Learner's permit
Restricted license
A driver's permit, learner's permit, student permit, learner's license or provisional license is a restricted license that is given to a person who is learning to drive, but has not yet satisfied the prerequisite to obtain a driver's license. Having a learner's permit for a certain length of time is usually one of the requirements (along with driver's education and a road test) for applying for a full driver's license. To get a learner's permit, one must typically pass a written permit test, take a basic competency test in the vehicle, or both.
Australia.
Laws regarding learner's permits in Australia differ between each state. However, all states require a number of hours supervised driving to be undertaken and for the permit to be held for a set period. The age to get a Learner Permit is 16 in all states and territories except the ACT where it is 15 and 9 months. When a person is on their learner's permit, they have to log 50–120 hours depending on the state they are in and must obtain at least 5-20 night hours. They can be supervised or taught in their log book hours by any person/persons holding a full license. They must sign the log book for allocated hours. Learner drivers must display an 'L' plate on their car and have a 0% Blood alcohol content(BAC). Some states, do provide online applications to log these hours digitally.
Belgium.
A provisional learners license can be obtained after passing a theoretical exam less than three years prior. The minimum age for a learners permit is 17 years. The learner needs to be accompanied by a designated person with a valid driving license. The vehicle needs to bear a clearly visible, predesignated "learners" sign, sporting the letter "L".
If the learner goes to a driving school and follows 20 hours of lessons, he or she gets another learner's permit. With this, he or she can drive with maximum two people who have had their driver's license for at least 8 years, or the learner can drive by him/herself, but with some restrictions: the learner cannot drive between 10 p.m. and 6 a.m. on Fridays, Saturdays and Sundays; and the learner cannot drive on the evenings before a legal holiday, or the evening of the holiday itself.
Canada.
The minimum age to get a learner's licence in Canada varies from 14 in Alberta to 16 in all other provinces, with the minimum age being 15 in the territories.
Ontario.
A G1 Licence is issued to new drivers at the age of 16 after completing a written test. G1 license restrictions include the following:
Nova Scotia.
A beginner's permit (L) is issued to new drivers in Nova Scotia who are 16 years of age or older, after the person passes a written test. The L license restrictions include:
Alberta.
A Class 7 licence is issued to those who are 14 years of age or older and complete a knowledge test and eye exam. They are then put into a graduated driver licensing program with restrictions. These restrictions include:
Drivers with the Class 7 GDL licence must hold said license for one year before upgrading at which point a driver will be able take a road test if they are 16 years of age or older. If they pass, they become eligible to upgrade their licence to a Class 5 GDL. A Class 5 GDL licence carries some of the same restrictions as the Class 7 licence, but no longer requires a fully licensed Class 5 non-GDL driver in the passenger seat. Once the person becomes 18 and holds the Class 5 GDL license for at least 2 years, they can transition their licence to a full class 5 licence without having to take a road test again.
France.
In France, there is a graduated driver licensing program for people between the ages of 15 and 17 and half, for the B driving licence. There are some restrictions: for instance, a fully qualified driver must accompany the learner.
At age 18, the learner's permit can apply to a normal driving license, that it can pass more easily due to its previous experience; additionally, the length of the probation period (or "permis probatoire") is lowered to two years.
This graduated driver licensing is valid only within France; thus one cannot use it to cross borders.
For people over 18, there is a system similar to Graduated driver licensing, but the rules are slightly different: for instance there is no reduction from three to two years for the probation licence.
Furthermore, once receiving a full driving license for the first time, the following restrictions apply for two or three years, known as "permis probatoire":
Some training to road traffic safety might help to recover points.
Germany.
Germany does not issue a Learner's Permit and does not allow driving lessons other than with a fully licensed driving instructor. The minimum age for a Class B driving license for private cars is 18 years. However, obtaining a provisional driving license is possible for anyone aged 17 after receiving full training in a driving school and passing both the regular theory and on-the-road test. Until the young drivers reach the age of 18, they must be accompanied in the car by an experienced license holder. This regulation is called "BF17" (Begleitetes Fahren, accompanied driving), see Graduated driver licensing.
Hong Kong.
In Hong Kong, any person aged 18 or above can apply for a Learner's Driving License for private cars, light goods vehicle and motorcycles. For other types of vehicle, the age required is 21 and the applicant must have a valid private car or light goods vehicle driving license for 3 years. Unlike other jurisdictions, a learner must be supervised by an approved driving instructor instead of an ordinary fully licensed driver, or attending an approved driving school to learn to drive (except motorcycles, which learners can drive on their own, but motorcycle learners must pass a motorcycle course from an approved driving school before they can learn to drive on road). L-plate is also required when the learner is practicing.
India.
In India, the minimum age at which a provisional licence is valid is 18 (motorcycle/scooter). When driving under a provisional license, the learner must be accompanied by a driver who holds a full driving license. The supervisor has to be in view of the road and be in a position to control the vehicle. The provisional license is available only after passing the theory test. A full licence can be acquired only after passing the driving test. Once the learner has passed the theory test, they may take the practical driving test. Once the practical driving test has been taken and passed, a full driving licence will be automatically issued. While it is possible to take both tests immediately after each other, most learner drivers take a period between taking the theory and applying for a practical test to carry out driving lessons, either with their supervisor or a professional Driving school.
The vehicle being driven by the learner must also be fitted with L-plates on both the back and front of the vehicle. This tells other road users that the vehicle is being operated by a driver without their full license and that they may make mistakes easily and that the driver may not be fully competent yet. The L-plate consists of a white square plate with a large red L in the middle.
Ireland.
In Ireland, the learner may perform a theory test at the age of 16 which tests their knowledge of traffic situations and road signs. Upon passing this test the learner will receive a learner's permit which permits them to drive on the road accompanied by a full licensed driver who has had their license for more than two years. The only restrictions are that the learner driver cannot drive on motorways and must visibly display 'L' plates at all times. They must have held their learner's permit for 6 months before they can apply to perform road test to obtain their full license. This is known as the 'six-month rule'.
Italy.
In Italy, any person aged 14 or above can apply for a driving license ("patente di guida"). For B licences, obtainable from 18 years old, learner has to perform a theory test which tests their knowledge of traffic situations, road signs, insurance, sanctions, etc. Upon passing this test (the learner has two opportunities to pass it), the learner will receive a learner's permit ("foglio rosa", literally pink sheet, given its color) which allows them to drive on the road, if accompanied by a driver which had their license for more than ten years. There are no restrictions on the horsepower of the car (there will be during the first year of full license). The learner can drive on motorways and must display 'P' (standing for "Principiante", beginner) stickers, both in the front and in the back of the vehicle. After receiving the "foglio rosa", they have 6 months to perform a road test to obtain the full license; should the learner be unable to pass the road test in 6 months (two opportunities to pass it, spaced one month apart), they have to pay for another "foglio rosa."
New Zealand.
Learner licence.
In New Zealand, any eligible person 16 years or over can sit a learner licence test for a class 1 vehicle (car) or class 6 vehicle (motorbike), which is a theory multiple choice test on road rules. Once they have passed the learner licence test and received their licence in the mail, they may drive with an adult who has had their full licence of the same class for at least two years (a 'supervisor'). They may carry passengers with a supervisor in the car, but learner motorcyclists may not carry a pillion passenger. They must display L plates at all times when driving and may observe the posted speed limits.
