and Minneapolis organized by MN Teen Activists walked out of class in protest and marched to the residence of the governor. Jerome Treadwell, the executive director of MN Teen Activists, stated, "Our message today is that we need to protect young black lives. We are humans, we deserve to live and we have hopes and dreams."
On February 11, a protest of approximately 100 people marched through south Minneapolis during the evening to demand justice over the police killings of Amir Locke and Winston Boogie Smith, who had been killed by law enforcement on June 3, 2021. Along Lake Street, several properties were vandalized and tagged with anti-police and anarchist graffiti. Some demonstrators threw rocks at the Minneapolis Police Department's fifth precinct station building.
On February 16, approximately 40 protesters gathered outside the home of Minneapolis Mayor Jacob Frey to demand justice over Locke's death.
On February 20, protesters gathered outside the Minnesota State Capitol building in Saint Paul for a "Justice for Amir Locke" rally.
On April 6, activists held a press conference and rally outside the Hennepin County Government Center in Minneapolis to express their anger and frustration over the decision by state and county authorities to not file criminal charges against the officer who fatally shot Locke. A protest march in downtown Minneapolis followed on April 8 that featured a crowd of approximately 80 people.
Elsewhere.
In Chicago, Illinois, a protest over Locke's death was held on February 11.
A protest related to Locke's killing was planned in the Normandale Park area of Portland, Oregon, on February 19, 2022. According to court documents, a mass shooting near Normandale Park resulted in the death of one demonstrator and injured four, and ended after the shooter was shot by a bystander.
Civil lawsuit.
On February 3, 2023, attorney's for the family of Locke filed a wrongful death civil lawsuit against the City of Minneapolis.
References.
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George Leonidas Leslie
American bank robber and architect
George Leonidas Leslie (1842 – May/June 1878), who sometimes went by George Howard and George Herbert, was an American bank robber and architect. Known as the "King of Bank Robbers", he was involved in 80% of the bank robberies in the United States from 1869 to 1878.
Leslie grew up in Ohio, where he created a successful architectural firm. He closed it and left for New York City in 1869, due to ostracism over him evading the Union Army draft in the American Civil War. In New York, he met Fredericka Mandelbaum, a fence; she put Leslie in charge of a gang that stole almost $800,000 from the local Ocean National Bank in June 1869, the largest robbery in the city's history at the time. In 1876, Leslie was involved in the Northampton Bank robbery in Massachusetts, which netted $1.6 million.
In 1878, Leslie attempted a bank robbery in Maine, where two of his gang's members murdered a cashier against Leslie's will. The gang became paranoid that Leslie would cooperate with Pinkerton investigators, and threatened him. In response, he delayed the Manhattan Savings Institution robbery in New York that he was planning with them, hoping to do it with another gang. He was killed before it happened, and police theorized someone in the gang murdered him over the Maine incident. His gang did the robbery by themselves; its investigation led authorities to finding out about Leslie's robberies. Both the Northampton and Institution robberies were the largest-paying robberies in history at the time.
Early life.
Leslie was born in 1842. His hometown was Cincinnati, Ohio. His family was wealthy, as his father was a successful beer magnate from Toledo. Leslie went to the University of Cincinnati, where he studied architecture and graduated as an honors student. He was the university's sharpshooting champion, but the recognition mattered little to him, as he did not care for guns. During the American Civil War, when Leslie was 21, the Union Conscription Act of 1863 called for all able-bodied males between 20 and 45 to be drafted into service for the Union army. Cincinnati was a large source of Union army troops. Leslie's father had bought him out of the draft for $300, which was highly unpopular; draft-dodgers were considered worse than deserters. After the war was over, Leslie was the subject of ridicule, and was ostracized by many friends and families in the area. The resentment "overwhelmed" him, and he was not able to escape ridicule at the university.
After graduating, Leslie was engaged to a woman named Sarah Lawrence, who was from a rich Cincinnati family and Sunday school. Her father agreed to the marriage, but was reluctant, as he was a Union veteran and Republican. Leslie's firm grew after being contracted to provide shovels for the construction of the United States' first transcontinental railroad. In May 1867, Ohioan and Union war hero Jacob Parrot returned to Cincinnati, and within months of his return, Lawrence broke off the engagement and married Parrot. Meddling from her father was likely behind the decision. That year, Leslie's parents died. He wanted adventure, and to escape the stigma of being a draft-dodger by becoming anonymous, so he sold his family's home, closed his firm, and moved to New York City at the age of 27.
Move to New York City and becoming a criminal.
