diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes index 207facee4758ecd30990ffd0f5eb71b36d5ea8da..bed0738c7eeb449bca98b5d2f33c89a1ee56349a 100644 --- a/.gitattributes +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -35,7 +35,6 @@ saved_model/**/* filter=lfs diff=lfs merge=lfs -text *.xz filter=lfs diff=lfs merge=lfs -text *.zip filter=lfs diff=lfs merge=lfs -text *.zst filter=lfs diff=lfs merge=lfs -text -data/samorzad_gov_pl/*.jsonl filter=lfs diff=lfs merge=lfs -text *tfevents* filter=lfs diff=lfs merge=lfs -text # Audio files - uncompressed *.pcm filter=lfs diff=lfs merge=lfs -text @@ -59,6 +58,3 @@ data/samorzad_gov_pl/*.jsonl filter=lfs diff=lfs merge=lfs -text # Video files - compressed *.mp4 filter=lfs diff=lfs merge=lfs -text *.webm filter=lfs diff=lfs merge=lfs -text -# Per-source audit trails: one rule for all sources, so source PRs don't edit this file -data/*/*.attribution.jsonl filter=lfs diff=lfs merge=lfs -text -data/*/*.decisions.jsonl filter=lfs diff=lfs merge=lfs -text diff --git a/AGENTS.md b/AGENTS.md deleted file mode 100644 index e5f78dd0536e40ce7ab249b1f655b11012a288b7..0000000000000000000000000000000000000000 --- a/AGENTS.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,257 +0,0 @@ -# AGENTS.md - -Guidance for agents and contributors adding a source and cutting a release. -Read this before opening a PR. Source PRs and releases are separate: a source PR -adds one source with `release: None`; the maintainer later cuts one release that -bumps the version and docs for every source merged since the last one. - -## How the docs are actually maintained - -`src/make_docs.py` is a **scaffolding/assembly helper, not a round-trip source -of truth.** It regenerates the README source table + release totals, `LICENSE`, -a `CHANGELOG` stub, and *template* datasheets — but it does **not** reproduce the -committed docs on its own: - -- It iterates `SOURCES` in `src/sources.py`; any source in `data/` but missing - from `SOURCES` is silently dropped from the table and totals. -- It stamps a regenerated datasheet's "Added" with the source's `added` field, - falling back to the global `ADDED` constant when the entry has none — so a new - entry without `added` still gets a wrong date. -- It cannot reproduce hand-written README narrative (audit notes, policy notes, - the phrase-frequency section). - -So datasheets and the README narrative are **hand/contributor-maintained**. -Never run `make_docs.py` and commit the result blind — `git diff` first and -restore anything it dropped or restamped. - -## Before you start: check the findings log - -`artifacts/source_findings.md` records sources already investigated, including -the rejected ones and *why*. Check it before spending a day on a source someone -already found to be blocked — and append your own finding there whether the -answer was yes or no. - -## Add a source - -1. Produce the artifact under `data//`: - - `.parquet` — built by `src/build_dynaword.py` (LFS-tracked automatically). - - `.stats.json` — doc/token/char counts (drives all totals). - - `.md` — datasheet (see below). -2. Add the ingestion script: `src/fetch_.py` or `src/clean_.py`, so the - source is reproducible. `build_source` (build_dynaword.py) expects a - `.jsonl.zst` intermediate. -3. Register the source in `src/sources.py` (`SOURCES`) — required, or make_docs - never sees it. Copy an existing entry's shape: `pretty`, `license`, - `license_spdx`, `traceable`, `upstream`, `domain`, `created`, `is_ocr`, and the - `speakleash_key`/`file_key`. If the datasheet is hand-authored (rich provenance - or a fixed add date), add `"custom_datasheet": True` so make_docs leaves it - alone. - - Also set `added` (the real add date) and `release`. `release` is what admits a - source to a release's totals: `None` means "on main, not in any release yet", - which is the correct value for a new source until the release that ships it is - cut. Nothing is counted just because it has a `stats.json`. -4. Add a contract test: `src/test__contract.py` (canonical schema, non-empty - text, positive token counts, uniform source/license, stats-file consistency). - Run `python3 -m pytest src/` before committing. - -### Keep the PR to your source - -Many source PRs are open at once, and each one that touches shared files -conflicts with the others. A source PR changes only: - -- `data//*`, `src/fetch_.py` / `src/clean_.py`, - `src/test__contract.py`; -- **one** new entry in `src/sources.py`, with `release: None`; -- your entry appended to `artifacts/source_findings.md`. - -It does **not** touch `README.md`, `CHANGELOG.md`, `VERSION`/`RELEASE_DATE` in -`src/make_docs.py`, the phrase-frequency report, `AGENTS.md`, or other sources' -fetchers — those change in the release commit (below) or in their own PR. -`.gitattributes` already LFS-tracks `data/*/*.attribution.jsonl` and -`*.decisions.jsonl`; do not add per-file lines. -Commit with LF line endings — a CRLF `sources.py` shows as a whole-file rewrite -and conflicts with every other PR. Rebase onto `main` before asking for review. - -## What the PR must show - -These two are not optional — they are the difference between a source a reviewer -can accept and one that sits in the queue. Treat every source PR as a worked -example other contributors will copy. - -1. **A sample of the data, inline in the PR description.** A few real documents - (or truncated ones), verbatim, so a reviewer can see at a glance what kind of - text this actually is — prose, transcripts, boilerplate, OCR noise, HTML - leftovers. Include the metadata columns too, not just `text`. Don't make the - reviewer download a parquet to find out — and a linked `.sample.jsonl` is not - a substitute: on the Hub it renders as one escaped line per document. - - Generate it from the built shard and paste the output into the PR description: - ```bash - python3 src/render_sample.py data//.parquet -n 3 - ``` - Each document is a fenced block — metadata as `key: value` lines, a blank - line, then the text with its real line breaks, truncated with `[…]`: - ```` - ``` - id: sejm_interpellations_2388 - source: sejm_interpellations - added: 2026-07-19 - token_count: 415 - license: public-domain (official documents) - author: Daniel Milewski - - Szanowny Panie Ministrze, - - latem 2022 roku na podlaskiej części granicy z Białorusią ukończono […] - ``` - ```` - Pick rows that show the typical document; if the source has distinct - document types (question vs reply, article vs talk page), show one of each. - -2. **Provenance and licensing, written out in the datasheet (`data//.md`) - and summarized in the PR description:** - - Where the data comes from — the concrete origin (institution, portal, API, - dump), not just a domain name. Link it. - - Under what license, and **where that license statement lives** — link the - exact terms-of-use page, API docs section, or statute. "Public domain - because it's government data" is a claim, not a source; cite the provision. - - What the texts are — genre, register, time span, language variety, whether - they are OCR'd, machine-translated, or user-generated. - - How it was collected and filtered — dedup, minimum length, language ID, - anything dropped and why. - - The argument for inclusion — what this adds that the corpus does not - already have, and any known bias or quality caveat a downstream user should - weigh. - -Yes, this is meta work on top of the fetching. That is the point: the datasheet -is the artifact other people read to learn how to contribute well. - -## Normalize the text before you build - -`build_dynaword.py` applies only *minimal gates* — strip, `len < 200`, Polish -diacritic ratio, OCR alpha ratio, exact sha1 dedup. It does **not** clean text. -`src/normalize_schema.py` is a schema/stats tool despite the name; it never -touches `text`. So normalization is the fetcher's job, and today each fetcher -reimplements it (`fetch_govpl.py:43` and `fetch_saos.py:42` carry byte-identical -`html_to_text`; `clean_samorzad_gov_pl.py:65` a third variant). If you are -writing a new fetcher, factor the shared parts out rather than pasting a fourth -copy. - -What a fetcher should do to `text` before writing the `.jsonl.zst`: - -- **Unicode**: NFKC normalize. Map non-breaking/thin/zero-width spaces to plain - space (or drop), strip control characters and soft hyphens, normalize the - quote/dash/ellipsis zoo. Repair mojibake if the upstream encoding is unreliable. -- **Whitespace**: collapse runs of spaces/tabs, trim per line, cap blank runs at - one empty line. Do not flatten paragraph breaks — they carry structure. -- **Structural junk**: navigation, cookie banners, "share this", pagination, - footnote back-references, and — for OCR/PDF sources — page headers/footers, - running titles, and hyphenation split across line breaks. -- **Numbering**: strip standalone chapter/section/page numbers and repeated - heading numerals (`1.`, `Art. 5.`, `Rozdział III`) *only where they are layout - artifacts*. In `dziennik_ustaw` or `saos` the article numbering is content — - removing it destroys the document. Judge per source, and say what you did in - the datasheet. -- **Boilerplate**: near-identical blocks repeated across most documents of a - source (license footers, institutional disclaimers, "Pokaż odpowiedź"-style UI - chrome) should be detected by frequency across the shard and removed, not - hand-listed. -- **Personal data**: do not keep a scrubber in this repo. Apply - [`SlayerLab/NERGAL`](https://huggingface.co/SlayerLab/NERGAL) before the - parquet is written (frozen regex ∪ model; placeholders `[PII]` / `[Telefon]`). - Names of public officials acting in an official capacity are not PII and - should stay — removing them would gut parliamentary and judicial sources. - A source scrubbed some other way may still merge with `release: None`, but it - is not admitted to a release until its shard has been re-run through NERGAL. - Say in the datasheet which scrubber ran. Note that `main` is public on the Hub - whether or not a source is released. - -Two rules about all of the above: - -1. **The normalization must live in the committed fetch/clean script**, so the - shard is reproducible. A shard whose datasheet describes a cleaning step that - no script in `src/` performs is not reproducible, however good the intent. -2. **Report it in the datasheet**: which steps ran, and what the gates dropped. - Include a handful of before/after excerpts in the PR — this is the fastest way - for a reviewer to see whether normalization ate real content. - -## Cut the release (maintainer, one commit after the source PRs merge) - -0. In `src/sources.py`, set `release` on each merged source this release ships - (check its shard went through NERGAL first). -1. In `src/make_docs.py`: bump `VERSION` and `RELEASE_DATE`. Add a row for the new - version to the version table and a row for each new contributor to the - Contributors table (both are literal rows in the template). -2. Regenerate the phrase-frequency report and charts (registry-independent — it - globs `data/*/*.parquet`): - ```bash - python3 src/pattern_frequency_report.py - ``` - Writes `artifacts/pattern_frequency_hf_snippet.md` + 10 PNGs. Splice the tables - and chart embeds into the README "Results" section by hand. -3. Update `README.md` by hand: header totals, version table, source table row, - Contributors row. The document/token totals must equal the sum of the - per-source `stats.json` files. -4. Prepend the release notes to `CHANGELOG.md` under a new `## vX.Y.Z (date)` - heading. History is append-only — never rewrite earlier releases. - -## Push to Hugging Face - -`origin` is the Hub itself -(`https://huggingface.co/datasets/SlayerLab/polish-dynaword`) — there is no GitHub -remote. `git push` authenticates through the git credential helper (macOS: -`osxkeychain`), which is separate from `hf auth login`: pushes can work fine while -`hf auth whoami` still reports "Not logged in". The Python API and `hf` CLI need -the login (or `HF_TOKEN`). - -Hub pull requests use no forks and no named branches. A PR *is* the ref -`refs/pr/N` and the Hub assigns `N`, so you cannot open one by pushing — the ref -has to exist first. (Plain branches can be pushed, but a branch is not a PR and -nobody reviews it.) - -Open a PR for work already committed locally: - -```bash -# 1. create the empty PR (needs the write token) -python3 -c " -from huggingface_hub import HfApi -pr = HfApi().create_pull_request( - 'SlayerLab/polish-dynaword', repo_type='dataset', - title='', description='<what changed and why>') -print(pr.num, pr.url)" - -# 2. push your local branch onto that ref -git push origin <local-branch>:refs/pr/<N> -``` - -Opened this way the PR starts in **draft** — publish it from the web UI. - -Pick up an existing PR (42 here): - -```bash -GIT_LFS_SKIP_SMUDGE=1 git -c fetch.negotiationAlgorithm=noop fetch origin refs/pr/42:pr/42 -git checkout pr/42 -git push origin pr/42:refs/pr/42 -``` - -The `noop` negotiation is needed: for some refs the Hub fails the have/ack -exchange (`fatal: expected 'acknowledgments'`), and skipping it makes the server -send the full history instead. `GIT_LFS_SKIP_SMUDGE=1` keeps it to pointers; -pull a single blob with `git lfs pull --include <path>`. - -`repo_type='dataset'` is required on every `huggingface_hub` call — this is a -dataset repo, not a model. Push straight to `main` only when cutting a release. - -## Do not commit - -`*.log` (fetch/build logs), `.DS_Store`, `src/__pycache__/`. Only `logs/` is in -`.gitignore` — root-level logs and OS cruft are not, so check `git status` -before staging. `*.parquet` is LFS-tracked; commit the pointer, not the blob. - -## Known drift / cleanup opportunities - -- `europeana` is in `SOURCES` but has no `data/` shard anywhere, and - `parlamint_pl` has one only in some working trees — it is not committed. - make_docs skips both with `! no stats`. Intentional placeholders or stale — - confirm before relying on `build_dynaword.py --all`. diff --git a/CHANGELOG.md b/CHANGELOG.md index 4ae98592b2a32a50affe407ce3b82be2586c6c70..4c822a44e29d2966ce80c8eb54cdd1ff9b06c1ba 100644 --- a/CHANGELOG.md +++ b/CHANGELOG.md @@ -1,131 +1,48 @@ -# Changelog - -## Unreleased (on main) - -- `wiktionary_examples` and `sejm_api` are built, documented and present on - the main branch but have never been admitted to a stable release. - They are excluded from every release total until a release entry admits them. - The registry records this as `release: None` in `src/sources.py`; release - totals count only sources whose `release` is set and not newer than the - version being documented. - -## v0.2.5 (2026-08-14) - -- Added the community contribution `samorzad_gov_pl` by Dawid Majewski - (`dawidmajewski`): 72,771 Polish articles / 41,154,506 cl100k-proxy tokens - from 246 local public institutions and one central platform tenant using the - shared samorzad.gov.pl platform. -- Converted the published, directly collected source dataset at revision - `d5eaefc32c3f17cfa5a01d14573f8e4ee7d43385`; retained 72,771 of 81,422 - records after dropping 6,624 short, 35 below the Polish-language heuristic - and 1,992 exact-duplicate records. -- Preserved the human-readable publishing institution in every `author` value. - Added a 72,771-record attribution sidecar with discovered source URLs, - fetched final URLs, recommended attribution URLs, titles, institution names, - license URLs and modification notices. -- Added the frozen 247-institution publisher manifest, reproducible conversion - script, contract tests, source datasheet, NOTICE and release-time license - evidence. The live shared footer script matched the audited SHA-256 - `b36ec507901ed443195479d8d8009386159ae59d7486ce266bfb3308043e99aa`. -- Recomputed complete-corpus totals: 4,319,200 documents and 9,639,062,573 - cl100k-proxy tokens across 18 sources. - -## v0.2.4 (2026-08-07) - -- Expanded `european_hplt_v3_pl` (Arkadiusz Słota / `Maggio33`) from HPLT v3.0 - WDS quality bins 10+9 to **WDS bins 10-5**: +1,493,384 documents / - 2,043,141,874 cl100k-proxy tokens, 100% CC0-1.0. The source total is now - 1,603,974 documents / 2,555,525,652 tokens. -- Phone PII-scrub hardening (v12b): an independent-lens deep verification caught - a systematic phone recall-gap (~1,900 real phone numbers) that the pipeline's - self-report (idempotency) was structurally blind to — address-block - suppression, `dzwoń`-label family, leading-0 landline, `+48`-paren, - newline-over-span and foreign-UK-bare formats. Fixed and dual-independently - verified; the residual 0.0135% is a classified clearance-tail. Phones map to a - `[Telefon]` semantic tag (anti-poisoning, not a fake number). -- Cross-source deduplication of the expansion against the existing WDS-10+9 - shards: removed 3,038 near-duplicate documents (truncation variants); - exact-dup 0, near-dup overlap 0.0000% (byte-verified). Resolves the - "downstream near-dedup remains" caveat from the original release. -- Contract-revalidated the merged parquet (canonical schema, non-empty text, - positive token counts, uniform source/license, stats-file consistency). -- Expanded contributor credit for Arkadiusz Słota (`Maggio33`) for the WDS 10-5 - expansion, PII-scrub and dedup work. -- Updated the complete-corpus release totals from per-source parquet stats: - 4,246,429 documents and 9,597,908,067 cl100k-proxy tokens across 17 sources - (also reflects the separately-merged `biblioteka_nauki` source now present on - main). - -## v0.2.3 (2026-07-26) - -- Added the community contribution `european_hplt_v3_pl` by Arkadiusz Słota - (`Maggio33`): HPLT v3.0 Polish WDS quality bins 10+9, 110,590 documents and - 512,383,778 cl100k-proxy tokens under CC0-1.0 packaging. -- Added the reviewed `global_voices` contribution by Dawid Majewski - (`dawidmajewski`): 2,040 documents / 3,715,020 tokens with CC-BY-3.0 and - per-document author attribution metadata. -- Added `nkjp1m` from contributor `1am`: 18,381 documents / 2,601,201 tokens - from the manually annotated 1-million-word NKJP subcorpus under the upstream - version-unspecified CC-BY statement. -- Revalidated the contributed parquet against the canonical schema, non-empty - text, positive token counts, uniform source/license metadata, and stats-file - consistency. -- Updated the complete 16-source release totals from per-source parquet stats: - 2,710,974 documents and 6,881,277,362 cl100k-proxy tokens. -- Recomputed the full-corpus phrase-frequency report and charts. Updated the - Arrow reporting path to use 64-bit string offsets for large row groups. -- Fixed `src/test_hplt_v3_contract.py` to resolve its fixture relative to the - repository instead of a contributor-local Windows path. -- Added public contributor credit for Arkadiusz Słota (`Maggio33`) and Paweł - Puzio (`ppuzio`, author of the `govpl` contribution released in v0.2.2), plus - Dawid Majewski (`dawidmajewski`) for Global Voices Polish. -- HPLT caveat: CC0 applies to the HPLT packaging; underlying web documents can - carry independent rights. Downstream near-dedup and web-content review remain - recommended before training. - -## v0.2.2 (2026-07-19) - -- Added `govpl` — gov.pl Polish government press releases (CC-BY-SA-4.0), - 88,190 documents / 80.7M tokens, fetched directly from gov.pl across 133 - ministry/agency subsites. New scripts: `src/discover_govpl.py` (discovers each - subsite's news-section path into the committed `src/govpl_subsites.json` - manifest) and `src/fetch_govpl.py` (pure-stdlib crawl of that manifest). -- Stable totals after adding govpl: 13 sources, 2,579,963 docs, 6.36B tokens - (tiktoken proxy). -- Article date range 2005-09-26 → 2026-07-19. Build dropped 24 non-Polish and - deduped 1,926 cross-posted articles (exact sha1). - -## v0.3.1-preview (2026-07-10) - -- Added a separate 810-document Europeana direct-ingestion preview parquet at - `previews/v0.3.1/europeana.parquet`. It was built from 1,000 live API records - using per-record rights/creator metadata in 59.4 seconds; 808 retained records are Public - Domain Mark and two are CC-BY-SA-4.0. -- The direct source gate dropped 181 non-Polish and nine OCR-garble records. - `dsbench` found unique IDs, no empty text, no duplicate text and no eval-set - overlap. Potential-phone matches remain warnings for manual review. -- This preview does not change v0.2.1 stable totals or promote Europeana to a - stable source. It is the measured contract for the full rights-preserving run. - -## v0.3.0-preview (in progress) - -- Validated the source-policy gate on live local SpeakLeash shards: 12 reviewed - sources sampled and cleared blocking checks; four sources remain excluded and - two talk-page shards remain on hold pending a separate policy. -- Ran a direct Europeana 200-record rebuild probe with per-record rights and - creator metadata: 197 Public Domain Mark and three CC-BY-SA-4.0 records - cleared blocking validation. This is candidate validation, not a release - inclusion. -- Biblioteka Nauki direct probe currently returns HTTP 500 and is held out of - the preview until the upstream request is repaired and audited. - -## v0.2.1 (2026-07-02) - -- Released a stable metadata-schema update: `id, text, source, added, created, token_count, license, author`. -- Current release totals after parquet recount: 12 sources, 2,491,773 docs, 6.28B tokens (tiktoken proxy). -- Added `1000_novels` as a stable CC-BY-4.0 literature source. -- Added source registry entries and PR contract for future `biblioteka_nauki` and `europeana` ingestion with per-document license/author metadata. These sources are not included in v0.2.1 parquets yet. -- Credited Bart Kobyliński for source expansion work on Biblioteka Nauki and Europeana metadata/rebuild preparation. -- Kept raw SpeakLeash Europeana excluded unless a direct rebuild preserves per-record rights metadata. -- Sources: eurlex, parliamentary, wikisource, wikipedia, dziennik_ustaw, wolne_lektury, 1000_novels, wikiquote, eltec_pol, wikivoyage, wikibooks, wikinews. -- Excluded (see README): open_subtitles_corpus, europeana_eu_pl_corpus_raw_speakleash, project_gutenberg_pl_corpus. +# Changelog + +## v0.2.2 (2026-07-19) + +- Added `govpl` — gov.pl Polish government press releases (CC-BY-SA-4.0), + 88,190 documents / 80.7M tokens, fetched directly from gov.pl across 133 + ministry/agency subsites. New scripts: `src/discover_govpl.py` (discovers each + subsite's news-section path into the committed `src/govpl_subsites.json` + manifest) and `src/fetch_govpl.py` (pure-stdlib crawl of that manifest). +- Stable totals after adding govpl: 13 sources, 2,579,963 docs, 6.36B tokens + (tiktoken proxy). +- Article date range 2005-09-26 → 2026-07-19. Build dropped 24 non-Polish and + deduped 1,926 cross-posted articles (exact sha1). + +## v0.3.1-preview (2026-07-10) + +- Added a separate 810-document Europeana direct-ingestion preview parquet at + `previews/v0.3.1/europeana.parquet`. It was built from 1,000 live API records + using per-record rights/creator metadata in 59.4 seconds; 808 retained records are Public + Domain Mark and two are CC-BY-SA-4.0. +- The direct source gate dropped 181 non-Polish and nine OCR-garble records. + `dsbench` found unique IDs, no empty text, no duplicate text and no eval-set + overlap. Potential-phone matches remain warnings for manual review. +- This preview does not change v0.2.1 stable totals or promote Europeana to a + stable source. It is the measured contract for the full rights-preserving run. + +## v0.3.0-preview (in progress) + +- Validated the source-policy gate on live local SpeakLeash shards: 12 reviewed + sources sampled and cleared blocking checks; four sources remain excluded and + two talk-page shards remain on hold pending a separate policy. +- Ran a direct Europeana 200-record rebuild probe with per-record rights and + creator metadata: 197 Public Domain Mark and three CC-BY-SA-4.0 records + cleared blocking validation. This is candidate validation, not a release + inclusion. +- Biblioteka Nauki direct probe currently returns HTTP 500 and is held out of + the preview until the upstream request is repaired and audited. + +## v0.2.1 (2026-07-02) + +- Released a stable metadata-schema update: `id, text, source, added, created, token_count, license, author`. +- Current release totals after parquet recount: 12 sources, 2,491,773 docs, 6.28B tokens (tiktoken proxy). +- Added `1000_novels` as a stable CC-BY-4.0 literature source. +- Added source registry entries and PR contract for future `biblioteka_nauki` and `europeana` ingestion with per-document license/author metadata. These sources are not included in v0.2.1 parquets yet. +- Credited Bart Kobyliński for source expansion work on Biblioteka Nauki and Europeana metadata/rebuild preparation. +- Kept raw SpeakLeash Europeana excluded unless a direct rebuild preserves per-record rights metadata. +- Sources: eurlex, parliamentary, wikisource, wikipedia, dziennik_ustaw, wolne_lektury, 1000_novels, wikiquote, eltec_pol, wikivoyage, wikibooks, wikinews. +- Excluded (see README): open_subtitles_corpus, europeana_eu_pl_corpus_raw_speakleash, project_gutenberg_pl_corpus. