Fourth Anglo-Mysore War
1799–99 conflict in the Kingdom of Mysore
The Fourth Anglo-Mysore War was a conflict in South India between the Kingdom of Mysore against the British East India Company and the Hyderabad Deccan in 1798–99.
This was the last of the four Anglo-Mysore Wars. The British captured the capital of Mysore. The ruler Tipu Sultan was killed in the battle. Britain took indirect control of Mysore, restoring the Wadiyar dynasty to the Mysore throne (with a British commissioner to advise him on all issues). Tipu Sultan's young heir, Fateh Ali, was sent into exile. The Kingdom of Mysore became a princely state in a subsidiary alliance with British India covering parts of present Kerala–Karnataka and ceded Coimbatore, Dakshina Kannada and Uttara Kannada to the British.
Background.
Napoleon Bonaparte's landing in Ottoman Egypt in 1798 was intended to further the capture of the British possessions in India, and the Kingdom of Mysore was a key to that next step, as the ruler of Mysore, Tipu Sultan, sought France as an ally and his letter to Napoleon resulted in the following reply, "You have already been informed of my arrival on the borders of the Red Sea, with an innumerable and invincible army, full of the desire of releasing and relieving you from the iron yoke of England." Additionally, General Malartic, French Governor of Mauritius, issued the Malartic Proclamation seeking volunteers to assist Tipu. Horatio Nelson ended any possibility of help from Napoleon after the Battle of the Nile. However, Lord Wellesley had already set in motion a response to prevent any alliance between Tipu Sultan and France.
Invasion and British victory.
Three armies, one from Bombay and two British (one of which contained a division that was commanded by Colonel Arthur Wellesley, the future 1st Duke of Wellington), marched into Mysore in 1799 and besieged the capital, Srirangapatnam, after some engagements with Tipu. On 8 March, a forward force managed to hold off an advance by Tipu at the Battle of Seedaseer.
One notable military advance championed by Tipu Sultan was the use of mass attacks with iron-cased rocket brigades in the army. The effect of the Mysorean rockets on the British during the Third and Fourth Mysore Wars was sufficiently impressive to inspire William Congreve to develop the Congreve rockets for Napoleonic Wars.
During the war, rockets were used on several occasions. One of these involved Colonel Arthur Wellesley. At the Battle of Sultanpet Tope, Wellesley's assault on the first day was soundly repulsed by Tipu's Diwan, Purnaiah. Quoting Forrest,
At this point (near the village of Sultanpet, Figure 5) there was a large tope, or grove, which gave shelter to Tipu's rocketmen and had obviously to be cleaned out before the siege could be pressed closer to Srirangapattana island. The commander chosen for this operation was Col. Wellesley, but advancing towards the tope after dark on the 5 April 1799, he was set upon with rockets and musket-fires, lost his way and, as Beatson politely puts it, had to "postpone the attack" until a more favourable opportunity should offer.
The following day, Wellesley launched a fresh attack with a larger force, and took the whole position without losing a single man. On 22 April 1799, twelve days before the main battle, rocketeers worked their way around to the rear of the British encampment, then "threw a great number of rockets at the same instant" to signal the beginning of an assault by 6,000 Indian infantry and a corps of Frenchmen, all directed by Mir Golam Hussain and Mohomed Hulleen Mir Miran. The rockets had a range of about 1,000 yards. Some burst in the air like shells. Others, called ground rockets, would rise again on striking the ground and bound along in a serpentine motion until their force was spent. According to one British observer, a young English officer named Bayly: "So pestered were we with the rocket boys that there was no moving without danger from the destructive missiles ...". He continued:
The rockets and musketry from 20,000 of the enemy were incessant. No hail could be thicker. Every illumination of blue lights was accompanied by a shower of rockets, some of which entered the head of the column, passing through to the rear, causing death, wounds, and dreadful lacerations from the long bamboos of twenty or thirty feet which are invariably attached to them.
During the decisive British attack on Seringapatam on 2 May 1799, with the help of Marathas and Nizam, a British shot struck a magazine of rockets within Tipu Sultan's fort, causing it to explode and send a towering cloud of black smoke with cascades of exploding white light rising up from the battlements. On the afternoon of 4 May, when the final attack on the fort was led by Baird, he was met by "furious musket and rocket fire", but this did not help much; in about an hour's time the fort was taken; perhaps within another hour Tipu had been shot (the precise time of his death is not known), and the war was effectively over. When the British were on the verge of victory the French allies reportedly told Tipu to flee, but Tipu refused and famously said "Better to live one day as a tiger than a thousand years as a sheep". The death of Tipu Sultan led British General George Harris to exclaim "now India is ours".
Aftermath.
The victors, rather than partitioning the country, forced Tipu's family into exile and restored control of Mysore to the Wadiyars.
Many members of the East India Company believed that Umdat ul-Umara, the Nawab of Carnatic, secretly provided assistance to Tipu Sultan during the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War; and they immediately sought his deposition after the end of the conflict.
The territory of the Nawab of Savanur was split among the English and Maratha forces.
The spot where Tipu's body was discovered under the eastern gate has been fenced off by the Archaeological Survey of India, and a plaque erected. The gate was later demolished during the 19th century to lay a wide road.
In popular culture.
The war, specifically the Battle of Mallavelly and the siege of Seringapatam, with many of the key protagonists, is covered in the historical novel "Sharpe's Tiger" by Bernard Cornwell.
References.
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Works cited.
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Mir Sadiq
Minister of Tipu Sultan
Mir Sadiq was a courtier who held the post of a minister in the cabinet of Tipu Sultan of Mysore and is famous for his betrayal of Tipu Sultan to the British.
Fourth Anglo-Mysore War.
In the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War in 1798–99, he betrayed Tipu Sultan during the Siege of Srirangapatana, paving the way for a British victory. During the siege, although the invading English troops were starving, Sadiq withdrew his troops, allowing the British to commence their attack on the fort. He betrayed Tipu, killing Tipu loyalist Ghazi Khan and later arranged to have Tipu trapped behind locked doors. Sadiq was killed by some of the dismayed Mysorean troops immediately following the defeat as he attempted to go over to welcome the British.
Death and legacy.
Following his death, Sadiq's body was mutilated, exhumed and defiled for over two weeks by the angered general public, including women and children, dismayed at his betrayal of Tipu Sultan, forcing the administration to impose "strong measures". Even today, tourists pelt the spot where Mir Sadiq was killed.
Mir Sadiq's mausoleum, also located in Srirangapatna, has regularly been assaulted by shoes thrown by visitors over the years. Presently, it is in a severe state of disrepair, rarely visited, and its lands have been encroached.
Muhammad Iqbal, the notable poet of Indian subcontinent, had condemned Mir Jafar and Mir Sadiq as follows:
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Translation:
<templatestyles src="Template:Blockquote/styles.css" />"Jafar of Bengal and Sadiq of the Deccan:<br>A stigma on humanity, on religion, and the country."
References.
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Siege of Seringapatam (1639)
The Siege of Seringapatam in 1639 was a conflict between the Bijapur Sultanate's forces, led by Randaula Khan and the Mysorean army commanded by Kanthirava Narasaraja I. The Bijapur army had laid siege to the Seringapatam Fort, but Kanthirava Narasaraja I mounted a daring night attack on their encampment. The surprise assault overwhelmed the Bijapur forces, resulting in their Defeat. Following this victory, the Mysorean army triumphantly returned to the Srirangapatna Fort.