Once in New York, Leslie moved into the Fifth Avenue Hotel. He only knew a few people in the city, one of them being architect John Roebling. Leslie knew Roebling from his ties to Cincinnati; he had built the Cincinnati Suspension Bridge, which was completed in 1866. In New York, Roebling invited Leslie to dinner at the exclusive Delmonico's restaurant. During the dinner, Roebling introduced Leslie to one of the city's most important financiers, James Fisk. Leslie praised Fisk for his refurbishing of the Grand Opera House, and Fisk was flattered, offering Leslie two tickets to a play he produced, "The Twelve Temptations". Leslie invited Josie Manfield to the play, a wealthy guest at the dinner, who was Fisk's mistress a former showgirl from San Francisco. After the dinner, Leslie had stolen salt and pepper shakers from his table, just for the thrill of getting away with it. It inspired him to steal more. Mansfield eventually took a liking to him.
Fisk later sent Leslie an invitation to a private party held at 79 Clinton Street, the home of Fredericka "Marm" Mandelbaum, who was the biggest fence in the city. Leslie had heard about Mandelbaum and was intrigued, because he wanted to enter the criminal world. At the time, New York City had a series of loosely-knit gangs, including the gangs of Thomas "Shang" Draper, Johnny "The Mick" Walsh, and Mandelbaum. Leslie would associate with all three later.
Method.
Before every robbery, he would obtain, if possible, the building's blueprints. His architectural background allowed him to build scale models of his intended targets. Sometimes he would rent a safe-deposit box or open an account at a particular bank, which gave him an excuse to spend time in the building and observe its layout and operation. Other times he would get one of his men hired as a watchman or porter and ask them to obtain this information for him. When he was certain that the robbery could be committed without him getting caught, Leslie would select his accomplices and explain to them how to execute the robbery. Sometimes he would set up a room to resemble the inside of the target so that his men could practice the robbery while Leslie watched. He also had connections with a few crooked police officers and politicians, so it was less likely that he would be arrested.
Leslie had models of many vaults and safes used in the United States. Before he committed a robbery, Leslie would find out what type of vault or safe his target used. Then, he would spend months figuring out how to open it without the combination. Leslie used a device called the "little joker," a wire device inserted into a bank safe's lock in advance to facilitate the robbery. Over time and extended use, the lock's tumblers left dents or marks on the wire that recorded the numbers that made up the combination. Use of this tool required George to enter the bank at least twice prior to executing a robbery, once to place the device and a second time to retrieve it.
Ocean National Bank robbery.
The Ocean National Bank was located in Manhattan, New York City, on the corner of Greenwich Street and Fulton Street. It was located on the first of six stories of a brownstone building. The bank's robbery took place over a weekend in June 1869. At the time of the robbery, the offices included a large business room, the president's private room, and the vault. The entrance to the vault was made up of three separate iron doors.
Leslie promised to Mandelbaum to pull off the highest-paying criminal heist in history. Mandelbaum organized a gang to rob the Ocean National Bank, and put him in charge. The robbery would essentially function as Leslie's initiation and trial run for the city's crime world. Mandelbaum spent $3,000 on the robbery's planning. Planning for the heist took 3 months. Leslie's gang included Draper, Billy Porter, Gilbert Yost, "Jimmy" Hope, Johnny Dobbs, Johnny Irving, and John "Red" Leary. Leslie planned the robbery with more precision than any other bank robbery before him. Draper did not like the idea of a beginner heading a robbery, but Mandelbaum insisted and said he would not be involved if he did not take orders from Leslie. Draper was sure that Leslie would fail miserably, and instructed Leary to "take care of" Leslie if he did something stupid. Leary accepted, but was lying, as he was sure to follow Leslie's every order at Mandelbaum's behest. Irving got accepted at the bank as a cleaner, and Jimmy Hope used a disguise to rent office space in a basement right below the vault room.
On the first night, Friday, Irving worked his cleaning job and let Leslie, Dobbs and Leary in the back door. Dobbs removed the dial from the safe, inserted the little joker inside, and then replaced the dial. When the bank officials used the safe the next day, the little joker would record the combination stops on the lock. They decided to wait two days to open the safe, as the bank kept more money in the safe during the weekend than the weekdays. On the second night, Sunday, Leslie made Draper dress like a woman, which added to Draper's animosity of Leslie. The three iron doors were forced opened. The group drilled the hole from the basement to the vault, Dobbs removed the dial, then the little joker, then replaced the dial again. The little joker had etched a series of notches into a tin plate inside the dial. Dobbs used these notches to guess the combination, and opened the safe. $768,879.74 was robbed in cash, securities, and jewelry, and $1,806,598 was left. It was the largest heist in New York City at the time, but not the highest-paying criminal heist in history (it would go to the Manhattan Savings Institution robbery, which Leslie was involved in).
Police captain Thomas Brynes was put on the case. None of the detectives were able to uncover any leads. Brynes had noticed the withdrawal of money from Leslie, but considering he was an gentlemanly, educated architect, Brynes did not make him out to be a criminal. He learned that Leslie had visited Mandelbaum's dinner parties, and said "this can't lead to anything good."
Activities from 1869 to 1872.
Between November 21 and November 22, 1869, Leslie robbed the Boylston National Bank in Boston, Massachusetts, of $400,000 to $500,000. The money was largely in United States bonds belonging to private individuals, located in 25-30 tin boxes.