Restricted licence.
After at least 6 months have passed, they must pass a practical test to receive their restricted license. On a restricted license, the learner may only drive between 5 am - 10pm, with no passengers other than their dependent children, spouse or someone for whom they are the primary caregiver; they may drive at any time when accompanied by a supervisor. Learners who sit the practical test in an automatic car are only legally allowed to drive an automatic while on the restricted licence. If a driver has successfully completed an approved defensive driving course, the wait time between passing the restricted licence practical test and taking the full licence practical test is reduced from 18 months to 12 months.
Norway.
In Norway, the learner may drive as long the learner is over 16 years of age, have passed a basic course in the rules of the road and first aid, and a person 25 or above who has had their driver's license for more than 5 years is present.
Singapore.
In Singapore, any persons aged 18 or above may obtain a provisional driving licence for a fee of S$25.00 after passing the Basic Theory Test. The provisional driving licence is valid for 6 months if the PDL licence is obtained before 1 December 2017. From 1 December 2017, the validity of a PDL licence is 2 years from the date of payment, with no change of cost. It permits the holder to drive on public roads (with a few exceptions) in the presence of a Certified Driving Instructor. A car driven by a learner must display an L-plate on the front and rear of the car. Passing the Final Theory Test enables a learner to apply for the Practical Driving Test and it is valid for 2 years. A valid provisional driving licence, passed FTT and a photo ID must be presented to be allowed to take the practical test. Should a learner's provisional driving licence expire before the date of their practical test, he or she will have to renew it at the same cost. Expired PDL are not accepted and taking the practical tests will be rejected.
A Qualified Driving Licence (QDL) is awarded to a person who has passed the practical test and made a one-time payment of S$50.00. Any person who has possessed a QDL for a period of less than a year is required to display a probation plate at the top right of their front and rear windscreens. The probation plate is made of a reflective material and consists of an orange triangle on a yellow background. Failure to do so may cause the offending driver to receive a fine for the first time and then subsequently revoked from driving.
See Driving licence in Singapore for detailed requirements of each class of licence.
South Africa.
A South African learner's license consists of three sections with the following criteria required:
There are primarily three codes to choose from:
The following documents will need to be presented when applying for a learners license:
In South Africa, any person who is of the minimum required age and holds a valid ID document may sit a learner's licence exam. The minimum required age varies by vehicle class and has the following minimum age restrictions:
The Learner's Licence exam is a 64 question multiple choice exam with questions spread over three sections: Rules of the road (28 questions); Signs, signals and road markings (28 questions), and vehicle controls (8 questions).
 The holder of a learner's licence is allowed to drive only when supervised by a licensed driver. If the category of vehicle being driven requires a professional driving permit, the licensed driver must also hold a professional driving permit. South African Learners must carry their Learner's Licence with them whenever they are driving a vehicle and have L plates on the rear window. The Learner's Licence is valid for 24 months.
Sweden.
In Sweden, the minimum age is 16 years old to get a basic car learner's permit; 17 years and six months are required for more advanced light vehicle combinations and up to 23 years for heavy vehicle combinations. Körkortslag 4kap 2§ A Swedish Learner's permit does not require a test, but only allows practising with a teacher. The teacher, including a private teacher such as a parent, must also have a permit. After a successful test, a real driver's license is given with a probationary period of two years. During this period, serious traffic violations that would lead to a suspension of the driver's license such as excessive speeding or gross reckless driving would instead revoke the driver's license. Restoration of the driver's license requires all tests to be retaken.
Thailand.
In Thailand, the minimum age is 18 years old to obtain a temporary driving licence for cars and motorcycles, valid for 2 years. For motorcycles 110 cc or smaller, the minimum age is 15. A temporary driving licence holder may drive without supervision, but cannot apply for an International Driving Permit.
After holding the temporary driving licence for at least 1 year, the licence holder may apply for a full 5-year driving licence for the same type of vehicle (2-year car => 5-year car or 2-year motorcycle to 5-year motorcycle). A medical certificate and a physical evaluation of visual and reaction time are required. This process is commonly called "two to five" meaning a conversion of a two-year to a five-year licence, as opposed to a renewal of a full licence, "five to five". In the event a temporary small motorcycle licence is set to expire while the holder is younger than 18, the new licence will be a two-year temporary licence.
If the temporary licence has expired for one year, a written examination is required. In case of three years or longer, a practical exam and a lecture are also required.
United Kingdom.
In the United Kingdom, the minimum age at which a provisional licence is valid is 17 (16 for driving a tractor, riding a moped or those receiving Disability Mobility Allowance). When driving under a provisional licence, the learner must be accompanied by a driver who has held a full driving licence for three years, and who is 21 or over. The supervisor has to be in view of the road, however the Road Traffic Act 1988 states that the supervisor does not have to be in the passenger seat, although the passenger in the front seat does have to be over the age of 15. A full licence can be acquired as soon as the provisional licence is received, unlike many other countries where applicants must wait a minimum of 6–12 months before getting a full license. The provisional licence is available without taking a test, although to get a full, unrestricted licence, the applicant must take a written 'Theory' test containing fifty multiple choice questions and a fourteen-clip hazard perception test, both of which are done on a computer at one of the many DVSA (Driving and Vehicle Standards Agency) Test centres. Once the learner has passed the theory test, they may take the practical driving test; however the practical driving test has to be passed within 2 years of completing the theory test, as the theory test certificate expires 2 years after receiving it. Once the practical driving test has been passed, a full driving licence will be automatically issued. One can take the practical test immediately after the theory test, but most learner drivers take some time between them to take driving lessons, usually with a professional driving instructor.
A vehicle being driven by a learner driver must be fitted with L-plates on both the back and front of the vehicle. These tell other road users that the vehicle is being operated by a driver without a full licence and that they may make mistakes easily and that the driver may not be fully competent yet. The L-plate consists of a white square plate (often tied to the vehicle or attached by magnets) with a large red L in the middle. (In Wales a D-plate (D for "dysgwr", Welsh for "learner") may be used instead of an L-plate.) If the vehicle is operated by multiple named drivers (as specified by the car insurance policy), then the L-plate should be removed while the car is being driven by a holder of a full licence. When the learner has passed the test, they can display a non-compulsory 'P' plate, which shows that they have just passed their test, and so may not have much experience on the road. The P plate has a white background, with a green 'P'.
In the UK, provisional licence holders are not allowed to drive on motorways unless accompanied by a driving instructor and in a car fitted with dual controls.
After gaining a full licence, the driver is subject to a probationary period: six or more penalty points accumulated within two years of passing the test would lead to a revocation of the licence, and both tests would need to be retaken.
In Northern Ireland for one year after the passing of a driving test, the driver is defined as a "restricted driver" who must not exceed and must display an "R-plate" consisting of an amber sans-serif R on a white background.
United States.
In the United States, all states and Washington D.C. have graduated driver's license programs for teenage drivers. Although the specific requirements vary by state, in a typical program a minor must first obtain a learner's permit and meet specific requirements to qualify for an intermediate driver's license, before ultimately becoming eligible for a full driver's license.
Learner's permits.