Background.
Kanthirava Narasaraja I incitement of Elenge Hanuma of Basavapatna and other Wodeyars of Ikkeri against their liege lord, Virabhadra Nayaka, led to a brief but intense disturbance in the region. However, the Ikkeri Nayaka swiftly quelled the rebellion, maintaining his control. Undeterred, Kenge Hanuma traveled to Bijapur, seeking the Sultan's aid. Meanwhile, Channama, a fugitive Wodeyar from Nagamangala, recently conquered by Chamaraja Wodeyar VI, also sought refuge with the Sultan. In response, the Sultan dispatched his most reputed general, Randaula Khan, leading an army of forty thousand men, with the mission to restore Kenge Hanuma to power and, if possible, seize Srirangapatna from the Wodeyars.
Planning.
Randaula Khan after receiving the Sultan's orders, focused his efforts on the conquest of Srirangapatna, recognizing that capturing the city would be crucial for weakening the Wodeyars' hold over their territories. Aware that seizing the capital would not be an easy task, he carefully planned his approach, considering various strategies to bring the ruling forces under control. Khan reasoned that once Srirangapatna fell it would serve as a stronghold from which they could gradually annex the surrounding regions. His plan was to strike decisively, ensuring that the fall of the capital would lead to the eventual collapse of the Mysore Kingdom facilitating Bijapur's expansion.
Randaula Khan, in a council of war held in his tent, briefed the Wazirs on the strong resolve and fortitude of Kanthirava Narasaraja I, as well as the unwavering loyalty of his generals and ministers. This crucial information, likely gathered from Channaiah, Khan emphasized the strength of the Wodeyar leadership to ensure his forces were prepared for battle.
Review of The Army.
Instructing the Wazirs, Randaula Khan expressed his intention to review the forces that various chieftains had assembled for the battlefield. Among them was Shahaji who commanded a substantial army, consisting of 6,000 horsemen, 7,000 to 8,000 foot soldiers, and 10 elephants. This formidable force was a key component of the overall strength that Khan planned to deploy in the campaign against Srirangapatna.
March of Bijapur Army.
After reviewing his forces, Randaula Khan ordered his entire army to march toward Srirangapatna. The army advanced through Channapatna, devastating the surrounding villages along the way, looting whatever valuables they could find. As they neared the city of Srirangapatna, their march became a path of destruction, further weakening the region's defenses before the siege.
Upon learning of the Bijapur army's encampment near Srirangapatna, Kanthirava Narasaraja I swiftly made extensive preparations to confront the enemy. he fortified the city, rallied his generals and ministers, and mobilized his forces to defend the capital.
Diplomacy.
Tremendous preparations were made on both sides as the conflict loomed. Randaula Khan seeking to negotiate before the battle, sent his envoys to the court of Kanthirava of Mysore. The envoys delivered a message, urging the king to surrender and avoid further bloodshed, offering terms of peace in exchange for his cooperation. They warned that if Kanthirava Narasaraja I refused, the consequences would be dire for his kingdom.
The envoy's told king as follows:
"Obedient to the orders of the Sultan of Bijapur, we took possession of many kingdoms in the Karnataka. Hearing the news of your prowess, we felt happy. Making friendship with and taking treaty from you, we will proceed with your army for further conquests. These are the words of our lord."
Upon hearing the envoys' message, Kanthirava Narasaraja gave a spirited and defiant reply:
"We do not pay tribute nor agree to make friendship with vou either. However if you want to know our stuff, ask your lord to go to war with us together with all his forces, Has he come to lay siege to our city thinking that he would accord the same treatment as he had accorded to the poor kings of the surrounding kingdoms? His prowess is dried up."
The envoy's were send back to their back to their camp.
Randaula Khan asked the envoys who had appeared before him as follows:
"What is the opinion of the king, Peace or War ?"
When the envoys returned and relayed Kanthirava's response, Randaula Khan's anger grew. Furious at the rejection of his terms, he swiftly convened a council of war with his Wazirs. the decision was made to abandon any further attempts at negotiation. Randaula Khan resolved that the only remaining option was to storm the fort of Srirangapatna planning a direct assault to break the resistance and secure victory by force.
Siege.
Beginning of The Siege Operatios.
The decision to storm the fort was swiftly executed. Randaula Khan's Wazirs quickly mobilized their forces and surrounded the fort of Srirangapatna. The air was thick with the chaos of war-elephants trumpeted, war-drums beat, and trumpets blared, creating a deafening uproar that filled the battlefield. The sounds of impending conflict reverberated across the land, signaling the doom that loomed over the fort.
Advise of Hanumappa Nayaka.
Upon learning of the commander's firm resolution, Hanumappa Nayaka met with Randaula Khan and said:
"Why do you persist on laying siege to the town ? Make peace (honourably)."
By this time, Hanumappa Nayaka recognized the futility of waging war against the determined Mysorean army. He urged caution, advising against further conflict, but his words were ignored by those around him. Randaula Khan resolute in his decision, disregarded the counsel and hastened to launch the assault.
Strength of Bijapur Army.
The besieging army was a vast and diverse force, numbering between 40,000 and 50,000 horsemen and 500 to 1,000 elephants. It was divided into two main sections: the first, the original Bijapur army led by Randaula Khan and Shahaji and the second, a coalition of forces from various Karnataka chieftains, commanded by Hanumappa Nayaka. This formidable alliance was determined to overpower the defenses of Srirangapatna and bring the city under their control.
Strength of Mysore Army.
The Mysore army was composed of a diverse array of contingents from various regions, including the chiefs of Eura, Channapatna, Maddur, Satyagala, Heggadadevanakote, Channarayapatna, Kikkert, Bukana Kere, Piriyapatna, Talakad, Malavalli, and Nagamangala. In addition to these regional forces, there were also troops raised by the general Nanjarajendra in charge of Srirangapatna and Mysore.
Bijapur Army Laid Siege To The Cities of Seringapatam and Mysore.
On January 18, 1639, Randaula Khan's forces laid siege to both the forts of Srirangapatna and Mysore simultaneously. However, the attack was met with fierce resistance, and the Bijapur army was repulsed with heavy losses. On the first day, the defeated forces retreated, encamping at Palya. In addition to the main army, several smaller divisions of the Bijapur forces were dispersed across the surrounding areas of Mysore and Srirangapatna.
General Nanjarajendra seized the opportunity presented by the precarious position of the besieging forces and launched a series of devastating night attacks. A section of the Mysore army targeted the Bijapur camp at Arakere and cut off the noses of those who fell into their hands, while another struck at Hosaholalu and yet another surprised the Muslims at Yadavagiri (Melukote). These raids, marked by brutal cruelty, inflicted severe losses on the Bijapur army in several encampments. Despite facing repeated setbacks and strong opposition from his own men, Randaula Khan remained steadfast in his determination, refusing to alter his plans for the siege.
Randaula Khan, determined to breach the fort, appointed his most reputed generals to key positions, ensuring the siege intensified. The assault on Srirangapatna grew fiercer as the Khans and Wazirs launched a coordinated attack. Yakalas Khan, Mustafa Khan, and others scaled the ramparts from one side, while Karithi Khan, Shahaji, and Afzal Khan tackled the walls from another.