Between 12 and 1 a.m. on April 26, 1870, Leslie robbed the Auburn City Bank in Auburn, New York, of $31,000 in cash.
At 10 a.m. on August 1, 1870, Leslie and others robbed the John Handley & Co. bank in Scranton, Pennsylvania, of $30,000 in currency. They entered the vault from the rear of the bank.
About 1870, Leslie made Philadelphia his headquarters, and stayed at a boarding house ran by Mary E. Coath. There he met her fifteen-year-old daughter, Mary Henrietta "Molly" Coath. Leslie married Molly Coath after a short courtship. Following their wedding, they moved to New York, where they lived a life of a society couple. Throughout some of


Galenstock
Mountain in Switzerland
The Galenstock (3,586 m) is the fourth highest mountain in the Urner Alps in Switzerland. Its summit ridge lies on the border between the cantons of Uri and the Valais.
It was first climbed by Eduard Desor, Daniel Dollfuss Sr., and Daniel Dollfuss Jr., with guides H. Währen, M. Bannholzer, P. Brigger and H. Jaun on 18 August 1845.
References.
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External links.
 Media related to at Wikimedia Commons

Uri Alps
Mountain range in central Switzerland
The Uri Alps (also known as "Urner Alps", ) are a mountain range in Central Switzerland and part of the Western Alps. They extend into the cantons of Obwalden, Valais, Bern, Uri and Nidwalden and are bordered by the Bernese Alps (Grimsel Pass) and the Emmental Alps to the west (the four lakes: Lungerersee, Sarnersee, Wichelsee, and Alpnachersee), the Schwyzer Alps to the north (Lake Lucerne), the Lepontine Alps to the south (the valley of Urseren with Andermatt) and the Glarus Alps to the east (Reuss).
The Uri Alps are composed of two distinct groups separated by the Susten Pass. The Dammastock massif on the south is the most glaciated part while the northern part, which culminates on Titlis, has lower summits but greater extent.
Geography.
The group south of the Susten Pass forms the dividing range between the head waters of the Aare (west) from those of the Reuss. In addition a small portion of the range (south-west) is located in the basin of the Rhone. This part lies entirely within the valley of the Rhone Glacier. This group forms a complex mass including four considerable ridges and attains its greatest height at the Dammastock and the Galenstock. The group includes four nearly parallel ridges running NNW. and SSE. That forming the eastern boundary of the valley of Hasli reaches 3,383 metres at the Tieralplistock, whence it extends NNW. to the Mährenhorn, and south to the Gärstenhörner. A wide reservoir of snow whence the Trift Glacier flows to the north and the Rhone Glacier to the south, divides this range from the more easterly range whose highest point is the Dammastock. North of the Dammastock the range collectively known as the Hinter Tierberg, attains 3,447 metres. Further east than the last is the Sustenhorn range, rising at its highest point to 3,505 metres, divided from the last by the Stein Glacier and the upper part of the Göschenental. Lastly, another ridge still further east is separated from the last by the Voralptal, a branch of the Göschenental. Its highest summits are the Fleckistock and the Stucklistock. The lower part of the Göschenental is bounded on the south by a range running west to east diverging from the ridge between the Dammastock and the Galenstock.
On the north side of the Susten Pass the ranges are lower and, except the highest mountains on the south, free of glaciers. The main ridge, culminating at the Titlis divides the basins of the Aare and the Reuss. From the Grassen, tripoint border between the cantons of Bern, Obwalden and Uri, a small range diverges from the main watershed and runs from west to east and culminates at the Gross Spannort.
Principal summits.
The principal summits of the Uri Alps are:
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Glaciers.
Main glaciers :
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Klein Furkahorn
Mountain in Switzerland
The Klein Furkahorn (3,026 m) is a mountain of the Urner Alps, overlooking the Furka Pass on the border between the Swiss cantons of Valais and Uri. It lies near the southern end of the Galenstock-Gross Furkahorn chain, east of the Rhone Glacier.
From the Furka Pass a trail leads to its summit.
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Zawory Mountains
The Zawory Mountains () with a height from 550 to 715 metres, are a wide and flat mesa in the Northern part of the Stołowe Mountains in the Central Sudetes, in South-Western Poland. Through the Zawory Mountains lies a continental divide of the North Sea and Baltic Sea, and the border with the Czech Republic. The name "Zawory" comes from the Polish word "Zawora" which means a closing.
Location.
The Zawory Mountain range is located in the Southern part of the Polish border with the Czech Republic.
Specification.
The Zawory Mountain range are forest-covered mountains which are characterised with a flat surface and steep mountain sides, with isolated hills which lay in the valley of the river Zadrna in the Krzeszowska Structural Basin which close up from the North and in the North-Western part of the Stołowe Mountains. The ridges of the mountains have sandstone surfaces. The mountain mesa surfaces are located on the Polish-Czech border. The Czech part the mountain range is called "Závora". The border lies in between the ridges of the mesa, on the Polish side of the border are steep ridges and several branches which lead off to flat land, on the Czech side of the mountain range there are lower and more smoother falls into the valleys, which are cut through by valleys of streams, where in the centre the Adršpach-Teplice Rocks have been formed.