For a minor to receive a learner's permit, sometimes called an "instructional permit", states typically require that the minor have at least 6 practice hours before getting the permit and signed permission from a parent or guardian. In the state of New Hampshire, a permit is not given but the young driver may begin to drive with a parent or guardian, or an adult 25 years of age, at the age of 15 and a half.
Typically, a driver operating with a learner's permit must be accompanied by an adult licensed driver who is at least 21 years of age or older and in the passenger seat of the vehicle at all times.
After a legally defined period of driving supervised with a permit, usually between six and twelve months, and upon reaching the requisite age, the holder of a learner's permit can apply for a provisional license. Obtaining a provisional license allows certain restrictions to be lifted from the driver, such as the times that they are allowed to drive, and the number of people allowed in the car.
Some states require the permit holder to document specific hours of driving under the permit before qualifying for an intermediate license, such as fifty hours of practice.
Intermediate license.
An intermediate or provisional license allows the driver to drive a vehicle without supervision by a licensed driver. Driving is typically permitted during a limited range of mostly daylight hours, as well as to and from school, work and religious activities. Some states may require a road test before allowing a learner's permit holder to obtain an intermediate license.
To qualify for a provisional license the applicant must typically be at least the age of 16 and must have previously held a learner's permit for at least six months. These requirements vary by state. For example, in Florida the prior period for holding a learner's permit is twelve months.
In many states, the period of driving on a learner's permit is shortened if the applicant is above the age of eighteen. For example, in Oklahoma if a driver is 18 or older a learner's permit must only be held for one month before the driver qualifies for an intermediate license. Some states allow drivers over the age of twenty-one to bypass the entire graduated licensing process. For example, in Colorado, a driver over the age of twenty-one may apply for and pass the tests for a permit and a full driver's license on the same day and, if successful in passing the tests, may obtain a full driver's license as soon as the driver passes a scheduled driving test.
Intermediate drivers are normally restricted in their transportation of passengers, especially minor passengers, without supervision.
References.
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Driver's license
Document allowing one to drive a motorized vehicle
A driver's license, driving licence, or driving permit is a legal authorization, or the official document confirming such an authorization, for a specific individual to operate one or more types of motorized vehicles—such as motorcycles, cars, trucks, or buses—on a public road. Such licenses are often plastic and the size of a credit card.
In most international agreements, the wording "driving permit" is used, for instance in the Vienna Convention on Road Traffic. In American English, the terms "driver license" or "driver's license" are used. In Australian English, Canadian English and New Zealand English, the terms "driver licence" or "driver's licence" are used while in British English the term is "driving licence". In some countries the term "driving license" is used.
The laws relating to the licensing of drivers vary between jurisdictions. In some jurisdictions, a permit is issued after the recipient has passed a driving test, while in others a person acquires their permit or a learner's permit before beginning to drive. Different categories of permit often exist for different types of motor vehicles, particularly large trucks and passenger vehicles. The difficulty of the driving test varies considerably between jurisdictions, as do factors such as age and the required level of competence and practice.
History.
Karl Benz, inventor of the modern car, received a written "Genehmigung" (permit) from the Grand Ducal authorities to operate his car on public roads in 1888 after residents complained about the noise and smell of his "Motorwagen". Up until the start of the 20th century, European authorities issued similar permits to drive motor vehicles "ad hoc," if at all.
Mandatory licensing for drivers in the United Kingdom came into force on 1 January 1904 after the Motor Car Act 1903 received royal assent. Every car owner had to register their vehicle with their local government authority and be able to prove registration of their vehicle on request. The minimum qualifying age was set at 17. The "driving licence" gave its holder 'freedom of the road' with a maximum speed limit. Compulsory testing was introduced in 1934, with the passing of the Road Traffic Act.
Prussia, then a kingdom within the German Empire, introduced compulsory licensing on 29 September 1903. A test on mechanical aptitude had to be passed and the "Dampfkesselüberwachungsverein" ("steam boiler supervision association") was charged with conducting these tests. In 1910, the German imperial government mandated the licensing of drivers on a national scale, establishing a system of tests and driver's education requirements that was adopted in other countries.
Other countries in Europe also introduced driving tests during the twentieth century, the last of them being Belgium where, until as recently as 1977, it was possible to purchase and hold a permit without having to undergo a driving test.
As traffic-related fatalities soared in North America, public outcry provoked legislators to begin studying the French and German statutes as models. On 1 August 1910, North America's first licensing law for motor vehicles went into effect in the U.S. state of New York, though it initially applied only to professional chauffeurs. In July 1913, the state of New Jersey became the first to require "all" drivers to pass a mandatory examination before being licensed.
In 1909, the Convention with Respect to the International Circulation of Motor Vehicles recognized the need for qualifications, examination, and authorization for international driving.
The notion of an "International Driving Permit" was first mooted in an international convention held in Paris in 1926.
In 1949, the United Nations hosted the Geneva Convention on Road Traffic that standardised rules on roads, occupants, rules, signs, driver's permits and such. It specified that national "driving permits" should be pink and that an "International Driving Permit" for driving in a number of countries should have grey covers with white pages and that "The entire last page shall be drawn up in French".
In 1968, the Vienna Convention on Road Traffic, ratified in 1977 and further updated in 2011, further modernised these agreements.
Its main regulations about drivers permits are in Annex 6 (Domestic Driving Permit) and Annex 7 (International Driving Permit). The currently active version of those is in force in each contracting party no later than "29 March 2011" (Article 43).
Article 41 of the convention describes key requirements:
In 2018, ISO/IEC standard 18013 was published which established guidelines for the design format and data content of an ISO-compliant driving licence (IDL). The design approach is to establish a secure domestic driving permit (DDP) and accompanying booklet for international use, instead of the international driving permit (IDP) paper document. The main ideology is a minimum acceptable set of requirements with regards to content and layout of the data elements, with sufficient freedom afforded to the issuing authorities of driving licences to meet domestic needs. The ISO standard specifies requirements for a card that is aligned with the UN Conventions on Road Traffic. This standard however has no official mandate or recognition from the WP.1 of UNECE as a replacement for the current IDP standards as described in the 1949 and 1968 Conventions.
The specifications of the layout of the booklet is defined in Annex G of ISO/IEC 18013-1:2018. There are two options; a booklet with some personalisation or a booklet with no personalisation. The booklet shall be marginally larger than an ID-1 size card, with an insert pocket for storage of the card, and for convenient carrying of the booklet. The front cover should include the logo of the UN or the issuing country and the words "Translation of Driving Licence" and "Traduction du Permis de Conduire ".
Use for identification purposes.
Many countries, including Australia, New Zealand, Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United States, have no national identification cards. Since many people do have driving permits, they are often accepted as proof of identity. In some territories, non-drivers can apply for identification-only cards with a similar format to a driving permit. Most identity cards and driving permits are credit card size—the "ID-1" size and shape defined in ISO/IEC 7810.
Asia.
A Hong Kong Driving Licence carries the same number as the holder's ID card, but has no photograph. As such, it is not a legal document for proof of age for purchase of alcohol. Upon control, both must be presented. Plans to make the newly phased in Smart ID contain driver licensing information have been shelved.
Similarly, the Saudi Arabian government require all drivers to carry an ID card in addition to a driving permit and present them whenever requested. In Saudi Arabia using a permit instead is only permitted if the request is made for on-site inspection/identification purposes, especially at checkpoints. Expatriates may be requested to present their visas as well.