Witnessing the determined efforts of the Bijapur forces, Nanjarajendra swiftly ordered his generals to take action against the besieging army. The Mysore generals and their troops fought with great courage, engaging the enemy fiercely. They inflicted heavy casualties, slaughtering those who fell into their hands, and successfully repulsed the remaining Bijapur forces from the surrounding areas of the fort.
The brutal slaughter and defeat inflicted by the Mysorean forces shattered the Bijapur army's hopes of making any significant progress in the kingdom of Mysore. In the face of this dire situation, Randaula Khan summoned his most prominent generals for a council. They deliberated on their next course of action, strategizing how to overcome the setbacks:
"It is impossible to prolong the war against Kanthirava Narasaraja who is very powerful. It is right that we should make peace with him some how or other."
Channaiah of Nagamangala, who had played a key role in instigating the invasion of Mysore found himself increasingly bewildered by the mounting difficulties of the campaign. Fearing disgrace if Randaula Khan's proposals for peace with the king of Mysore were accepted, Channaiah appealed to the commander-in-chief, urging him not to seek a settlement. He said:
"Do not make peace today. I will get into the fort of Srirangapatna, understand the secrecy and send word to you to get into the fort."
On Saturday, January 19, 1639, Channaiah entered the fort and immediately sent word to Randaula Khan, urging him to rush into the fort and join the battle. Randaula Khan eager to seize the opportunity and strike at the enemy, entered the fort with his forces, ready to engage in combat. With swift action, he launched an attack.
Nanjarajendra met the besieging forces head-on in a fierce and brutal battle, where hundreds of Muslims either lost their noses or perished. The Bijapur army, shaken by the heavy losses and unable to maintain their position, fled the battlefield in disarray. This marked a victory for the king of Mysore, as the fort was freed from the clutches of the Bijapuris. The Mysore army, now victorious, took up positions around the fort, ensuring that no further attacks from the aggressors.
Night Attack on Bijapur Army.
After suffering heavy losses in both men and materials, the Bijapur army retreated and encamped a few miles away, about three miles from the city. Weakened and demoralized by their defeat, they regrouped at a safe distance.
General Nanjarajendra informed King Kanthirava Narasaraja I of the events at the fort and urged him to seize the golden opportunity to drive the Bijapur forces out before dawn. Recognizing the strategic moment, Kanthirava personally led his army to the battlefield. He divided his forces into two sections: one under Nanjarajendra and the other under Lingendra, positioning them on either side of the Bijapur encampment. On January 20, 1639, Kanthirava led the charge.
When Nanjarajendra launched a night attack on the Bijapur camp, it caught Randaula Khan off guard, but as a resourceful and enterprising general, he quickly regained his composure. Mobilizing the scattered elements of his army and rousing his soldiers from their deep slumber, he prepared to face the overwhelming Mysore forces. At this critical moment Randaula Khan found himself at a crossroads either to face total annihilation or master the situation. The Khans and Wazirs, in desperation fought valiantly to repel the Mysorean onslaught. The battlefield became a scene of chaos and confusion, with arrows flying and the sounds of battle echoing through the night, leaving thousands on both sides wounded or dead.
"The Muslims cried out "Thinking that we have suffered enough at the siege of the city, you have come to attack us, yet we are quite prepared to give you battle and take off your heads."
Despite fierce resistance, the Bijapur forces were ultimately overwhelmed by the superior might of the Mysore army. Fortune favored the Mysoreans as they routed the Muslim forces, sending them into full retreat. The battlefield was littered with the bodies of the fallen, marking a disastrous defeat for the Muslims. Kanthirava Narasaraja I returned triumphantly to the city with the remnants of his victorious army. The spoils of war were presented before the king, who, filled with joy at the success, rewarded the prominent chiefs and warriors with generous gifts in recognition of their bravery and contributions to the victory.
Aftermath.
Randaula Khan having lost hundreds of his best soldiers, as well as trained horses and elephants on the battlefield, could not bear the weight of his defeat and the shame it brought. In great agony and distress, he returned to Hanumappa Nayaka and expressed his sorrow :
"Oh Nayak! what you have said before is true, since my departure from Vijayapur( Bijapur) up to this day, may, ever since my birth up to this day I have never seen a hero of this type."
On January 21, Randaula Khan realizing the futility of continuing the siege, sought peace with Kanthirava Narasaraja I after receiving a direct order from Bijapur to return. Following the advice of Kenge-Hanumappa Nayaka, he arranged a truce through two of Kanthirava's agents, Kaveri-Hebbaruva and Minchu-Hebbaruva. The terms stipulated that the territory south of the Cauvery River would remain under the undisturbed control of Mysore while the revenue from the land north of the river would belong to Bijapur after necessary administrative expenses. Kanthirava agreed to the truce, recognizing that it ensured the territorial integrity of Mysore and spared him from the risk of another prolonged siege. In mid-February, following the terms of the truce, Randaula Khan lifted the siege of Seringapatam. having secured an agreement with Kanthirava Narasaraja I the Bijapur forces began to withdraw. The end of the siege marked the conclusion of a failed campaign for Randaula Khan, as he retreated with his forces, leaving Mysore intact and its sovereignty preserved. Randaula Khan returned to Bijapur burdened by the calamity that had befallen him and his army.
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Srirangapatna
Srirangapatna or Srirangapattana is a town and headquarters of one of the seven Taluks of Mandya district, in the Indian State of Karnataka. It gets its name from the Ranganthaswamy temple consecrated around 984 CE. Later, under the British rule, the city was renamed to Seringapatam. Located near the city of Mandya, it is of religious, cultural and historic importance.
The monuments on the island town of Srirangapatna have been nominated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, and the application is pending on the tentative list of UNESCO.
History.
Srirangapatna has since time immemorial been an urban center and place of pilgrimage. During the Vijayanagar empire, it became the seat of a major viceroyalty, from where several nearby vassal states of the empire, such as Mysore and Talakad, were overseen. When perceiving the decline of the Vijayanagar empire, the rulers of Mysore ventured to assert independence, Srirangapatna was their first target. Raja Wodeyar I vanquished Rangaraya, the then viceroy of Srirangapatna, in 1610 and celebrated the "Navaratri" festival in the town that year. It came to be accepted in time that two things demonstrated control and signified sovereignty over the Kingdom of Mysore by any claimant to the throne, including the successful holding of the 10-day-long "Navaratri" festival, dedicated to Chamundeshwari, patron goddess of Mysore and control of the fort of Srirangapatna, the fortification nearest to the capital city of Mysore.
Srirangapatna remained part of the Kingdom of Mysore from 1610 to after India's independence in 1947; as the fortress closest to the capital city of Mysore, it was the last bastion and defence of the kingdom in case of invasion.
Hyder and Tipu.
Srirangapatna became the capital of Mysore under Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan. When Tipu finally dispensed with the charade of deference to the Wodeyar Maharaja who was actually his captive, and proclaimed the "Khudadad State" under his own kingship, though the then incumbent Wodeyar scion Chamaraja Wodeyar IX was still officially the king of Mysore.
During Tipu Sultan's wars against the British, Kodavas, and Malabar rajas; he rounded up entire communities of Nairs, Kodavas, and Mangalorean Catholics in the conquered regions and deported them to Srirangapatna, where they were held in bondage until they received freedom from captivity as a result of Tipu's defeat by the British in 1799.
Treaty of Seringapatam, 1792.