On the Polish side the mountain range has a shape of a twirl which stretches from the outskirts of Golińsk to the North-Eastern part of the Czech settlement of Police nad Metují in the South. The mountain range surrounds the Adršpach-Teplice Rocks from three sides. On the highest peaks of Róg, Drogosz, Chochoł, and Mielna, there are no formations of craig and tail, which normally are found in high amounts and different shapes of the steep ridges, especially in the Gorzeszowskie Rocks which are located under Gorzeszów and in the area surrounding Różana and Łączna. Due to the large amount of smooth land and ridges the territory of the mountain range is used as fields for crops where villages are located. Forests are located in the harder to reach areas, where there are steep ridges and in the parts of the mesa where there is very steep terrain.
The highest peak of the mountain range is Róg having the height of 715 metres.
The highest peaks of the mountain range:
On the Polish side of the mountain range with border mountain peaks:
On the Czech side of the mountain range:
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Giant Mountains
Czech and Polish mountain range
The Giant Mountains, Krkonoše, or Karkonosze ( , , ), are a mountain range located in the north of the Czech Republic and the south-west of Poland, part of the Sudetes mountain system (part of the Bohemian Massif). The Czech–Polish border, which divides the historic regions of Bohemia and Silesia, runs along the main ridge. The highest peak, Sněžka (), is the Czech Republic's highest natural point with an elevation of .
On both sides of the border, large areas of the mountains are designated national parks (Krkonoše National Park in the Czech Republic and Karkonosze National Park in Poland), and these together comprise the Krkonoše/Karkonosze Transboundary Biosphere Reserve under the UNESCO Man and the Biosphere Programme. The source of the River Elbe is within the Giant Mountains. The range has a number of major ski resorts, and is a popular destination for tourists engaging in downhill and cross-country skiing, hiking, cycling and other activities.
Names.
The range has been called the Giant Mountains in English literature since at least 1719.
The Czech name "Krkonoše" is first mentioned (in the singular, as "Krkonoš") in a 1492 record of the division of the Manor of Štěpanice into two parts. The first map occurrence of the name dates back to 1518 to Klaudyán map of Bohemia, when it is referred to the mountains as "Krkonoss". The origin of the name is usually interpreted as a compound of "krk" or "krak", an Old Slavonic word for Krummholz (a reference to the local vegetation) – and "noš", derived from "nosit" (to carry). Alternative linguistic theories mention a connection with the pre–Indo-European word "Corconti", which is first listed by Ptolemy and refers to a pre-Celtic or Germanic people.
In Simon Hüttel's chronicle of Trautenau (Trutnov) from 1549 the names "Hrisenpergisches Gebirge", "Hrisengepirge", "Hrisengebirge", "Risengepirge" appeared for the first time, but in the following centuries several other names were still used too. Martin Helwig's map of Silesia mentions Riſenberg (Risenberg).
In 1380, Přibík Pulkava called the mountains the "Sněžné hory" (Snowy Mountains). The Czech writer Bohuslav Balbín recorded in 1679 that the mountains were known under various names: Krkonoše (Cerconossios), Rhipaeos Montes, Obrovski Mountains, Snow Mountains or Riesen Gebirge.
The modern names of "Krkonoše" (Czech), "Riesengebirge" (German) and "Karkonosze" (Polish) became widely accepted only in the 19th century.
Geography.
The area of the Giant Mountains amounts to , within the Czech Republic and in Poland. While most of the Sudetes are middle-sized "Mittelgebirge" mountains, the Giant Mountains have a few characteristics of proper high mountains such as glacial cirques, small periglacial landforms and an elevation significantly above the tree line.
The main ridge of the mountains runs from east to west and forms the border between these two countries. Its highest peak, Sněžka/Śnieżka, is the highest peak of the Czech Republic. The Silesian northern part, in Poland, drops steeply to the Jelenia Góra valley, whereas the southern Czech part slopes gently to the Bohemian basin. In the north-easterly direction the Giant Mountains continue to Rudawy Janowickie, and in the south-east to Rýchory. The pass Novosvětský průsmyk () at Jakuszyce forms the western border with the Jizera Mountains.
The Bohemian ridge in the Czech Republic, running parallel to the main ridge, forms a second ridge (also called inner ridge). At Špindlerův Mlýn the river Elbe divides the Bohemian ridge.
The ridges are divided by the rivers Elbe, Mumlava, Bílé Labe, Velka Úpa, Malá Úpa and Jizera, which originates in the Jizera Mountains. The rivers on the Czech side often fall over steep edges into valleys formed by ice-age glaciers. The largest waterfalls on the southern side of the mountains are the Labský vodopád with a height of , Pančavský waterfall (, the highest waterfall in the Czech Republic), Horní Úpský waterfall, Dolní Úpský waterfall and Mumlava Waterfall (). The most important rivers on the Polish side are Kamienna, Łomnica and Bóbr. They also form impressive waterfalls, such as Kamieńczyk Falls (), Szklarki Falls () Wodospad na Łomnicy () or Podgórna Falls ().