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md index c31e5fe20e2b5b369c07d796da2f9565bc62bdd9..a4c962842e69c3d7c7bbc996df84fc0e273be816 100644 --- a/README.md +++ b/README.md @@ -1,495 +1,365 @@ ---- -license: cc-by-sa-4.0 -language: -- pl -pretty_name: Polish DynaWord -task_categories: -- text-generation -size_categories: -- 1M<n<10M -tags: -- polish -- pretraining -- dynaword ---- - -# Polish DynaWord - -A continuously developed, **openly-licensed**, human-text Polish corpus — a Polish -edition in the [Dynaword](https://huggingface.co/datasets/danish-foundation-models/danish-dynaword) -family (Enevoldsen et al., [arXiv:2508.02271](https://arxiv.org/abs/2508.02271)). - -> **v0.2.5 stable** · 4,319,200 documents · **9.64B tokens** -> (tiktoken proxy; canonical Llama-3 count at release) · 18 sources -> Updated: **2026-08-14** - -> **v0.3-dev experimental track** · quality/diversity workflow, source-gate -> validation and candidate-data audits. This is development work, not a released -> corpus version, and it does not replace the v0.2.5 stable parquets. - -> **Europeana validation artifact (2026-07-10)** · a separate reproducible -> 810-document direct-ingestion sample stored under the legacy path -> `previews/v0.3.1/europeana.parquet`. It is not a full dataset release. - -## Releases - -### Stable releases - -| version | status | documents | tokens | notes | -|---|---|---:|---:|---| -| `v0.2.5` | stable release | 4,319,200 | 9.64B | Adds community-contributed `samorzad_gov_pl` with institution-level author attribution and a URL-bearing attribution sidecar. | -| `v0.2.4` | previous stable | 4,246,429 | 9.60B | Expanded `european_hplt_v3_pl` to WDS bins 10-5 (+1.49M docs / 2.04B tok); phone PII-scrub hardening (independent dual-lens) + cross-source dedup (zero-overlap). | -| `v0.2.3` | previous stable | 2,710,974 | 6.88B | Adds community-contributed `european_hplt_v3_pl`, `global_voices` and `nkjp1m`. | -| `v0.2.2` | previous stable | 2,579,963 | 6.36B | Added community-contributed `govpl`: 88,190 docs / 80.7M tokens. | -| `v0.2.1` | previous stable | 2,491,773 | 6.28B | 12-source corpus with `license` and `author` metadata columns; added `1000_novels`. | -| `v0.2.0` | previous stable | 2,490,773 | 6.22B | Provenance-first corpus from 11 open/official sources. | - -![Stable dataset size by version](artifacts/dataset_size_by_version.png) - -### Development and validation artifacts - -| name | type | scope | notes | -|---|---|---|---| -| `v0.3-dev` | experimental development track | workflow and candidate audits | Quality remix, legal-source caps, source QA, deduplication and direct-upstream ingestion. Not a corpus release. | -| `Europeana validation artifact 2026-07-10` | reproducible sample | 810 documents / 140,042 tokens | Stored at the legacy path `previews/v0.3.1/europeana.parquet`; preserves per-record rights and creator metadata. Not a corpus release. | - -### Version details - -#### v0.2.5 — current stable - -Added `samorzad_gov_pl`: **72,771 documents / 41,154,506 cl100k-proxy -tokens** from 246 Polish local public institutions and one central platform -tenant. The contribution preserves the publishing institution as `author`, -discovered and fetched article URLs in an attribution sidecar and the verified -platform-wide CC-BY-SA-4.0 basis. - -#### v0.2.4 — previous stable - -Expanded `european_hplt_v3_pl` from WDS bins 10+9 to **WDS bins 10-5** (added -quality bins 8/7/6/5 and further WDS-9 shards): **+1,493,384 documents / -2,043,141,874 cl100k-proxy tokens**, 100% CC0-1.0. Includes a phone PII-scrub -hardening pass (v12b) verified by two independent lenses (a systematic -recall-gap masked by pipeline self-report was caught pre-release), and -cross-source deduplication against the existing WDS-10+9 shards (exact-dup 0, -near-dup overlap 0.0000%, byte-verified) — resolving the "downstream near-dedup -remains" caveat from the original release. - -#### v0.2.3 — previous stable - -Community expansion release. Adds `european_hplt_v3_pl` from -[PR #5](https://huggingface.co/datasets/SlayerLab/polish-dynaword/discussions/5) -and `global_voices` from -[PR #7](https://huggingface.co/datasets/SlayerLab/polish-dynaword/discussions/7), -plus `nkjp1m` from -[PR #8](https://huggingface.co/datasets/SlayerLab/polish-dynaword/discussions/8). -The complete 16-source release contains **2,710,974 documents / -6,881,277,362 cl100k-proxy tokens**, summed from the released per-source parquet -statistics. - -#### v0.2.2 — previous stable - -Added `govpl` from -[PR #9](https://huggingface.co/datasets/SlayerLab/polish-dynaword/discussions/9): -88,190 Polish government press releases collected directly from 133 gov.pl -ministry and agency subsites. - -#### v0.2.1 — previous stable - -Introduced the canonical eight-column release schema: -`id, text, source, added, created, token_count, license, author`. Added -`1000_novels` from -[PR #1](https://huggingface.co/datasets/SlayerLab/polish-dynaword/discussions/1) -and recomputed all release statistics from parquet files. - -#### v0.2.0 — initial stable corpus - -The provenance-first baseline: 11 reviewed open or official sources, -2,490,773 documents and 6.22B proxy tokens. - -#### v0.3-dev — experimental quality workflow - -Candidate-only work on a better-balanced training mixture: legal-source caps, -temperature sampling, source QA, deduplication and direct-upstream ingestion. -It is not a replacement for the stable corpus. - -#### Europeana validation artifact — 2026-07-10 - -A separate reproducible 810-document Europeana sample preserving per-record -rights and creator metadata. It does not change stable-release totals. -`v0.3.1-preview` remains only as the legacy storage-path label. - -## What this dataset contributes -The raw texts come from existing open corpora (redistributed via SpeakLeash and, -where applicable, fetched from upstream). **The value added here is the curation, -not the bytes**, following the Dynaword methodology: - -1. **License review per source** — each source vetted for an *openly-licensed, - traceable* legal basis (documented in its datasheet); sources that fail the - review are **excluded with a stated reason** (see table below), not silently - kept. This is the core editorial work. -2. **Filtering & normalization** — minimal, reproducible gates (short-doc, - non-Polish, exact cross-source dedup, OCR garble) applied uniformly to one - clean schema: `id, text, source, added, created, token_count, license, author`. -3. **Documentation** — a datasheet per source (Gebru et al. 2021) + this card, - so provenance and licensing are auditable rather than assumed. -4. **Reproducibility & versioning** — `src/` rebuilds the corpus from sources; - new sources and removals are tracked in the CHANGELOG. - -Credit for the underlying texts belongs to the upstream sources and to SpeakLeash -as the redistributing aggregator; this release does not claim ownership of them -(see Disclaimer). - -## Contributors - -| contributor | contribution | release / PR | -|---|---|---| -| [Kacper Wikieł](https://huggingface.co/kacperwikiel) | Project maintainer; corpus curation, source and license review, release engineering, documentation, validation and reproducible build workflow. | all releases | -| [Bart Kobyliński](https://huggingface.co/bartoszkobylinski1) | Added `1000_novels`; expanded Biblioteka Nauki and Europeana ingestion with per-document license and author metadata. | `v0.2.1`, [PR #1](https://huggingface.co/datasets/SlayerLab/polish-dynaword/discussions/1) | -| [Paweł Puzio](https://huggingface.co/ppuzio) | Built `govpl`: subsite discovery, direct ingestion pipeline, dataset artifact, contract tests and documentation. | `v0.2.2`, [PR #9](https://huggingface.co/datasets/SlayerLab/polish-dynaword/discussions/9) | -| [Arkadiusz Słota](https://huggingface.co/Maggio33) | Built & expanded `european_hplt_v3_pl`: HPLT v3 WDS 10+9 (PR #5) then WDS 10-5 expansion (+1,493,384 docs / 2.04B tok), modular cleaning pipeline, phone-recall PII-scrub (v12b, independent dual-lens), cross-source dedup-vs-base (zero-overlap), validation and documentation. | `v0.2.3` (PR #5), `v0.2.4` | -| [Dawid Majewski](https://huggingface.co/dawidmajewski) | Added the reviewed Global Voices Polish corpus; built `samorzad_gov_pl` with direct acquisition, institution attribution, licensing evidence, release artifact and reproducible conversion. | `v0.2.3`, [PR #7](https://huggingface.co/datasets/SlayerLab/polish-dynaword/discussions/7); `v0.2.5` | -| [1am](https://huggingface.co/1am) | Added `nkjp1m`: the manually annotated 1-million-word NKJP subcorpus, direct fetch/build pipeline, source documentation and release artifact. | `v0.2.3`, [PR #8](https://huggingface.co/datasets/SlayerLab/polish-dynaword/discussions/8) | - -Contributions are credited when they add a verifiable dataset artifact, pipeline, -validation, documentation or release work. A merged discussion with no resulting -files is not listed as a data contribution. - -## Guiding principles -1. **Open & traceable licensing** — every source is *openly licensed* with a documented - legal basis (see each datasheet's "traceable basis"), not a vague "public domain". -2. **Reproducibility** — `src/build_dynaword.py` rebuilds the corpus from sources. -3. **Documented** — a datasheet per source under `data/<source>/`. -4. **Extensibility** — versioned; new sources via PR. - -## Sources -| source | description | license | documents | tokens | -|---|---|---|---:|---:| -| [european_hplt_v3_pl](data/european_hplt_v3_pl/european_hplt_v3_pl.md) | HPLT v3.0 Polish (web, top WDS bins 10-5) | `CC0-1.0` | 1,603,974 | 2,555.5M | -| [eurlex](data/eurlex/eurlex.md) | EUR-Lex (EU legal acts, Polish) | `CC-BY-4.0` | 243,060 | 2,378.1M | -| [parliamentary](data/parliamentary/parliamentary.md) | Polish Parliamentary Corpus (Sejm/Senat) | `public-domain (official documents)` | 324,622 | 1,646.8M | -| [wikisource](data/wikisource/wikisource.md) | Polish Wikisource | `CC-BY-SA-3.0` | 632,005 | 801.9M | -| [wikipedia](data/wikipedia/wikipedia.md) | Polish Wikipedia | `CC-BY-SA-3.0` | 1,171,897 | 707.2M | -| [biblioteka_nauki](data/biblioteka_nauki/biblioteka_nauki.md) | Biblioteka Nauki | `per-record upstream license` | 42,071 | 673.5M | -| [dziennik_ustaw](data/dziennik_ustaw/dziennik_ustaw.md) | Dziennik Ustaw + Monitor Polski (Polish primary legislation) | `public-domain (official documents)` | 35,442 | 486.1M | -| [wolne_lektury](data/wolne_lektury/wolne_lektury.md) | Wolne Lektury (school readings) | `CC-BY-SA-4.0 / Wolna Sztuka 1.3` | 6,141 | 103.0M | -| [govpl](data/govpl/govpl.md) | gov.pl — Polish government press releases | `CC-BY-SA-4.0` | 88,190 | 80.7M | -| [1000_novels](data/1000_novels/1000_novels.md) | 1000 Novels Corpus (CLARIN-PL) | `CC-BY-4.0` | 1,000 | 60.5M | -| [samorzad_gov_pl](data/samorzad_gov_pl/samorzad_gov_pl.md) | samorzad.gov.pl — Polish public-sector institutions | `CC-BY-SA-4.0` | 72,771 | 41.2M | -| [wikiquote](data/wikiquote/wikiquote.md) | Polish Wikiquote (quotations) | `CC-BY-SA-3.0` | 30,363 | 31.9M | -| [eltec_pol](data/eltec_pol/eltec_pol.md) | ELTeC-pol (European Literary Text Collection, Polish) | `CC-BY-4.0` | 100 | 21.5M | -| [wikivoyage](data/wikivoyage/wikivoyage.md) | Polish Wikivoyage (travel guides) | `CC-BY-SA-3.0` | 13,645 | 17.1M | -| [wikibooks](data/wikibooks/wikibooks.md) | Polish Wikibooks (open textbooks) | `CC-BY-SA-3.0` | 9,112 | 15.6M | -| [wikinews](data/wikinews/wikinews.md) | Polish Wikinews | `CC-BY-2.5` | 24,386 | 12.1M | -| [global_voices](data/global_voices/global_voices.md) | Global Voices Polish | `CC-BY-3.0` | 2,040 | 3.7M | -| [nkjp1m](data/nkjp1m/nkjp1m.md) | The manually annotated 1-million word subcorpus of the National Corpus of Polish | `CC-BY` | 18,381 | 2.6M | -| **total** | | | **4,319,200** | **9,639.1M** | - -## Sources on main, not yet released -Built and documented, but **not** part of v0.2.5 and excluded from every total above. They join a release when a CHANGELOG entry admits them. - -| source | description | license | documents | tokens | -|---|---|---|---:|---:| -| [sejm_api](data/sejm_api/sejm_api.md) | Sejm API parliamentary speeches (2023 onward) | `public-domain (official documents)` | 38,812 | 36.3M | -| [wiktionary_examples](data/wiktionary_examples/wiktionary_examples.md) | Polish Wiktionary usage examples | `CC-BY-SA-3.0` | 8,639 | 1.1M | - -## Method -Only **human-authored** text — no synthetic, machine-translated, or auto-transcribed -data. Gates are intentionally minimal (drop short docs, non-Polish, exact duplicates, -OCR garble); heavy quality filtering and mix-weighting are left to downstream training. -Evaluation-set decontamination is applied/marked separately. Schema: -`id, text, source, added, created, token_count, license, author`. The `license` -and `author` columns are per-document metadata when upstream exposes them; older -sources use the source-level license and an empty author field. - -## v0.3 quality roadmap and current status - -The v0.2.x raw corpus is intentionally provenance-first, but its token mix is too -heavy in legal/parliamentary language for natural general pretraining. The v0.3 -workflow therefore separates **source inclusion** from **training mix**: - -- cap `eurlex + parliamentary + dziennik_ustaw` to roughly **10-20%** of training - tokens combined; -- use source-level temperature sampling (`sqrt`, alpha `0.5`) instead of raw - token-proportional sampling; -- add traceably licensed contemporary/natural Polish: open web, academic prose, - cultural heritage text, guides, technical documentation/blogs, Q&A, and - dialogue/instruction data; -- run aggressive exact, normalized, and near-duplicate removal; -- reserve the final **5-15%** of training for higher-quality sources rather than - the largest sources; -- evaluate per-source perplexity and style contamination, not only global loss. - -Current v0.3 source-ingestion status: - -- `biblioteka_nauki`: included from the direct-upstream rebuild with - per-document license and author metadata. -- `europeana`: prepared in the source registry as a direct-upstream rebuild - target with per-record rights statements and creator metadata; raw SpeakLeash - Europeana remains excluded. -- Europeana release policy: split conservatively at pre-1929 records for - US-sensitive downstream reuse, and keep later/unknown records separately - labeled or held until legal review. -- `european_hplt_v3_pl`: WDS bins 10-5 are included in v0.2.5 after contract - validation. HPLT packaging is CC0, while underlying crawled web documents can - carry independent rights; downstream near-dedup and web-content review remain - recommended before training. - -Current review artifacts: - -- `configs/source_candidates_v0_3.json` — candidate decisions and license policy. -- `artifacts/source_license_review_v0_3.md` — source-by-source license review. -- `artifacts/source_candidate_audit_v0_3.md` — generated Hugging Face metadata audit. -- `artifacts/training_mix_v0_3.md` — example 1B-token training mix with legal sources capped at 15%. -- `artifacts/bartek_source_ingestion_plan_2026-07-02.md` — PR contract for - Biblioteka Nauki and Europeana ingestion. - -## Excluded sources (transparency) -Sources we reviewed and **deliberately left out** — part of the curation: - -| source | reason | -|---|---| -| `open_subtitles_corpus` | Derivative of copyrighted film/TV dialogue; OpenSubtitles uploads largely unlicensed. Same copyright lesson as Danish Gigaword's OpenSubtitles (paper 2508.02271). Not openly licensed. | -| `europeana_eu_pl_corpus_raw_speakleash` | Aggregated items with mixed per-record rights (PD / CC-BY-NC / rights-reserved). The raw SpeakLeash redistribution is excluded; only a direct rebuild preserving per-record rights metadata may be included. | -| `1000_novels_corpus_CLARIN-PL` | CC-BY-4.0 label, but 'novels' likely include in-copyright contemporary works; verify titles/years on CLARIN handle 11321/312 before inclusion. | -| `project_gutenberg_pl_corpus` | Only 31 PL books (4.3MB) — PG is ~99% English; Polish PD literature already covered by wolne_lektury + wikisource (so near-redundant after dedup). Dropped to avoid the PD-in-EU per-work check (PG claims PD-in-US only) for negligible token gain. | - -## Personal & sensitive data -This corpus contains **only** text that its upstream sources already published -under open licenses or as official public-domain record. It therefore includes -names and statements of **public figures acting in a public capacity** — e.g. -parliamentary speakers (PPC), authorities named in legal acts (EUR-Lex), and -people described in encyclopedic articles (Wikipedia/Wikisource). No private, -non-public personal data was collected or added. If you are a data subject and -want content concerning you removed, contact **k.wikiel@gmail.com** — it will be dropped -from the next version (see retroactive-removal policy below). - -## Disclaimer & legal -- **Provenance in good faith.** Per-source licenses are reproduced *as documented - by the upstream sources and by SpeakLeash* (the intermediate aggregator), to the - best of our knowledge. We make no independent legal warranty about the copyright - status of any individual document. -- **No ownership claim.** This release is a *curated, license-reviewed, documented - aggregation*. We claim no ownership of the underlying texts; rights remain with - the original authors/rightsholders under their respective licenses. -- **Provided "as is"**, without warranty of any kind, express or implied. This is - not legal advice. -- **Your compliance is yours.** Downstream users must satisfy each upstream - license themselves — in particular **CC-BY-SA-4.0 attribution and share-alike** - for derivatives of this dataset, and attribution to the upstream sources and to - SpeakLeash. -- **Notice-and-takedown.** Any source or rightsholder raising a substantiated - objection can have material removed: contact **k.wikiel@gmail.com**; it is dropped from - the next version and recorded in the CHANGELOG. Removal is retroactive - going-forward (prior immutable snapshots/commits may persist). - -## License & attribution -Released under **CC-BY-SA-4.0** (copyleft inherited from CC-BY-SA sources such as -Wikipedia/Wikisource/Wolne Lektury). Attribution due to each upstream (see datasheets) -and to **SpeakLeash** as the intermediate aggregator. Retroactive-removal policy: a -source that raises an objection is dropped from subsequent versions, recorded in the -CHANGELOG. - -## Reproduce -```bash -python3 src/build_dynaword.py --all --speakleash-dir <speakleash_zst_dir> --out . -python3 src/make_docs.py -``` - -## Results - -### Corpus phrase frequency (normalized by tokens) - -Raw counts and token-normalized shares are regenerated from the current Parquet files with `src/pattern_frequency_report.py`. - -- Total token count (tiktoken proxy): **9,639,062,573** - -| Pattern | Count | Share of all tokens | -|---|---:|---:| -| `w roku` | 585,072 | 0.0061% | -| `klasyfikacji` | 164,757 | 0.0017% | -| `ustawa` | 659,103 | 0.0068% | -| `artykuł` | 2,416,361 | 0.0251% | -| `parlament` | 1,285,792 | 0.0133% | -| `rozporządzenie` | 1,527,456 | 0.0158% | -| `w pobliżu` | 127,784 | 0.0013% | -| `mieszkańców` | 476,710 | 0.0049% | -| `Dz.U.` | 987,048 | 0.0102% | - -### Per-source shares - -| source | pattern | count | share of source tokens | -|---|---|---:|---:| -| `1000_novels` | `w roku` | 659 | 0.00109% | -| `1000_novels` | `klasyfikacji` | 14 | 0.00002% | -| `1000_novels` | `ustawa` | 656 | 0.00108% | -| `1000_novels` | `artykuł` | 729 | 0.00120% | -| `1000_novels` | `parlament` | 240 | 0.00040% | -| `1000_novels` | `rozporządzenie` | 65 | 0.00011% | -| `1000_novels` | `w pobliżu` | 1,262 | 0.00209% | -| `1000_novels` | `mieszkańców` | 868 | 0.00143% | -| `1000_novels` | `Dz.U.` | 0 | 0.00000% | -| `biblioteka_nauki` | `w roku` | 28,728 | 0.00427% | -| `biblioteka_nauki` | `klasyfikacji` | 9,045 | 0.00134% | -| `biblioteka_nauki` | `ustawa` | 48,791 | 0.00724% | -| `biblioteka_nauki` | `artykuł` | 91,241 | 0.01355% | -| `biblioteka_nauki` | `parlament` | 32,868 | 0.00488% | -| `biblioteka_nauki` | `rozporządzenie` | 19,594 | 0.00291% | -| `biblioteka_nauki` | `w pobliżu` | 3,378 | 0.00050% | -| `biblioteka_nauki` | `mieszkańców` | 34,392 | 0.00511% | -| `biblioteka_nauki` | `Dz.U.` | 33,098 | 0.00491% | -| `dziennik_ustaw` | `w roku` | 33,096 | 0.00681% | -| `dziennik_ustaw` | `klasyfikacji` | 10,896 | 0.00224% | -| `dziennik_ustaw` | `ustawa` | 77,376 | 0.01592% | -| `dziennik_ustaw` | `artykuł` | 27,773 | 0.00571% | -| `dziennik_ustaw` | `parlament` | 42,338 | 0.00871% | -| `dziennik_ustaw` | `rozporządzenie` | 166,383 | 0.03423% | -| `dziennik_ustaw` | `w pobliżu` | 1,087 | 0.00022% | -| `dziennik_ustaw` | `mieszkańców` | 8,025 | 0.00165% | -| `dziennik_ustaw` | `Dz.U.` | 158 | 0.00003% | -| `eltec_pol` | `w roku` | 108 | 0.00050% | -| `eltec_pol` | `klasyfikacji` | 1 | 0.00000% | -| `eltec_pol` | `ustawa` | 153 | 0.00071% | -| `eltec_pol` | `artykuł` | 173 | 0.00081% | -| `eltec_pol` | `parlament` | 95 | 0.00044% | -| `eltec_pol` | `rozporządzenie` | 35 | 0.00016% | -| `eltec_pol` | `w pobliżu` | 246 | 0.00114% | -| `eltec_pol` | `mieszkańców` | 214 | 0.00100% | -| `eltec_pol` | `Dz.U.` | 0 | 0.00000% | -| `eurlex` | `w roku` | 40,009 | 0.00168% | -| `eurlex` | `klasyfikacji` | 59,428 | 0.00250% | -| `eurlex` | `ustawa` | 30,368 | 0.00128% | -| `eurlex` | `artykuł` | 1,774,958 | 0.07464% | -| `eurlex` | `parlament` | 780,286 | 0.03281% | -| `eurlex` | `rozporządzenie` | 1,202,658 | 0.05057% | -| `eurlex` | `w pobliżu` | 6,088 | 0.00026% | -| `eurlex` | `mieszkańców` | 9,441 | 0.00040% | -| `eurlex` | `Dz.U.` | 915,707 | 0.03851% | -| `european_hplt_v3_pl` | `w roku` | 113,501 | 0.00444% | -| `european_hplt_v3_pl` | `klasyfikacji` | 24,675 | 0.00097% | -| `european_hplt_v3_pl` | `ustawa` | 16,067 | 0.00063% | -| `european_hplt_v3_pl` | `artykuł` | 283,875 | 0.01111% | -| `european_hplt_v3_pl` | `parlament` | 45,516 | 0.00178% | -| `european_hplt_v3_pl` | `rozporządzenie` | 11,841 | 0.00046% | -| `european_hplt_v3_pl` | `w pobliżu` | 44,108 | 0.00173% | -| `european_hplt_v3_pl` | `mieszkańców` | 172,896 | 0.00677% | -| `european_hplt_v3_pl` | `Dz.U.` | 9,487 | 0.00037% | -| `global_voices` | `w roku` | 160 | 0.00431% | -| `global_voices` | `klasyfikacji` | 5 | 0.00013% | -| `global_voices` | `ustawa` | 157 | 0.00423% | -| `global_voices` | `artykuł` | 1,047 | 0.02818% | -| `global_voices` | `parlament` | 366 | 0.00985% | -| `global_voices` | `rozporządzenie` | 26 | 0.00070% | -| `global_voices` | `w pobliżu` | 105 | 0.00283% | -| `global_voices` | `mieszkańców` | 508 | 0.01367% | -| `global_voices` | `Dz.U.` | 1 | 0.00003% | -| `govpl` | `w roku` | 3,372 | 0.00418% | -| `govpl` | `klasyfikacji` | 526 | 0.00065% | -| `govpl` | `ustawa` | 4,727 | 0.00586% | -| `govpl` | `artykuł` | 2,417 | 0.00300% | -| `govpl` | `parlament` | 3,967 | 0.00492% | -| `govpl` | `rozporządzenie` | 4,102 | 0.00509% | -| `govpl` | `w pobliżu` | 892 | 0.00111% | -| `govpl` | `mieszkańców` | 13,105 | 0.01625% | -| `govpl` | `Dz.U.` | 3,114 | 0.00386% | -| `nkjp1m` | `w roku` | 109 | 0.00419% | -| `nkjp1m` | `klasyfikacji` | 9 | 0.00035% | -| `nkjp1m` | `ustawa` | 79 | 0.00304% | -| `nkjp1m` | `artykuł` | 153 | 0.00588% | -| `nkjp1m` | `parlament` | 216 | 0.00830% | -| `nkjp1m` | `rozporządzenie` | 20 | 0.00077% | -| `nkjp1m` | `w pobliżu` | 77 | 0.00296% | -| `nkjp1m` | `mieszkańców` | 159 | 0.00611% | -| `nkjp1m` | `Dz.U.` | 2 | 0.00008% | -| `parliamentary` | `w roku` | 198,192 | 0.01203% | -| `parliamentary` | `klasyfikacji` | 12,637 | 0.00077% | -| `parliamentary` | `ustawa` | 459,179 | 0.02788% | -| `parliamentary` | `artykuł` | 182,038 | 0.01105% | -| `parliamentary` | `parlament` | 309,695 | 0.01881% | -| `parliamentary` | `rozporządzenie` | 113,547 | 0.00689% | -| `parliamentary` | `w pobliżu` | 4,964 | 0.00030% | -| `parliamentary` | `mieszkańców` | 78,048 | 0.00474% | -| `parliamentary` | `Dz.U.` | 23,809 | 0.00145% | -| `samorzad_gov_pl` | `w roku` | 3,661 | 0.00890% | -| `samorzad_gov_pl` | `klasyfikacji` | 520 | 0.00126% | -| `samorzad_gov_pl` | `ustawa` | 1,823 | 0.00443% | -| `samorzad_gov_pl` | `artykuł` | 1,269 | 0.00308% | -| `samorzad_gov_pl` | `parlament` | 1,218 | 0.00296% | -| `samorzad_gov_pl` | `rozporządzenie` | 1,409 | 0.00342% | -| `samorzad_gov_pl` | `w pobliżu` | 401 | 0.00097% | -| `samorzad_gov_pl` | `mieszkańców` | 14,450 | 0.03511% | -| `samorzad_gov_pl` | `Dz.U.` | 1,380 | 0.00335% | -| `wikibooks` | `w roku` | 319 | 0.00205% | -| `wikibooks` | `klasyfikacji` | 37 | 0.00024% | -| `wikibooks` | `ustawa` | 165 | 0.00106% | -| `wikibooks` | `artykuł` | 732 | 0.00470% | -| `wikibooks` | `parlament` | 283 | 0.00182% | -| `wikibooks` | `rozporządzenie` | 131 | 0.00084% | -| `wikibooks` | `w pobliżu` | 125 | 0.00080% | -| `wikibooks` | `mieszkańców` | 204 | 0.00131% | -| `wikibooks` | `Dz.U.