The Treaty of Seringapatam (also called Srirangapatna), signed 18 March 1792, ended the Third Anglo-Mysore War. Its signatories included Lord Cornwallis on behalf of the British East India Company, representatives of the Nizam of Hyderabad and the Maratha Empire, and Tipu Sultan, the ruler of Mysore.
Battle of Seringapatam, 1799.
Srirangapatna was the scene of the last and decisive battle of the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War, fought in 1799 between Tipu Sultan, ruler of Mysore, and a combined force of 50,000 men provided equally by the Nizam of Hyderabad and the East India Company, under the overall command of General George Harris.
At the battle's climax, Tipu Sultan was killed within the fort of Seringapatam, betrayed by one of his own confidants. The spot where he fell is today marked by a memorial. Although the joint forces of the victorious army plundered Seringapatam and ransacked Tipu's palace, much of the site of the battle is still intact, including the ramparts, the Water Gate, the area where British prisoners were held, and the site of the destroyed palace.
Apart from the usual gold and cash, innumerable other valuables were shipped to England, including "objets d'art" and personal possessions of Tipu Sultan such as his rich clothing, shoes, sword, and firearms. Most of these remain in the British Royal Collection and in the Victoria and Albert Museum, the latter of which holds Tipu's Tiger, an automaton of a tiger on top of a British soldier. The sword of Tipu Sultan was purchased at a Sotheby's auction by Vijay Mallya, a liquor baron from Karnataka.
British composer Harriet Wainwright composed a work for chorus ("Seringapatam") about the battle.
Location.
Although situated only from Mysore city, Srirangapatna lies in the neighbouring district of Mandya. The entire town is enclosed by the river Kaveri to form a river island, the northern half of which is shown in the adjacent image. While the main river flows on the eastern side of the island, the "Paschima Vaahini" segment of the same river flows to its west. The town is easily accessible by train from Bengaluru and Mysore and is also well-connected by road, lying as it does just off the Bangalore-Mysore National Highway 275. The highway passes through this town and special care was taken to minimize any impact on the monuments.
Religious significance.
The town takes its name from the celebrated Ranganathaswamy temple which dominates the town, making Srirangapatna one of the most important Vaishnavite centers of pilgrimage in South India. The temple was built by the Ganga dynasty rulers of the area in the 9th century; the structure was strengthened and improved upon architecturally some three centuries later. Thus, the temple is a medley of the Hoysala and Vijayanagar styles of temple architecture.
Tradition holds that all the islands formed in the Kaveri River are consecrated to Sri Ranganathaswamy (PrabhaVishnu mentioned in Vishnu Sahasranama) and large temples have been built in very ancient times dedicated to that deity on the three largest islands. The Srirangapatna temple is one of the three temples of the God Ranganatha (Adi Ranga) that are situated in the natural islands formed in the Kaveri river. They are:
The presence of the Kaveri River is in itself considered auspicious and sanctifying. The "Paschima Vaahini" section of the Kaveri at Srirangapatna is considered especially sacred; the pious come from far and wide to immerse the ashes of the departed and perform obsequies to their ancestors in these waters.
Demographics.
According to the 2011 India Census Data, Srirangapatna had a population of 155,130 persons. Males constitute 50.06% and females constitute 49.93% of the total population. 9.80% of the population are under 6 years of age.
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Geography.
Srirangapatna is at . It has an average elevation of above mean sea-level.
Places of interest.
The town is famous for a very ancient temple dedicated to Sri Ranganathaswamy, a form of Lord Vishnu. There is also Kalyani Siddhi Vinayaka Temple in front of the Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple. Other temples in Srirangapatna include the Lakshminarasimha Swamy Temple, Jyothi Mahaswara Temple, Bidhcotta Ganesha Temple, Panduranga Swamy Temple, the Sathyanarayana Swamy Temple, the Anjunaya Swamy Temple, the Ayyapa Temple, the Gangadhareswara Swamy Temple, and RaganathaNagara Ganesha Temple, Lakshmi Temple, Sri Raghavendra Swamy Mutt on Old Post Office Road, surrounding Srirangapatna in fort 8 Ganesh & Anjunaya temples. The Karighatta (Black Hill) and its temple of Lord Srinivasa is a few kilometres from the town. The deity is Kari-giri-vasa (one who resides on the black hill). The renowned Nimishambha Temple is about 2 km from the town. Srirangapatna also hosts the summer palace of Tipu Sultan and his mausoleum.
Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple.
The Ranganthaswamy Temple – usually referred to as "Sri Ranganathaswamy" – is dedicated to Ranganatha, a manifestation of Vishnu. It is one of the five important pilgrimage sites along the river Kaveri for devotees of Ranganatha. These five sacred sites are together known as "Pancharanga Kshetrams" in Southern India. Since Srirangapatna is the first temple starting from upstream, the deity is known as Adi Ranga (lit; "first Ranga"), and the town of Srirangapatna, which derives its name from the temple, is on an island in the river Kaveri.
Daria Daulat Bagh.
The "Dariya Daulat Palace" (Summer Palace) is set amidst beautiful gardens called Daria Daulat Bagh. Tippu Sultan built this palace in 1784. The palace is built in the Indo-Saracenic style is mostly made of teakwood. The palace has a rectangular plan and is built on a raised platform.
Other attractions in Srirangapatna include the "Jama Masjid" (a Mosque) and the Dariya Daulat Gardens. The mosque has stone Arabic inscriptions which mention the 99 titles given to the almighty Allah, and the Farsi inscription which mentions that the Masjid was built in AD 1782 by Tipu Sultan.
Tipu Sultan Gumbaz.
The "Gumbaz" is an impeccably detailed mausoleum and houses the remains of Tipu Sultan, his father Hyder Ali and his mother Fatima Begum among beautifully manicured gardens. Various tombs of other relatives surround the "gumbaz", some with small signs offering guidance on which specific individuals are buried here. The outer "gumbaz" columns are made of amphibolite, a very dark rock that exudes a somber richness. Handcrafted door frames covered in a deep lacquer finish lead into an inner tomb illuminated only by natural light. All visitors are welcome inside, and even encouraged to enter by the friendly doormen.
Wellesley Bridge.
Wellesley Bridge was erected by Kingdom of Mysore's Dewan, Purnaiah on the Kaveri river in 1804. It was named after the then Governor General Marquis of Wellesley. The bridge is built of stone pillars and stone corbels and surrounded by stone girders. The bridge is very strong and has survived the heavy traffic of many years.
Karighatta viewpoint.
The Karighatta viewpoint gives good panorama of Mysore and Srirangapatna cities from a height of 3,000 feet. Karighatta is a hill a few kilometres outside the 'island' town of Srirangapatna. The name Karighatta translates to "Black Hill" in Kannada. The hill supports the dry scrub jungle and many tamarind and gooseberry trees are found around the temple. A small river, Lokapavani, a tributary of Kaveri flows by the hill. The main entrance to the temple, with huge wooden doors opens into a large quadrangle, which is the main shrine for Vaikunta Srinivasa in black stone, flanked by Yoga Srinivasa (without his consort) and Bhoga Srinivasa idols. The hill may be climbed by stone steps (450 in number). A winding paved road is used for vehicular transport. The stone steps lead to a flat hilltop where the temple stands. The hillock has a superb panoramic view of Srirangapatna and Mysore. The beautiful landscape around the hill and the confluence of the Kaveri and Lokapavani rivers can be seen from atop the hill.