The main ridge of the Giant Mountains forms the watershed between the North Sea and the Baltic. The rivers on the south side drain into the North Sea, those on the north side into the Baltic.
Flora.
The river valleys and lower layers form the sub-montane zone. The aboriginal hardwood and mixed forests are largely replaced with spruce monocultures. Only the river valleys offer remnants of hardwood forests.
The higher parts form the montane vegetation zone. Their natural coniferous forests have also in large parts been replaced by spruce monocultures, which are often heavily damaged due to air pollution and soil acidification. In many places, the forest is dead. This is due to the geographic location in the Black Triangle, a region around the German–Polish–Czech border triangle with many coal-burning power plants. The sulfur dioxide emissions, which are mainly responsible for acid rain, and the emission of many other concentrations have been greatly reduced since the beginning of the 1990s, but the forest die-back, which started in the 1970s and culminated in the late 1980s, could not be stopped entirely.
The clearing of forests in the surroundings of mountain huts created species-rich mountain meadows, which were maintained in alpine pasture farming. After the expulsion of Germans in 1945, this type of management largely came to a standstill and the mountain meadows were largely abandoned.
Above the timber line at about is the subalpine vegetation zone, which is marked by knee timber, mat-grass meadows and subarctic high moors. This habitat of special importance in the Krkonoše is a relic of Arctic tundra, which was typical in Central Europe during the ice age. At the same time, however, there was a connection to the alpine grasslands of the Alps, and plant species coexist here which are otherwise separated by several thousand kilometers, such as cloudberries. Some species evolved under the specific conditions of the Krkonoše unlike in the Alps or in the tundra, especially in Śnieżne Kotły. They are endemic, which means they only appear here.
The alpine vegetation zone, with large rocky deserts, can only be found on the highest peaks (Sněžka, Luční hora, Studniční hora, Kotel and Szrenica). Only grass, moss and lichen survive here.
Especially species-rich are glacial cirques such as the Obří důl, Labský důl and Důl Bílého Labe on the south side and the dramatic Śnieżne Kotły, Kocioł Łomniczki and the calderas of mountain lakes Wielki Staw and Mały Staw on the north side of the main ridge. The species-richest areas are called zahrádka ("garden"). There are about 15 in Krkonoše, for example Čertova zahrádka und Krakonošova zahrádka.
National parks and nature reserves.
On both the Czech and Polish side, large parts of the mountain range are protected as national parks and nature reserves.
The Czech Krkonoše National Park ("Krkonošský národní park", KRNAP) was created in 1963 as the second national park in Czechoslovakia, making it the oldest national park in the Czech Republic. Its area is approximately , including not only the subalpine zone but also large parts down to the foot of the mountains.
Poland's Karkonosze National Park ("Karkonoski Park Narodowy", KPN) was created in 1959 and covers an area of . It covers the highly sensitive higher parts of the mountain range from an altitude of about and some special nature reserves below this zone.
The strict conservation regulations of the Polish national park prohibit reforestation of damaged and dead forests. On the Czech side, however, large-scale reforestation projects are common.
Climate.
The climate of the Giant Mountains is marked by frequent weather changes. The winters are cold and snow depths above are not uncommon. Many parts of the mountains are covered with snow for five or six months. There is often dense fog at the higher altitudes. On average, mount Sněžka/Śnieżka is at least partly hidden in fog and/or clouds on 296 days, and has an average of about 0.2 °C, which is similar to places much further north, like Iceland. The main ridge is one of the most wind-exposed areas of Europe. On the northern side the Foehn wind is a frequent meteorological phenomenon. The annual precipitation ranges from about at the foot of the mountains up to on mount Sněžka/Śnieżka. The highest precipitation, at , is reached in the snow pits in the valleys at the foot of the main ridge.
History.
Since the Middle Ages, a state border has been established in the Giant Mountains, first between Poland and Bohemia, then between the Polish Duchy of Jawor and Bohemia, between Prussia and Austria, between Germany and Czechoslovakia, between Poland and Czechoslovakia, and then between Poland and the Czech Republic. Apart from minor adjustments, the boundary has survived unchanged to this day. It is disputed whether the Polish ruler Bolesław III Wrymouth crossed the Giant Mountains during his reprisal campaign against Bohemia in 1110. Until the establishment of Poland in the 10th-11th century the mountain range and its foothills were unpopulated, with deep, impenetrable forests. The Polish part was administratively part of the Wleń castellany. The first traces of human settlements probably appeared in the Duchy of Bohemia near two provincial paths between Bohemia and Poland in the 12th century. The town of Jelenia Góra and probably also Kowary existed nearby already in the 12th century, however, the oldest villages on the foothills on the Polish side were founded in the 13th century. Among the first native inhabitants were wood cutters, charcoal burners and hunters, and the first immigrants were gold prospectors.