` | 16 | 0.00010% | -| `wikinews` | `w roku` | 449 | 0.00370% | -| `wikinews` | `klasyfikacji` | 639 | 0.00526% | -| `wikinews` | `ustawa` | 407 | 0.00335% | -| `wikinews` | `artykuł` | 2,474 | 0.02038% | -| `wikinews` | `parlament` | 2,530 | 0.02084% | -| `wikinews` | `rozporządzenie` | 168 | 0.00138% | -| `wikinews` | `w pobliżu` | 455 | 0.00375% | -| `wikinews` | `mieszkańców` | 1,014 | 0.00835% | -| `wikinews` | `Dz.U.` | 27 | 0.00022% | -| `wikipedia` | `w roku` | 143,023 | 0.02022% | -| `wikipedia` | `klasyfikacji` | 46,043 | 0.00651% | -| `wikipedia` | `ustawa` | 9,536 | 0.00135% | -| `wikipedia` | `artykuł` | 28,165 | 0.00398% | -| `wikipedia` | `parlament` | 57,863 | 0.00818% | -| `wikipedia` | `rozporządzenie` | 5,637 | 0.00080% | -| `wikipedia` | `w pobliżu` | 41,915 | 0.00593% | -| `wikipedia` | `mieszkańców` | 122,766 | 0.01736% | -| `wikipedia` | `Dz.U.` | 232 | 0.00003% | -| `wikiquote` | `w roku` | 608 | 0.00191% | -| `wikiquote` | `klasyfikacji` | 15 | 0.00005% | -| `wikiquote` | `ustawa` | 357 | 0.00112% | -| `wikiquote` | `artykuł` | 606 | 0.00190% | -| `wikiquote` | `parlament` | 1,271 | 0.00398% | -| `wikiquote` | `rozporządzenie` | 27 | 0.00008% | -| `wikiquote` | `w pobliżu` | 207 | 0.00065% | -| `wikiquote` | `mieszkańców` | 527 | 0.00165% | -| `wikiquote` | `Dz.U.` | 6 | 0.00002% | -| `wikisource` | `w roku` | 16,571 | 0.00207% | -| `wikisource` | `klasyfikacji` | 166 | 0.00002% | -| `wikisource` | `ustawa` | 8,156 | 0.00102% | -| `wikisource` | `artykuł` | 16,230 | 0.00202% | -| `wikisource` | `parlament` | 6,119 | 0.00076% | -| `wikisource` | `rozporządzenie` | 1,651 | 0.00021% | -| `wikisource` | `w pobliżu` | 13,921 | 0.00174% | -| `wikisource` | `mieszkańców` | 14,335 | 0.00179% | -| `wikisource` | `Dz.U.` | 5 | 0.00000% | -| `wikivoyage` | `w roku` | 609 | 0.00356% | -| `wikivoyage` | `klasyfikacji` | 21 | 0.00012% | -| `wikivoyage` | `ustawa` | 46 | 0.00027% | -| `wikivoyage` | `artykuł` | 657 | 0.00384% | -| `wikivoyage` | `parlament` | 249 | 0.00145% | -| `wikivoyage` | `rozporządzenie` | 34 | 0.00020% | -| `wikivoyage` | `w pobliżu` | 6,480 | 0.03783% | -| `wikivoyage` | `mieszkańców` | 4,100 | 0.02394% | -| `wikivoyage` | `Dz.U.` | 1 | 0.00001% | -| `wolne_lektury` | `w roku` | 1,898 | 0.00184% | -| `wolne_lektury` | `klasyfikacji` | 80 | 0.00008% | -| `wolne_lektury` | `ustawa` | 1,060 | 0.00103% | -| `wolne_lektury` | `artykuł` | 1,824 | 0.00177% | -| `wolne_lektury` | `parlament` | 672 | 0.00065% | -| `wolne_lektury` | `rozporządzenie` | 128 | 0.00012% | -| `wolne_lektury` | `w pobliżu` | 2,073 | 0.00201% | -| `wolne_lektury` | `mieszkańców` | 1,658 | 0.00161% | -| `wolne_lektury` | `Dz.U.` | 5 | 0.00000% | - -![Overall pattern counts](artifacts/pattern_frequency_overall.png) - -![w roku by source](artifacts/pattern_frequency_w_roku.png) -![klasyfikacji by source](artifacts/pattern_frequency_klasyfikacji.png) -![ustawa by source](artifacts/pattern_frequency_ustawa.png) -![artykuł by source](artifacts/pattern_frequency_artykul.png) -![parlament by source](artifacts/pattern_frequency_parlament.png) -![rozporządzenie by source](artifacts/pattern_frequency_rozporządzenie.png) -![w pobliżu by source](artifacts/pattern_frequency_w_pobliżu.png) -![mieszkańców by source](artifacts/pattern_frequency_mieszkańców.png) -![Dz.U. by source](artifacts/pattern_frequency_dzu.png) +--- +license: cc-by-sa-4.0 +language: +- pl +pretty_name: Polish DynaWord +task_categories: +- text-generation +size_categories: +- 1M<n<10M +tags: +- polish +- pretraining +- dynaword +--- + +# Polish DynaWord + +A continuously developed, **openly-licensed**, human-text Polish corpus — a Polish +edition in the [Dynaword](https://huggingface.co/datasets/danish-foundation-models/danish-dynaword) +family (Enevoldsen et al., [arXiv:2508.02271](https://arxiv.org/abs/2508.02271)). + +> **v0.2.2 stable** · 2,579,963 documents · **6.36B tokens** +> (tiktoken proxy; canonical Llama-3 count at release) · 13 sources +> Updated: **2026-07-19** + +> **v0.3.0-preview validation release** · live source-gate validation for +> SpeakLeash shards and direct Europeana candidate data, plus the quality/diversity +> remix workflow. This is candidate-only metadata and audit work: it does not +> replace the v0.2.1 stable parquets. + +> **v0.3.1-preview** · first reproducible Europeana direct-ingestion shard: +> 1,000 API records → 810 quality-gated parquet documents, each preserving +> per-record rights and creator metadata. Stored separately under +> `previews/v0.3.1/europeana.parquet`; the paged Search API run took 59.4 s and +> does not alter v0.2.1 stable totals. + +## Versions + +| version | status | documents | tokens | notes | +|---|---|---:|---:|---| +| `v0.2.2` | stable release | 2,579,963 | 6.36B | Adds `govpl` (gov.pl government press releases, CC-BY-SA-4.0): 88,190 docs / 80.7M tokens fetched directly across 133 ministry/agency subsites. | +| `v0.2.1` | previous stable | 2,491,773 | 6.28B | 12-source stable corpus with `license` and `author` metadata columns; adds `1000_novels`. | +| `v0.2.0` | previous stable | 2,490,773 | 6.22B | Provenance-first corpus from 11 open/official sources. | +| `v0.3.0-preview` | validation release, candidate-only | candidate-only | TBD | Live source gates validated; Biblioteka Nauki, Europeana, and HPLT/Common Corpus expansion remain subject to per-source QA, dedup, and legal review. | +| `v0.3.1-preview` | reproducible Europeana shard | 810 | 140,042 | 1,000 direct API records sampled; 810 passed short/language/OCR gates, with per-record rights and author metadata. | + +## What this dataset contributes +The raw texts come from existing open corpora (redistributed via SpeakLeash and, +where applicable, fetched from upstream). **The value added here is the curation, +not the bytes**, following the Dynaword methodology: + +1. **License review per source** — each source vetted for an *openly-licensed, + traceable* legal basis (documented in its datasheet); sources that fail the + review are **excluded with a stated reason** (see table below), not silently + kept. This is the core editorial work. +2. **Filtering & normalization** — minimal, reproducible gates (short-doc, + non-Polish, exact cross-source dedup, OCR garble) applied uniformly to one + clean schema: `id, text, source, added, created, token_count, license, author`. +3. **Documentation** — a datasheet per source (Gebru et al. 2021) + this card, + so provenance and licensing are auditable rather than assumed. +4. **Reproducibility & versioning** — `src/` rebuilds the corpus from sources; + new sources and removals are tracked in the CHANGELOG. + +Credit for the underlying texts belongs to the upstream sources and to SpeakLeash +as the redistributing aggregator; this release does not claim ownership of them +(see Disclaimer). + +## Contributors + +- **Kacper Wikieł** — corpus curation, release engineering, documentation, and + reproducible build workflow. +- **Bart Kobyliński** — source expansion work for Biblioteka Nauki and Europeana, + including per-document license/author metadata collection and rebuild planning. + +## Guiding principles +1. **Open & traceable licensing** — every source is *openly licensed* with a documented + legal basis (see each datasheet's "traceable basis"), not a vague "public domain". +2. **Reproducibility** — `src/build_dynaword.py` rebuilds the corpus from sources. +3. **Documented** — a datasheet per source under `data/<source>/`. +4. **Extensibility** — versioned; new sources via PR. + +## Sources +| source | description | license | documents | tokens | +|---|---|---|---:|---:| +| [eurlex](data/eurlex/eurlex.md) | EUR-Lex (EU legal acts, Polish) | `CC-BY-4.0` | 243,060 | 2,378.1M | +| [parliamentary](data/parliamentary/parliamentary.md) | Polish Parliamentary Corpus (Sejm/Senat) | `public-domain (official documents)` | 324,622 | 1,646.8M | +| [wikisource](data/wikisource/wikisource.md) | Polish Wikisource | `CC-BY-SA-3.0` | 632,005 | 801.9M | +| [wikipedia](data/wikipedia/wikipedia.md) | Polish Wikipedia | `CC-BY-SA-3.0` | 1,171,897 | 707.2M | +| [dziennik_ustaw](data/dziennik_ustaw/dziennik_ustaw.md) | Dziennik Ustaw + Monitor Polski (Polish primary legislation) | `public-domain (official documents)` | 35,442 | 486.1M | +| [wolne_lektury](data/wolne_lektury/wolne_lektury.md) | Wolne Lektury (school readings) | `CC-BY-SA-4.0 / Wolna Sztuka 1.3` | 6,141 | 103.0M | +| [govpl](data/govpl/govpl.md) | gov.pl — Polish government press releases | `CC-BY-SA-4.0` | 88,190 | 80.7M | +| [1000_novels](data/1000_novels/1000_novels.md) | 1000 Novels Corpus (CLARIN-PL) | `CC-BY-4.0` | 1,000 | 60.5M | +| [wikiquote](data/wikiquote/wikiquote.md) | Polish Wikiquote (quotations) | `CC-BY-SA-3.0` | 30,363 | 31.9M | +| [eltec_pol](data/eltec_pol/eltec_pol.md) | ELTeC-pol (European Literary Text Collection, Polish) | `CC-BY-4.0` | 100 | 21.5M | +| [wikivoyage](data/wikivoyage/wikivoyage.md) | Polish Wikivoyage (travel guides) | `CC-BY-SA-3.0` | 13,645 | 17.1M | +| [wikibooks](data/wikibooks/wikibooks.md) | Polish Wikibooks (open textbooks) | `CC-BY-SA-3.0` | 9,112 | 15.6M | +| [wikinews](data/wikinews/wikinews.md) | Polish Wikinews | `CC-BY-2.5` | 24,386 | 12.1M | +| **total** | | | **2,579,963** | **6,362.6M** | + +## Method +Only **human-authored** text — no synthetic, machine-translated, or auto-transcribed +data. Gates are intentionally minimal (drop short docs, non-Polish, exact duplicates, +OCR garble); heavy quality filtering and mix-weighting are left to downstream training. +Evaluation-set decontamination is applied/marked separately. Schema: +`id, text, source, added, created, token_count, license, author`. The `license` +and `author` columns are per-document metadata when upstream exposes them; older +sources use the source-level license and an empty author field. + +## v0.3 quality roadmap and current status + +The v0.2.x raw corpus is intentionally provenance-first, but its token mix is too +heavy in legal/parliamentary language for natural general pretraining. The v0.3 +workflow therefore separates **source inclusion** from **training mix**: + +- cap `eurlex + parliamentary + dziennik_ustaw` to roughly **10-20%** of training + tokens combined; +- use source-level temperature sampling (`sqrt`, alpha `0.5`) instead of raw + token-proportional sampling; +- add traceably licensed contemporary/natural Polish: open web, academic prose, + cultural heritage text, guides, technical documentation/blogs, Q&A, and + dialogue/instruction data; +- run aggressive exact, normalized, and near-duplicate removal; +- reserve the final **5-15%** of training for higher-quality sources rather than + the largest sources; +- evaluate per-source perplexity and style contamination, not only global loss. + +Current v0.3 source-ingestion status: + +- `biblioteka_nauki`: prepared in the source registry as a direct-upstream + rebuild target with per-document license and author metadata. A live probe + currently returns HTTP 500 and zero records, so it is **not included** in + v0.2.1 or the v0.3 preview candidate data. +- `europeana`: prepared in the source registry as a direct-upstream rebuild + target with per-record rights statements and creator metadata. A 200-record + live direct-rebuild audit found 197 Public Domain Mark records and three + CC-BY-SA-4.0 records; all passed the blocking schema, license, duplicate and + evaluation-overlap gates. It remains candidate-only until a complete rebuild, + date split, and legal review are complete. Raw SpeakLeash Europeana remains + excluded. +- Local SpeakLeash shard audit: 12 reviewed source shards were sampled directly + from the live `.jsonl.zst` inputs and passed the blocking gates; four shards + are explicitly excluded (`open_subtitles_corpus`, raw Europeana, + `1000_novels_corpus_CLARIN-PL`, `project_gutenberg_pl_corpus`) and two talk + shards remain on hold pending a separate source policy. The audit mechanism is + aligned with [slayer-dsbench](https://github.com/slayerlabs/slayer-dsbench). +- Europeana release policy: split conservatively at pre-1929 records for + US-sensitive downstream reuse, and keep later/unknown records separately + labeled or held until legal review. +- `ashtok897/european-hplt-v1`: candidate workflow exists, but web-crawl + provenance, dedup, QA, and final mix weighting are still pending before stable + inclusion. + +Current review artifacts: + +- `configs/source_candidates_v0_3.json` — candidate decisions and license policy. +- `artifacts/source_license_review_v0_3.md` — source-by-source license review. +- `artifacts/source_candidate_audit_v0_3.md` — generated Hugging Face metadata audit. +- `artifacts/training_mix_v0_3.md` — example 1B-token training mix with legal sources capped at 15%. +- `artifacts/bartek_source_ingestion_plan_2026-07-02.md` — PR contract for + Biblioteka Nauki and Europeana ingestion. + +## Excluded sources (transparency) +Sources we reviewed and **deliberately left out** — part of the curation: + +| source | reason | +|---|---| +| `open_subtitles_corpus` | Derivative of copyrighted film/TV dialogue; OpenSubtitles uploads largely unlicensed. Same copyright lesson as Danish Gigaword's OpenSubtitles (paper 2508.02271). Not openly licensed. | +| `europeana_eu_pl_corpus_raw_speakleash` | Aggregated items with mixed per-record rights (PD / CC-BY-NC / rights-reserved). The raw SpeakLeash redistribution is excluded; only a direct rebuild preserving per-record rights metadata may be included. | +| `project_gutenberg_pl_corpus` | Only 31 PL books (4.3MB) — PG is ~99% English; Polish PD literature already covered by wolne_lektury + wikisource (so near-redundant after dedup). Dropped to avoid the PD-in-EU per-work check (PG claims PD-in-US only) for negligible token gain. | + +## Personal & sensitive data +This corpus contains **only** text that its upstream sources already published +under open licenses or as official public-domain record. It therefore includes +names and statements of **public figures acting in a public capacity** — e.g. +parliamentary speakers (PPC), authorities named in legal acts (EUR-Lex), and +people described in encyclopedic articles (Wikipedia/Wikisource). No private, +non-public personal data was collected or added. If you are a data subject and +want content concerning you removed, contact **k.wikiel@gmail.com** — it will be dropped +from the next version (see retroactive-removal policy below). + +## Disclaimer & legal +- **Provenance in good faith.** Per-source licenses are reproduced *as documented + by the upstream sources and by SpeakLeash* (the intermediate aggregator), to the + best of our knowledge. We make no independent legal warranty about the copyright + status of any individual document. +- **No ownership claim.** This release is a *curated, license-reviewed, documented + aggregation*. We claim no ownership of the underlying texts; rights remain with + the original authors/rightsholders under their respective licenses. +- **Provided "as is"**, without warranty of any kind, express or implied. This is + not legal advice. +- **Your compliance is yours.** Downstream users must satisfy each upstream + license themselves — in particular **CC-BY-SA-4.0 attribution and share-alike** + for derivatives of this dataset, and attribution to the upstream sources and to + SpeakLeash. +- **Notice-and-takedown.** Any source or rightsholder raising a substantiated + objection can have material removed: contact **k.wikiel@gmail.com**; it is dropped from + the next version and recorded in the CHANGELOG. Removal is retroactive + going-forward (prior immutable snapshots/commits may persist). + +## License & attribution +Released under **CC-BY-SA-4.0** (copyleft inherited from CC-BY-SA sources such as +Wikipedia/Wikisource/Wolne Lektury). Attribution due to each upstream (see datasheets) +and to **SpeakLeash** as the intermediate aggregator. Retroactive-removal policy: a +source that raises an objection is dropped from subsequent versions, recorded in the +CHANGELOG. + +## Reproduce +```bash +python3 src/build_dynaword.py --all --speakleash-dir <speakleash_zst_dir> --out . +python3 src/make_docs.py +``` + +## Results + +### Corpus phrase frequency (normalized by tokens) + +Raw counts and token-normalized shares are regenerated from the current parquet files with `src/pattern_frequency_report.py`. + +- Total token count (tiktoken proxy): **6,362,577,363** + +| Pattern | Count | Share of all tokens | +|---|---:|---:| +| `w roku` | 438,913 | 0.0069% | +| `klasyfikacji` | 130,503 | 0.0021% | +| `ustawa` | 592,186 | 0.0093% | +| `artykuł` | 2,038,776 | 0.0320% | +| `parlament` | 1,205,608 | 0.0189% | +| `rozporządzenie` | 1,494,566 | 0.0235% | +| `w pobliżu` | 79,715 | 0.0013% | +| `mieszkańców` | 254,305 | 0.0040% | +| `Dz.U.` | 943,080 | 0.0148% | + +### Per-source shares + +| source | pattern | count | share of source tokens | +|---|---|---:|---:| +| `1000_novels` | `w roku` | 659 | 0.00109% | +| `1000_novels` | `klasyfikacji` | 14 | 0.00002% | +| `1000_novels` | `ustawa` | 656 | 0.00108% | +| `1000_novels` | `artykuł` | 729 | 0.00120% | +| `1000_novels` | `parlament` | 240 | 0.00040% | +| `1000_novels` | `rozporządzenie` | 65 | 0.00011% | +| `1000_novels` | `w pobliżu` | 1,262 | 0.00209% | +| `1000_novels` | `mieszkańców` | 868 | 0.00143% | +| `1000_novels` | `Dz.U.` | 0 | 0.00000% | +| `dziennik_ustaw` | `w roku` | 33,096 | 0.00681% | +| `dziennik_ustaw` | `klasyfikacji` | 10,896 | 0.00224% | +| `dziennik_ustaw` | `ustawa` | 77,376 | 0.01592% | +| `dziennik_ustaw` | `artykuł` | 27,773 | 0.00571% | +| `dziennik_ustaw` | `parlament` | 42,338 | 0.00871% | +| `dziennik_ustaw` | `rozporządzenie` | 166,383 | 0.03423% | +| `dziennik_ustaw` | `w pobliżu` | 1,087 | 0.00022% | +| `dziennik_ustaw` | `mieszkańców` | 8,025 | 0.00165% | +| `dziennik_ustaw` | `Dz.U.` | 158 | 0.00003% | +| `eltec_pol` | `w roku` | 108 | 0.00050% | +| `eltec_pol` | `klasyfikacji` | 1 | 0.00000% | +| `eltec_pol` | `ustawa` | 153 | 0.00071% | +| `eltec_pol` | `artykuł` | 173 | 0.00081% | +| `eltec_pol` | `parlament` | 95 | 0.00044% | +| `eltec_pol` | `rozporządzenie` | 35 | 0.00016% | +| `eltec_pol` | `w pobliżu` | 246 | 0.00114% | +| `eltec_pol` | `mieszkańców` | 214 | 0.00100% | +| `eltec_pol` | `Dz.U.` | 0 | 0.00000% | +| `eurlex` | `w roku` | 40,009 | 0.00168% | +| `eurlex` | `klasyfikacji` | 59,428 | 0.00250% | +| `eurlex` | `ustawa` | 30,368 | 0.00128% | +| `eurlex` | `artykuł` | 1,774,958 | 0.07464% | +| `eurlex` | `parlament` | 780,286 | 0.03281% | +| `eurlex` | `rozporządzenie` | 1,202,658 | 0.05057% | +| `eurlex` | `w pobliżu` | 6,088 | 0.00026% | +| `eurlex` | `mieszkańców` | 9,441 | 0.00040% | +| `eurlex` | `Dz.U.` | 915,707 | 0.03851% | +| `govpl` | `w roku` | 3,372 | 0.00418% | +| `govpl` | `klasyfikacji` | 526 | 0.00065% | +| `govpl` | `ustawa` | 4,727 | 0.00586% | +| `govpl` | `artykuł` | 2,417 | 0.00300% | +| `govpl` | `parlament` | 3,967 | 0.00492% | +| `govpl` | `rozporządzenie` | 4,102 | 0.00509% | +| `govpl` | `w pobliżu` | 892 | 0.00111% | +| `govpl` | `mieszkańców` | 13,105 | 0.01625% | +| `govpl` | `Dz.U.` | 3,114 | 0.00386% | +| `parliamentary` | `w roku` | 198,192 | 0.01203% | +| `parliamentary` | `klasyfikacji` | 12,637 | 0.00077% | +| `parliamentary` | `ustawa` | 459,179 | 0.02788% | +| `parliamentary` | `artykuł` | 182,038 | 0.01105% | +| `parliamentary` | `parlament` | 309,695 | 0.01881% | +| `parliamentary` | `rozporządzenie` | 113,547 | 0.00689% | +| `parliamentary` | `w pobliżu` | 4,964 | 0.00030% | +| `parliamentary` | `mieszkańców` | 78,048 | 0.00474% | +| `parliamentary` | `Dz.U.` | 23,809 | 0.00145% | +| `wikibooks` | `w roku` | 319 | 0.00205% | +| `wikibooks` | `klasyfikacji` | 37 | 0.00024% | +| `wikibooks` | `ustawa` | 165 | 0.00106% | +| `wikibooks` | `artykuł` | 732 | 0.00470% | +| `wikibooks` | `parlament` | 283 | 0.00182% | +| `wikibooks` | `rozporządzenie` | 131 | 0.00084% | +| `wikibooks` | `w pobliżu` | 125 | 0.00080% | +| `wikibooks` | `mieszkańców` | 204 | 0.00131% | +| `wikibooks` | `Dz.U.` | 16 | 0.00010% | +| `wikinews` | `w roku` | 449 | 0.00370% | +| `wikinews` | `klasyfikacji` | 639 | 0.00526% | +| `wikinews` | `ustawa` | 407 | 0.00335% | +| `wikinews` | `artykuł` | 2,474 | 0.02038% | +| `wikinews` | `parlament` | 2,530 | 0.02084% | +| `wikinews` | `rozporządzenie` | 168 | 0.00138% | +| `wikinews` | `w pobliżu` | 455 | 0.00375% | +| `wikinews` | `mieszkańców` | 1,014 | 0.00835% | +| `wikinews` | `Dz.U.` | 27 | 0.00022% | +| `wikipedia` | `w roku` | 143,023 | 0.02022% | +| `wikipedia` | `klasyfikacji` | 46,043 | 0.00651% | +| `wikipedia` | `ustawa` | 9,536 | 0.00135% | +| `wikipedia` | `artykuł` | 28,165 | 0.00398% | +| `wikipedia` | `parlament` | 57,863 | 0.00818% | +| `wikipedia` | `rozporządzenie` | 5,637 | 0.00080% | +| `wikipedia` | `w pobliżu` | 41,915 | 0.00593% | +| `wikipedia` | `mieszkańców` | 122,766 | 0.01736% | +| `wikipedia` | `Dz.U.` | 232 | 0.00003% | +| `wikiquote` | `w roku` | 608 | 0.00191% | +| `wikiquote` | `klasyfikacji` | 15 | 0.00005% | +| `wikiquote` | `ustawa` | 357 | 0.00112% | +| `wikiquote` | `artykuł` | 606 | 0.00190% | +| `wikiquote` | `parlament` | 1,271 | 0.00398% | +| `wikiquote` | `rozporządzenie` | 27 | 0.00008% | +| `wikiquote` | `w pobliżu` | 207 | 0.00065% | +| `wikiquote` | `mieszkańców` | 527 | 0.00165% | +| `wikiquote` | `Dz.U.` | 6 | 0.00002% | +| `wikisource` | `w roku` | 16,571 | 0.00207% | +| `wikisource` | `klasyfikacji` | 166 | 0.00002% | +| `wikisource` | `ustawa` | 8,156 | 0.00102% | +| `wikisource` | `artykuł` | 16,230 | 0.00202% | +| `wikisource` | `parlament` | 6,119 | 0.00076% | +| `wikisource` | `rozporządzenie` | 1,651 | 0.00021% | +| `wikisource` | `w pobliżu` | 13,921 | 0.00174% | +| `wikisource` | `mieszkańców` | 14,335 | 0.00179% | +| `wikisource` | `Dz.U.` | 5 | 0.00000% | +| `wikivoyage` | `w roku` | 609 | 0.00356% | +| `wikivoyage` | `klasyfikacji` | 21 | 0.00012% | +| `wikivoyage` | `ustawa` | 46 | 0.00027% | +| `wikivoyage` | `artykuł` | 657 | 0.00384% | +| `wikivoyage` | `parlament` | 249 | 0.00145% | +| `wikivoyage` | `rozporządzenie` | 34 | 0.00020% | +| `wikivoyage` | `w pobliżu` | 6,480 | 0.03783% | +| `wikivoyage` | `mieszkańców` | 4,100 | 0.02394% | +| `wikivoyage` | `Dz.U.` | 1 | 0.00001% | +| `wolne_lektury` | `w roku` | 1,898 | 0.00184% | +| `wolne_lektury` | `klasyfikacji` | 80 | 0.00008% | +| `wolne_lektury` | `ustawa` | 1,060 | 0.00103% | +| `wolne_lektury` | `artykuł` | 1,824 | 0.00177% | +| `wolne_lektury` | `parlament` | 672 | 0.00065% | +| `wolne_lektury` | `rozporządzenie` | 128 | 0.00012% | +| `wolne_lektury` | `w pobliżu` | 2,073 | 0.00201% | +| `wolne_lektury` | `mieszkańców` | 1,658 | 0.00161% | +| `wolne_lektury` | `Dz.U.` | 5 | 0.00000% | + +![Overall pattern counts](artifacts/pattern_frequency_overall.png) + +![w roku by source](artifacts/pattern_frequency_w_roku.png) +![klasyfikacji by source](artifacts/pattern_frequency_klasyfikacji.png) +![ustawa by source](artifacts/pattern_frequency_ustawa.png) +![artykuł by source](artifacts/pattern_frequency_artykul.png) +![parlament by source](artifacts/pattern_frequency_parlament.png) +![rozporządzenie by source](artifacts/pattern_frequency_rozporządzenie.png) +![w pobliżu by source](artifacts/pattern_frequency_w_pobliżu.png) +![mieszkańców by source](artifacts/pattern_frequency_mieszkańców.png) +![Dz.U. by source](artifacts/pattern_frequency_dzu.png) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/artifacts/dataset_size_by_version.png b/artifacts/dataset_size_by_version.png deleted file mode 100644 index af96d170a29e35015331083e3de2720366e2d6e4..0000000000000000000000000000000000000000 --- a/artifacts/dataset_size_by_version.png +++ /dev/null @@ -1,3 +0,0 @@ -version https://git-lfs.github.com/spec/v1 -oid sha256:af78c3ed4c7eb3d96b4b3e8e15a9ae3aa2b0767c3cec47ac256414b00ea0c4bb -size 109961 diff --git a/artifacts/pattern_frequency_artykul.png b/artifacts/pattern_frequency_artykul.png index ebd06c106905d9729d397c5e761d6b8808d63542..e83a7d01d377026f742aa47704c5d4dd5c681e4f 100644 --- a/artifacts/pattern_frequency_artykul.png +++ b/artifacts/pattern_frequency_artykul.png @@ -1,3 +1,3 @@ version https://git-lfs.github.com/spec/v1 -oid sha256:28dc305b24f40d1b8c76d74dc35c68ee8b1209b70d308b1cb415a2a3462f8c05 -size 58544 +oid sha256:f980030ed6ceeebcd54a7a5054df5e72ed3221e6080ccf82dc268d6d4fee4149 +size 53489 diff --git a/artifacts/pattern_frequency_dzu.png b/artifacts/pattern_frequency_dzu.png index 2d6ca19e837435664d0301b766ac9a8bebebe9d1..92f7eb5911d141575c63e4ca8729ce2d07192e43 100644 --- a/artifacts/pattern_frequency_dzu.png +++ b/artifacts/pattern_frequency_dzu.png @@ -1,3 +1,3 @@ version https://git-lfs.github.com/spec/v1 -oid sha256:a4d57c783c41b14c001368d384d45f26a371a4aad49892bc976db9d8812bed39 -size 59560 +oid sha256:fb55b01d95a4bff496bb8fa665f2a8866f59aa72584f10f840ad41ee84e25b0c +size 55983 diff --git a/artifacts/pattern_frequency_hf_snippet.md b/artifacts/pattern_frequency_hf_snippet.md index ea288a2654a196ad49c9f4c49ae7fb3b00d7c2cf..eb52609f01ea9f8e8044a8ead1205f35c619bdc5 100644 --- a/artifacts/pattern_frequency_hf_snippet.md +++ b/artifacts/pattern_frequency_hf_snippet.md @@ -1,18 +1,18 @@ ## Phrase frequency in corpus (token-normalized) -- Total token count (tiktoken proxy): **9,639,062,573** +- Total token count (tiktoken proxy): **6,362,577,363** | Pattern | Count | Share of all tokens | |---|---:|---:| -| `w roku` | 585,072 | 0.0061% | -| `klasyfikacji` | 164,757 | 0.0017% | -| `ustawa` | 659,103 | 0.0068% | -| `artykuł` | 2,416,361 | 0.0251% | -| `parlament` | 1,285,792 | 0.0133% | -| `rozporządzenie` | 1,527,456 | 0.0158% | -| `w pobliżu` | 127,784 | 0.0013% | -| `mieszkańców` | 476,710 | 0.0049% | -| `Dz.U.