Nimishamba Temple.
The famous Nimishamba (the incarnation of Parvathi, the goddess wife of Lord Shiva) temple is on the bank of the Lokapavani river. This temple too can be clearly seen from the top of the Karighatta hill. It is a belief that Parvathi will clear all the problems and troubles of her devotees within a minute ("nimisha" in Sanskrit), and hence the name.


National Museum of Natural History
Natural history museum in Washington, D.C.
The National Museum of Natural History (NMNH) is a natural history museum administered by the Smithsonian Institution, located on the National Mall in Washington, D.C., United States. It has free admission and is open 364 days a year. With 4.4 million visitors in 2023, it was the third most-visited museum in the United States.
Opened in 1910, the museum on the National Mall was one of the first Smithsonian buildings constructed exclusively to hold the national collections and research facilities. The main building has an overall area of with of exhibition and public space and houses over 1,000 employees.
The museum's collections contain over 146 million specimens of plants, animals, fossils, minerals, rocks, meteorites, human remains, and human cultural artifacts, the largest natural history collection in the world. It is also home to about 185 professional natural history scientists—the largest group of scientists dedicated to the study of natural and cultural history in the world.
History.
1846–1911.
The United States National Museum was founded in 1846 as part of the Smithsonian Institution. The museum was initially housed in the Smithsonian Institution Building, which is better known today as the Smithsonian Castle. A formal exhibit hall opened in 1858. The growing collection led to the construction of a new building, the National Museum Building (known today as the Arts and Industries Building). Covering a then-enormous , it was built in just 15 months at a cost of $310,000. It opened in March 1881.
Congress authorized construction of a new building on June 28, 1902. On January 29, 1903, a special committee composed of members of Congress and representatives from the Smithsonian's board of regents published a report asking Congress to fund a much larger structure than originally planned. The regents began considering sites for the new building in March, and by April 12 settled on a site on the north side of B Street NW between 9th and 12th Streets. The D.C. architectural firm of Hornblower & Marshall was chosen to design the structure. Testing of the soil for the foundations was set for July 1903, with construction expected to take three years.
The Natural History Building (as the National Museum of Natural History was originally known) opened its doors to the public on March 17, 1910, in order to provide the Smithsonian Institution with more space for collections and research. The building was not fully completed until June 1911. The structure cost $3.5 million (about $85 million in inflation-adjusted 2012) dollars. The Neoclassical style building was the first structure constructed on the north side of the National Mall as part of the 1901 McMillan Commission plan. In addition to the Smithsonian's natural history collection, it also housed the American history, art, and cultural collections.
1981–2003.
Between 1981 and 2003, the National Museum of Natural History had 11 permanent and acting directors. The directors included: Richard S. Fiske (1980-1985); James C. Tyler (acting, 1985 and 1988); and Robert S. Hoffmann (1985-1988).
Frank Talbot, ichthyologist and former director of the Australian Museum and California Academy of Sciences, served as director from 1989 until 1994. He was the first (and as of 2024 the only) Australian to ever be appointed to this role.
Two acting directors (Donald J. Ortner, 1994-1996, and David L. Pawson in 1996) served before Robert W. Fri was named the museum's director in 1996. One of the largest donations in Smithsonian history was made during Fri's tenure. Kenneth E. Behring donated $20 million in 1997 to modernize the museum. Fri resigned in 2001 after disagreeing with Smithsonian leadership over the reorganization of the museum's scientific research programs.
J. Dennis O'Connor, provost of the Smithsonian Institution (where he oversaw all science and research programs) was named acting director of the museum on July 25, 2001. Eight months later, O'Conner resigned to become the vice president of research and dean of the graduate school at the University of Maryland. Douglas Erwin, a paleontologist at the National Museum of Natural History, was appointed interim director in June 2002.
2003–2007.
In January 2003, the Smithsonian announced that Cristián Samper, a Colombian with an M.Sc. and Ph.D. from Harvard University, would become the museum's permanent director on March 31, 2003. Samper (who holds dual citizenship with Colombia and the United States) founded the Alexander von Humboldt Biological Resources Research Institute and ran the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute after 2001. Smithsonian officials said Samper's administrative experience proved critical in his appointment. Under Samper's direction, the museum opened the $100 million Behring Hall of Mammals in November 2003, received $60 million in 2004 for the Sant Hall of Oceans, and received a $1 million gift from Tiffany & Co. for the purchase of precious gems for the National Gem Collection.
On March 25, 2007, Lawrence M. Small, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution and the organization's highest-ranking appointed official, resigned abruptly after public reports of lavish spending.
2007–2012.
On March 27, 2007, Samper was appointed Acting Secretary of the Smithsonian. Paul G. Risser, former chancellor of the University of Oklahoma, was named acting director of the Museum of Natural History on March 29.
In May 2007, Robert Sullivan, the former associate director in charge of exhibitions at the National Museum of Natural History, charged that Samper and Smithsonian Undersecretary for Science David Evans (Samper's supervisor) ordered "last minute" changes in the exhibit "Arctic: A Friend Acting Strangely" to tone down the role of human beings in the discussion of global warming, and to make global warming seem more uncertain than originally depicted. Samper denied that he knew of any scientific objections to the changes, and said that no political pressure had been applied to the Smithsonian to make the changes. In November 2007, "The Washington Post" reported that an interagency group of scientists from the Department of the Interior, NASA, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), and National Science Foundation believed that, despite Samper's denial, the museum "acted to avoid criticism from congressional appropriators and global-warming skeptics in the Bush administration". The changes were discussed as early as mid-August 2005, and Dr. Waleed Abdalati, manager of NASA's Cryospheric Sciences Program, noted at the time that "There was some discussion of the political sensitivities of the exhibit."
Although the exhibit was due to open in October 2005, the "Post" reported that Samper ordered a six-month delay to allow for even further changes. The newspaper also reported that it had obtained a memo drafted by Samper shortly after October 15, 2005, in which Samper said the museum should not "replicate" work by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. A few weeks later, a NOAA climate researcher advised a superior that the delay was due to "the debate within the administration and the science community over the existence and cause of global warming". During the delay, Samper asked high-level officials in other government agencies and departments to review the script for the exhibit, ordered his museum staff to make additional changes, and rearranged the sequence of the exhibit panels so that the discussion of climate change was not immediately encountered by museum visitors. Shortly before the exhibit opened in April 2006, officials at NOAA and the United States Department of Commerce expressed to their superiors their opinion that the exhibit had been changed to accommodate political concerns. In an interview with "The Washington Post" in November 2007, Samper said he felt the exhibit displayed a scientific certainty that did not exist, and expressed his belief that the museum should present evidence on both sides and let the public make up its own mind.
The issue became more heated after the press reported that Samper gave permission for the museum to accept a $5 million donation from American Petroleum Institute that would support the museum's soon-to-be-opened Hall of Oceans. Two members of the Smithsonian Institution's Board of Regents (which had final say on accepting the donation) questioned whether the donation was a conflict of interest. Before the board could consider the donation, the donor withdrew the offer.
Risser resigned as acting director of the museum on January 22, 2008, in order to return to his position at the University of Oklahoma. No new acting director was named at that time. Six weeks later, the Smithsonian regents chose Georgia Tech president G. Wayne Clough as the new Secretary. Samper stepped down to return to his position as Director of the National Museum of Natural History.