The first wave of colonization by Czech settlers in the Bohemian part goes back to the 13th century, but only includes the foothills; the mountain ridges were still unpopulated. The second wave of colonization of the foothills in the late 13th century was mostly by German settlers ("Ostsiedlung"); they first colonized the Polish (Silesian) northern part, where farming conditions were better, and later the southern Bohemian part along the Elbe and Úpa rivers. Many agricultural settlements, markets and handcraft communities and cities were founded at that time, and they formed a base for the further colonization of the mountain range.
In 1281, Duke Bernard the Lightsome granted the western portion of the Giant Mountains to the Knights Hospitaller from Strzegom, and in 1292, Duke Bolko I the Strict granted the Grzbiet Lasocki in the east to the Krzeszów Abbey, whereas the remainder of the Polish part of the mountains remained a ducal possession, but there were some small noble possessions.
The first people who explored the inner parts of the Giant Mountains were treasure hunters and miners looking for gold, silver, ores and valuable stones, mainly on the Silesian side. In the 14th and 15th centuries foreigners who spoke a non-German language came to the mountains. They were called "Wallen" (see Walha), and their journeys to the "treasure" deposits were recorded in so-called "Wallenbüchern" (Wallen books). Mysterious orientation signs from these "Wallen" are visible to this day, especially on the northern side of the mountains.
In the 14th–16th centuries, miners, glassmakers, charcoal burners, woodcutters and shepherds settled in the mountains. The first glassworks reportedly was established in the Cicha Dolina ("Silent Valley") at the foot of the Grzybowiec mountain on the Polish side already in the 13th century, yet it certainly operated in the 14th–16th centuries. In the mid-14th century, there were also glassworks in Szklarska Poręba and Vysoké nad Jizerou. Later on, glassworkers from Bohemia also moved to the Silesian part of the mountains.
In 1511 German miners from the region around Meissen in Saxony started working in Obří Důl, directly below mount Sněžka/Śnieżka, and at the same time many other mines were opened in other central parts of the mountains, like Svatý Petr, now part of Špindlerův Mlýn.
In the 1530s, Christopher von Gendorf, a Carinthian aristocrat and royal senior captain of King Ferdinand I, appeared in the Krkonoše and obtained the entire dominion of Vrchlabí ("Hohenelbe", High Elbe). His enterprising spirit was crucial for the further development of the area. For the supplement of the miners he founded many smaller towns in higher parts of the mountains. Further down in the valleys iron work furnaces were built, and water wheels provided the energy required. Due to the intensive economic activity the first deforested enclaves on hillsides and on the peaks appeared during this period.
By order of Christopher von Gendorf, widespread timber cutting for the silver mine in Kutná Hora started in many places, which caused irreparable damage. These orders led to the third wave of colonization, which fully affected the mountain ridges. In 1566 he invited lumberjacks from Alpine countries to settle in his domain. These people from Tyrol, Carinthia and Styria changed the character of the mountains and shaped the cultural landscape significantly. Hundreds of families, especially from the Tyrol region, created another group of inhabitants who spoke a different German dialect and brought another domestic culture to the Krkonoše. On the mountain hillsides they founded new settlements, laid down the basis for later farming by breeding cattle and built wooden dams to retain the water.
In the 17th century Albrecht von Wallenstein acquired parts of the mountains, and the town of Vrchlabí served as a base for armament of his army. The Thirty Years' War of 1618–1648 sparked further exploration and settlement of the Giant Mountains, as the inhabitants, fleeing from the armies, took refuge in the mountains, sometimes founding new villages. Religious refugees from the Bohemian part fled to the Silesian part of the mountains, where they settled in Marysin (present-day district of Szklarska Poręba), Karpacz, Borowice, Michałowice (present-day district of Piechowice) and Jagniątków (present-day district of Jelenia Góra). Following the war, several cottages, called "bouda" (plural: "boudy") in Czech, "buda" (plural: "budy") in Polish and "Baude" (plural: "Bauden") in German, remained in the higher parts of the mountains, which were used during the cattle pasturage in the summer and sometimes even through the winter. Among the oldest are Luční bouda, Stara Śląska Buda at Łabski Szczyt, Pomezní bouda and Brádlerova bouda founded in the 1620s and 1630s. The entire mountain range became a densely populated region.
During the 17th century the mountain range on the Bohemian side was divided among new landowners, most of them Catholics and foreign to the region. These included the families of Harrach, Morzin and de Waggi. Disputes about the borders of each domain soon followed, but were settled between 1790 and 1810. Since the Treaty of Berlin (1742) Silesia had become part of the Kingdom of Prussia. The court decision of 1790, which set the border between the Bohemian dominions and the Silesian Schaffgotsch dominions (which family owned the Silesian part of the mountains, as well as large estates in the Jelenia Góra Valley north of them since the Middle Ages), defines the border between Bohemia and Silesia to this day.