In India, Japan, South Korea, and Singapore, driving permit cards are widely used as identification.
Europe.
Many European countries require drivers to produce their permit on demand when driving. Some European countries require adults to carry proof of identity at all times, but a driving permit is not valid for identification in every European country.
In the United Kingdom, most drivers are not required to carry their "Driving Licence". A driver may be required by a constable or vehicle examiner to produce this, but may provide it at a specified police station within seven days; the police issue a form for this purpose.
In Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Spain and Sweden, the driving permit number is listed along with the bearer's national identification number. Banks and public authorities use the same number for customer databases, making the permit fully useful for identification purposes.
North America.
In Canada, Mexico, and the United States, driving permits are issued by the provinces or states, respectively, (or either country's territories), and do not look the same nationwide. They are also used as a "de facto" or government-issued identification document for the holder.
The American Association of Motor Vehicle Administrators provides a standard for the design of driving permits and identification cards issued by AAMVA member jurisdictions, which include all 50 US states, the District of Columbia, and Canadian territories and provinces. The newest card design standard released is the 2020 AAMVA DL/ID Card Design Standard (CDS). The AAMVA standard generally follows part 1 and part 2 of ISO/IEC 18013-1 (ISO compliant driving license). The ISO standard in turn specifies requirements for a card that is aligned with the UN Conventions on Road Traffic, namely the Geneva Convention on Road Traffic and the Vienna Convention on Road Traffic.
Most government issuers of driving permits also provide a government-issued identification card with similar attributes to those residents within their jurisdictions who do not have or maintain a valid driving permit, making it easier for them to do things such as open a bank account and perform any other activities that require official identification. Identification cards serve as government-issued photo ID but do not enable a person to operate a motor vehicle, a fact typically noted on the ID via the phrase 'Not a driver's licence' or similar wording. This type of photo ID is referred to as a Photo Card in some jurisdictions (for example, the Ontario Photo Card).
In Canada and the United States, the abbreviation DLN is commonly used for a driver's license number. Five states in the northern United States (Michigan, Minnesota, New York, Vermont and Washington) and two provinces in Canada (British Columbia and Manitoba) also offer an "enhanced driver's license" (EDL), which is a driving permit that has an embedded RFID chip and is accepted at the federal level in lieu of a passport for land and sea (but not air) border crossings between the US and Canada. The EDL program was also previously offered in Ontario and Quebec, but is no longer offered there.
In the Dominican Republic, the driving permit number is the same as the citizen's ID number.
South America.
In Venezuela, the driving permit number is the same as the citizen's ID number.
Permits for different categories of vehicles.
In the United States, New Zealand, Australia, the UK, Ireland and sometimes Canada, people who drive commercially are required to have permits. The cost of taking the tests and examinations usually means that an employer will subsidize their drivers.
Africa.
Egypt.
Egyptian citizens are entitled to a driver's licence once they have reached the age of 18. To obtain their licences, applicants must pass a driving test as well as several computer test. To pass, all a person had to do was drive six metres forward and then reverse six metres. The test was updated to make it more difficult; now the applicant has to get 8 out of 10 answers correct in a computer test, then pass a forward and reverse S-track test in addition to an assessment of parking skills.
Ghana.
Driver's licensing in Ghana is conducted by the nation's Driver and Vehicle Licensing Authority. The legal driving age is 18.
Kenya.
The legal driving age is 18 years old. The permit must include:
Morocco.
The legal driving age of Moroccan citizens is 21.
Nigeria.
In Nigeria, the minimum age to qualify for a drivers licence is 18. The applicant would first attend training at an accredited driving school. Then, the driving school will present the applicant to a Vehicle Inspection Officer (VIO) for a driving test. Upon passing the driving test the applicant would obtain a certificate of proficiency from the VIO. The applicant then completes a drivers license application form at the Drivers Licence Centre (DLC) or downloads the form online. Afterwards he pays a licence fee online or at the Bank and presents his application form to the Board of Internal Revenue (BIR) Officer and VIO at the DLC for endorsement. After all these procedures he goes to the Federal Road Safety Corps (FRSC) Officer at the DLC for biometric data capture. He is given a temporary drivers licence which is valid for 60 days. He picks up the original drivers licence at the BIR Office after 60 days.
South Africa.
The minimum driving age in South Africa is 17, when drivers may drive with an adult who holds a valid driving licence, after passing a learner's theory test. At 18, a driving licence can be obtained after passing the road test. Small motorcycles may be driven from the age of 16. To obtain a permit, applicants must pass a written or computer-based test to obtain a learner's licence, and then pass a road test to obtain the driving license. Categories for permits include CODE B (normal vehicles), CODE C1 (LDV), CODE EC (heavy trucks), CODE A (motorcycle).
The learners licence theory test will contain three sets of questions with multiple answer options; test-takers will have to select the correct answer. Some Driving Licence Test Centres use computers for the test, whereas others require test-takers to complete the test using a test paper and pen.
Tanzania.
Driving licences are issued by the Tanzania Revenue Authority. The legal driving age for motorcycles is 16 and for other motor vehicles is 18.
Zimbabwe.
Zimbabwean drivers licences are issued by the Vehicle Inspection Department (VID) which is an arm of the government under the Ministry of Transport & Infrastructural Development. Drivers can be licensed for class 4 vehicles at the age of sixteen and eighteen for class 2 vehicles. Public transport vehicles are in class 1 and the minimum age is twenty five. A theory based learners licence which has 25 questions is the first step. The questions for this test include diagrams, road rules and road signs and has to be answered in under eight minutes. After passing the test, the candidate gets a provisional learners license which enables the candidate to drive under supervision from a driving instructor or anyone with a full driving licence.
After the theory test learner drivers have to start practical driving lessons covering key driving skills. To qualify for a driving test one must have completed thirty lessons.
Skills tested in the driving test include:
Asia.
Hong Kong.
Minimum age for holding a driving permit is 18 for private cars, light goods vehicle, motorcycles and motortricycles. For commercial vehicles the age is 21.
Drivers are legally obliged to carry a valid driving licence whilst driving and this must be produced if required to do so by a police officer.
People older than 70 have to undergo strict medical tests in order to obtain a permit that has limited validity and requires renewal after a certain period.
India.
The minimum driving age in India is 16 to drive any kind of gearless motorcycle like scooters and mopeds, and 18 for cars, three wheelers (with automatic or manual transmissions) and motorcycles with gear like motorcycles or scooters with manual transmissions.
Unlike certain countries which issue driving licenses based on the engine capacity of vehicles, transmission is the only criteria for issuing licenses in India.
Every state and union territory have Regional Transport Offices (RTO/RTA) which issue their own driving licenses to people living in their jurisdictions. Drivers are legally obliged to carry a valid driving license in India while operating a vehicle, and it must be produced if required to do so by a police officer.
People applying for a driving license for the first time, or adding a class of vehicle in their existing license have to apply for a learner's license (LL) first, which is valid for six months. This legally certifies LL holders as valid drivers as long as they drive only for training and have a licensed driver accompanying them. Driving a vehicle on public roads without a licensed driver or a trainer is an offence which attracts fines.