` | 987,048 | 0.0102% | +| `w roku` | 438,913 | 0.0069% | +| `klasyfikacji` | 130,503 | 0.0021% | +| `ustawa` | 592,186 | 0.0093% | +| `artykuł` | 2,038,776 | 0.0320% | +| `parlament` | 1,205,608 | 0.0189% | +| `rozporządzenie` | 1,494,566 | 0.0235% | +| `w pobliżu` | 79,715 | 0.0013% | +| `mieszkańców` | 254,305 | 0.0040% | +| `Dz.U.` | 943,080 | 0.0148% | ### Per-source shares @@ -27,15 +27,6 @@ | `1000_novels` | `w pobliżu` | 1,262 | 0.00209% | | `1000_novels` | `mieszkańców` | 868 | 0.00143% | | `1000_novels` | `Dz.U.` | 0 | 0.00000% | -| `biblioteka_nauki` | `w roku` | 28,728 | 0.00427% | -| `biblioteka_nauki` | `klasyfikacji` | 9,045 | 0.00134% | -| `biblioteka_nauki` | `ustawa` | 48,791 | 0.00724% | -| `biblioteka_nauki` | `artykuł` | 91,241 | 0.01355% | -| `biblioteka_nauki` | `parlament` | 32,868 | 0.00488% | -| `biblioteka_nauki` | `rozporządzenie` | 19,594 | 0.00291% | -| `biblioteka_nauki` | `w pobliżu` | 3,378 | 0.00050% | -| `biblioteka_nauki` | `mieszkańców` | 34,392 | 0.00511% | -| `biblioteka_nauki` | `Dz.U.` | 33,098 | 0.00491% | | `dziennik_ustaw` | `w roku` | 33,096 | 0.00681% | | `dziennik_ustaw` | `klasyfikacji` | 10,896 | 0.00224% | | `dziennik_ustaw` | `ustawa` | 77,376 | 0.01592% | @@ -63,24 +54,6 @@ | `eurlex` | `w pobliżu` | 6,088 | 0.00026% | | `eurlex` | `mieszkańców` | 9,441 | 0.00040% | | `eurlex` | `Dz.U.` | 915,707 | 0.03851% | -| `european_hplt_v3_pl` | `w roku` | 113,501 | 0.00444% | -| `european_hplt_v3_pl` | `klasyfikacji` | 24,675 | 0.00097% | -| `european_hplt_v3_pl` | `ustawa` | 16,067 | 0.00063% | -| `european_hplt_v3_pl` | `artykuł` | 283,875 | 0.01111% | -| `european_hplt_v3_pl` | `parlament` | 45,516 | 0.00178% | -| `european_hplt_v3_pl` | `rozporządzenie` | 11,841 | 0.00046% | -| `european_hplt_v3_pl` | `w pobliżu` | 44,108 | 0.00173% | -| `european_hplt_v3_pl` | `mieszkańców` | 172,896 | 0.00677% | -| `european_hplt_v3_pl` | `Dz.U.` | 9,487 | 0.00037% | -| `global_voices` | `w roku` | 160 | 0.00431% | -| `global_voices` | `klasyfikacji` | 5 | 0.00013% | -| `global_voices` | `ustawa` | 157 | 0.00423% | -| `global_voices` | `artykuł` | 1,047 | 0.02818% | -| `global_voices` | `parlament` | 366 | 0.00985% | -| `global_voices` | `rozporządzenie` | 26 | 0.00070% | -| `global_voices` | `w pobliżu` | 105 | 0.00283% | -| `global_voices` | `mieszkańców` | 508 | 0.01367% | -| `global_voices` | `Dz.U.` | 1 | 0.00003% | | `govpl` | `w roku` | 3,372 | 0.00418% | | `govpl` | `klasyfikacji` | 526 | 0.00065% | | `govpl` | `ustawa` | 4,727 | 0.00586% | @@ -90,15 +63,6 @@ | `govpl` | `w pobliżu` | 892 | 0.00111% | | `govpl` | `mieszkańców` | 13,105 | 0.01625% | | `govpl` | `Dz.U.` | 3,114 | 0.00386% | -| `nkjp1m` | `w roku` | 109 | 0.00419% | -| `nkjp1m` | `klasyfikacji` | 9 | 0.00035% | -| `nkjp1m` | `ustawa` | 79 | 0.00304% | -| `nkjp1m` | `artykuł` | 153 | 0.00588% | -| `nkjp1m` | `parlament` | 216 | 0.00830% | -| `nkjp1m` | `rozporządzenie` | 20 | 0.00077% | -| `nkjp1m` | `w pobliżu` | 77 | 0.00296% | -| `nkjp1m` | `mieszkańców` | 159 | 0.00611% | -| `nkjp1m` | `Dz.U.` | 2 | 0.00008% | | `parliamentary` | `w roku` | 198,192 | 0.01203% | | `parliamentary` | `klasyfikacji` | 12,637 | 0.00077% | | `parliamentary` | `ustawa` | 459,179 | 0.02788% | @@ -108,15 +72,6 @@ | `parliamentary` | `w pobliżu` | 4,964 | 0.00030% | | `parliamentary` | `mieszkańców` | 78,048 | 0.00474% | | `parliamentary` | `Dz.U.` | 23,809 | 0.00145% | -| `samorzad_gov_pl` | `w roku` | 3,661 | 0.00890% | -| `samorzad_gov_pl` | `klasyfikacji` | 520 | 0.00126% | -| `samorzad_gov_pl` | `ustawa` | 1,823 | 0.00443% | -| `samorzad_gov_pl` | `artykuł` | 1,269 | 0.00308% | -| `samorzad_gov_pl` | `parlament` | 1,218 | 0.00296% | -| `samorzad_gov_pl` | `rozporządzenie` | 1,409 | 0.00342% | -| `samorzad_gov_pl` | `w pobliżu` | 401 | 0.00097% | -| `samorzad_gov_pl` | `mieszkańców` | 14,450 | 0.03511% | -| `samorzad_gov_pl` | `Dz.U.` | 1,380 | 0.00335% | | `wikibooks` | `w roku` | 319 | 0.00205% | | `wikibooks` | `klasyfikacji` | 37 | 0.00024% | | `wikibooks` | `ustawa` | 165 | 0.00106% | diff --git a/artifacts/pattern_frequency_klasyfikacji.png b/artifacts/pattern_frequency_klasyfikacji.png index c54dd204ea153ded3b4077beba9ca8787b64d270..d78413fd1d98edd538c3901670b73c2be416a0de 100644 --- a/artifacts/pattern_frequency_klasyfikacji.png +++ b/artifacts/pattern_frequency_klasyfikacji.png @@ -1,3 +1,3 @@ version https://git-lfs.github.com/spec/v1 -oid sha256:b500dff73aa14977def45058fff138113aef0f69ce9eb53866edbdf30d9b5c77 -size 58391 +oid sha256:df83d98e08ef8b6e5a90e953bc6c0d3719925236a2120183b9ea9fa5f8f45261 +size 54659 diff --git "a/artifacts/pattern_frequency_mieszka\305\204c\303\263w.png" "b/artifacts/pattern_frequency_mieszka\305\204c\303\263w.png" index 1bc13d15f5e3fff161ed57e9814aaaf419d34fb3..a51328e16dfc508ffb4a5143603a9ddb63f915b8 100644 --- "a/artifacts/pattern_frequency_mieszka\305\204c\303\263w.png" +++ "b/artifacts/pattern_frequency_mieszka\305\204c\303\263w.png" @@ -1,3 +1,3 @@ version https://git-lfs.github.com/spec/v1 -oid sha256:52f82cf07d453fe394087bb5e0237bd40f4f669b34f0376874ec937a17164eb1 -size 60268 +oid 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b/artifacts/pattern_frequency_ustawa.png @@ -1,3 +1,3 @@ version https://git-lfs.github.com/spec/v1 -oid sha256:d5c96f3def6820de0bc92b5bc3391a5d441e28770605216cb0e451dbdd6db25e -size 56570 +oid sha256:3847ae1472bf8f57e2158aee907017a8c783cd1aff7009bab074cf5eaef9b6b2 +size 52845 diff --git "a/artifacts/pattern_frequency_w_pobli\305\274u.png" "b/artifacts/pattern_frequency_w_pobli\305\274u.png" index b95ff355992df75399b5de51313811758ef4b0e4..230484a043841ca6e44b7334733f56373dfe20cf 100644 --- "a/artifacts/pattern_frequency_w_pobli\305\274u.png" +++ "b/artifacts/pattern_frequency_w_pobli\305\274u.png" @@ -1,3 +1,3 @@ version https://git-lfs.github.com/spec/v1 -oid sha256:070e6ac8f1b08bbf6f35959766d3c42fec8439d1558bbdd1f25f5ef06ce4777a -size 59407 +oid sha256:a3e1daedbd3fc84a33ce8165bcbb4894e01dc5feb227194f05440b4ee1454b1a +size 55363 diff --git a/artifacts/pattern_frequency_w_roku.png b/artifacts/pattern_frequency_w_roku.png index 1363a7ac57ad64ea5b7291a482b80de81f932de7..de3be73ba0d6fd3b74aec784f93d971556e4cca7 100644 --- a/artifacts/pattern_frequency_w_roku.png +++ b/artifacts/pattern_frequency_w_roku.png @@ -1,3 +1,3 @@ version https://git-lfs.github.com/spec/v1 -oid sha256:73d508e59ac4b740dc99b40fd173d23e47c442e45828ae209849235d4fea5878 -size 59536 +oid sha256:df33a8fc14f059c83f546a295e0a7aa048600cf4844d4791e7dc786039d674f4 +size 57450 diff --git a/artifacts/rock_pollub_pl_ontology_manifest.json b/artifacts/rock_pollub_pl_ontology_manifest.json deleted file mode 100644 index d792f266266039358d920f66ff9ce6af1ce78b49..0000000000000000000000000000000000000000 --- a/artifacts/rock_pollub_pl_ontology_manifest.json +++ /dev/null @@ -1,236 +0,0 @@ -{ - "actors": [ - { - "id": "actor:piotrsty", - "type": "Contributor" - }, - { - "id": "actor:politechnika-lubelska", - "type": "Organization" - }, - { - "id": "actor:codex", - "type": "Agent" - } - ], - "claims": [ - { - "falsification_condition": "A retained record 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"id": "evidence:qa:84834c8c5f4e947e34c34d32d89932767e5a82b3d53ab217d5f5a8dbeed087ea", - "observation_type": "pilot_qa", - "payload": { - "benchmark_overlap": "pending", - "biblioteka_nauki_overlap": { - "candidate_records": 8, - "method": "normalized title substring; fallback SequenceMatcher >= 0.90 over attribution", - "observed_at": "2026-09-08T16:37:35.661794+00:00", - "records_with_exact_title_match": 0, - "records_with_fuzzy_title_match": 0, - "results": [ - { - "exact_title_matches": [], - "fuzzy_title_matches": [], - "item_id": "513c690d-72b3-4604-b62e-e21e44b91645", - "title": "Modelowanie i analiza eksperymentalna parametrów pracy modułów fotowoltaicznych w warunkach rzeczywistych" - }, - { - "exact_title_matches": [], - "fuzzy_title_matches": [], - "item_id": "e9e7a67e-c405-4968-b87a-0ff169c7b3d1", - "title": "Ćwiczenia i zadania ze wstępu do matematyki finansowej" - }, - { - "exact_title_matches": [], - "fuzzy_title_matches": [], - "item_id": "a6c38c5d-ba8f-47ac-a3e6-b50df14a595b", - "title": "Dobór architektury i parametrów procesu uczenia sieci neuronowych w doskonaleniu procesów produkcyjnych" - }, - { - "exact_title_matches": [], - "fuzzy_title_matches": [], - "item_id": "903f22e1-a2ab-4231-a402-2bc9535c12f2", - "title": "Wyzwania współczesnego publikowania" - }, - { - "exact_title_matches": [], - "fuzzy_title_matches": [], - "item_id": "0e26bff5-e51a-4d36-9524-fdef6e3e6ab7", - "title": "Symulacje Monte Carlo. 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"id": "version:dataset:18ea2bb4ce1035ac7d39295f627d43da02a2959baddd52fab901970ed0fae9eb", - "object": "object:dataset:rock-pollub-pl-pilot" - } - ] -} diff --git a/artifacts/sejm_api_ontology_manifest.json b/artifacts/sejm_api_ontology_manifest.json deleted file mode 100644 index 6b6733e6b870d408a0366d6509bf72110ce0b0a3..0000000000000000000000000000000000000000 --- a/artifacts/sejm_api_ontology_manifest.json +++ /dev/null @@ -1,238 +0,0 @@ -{ - "actors": [ - { - "id": "github:PiotrStyla", - "kind": "automation" - } - ], - "attestations": [ - { - "actor_id": "github:PiotrStyla", - "fields": [ - "id", - "text", - "source", - "added", - "created", - "token_count", - "license", - "author" - ], - "type": "schema_valid", - "value": true - }, - { - "actor_id": "github:PiotrStyla", - "supported_by": [ - "slayer://evidence/sejm-api-legal-basis@sha256:38e42a791d68d593f82e" - ], - "type": "license_policy", - "value": "open_public_sector_reuse" - }, - { - "actor_id": "github:PiotrStyla", - "supported_by": [ - 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}, - { - "id": "slayer://evidence/sejm-api-legal-basis@sha256:38e42a791d68d593f82e", - "observation_type": "official_statutory_reuse_sources", - "payload": { - "copyright_act": "https://eli.gov.pl/api/acts/DU/2025/24/text/O/D20250024.pdf", - "legal_evidence_sha256": "ff52cd0c374aee51162d4088088f7bdfbabaa9c6e3d1816063b404b11369da0f", - "license": "public-domain (official documents)", - "open_data_act": "https://eli.gov.pl/api/acts/DU/2023/1524/text.html", - "source_documentation": "https://api.sejm.gov.pl/sejm.html" - }, - "run_id": "github-actions:32586999448:attempt:1", - "subject_version": "slayer://version/dataset-source/sejm-api@sha256:38e42a791d68d593f82e1125f2bb94cd8f68212433e71d3e3da90f82d78eaf32" - }, - { - "id": "slayer://evidence/sejm-api-artifact-digests@sha256:38e42a791d68d593f82e", - "observation_type": "artifact_checksums", - "payload": { - "attribution_sha256": "4ab6513f8173498d403f7ec1a9534b8e0086264d3eca6ff9ac4f9c5dbca4c069", - "parquet_sha256": "56f7b03483488dec8f0fa145c6d26746926175d83096e9d1931e535aa81cf161" - }, - "run_id": "github-actions:32586999448:attempt:1", - "subject_version": "slayer://version/dataset-source/sejm-api@sha256:38e42a791d68d593f82e1125f2bb94cd8f68212433e71d3e3da90f82d78eaf32" - } - ], - "object": { - "id": "slayer://object/dataset-source/slayerlab-polish-dynaword-sejm-api", - "kind": "dataset_source", - "name": "sejm_api" - }, - "protocol": { - "configuration": { - "added": "2026-08-22", - "exact_deduplication": "sha1(normalized_text)", - "registered_parliamentary_end_dates": { - "parlamint_pl": "2022-12-31", - "parliamentary": "2019-12-31" - }, - "schema_fields": [ - "id", - "text", - "source", - "added", - "created", - "token_count", - "license", - "author" - ], - "source_release": "v1.0.1", - "source_revision": "124557799608ce4212cf22fa90ca7904618de1b6", - "start_date": "2023-01-01", - "target_base_revision": "8cc48a3c564ac9edabfbbf012842ad11f70a3e5c", - "tokenizer": "cl100k_base" - }, - "entrypoint": "python src/fetch_sejm_api.py", - "git_commit": "2a50019652d90f135f0d3a91c8c2c7176619c784" - }, - "relations": [ - { - "introduced_by_run": "github-actions:32586999448:attempt:1", - "predicate": "DERIVED_FROM", - "source_version": "slayer://version/dataset-source/sejm-api@sha256:38e42a791d68d593f82e1125f2bb94cd8f68212433e71d3e3da90f82d78eaf32", - "target_version": "hf://datasets/PiotrSty/sejm-speeches-corpus@124557799608ce4212cf22fa90ca7904618de1b6" - }, - { - "introduced_by_run": "github-actions:32586999448:attempt:1", - "predicate": "COMPATIBLE_WITH", - "source_version": "slayer://version/dataset-source/sejm-api@sha256:38e42a791d68d593f82e1125f2bb94cd8f68212433e71d3e3da90f82d78eaf32", - "target_version": "hf://datasets/SlayerLab/polish-dynaword@8cc48a3c564ac9edabfbbf012842ad11f70a3e5c" - } - ], - "run": { - "actor_id": "github:PiotrStyla", - "git_commit": "2a50019652d90f135f0d3a91c8c2c7176619c784", - "id": "github-actions:32586999448:attempt:1", - "inputs": [ - { - "role": "source", - "version_id": "hf://datasets/PiotrSty/sejm-speeches-corpus@124557799608ce4212cf22fa90ca7904618de1b6" - }, - { - "role": "target_base", - "version_id": "hf://datasets/SlayerLab/polish-dynaword@8cc48a3c564ac9edabfbbf012842ad11f70a3e5c" - } - ], - "outputs": [ - { - "role": "dataset_source", - "version_id": "slayer://version/dataset-source/sejm-api@sha256:38e42a791d68d593f82e1125f2bb94cd8f68212433e71d3e3da90f82d78eaf32" - } - ] - }, - "schema_version": "slayer.ai/dataset-source-contribution/v1", - "version": { - "digest": "sha256:38e42a791d68d593f82e1125f2bb94cd8f68212433e71d3e3da90f82d78eaf32", - "id": "slayer://version/dataset-source/sejm-api@sha256:38e42a791d68d593f82e1125f2bb94cd8f68212433e71d3e3da90f82d78eaf32" - } -} diff --git a/artifacts/source_findings.md b/artifacts/source_findings.md deleted file mode 100644 index 7746f3017f413816e19c122e3cbef69416788ec7..0000000000000000000000000000000000000000 --- a/artifacts/source_findings.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,543 +0,0 @@ -# Source investigation findings - -Running log of sources that were investigated, whether or not they were added. -**Append-only, version-independent** — unlike the `*_v0_3.md` artifacts, which are -point-in-time snapshots of one release's candidate review. - -Purpose: stop the same source being re-investigated from scratch every few months. -A negative finding is as valuable as a positive one, as long as it records *what -was checked* and *what would change the answer*. - -Related, don't duplicate: -- `source_scouting_v0_3.md` — v0.3 candidate shortlist (HuggingFace-centric) -- `source_candidate_audit_v0_3.md` — machine-generated audit of those HF cards -- `source_license_review_v0_3.md` — v0.3 license decision table - -## How to add an entry - -One `##` section per source. Keep these fields: - -- **Investigated** — date, so a stale finding is visible as stale. -- **Verdict** — `added` / `blocked` / `hold` / `rejected`, plus the one-line reason. -- **Enumeration** — how you would actually get the data, or why you can't. -- **License evidence** — what you checked, with URLs. Separate what you *verified - yourself* from what you read second-hand; label the weak ones. -- **Blockers** — what must be resolved before this can ship. -- **Lesson** — anything generalizable to other sources. Optional. - -Write down the API endpoints and quirks you had to dig for. That digging is the -expensive part, and it is invisible in a verdict line. - ---- - -## zpe.gov.pl — Zintegrowana Platforma Edukacyjna - -**Investigated:** 2026-08-27 -**Verdict:** `hold` — technically very tractable, blocked on per-material license -evidence. Do not build a fetcher until the license question below is answered. - -Ministry of Education platform (successor to `epodreczniki.pl`), e-materials -across all school subjects. Attractive because the corpus has **no modern -instructional/pedagogic register at all**, and this is contemporary, clean, -editorially reviewed Polish prose. - -### Enumeration — solved - -There is no sitemap (`/sitemap.xml` → 404) and site search is client-side, but -`https://zpe.gov.pl/config.js` exposes an undocumented JSON API: - -``` -window.CP_CONFIGURATION = {... "apiUrl":"https://zpe.gov.pl/api/v1/" ...} -``` - -``` -GET https://zpe.gov.pl/api/v1/search?query=&limit=20&offset=N -→ {"count": 23843, "offset": 0, "limit": 20, - "data": [{"id": "P18l4AKOi", "title": "Fotosynteza", - "subject": [...], "stage": [...], "tags": [], ...}]} -``` - -Verified directly (2026-08-27): - -- `count` = **23,843** materials for the empty query. -- Deep paging works — `offset=5000` returns rows, no cursor needed. -- `robots.txt` is `User-agent: * / Allow: /`. -- Article pages `/a/<slug>/<CODE>` are **fully server-rendered**; text lives in - `data-editor-content` blocks. No JS execution required to extract prose. -- Book pages `/b/<slug>/<CODE>` render their material list client-side (0 - server-side `/a/` links), so `/b/` is useless for crawling. Use the API. - -Other endpoints probed and 404: `api/v1/materials`, `api/v1/document(s)/<CODE>`, -`api/v1/footer`, `api/v1/menu`, `api/v1/search/materials`. Only -`api/v1/search?query=` responded. - -### License evidence — the blocker - -**Verified directly:** - -- **No document-level license marker exists in the served HTML.** The only - machine-readable license strings are per-figure, inside - `<div class="figure_caption_bibliography">`, e.g. - `Źródło: GroMar, licencja: CC BY 3.0.` and - `Źródło: Sławomir Szaruga, licencja: CC BY 3.0.` These attach to - **illustrations, not to the prose**. -- **The site footer is `<div id="footer_app"></div>` — JS-rendered.** This - matters: the accepted legal basis for both `govpl` and `samorzad_gov_pl` in - `src/sources.py` is a *server-side footer string* declaring CC BY-SA 4.0. - ZPE has no such string. **That precedent does not transfer to ZPE.** -- The platform `regulamin` states: - *"Korzystanie z Materiału odbywać się może tylko i wyłącznie w zakresie - dozwolonym przepisami ustawy o prawie autorskim i prawach pokrewnych"* — - statutory permitted-use only, which is not an open license. Reading the - surrounding clauses, this section appears scoped to material *uploaded by - users to* the platform rather than to ministry e-materials, but the wording is - not self-limiting and a reviewer will land on it. - -**Second-hand, not verified — confirm before relying on any of it:** - -- Ministry-produced e-materials are said to be CC BY 3.0, funded under - POKL 2007–2013 / POWER 2014–2020. -- User-contributed materials are reported to carry **CC BY-NC-SA 4.0**. NC is - already on the reject list (`source_scouting_v0_3.md`), so those must be - excluded, not merely flagged. -- Literary works embedded in e-materials are reported to sit under a - non-free *"licencja edukacyjna"* where authors or heirs did not agree to open - release. This is the highest-risk content class on the platform. - -### Consequences for design - -- ZPE cannot be a single-license shard. It has to be **per-record license-gated**, - `license_spdx: MIXED`, same shape as `biblioteka_nauki` and `europeana`. -- Available heuristic, **not** license evidence: ministry materials come back with - `subject` and `stage` populated; user uploads return `"subject": [], "stage": []` - (the first empty-query result is an all-caps user upload with both empty). Usable - as a pre-filter, useless as provenance. -- Rough size if ~10–15k ministry materials survive the gate: **~30–100M tokens**. - Estimate only — nothing was counted. Good register, modest scale. - -### Extraction hazards (seen in a single sampled page) - -- Interactive-exercise chrome: `Pokaż podpowiedź`, `Pokaż odpowiedź` buttons. -- JSON blobs embedded in `data-editor-params` attributes (`gameTitle`, - `feedbackPositive`, …) — must not leak into `text`. -- Per-figure attribution lines repeated throughout the body. -- Glossary / `Zapamiętaj!` boilerplate repeated across many materials — needs - frequency-based boilerplate detection, not a hand-written blocklist. - -### What would unblock this - -Any one of: a resolvable per-material license field (API or page markup); an -authoritative ORE/MEN page granting open reuse of e-material *text*; or written -permission. Absent that, ZPE stays out — the datasheet could not honestly answer -"where does the license statement live", which is a required field for any PR. - -### Lesson - -Check for a **server-rendered** license statement early. A JS-rendered footer is -not usable license evidence, and "it's a `gov.pl` domain" is not a license — the -`govpl` and `samorzad_gov_pl` entries hold up because a specific footer string -was fetched and quoted, not because of the domain. - ---- - -## ParlaMint-PL — parliamentary debates 2015–2022 - -**Investigated:** 2026-08-27 -**Verdict:** `ready to build, low yield` — license and distribution verified, the -fetcher is the only missing piece. But it is a **date-hole patch worth ~36M -net-new tokens**, not a diversity win. Size it before prioritising it. - -Already registered in `src/sources.py` as `parlamint_pl`, but there is **no shard -in `data/`**. - -### Size — measured, not guessed - -From the official stats at -`github.com/clarin-eric/ParlaMint/tree/v5.0/Build/Metadata` -(`ParlaMint-overview-stats.tsv`, `ParlaMint-speeches-stats.tsv`): - -``` -ID Lang Bodies Ts From To Yrs Mw/Yr Mw -PL pl low+upp 4 2015-11 2022-06 6.7 5.35 36.06 -``` - -- **36.06M words**, **228,326 speeches**, 4 terms, both chambers. -- Token conversion measured on our own `parliamentary` shard (same register, same - cl100k encoder; 6,000 docs / 9.7M words): **2.654 tokens/word**, 7.24 chars/word. -- → **~96M tokens gross**, ≈1% of the current 9.68B corpus. -- Download: `ParlaMint-PL.tgz`, 185.3 MB. - -### Overlap with the existing `parliamentary` shard — the real issue - -ParlaMint-PL is **derived from PPC**, which is exactly what the `parliamentary` -shard is (1991–2019). Time overlap runs 2015-11 → 2019-12, about 4.2 of the 6.7 -years, ≈22M words likely already present. **Net new ≈ 14M words ≈ 36M tokens**, -covering 2020-01 → 2022-06. - -That estimate is soft in both directions: - -- `parliamentary` has **no per-document dates** — `created` is the single literal - `'1991-01-01, 2019-12-31'` on all 324,622 rows. The overlap cannot be measured - by filtering, only by comparing content. -- PPC includes committee sittings and interpellations; ParlaMint-PL is plenary - only. So ParlaMint's 2015–2019 portion is plausibly a *subset* of what already - ships, making the real overlap higher than the time-share implies. - -**Exact dedup will not catch this.** `build_dynaword.py` dedups on `sha1` of the -whole document. ParlaMint ships one document per session; PPC's segmentation -differs, so byte-identical documents are unlikely and the duplicates pass -straight through the gate. This needs **near-dedup, for which the repo has no -committed tooling** — the HPLT expansion's near-dedup was run outside `src/`. -Budget for that, or the shard silently duplicates existing data. - -### Version note - -**ParlaMint 5.0 does not extend Polish** — PL still ends 2022-06, same as the 3.0 -deposit already cited in `sources.py` (handle `11356/1486`; 5.0 is `11356/2004`). -Upgrading buys corrections, not coverage. Neither version closes the gap to -`sejm_api` (2023 onward): mid-2022 through end-2022 stays empty. - -### Verified - -- CLARIN.SI handle `11356/1486` resolves (HTTP 200). The `upstream` URL recorded - in `sources.py` is correct and live. -- License: **CC BY 4.0**, stated on the repository record. -- ParlaMint 3.0 overall: 26 comparable corpora, 7,468,674 utterances, - 1,147,800,265 words; debates mostly 2015 → mid-2022. -- The distribution ships a **plain-text (`.txt`) edition** alongside TEI/XML and - linguistically-annotated `.ana.xml`. Filenames are per-session, e.g. - `ParlaMint-PL_2017-07-20-sejm-46-3.txt`. Use the `.txt` edition — no TEI parsing - needed. -- Polish covers **both chambers**: `-sejm-` and `-senat-` session files. - -### Why it is still worth doing - -Fills 2020 → mid-2022, between `parliamentary` (ends 2019) and `sejm_api` (2023 -onward). Same CC-BY-4.0 family as existing sources, so there is no new license -question to answer, and the plain-text edition means no TEI parsing. Cheap. Just -do not expect it to move the totals — and do not build it before a source that -adds a register the corpus lacks. - -### Drift found while checking - -`src/sources.py` (the `parlamint_pl` `provenance` field) states the corpus was -*"Fetched directly from the CLARIN.SI plain-text edition (ParlaMint-PL.tgz) by -`src/fetch_parlamint.py`"*. **That script does not exist in `src/`.