At first Bad Warmbrunn (Cieplice Śląskie Zdrój, now a district of Jelenia Góra) with its hot springs became a popular bath and tourist centre on the northern side of the mountains. In 1822 Wilhelm, a brother of Prussian king Frederick William III, was the first prince of the Hohenzollern dynasty who took his summer residence in the Hirschberg (Jelenia Góra) valley, at Fischbach (today Karpniki) castle. In 1831 the king himself bought Erdmannsdorf Estate, which he had learned to appreciate when visiting his brother in Fischbach and the previous owner of Erdmannsdorf, field marshal August von Gneisenau. The valley became a princely hideaway, and in 1838 the king purchased nearby Schildau Castle (today Wojanów) for his daughter Louise, Princess of the Netherlands. Frederick William IV enlarged the Erdmannsdorf manor house. Many new parks were created and manors and palaces rebuilt according to the newest architectural styles.
In 1918 the Republic of Czechoslovakia was founded, and in the following years there was an influx of Czechs on the Bohemian side of the mountains. Usually these people worked for the government (in contrast to the German inhabitants they spoke both Czech and German, which was required), but some of them also worked in the tourism industry and managed mountain huts like Labská bouda and Vosecká bouda. Many of these mountain huts had previously been owned by aristocratic landowners, but were given to the Czech Hikers Club (KCT) after the Land Control Act. This influx was stopped when the Czechoslovakian side of the mountains was occupied by Germany in 1938, and many of these Czechs left the region or were expelled.
There was no fighting in the Giant Mountains during World War II, and the Germans occupied the mountain huts as military observation posts, communication posts and resorts for troops. The Germans operated at least 15 forced labour camps, located in Przesieka, Przełęcz Karkonoska, Piechowice, Kowary and Krzaczyna. The camps held prisoners of various nationalities, including Polish (often women and sometimes even children), Italian, French, Jewish, Czech, Belgian, Luxembourgish, Ukrainian and Russian. Belgian, French and Soviet prisoners of war, and possibly also Czech and Polish civilians, were used to build a road connecting the village of Borowice with Przełęcz Karkonoska, now known as "Droga Borowicka" ("Borowice Road"). Poor sanitary and feeding conditions resulted in a high mortality rate, and after a typhus epidemic broke out in 1942 the construction was halted.
After the defeat of Germany in the war, the mountains became again part Czechoslovakia and Poland, although with Soviet-installed communist regimes, which stayed in power until the 1980s. Almost the entire German population was expelled in accordance with the Potsdam Agreement. On the northern Silesian side, Poles, some of whom had been expelled from what was formerly eastern Poland resettled the area, while Czechs re-settled the southern Bohemian side of the mountain range. Today the population density of the area of the national park is two-thirds lower than before World War II, as it is a protected area, and many houses are only used at weekends, for recreational purposes. The population exchange also led to a decline of the cultural landscape. In large parts of the mountains the meadows ran to seed, settlements deracinated, hundreds of traditional houses and mountain huts decayed or turned into architecturally worthless objects and countless memorials, chapels, shrines, landmarks and springs were destroyed, because they were either German-related or ecclesiastic. New Polish names were issued by political decree in the Polish northern Giant Mountains.
In the 1970s and 1980s, Polish and Czech anti-communist activists met illegally in the Giant Mountains. Following the Fall of Communism, presidents of Czechoslovakia and Poland met at the Przełęcz Karkonoska in 1990.
Mountain huts and rock formations.
Typical for the Giant Mountains are its numerous mountain huts, which are called "bouda" in Czech and "Baude" in German. Both names are derived from the Middle High German word "Buode", which means booth or building. The Polish name is "schronisko". These were mostly named either for the location or for their constructor or occupant. The occupants, however, often changed after the expulsion, and several mountain huts especially on the now Polish side received new names. Entire colonies of mountain huts were called after the families who lived there. They are located in the higher parts or the ridge of the Krkonoše and were used by shepherds as wooden refuges in the summer. After 1800, some of the mountain huts became interesting for the first hikers, and towards the end of the 19th century many were converted into hostels. Later, these huts were often expanded to host a larger number of guests. Well-known historical mountain huts include Luční bouda, Martinova bouda and Vosecká bouda in the Czech Republic and Schronisko Strzecha Akademicka, Schronisko Samotnia and Schronisko na Hali Szrenickiej in Poland. In other places, the old mountain huts were replaced by newer buildings which were specially built for tourism purposes. Huts from the 20th century include Petrova bouda and the hut on the summit of mount Sněžka/Śnieżka.
There are also many impressive rock formations, such as Dívčí kameny-Śląskie Kamienie and Mužské kameny-Czeskie Kamienie, above on the main ridge, Harrachovy kameny on the Czech side, and Pielgrzymy and Słonecznik in Poland. These weathered blocks of granite form high towers which often resemble humans or animals, and reach heights up to . Similar formations can be found in other parts of the Sudetes.