After the training, people apply for a permanent driving license test at their nearest RTOs. This can be done anytime before the expiry of the LL. A person is given a total of three attempts in these six months, and if one fails the third attempt, they have to go through the application of a new license all over again.
In India, people aged 50 or more, have to undergo strict medical tests in order to obtain a permit that has limited validity and requires renewal every five years. A Commercial Driving License is valid for 3 years and then requires to be renewed.
India introduced the universal smart card driving license in October


Three seconds rule
Rule in basketball
The three seconds rule (also referred to as the three-second rule or three in the key, often termed as lane violation) requires that in basketball, a player shall not remain in their opponent’s foul lane for more than three consecutive seconds while that player's team is in control of a live ball in the frontcourt and the game clock is running. The countdown starts when one foot enters the restricted area and resets when both feet leave the area.
The three-second rule was introduced in 1936 and was expressed as such: no offensive player, with or without the ball, could remain in the key, for three seconds or more.
The three-second rule came about in part following a game at Madison Square Garden between the University of Kentucky (UK) and New York University (NYU) in 1935, won by NYU 23–22. The University of Kentucky team did not take their own referee, a common practice at the time, despite advice to the UK coach Adolph Rupp from Notre Dame coach George Keogan, who had lost to NYU the week prior and who warned Rupp of the discrepancies in officiating between the Midwest and the East. UK was unable to run its normal offense (which consisted of using screens) without being called for a foul. NYU's Irving Terjesen and Irwin Klein combined to guard one of UK's major players, Leroy Edwards, keeping him to a mere 6 points (the lowest output of his career). The "New York Post" reacted with alarm: "The score says that NYU is the best college basketball team in the country and that the East still is supreme. But if Frank Lane, the referee from the Midwest, had worked the game, it's safe to assume big Leroy Edwards would have been given a fantastic number of foul shots. Minor mayhem was committed on the person of Edwards by Terjesen and Klein. Something will have to be done or the game will become entirely too rough."
Within the FIBA rules, an allowance is made for players who either receive the ball prior to being within the key for 3 seconds, or for those players who are leaving (or attempting to leave) the keyway.
References.
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Rules of basketball
Rules governing the game of basketball
The rules of basketball are the rules and regulations that govern the play, officiating, equipment and procedures of basketball. While many of the basic rules are uniform throughout the world, variations do exist. Most leagues or governing bodies in North America, the most important of which are the National Basketball Association and NCAA, formulate their own rules. In addition, the Technical Commission of the International Basketball Federation (FIBA) determines rules for international play; most leagues outside North America use the complete FIBA ruleset.
Original rules.
On 15 January 1892, James Naismith published his rules for the game of "Basket Ball" that he invented: The original game played under these rules was quite different from the one played today as there was no dribbling, dunking, three-pointers, or shot clock, and goal tending was legal.
Naismith's original 1892 manuscript of the rules of basketball, one of the most expensive manuscripts in existence, is publicly displayed at Allen Fieldhouse on the campus of the University of Kansas. Naismith was the first coach in the history of Kansas Jayhawks men's basketball.
Players, substitutes, teams and teammates.
Naismith's original rules did not specify how many players were to be on the court. In 1900, five players became standard, and players that were substituted were not allowed to re-enter the game. Players were allowed to re-enter a game once from 1921, and twice from 1934; such restrictions on substitutions were abolished in 1945 when substitutions became unlimited. Coaching was originally prohibited during the game, but from 1949, coaches were allowed to address players during a time-out.
Originally a player was disqualified on his second foul. This limit became four fouls in 1911 and five fouls in 1945, still the case in most forms of basketball where the normal length of the game (before any overtime periods) is 40 minutes. When the normal length is 48 minutes (this is the case with the National Basketball Association in the United States and Canada) a player is accordingly disqualified on his sixth foul.
Shot clock and time limits.
The first time restriction on possession of the ball was introduced in 1933, where teams were required to advance the ball over the center line within ten seconds of gaining possession. This rule remained until 2000, when FIBA reduced the requirement to eight seconds, the NBA following suit in 2001. The NCAA retains the 10-second rule for men's play, and adopted this rule for women's play starting with the 2013–14 season. U.S. high schools, whose rules are drafted by NFHS, also use the 10-second rule for both sexes.
While a team is inbounding the basketball, they have 5 seconds to do so. This rule is intact no matter where a team is inbounding the ball, whether it is under the net or from the sidelines. If they fail to release the basketball after 5 seconds, it will be counted as a turnover and possession will go to the other team.
In 1936 the three-second rule was introduced. This rule prohibits offensive players from remaining near their opponents' basket for longer than three seconds (the precise "restricted area" is also known as the "lane" or the "key"). A game central to this rule's introduction was that between the University of Kentucky and New York University. Kentucky coach Adolph Rupp did not take one of his referees with him, despite being warned of discrepancies in officiating between the Midwest and East by Notre Dame coach George Keogan, and the game became especially rough. Because of this game and others, Kentucky All-American center Leroy Edwards is generally recognized as the player responsible for the three-second rule.
While the rule was originally adopted to reduce roughness in the area between big men, it is now considered to prevent tall offensive players from gaining an advantage by waiting close to the basket. When the NBA started to allow zone defense in 2001, a three-second rule for defensive players was also introduced.
The shot clock was first introduced by the NBA in 1954, to increase the speed of play. Teams were then required to attempt a shot within 24 seconds of gaining possession, and the shot clock would be reset when the ball touched the basket's rim or the backboard, or the opponents gained possession. FIBA adopted a 30-second shot clock two years later, resetting the clock when a shot was attempted. Women's basketball adopted a 30-second clock in 1971. The NCAA adopted a 45-second shot clock for men while continuing with the 30-second clock for women in 1985. The men's shot clock was then reduced to 35 seconds in 1993, and further reduced to 30 seconds in 2015. FIBA reduced the shot clock to 24 seconds in 2000, and changed the clock's resetting to when the ball touched the rim of the basket. Originally, a missed shot where the shot clock expired while the ball is in the air constituted a violation. In 2003 the rule was changed so that the ball remains live in this situation, as long as it touched the rim. If the ball touches the rim and slightly bounces over the basketball hoop it will be called as a loose ball.
Fouls, free throws and violations.
Dribbling was not part of the original game, but was introduced in 1901. At the time, a player could only bounce the ball once, and could not shoot after he had dribbled. The definition of dribbling became the "continuous passage of the ball" in 1909, allowing more than one bounce, and a player who had dribbled was then allowed to shoot.
Running with the ball ceased to be considered a foul in 1922, and became a violation, meaning that the only penalty was loss of possession. Striking the ball with the fist has also become a violation. From 1931, if a closely guarded player withheld the ball from play for five seconds, play was stopped and resumed with a jump ball; such a situation has since become a violation by the ball-carrier. Goaltending became a violation in 1944, and offensive goaltending in 1958.
Free throws were introduced shortly after basketball was invented. In 1895, the free throw line was officially placed from the backboard, prior to which most gymnasiums placed one from the backboard. From 1924, players that received a foul were required to shoot their own free throws. One free throw shot is awarded to a player who was fouled while making a successful field goal attempt. If the field goal attempt is unsuccessful, two free throw shots are awarded (three if the player was attempting a three-point field goal). If an offensive player is fouled while not in the act of shooting, or if a player is fouled in a loose-ball situation, the penalty varies by level of play and the number of fouls accumulated by the opposing team in a given period.