In June 2008, the Victoria and Roger Sant family donated $15 million to endow the new Ocean Hall at the museum. The museum celebrated the 50th anniversary of its acquisition of the Hope Diamond in August 2009 by giving the gemstone its own exhibit and a new setting. In March 2010, the museum opened its $21 million human evolution hall.
In January 2012, Samper said he was stepping down from the National Museum of Natural History to become president and chief executive officer of the Wildlife Conservation Society. Two months later, the museum announced it had received a $35 million gift to renovate its dinosaur hall, and a month later the Sant family donated another $10 million to endow the director's position. On July 25, 2012, Kirk Johnson, vice president of research and collections at the Denver Museum of Nature and Science, was named Samper's successor effective October 29, 2012. By 2013, as Sant Director, Johnson oversaw a museum with 460 employees and a $68 million budget. A four-year strategic plan was released in 2021. The museum's Mall building was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2023.
Research and collections.
Research in the museum is divided into seven departments: anthropology, botany, entomology, invertebrate zoology, mineral sciences, paleobiology, vertebrate zoology.
The NMNH represents 90% of the Smithsonian Institution's collections and forms one of the largest, most comprehensive natural history collection in the world. The Smithsonian gives an approximate number for artifacts and specimens of 146 million. More specifically, the collections include 30 million insects, 4.5 million plants preserved in the Museum's herbarium, and 7 million fish stored in liquid-filled jars. The National Collection of Amphibians and Reptiles has more than tripled from 190,000 specimen records 1970 to over 580,000 specimen records in 2020. Of the 2 million cultural artifacts, 400,000 are photographs housed in the National Anthropological Archives. Through off-site active loan and exchange programs, the museum's collections can be accessed. As a result, 3.5 million specimens are out on loan every year. The rest of the collections not on display are stored in the non-public research areas of the museum and at the Museum Support Center, located in Suitland, Maryland. Other facilities include a marine science center in Ft. Pierce, Florida and field stations in Belize, Alaska, and Kenya.
The museum is estimated to hold more than 5000 Native American remains that have not been repatriated. Some of these may belong to the Seminole Tribe of Florida.
One collection of nearly a million specimens of birds, reptiles, and mammals kept at the museum has been maintained by the Biological Survey unit of the U.S. Geological Survey. This division had started in 1885 as an economic ornithology unit of the Agriculture Department. Clarence Birdseye and Clinton Hart Merriam had worked in this organization. As of February 2018, the unit's funding is planned to be cut, and it is not clear what would happen to the collection.
Exhibitions.
Hall of Geology, Gems, and Minerals.
The National Gem and Mineral Collection is one of the most significant collections of its kind in the world. There are currently over 15,000 individual gems in the collection, as well as 350,000 minerals and 300,000 samples of rock and ore specimens. Additionally, the Smithsonian's National Gem and Mineral Collection houses approximately 45,000 meteorite specimens, including examples of every known type of meteorite, and is considered to be one of the most comprehensive collections of its kind in the world. The collection includes some of the most famous pieces of gems and minerals, including the Hope Diamond and the Star of Asia (one of the largest sapphires in the world), and the Carmen Lúcia Ruby, one of the largest and most valuable Burmese rubies in the world.
The collection is displayed in the Janet Annenberg Hooker Hall of Geology, Gems and Minerals, one of the many galleries in the Museum of Natural History. Some of the most important donors, besides Hooker, are Washington Roebling, the man who built the Brooklyn Bridge, who gave 16,000 specimens to the collection; Frederick A. Canfield, who donated 9,000 specimens to the collection; and Isaac Lea, who donated the basis of the museum's collection of 1312 gems and minerals.
Hall of Human Origins.
The David H. Koch "Hall of Human Origins" opened on March 17, 2010, marking the museum's 100th anniversary. The hall is named for David H. Koch, who contributed $15 million to the $20.7 million exhibit.
The Hall is "dedicated to the discovery and understanding of human origins," and occupies of exhibit space. This exhibit includes 76 humans skulls, each of a different species, eons apart. Each of these species is a human, signified by the ""Homo"" genus name. One species that can be found in this gallery is the "Homo heidelbergensis", which lived 200,000–700,000 years ago. In addition, there is a female skull from "Homo floresiensis", a human species that possibly only went extinct just 17,000 years ago. The exhibit includes an interactive human family tree that follows six million years of evolution, and a "Changing the World" gallery that focuses on issues surrounding climate change and humans' impact on the world.
The Hall's core concept idea is "What Does It Mean To Be Human", and focuses on milestones of human evolution such as walking upright, bigger brains, and symbolic thought.
Also covered is the Smithsonian's significant research on the geological and climate changes which occurred in East Africa during significant periods of Human Evolution.
The exhibit highlights an actual fossil Neanderthal and replicas created by famed paleoartist, John Gurche.
The exhibit has been criticized for downplaying the significance of human-caused global warming.
The exhibit also provides a complementary web site, which provides diaries and podcasts directly from related fields of research.
The companion book, "What Does It Mean To Be Human", was written by Richard (Rick) Potts, the curator, and Christopher Sloan. The exhibit was designed by Reich + Petch.
Deep Time Exhibit/Fossil Hall.
The Hall of Dinosaurs has fossilized skeletons and cast models, including a "Tyrannosaurus rex" cast facing a "Triceratops" cast. This "Triceratops" exhibit shows the first accurate dinosaur skeleton in virtual motion, achieved through the use of scanning and digital technology." The collection consists of 46 "complete and important specimens" of dinosaurs.
In May 2012, billionaire David H. Koch donated $35 million toward the cost of a $45 million upgrade to the 30-year-old, dinosaur hall. The hall closed in April 2014 and reopened in June 2019.
In June 2013, the Smithsonian obtained a 50-year lease on a "T. rex" fossil skeleton owned by the United States Army Corps of Engineers. It is the first "T. rex" skeleton to be displayed at the museum, which until now has only had the cast of a skull. The specimen, known as the , was found on Corps-owned land in the Charles M. Russell National Wildlife Refuge in Montana in 1988. It has since been on display at the Museum of the Rockies in Bozeman, Montana (which helped excavate the fossil). The "Wankel rex" (whose skeleton is 85 percent complete) was to be unveiled at the Museum of Natural History on National Fossil Day, October 16, 2013, and was supposed to be on display until the dinosaur hall exhibit closed for renovation in the spring of 2014. The long skeleton is the centerpiece of the dinosaur hall since it re-opened in 2019. The Museum of the Rockies (which did not own the skeleton but was the repository for it) has about a dozen "T. rex" specimens, including one which is eighty percent complete. Only about six museums in the United States have a "T. rex" skeleton. The Museum of the Rockies is a Smithsonian affiliate museum, and had long promised to find a "T. rex" for the Smithsonian to display.
Due to the 2013 federal government shutdown, the fossil did not arrive in Washington, D.C. Smithsonian officials said it remained in storage in Montana, and would not arrive at the Smithsonian until late spring 2014. Packed up in 16 crates, the "T. rex", named "Nation's T. rex" by the Smithsonian, traveled from the Museum of the Rockies and arrived at the National Museum of Natural History on April 15, 2014. The "T. rex" was displayed in the Rex Room, while specialists performed a conservation assessment and the Smithsonian Digitization Program scanned each bone, to create a 3-D model for research. The Nation's T. rex is the centerpiece of the new fossil hall, which opened in 2019.