** The -provenance describes a fetch that no committed code performs. Either write the -script or correct the field before this ships. - ---- - -## Sejm API — interpelacje and zapytania poselskie - -**Investigated:** 2026-08-27 -**Verdict:** `hold — recheck`. Not a license problem; `api.sejm.gov.pl` was -unreachable from the investigating network on the day, so the endpoints could not -be confirmed. Retry before writing anything off. - -### What happened - -- `api.sejm.gov.pl` resolves (`194.41.12.231`) but every request hangs and then - fails — plain `curl` times out at 45s, a proxied fetch returns `ECONNRESET`. -- `https://www.sejm.gov.pl/` responds normally (302), and other external hosts - were fine the same session, so this is specific to the API host: either an - outage, or that host filtering the source network. -- `src/fetch_sejm_api.py` (committed, working) uses this same host, so the API - is normally reachable. Treat as transient until proven otherwise. - -### Unverified — what to check on retry - -- Whether `sejm/term{N}/interpellations` and `sejm/term{N}/writtenQuestions` - exist, and their paging parameters. -- Whether the **ministry's reply body** is retrievable as text, or only as a - linked PDF. This decides whether the source is worth building: the replies are - the substantial half. -- Document counts per term. - -### Why it is on the list - -Reuses the existing `fetch_sejm_api.py` legal basis unchanged — official -parliamentary materials outside copyright under art. 4(2) pr. aut., reusable -under the Open Data Act. Question/answer prose is argumentative register, which -the corpus is short on. No new license work needed. - ---- - -## CLARIN-PL DSpace (PELCRA Spokes, and the `1000_novels` upstream) - -**Investigated:** 2026-08-27 -**Verdict:** `blocked — temporary`. The repository is down for reorganization. -Nothing to decide until it returns. - -### Verified - -- `https://clarin-pl.eu/dspace/` serves a maintenance notice: - *"Trwają prace nad repozytorium. Prowadzimy prace serwisowe oraz reorganizację - repozytorium DSpace… Repozytorium będzie ponownie dostępne wkrótce."* -- Every item handle under it 404s: `11321/312`, `11321/544`, `11321/545`, - `11321/547` — nginx 404, not a DSpace "item not found". -- The global resolver is broken for this prefix too: `hdl.handle.net/11321/*` - returns **HTTP 500**. - -So no PELCRA record (Spokes, EMO, PARL, EMI) can have its license checked right -now. Conversational Polish remains the corpus's biggest register gap, so this is -worth re-checking periodically. - -### Side effect on shipped data - -`src/sources.py` records `https://clarin-pl.eu/dspace/handle/11321/312` as the -`upstream` for **`1000_novels`**, which is a released shard. That URL currently -does not resolve. Presumed temporary, but the citation in a published datasheet -is dead as of this date. - -### Expected concern when it returns - -PELCRA spoken corpora are transcribed private conversation. Expect NC-flavoured -or restricted licensing, and expect a personal-data question — these recordings -involve identifiable private individuals, not public officials acting officially. -Both must be resolved before use. - ---- - -## NIK — Najwyższa Izba Kontroli audit reports - -**Investigated:** 2026-08-27 -**Verdict:** `hold` — permissive but **non-standard** license, and enumeration is -unsolved. Viable with work; not a quick win. - -### License evidence — verified - -`https://www.nik.gov.pl/zasady/prawa-autorskie.html` states: - -> *"Korzystanie z materiałów publikowanych w serwisach internetowych Najwyższej -> Izby Kontroli nie wymaga uzyskania zgody NIK. Nie dotyczy to elementów odrębnie -> zastrzeżonych (do których prawa autorskie przysługują osobom trzecim), w -> szczególności oznaczonych materiałów zdjęciowych oraz tekstów publikowanych -> pierwotnie w innych źródłach."* - -Attribution to *"Najwyższa Izba Kontroli (nik.gov.pl)"* is requested, not required. - -Assessment: a **custom permissive notice, not a standard open license** — no CC, -no CC0, no SPDX identifier. It carries a third-party carve-out that matters here, -because audit reports quote external sources. A separate and probably stronger -argument is that audit reports are *materiały urzędowe* under art. 4 pkt 2 pr. -aut., the same basis as `dziennik_ustaw` and `sejm_api`. If this source is built, -lead with the statutory argument and cite the site notice as corroboration. - -### Enumeration — unsolved - -- `robots.txt` allows crawling, but disallows `/szukaj/`, `/p/`, `/g2/`, - `/cms/`, `/do_druku/`. `/g2/` looks like the file store, which likely means - **report PDFs are off-limits to crawlers**. -- `/kontrole/wyniki-kontroli-nik/` returns 200 (~72 kB) but the report list is - **JS-rendered**: zero report links in the server HTML, only pagination - scaffolding (`fmax,js,strona,1.html`). -- The `/prosta/` ("simple") variant is also JS-rendered — 0 report links. -- No `/sitemap.xml` (404). - -Same shape as ZPE: a backend API almost certainly exists and would need to be -found (check the page's JS config for an `apiUrl`, as worked for ZPE). - -### Verdict rationale - -Register value is real — long-form analytical prose, unlike statute text. But -between a bespoke license, a third-party-content carve-out, PDF paths blocked by -`robots.txt`, and unsolved enumeration, this is several days of work. Lower -priority than ParlaMint-PL or Sejm interpelacje. - ---- - -## Billion-scale survey — what can actually move the totals - -**Investigated:** 2026-08-27 - -Context: most candidates land at 30–200M tokens, which is noise against a 9.68B -corpus. This entry records the only options measured at **500M–5B**, i.e. -comparable to `european_hplt_v3_pl` (2.56B), `eurlex` (2.38B), `parliamentary` -(1.65B). All numbers below were measured on the day, not taken from cards. - -Token conversion throughout: **2.654 tokens/word**, measured on the repo's own -`parliamentary` shard (6,000 docs / 9.7M words, cl100k). Use it instead of -guessing — Polish runs far above the ~1.3 rule of thumb for English. - -| candidate | measured | est. tokens | license | blocker | -|---|---|---|---|---| -| SAOS judgments | 540,338 docs, mean 3,067 w | **~4.4B** (floor ~2.8B) | art. 4 pkt 2 pr. aut. | register: pure legal | -| FineWeb-2 `pol_Latn` | 152,003,298 docs, 225.9 GB | ~83B raw, **4–8B** filtered | ODC-By | dedup vs existing HPLT | -| PleIAs/Polish-PD | 68,176 docs, 0.75B words | **~2.0B** nominal | public domain | OCR corruption | -| HPLT leftovers | shards `8_5`, `8_6`, 31.6 GB | ~230M | CC0 | none — just small | - -### SAOS — biggest clean win, already half-built - -`https://www.saos.org.pl/api/search/judgments?pageSize=1&pageNumber=0` reports -`totalResults: 540338`. Sampled 100 judgments from -`api/dump/judgments?pageSize=100&pageNumber=0`: **mean 3,067 words, median 1,920, -p10 816, p90 7,197**, court types `COMMON` and `CONSTITUTIONAL_TRIBUNAL`. - -540,338 × 3,067 = 1.66B words → **~4.4B tokens**. Using the median instead, to -guard against long-tail skew, still gives ~2.75B. Either way this is **larger -than any shard currently in the corpus**. - -`src/fetch_saos.py` already exists (uncommitted as of this date) and documents the -legal basis: judgments are *materiały urzędowe* outside copyright under art. 4 -pkt 2 pr. aut., redistributed by SAOS (CeON/ICM UW + Fundacja ePaństwo) through a -bulk-dump API built for exactly this. - -Open question before building: judgments are court-anonymised, but that should be -**verified on sampled text**, not assumed — this is the one candidate here where -personal data is a live risk rather than a formality. - -Cost of shipping it: legal/official goes from **48% to roughly 65%** of the -corpus. That is the trade, and it should be a deliberate decision rather than a -side effect of it being the easy build. - -### FineWeb-2 Polish — only billion-scale contemporary prose - -`datasets-server` size endpoint, config `pol_Latn`: **152,003,298 rows / -225.9 GB**. At the measured 0.367 tokens/char that is **~83B tokens raw**. - -License `odc-by`. Same argument shape as the accepted HPLT basis: the packaging -is licensed, the underlying web text is not owned by the publisher. Note that -ODC-By is **attribution-required**, unlike HPLT's CC0 — a different obligation -shape, and it has to be stated in the datasheet. - -#### Dedup is not the bottleneck — this was checked, not assumed - -The obvious worry is overlap with the existing HPLT shard, since both derive from -Common Crawl. It is the *smallest* of the problems: - -- The existing HPLT shard is **1.6M docs against FineWeb-2's 152M**. Even total - overlap removes ~1% of candidates (~12% if working from the HQ subset below). -- **Internal dedup is already done upstream.** The schema carries - `minhash_cluster_size`, i.e. FineWeb-2 ran MinHash per language before release. - -Cross-dedup against HPLT is still worth doing for hygiene, and the repo still has -no committed near-dedup tooling — but it is not what makes this source expensive. - -#### The actual blocker: the HPLT gate cannot be ported - -FineWeb-2 `pol_Latn` columns are: - -``` -text, id, dump, url, date, file_path, language, -language_score, language_script, minhash_cluster_size, top_langs -``` - -`src/clean_hplt_v3.py` filters on **WDS quality score, register class -(ID/OP/HI/IN/NA), and MT-probability**. *None of those exist in FineWeb-2.* Every -signal the existing web pipeline depends on is absent, so "filter it like we -filtered HPLT" is not an option — it would mean building quality classification -over 152M documents from scratch. - -#### `epfml/FineWeb2-HQ` — the better target - -A published quality-filtered derivative, config `pol_Latn`: - -- **13,384,885 rows**, `odc-by`, 180.4 GB parquet (size dominated by an - `embeddings` column, not text). -- Adds a **`quality_score`** column, retained per document, so the selection - threshold stays a tunable knob instead of a baked-in decision — and the - classifier is someone else's published work, which is easier to cite than a - home-grown one. -- Sampled 880 docs across 22 evenly-spread offsets: **mean 2,663 chars/doc** - → ~13.1B tokens for the whole HQ subset. Larger than the entire current corpus. - -#### quality_score → token yield - -Distribution from the `statistics` endpoint (computed on a **partial 407,184-row -sample**, not all 13.4M): min 0.013, max 0.9999, mean 0.145, **median 0.0496** — -heavily right-skewed, so most of HQ still scores low. - -Doc fractions from that histogram, mean lengths from the 880-doc sample: - -| `quality_score` ≥ | % docs | docs | mean chars | est. tokens | -|---|---:|---:|---:|---:| -| 0.00 (all) | 100% | 13,384,885 | 2,663 | **13.1B** | -| 0.11 | 31.0% | 4,149,000 | 2,375 | **3.6B** | -| 0.21 | 20.0% | 2,677,000 | 2,074 | **2.0B** | -| 0.31 | 14.6% | 1,954,000 | 1,929 | **1.4B** | -| 0.41 | 11.1% | 1,486,000 | 1,912 | **1.0B** | -| 0.51 | 8.5% | 1,138,000 | 1,798 | **0.75B** | -| 0.70 | 4.8% | 642,000 | 1,750 | **0.41B** | -| 0.90 | 1.8% | 241,000 | 914 | **0.08B** | - -A second pass computing fractions directly from the 880-doc sample agreed with -these within ~15%. Treat them as ±20%, good enough to pick a threshold. - -**Watch out: `quality_score` anti-correlates with document length.** Mean length -falls from 2,663 chars at no threshold to 914 at ≥0.90. The classifier is not -rewarding long-form prose, so raising the threshold costs more tokens than the -doc-count alone implies, and it may actively select *against* the extended prose -this corpus is short on. Sample the text at whatever threshold is chosen before -committing to it. - -#### Recommended operating point - -**Threshold ≈ 0.20 → ~2.7M docs, ~2.0–2.3B tokens.** Comparable to the largest -existing shards (`european_hplt_v3_pl` 2.56B, `eurlex` 2.38B) and it *improves* -the balance rather than wrecking it: web goes 26% → ~41%, legal drops 48% → ~39%. - -Taking all 13.1B instead would put the corpus at ~22.7B with **web at ~69%** — -trading "two-thirds legalese" for "two-thirds crawl". Same failure, different axis. - -#### Work order if this is built - -1. Pick HQ vs full, and a `quality_score` threshold (see above). -2. **Build the PII scrub.** `sources.py` already claims one for the HPLT shard - that has no implementing code in `src/`; shipping a second web source with the - same gap is indefensible. -3. Near-dedup against the existing HPLT shard — needed, but ~1–12% effect. -4. Compute. Tokenizing billions of tokens is the genuinely expensive step. - -### PleIAs/Polish-PD — good on paper, rough in practice - -68,176 rows. Sampled `word_count` at four offsets (n=200): **mean 10,971 words, -median 8,468** → ~0.75B words → **~2.0B tokens**. Columns are `identifier`, -`file`, `title`, `creator`, `language`, `word_count`, `character_count`, -`complete_text`. Public domain, pre-1884 monographs and periodicals, largely -sourced from Polish digital libraries (`jbc.bj.uj.edu.pl` in the sample). - -Register-wise this is the most attractive of the three — books and periodicals, -against a corpus that is only 1.9% literature. - -But the OCR is bad. First sampled record (an 1817 newspaper) opens: - -``` -U -RUSKI -czwaRTEŁ SONAER -5 PC Nę R -WIADOMOŚC -``` - -with pre-1884 orthography throughout (`Nayiaśnieyszy`, `roskazać`, `klassy`). - -**The existing OCR gate will not catch this.** `build_dynaword.py` applies -`MIN_ALPHA_RATIO = 0.70` when `is_ocr: True`, which tests the ratio of letters to -symbols. Garbled *words* made of ordinary letters pass it cleanly. Filtering this -source needs a dictionary- or perplexity-based check, which does not exist here. -Treat the 2.0B as nominal; real usable yield is materially lower. - -### HPLT is exhausted — correction to an earlier assumption - -`https://data.hplt-project.org/three/sorted/pol_Latn/` lists **exactly 19 shards**: -`10_1`, `9_1`–`9_4`, `8_1`–`8_6`, `7_1`–`7_4`, `6_1`–`6_2`, `5_1`–`5_2`. -**There are no WDS bins below 5 for Polish.** - -`sources.py` records 17 of those as ingested. The only unused shards are -**`8_5` (24.24 GB)** and **`8_6` (7.37 GB)** — roughly 230M tokens at the -post-filter rate implied by the existing shard. - -So "add more HPLT bins" is not a path to billions. It is one small top-up, and -then the source is finished. - -### Conclusion - -Every clean billion-scale Polish source is **legal, official, or archaic** — -which follows directly from what falls outside copyright. The only billion-scale -contemporary general prose is web crawl, and that is a re-derivation of Common -Crawl the corpus already draws on. - -If the goal is raw scale: SAOS. If the goal is a corpus that is not two-thirds -legalese, **there is no billion-scale option**, and the honest plan is a number of -50–200M-token sources across different registers. diff --git a/artifacts/uzp_orzeczenia_pl_ontology_manifest.json b/artifacts/uzp_orzeczenia_pl_ontology_manifest.json deleted file mode 100644 index 884644b0e114c9be99ff9311e6226d00ca3d3a02..0000000000000000000000000000000000000000 --- a/artifacts/uzp_orzeczenia_pl_ontology_manifest.json +++ /dev/null @@ -1,134 +0,0 @@ -{ - "actors": [ - { - "id": "actor:piotrsty", - "type": "Contributor" - }, - { - "id": "actor:uzp", - "type": "Organization" - }, - { - "id": "actor:devin", - "type": "Agent" - } - ], - "claims": [ - { - "falsification_condition": "The pinned Parquet, decisions or overlap report do not reproduce these counts.", - "id": "claim:uzp-target-retention", - "statement": "The proposed DynaWord slice contains 34715 records after excluding 0 signature overlaps.", - "supported_by": [ - "evidence:uzp-target-stats:57384373cb2c3883fb240ab0468d309dc62893a01ccd939f25081a931a1c20c0", - "evidence:uzp-target-overlap:d70053726c85373e3411cc28da26c3aeffbd25cf9adf7c30a3ecdda3ebeaef10" - ] - }, - { - "falsification_condition": "Target-wide text deduplication and controlled ablations establish those properties.", - "id": "claim:uzp-training-value-untested", - "statement": "Net text novelty and training benefit remain untested hypotheses.", - "supported_by": [ - "evidence:uzp-target-overlap:d70053726c85373e3411cc28da26c3aeffbd25cf9adf7c30a3ecdda3ebeaef10" - ] - } - ], - "evidence": [ - { - "artifact": "data/uzp_orzeczenia_pl/uzp_orzeczenia_pl.stats.json", - "content_address": "57384373cb2c3883fb240ab0468d309dc62893a01ccd939f25081a931a1c20c0", - "id": "evidence:uzp-target-stats:57384373cb2c3883fb240ab0468d309dc62893a01ccd939f25081a931a1c20c0", - "observation_type": "target_slice_counts", - "produced_by": "run:uzp-orzeczenia-dynaword-integration:57384373cb2c3883fb240ab0468d309dc62893a01ccd939f25081a931a1c20c0" - }, - { - "artifact": "data/uzp_orzeczenia_pl/uzp_orzeczenia_pl.overlap_audit.json", - "content_address": "d70053726c85373e3411cc28da26c3aeffbd25cf9adf7c30a3ecdda3ebeaef10", - "id": "evidence:uzp-target-overlap:d70053726c85373e3411cc28da26c3aeffbd25cf9adf7c30a3ecdda3ebeaef10", - "observation_type": "metadata_overlap_audit", - "produced_by": "run:uzp-orzeczenia-dynaword-integration:57384373cb2c3883fb240ab0468d309dc62893a01ccd939f25081a931a1c20c0" - } - ], - "objects": [ - { - "id": "object:dataset:uzp-orzeczenia-pl", - "type": "Dataset" - }, - { - "id": "object:dataset:uzp-orzeczenia-pl-dynaword-slice", - "type": "Dataset" - } - ], - "pending": [ - "formal legal review of art. 4(2) application", - "cross-source text deduplication", - "benchmark contamination check", - "review of quoted third-party text", - "controlled training ablation" - ], - "protocols": [ - { - "id": "protocol:uzp-orzeczenia-dynaword-integration-v1", - "procedure": "exclude source-QA failures and signature overlaps with pinned saos; preserve attribution and pending text-level gates" - } - ], - "relations": [ - { - "predicate": "DERIVED_FROM", - "source": "version:dataset:uzp-orzeczenia-pl-dynaword:2c7a13f99ee5571aa66a4d576a6b6705a3a896675ffc93d889447ca0ed9aae1a", - "target": "hf:dataset:PiotrSty/uzp-orzeczenia-pl@696485691e9f8cb85d1a34221897250e25359ba0" - }, - { - "predicate": "GENERATED_BY", - "source": "version:dataset:uzp-orzeczenia-pl-dynaword:2c7a13f99ee5571aa66a4d576a6b6705a3a896675ffc93d889447ca0ed9aae1a", - "target": "run:uzp-orzeczenia-dynaword-integration:57384373cb2c3883fb240ab0468d309dc62893a01ccd939f25081a931a1c20c0" - }, - { - "predicate": "VALIDATED_AGAINST", - "source": "version:dataset:uzp-orzeczenia-pl-dynaword:2c7a13f99ee5571aa66a4d576a6b6705a3a896675ffc93d889447ca0ed9aae1a", - "target": "hf:dataset:SlayerLab/polish-dynaword@bade8e7cae51bd30e9530c3be38dd0e3eeba1f70" - } - ], - "runs": [ - { - "actor": "actor:devin", - "finished_at": "2026-09-19T06:14:52.208957+00:00", - "id": "run:uzp-orzeczenia-dynaword-integration:57384373cb2c3883fb240ab0468d309dc62893a01ccd939f25081a931a1c20c0", - "protocol": "protocol:uzp-orzeczenia-dynaword-integration-v1", - "started_at": "2026-09-19T06:14:52.208957+00:00", - "stats": { - "added": "2026-09-17", - "characters": 1110428704, - "enumerated": 35694, - "kept": 34715, - "license_counts": { - "public-domain (official documents)": 34715 - }, - "per_kind": { - "KIO": 34412, - "SA": 3, - "SN": 2, - "SO": 1277 - }, - "sample_count": 12, - "source_slice_kept": 34715, - "target_overlap_excluded": 0, - "target_revision": "bade8e7cae51bd30e9530c3be38dd0e3eeba1f70", - "tokens": 422043881 - }, - "success": true - } - ], - "schema": "slayer-research-ontology-profile-v1", - "versions": [ - { - "content_address": "696485691e9f8cb85d1a34221897250e25359ba0", - "id": "hf:dataset:PiotrSty/uzp-orzeczenia-pl@696485691e9f8cb85d1a34221897250e25359ba0", - "object": "object:dataset:uzp-orzeczenia-pl" - }, - { - "content_address": "2c7a13f99ee5571aa66a4d576a6b6705a3a896675ffc93d889447ca0ed9aae1a", - "id": "version:dataset:uzp-orzeczenia-pl-dynaword:2c7a13f99ee5571aa66a4d576a6b6705a3a896675ffc93d889447ca0ed9aae1a", - "object": "object:dataset:uzp-orzeczenia-pl-dynaword-slice" - } - ] -} diff --git a/data/biblioteka_nauki/biblioteka_nauki.md b/data/biblioteka_nauki/biblioteka_nauki.md deleted file mode 100644 index 179d9400b45fda66ac0735f74d1e05176fb07cf1..0000000000000000000000000000000000000000 --- a/data/biblioteka_nauki/biblioteka_nauki.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,60 +0,0 @@ -# biblioteka_nauki - -Biblioteka Nauki — Polish open-access scholarly corpus (scientific articles, books, chapters) - -## Dataset description -- **Source (upstream):** https://bibliotekanauki.pl (operated by ICM, University of Warsaw — Centrum Otwartej Nauki) -- **Domain:** academic (scientific articles, books, chapters) -- **Language:** Polish (pl) -- **License:** per-document — CC BY 4.0 28,335 · CC BY-SA 4.0 13,733 · Public Domain 3 -- **Created (range):** per-document publication year, from each item's bibliotekanauki.pl metadata -- **Added:** 2026-06-27 - -## Licensing — traceable basis -The SpeakLeash blob carries no per-document license field, and ~53% of the upstream collection is -all-rights-reserved, so a per-item gate was mandatory. Each item's license was recovered from the -bibliotekanauki.pl API (`bibliotekanauki.pl/api/{type}/<id>` → `license.iconId`). Only openly-licensed -items are kept; all-rights-reserved and unknown items are gated out. Recovery yielded 43,576 clean ids. - -| license | documents | -|---|---:| -| CC BY 4.0 | 28,335 | -| CC BY-SA 4.0 | 13,733 | -| Public Domain | 3 | - -The per-document license is carried in the parquet `license` column. - -## Attribution -Per-document attribution (author · year · title · publisher) was re-fetched 1:1 from -bibliotekanauki.pl (43,576 / 43,576 ok) and is carried in the parquet `attribution` column, -satisfying the CC BY / CC BY-SA attribution requirement that applies to every document here. - -## Provenance -Pulled from SpeakLeash's public redistribution (`speakleash-ds-pub`, key `biblioteka_nauki_pl_corpus`) -of the upstream source above. SpeakLeash credited as intermediate aggregator; upstream license and -attribution recovered per document and preserved. - -## Statistics -| documents | characters | tokens (tiktoken proxy) | -|---:|---:|---:| -| 42,071 | 1,748,333,935 | 673,488,831 | - -## Filters applied (build_dynaword.py) -Minimal, per Dynaword guidelines (heavy filtering left to downstream use): -- drop documents < 200 chars: **0** -- drop non-Polish (diacritic ratio): **925** -- exact cross-source dedup (sha1): **180** -- OCR alpha-ratio < 0.70 (OCR source): **400** -- read 43,576 → kept 42,071 - -Token counts are a fast tiktoken (cl100k) proxy (~1% off Llama-3); the canonical -Llama-3 count is computed at release. - -## Limitations -- **Mixed license.** Roughly one third of the documents are CC BY-SA 4.0 (share-alike); the exact - per-document license is in the `license` column. Downstream redistribution must respect share-alike - for those documents. -- **OCR / extraction noise.** Text is extracted from publisher PDFs; some layout and hyphenation - artefacts remain after the alpha-ratio filter. -- **Per-document dates.** `created` is the publication year from upstream metadata; finer-grained - dates are not available. diff --git a/data/biblioteka_nauki/biblioteka_nauki.parquet b/data/biblioteka_nauki/biblioteka_nauki.parquet deleted file mode 100644 index 4903f858110dc360b11badba3af318cfc6f308eb..0000000000000000000000000000000000000000 --- a/data/biblioteka_nauki/biblioteka_nauki.parquet +++ /dev/null @@ -1,3 +0,0 @@ -version https://git-lfs.github.com/spec/v1 -oid sha256:cc93cdd5ca3e6576a1da0aa294df1308e879b8516ac30911289e430c69a07b26 -size 1076638904 diff --git a/data/biblioteka_nauki/biblioteka_nauki.stats.json b/data/biblioteka_nauki/biblioteka_nauki.stats.json deleted file mode 100644 index ebf9435795ee8443e8a6c0a2e2a7aeaae86e1479..0000000000000000000000000000000000000000 --- a/data/biblioteka_nauki/biblioteka_nauki.stats.json +++ /dev/null @@ -1,12 +0,0 @@ -{ - "read": 43576, - "kept": 42071, - "drop_short": 0, - "drop_lang": 925, - "drop_dup": 180, - "drop_ocr": 400, - "chars": 1748333935, - "tokens": 673488831, - "secs": 484.1, - "license": "CC-BY-4.0 / CC-BY-SA-4.0" -} diff --git a/data/biblioteka_nauki/recover_attribution.py b/data/biblioteka_nauki/recover_attribution.py deleted file mode 100644 index 042bda60845ca7ce0b3c479f4612279a13cb1679..0000000000000000000000000000000000000000 --- a/data/biblioteka_nauki/recover_attribution.py +++ /dev/null @@ -1,125 +0,0 @@ -#!