A player has ten seconds to attempt a free throw. If the player does not attempt a free throw within ten seconds of receiving the ball, the free throw attempt is lost, and a free throw violation is called. A free throw violation also occurs if a free throw misses the backboard, rim, and basket. If a free throw violation is assessed on the last free throw awarded to a player in a given situation, possession automatically reverts to the opposing team.
A charge is physical contact between an offensive player and a defensive player. In order to draw an offensive charge the defensive player must establish legal guarding positioning in the path of the offensive player. If contact is made, the officials would issue an offensive charge. No points will be allowed and the ball is turned over. The defensive player may not draw an offensive charge in the "restricted zone" (see below for more details).
Blocking is physical contact between the offensive player and the defensive player. Blocking fouls are issued when a defensive player interferes with the path of the offensive player in the shooting motion. Blocking fouls are easily called when the defensive player is standing in the "restricted zone".
Restricted zone: In 1997, the NBA introduced an arc of a radius around the basket, in which an offensive foul for charging could not be assessed. This was to prevent defensive players from attempting to draw an offensive foul on their opponents by standing underneath the basket. FIBA adopted this arc with a radius in 2010.
If a foul by a player is interpreted as unnecessary, a flagrant 1 foul will be assessed. The opposing team will then be rewarded with 2 free throws and possession of the ball. If a foul by a player is interpreted as both unnecessary and excessive, a flagrant 2 foul will be assessed. The opposing team will then be rewarded with two free throws and possession of the ball. With a flagrant 2 foul, the player that committed the foul will not only be automatically ejected, but fined at least $2,000 as well
A technical foul can given to a team in many different ways. A technical foul can be given when a team calls more time outs than they have, delaying the game, have too many players on the court, verbally disrespect or curse, or hang on the rim. With a technical foul, the opposing team will be rewarded with a free throw, and possession of the ball as well. If a player, or coach gets two technical fouls in one game, it will result in an automatic ejection.
Equipment.
Initially, basketball was played with an "ordinary association football (soccer ball), although the sport now uses its own ball. The goal is placed above the court. Originally a basket was used (thus "basket-ball"), so the ball had to be retrieved after each made shot. Today a hoop with an open-bottom hanging net is used instead.
In the Men's leagues, such as the NBA, men's college basketball, and high school, they use a size seven basketball. This is a ball with a 29.5 inch circumference weighing 22 oz.
In the Women's basketball leagues, such as the WNBA, women's college basketball, and high school, they use a size 6 ball. This ball is slightly smaller than the size 7 ball, having a 28.5 inch circumference, and weighing 20 oz.
Officiating and procedures.
Originally, there was one umpire to judge fouls and one referee to judge the ball; the tradition of calling one official the "referee" and the other one or two the "umpires" has remained (the NBA, however, uses different terminology, referring to the lead official as "crew chief" and the others as "referees"). Today, both classes of officials have equal rights to control all aspects of the game. The NBA added a third official in 1988, and FIBA did so afterward, using it for the first time in international competition in 2006. The use of video evidence to inform referee's decisions has always been banned, except in the case of determining whether or not the last shot of a period was attempted before time expired. This exception was introduced by the NBA in 2002 and adopted by FIBA in 2006. The NCAA, however, has permitted instant replay for timing, the value of a field goal (two or three points), shot clock violations, and for purposes of disqualifying players because of unsportsmanlike conduct. The NBA changed its rules starting in 2007 to allow officials the ability to view instant replay with plays involving flagrant fouls, similar to the NCAA. In Italy's Serie A, an American football-style coach's challenge is permitted to challenge (at the next dead ball) an official's call on any situation similar to the NCAA.
The center jump ball that was used to restart a game after every successful field goal was eliminated in 1938, in favor of the ball being given to the non-scoring team from behind the end line where the goal was scored, in order to make play more continuous. The jump ball was still used to start the game and every period, and to restart the game after a held ball. However, the NBA stopped using the jump ball to start the second through fourth quarters in 1975, instead using a quarter-possession system where the loser of the jump ball takes the ball from the other end to start the second and third periods, while the winner of that jump ball takes the ball to start the fourth period from the other end of the court.
In 1976, the NBA introduced a rule to allow teams to advance the ball to the center line following any legal time-out in the final two minutes of the game. FIBA followed suit in 2006.
In 1981, the NCAA adopted the alternating possession system for all jump ball situations except the beginning of the game, and in 2003, FIBA adopted a similar rule, except for the start of the third period and overtime. In 2004, the rule was changed in FIBA that the arrow applies for all situations after the opening tap.
International rules of basketball.
The most recent international rules of basketball were approved 2 February 2014 by FIBA and became effective 1 October of that year.
There are eight rules encompassing 50 articles, covering equipment and facilities, regulations regarding teams, players, captains and coaches, playing regulations, violations, fouls and their penalties, special situations, and the officials and table officials. The rules also cover officials' signals, the scoresheet, protest procedure, classification of teams and television timeouts.
References.
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Further reading.
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Trent Tucker Rule
Rule in basketball
The Trent Tucker Rule is a basketball rule that disallows any regular shot to be taken on the court if the ball is put into play with under 0.3 seconds left in game or shot clock. The rule was adopted in the 1990–91 NBA season and named after New York Knicks player Trent Tucker, and officially adopted in FIBA play starting in 2010. When the WNBA was established in 1997, this rule was adopted too.
Rule.
Named after New York Knicks player Trent Tucker, the Trent Tucker Rule is a basketball rule that disallows any regular shot to be taken on the court if the ball is put into play with under 0.3 seconds left in game or shot clock. The Official Rules of the National Basketball Association state
NO LESS THAN :00.3 must expire on the game clock and shot clock when a ball is thrown inbounds and then hit instantly out-of-bounds. If under :00.3 expires in such a situation, the timer will be instructed to deduct AT LEAST :00.3 from the game clock and shot clock. If, in the judgment of the official, the play took longer than :00.3, he will instruct the timer to deduct more time. If under :00.3 remain on the game clock when this situation occurs, the period is over. If under 0.3 remain on the shot clock when this situation occurs, a shot clock violation is called.
The game clock and shot clock must show at least .3 in order for a player to secure possession of the ball on a rebound or throw-in to attempt a field goal. Instant replay shall be utilized if the basket is successful on this type of play and the game clock runs to 0.0 or the shot clock expires on a made basket and the officials are not reasonably certain that the ball was released prior to the expiration of the shot clock. The only type of field goal which may be scored if the game clock and/or shot clock are at 0.2 or 0.1 is a "tip-in" or "high lob".
Article 16.2.5 of the 2010 FIBA Official Rules states:
The game clock must indicate 0.3 (three tenths of a second) or more for a player to gain control of the ball on a throw-in or on a rebound after the last or only free throw in order to attempt a shot for a field goal. If the game clock indicates 0.2 or 0.1 the only type of a valid field goal made is by tapping or directly dunking the ball.
Incident.
The rule was born out of a game between the Knicks and the Chicago Bulls on January 15, 1990, at Madison Square Garden. The game was tied at 106 with one-tenth of a second left in regulation and the Knicks in possession. During a time-out called by the Knicks, both teams prepared for what was seen as the only possible way the Knicks could win in regulation: an alley oop tap-in from out of bounds by Patrick Ewing.