Hall of Mammals.
The Behring Hall of Mammals was designed by Reich + Petch. The mammal specimens are presented as works of modern art within minimal environmentals. Visitors discover mammal's evolutionary adaptions to hugely diverse contexts.
The museum has the largest collection of vertebrate specimens in the world, nearly twice the size of the next largest mammal collections, including historically important collections from the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Its collection was initiated by C. Hart Merriam and the U.S. Department of Agriculture (later the Department of the Interior), which expanded it in the 1890s-1930s.
Insect Zoo.
The O. Orkin Insect Zoo features live insects and exhibits about insects and entomologists. Different habitats have been created to show the type of insects that live in different environments and how they have adapted to a freshwater pond, house, mangrove swamp, desert, and rain forest. The zoo is sponsored by Orkin, a pest control company.
Ocean Hall.
The Sant Ocean Hall opened on September 27, 2008, and is the largest renovation of the museum since it opened in 1910. The hall includes 674 marine specimens and models drawn from the over 80 million specimens in the museum's total collection, the largest in the world. The hall is named for the Roger Sant family, who donated $15 million to endow the new hall and other related programs.
The collection includes: a North Atlantic right whale, a giant Lion's mane jellyfish model, a aquarium containing live marine fish and corals, one female giant squid displayed in the center of the hall and a male displayed off to the side, an adult coelenterate, and a "Basilosaurus".
The museum also provides the Smithsonian Ocean Portal, a complementary web site that provides regularly updated, original content from the museum's research, collections, and Sant Ocean Hall as well as content provided by more than 20 collaborating organizations, including Archive, Census of Marine Life, Consortium for Ocean Leadership, Encyclopedia of Life, INDUCT, Monterey Bay Aquarium, Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute, National Geographic, NOAA, New England Aquarium, Ocean Conservancy, Oceania, Pew Charitable Trusts, Sea Web, Save Our Seas, Scrips Institution of Oceanography, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, World Heritage Marine Programmer.
African Voices.
This exhibit and associated website "examines the diversity, dynamism, and global influence of Africa's peoples and cultures over time in the realms of family, work, community, and the natural environment."
Butterflies + Plants: Partners In Evolution.
The Butterflies + Plants is a live butterfly pavilion which allows "visitors to observe the many ways in which butterflies and other animals have evolved, adapted, and diversified together with their plant partners over tens of millions of years." The exhibit was designed by Reich + Petch.
Bone Hall.
This exhibit displays a "variety of vertebrate skeletons grouped by their evolutionary relationships."
Q?rius.
Opened since 2013, this exhibit is the museum's interactive and educational area. Using microscopes and touch screens, the area hosts various interactive activities and contains a "collection zone" that houses over 6000 different specimens and artifacts visitors are able personally handle. The area also hosts various events such as allowing visitors to meet and discuss with Smithsonian scientists and hosting school groups.
Former exhibits.
Western Cultures Hall.
"This hall explores some examples from various cultures in the western world including northern Iraq, ancient Egypt, Greece and Rome and the recent discovery of the Iceman, a Copper Age mummy found in an Italian glacier." This exhibit was closed on September 26, 2010.
Korea Gallery.
The Korea Gallery was a special showcase to celebrate Korean traditions and examine its unique influence and complex role in the world today.
The exhibit expressed the continuity of the past by highlighting enduring features of Korean culture over 2,600 years. The exhibit used the Smithsonian ceramics collection as well as a rich selection of photographs, ritual objects and traditional Korean carpentry to communicate and connect to both the local Korean community and an international audience. Traditional art forms, such as ceramics and calligraphy, along with mythological figures, language, large feature photographs and illustrations spoke to a range of shared historical memories which connected Koreans at home and abroad.
Personal stories of modern Koreans, as told in their own voices, provide a context to discuss some of the many issues that face the divided country today. Korea's incredible transformation from 'The Hermit Kingdom' to a world power is traced through its impact on the arts, the economy and popular culture. The exhibit was designed by Reich + Petch. This exhibit closed in 2017.
Facility.
In the lower level, there is a bird exhibit, Urban Bird Habitat Garden, with all the migratory and native birds to Washington, D.C.
The Global Volcanism Program is housed in the department of Mineral Sciences.
The museum frequently hosts sleepovers through the Smithsonian Associates for children ages 8–12.
Baird Auditorium.
Beneath the building's rotunda is the Baird Auditorium, named for the second Secretary of the Smithsonian Spencer Fullerton Baird. The Baird Auditorium was completed in 1909, designed and built by the R. Guastavino Company under the direction of Rafael Guastavino, Jr. using Catalan vault tile ceiling. The American Institute of Architects calls the Baird Auditorium the museum's "greatest interior space." According to architectural scholar Dr. John Ochsendorf, the Baird Auditorium's "daring geometry" in tile construction by the Guastavino company "spans 90 feet (27 meters) with a remarkable shallow dome in acoustical tile, and could only have been built by a company with decades of experience in tile vaulting."
Baird Auditorium Events.
The Baird Auditorium has a long history of performances and events. The Baird was the location of the astronomical 'Great Debate,' also called the 'Shapley–Curtis Debate,' on April 26, 1920 on the topics of spiral nebulae and the size of the universe. Merle Travis gave a country guitar music concert in the Baird Auditorium on October 23, 1976. In early February 1977, Muddy Waters performed in the Baird as part of the Smithsonian Institution's blues series presented by the Division of Performing Arts.
References.
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National Museum (Prague)
Czech museum institution
The National Museum (NM) (Czech: "Národní muzeum") is a public museum dedicated to natural scientific and historical collections of the Czech Republic, its history, culture and people, among others. The museum was founded in 1818 by Kašpar Maria Šternberg. Historian František Palacký was also strongly involved in the foundation of the museum.
The National Museum houses nearly 14 million items from the areas of natural history, history, arts, music and librarianship, which are located in dozens of museum buildings.
The main hall of the National Museum is located on Wenceslas Square in downtown Prague. Built in neo-renaissance style in 1891, the building underwent significant restoration from 2011 to 2018 to mark the centennial of the Czech and Czechoslovak declaration of independence. Due to its dominance over the busiest intersection of Prague, the National Museum building carries a significant national importance. As such, it frequently serves as a focal point for protests, rallies, gatherings and public events.
Origins.
Even before the French Revolution, some royal and private collections of art, science and culturally relevant items were made available to the public. The beginnings of the museum can be seen as far back as 1796 when the private Society of Patriotic Friends of the Arts was founded by Count Casper Sternberk-Manderschied and a group of other prominent nobles. The avowed purpose of the society was "the renewed promotion of art and taste". In 1800, the group founded the Academy of Fine Arts, which trained students in progressive forms of art and history.
History and timeline.
The National Museum in Prague was founded on April 15, 1818. It was founded by Count Sternberk, the first president of the Society of the Patriotic Museum who served as the trustee and operator of the museum. The early focus of the museum was natural sciences, partially because Count Sternberk was a botanist, mineralogist, and eminent phytopaleontologist, but also because of the natural science slant of the times, as perpetrated by Emperor Joseph II of Austria.
The museum was originally located in the Sternberg Palace. When the venue became too small to house the museum's collections, the museum relocated to the Nostitz Palace. That too had insufficient capacity, which led to the construction of a new museum building in Wenceslas Square.