/usr/bin/env python3 -"""Targeted attribution pass for the CLEAN (CC-BY/CC-BY-SA/PD) Biblioteka Nauki ids ONLY. -The first recovery pass stored the license correctly but parsed the wrong attribution fields. -CC-BY/CC-BY-SA legally REQUIRE attribution, so re-fetch just the ~43.6k clean ids and extract: - authors = contributors[role=AUTHOR] firstName+lastName ; year = dates[PUBLISHED].date.year ; - title = mainTitle.text ; publisher = publishingCompanyInfo.name - - licenses.jsonl -> attribution.jsonl {type,id,license,authors,year,title,publisher} -Resumable, threaded, polite. ~43.6k calls. -""" -import json, os, random, sys, threading, time -from concurrent.futures import ThreadPoolExecutor, as_completed -import requests - -HERE = os.path.dirname(os.path.abspath(__file__)) -LIC = os.path.join(HERE, "licenses.jsonl") -OUT = os.path.join(HERE, "attribution.jsonl") -PROG = os.path.join(HERE, "attribution_progress.txt") -CLEAN = {"cc-by", "cc-by-sa", "cc0", "public-domain"} -WORKERS = 8 -UA = ("Mozilla/5.0 (Macintosh; Intel Mac OS X 10_15_7) AppleWebKit/537.36 " - "(KHTML, like Gecko) Chrome/124 Safari/537.36") -HEADERS = {"User-Agent": UA, "Accept": "application/json", "Referer": "https://bibliotekanauki.pl/"} -_local = threading.local() -_wlock = threading.Lock() - - -def session(): - s = getattr(_local, "s", None) - if s is None: - s = requests.Session() - s.headers.update(HEADERS) - s.mount("https://", requests.adapters.HTTPAdapter(pool_connections=4, pool_maxsize=4)) - _local.s = s - return s - - -def parse(d): - authors = [] - for c in (d.get("contributors") or []): - if c.get("role") == "AUTHOR": - nm = f"{c.get('firstName','') or ''} {c.get('lastName','') or ''}".strip() - if nm: - authors.append(nm) - year = None - dates = d.get("dates") or [] - for dt in dates: - if dt.get("type") == "PUBLISHED": - year = (dt.get("date") or {}).get("year") - break - if not year and dates: - year = (dates[0].get("date") or {}).get("year") - title = (d.get("mainTitle") or {}).get("text") - pub = (d.get("publishingCompanyInfo") or {}).get("name") - return authors[:20], (str(year) if year else None), title, pub - - -def fetch(item): - typ, _id, lic = item - url = f"https://bibliotekanauki.pl/api/{typ}/{_id}" - for attempt in range(4): - try: - r = session().get(url, timeout=25) - if r.status_code == 200: - a, y, t, p = parse(r.json()) - return {"type": typ, "id": _id, "license": lic, - "authors": a, "year": y, "title": t, "publisher": p, "status": "ok"} - if r.status_code in (403, 404, 410): - return {"type": typ, "id": _id, "license": lic, "status": f"http{r.status_code}"} - time.sleep((2 ** attempt) + random.random()) - except Exception as e: - if attempt == 3: - return {"type": typ, "id": _id, "license": lic, "status": f"err:{type(e).__name__}"} - time.sleep((2 ** attempt) + random.random()) - return {"type": typ, "id": _id, "license": lic, "status": "err:retries"} - - -def main(): - best = {} - for l in open(LIC, encoding="utf-8"): - try: - r = json.loads(l) - except Exception: - continue - best[(r["type"], r["id"])] = r - clean = [(t, i, r["iconId"]) for (t, i), r in best.items() - if r.get("status") == "ok" and r.get("iconId") in CLEAN] - done = set() - if os.path.exists(OUT): - for l in open(OUT, encoding="utf-8"): - try: - r = json.loads(l) - done.add((r["type"], r["id"])) - except Exception: - pass - todo = [c for c in clean if (c[0], c[1]) not in done] - print(f"clean={len(clean)} done={len(done)} todo={len(todo)} workers={WORKERS}", flush=True) - - out = open(OUT, "a", encoding="utf-8") - n = len(done) - t0 = time.time() - counts = {} - with ThreadPoolExecutor(max_workers=WORKERS) as ex: - futs = [ex.submit(fetch, c) for c in todo] - for fut in as_completed(futs): - res = fut.result() - with _wlock: - out.write(json.dumps(res, ensure_ascii=False) + "\n") - n += 1 - counts[res.get("status")] = counts.get(res.get("status"), 0) + 1 - time.sleep(random.uniform(0.02, 0.10)) - if n % 500 == 0: - out.flush() - rate = (n - len(done)) / max(time.time() - t0, 1) - eta = (len(clean) - n) / max(rate, 0.1) / 60 - msg = f"{n}/{len(clean)} {rate:.1f}/s ETA {eta:.0f}m " + \ - " ".join(f"{k}={v}" for k, v in sorted(counts.items())) - print(msg, flush=True) - open(PROG, "w").write(msg + "\n") - out.flush(); out.close() - print(f"DONE attribution: {n}/{len(clean)} counts={counts}", flush=True) - - -if __name__ == "__main__": - main() diff --git a/data/biblioteka_nauki/recover_licenses.py b/data/biblioteka_nauki/recover_licenses.py deleted file mode 100644 index 7e6f806d3efe71dca0fdaccb8688ef65809ec917..0000000000000000000000000000000000000000 --- a/data/biblioteka_nauki/recover_licenses.py +++ /dev/null @@ -1,171 +0,0 @@ -#!/usr/bin/env python3 -"""Pass 2: recover the per-item license for every Biblioteka Nauki doc via the public API. - index.jsonl -> GET bibliotekanauki.pl/api/{type}/{id} -> licenses.jsonl - -Resumable (skips ids already in licenses.jsonl), polite (modest concurrency + jitter + backoff), -keep-alive sessions, and a circuit-breaker if the host starts blocking us. - -Output line: {type,id, iconId, cc(bool), restricted(bool), authors, year, source, status} - status: "ok" | "http404" | "http403" | "err:<Type>" -""" -import json, os, random, sys, threading, time -from concurrent.futures import ThreadPoolExecutor, as_completed -import requests - -HERE = os.path.dirname(os.path.abspath(__file__)) -INDEX = os.path.join(HERE, "index.jsonl") -OUT = os.path.join(HERE, "licenses.jsonl") -PROG = os.path.join(HERE, "recover_progress.txt") - -WORKERS = 8 -TIMEOUT = 25 -MAX_RETRY = 4 -UA = ("Mozilla/5.0 (Macintosh; Intel Mac OS X 10_15_7) AppleWebKit/537.36 " - "(KHTML, like Gecko) Chrome/124 Safari/537.36") -HEADERS = {"User-Agent": UA, "Accept": "application/json", "Referer": "https://bibliotekanauki.pl/"} - -_local = threading.local() -_write_lock = threading.Lock() -_recent = [] # rolling window of recent statuses for the circuit breaker -_recent_lock = threading.Lock() -_stop = threading.Event() - - -def session(): - s = getattr(_local, "s", None) - if s is None: - s = requests.Session() - s.headers.update(HEADERS) - a = requests.adapters.HTTPAdapter(pool_connections=4, pool_maxsize=4) - s.mount("https://", a) - _local.s = s - return s - - -def load_done(): - done = set() - if os.path.exists(OUT): - with open(OUT, encoding="utf-8") as f: - for line in f: - try: - r = json.loads(line) - done.add((r["type"], r["id"])) - except Exception: - pass - return done - - -def fetch(item): - if _stop.is_set(): - return None - typ, _id = item["type"], item["id"] - url = f"https://bibliotekanauki.pl/api/{typ}/{_id}" - for attempt in range(MAX_RETRY): - try: - r = session().get(url, timeout=TIMEOUT) - if r.status_code == 200: - d = r.json() - lic = d.get("license") or {} - authors = [] - for c in (d.get("contributors") or []): - nm = (c.get("name") or "").strip() - if nm: - authors.append(nm) - year = None - for dt in (d.get("dates") or []): - y = str(dt.get("year") or dt.get("value") or "")[:4] - if y.isdigit(): - year = y - break - insts = d.get("publicationInstitutions") or d.get("journal") or None - if isinstance(insts, list): - insts = "; ".join(x.get("name", "") if isinstance(x, dict) else str(x) for x in insts) or None - return { - "type": typ, "id": _id, - "iconId": lic.get("iconId"), - "cc": bool(lic.get("creativeCommons")), - "restricted": bool(d.get("restricted")), - "authors": authors[:12], - "year": year, - "source": insts, - "status": "ok", - } - if r.status_code in (403,): - return {"type": typ, "id": _id, "status": "http403"} - if r.status_code in (404, 410): - return {"type": typ, "id": _id, "status": "http404"} - # 429 / 5xx -> backoff & retry - time.sleep((2 ** attempt) + random.random()) - except Exception as e: - if attempt == MAX_RETRY - 1: - return {"type": typ, "id": _id, "status": f"err:{type(e).__name__}"} - time.sleep((2 ** attempt) + random.random()) - return {"type": typ, "id": _id, "status": "err:retries"} - - -def note(status): - with _recent_lock: - _recent.append(status) - if len(_recent) > 200: - _recent.pop(0) - # circuit breaker: >60% 403 over a full window => host is blocking us - if len(_recent) == 200 and sum(1 for s in _recent if s == "http403") > 120: - _stop.set() - - -def main(): - if not os.path.exists(INDEX): - sys.exit(f"missing {INDEX} — run build_index.py first") - items = [] - with open(INDEX, encoding="utf-8") as f: - for line in f: - try: - r = json.loads(line) - items.append({"type": r["type"], "id": r["id"]}) - except Exception: - pass - done = load_done() - todo = [it for it in items if (it["type"], it["id"]) not in done] - total = len(items) - print(f"index={total} done={len(done)} todo={len(todo)} workers={WORKERS}", flush=True) - - n = len(done) - t0 = time.time() - out = open(OUT, "a", encoding="utf-8") - counts = {} - try: - with ThreadPoolExecutor(max_workers=WORKERS) as ex: - futs = [ex.submit(fetch, it) for it in todo] - for fut in as_completed(futs): - res = fut.result() - if res is None: - continue - with _write_lock: - out.write(json.dumps(res, ensure_ascii=False) + "\n") - n += 1 - st = res.get("status", "?") - counts[st] = counts.get(st, 0) + 1 - note(st) - # politeness jitter (per completed task; with 8 workers ~ a few hundred req/min) - time.sleep(random.uniform(0.02, 0.12)) - if n % 500 == 0: - out.flush() - rate = (n - len(done)) / max(time.time() - t0, 1) - eta = (total - n) / max(rate, 0.1) / 60 - msg = (f"{n}/{total} {rate:.1f}/s ETA {eta:.0f}m " - + " ".join(f"{k}={v}" for k, v in sorted(counts.items()))) - print(msg, flush=True) - with open(PROG, "w") as p: - p.write(msg + "\n") - if _stop.is_set(): - print("!! circuit breaker tripped (sustained 403) — stopping. Re-run later to resume.", flush=True) - break - finally: - out.flush() - out.close() - print(f"FINISHED pass: wrote {n}/{total}. counts={counts}", flush=True) - print("Next: build_parquet.py to assemble the CC-BY/SA subset.", flush=True) - - -if __name__ == "__main__": - main() diff --git a/data/european_hplt_v3_pl/european_hplt_v3_pl.md b/data/european_hplt_v3_pl/european_hplt_v3_pl.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..1592b0c2f0c307855ad97730dd05df73b28e9be6 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/european_hplt_v3_pl/european_hplt_v3_pl.md @@ -0,0 +1,57 @@ +# european_hplt_v3_pl + +Filtered Polish subset of **HPLT v3.0** (`pol_Latn`), top quality bins (WDS = 10 and 9), merged into one file. + +## Dataset description +- **Source (upstream):** https://hplt-project.org/datasets/v3.0 (`pol_Latn`, shards `10_1` [WDS=10] + `9_1` prefix [WDS=9]) +- **Domain:** web (modern natural Polish — informational, narrative, opinion, how-to, discussion) +- **Language:** Polish (pl) +- **License:** `CC0-1.0` (packaging; see licensing note) +- **Created (range):** web crawls 2012-2024 (Internet Archive + Common Crawl) +- **Added:** 2026-07-14 + +## Licensing - traceable basis +HPLT licenses the **packaging** of these text data under Creative Commons CC0 1.0 ("no rights reserved"), +per the HPLT v3.0 Terms of Use (hplt-project.org/datasets/v3.0) and the HF card `HPLT/HPLT3.0`. +HPLT does not own the underlying web text; a notice-and-takedown policy applies and downstream users +remain responsible for compliance (EU CDSM Directive 2019/790, GDPR). This is a web-crawl source: it is +offered at parity with the already-listed `european-hplt-v1` (CC0) basis and still needs maintainer +web/legal review (`accept_after_web_review`), not auto-accept. + +## Provenance +Fetched directly from the HPLT distribution (`data.hplt-project.org/three/sorted/pol_Latn/{10_1,9_1}.jsonl.zst`), +NOT via SpeakLeash. HPLT v3 is globally deduplicated upstream and sorted into Web-Docs-Scorer (WDS) quality +bins; only the two top bins are used. Per-document URL, WDS score, web-register, MT-probability and PII spans +are available in the raw HPLT record and were used for filtering (not retained in the released canonical schema). + +## Statistics +| documents | characters | tokens (tiktoken cl100k proxy) | +|---:|---:|---:| +| 110,590 | 1,426,290,944 | 512,383,778 | + +Composition (single merged parquet): bin-10 (WDS=10) 55,590 docs / 261,468,813 tok; +bin-9 (WDS=9) 55,000 docs / 250,914,965 tok. See `european_hplt_v3_pl.stats.json` for the per-bin + drop breakdown. + +## Per-document license metadata +| license | documents | +|---|---:| +| `CC0-1.0` | 110,590 | + +## Filters applied (src/clean_hplt_v3.py; thresholds inherited from src/filter_european_hplt.py) +Per-shard keep: bin-10 55,590/195,874 (28.4%), bin-9 55,000/152,380 (36.1%). Drop reasons: +`register` (not ID/OP/HI/IN/NA), `machine_translated` (MT>=0.20), `domain` +(wikipedia/wikisource/wikimedia + file-hosts excluded), `adult_spam`, `legalish` (drops legal/parliamentary +phrasing - serves the anti-legalese goal), `boilerplate`, `too_long` (>120k chars = book-length copyright/OCR +risk), `mojibake` (>=3 CJK/replacement chars - upstream HPLT UTF-8->GBK mis-decode), `filehost` (PDF/file-share +headers), `domain_cap` (>250 docs/domain). MT-probability of kept docs: mean ~0.08. Mojibake residual: 0. + +## Status & caveats (web-crawl - NOT "release-clean") +- **Copyright is not fully solved by filtering.** The length cap removes obvious book-length works, but + in-copyright text recurs in web-crawl at ALL lengths (news reprints, blog reposts, excerpts). Inherent to + web sources; the reason HPLT ships CC0-on-packaging + notice-and-takedown. +- **Near-dup NOT removed** (Dynaword leaves heavy filtering downstream). ~11.8% of an HPLT sample's 8-grams + overlap Polish Wikipedia; wikipedia/wikisource domain exclusion mitigates the largest sources, but + cross-source near/containment dedup vs the full corpus remains a downstream step. +- Surface-metric parity with accepted sources: mojibake 0%, boilerplate ~0.2%, diacritic-ratio ~0.066, + TTR@500 ~0.64 (within the accepted range, ~= parliamentary). ~9% commercial/SEO-adjacent pages (web-inherent). +- This is 2 top bins merged. The full `pol_Latn` corpus is ~270B raw tokens across WDS bins 10->5. diff --git a/data/european_hplt_v3_pl/european_hplt_v3_pl.parquet b/data/european_hplt_v3_pl/european_hplt_v3_pl.parquet new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..b5b4a470726605bcb6b7fcfc86b09638ef4c54b3 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/european_hplt_v3_pl/european_hplt_v3_pl.parquet @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +version https://git-lfs.github.com/spec/v1 +oid sha256:6295b3280cef2b99e9bf511a1c48be9c94cd219455d2e9666ebf17363771b714 +size 610242503 diff --git a/data/european_hplt_v3_pl/european_hplt_v3_pl.stats.json b/data/european_hplt_v3_pl/european_hplt_v3_pl.stats.json new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..d74ca8a710990503745fa287d36bb8a2bb2e1fcc --- /dev/null +++ b/data/european_hplt_v3_pl/european_hplt_v3_pl.stats.json @@ -0,0 +1,41 @@ +{ + "read": 348254, + "kept": 110590, + "drop_short": 0, + "drop_lang": 2, + "drop_dup": 0, + "drop_ocr": 0, + "chars": 1426290944, + "tokens": 512383778, + "licenses": { + "CC0-1.0": 110590 + }, + "authors_with_value": 0, + "license": "CC0-1.0", + "stats_recomputed_from_parquet": true, + "drop_detail": { + "machine_translated": 46477, + "adult_spam": 18682, + "register": 128956, + "legalish": 15881, + "domain": 23234, + "boilerplate": 3183, + "mojibake": 241, + "too_long": 216, + "filehost": 7, + "lang_prob": 2, + "domain_cap": 785 + }, + "shards": { + "bin10_WDS10": { + "kept": 55590, + "tokens": 261468813 + }, + "bin9_WDS9": { + "kept": 55000, + "tokens": 250914965 + } + }, + "mt_prob_mean_kept": 0.08, + "source_repo": "HPLT/HPLT3.0 pol_Latn WDS bins 10+9 (data.hplt-project.org)" +} diff --git a/data/global_voices/global_voices.attribution.jsonl b/data/global_voices/global_voices.attribution.jsonl index 4338745217b702ba40ed1283739e15634a14aff1..051105b25f0b18989465e1ce088401921b37ba17 100644 --- a/data/global_voices/global_voices.attribution.jsonl +++ b/data/global_voices/global_voices.attribution.jsonl @@ -1,3 +1,2040 @@ -version https://git-lfs.github.com/spec/v1 -oid sha256:ab8ad393c4453524c4f3d7fe89157bfca1d9f66f2a735815f3b1ebd405c8fa13 -size 1146354 +{"author":"Global Voices","canonical_url":"https://pl.globalvoices.org/2008/11/witamy-2/","id":"global_voices_4","license":"CC-BY-3.0","license_url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/deed.pl","modification_note":"Article text extracted and cleaned; reviewed redundant source-language passages were removed when a Polish translation was retained.","modified":true,"title":"Witamy!"} +{"author":"Autorzy oryginału: Veronica Khokhlova; Tłumaczenie: Sylwia Presley","canonical_url":"https://pl.globalvoices.org/2008/11/biurokracja-i-aktywizm-na-livejournal-w-piotrogrodzie/","id":"global_voices_5","license":"CC-BY-3.0","license_url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/deed.pl","modification_note":"Article text extracted and cleaned; reviewed redundant source-language passages were removed when a Polish translation was retained.","modified":true,"title":"Biurokracja i aktywizm na Livejournal w Piotrogrodzie"} +{"author":"Autorzy oryginału: Amira Al Hussaini; Tłumaczenie: Sylwia Presley","canonical_url":"https://pl.globalvoices.org/2008/11/rosnie-miedzynarodowe-napiecie-w-celu-uwolnienia-uwiezionego-egipskiego-blogera/","id":"global_voices_7","license":"CC-BY-3.0","license_url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/deed.pl","modification_note":"Article text extracted and cleaned; reviewed redundant source-language passages were removed when a Polish translation was retained.","modified":true,"title":"Rośnie międzynarodowe napięcie w celu uwolnienia uwięzionego egipskiego blogera"} +{"author":"Autorzy oryginału: Eman AbdElRahman; Tłumaczenie: Sylwia Presley","canonical_url":"https://pl.globalvoices.org/2008/11/swiat-yahoo-i-taniec-dla-publicznosci/","id":"global_voices_8","license":"CC-BY-3.0","license_url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/deed.pl","modification_note":"Article text extracted and cleaned; reviewed redundant source-language passages were removed when a Polish translation was retained.","modified":true,"title":"Świat: Yahoo i taniec dla publiczności"} +{"author":"Autorzy oryginału: Leonard Chien; Tłumaczenie: Sylwia Presley","canonical_url":"https://pl.globalvoices.org/2008/11/czas-na-zmiany-rowniez-w-nowej-zelandii/","id":"global_voices_9","license":"CC-BY-3.0","license_url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/deed.pl","modification_note":"Article text extracted and cleaned; reviewed redundant source-language passages were removed when a Polish translation was retained.","modified":true,"title":"Czas na zmiany również w Nowej Zelandii"} +{"author":"Autorzy oryginału: Adil Nurmakov; Tłumaczenie: Sylwia Presley","canonical_url":"https://pl.globalvoices.org/2008/11/kazachstanlivejournal-zablokowany/","id":"global_voices_10","license":"CC-BY-3.0","license_url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/deed.pl","modification_note":"Article text extracted and cleaned; reviewed redundant source-language passages were removed when a Polish translation was retained.","modified":true,"title":"Kazachstan:LiveJournal zablokowany"} +{"author":"Autorzy oryginału: Juan Arellano; Tłumaczenie: Sylwia Presley","canonical_url":"https://pl.globalvoices.org/2008/11/peru-wystawa-przedstawiajaca-postaci-swietych-wywoluje-kontrowersje-oraz-mozliwa-centure/","id":"global_voices_11","license":"CC-BY-3.0","license_url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/deed.pl","modification_note":"Article text extracted and cleaned; reviewed redundant source-language passages were removed when a Polish translation was retained.","modified":true,"title":"Peru: Wystawa przedstawiająca postaci świętych wywołuje kontrowersje oraz możliwą centurę."} +{"author":"Autorzy oryginału: Simon Maghakyan; Tłumaczenie: Sylwia Presley","canonical_url":"https://pl.globalvoices.org/2008/11/armenia-przemoc-wobec-kobiet/","id":"global_voices_12","license":"CC-BY-3.0","license_url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/deed.pl","modification_note":"Article text extracted and cleaned; reviewed redundant source-language passages were removed when a Polish translation was retained.","modified":true,"title":"Armenia: przemoc wobec kobiet"} +{"author":"Autorzy oryginału: Marwa Rakha; Tłumaczenie: admin","canonical_url":"https://pl.globalvoices.org/2008/11/egipt-u-nas-nie-ma-molestowania-seksualnego-mowi-pierwsza-dama/","id":"global_voices_13","license":"CC-BY-3.0","license_url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/deed.pl","modification_note":"Article text extracted and cleaned; 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reviewed redundant source-language passages were removed when a Polish translation was retained.","modified":true,"title":"Nepalskie krzewy „rodzące” pieniądze"} +{"author":"Autorzy oryginału: Daria Dergacheva; Tłumaczenie: Katarzyna Grobelska-Kozlowska","canonical_url":"https://pl.globalvoices.org/2023/02/rosja-co-piatek-rozszerza-liste-zagranicznych-agentow-o-nowe-osoby-i-instytucje/","id":"global_voices_34987","license":"CC-BY-3.0","license_url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/deed.pl","modification_note":"Article text extracted and cleaned; reviewed redundant source-language passages were removed when a Polish translation was retained.","modified":true,"title":"Rosja co piątek rozszerza listę „zagranicznych agentów” o nowe osoby i instytucje"} +{"author":"Autorzy oryginału: Daria Dergacheva, Russia Post; Tłumaczenie: Katarzyna Grobelska-Kozlowska","canonical_url":"https://pl.globalvoices.org/2023/03/jak-zmienila-sie-rosja-w-rok-po-inwazji-na-ukraine/","id":"global_voices_35006","license":"CC-BY-3.0","license_url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/deed.pl","modification_note":"Article text extracted and cleaned; 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Per-record authors, titles, source URLs, license evidence and source-file checksums are preserved in `artifacts/attribution.jsonl` and `artifacts/inventory.json`. - -Transformations: PDF text extraction with pdfplumber, Unicode and whitespace normalization, page-number-only removal, line-wrap repair, limited email and labelled-phone redaction, and within-source exact/near deduplication. Images are excluded. Isolated unreadable PDF glyphs are represented as `[UNREADABLE_GLYPH]`. Attribution and ShareAlike obligations remain applicable. diff --git a/data/rock_pollub_pl/rock_pollub_pl.attribution.jsonl b/data/rock_pollub_pl/rock_pollub_pl.attribution.jsonl deleted file mode 100644 index b6a5cee9c6c3aebbb32d34cf0a18c70e4974d271..0000000000000000000000000000000000000000 --- a/data/rock_pollub_pl/rock_pollub_pl.attribution.jsonl +++ /dev/null @@ -1,3 +0,0 @@ -version https://git-lfs.github.com/spec/v1 -oid sha256:7f402aa851f338dd7661310e886a140f551ce58d8cd42a04034104204c7b9ea9 -size 13279 diff --git a/data/rock_pollub_pl/rock_pollub_pl.decisions.jsonl b/data/rock_pollub_pl/rock_pollub_pl.decisions.jsonl deleted file mode 100644 index 889473be2c7390baefed8b2fc693716f67903ad6..0000000000000000000000000000000000000000 --- a/data/rock_pollub_pl/rock_pollub_pl.decisions.jsonl +++ /dev/null @@ -1,3 +0,0 @@ -version https://git-lfs.github.com/spec/v1 -oid sha256:e60fe6b5610cf9453b432ffb4e5cb3630bf3b313a15e5042ea0a176feb1ea6d7 -size 1880 diff --git a/data/rock_pollub_pl/rock_pollub_pl.md b/data/rock_pollub_pl/rock_pollub_pl.md deleted file mode 100644 index 0f76c74b22282fc9e1cd255fa5469894b1cb305c..0000000000000000000000000000000000000000 --- a/data/rock_pollub_pl/rock_pollub_pl.