When play resumed, the Knicks player throwing the ball in, Mark Jackson, saw the alley-oop play get broken up. He proceeded to throw the ball inbounds to Tucker, who was the only player open. Tucker then turned around and hit a three-point jump shot before the buzzer, giving the Knicks the win: 109–106. Replays showed that the clock was not started until Tucker's shot was already midair and coming down towards the basket.
Protest.
The Bulls, led by first-year head coach Phil Jackson, later filed an official protest with the NBA about the play. By their estimate, the play took closer to 0.4 seconds. However, timekeeper Bob Billings and referee Ronnie Nunn, who were working that game, claimed everything went perfectly fine. The protest was disallowed.
Vice president of operations Rod Thorn was the only NBA executive to side with the Bulls (incidentally, Thorn was once the general manager of the Bulls). Thorn argued that it was physically impossible for a player to receive an inbounds pass and release it for a shot in less than a tenth of a second. He pointed out that tests in European basketball leagues, which had counted down the final minute of a period in tenths of seconds for many years (the NBA had just adopted it for 1989–90), proved that a catch-and-shoot takes at least three-tenths of a second.
Rule implementation.
NBA.
Although the Bulls lost the protest, the dispute became the backbone for the time requirements of the new rule. Teams with the possession of the ball with less than 00.3 left also have the option of trying a Hail Mary shot like the one that the Knicks were going to try before Tucker's shot, or to simply let the clock run to zero.
At the start of the 1989–90 season, the NBA had adopted a rule from FIBA making game clocks register tenths of seconds in the final minute of a period. Madison Square Garden, like the majority of NBA venues at the time, used an American Sign & Indicator scoreboard and timing system. During the first weeks of the season, it was evident the manufacturer's scoreboards would have frequent calibration flaws with tenths in the final minute. In some cases, the clock would be very inconsistent in timing tenths, while in other cases after calibration, the clock would actually "freeze" at one-tenth of a second before the "00.0" appeared, triggering the final horn.
Further changes in 1991 were designed to eliminate the problem with the AS&I units with a new directive for 1991–92 to add shot clocks with duplicate game time. At that point, most venues purchased new scoreboards from White Way Sign, Fair-Play, or Daktronics, because of the calibration consistency of the new units.
Very few NBA teams purchased the AS&I (or later, Trans-Lux) units when the new rule was adopted in 1991. The last NBA arena to use the manufacturer's unit was the Charlotte Coliseum, which installed a successor Trans-Lux unit for the 2001–02 season (the Hornets' last in Charlotte, but the arena closed after the 2004–05 season, the Bobcats' inaugural season, after its replacement, the Spectrum Center, opened (with a new Daktronics unit). By 2011, all NBA venues used either a Daktronics or OES system.
In 2002, the NBA instituted new rules regarding the end of period indicators. An LED light strip on the backboard and the scorer's table replaced the traditional electric red light behind the backboard, and a shot clock visible to all three viewable sides was mandated.
Venues using Daktronics units installed new four-sided shot clocks with red indicator lights on the sides of the shot time to further assist the electric light. By 2004, shot clocks were available with a perimeter light strip around the clock that also lit up when the clock read "00.0". Today, see-through shot clock units have light strips that surround the shot clock to turn on upon the clock registering 0.0.
In recent years, timekeeping rules have changed with the implementation of a system where the blowing of an official's whistle stops the clock at the instant of the whistle, along with a rule change where the on-court official (not an official at the scorer's table) starts the clock by pressing a button attached to the official's belt.
On December 20, 2006, New York Knicks forward David Lee scored a game-winning basket with only 0.1 left on the clock. The shot counted because Lee deflected in the inbounds pass into the basket (just like what was foreseen by the Knicks and Bulls in their game years before). This was the first occurrence of a team winning an NBA game with 0.1 left since Trent Tucker, and coincidentally from the same team: the New York Knicks. Furthermore, this took place after the NBA adopted the Precision Time Systems unit, where officials, not the timer, start the clock. Michael Jordan, Charles Oakley and Patrick Ewing, all of whom participated in the original Trent Tucker game, were in attendance at the David Lee game in Madison Square Garden.
The NBA in 2016 adopted an official timekeeper sponsorship with Tissot, which had the aim of unifying all game timekeeping tasks, with the official clock connected to the scoreboard system and shot clocks all being manufactured by the Swiss timekeeper. All NBA venues since now utilize identical Tissot timekeeping systems.
Other organizations.
When the WNBA was established in 1997, this rule was adopted.
In 2004, FIBA adopted a rule where the system would be mandatory in international competitions. In 2010, FIBA instituted Article 16.2.5 to officially institute the Trent Tucker Rule in international basketball.
Another example of this rule being invoked occurred at the end of a game between the University of South Florida and Florida Gulf Coast University on December 17, 2013, when FGCU appeared to tie the game at 68 on a Chase Fieler shot off a full-court inbounds pass with 0.3 seconds remaining in double overtime. Replays showed that Fieler got the shot off before the 0.3 expired, but the equivalent NCAA rule (Rule 5, Section 18, Article 1) was invoked to waive the Fieler basket, giving USF the win. However, under the FIBA and NBA interpretation, the restrictions only apply to 0.2 or 0.1, as the ball was put in play at 0.3.
3x3 basketball also has this rule.
References.
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American Basketball Association
Professional basketball league (1967–1976)
The American Basketball Association (ABA) was a major professional basketball major league that operated for nine seasons from 1967 to 1976. The upstart ABA operated in direct competition with the more established National Basketball Association throughout its existence; the second of two leagues established in the 1960s after the American Basketball League, the ABA was the most successful rival to the NBA.
The league, as first thought of by Dennis Murphy, started with eleven teams with the Indiana Pacers, Kentucky Colonels, Minnesota Muskies, New Jersey Americans, Pittsburgh Pipers in the Eastern Division and the Anaheim Amigos, Dallas Chaparrals, Denver Rockets, Houston Mavericks, New Orleans Buccaneers, Oakland Oaks in the Western Division. George Mikan served as the first league commissioner and came up with the idea for the three-point shot to go along with a 30-second shot-clock; echoing the NHL, the league named a Most Valuable Player for the entire postseason rather than for just the Finals. Select investors believed they could play their way into getting an NBA franchise by way of merger while Mikan did not initially want to get into a bidding war with the NBA for select players.
While the first years of the ABA saw uneven team management (the first two champions immediately relocated after winning the championship), the offense-oriented league managed to attract select talent from players that were either ignored by the NBA due to perceived talent issues or because they were not eligible to play in the league. Stars that arose from these circumstances included Connie Hawkins, Roger Brown, and Doug Moe, who each had been blackballed from the NBA due to unfounded allegations of point-shaving, Spencer Haywood, who entered the league as a "hardship exemption" after wanting to turn pro after being a sophomore in college, and Larry Brown, who was thought to be too small to play in the NBA. The league never had a consistent national television contract but attracted loyal followings in select cities, most notably in Indianapolis, Denver, San Antonio, Uniondale, and Kentucky. The Pacers would win the most championships in league history, winning three with stars such as Mel Daniels, the first player with multiple MVP awards. The NBA engaged in talks for a merger as early as 1970, but an antitrust lawsuit filed by the NBA Players Association curtailed the plans for several years. The league went after select NBA stars such as Rick Barry and Billy Cunningham to go along with luring players with a select plan of payment by annuity to go along with luring respected NBA referees to the league. In the later years of the league, other stars would arise such as Dan Issel, Artis Gilmore, George Gervin, and Julius Erving. By 1976, the league was down to nine teams, with only six surviving long enough to be involved with merger talks. The ABA merged into the National Basketball Association (NBA) in 1976, resulting in four ABA teams (Pacers, Nuggets, Spurs, Nets) joining the NBA. The final game was played on May 13, 1976, as the New York Nets defeated the Denver Nuggets for the final ABA championship. In 1979, adopting the practice of the ABA, the NBA introduced the 3-point shot.