The museum did not acquire historical objects until the 1830s and 1840s, when Romanticism arose. The institution of the museum was increasingly seen as a center for Czech nationalism. Serving as historian and secretary of the National Museum in 1841, František Palacký tried to balance natural science and history, as he described in his Treatise of 1841. However, it was not until nearly a century later that the National Museum's historical treasures equaled its collection of natural science artifacts.
The museum brought about an intellectual shift in Prague. The Bohemian nobility had, until this time, been prominent, both politically and fiscally, in scholarly and scientific groups. However, the National Museum was created to serve all the inhabitants of the land, lifting the stranglehold the nobility had had on knowledge. This was further accelerated by the historian František Palacký, who in 1827 suggested that the museum publish separate journals in German and Czech. Previously, the vast majority of scholarly journals were written in German, but within a few years the German journal had ceased publication, while the Czech journal continued for more than a century.
In 1949, the national government took over the museum and detailed the museum's role and leadership in the Museum and Galleries Act of 1959. In May 1964, the Museum was turned into an organization of five professionally autonomous components, which included the Museum of Natural Science, the Historical Museum, the Naprstek Museum of Asia, African, and American Cultures, the National Museum Library, and the Central Office of Museology. A sixth autonomous unit, the Museum of Czech Music, was established in 1976.
Buildings.
Main building.
The Main Building of the National Museum (Historical Building) is located on the upper end of Wenceslas Square and was built by prominent Czech neo-renaissance architect Josef Schulz between 1885 and 1891. Prior to the museum being constructed, there had been several noblemen's palaces located at this site. With the construction of a permanent building for the museum, a great deal of work, which had previously been devoted to ensuring that the collections would remain intact, was now put toward collecting new materials.
The building was damaged during World War II in 1945 by a bomb, but the collections were not damaged due to their removal to secured storage sites. The museum was reopened after intensive repairs in 1947, and in 1960, exterior night floodlighting was installed, which followed a general repair of the facade that had taken place in previous years.
During the 1968 Warsaw Pact intervention, the main facade was severely damaged by strong Soviet machine-gun and automatic submachine-gun fire. The shots made numerous holes in sandstone pillars and plaster, destroyed stone statues and reliefs, and also caused damage in some of the depositories. Despite the general facade repair made between 1970 - 1972 the damage still can be seen due to the use of lighter sandstone to repair the bullet holes.
The main museum building was also damaged during the construction of the Prague Metro in 1972 and 1978. The opening of the North-South Highway in 1978 on two sides of the building resulted in the museum being cut off from city infrastructure. This also led to the building suffering from excessive noise levels, a dangerously high level of dust and constant vibrations from heavy road traffic.
Due to major reconstruction, the museum was closed between 7 July 2011 and 28 October 2018. Seven million items had to be relocated to the museum's depositories, in what was described as the biggest moving of museum collections in Czech history. In February 2019, the museum's dome, which also serves as a view of Prague, was opened for the first time. The eastern courtyard was also opened and was for the first time roofed, during reconstruction. In November 2019, the underground corridor connecting the Historical Building to the New Museum Building became accessible.
The museum was partially opened on 28 October 2018. The first permanent exhibition opened to visitors in 2020.
Permanent exhibitions:
New building.
The New Building of the National Museum (former Federální Shromáždění Building) is located next to the Main Building of the National Museum. The former Prague Stock Exchange was built in 1937. The building was extended in 1968–1973 for meetings of the Federal Assembly (parliament), the bridge girder was used there and at that time it was the largest hung glass wall in Czechoslovakia. Between 1995 and 2009 it was used by the Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty.
In 2000, the Ministry of Culture declared the building a cultural monument. In 2009, the building was assigned to the National Museum for its permanent extension and is used for short-term exhibitions.
In 2019, the building was connected to the historical building through a tunnel. In 2021, the permanent exhibition History of the 20th Century was opened here.
Other buildings.
In addition to the Historical and New Buildings, the National Museum also includes these buildings:
Collections and departments.
The National Museum currently contains several million items of material in three main parts: the Natural History Museum, the Historical Museum and the Library.
Natural History Museum.
In 2010, the museum moved their collections to Prague 10, Horní Počernice. It has departments of mineralogy, paleontology, mycology, botany, entomology, zoology and anthropology, as well as scientific laboratories.
It is also the home of the Czech bird ringing scheme, and a member of the European Union for Bird Ringing (EURING).
The Historical Museum.
Medieval collections.
The medieval collection includes jewelry, panel painting, wooden sculpture, and weapons (also such as used in the Hussite movement of the 15th century). In addition to their historical value, many of the objects held by this department contain a high artistic value. Examples of precious objects include: a silver tiara of a duke from the twelfth century; Medieval, Renaissance and Baroque jewelry; liturgical objects from the Medieval period, which include several chalices, the reliquary of St Eligius in the shape of mitre; Gothic and Renaissance glazed tiles and paving stones; precious embroidery of Rosenberg antependium dated about 1370; and fine Bohemian porcelain and glass collection from before the 18th and 19th centuries, as well as collections of painted portraits and miniature painting.
Archives.
The archives contain rare charts and manuscripts of Czech history from the 11th to the 20th century; many of the ancient ones have been digitalized. The collection of personal legacy contains written sources of famous personalities of Czech history, and the collection of seals and seal-sticks include about 3,000 pieces.
In popular culture.
The museum has featured as Vatican City, in the 2004 film "EuroTrip".
References.
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National Museums of Kenya
Kenyan state corporation
The National Museums of Kenya (NMK; ) is a state corporation that manages museums, sites and monuments in Kenya. It carries out heritage research, and has expertise in subjects ranging from palaeontology, archeology, ethnography and biodiversity research and conservation. Its headquarters and the National Museum (Nairobi National Museum) are located on Museum Hill, near Uhuru Highway between Central Business District and Westlands in Nairobi. The National Museum of Kenya was founded by the East Africa Natural History Society (E.A.N.H.S.) in 1910; the society's main goal has always been to conduct an ongoing critical scientific examination of the natural attributes of the East African habitat. The museum houses collections, and temporary and permanent exhibits. Today the National Museum of Kenya manages over 22 regional museums, many sites, and monuments across the country.
Nairobi National Museum of Kenya.
Natural History Museum of Kenya.
The East Africa and Uganda Natural History Society was founded in 1910–11 by persons with an interest in nature in British East Africa. The group included two canons of the Church Missionary Society: The Rev. Harry Leakey (father of Louis Leakey) and The Rev. Kenneth St. Aubyn Rogers; some government officials: C. W. Hobley and John Ainsworth, doctors, dentists, big-game hunters and plantation owners. In 1911 they established the Natural History Museum and library with an honorary curator. Aladina Visram put up the money for a one-story, two-room building.
In 1914 they could afford a paid curator. They brought in Arthur Loveridge, a herpetologist, who arrived in March 1914. Loveridge concentrated on collections, with the members volunteering to contribute specimens, labour and funds. They also ran the museum while Loveridge fought for the British in German East Africa. He returned for a brief stay after the war, only to go to America, where he eventually became a Harvard University professor.
Coryndon Museum.
The next curator was A. F. J. Gedye. The museum moved to a new building at the corner of Government Road and Kirk Road. Among the new volunteers for the society were Sir Robert Coryndon, Governor of Kenya. At his unexpected death in 1925, Lady Cory