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,29 +0,0 @@ ---- -license: cc-by-sa-4.0 -language: -- pl -task_categories: -- text-generation -configs: -- config_name: default - data_files: - - split: train - path: data/train-00000-of-00001.parquet ---- - -# ROCK Politechnika Lubelska PL books - -A fail-closed Polish academic-book subset extracted from the official ROCK repository of Lublin University of Technology. - -- Retained books: 8 -- Text characters: 3,380,937 -- Tokens: 1,177,858 (`cl100k_base` proxy) -- Author coverage: 100.0% -- License: CC BY-SA 4.0, confirmed for every retained item and matched PDF bitstream -- Source period: 2023-2026 - -The acquisition target was 20 books, but only eight passed the conservative per-file rights gate. The other inspected candidates are not included. See `NOTICE.md` and `artifacts/` for attribution, decisions, the source inventory, deterministic complete-record samples, QA, checksums, overlap audit and Slayer ontology manifest. - -## Limitations - -PDF extraction can flatten tables and equations. Two isolated unreadable glyphs were marked explicitly. Pattern-based PII checks are not comprehensive de-identification. No title overlap was detected against the pinned `biblioteka_nauki` attribution column, but target-wide text deduplication, benchmark checks and controlled training ablations remain pending. diff --git a/data/rock_pollub_pl/rock_pollub_pl.overlap_audit.json b/data/rock_pollub_pl/rock_pollub_pl.overlap_audit.json deleted file mode 100644 index bbef888b11ebf09bedff9256d16e78cd874b84b2..0000000000000000000000000000000000000000 --- a/data/rock_pollub_pl/rock_pollub_pl.overlap_audit.json +++ /dev/null @@ -1,61 +0,0 @@ -{ - "candidate_records": 8, - "method": "normalized title substring; fallback SequenceMatcher >= 0.90 over attribution", - "observed_at": "2026-09-08T16:37:35.661794+00:00", - "records_with_exact_title_match": 0, - "records_with_fuzzy_title_match": 0, - "results": [ - { - "exact_title_matches": [], - "fuzzy_title_matches": [], - "item_id": "513c690d-72b3-4604-b62e-e21e44b91645", - "title": "Modelowanie i analiza eksperymentalna parametrów pracy modułów fotowoltaicznych w warunkach rzeczywistych" - }, - { - "exact_title_matches": [], - "fuzzy_title_matches": [], - "item_id": "e9e7a67e-c405-4968-b87a-0ff169c7b3d1", - "title": "Ćwiczenia i zadania ze wstępu do matematyki finansowej" - }, - { - "exact_title_matches": [], - "fuzzy_title_matches": [], - "item_id": "a6c38c5d-ba8f-47ac-a3e6-b50df14a595b", - "title": "Dobór architektury i parametrów procesu uczenia sieci neuronowych w doskonaleniu procesów produkcyjnych" - }, - { - "exact_title_matches": [], - "fuzzy_title_matches": [], - "item_id": "903f22e1-a2ab-4231-a402-2bc9535c12f2", - "title": "Wyzwania współczesnego publikowania" - }, - { - "exact_title_matches": [], - "fuzzy_title_matches": [], - "item_id": "0e26bff5-e51a-4d36-9524-fdef6e3e6ab7", - "title": "Symulacje Monte Carlo. Teoria i zastosowania" - }, - { - "exact_title_matches": [], - "fuzzy_title_matches": [], - "item_id": "032a14e5-5c8e-4153-9cf7-2dfd9e361e6d", - "title": "Zastosowanie uczenia maszynowego do obrazowania stanu zawilgocenia murów z wykorzystaniem tomografii impedancyjnej" - }, - { - "exact_title_matches": [], - "fuzzy_title_matches": [], - "item_id": "da87b1d3-7018-46fa-81bd-380f0780a1b3", - "title": "Zarządzanie współpracą instytucji państwa z diasporą. Przegląd teorii, analiza porównawcza wybranych państw" - }, - { - "exact_title_matches": [], - "fuzzy_title_matches": [], - "item_id": "a257b1ce-1af7-4dfc-ae38-ec67ef877689", - "title": "Komputerowa grafika inżynierska. Ćwiczenia do programu AutoCAD 2023" - } - ], - "target": "SlayerLab/polish-dynaword:data/biblioteka_nauki", - "target_revision": "02bcb0b5f991a30f8454c6444f701633b71f69d4", - "target_rows": 42071, - "text_overlap": "not tested; target-wide text dedup remains an integration gate" -} diff --git a/data/rock_pollub_pl/rock_pollub_pl.parquet b/data/rock_pollub_pl/rock_pollub_pl.parquet deleted file mode 100644 index 73407c0cdbd7214ed77866fcb753462a02e70ce2..0000000000000000000000000000000000000000 --- a/data/rock_pollub_pl/rock_pollub_pl.parquet +++ /dev/null @@ -1,3 +0,0 @@ -version https://git-lfs.github.com/spec/v1 -oid sha256:b8fdae22e9c2f5307977f94c9e46d95fe5d198423f550a8087ee8d76fb09c1d9 -size 1267933 diff --git a/data/rock_pollub_pl/rock_pollub_pl.qa.json b/data/rock_pollub_pl/rock_pollub_pl.qa.json deleted file mode 100644 index ad148f0525eff74e519afe8035b5ae6e25b6678c..0000000000000000000000000000000000000000 --- a/data/rock_pollub_pl/rock_pollub_pl.qa.json +++ /dev/null @@ -1,81 +0,0 @@ -{ - "benchmark_overlap": "pending", - "biblioteka_nauki_overlap": { - "candidate_records": 8, - "method": "normalized title substring; fallback SequenceMatcher >= 0.90 over attribution", - "observed_at": "2026-09-08T16:37:35.661794+00:00", - "records_with_exact_title_match": 0, - "records_with_fuzzy_title_match": 0, - "results": [ - { - "exact_title_matches": [], - "fuzzy_title_matches": [], - "item_id": "513c690d-72b3-4604-b62e-e21e44b91645", - "title": "Modelowanie i analiza eksperymentalna parametrów pracy modułów fotowoltaicznych w warunkach rzeczywistych" - }, - { - "exact_title_matches": [], - "fuzzy_title_matches": [], - "item_id": "e9e7a67e-c405-4968-b87a-0ff169c7b3d1", - "title": "Ćwiczenia i zadania ze wstępu do matematyki finansowej" - }, - { - "exact_title_matches": [], - "fuzzy_title_matches": [], - "item_id": "a6c38c5d-ba8f-47ac-a3e6-b50df14a595b", - "title": "Dobór architektury i parametrów procesu uczenia sieci neuronowych w doskonaleniu procesów produkcyjnych" - }, - { - "exact_title_matches": [], - "fuzzy_title_matches": [], - "item_id": "903f22e1-a2ab-4231-a402-2bc9535c12f2", - "title": "Wyzwania współczesnego publikowania" - }, - { - "exact_title_matches": [], - "fuzzy_title_matches": [], - "item_id": "0e26bff5-e51a-4d36-9524-fdef6e3e6ab7", - "title": "Symulacje Monte Carlo. Teoria i zastosowania" - }, - { - "exact_title_matches": [], - "fuzzy_title_matches": [], - "item_id": "032a14e5-5c8e-4153-9cf7-2dfd9e361e6d", - "title": "Zastosowanie uczenia maszynowego do obrazowania stanu zawilgocenia murów z wykorzystaniem tomografii impedancyjnej" - }, - { - "exact_title_matches": [], - "fuzzy_title_matches": [], - "item_id": "da87b1d3-7018-46fa-81bd-380f0780a1b3", - "title": "Zarządzanie współpracą instytucji państwa z diasporą. Przegląd teorii, analiza porównawcza wybranych państw" - }, - { - "exact_title_matches": [], - "fuzzy_title_matches": [], - "item_id": "a257b1ce-1af7-4dfc-ae38-ec67ef877689", - "title": "Komputerowa grafika inżynierska. Ćwiczenia do programu AutoCAD 2023" - } - ], - "target": "SlayerLab/polish-dynaword:data/biblioteka_nauki", - "target_revision": "02bcb0b5f991a30f8454c6444f701633b71f69d4", - "target_rows": 42071, - "text_overlap": "not tested; target-wide text dedup remains an integration gate" - }, - "cross_source_dedup": "pending target integration", - "exact_dedup": true, - "license_gate": "CC-BY-SA-4.0 in item and matched PDF bitstream metadata", - "limitations": [ - "PDF extraction may flatten tables and equations", - "third-party figures and quoted material are not included as images but textual excerpts require review", - "isolated PDF extraction replacement characters are represented as [UNREADABLE_GLYPH]", - "pattern checks are not comprehensive de-identification", - "pilot yield must not be extrapolated without a full inventory run" - ], - "near_dedup": "exact 5-word-shingle Jaccard >= 0.90 within pilot", - "pii_pattern_matches": { - "email": 2, - "labelled_phone": 0 - }, - "scope": "pilot target 20; acquired 8; not a completeness claim", - "target_reached": false -} diff --git a/data/rock_pollub_pl/rock_pollub_pl.sample.jsonl b/data/rock_pollub_pl/rock_pollub_pl.sample.jsonl deleted file mode 100644 index ae3b643cad4eeddf885442d6472348999f57a11f..0000000000000000000000000000000000000000 --- a/data/rock_pollub_pl/rock_pollub_pl.sample.jsonl +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8 +0,0 @@ -{"added": "2026-09-08", "author": "Zienkiewicz, Tadeusz; Zienkiewicz, Konrad", "created": "2025", "id": "rock_pollub_pl_da87b1d3-7018-46fa-81bd-380f0780a1b3", "license": "CC-BY-SA-4.0", "source": "rock_pollub_pl", "text": "Zarządzanie współpracą instytucji państwa z diasporą\nPrzegląd teorii, analiza porównawcza wybranych państw\n\nRada Naukowa Wydawnictwa Politechniki Lubelskiej\nPrzewodnicząca:\nAgnieszka Rzepka\nDyrektor CINT:\nKatarzyna Weinper\nPrzedstawiciele Dyscyplin Naukowych Politechniki Lubelskiej:\nMarzenna Dudzińska\nMałgorzata Franus\nArkadiusz Gola\nBeata Kowalska\nGrzegorz Komarzyniec\nJarosław Latalski\nTomasz Lipecki\nZbigniew Łagodowski\nLucjan Pawłowski\nNatalia Przesmycka\nHalina Rarot\nMagdalena Rzemieniak\nArkadiusz Syta\nWydawnictwo Politechniki Lubelskiej:\nMagdalena Chołojczyk\nKarolina Famulska-Ciesielska\nKatarzyna Pełka-Smętek\n\nMONOGRAFIE POLITECHNIKI LUBELSKIEJ\nZarządzanie współpracą instytucji państwa z diasporą\nPrzegląd teorii, analiza porównawcza wybranych państw\nRedakcja Tadeusz Zienkiewicz\nLublin 2025\n\nRecenzenci:\nprof. dr hab. Andrzej Miszczuk (Uniwersytet Marii Curie-Skłodowskiej w Lublinie) prof. dr hab. Anita Adamczyk (Uniwersytet im. Adama Mickiewicza w Poznaniu)\nAutorzy:\ndr inż. Tadeusz Zienkiewicz, ORCID: 0000-0002-6941-6309 (Politechnika Lubelska)\nPolitechnika Lubelska – ROR: https://ror.org/024zjzd49 mgr Konrad Zienkiewicz, ORCID: 0009-0002-6133-5966 (Fundacja Instytut Bałkański)\nRedaktor prowadzący: Magdalena Chołojczyk\nKorekta językowa: Magdalena Osica\nSkład i łamanie: Łukasz Maj\nProjekt graficzny serii: Łukasz Maj\nPublikacja dofinansowana ze środków budżetu państwa w ramach programu Ministra Edukacji i Nauki pod nazwą „Nauka dla Społeczeństwa II” nr projektu\nNdS-II/SN/0353/2023/01 kwota dofinansowania\n775.200,00 zł., całkowita wartość projektu 775.200,00 zł”.\nGrafika na okładce – opracowanie Tadeusz Zienkiewicz\nPublikacja wydana za zgodą Rektora Politechniki Lubelskiej\nISBN: 978-83-7947-662-6 (wersja elektroniczna)\nDOI: 10.35784/9788379476626\nWydawca: Wydawnictwo Politechniki Lubelskiej www.wpl.pollub.pl ul. Nadbystrzycka 36C,\n20-618 Lublin tel. (81) 538-46-59\nKsiążka udostępniona jest na licencji Creative Commons Uznanie autorstwa – na tych samych warunkach\n4.0 Międzynarodowe (CC BY-SA 4.0)\n\nSpis treści\nWprowadzenie T. Zienkiewicz 11\n1. Diaspora – definicje i pojęcia T. Zienkiewicz 19\n1.1. Diaspora – zarys definicyjny 22\n1.1.1. Ewolucja pojęcia „diaspora” 23\n1.1.2 Typologie diaspor 28\n1.1.3. Status formalnoprawny członków diaspory – uwarunkowania i znaczenie 32\n1.1.4. Przypadek polski: Polonia, Polacy za granicą i emigracja – debata terminologiczna i instytucjonalna 39\n1.2. Uwarunkowania powstawania i funkcjonowania diaspor 51\n1.2.1. Przyczyny migracji i genezy diaspor 51\n1.2.2. Mechanizmy trwania i rekonfiguracji diaspor 53\n1.3. Diaspora jako zjawisko historyczne i współczesne 56\n1.3.1. Diaspory w historii: Żydzi, Ormianie, Grecy 56\n1.3.2. Diaspory XXI wieku: nowe migracje i globalizacja 59\n1.4. Status formalnoprawny członków diaspory 66\n1.4.1. Obywatelstwo, podwójne obywatelstwo, status rezydenta 67\n1.4.2. Przykłady rozwiązań prawnych w wybranych krajach 74\n1.4.3. Konsekwencje prawne dla funkcjonowania społecznego i politycznego diaspory 85\n1.5. Formy zorganizowania diaspory 94\n1.5.1. Organizacje migranckie (diasporalne) 94\n1.5.3. Wpływ organizacji diasporalnych na politykę 118\n1.6. Diaspory w Unii Europejskiej 125\n1.6.1. Swoboda przepływu osób a tworzenie się diaspor wewnątrz UE 127\n1.6.2. Status prawny obywateli UE w innym państwie członkowskim 135\n1.6.3. Specyfika diaspor wewnątrz UE vs. spoza UE 139\nWnioski 149\n2. Podstawy teoretyczne zarządzania publicznego K. Zienkiewicz 153\n2.1. Klasyczny model administracji Maxa Webera 156\n2.1.1. Geneza i założenia klasycznego modelu administracji 157\n2.1.2. Biurokracja jako mechanizm zarządzania publicznego 160\n2.1.3. Krytyka klasycznego modelu administracji 162\n2.1.4. Reinterpretacja modelu Webera w kontekście współczesnego zarządzania publicznego 166\n\n3. Ewolucja zarządzania publicznego – od administracji klasycznej do zarządzania publicznego T. Zienkiewicz 169\n3.1. Podejście governance 173\n3.2. Modele governance w zarządzaniu publicznym 191\n3.2.1. Model biurokratyczny 191\n3.2.2. Model oparty na współpracy 193\n3.2.3. Adaptacyjny model zarządzania w zarządzaniu publicznym 196\n3.3. Wyzwania związane z wdrażaniem zmian w zarządzaniu publicznym 200\n3.4. Dobre praktyki wdrażania zmian w zarządzaniu publicznym 205\n3.4.1. Strategiczne dopasowanie i jasne cele 205\n3.4.2. Inkluzywne zaangażowanie interesariuszy w zarządzanie 208\n3.4.3. Ustanowienie formalnych struktur i procesów we współrządzeniu 211\n3.4.4. Podejmowanie decyzji w oparciu o dane 213\n3.4.5. Wspieranie kultury innowacji w zarządzaniu publicznym 215\n3.4.6. Zarządzanie oparte na współpracy i sieci governance 216\n3.5. Zarządzanie globalne 221\n4. Teoria interesariuszy K. Zienkiewicz 233\n4.1. Wielowymiarowy charakter zarządzania publicznego 234\n4.1.1. Konieczność równoważenia interesów różnych grup w zarządzaniu publicznym 238\n4.1.2. Odpowiedzialność i przejrzystość sektora publicznego 241\n4.1.3. Zarządzanie partycypacyjne i zaangażowanie obywateli 244\n4.2. Rodzaje interesariuszy w administracji publicznej 246\n4.3. Zastosowanie teorii interesariuszy w praktyce administracji publicznej 251\n5. Teoria instytucjonalna T. Zienkiewicz 257\n5.1. Podstawy teorii instytucjonalne geneza i rozwój 258\n5.2. Legitymizacja i przetrwanie organizacji w zarządzaniu publicznym: wpływ na realizację polityki 264\n5.3. Zmiany instytucjonalne i reformy sektora publicznego 268\n5.3.1. Szoki zewnętrzne: kryzysy gospodarcze i transformacje polityczne jako katalizatory zmian 269\n5.3.2. Dyfuzja polityki i wpływ międzynarodowy:\nrola globalnych modeli zarządzania 271\n5.3.3. Organizacyjne uczenie się i adaptacja:\nendogeniczne czynniki ewolucji instytucjonalnej 272\n5.3.4. Porównanie czynników napędzających zmiany instytucjonalne: kryzys, wpływy zewnętrzne i uczenie się 273\n5.4. Krytyka i przyszłe kierunki rozwoju teorii instytucjonalnej w zarządzaniu publicznym 274\n5.4.1. Przedsiębiorczość instytucjonalna 275\n5.4.2. Instytucje hybrydowe 276\n5.4.3. Transformacja cyfrowa 277\n\n6. Teoria zasobowa K. Zienkiewicz 281\n6.1. Fundamenty teorii opartej na zasobach 286\n6.2. Dynamiczne zdolności i orkiestracja zasobów:\nrozszerzanie teorii opartej na zasobach 290\n6.3. Geneza dynamicznych zdolności 293\n6.4. Empiryczne spostrzeżenia Eisenhardta i Martina 294\n6.4.1. Pojawienie się orkiestracji zasobów 295\n6.4.2. Integracja dynamicznych możliwości i orkiestracji zasobów 296\n6.5. Przyszłe kierunki i implikacje dla zarządzania 297\n7. Przegląd współczesnych modeli współpracy z organizacjami emigranckimi T. Zienkiewicz, K. Zienkiewicz 301\n7.1. Klasyczna teoria Maxa Webera 305\n7.1.1. Indie 306\n7.1.2. Chiny 309\n7.1.3. Niemcy 314\n7.1.4. Włochy 316\n7.2. Podejście governance 318\n7.2.1. Kanada 320\n7.2.2. Irlandia 322\n7.2.3. Izrael 323\n7.2.4. Armenia 325\n7.2.5. Filipiny 326\n7.3. Teoria interesariuszy 328\n7.3.1. USA 330\n7.3.2. Meksyk 332\n7.3.3. Kolumbia 334\n7.3.4. Nigeria 335\n7.3.5. Etiopia 337\n7.4. Teoria zasobowa 340\n7.4.1. Indie 341\n7.4.2. Chiny 343\n7.4.3. Izrael 346\n7.5. Polska w kontekście teorii zarządzania publicznego 349\nPodsumowanie 355\nRekomendacje dla polskiej polityki wobec diaspory 359\nBibliografia 365\n\nZarządzanie współpracą instytucji państwa z diasporą.\nPrzegląd teorii, analiza porównawcza wybranych państw\nStreszczenie\nPrezentowana praca podejmuje problematykę zarządzania współpracą instytucji państwa z diasporą, traktując ją jako obszar polityki publicznej, który wymaga nowych narzędzi analizy i projektowania. Przedmiotem badań są mechanizmy instytucjonalne, prawne i organizacyjne służące angażowaniu diaspor w życie polityczne, gospodarcze i kulturalne krajów pochodzenia. Głównym celem pracy jest ukazanie, w jaki sposób różne teorie zarządzania publicznego – biurokracja Maxa Webera, koncepcja governance, teoria interesariuszy i teoria zasobowa – mogą być stosowane do oceny i kształtowania polityk wobec diaspor.\nProblem badawczy sprowadza się do pytania o to, jakie modele współpracy są najbardziej efektywne w warunkach globalnej mobilności i zróżnicowania diaspor. Zastosowana metodologia obejmuje analizę instytucjonalno-prawną, badania porównawcze oraz studium przypadku. Analizie poddano wybrane państwa (Indie, Chiny, Niemcy, Izrael, Kanadę, Irlandię, Filipiny, Nigerię, USA, Armenię), a także Polskę, której polityka polonijna została oceniona jako przykład modelu hybrydowego łączącego elementy klasycznej biurokracji i mechanizmów new public management.\nNajważniejsze wyniki wskazują, że żaden z modeli nie funkcjonuje w izolacji, a skuteczne polityki wymagają integracji procedur biurokratycznych, sieciowych mechanizmów governance, dialogu interesariuszy i mobilizacji kapitałów diaspory. Polska, mimo wprowadzenia elementów konkurencyjnego finansowania i partycypacji, nadal nie wykorzystuje w pełni potencjału zasobowego swojej diaspory.\nKluczowym wnioskiem pracy jest potrzeba przyjęcia hybrydowego podejścia do polityk diaspora engagement, łączącego stabilność instytucjonalną z elastycznością i innowacyjnością. Tylko takie rozwiązanie pozwala państwom maksymalizować wartość diaspory jako strategicznego partnera rozwojowego, kulturowego i dyplomatycznego.\nSłowa kluczowe: teorie zarządzania, zarządzanie publiczne, diaspora\nThe Management of State Institutions' Cooperation with the Diaspora.\nTheoretical Review and Comparative Analysis of Selected Countries\nAbstract\nThe present monograph examines the governance of state–diaspora relations, conceptualising it as a domain of public policy that requires new tools of analysis and design. The research focuses on institutional, legal, and organisational mechanisms through which diasporas are engaged in the political, economic, and cultural life of their countries of origin. The central aim is to demonstrate how different theories of public management, Weberian bureaucracy, governance, stakeholder theory, and the resource-based view, can be applied to the evaluation and development of diaspora policies. The research problem is framed by the question of which models of cooperation are most effective under conditions of global mobility and the diversity of diasporas.\nMethodologically, the study employs institutional and legal analysis, comparative inquiry, and case studies. Selected states, including India, China, Israel, Canada, Ireland, the Philippines, Nigeria, the United\nStates, and Armenia, are examined alongside Poland, which is assessed as a hybrid model that combines classical bureaucratic frameworks with mechanisms inspired by New Public Management.\nThe findings indicate that no single theoretical model operates in isolation. Effective diaspora policies integrate bureaucratic procedures with network-based governance, stakeholder dialogue, and the mobilisation of financial, human, and social capital. While countries with large and well-organised diasporas increasingly treat these communities as strategic resources, Poland still underutilises the developmental potential of Polonia despite reforms that introduced project-based funding and participatory elements.\nThe key conclusion is that hybrid approaches to diaspora engagement – combining institutional stability with flexibility and innovation – represent the most promising model. Only through such integration can states maximise the strategic value of their diasporas as partners in development, culture, and diplomacy.\nKeywords: management theories, public management, diaspora\n\nWprowadzenie\nT. Zienkiewicz\nWspółpraca instytucji państwowych z diasporą staje się kluczowym elementem współczesnej polityki publicznej, wykraczającym daleko poza tradycyjne ramy pomocy konsularnej i polityki migracyjnej. Diaspory, zróżnicowane pod względem demograficznym, ekonomicznym i kulturowym, dysponują zasobami kapitału społecznego, ludzkiego i finansowego, które mogą znacząco wspierać rozwój krajów pochodzenia oraz wzmacniać pozycję państw przyjmujących na arenie międzynarodowej. Jednocześnie instytucje państwowe coraz częściej postrzegają diasporę jako partnera strategicznego w realizacji celów ekonomicznych, społecznych i dyplomatycznych.\nDiaspora nie jest już jedynie społecznością symboliczną, odwołującą się do pamięci historycznej oraz więzi etniczno-kulturowych. Coraz częściej staje się aktorem współkształtującym procesy polityczne, gospodarcze i społeczne zarówno w państwach pochodzenia, jak i w krajach osiedlenia. W tym kontekście konieczne jest spojrzenie na diaspory przez pryzmat teorii zarządzania publicznego, dostarczających narzędzi analitycznych umożliwiających ocenę form i mechanizmów współpracy, efektywności instytucji oraz potencjału transferu dobrych praktyk.\nNiniejsza monografia wpisuje się w nurt badań interdyscyplinarnych, łączących perspektywy nauk o polityce i administracji, nauk o zarządzaniu oraz studiów migracyjnych. W dotychczasowych badaniach nad diasporami dominowało podejście socjologiczne i politologiczne, koncentrujące się na\n\nkwestiach tożsamości, integracji oraz reprezentacji politycznej. Znacznie rzadziej analizowano diaspory w kategoriach zarządzania publicznego, a więc jako obszar wymagający projektowania instytucji, procedur, narzędzi finansowych oraz mechanizmów partycypacji. Praca ta ma zatem na celu wypełnienie tej luki poprzez dostarczenie zarówno syntetycznego przeglądu teorii, jak i analizy praktycznych rozwiązań stosowanych w wybranych państwach.\nPodstawę teoretyczną analizy tej relacji stanowią klasyczne i współczesne ujęcia zarządzania publicznego, teoria interesariuszy, teoria instytucjonalna oraz teoria zasobowa. Każde z tych podejść dostarcza odmiennego zestawu narzędzi i perspektyw – od strukturalnego pojmowania biurokracji według Maxa Webera, przez koncepcje governance i zarządzania wielopodmiotowego, aż po akcentowanie roli zasobów strategicznych i dynamicznych zdolności organizacyjnych.\nDzięki temu możliwe staje się ukazanie złożoności mechanizmów zachodzących między państwem a rozproszonymi społecznościami emigracyjnymi.\nCelem niniejszej monografii jest nie tyle wypracowanie jednego uniwersalnego modelu współpracy, ile raczej przyczynienie się do otwartej dyskusji nad formami, zakresem i narzędziami współpracy administracji publicznej z diasporą. Z uwagi na różnorodność diaspor – zarówno pod względem struktury wiekowej, poziomu kapitału ekonomicznego, jak i stopnia organizacji – żadne rozwiązanie nie sprawdzi się jednakowo w każdym kontekście. Celem autorów jest zatem wskazanie podstaw teoretycznych oraz empirycznych inspiracji, które mogą pomóc twórcom polityki w adaptacji podejść do specyfiki danego kraju i wspólnoty.\nW toku analiz przyjęto zestaw hipotez odpowiadających na pytania o charakter relacji między państwem a diasporą oraz o rolę teorii zarządzania publicznego w projektowaniu polityk wobec społeczności emigracyjnych. Hipotezy te, osadzone w logice badań porównawczych i analiz teoretycznych, mają charakter wyjaśniający i syntetyzujący:\nHipoteza 1: Polityki wobec diaspory w praktyce państw nie opierają się na jednej spójnej teorii zarządzania publicznego, lecz stanowią hybrydę elementów klasycznej biurokracji, koncepcji governance, teorii interesariuszy i podejścia zasobowego.\nHipoteza 2: Kraje posiadające liczebne i dobrze zorganizowane diaspory (np.\nIndie, Chiny, Izrael) częściej włączają elementy teorii zasobowej, postrzegając diasporę jako kapitał strategiczny w rozwoju gospodarczym i dyplomacji publicznej.\n\nHipoteza 3: W państwach o rozbudowanych tradycjach demokratycznych\n(np. Kanada, Irlandia) dominują mechanizmy governance i teoria interesariuszy, które sprzyjają wielostronnemu dialogowi i partycypacji diaspory w procesach decyzyjnych.\nHipoteza 4: Polska polityka wobec diaspory ma charakter hybrydowy, łączący biurokratyczne ramy instytucjonalne z elementami New Public\nManagement i governance, jednak wciąż w ograniczonym stopniu wykorzystuje potencjał zasobów finansowych, ludzkich i sieciowych Polonii.\nHipotezy te stanowią podstawę dalszych rozważań, obejmujących zarówno wymiar teoretyczny, jak i studia przypadków, co pozwala na ocenę przydatności różnych podejść w warunkach polskich i międzynarodowych.\nNiniejsza monografia opiera się na metodach badawczych charakterystycznych dla nauk o polityce i administracji, a także dla studiów porównawczych. Zastosowano przede wszystkim analizę instytucjonalno-prawną, która umożliwiła zbadanie regulacji, struktur i instrumentów wykorzystywanych w politykach wobec diaspory w różnych państwach. Kluczowym narzędziem badawczym była również analiza porównawcza, pozwalająca zestawić modele zarządzania publicznego w wybranych krajach (Indie, Chiny, Niemcy, Włochy,\nIzrael, Kanada, Irlandia, Filipiny, Nigeria, USA, Armenia) i ocenić ich adekwatność w odniesieniu do teorii biurokracji Webera, koncepcji governance, teorii interesariuszy i teorii zasobowej.\nUzupełnieniem badań była analiza literatury przedmiotu, obejmująca zarówno dorobek teoretyczny z zakresu zarządzania publicznego, jak i opracowania migracyjne oraz raporty instytucji międzynarodowych. W celu zachowania spójności metodologicznej zastosowano również metodę studium przypadku, ze szczególnym uwzględnieniem Polski, której polityka wobec diaspory została przeanalizowana pod kątem ewolucji instytucjonalnej, zmian w logice finansowania oraz rosnącej roli mechanizmów partycypacyjnych.\nCałość badań ma charakter jakościowy i eksploracyjny – ich celem nie była weryfikacja ilościowych wskaźników skuteczności, lecz identyfikacja trendów, modeli i dobrych praktyk. Przyjęta metodologia umożliwia sformułowanie zarówno wniosków teoretycznych, jak i praktycznych, a także rekomendacji dla polityki polskiej w świetle doświadczeń międzynarodowych. Układ monografii odzwierciedla logiczną ścieżkę przechodzenia od teorii do praktyki.\n\nRozdział pierwszy poświęcony jest analizie pojęcia diaspory i jego ewolucji – od ujęć klasycznych, akcentujących przymusowe wygnanie oraz mit powrotu, po współczesne interpretacje związane z globalną mobilnością i zjawiskiem diaspory cyfrowej. Przedstawiono różne typologie, ukazujące zróżnicowanie form – od politycznych i gospodarczych po kulturowe – zilustrowane przykładami zarówno globalnymi, jak i polskimi. Kolejna część omawia status formalnoprawny migrantów, wskazując na różnice między funkcjonowaniem diaspor w ramach Unii Europejskiej a społecznościami działającymi poza jej strukturami. Istotnym elementem jest także opis procesów instytucjonalizacji, obejmujących powstawanie organizacji oraz sieci gospodarczych i kulturalnych, które wzmacniają pozycję diaspory w relacjach z państwami pochodzenia. Całość zamyka analiza wyzwań z globalizacją i integracją europejską, które kształtują współczesne, sieciowe formy funkcjonowania diaspory.