History.
In 1965, Dennis Murphy, a marketing executive and sports fan, had come up with wanting to make a football team in Anaheim, California, which led to a group sponsoring a doubleheader game in the city with the American Football League. But the war that the AFL had with the National Football League soon would come to a close with a merger. Not wanting to waste the effort of people who had some money and liked sports, Murphy came up with the idea of making a second basketball league, as it happened to be his favorite sport.
Murphy soon talked with Bill Sharman, who had coached in the last "second basketball league" with the American Basketball League (1961-62) and they came up with the name of the league. While Sharman could not get involved with the ABA at the time due to coaching matters, he suggested talking to George Mikan along with suggesting the use of the three-point play (an ABL staple). The eventual meeting with Mikan led to interest along with the mention of other names interested in business.
Eventually, an array of investors were lined up in several cities: Art Kim in Anaheim, Arthur J. Brown in New York, the DeVoe family in Indiana, Gabe Rubin in Pittsburgh, T. C. Morrow in Houston, Joe Gregory in Kentucky, Ken Davidson in Oakland, Charlie Smither in New Orleans, Robert Folsom in Dallas, and Larry Shields in Minnesota. Mikan agreed to be commissioner and spearheaded the use of a red-white-blue ball to go along with the three point play. The first organizational meeting of the ABA took place on December 20, 1966, at the Beverly Hills Hilton.
The ABA was conceived at a time stretching from 1960 through the mid-1970s when numerous upstart leagues were challenging, with varying degrees of success, the established major professional sports leagues in the United States. Basketball was seen as particularly vulnerable to a challenge; its major league, the National Basketball Association, was the youngest of the Big Four major leagues, having only played 21 seasons to that point, and was still fending off contemporary challenging leagues (it had been less than five years since the American Basketball League (ABL) shut down); the league, often considered third or fourth in coverage when compared to baseball or football, had just 12 teams at the time the ABA was founded. According to one of the owners of the Indiana Pacers, its goal was to force a merger with the more established league. Potential investors were told that they could get an ABA team for half of what it cost to get an NBA expansion team at the time. When the merger occurred, ABA officials said their investment would more than double.
The ABA distinguished itself from its older counterpart with a more wide-open, flashy style of offensive play, as well as differences in rules — a 30-second shot clock (as opposed to the NBA's 24-second clock, though the ABA did switch to the 24 second shot clock for the 1975–76 season) and use of a three-point field goal arc, pioneered in the earlier ABL. Also, the ABA used a colorful red, white and blue ball, instead of the NBA's traditional orange ball. The ABA also had several "regional" franchises, such as the Virginia Squires and Carolina Cougars, that played "home" games in several cities.
The league's practice of luring players with money would spur a war with the NBA. Under the "Dolgoff Plan" (as first used by the Indiana Pacers), teams would pay a player a certain amount of money over a certain amount of years as an annuity (for example, Jim Ard signed a $1.4 million contract with the Nets that saw him paid $250,000 in total from 1970 to 1974 while the team would put $8,000 a year for ten years where Ard would receive $1.15 million paid to him over the course of 24 years, starting in 1989). Various players such as Dan Issel and Rick Mount would be paid in this manner, much to the consternation of jilted executives in the NBA, who even believed the league was paying off agents to help players agree to these contracts, which in select cases was correct. Both leagues went as far as spying to keep tabs on signings.
In the 1973–74 season, the ABA also adopted the no-disqualification foul rule: instead of fouling out after six infractions, when a player is charged with his seventh or succeeding fouls, the opposing team retains possession and the offended team attempts any free throw.
The ABA also went after four of the best referees in the NBA: Earl Strom, John Vanak, Norm Drucker and Joe Gushue, getting them to "jump" leagues by offering them far more in money and benefits. In Earl Strom's memoir "Calling the Shots", Strom conveys both the heady sense of being courted by a rival league with money to burn — and also the depression that set in the next year when he began refereeing in the ABA, with less prominent players performing in inadequate arenas, in front of very small crowds. Nevertheless, the emergence of the ABA boosted the salaries of referees just as it did the salaries of players.
However, ABA teams like the Nets, Colonels, Pacers, Spurs, Nuggets and Stars, especially in latest seasons, registered higher attendance on average than most NBA teams at that time (excluding the Lakers, Knicks, Celtics, SuperSonics and Bucks).
The freewheeling style of the ABA eventually caught on with fans, but the lack of a national television contract and protracted financial losses would spell doom for the ABA as an independent circuit. In 1976, its last year of existence, the ABA pioneered the now-popular slam dunk contest at its all-star game in Denver.
The league succeeded in forcing a merger with the NBA in the 1976 offseason. Four ABA teams were absorbed into the older league: the New York Nets, Denver Nuggets, Indiana Pacers, and San Antonio Spurs. As part of the merger agreement, the four teams were not permitted to participate in the 1976 NBA draft. The merger was particularly hard on the Nets; the New York Knicks were firmly established in their arena, Madison Square Garden, and would not permit the Nets to share dates there. For drawing audience away from the Knicks, the Nets were forced to pay $4.3M to the Knicks organization. The Nets offered league superstar Julius Erving instead but the Knicks declined. The Nets had to settle for an arena in Piscataway, New Jersey, and, to meet expenses, were forced to sell the contract of Erving to the Philadelphia 76ers.
Two other clubs, the Kentucky Colonels and the Spirits of St. Louis, were disbanded upon the merger, with each getting a buyout: the Colonels received a one-time buyout that owner John Y. Brown, Jr. used to purchase the NBA's Buffalo Braves, while the Spirits owners negotiated a cut of the other ABA teams' television revenues in perpetuity. This deal netted the ownership group of the Spirits over $300M over nearly four decades due to a large increase in television revenues. In 2014, the NBA and the Spirits ownership agreed to phase out future payments in exchange for a one-time payment of $500M, making the total value for the deal over $800M. The seventh remaining team, the Virginia Squires, received nothing, as they had ceased operations shortly before the merger. The players from the Colonels, Spirits, and Squires were made available to NBA teams through a dispersal draft; the four teams absorbed by the NBA were allowed to choose players from this draft.
One of the more significant long-term contributions of the ABA to professional basketball was to tap into markets in the southeast that had been collegiate basketball hotbeds (including North Carolina, Virginia, and Kentucky). The NBA was focused on the urban areas of the Northeast, Midwest and West Coast. At the time, it showed no interest in placing a team south of Washington, D.C., other than the Atlanta metropolitan area where the NBA's Hawks franchise relocated from St. Louis in