Tourism.
The Giant Mountains form one of the most traditional tourist areas in Central Europe. As early as the 18th and 19th centuries, ascents of the Sněžka were common, for instance by Theodor Körner and Johann Wolfgang Goethe. Artists like Caspar David Friedrich and Carl Gustav Carus hiked through the mountains to find inspiration. Future President of the United States John Quincy Adams visited the Giant Mountains in 1800. At the end of the 19th century two mountain clubs were founded, the German "Riesengebirgsverein" (Giant Mountains Club) on the Silesian side and the Austrian "Riesengebirgsverein" on the Bohemian side. The touristic development of the Krkonoše was one of their goals, and this primarily meant the construction of hiking trails. In the following years they created a network of , with on the Silesian (main) and Bohemian ridge alone.
With the development of settlement and tourism, there have been cases of deaths from falls from heights, straying and freezing or from avalanches. The oldest surviving records of avalanches date back to the 17th century, whereas the oldest surviving monument to a mountain victim is located on Sněžka/Śnieżka and commemorates Jan Pieniążek-Odrowąż who died in 1828. Additionally, in 1968, there was an avalanche in the Biały Jar ravine, which killed 19 people and injured 5 others. A total of 1,100 people took part in the rescue operation.
As a result, the mountains became one of the most popular vacation areas in the German Empire. In the 19th century, the most numerous tourists were Germans and Poles. Polish-language guidebooks to the Giant Mountains have been published since the 18th century, and in the 18th-19th centuries there were also indigenous Polish mountain guides. In the 19th century, many Czech writers visited the mountains and climbed Sněžka, which they then described in their works. Mount Sněžka was a symbol of the Slavic origin of the Czechs and a source of inspiration in the Czech National Revival movement. During the Gründerzeit (19th century period of industrial and economic growth) many manufacturers from Berlin built numerous holiday villas on the Silesian side, many of which are preserved to this day and provide a special flair, as in Szklarska Poręba (formerly Schreiberhau). Direct rail links to Schreiberhau from Berlin, Breslau (Wrocław), Stettin (Szczecin) and Dresden, and later even Deutsche Luft Hansa air links via Hirschberg (Jelenia Góra), enabled a convenient and speedy arrival. On laying out Berlin's Victoria Park on the Kreuzberg between 1888 and 1894 the garden architect Hermann Mächtig designed its waterfall after the Zackelfall (Kamieńczyk Falls) and a gully after Wolfsschlucht (Vlčí rokle in Adršpach).
After World War II, ski resorts expanded with new lifts and slopes on both sides of the mountains, while the traditional mountain huts were neglected. Many were victims of fires, such as Labská bouda, "Riesenbaude", and "Prinz-Heinrich-Baude". Similarly many hiking trails, ski jumps and luge tracks fell into disrepair due to lack of care. In 1945, the Polish "Dolnośląskie Towarzystwo Turystyczno-Krajoznawcze" ("Lower Silesian Tourist and Sightseeing Society") was founded in Przesieka, which was merged with the Polish Tourist and Sightseeing Society the following year. The Polish Tourist and Sightseeing Society re-opened several mountain huts. The cross-border hiking trail on the main ridge called "Polish–Czech Friendship Trail" was closed in the 1980s for all but Polish and Czechoslovak citizens. The mountains are on the route of main Sudetes hiking trail, Główny Szlak Sudecki (440 km from Świeradów Zdrój to Prudnik), which follows the main ridge. Today, the Giant Mountains are a popular holiday destination in both summer and winter.
Winter sport.
The Giant Mountains are a traditional winter sports centre in Central Europe. The largest mountain resorts are located on the Czech side in Pec pod Sněžkou, Špindlerův Mlýn, Harrachov and Janské Lázně and on the Polish side in Szklarska Poręba, Karpacz and Kowary.
August Neidhardt von Gneisenau described a sledging of from Grenzbauden (Pomezní boudy) to Schmiedeberg (Kowary) already in 1817. Much earlier however heavy sledges already transported timber and hay whereas smaller and more manoeuvrable sledges, so called "Hitsch'n", were used to get faster from the ridges down into the valleys. Races with both types of sledges were a popular pastime among the locals and became an attraction for tourists. As sledging became more and more popular competitions were organized, the most popular and earliest during the late 19th century in Johannisbad (Janské Lázně). Around 1900, 3,930 sledges with long horn-shaped runners and 6,000 sport sledges were counted on both sides of the mountains.
Nordic skiing was introduced during the same time when in 1880 Dr. Krause from Hirschberg (Jelenia Gora) bought some Norwegian skis in Stettin (Szczecin). A pair of them, the first recorded skis in the Giant Mountains, ended up at the Peterbaude (Petrovka). The locals however didn't know their purpose, and it wasn't until Fridtjof Nansens "Paa ski over Grønland"