\nW kolejnym rozdziale zaprezentowano klasyczny model administracji według Maxa Webera, wraz z omówieniem genezy oraz podstawowych założeń biurokracji jako idealnego typu organizacji publicznej.\nPierwsza część przybliża historyczne uwarunkowania narodzin modelu biurokratycznego, wskazując jego kluczowe cechy: hierarchiczność, specjalizację, bezosobowość procedur oraz oparcie działań na formalnych regułach.\nNastępnie analizowana jest rola biurokracji jako mechanizmu zarządzania publicznego, ze szczególnym uwzględnieniem jej funkcji w zakresie efektywności, przewidywalności i legitymizacji decyzji administracyjnych. Kolejna część poświęcona jest krytyce klasycznego modelu, obejmującej zarzuty dotyczące nadmiernej sztywności, braku innowacyjności oraz utrudnionej komunikacji między interesariuszami. Na koniec autorzy przedstawiają współczesne reinterpretacje koncepcji Webera, w tym próby adaptacji biurokracji do realiów dynamicznie zmieniającego się otoczenia oraz integracji mechanizmów współpracy i sieci governance w strukturach administracyjnych. Ten teoretyczny fundament pozwala zrozumieć, w jaki sposób klasyczne założenia biurokratycznego modelu wpływają na współczesne praktyki angażowania diaspor.\nNastępny rozdział prezentuje analizę przejścia od administracji klasycznej do koncepcji governance, obejmującą modele współpracy i adaptacji oraz opis wyzwań i dobrych praktyk wdrażania zmian w sektorze publicznym. Przedstawiono proces przejścia od tradycyjnej administracji klasycznej ku modelom governance. Początkowa część omawia główne założenia podejścia governance, w tym akcent na wielopodmiotowe rządzenie, partycypację społeczną oraz elastyczność sieci współpracy. Kolejne podrozdziały analizują trzy kluczowe modele governance w zarządzaniu publicznym – biurokratyczny, oparty na współpracy\n\noraz adaptacyjny – wskazując ich atuty i ograniczenia w kontekście angażowania interesariuszy, w tym diaspor. Rozdział omawia również wyzwania związane z wdrażaniem zmian, takie jak bariery instytucjonalne, opór środowisk urzędniczych oraz trudności komunikacyjne między podmiotami. Kolejna część przedstawia dobre praktyki, obejmujące strategiczne dopasowanie celów, inkluzywne zaangażowanie interesariuszy, formalizację procesów współrządzenia, podejmowanie decyzji opartych na danych oraz rozwój kultury innowacji. Ostatnia sekcja poświęcona jest zagadnieniu zarządzania globalnego, w ramach którego państwa współpracują na poziomie międzynarodowym, m.in. za pośrednictwem mobilnych diaspor. Dzięki syntetycznemu ujęciu ewolucji zarządzania publicznego rozdział ten dostarcza narzędzi analitycznych umożliwiających ocenę efektywnych modeli współpracy z organizacjami emigracyjnymi.\nKolejny rozdział poświęcony jest wieloaspektowej istocie zarządzania publicznego analizowanej z perspektywy teorii interesariuszy. W pierwszej części omawiana jest konieczność równoważenia interesów różnych grup w procesie decyzyjnym w sektorze publicznym. Podkreślono znaczenie przejrzystości i odpowiedzialności instytucji publicznych wobec społeczności, co stanowi fundament budowania zaufania w relacjach z diasporami. W kolejnych podrozdziałach definiowani są interesariusze wewnętrzni i zewnętrzni oraz omawiane mechanizmy ich zaangażowania – od konsultacji publicznych po partnerstwa strategiczne. Rozdział przedstawia przykłady praktycznego zastosowania teorii w administracji publicznej – projekty wzmacniające relacje z diasporą, platformy dialogu wielostronnego oraz mechanizmy monitorowania i ewaluacji współpracy. Autorzy analizują również wyzwania, takie jak konflikty interesów, asymetria informacji oraz trudności w integracji diaspor o zróżnicowanym stopniu organizacji. Wnioski wskazują, że skuteczna współpraca opiera się na dynamicznym, iteracyjnym procesie budowania relacji i stałym monitorowaniu opinii interesariuszy.\nPiąty rozdział przedstawia teorię instytucjonalną jako narzędzie analizy procesów legitymizacji i trwałości organizacji w sektorze publicznym. Pierwsza część omawia genezę i rozwój koncepcji izomorfizmu instytucjonalnego\n– przymusowego, mimetycznego i normatywnego – które wyjaśniają, dlaczego instytucje naśladują wzorce działania innych podmiotów, w tym instytucji państwowych w obszarze współpracy z diasporą. Następnie analizowana jest kwestia legitymizacji – w jaki sposób państwa wykorzystują formalne i nieformalne mechanizmy, aby budować wiarygodność działań skierowanych do diaspor. Kolejna sekcja dotyczy zmian instytucjonalnych i reform, roli szoków zewnętrznych (takich jak kryzysy gospodarcze i transformacje polityczne),\n\ndyfuzji polityk publicznych, wpływów międzynarodowych oraz procesu organizacyjnego uczenia się. Autorzy porównują czynniki napędzające zmiany, wskazując na komplementarność wewnętrznych motywacji i zewnętrznych presji.\nRozdział zamyka refleksja nad krytyką teorii instytucjonalnej, obejmująca rozwój koncepcji przedsiębiorczości instytucjonalnej, instytucji hybrydowych oraz transformacji cyfrowej w kontekście modernizacji współpracy z diasporą.\nW rozdziale szóstym autorzy odwołują się do teorii zasobowej, która postrzega organizacje jako zbiory unikalnych aktywów i kompetencji.\nNa początku prezentowane są fundamenty tej teorii – warunki rzadkości, wartości i trudnej zastępowalności zasobów jako źródło przewagi konkurencyjnej, również w sektorze publicznym. Następnie autorzy rozwijają tę teorię o koncepcję dynamicznych zdolności i orkiestracji zasobów, która podkreśla zdolność instytucji do adaptacji i rekombinacji aktywów w zmiennym otoczeniu. Autorzy omawiają genezę tej perspektywy oraz empiryczne badania Kathleen Eisenhardt i Jeffreya Martina, wskazujące na praktyczne formy orkiestracji – koordynację, integrację i transformację zasobów ludzkich, finansowych i technologicznych. W dalszej części analizowany jest wpływ dynamicznych zdolności na efektywność programów skierowanych do diaspor – przedstawiono przykłady elastycznych struktur współpracy, platform cyfrowych oraz mechanizmów szybkiego dostosowywania oferty do potrzeb emigrantów. Rozdział kończy się przeglądem przyszłych kierunków badań – roli big data, sztucznej inteligencji oraz sieci współpracy międzysektorowej jako źródeł nowej jakości w zarządzaniu zasobami publicznymi.\nSiódmy rozdział monografii stanowi przegląd praktycznych modeli współpracy z diasporami w wybranych krajach, zestawionych z wcześniej omówionymi teoriami zarządzania publicznego. W części odnoszącej się do klasycznego modelu Webera analizowane są przykłady Indii, Chin i Włoch, gdzie struktury biurokratyczne – takie jak ministerstwa ds. emigrantów czy rady doradcze – stanowią podstawę formalnych mechanizmów współpracy. Następnie zaprezentowano podejście governance na przykładzie Kanady, Irlandii, Izraela, Armenii i Filipin, ukazując szerokie spektrum rozwiązań – od konsultacji inkluzyjnych po sieci partnerskie i instytucje koordynujące politykę emigracyjną. W dalszej części omówiono teorię interesariuszy, bazując na doświadczeniach Stanów\nZjednoczonych, Meksyku, Kolumbii, Nigerii i Etiopii, które rozwijają wielopłaszczyznowy dialog z diasporami z udziałem organizacji pozarządowych i platform cyfrowych. Przegląd zamyka teoria zasobowa, wykorzystana do zaprezentowania przykładów Indii, Chin i Izraela w zakresie innowacyjnych programów inwestycyjnych, funduszy venture capital i inicjatyw powrotnych (returnee). Rozdział\n\ndowodzi, że żaden z analizowanych modeli nie ma charakteru uniwersalnego, a skuteczność współpracy zależy od elastycznego łączenia podejść. W tym kontekście Polska została przedstawiona jako kraj, którego polityka wobec diaspory polskiej ewoluowała od biurokratycznego modelu instytucjonalnego ku hybrydowemu systemowi z elementami New Public Management, szczególnie w latach 2011–2015. Wnioski wskazują jednak na potrzebę lepszej koordynacji instytucjonalnej i pełniejszego wykorzystania potencjału zasobowego Polonii.\nRozdział końcowy zawiera rekomendacje dla Polski, opracowane na podstawie analiz teoretycznych i doświadczeń innych państw. Mają one charakter kierunkowy i dotyczą m.in. ujednolicenia struktur instytucjonalnych, rozwoju mechanizmów partycypacyjnych, systematycznego mapowania interesariuszy, mobilizacji kapitału finansowego i ludzkiego diaspory, cyfryzacji usług konsularnych i kulturalnych, a także wzmocnienia wymiaru tożsamościowego.\nRekomendacje te stanowią punkt wyjścia do dalszych badań i dyskusji nad przyszłym kształtem polskiej polityki polonijnej.\nMonografia wnosi wkład w rozwijającą się literaturę dotyczącą polityk wobec diaspor, poszerzając ją o perspektywę zarządzania publicznego. Zastosowanie czterech teorii – w tym teorii biurokracji Maxa Webera, koncepcji governance, teorii interesariuszy i teorii zasobowej – umożliwia wieloaspektową analizę roli państwa w angażowaniu diaspor. Ujęcie porównawcze pozwala na identyfikację dobrych praktyk, które mogą stanowić inspirację dla reform w Polsce. Włączenie Polski do analizy stanowi istotne novum, umożliwiając nie tylko na krytyczną ocenę krajowej polityki wobec diaspory, lecz także wpisanie jej w szersze trendy globalne.\nZ teoretycznego punktu widzenia opracowanie pokazuje, że skuteczne polityki diaspora engagement wymagają hybrydyzacji modeli: biurokracja zapewnia formalną legitymizację i stabilność, koncepcje governance oraz teoria interesariuszy wprowadzają mechanizmy partycypacji i dialogu, natomiast teoria zasobowa wskazuje na możliwości wykorzystania kapitału diaspory w procesach rozwojowych. Polska, adaptując elementy new public management, znajduje się na ścieżce ku modelowi otwartemu, jednak wciąż stoi przed wyzwaniami związanymi z koordynacją instytucjonalną, efektywnością i inkluzywnością.\nPrezentowana praca stanowi punkt wyjścia do pogłębionej analizy zarówno teoretycznych podstaw, jak i praktycznych doświadczeń współpracy instytucji państwowych z diasporą. Autorzy wyrażają nadzieję, że przedstawione koncepcje i studia przypadków staną się inspiracją do dalszej debaty oraz do wypracowania nowych, skutecznych modeli partnerstwa między państwem polskim a rozproszonymi społecznościami i organizacjami polonijnymi.\n\n1. Diaspora – definicje i pojęcia\nT. Zienkiewicz\nZjawisko diaspory, choć zakorzenione historycznie, współcześnie nabrało nowego znaczenia i dynamiki. Diaspory nie są już wyłącznie trwałymi wspólnotami rozproszonymi poza granicami państwa pochodzenia, lecz dynamicznymi i hybrydalnymi bytami społecznymi, kulturowymi oraz politycznymi, które współtworzą przestrzenie ponadnarodowe. W epoce globalizacji, cyfryzacji i nasilającej się mobilności znaczenie diaspor uległo głębokiej transformacji. Diaspory stały się zarówno aktorami społecznymi, jak i politycznymi, zdolnymi do samoorganizacji, wpływania na polityki publiczne oraz odgrywania znaczącej roli w relacjach międzynarodowych.\nZ perspektywy socjologicznej i antropologicznej diaspora jawi się jako struktura tożsamości – splot wspólnego pochodzenia, pamięci o ojczyźnie, mitologizacji doświadczenia migracyjnego oraz współczesnych praktyk kulturowych1. Diaspory funkcjonują jako przestrzenie kulturowej reprodukcji –miejsca podtrzymywania języka, religii, zwyczajów i tradycji, nawet w konfrontacji z kulturą dominującą w kraju osiedlenia. Utrzymywanie więzi z krajem pochodzenia poprzez rytuały, święta, język czy kuchnię tworzy symboliczną przestrzeń pamięci, która nie ulega zatarciu, a często staje się fundamentem zbiorowej tożsamości.\n1 S. Vertovec, Conceiving and researching transnationalism, „Ethnic and Racial Studies” t. 22 nr 2 (1999) s. 447–462, DOI: 10.1080/014198799329558; S. Vertovec, Transnationalism,\nRoutledge, London 2010.\n\nNa płaszczyźnie politycznej diaspory mogą odgrywać rolę pośredników między państwami – wpływając na politykę zagraniczną, wspierając kampanie wyborcze oraz uczestnicząc w debatach publicznych zarówno w kraju pochodzenia, jak i osiedlenia. Często dysponują one znacznym potencjałem ekonomicznym (przesyłami pieniężnymi – tzw. remittances) oraz lobbystycznym. Diaspory mogą stanowić zarówno wsparcie w sytuacjach kryzysowych, jak i źródło napięć społecznych – zwłaszcza gdy kwestie etniczne lub religijne splatają się z interesami geopolitycznymi.\nZjawisko diaspory stanowi również wyzwanie w zakresie zarządzania wielokulturowością i integracją – zagadnienie kluczowe dla administracji publicznej, polityki społecznej oraz instytucji międzynarodowych. Zjawisko to wymusza nowe sposoby definiowania obywatelstwa, lojalności narodowej oraz form uczestnictwa w życiu publicznym. Diaspory stają się przedmiotem działań strategicznych państw wysyłających, które dążą do utrzymania kontaktu z obywatelami przebywającymi za granicą – m.in. poprzez instytucje takie jak ministerstwa ds. diaspory, programy repatriacyjne, karty diasporalne czy systemy głosowania korespondencyjnego.\nWarto podkreślić, że diaspora jako zjawisko nie ogranicza się wyłącznie do krajów Globalnego Południa – jest również obecna w ramach tzw. starej Europy, gdzie np. społeczności portugalska, grecka czy irlandzka tworzą diasporalne sieci wewnątrz Unii Europejskiej. Współcześnie coraz wyraźniej zacierają się granice między migracją a diasporą – mobilność przestaje być jednorazowym procesem, stając się złożonym, cyrkulacyjnym i wieloetapowym ruchem społecznym.\nWspółczesna politologia – zwłaszcza w swojej transnarodowej odmianie – postrzega diasporę jako istotnego aktora procesów politycznych, zarówno na poziomie mikro (uczestnictwo obywatelskie, głosowanie), jak i makro (dyplomacja diasporalna, lobbing, soft power). Diaspora funkcjonuje na styku suwerenności państwowej, tożsamości narodowej i globalnych przepływów ludzi, idei i kapitału. Koncepcja ta skłania badaczy do rewizji klasycznych kategorii politycznych, takich jak państwo, granica, obywatelstwo czy wspólnota polityczna.\nW perspektywie neoinstytucjonalnej diaspora może być postrzegana jako forma niepaństwowego aktora zbiorowego, wykorzystującego struktury formalne i nieformalne w celu realizacji własnych interesów – od kulturowych, przez ekonomiczne, po polityczne2.\n2 M. Koinova, Diasporas and democratization in the post-communist world, „Communist and\nPost-Communist Studies” t. 42 nr 1 (2009), s. 41–64, DOI: 10.1016/j.postcomstud.2009.02.001.\n\nBadacze wskazują, że wspólnoty diasporalne potrafią tworzyć struktury quasi-\n-państwowe – takie jak związki, przedstawicielstwa, ośrodki edukacyjne, media czy kanały finansowania – funkcjonujące równolegle wobec państw narodowych.\nW naukach o zarządzaniu diaspora funkcjonuje jako istotna kategoria analizy kapitału społecznego i sieciowego. Diaspory tworzą globalne sieci powiązań gospodarczych, inwestycyjnych i informacyjnych, które mogą stymulować rozwój ekonomiczny zarówno kraju pochodzenia, jak i kraju osiedlenia. Przykładowo, chińska diaspora w Azji Południowo-Wschodniej stanowiła motor przepływów kapitałowych i przedsiębiorczości transnarodowej3. W tym sensie diaspory analizowane są jako „zdecentralizowani inwestorzy” czy „agenci rozwoju” (agents of development), których wpływ może przewyższać znaczenie klasycznych instrumentów pomocy rozwojowej4.\nW kontekście zarządzania publicznego i międzynarodowego istotne staje się pytanie o kształt polityki wobec diaspory – jak projektować strategie współpracy, w jaki sposób wzmacniać ich uczestnictwo, a zarazem chronić interesy państw przyjmujących. Pojawia się również kwestia tzw. diaspora governance\n– czyli zarządzania relacjami między państwem a diasporą, które obejmuje zagadnienia reprezentacji, konsultacji, świadczeń i odpowiedzialności.\nCelem niniejszego rozdziału jest analityczne i wielowymiarowe przedstawienie złożoności pojęcia „diaspory”. Poprzez przegląd literatury przedmiotu oraz odniesienia do przykładów empirycznych rozdział ukazuje, w jaki sposób zjawisko to funkcjonuje w kontekstach politycznym, społecznym, kulturowym i prawnym. Analizując uwarunkowania powstawania diaspor, ich historyczną i współczesną rolę, status prawny, formy organizacji oraz funkcjonowanie w ramach Unii Europejskiej (UE), rozdział stanowi punkt wyjścia do dalszych rozważań prowadzonych w niniejszej monografii.\nStruktura rozdziału obejmuje siedem głównych sekcji:\n1. Zarys definicyjny diaspory – sekcja zawiera przegląd literatury przedmiotu, ewolucję pojęcia oraz analizę jego wieloznaczności, z uwzględnieniem typologii i debat definicyjnych, w tym odnoszących się do Polonii i diaspory polskiej.\n3 A. Saxenian, The New Argonauts: Regional Advantage in a Global Economy, Harvard\nUniversity Press, Cambridge (MA) 2007.\n4 G. Sinatti, C. Horst, Migrants as agents of development: Diaspora engagement discourse and practice in Europe, „Ethnicities” t. 15 nr 1 (2015), s. 134–152, DOI: 10.1177/1468796814530120.\n\n2. Uwarunkowania powstawania i funkcjonowania diaspor – przedstawiono analizę przyczyn i mechanizmów utrzymywania się diaspory jako zjawiska transnarodowego.\n3. Charakter historyczny i współczesny diaspory – omówiono różnice między klasycznymi a współczesnymi diasporami, ze szczególnym uwzględnieniem wpływu procesów globalizacyjnych.\n4. Status formalnoprawny diaspory – zaprezentowano analizę zagadnień obywatelstwa, podwójnej przynależności oraz prawnych uwarunkowań funkcjonowania wspólnot diasporalnych.\n5. Formy organizacji diaspory – opisano instytucjonalne i oddolne struktury organizacyjne funkcjonujące w ramach diaspor.\n6. Specyfika diaspor wewnątrz Unii Europejskiej – omówiono zróżnicowanie sytuacji diaspor unijnych w kontekście swobody przepływu osób i polityk integracyjnych.\n7. Podsumowanie – zawiera syntetyczne ujęcie kluczowych ustaleń oraz stanowi wprowadzenie do kolejnych rozdziałów monografii.\nTaka struktura umożliwia kompleksowe ujęcie problematyki diaspory w sposób systematyczny, a zarazem elastyczny – pozwalający na odniesienie się do specyfiki konkretnych wspólnot, przypadków i kontekstów instytucjonalnych. W rezultacie rozdział stanowi nie tylko teoretyczne wprowadzenie do dalszych analiz, lecz także fundament do formułowania pytań badawczych w kolejnych częściach monografii.\n1.1. Diaspora – zarys definicyjny\nW dobie globalizacji, nasilających się przepływów ludności oraz pogłębiającej się transnarodowości życia społecznego pojęcie „diaspory” zajmuje centralne miejsce w dyskursie politologicznym, socjologicznym i w badaniach nad migracjami oraz tożsamością zbiorową. Pojęcie to, używane zarówno przez badaczy, jak i decydentów politycznych, stanowi dziś kategorię pojemną, lecz zarazem kontrowersyjną – obarczoną wielością znaczeń, historycznymi konotacjami oraz politycznym ładunkiem. Z jednej strony odnosi się ono do wspólnot utrzymujących więzi z krajem pochodzenia mimo wielopokoleniowego oddalenia, z drugiej – do nowoczesnych sieci społecznych i instytucjonalnych powstałych w wyniku najnowszych fal migracji.\nW ujęciu klasycznym pojęcie diaspory kojarzone było przede wszystkim z doświadczeniem przymusowego rozproszenia, wygnania i duchowej nostalgii za utraconą ojczyzną. Tego rodzaju ujęcie dominowało przez wieki\n\ni kształtowało zarówno rozumienie samego terminu, jak i postawy diaspor – oparte na pamięci, cierpieniu i zachowaniu tożsamości w warunkach obcości.\nJednak już w drugiej połowie XX wieku, wraz z przyspieszeniem globalnych migracji oraz dynamicznymi przemianami politycznymi i społecznymi, pojęcie „diaspory” zaczęło być redefiniowane. Przestało być kojarzone wyłącznie z przeszłością i doświadczeniem tragedii, a zaczęło być analizowane jako współczesny konstrukt społeczny, polityczny i kulturowy.\nCelem niniejszego podrozdziału jest definicyjne zarysowanie pojęcia „diaspory”, ze szczególnym uwzględnieniem jego ewolucji, typologii oraz zastosowania w odniesieniu do konkretnych przykładów – w tym zwłaszcza Polonii i diaspory polskiej. Analizie poddane zostaną trzy kluczowe aspekty: (1) historyczny rozwój pojęcia – od znaczeń religijnych po współczesne konteksty, (2) propozycje klasyfikacyjne i typologie diaspor obecne w literaturze przedmiotu oraz (3) specyfika i zróżnicowanie terminów używanych w kontekście polskim, takich jak\n„Polonia”, „Polacy za granicą” i „diaspora polska”. Przywołane zostaną zarówno klasyczne opracowania teoretyczne, jak i najnowsze badania empiryczne, które umożliwiają lepsze zrozumienie złożoności tego zjawiska w świecie postnarodowym i cyfrowym. Szczególne znaczenie ma także refleksja nad tym, w jaki sposób zmieniające się konteksty polityczne i technologiczne wpływają na redefinicję samego pojęcia oraz jego roli w polityce wewnętrznej i zagranicznej państw.\n1.1.1. Ewolucja pojęcia „diaspora”\nHistoria pojęcia „diaspora” odzwierciedla nie tylko zmieniające się realia społeczne i polityczne, lecz także ewolucję narzędzi analitycznych, którymi posługują się nauki społeczne. Początkowo głęboko zakorzenione w religijnym dyskursie judaistycznym, z czasem pojęcie to ulegało przekształceniom i rozszerzało się na nowe konteksty – obejmujące rozproszenia wynikające z kolonializmu, przemian geopolitycznych, procesów globalizacji oraz współczesnych form mobilności. Wraz z tą semantyczną ekspansją pojawiła się potrzeba nowej systematyki pojęciowej oraz większej precyzji badawczej.\nW literaturze najczęściej wyróżnia się trzy etapy rozwoju pojęcia „diaspory”5:\nÒ klasyczny,\nÒ modernistyczny,\nÒ postmodernistyczny lub globalny.\n5 R. Cohen, Global Diasporas, Routledge, London 2008.\n\nKażdy z tych etapów wiąże się z odmiennym rozumieniem źródeł rozproszenia, struktury tożsamości oraz relacji z ojczyzną i krajem osiedlenia.\nW ujęciu klasycznym termin „diaspora” odnosi się niemal wyłącznie do historycznego doświadczenia narodu żydowskiego, rozproszonego poza Palestyną po zburzeniu Świątyni Jerozolimskiej. Było to rozproszenie przymusowe, które stało się jednym z fundamentów żydowskiej tożsamości narodowej, religijnej i kulturowej. Kluczowe w tym kontekście były trzy elementy: przymus wygnania, długotrwałe oddzielenie od ojczyzny i duchowe ukierunkowanie na powrót. Te cechy stały się wzorcem, do którego odwoływano się, gdy pojęcie\n„diaspory” zaczęto stosować wobec innych narodów.\nDiaspora klasyczna stanowiła zatem nie tylko formę fizycznego rozproszenia, ale przede wszystkim stan świadomości zbiorowej – zakorzeniony w micie powrotu oraz w wierze w kulturową ciągłość mimo rozproszenia. Obowiązywały w niej silne normy endogamii, zachowywania języka, religii, pamięci zbiorowej i lojalności wobec wspólnoty. Charakterystyczne były również struktury autarkiczne – diasporom klasycznym towarzyszyły silne instytucje wewnętrzne, takie jak sądy rabinackie, sieci szkół czy organizacje charytatywne.\nZ czasem pojęcie to zaczęto odnosić również do innych grup historycznie doświadczonych przymusowym rozproszeniem – takich jak Ormianie (po ludobójstwie w Imperium Osmańskim), Grecy (po wojnach bałkańskich) czy\nAfrykanie (w wyniku handlu niewolnikami). Wspólne dla tych przypadków były trauma, pamięć zbiorowa oraz symboliczny związek z utraconym terytorium.\nCo istotne, klasyczne diaspory pozostawały trwale oddzielone od ojczyzny, lecz wciąż były z nią symbolicznie związane poprzez religię, kulturę i wyobrażenia o powrocie. Koncepcja ta miała charakter normatywny – zakładała istnienie pożądanych cech diaspory jako „wzorcowej mniejszości”.\nW XX wieku, zwłaszcza po dwóch wojnach światowych oraz w okresie dekolonizacji, pojęcie „diaspora” zaczęło odnosić się do nowych typów rozproszenia\n– o charakterze politycznym, ideologicznym bądź ekonomicznym. W tym okresie termin ten wszedł na stałe do słownika nauk społecznych. Diaspory modernistyczne były często efektem przymusowych migracji – obejmujących uchodźców, dysydentów i wygnańców politycznych – jednak nie zawsze opierały się na doświadczeniu zbiorowej traumy. Coraz częściej rozproszenie miało również charakter częściowo dobrowolny – np. wynikający z uwarunkowań gospodarczych.\nW tym kontekście pojęcie „diaspory” przestało mieć charakter sakralny i zaczęło być analizowane jako zjawisko społeczne i polityczne. Pojawiły się\n\npierwsze próby teoretyzacji, wśród których na szczególną uwagę zasługuje klasyfikacja Williama Safrana, proponująca sześć cech charakterystycznych dla diaspory6:\nÒ rozproszenie z ojczyzny,\nÒ pamięć o kraju pochodzenia,\nÒ brak pełnej integracji w kraju osiedlenia,\nÒ pragnienie powrotu,\nÒ zaangażowanie w sprawy kraju pochodzenia,\nÒ poczucie solidarności z członkami diaspory.\nDiaspory modernistyczne tworzyły coraz bardziej rozbudowane sieci kontaktów między wspólnotami diasporalnymi a krajem pochodzenia. Utrzymywały dwukierunkowe relacje, często o charakterze politycznym lub ekonomicznym – obejmujące m.in. przekazy pieniężne, wsparcie partii politycznych czy pomoc humanitarną7. Takie cechy wykazywały np. diaspory palestyńska, irlandzka czy kubańska.\nNa przełomie XX i XXI wieku, w warunkach przyspieszającej globalizacji, rozwoju technologii komunikacyjnych oraz wzrostu mobilności transnarodowej, pojęcie „diaspory” uległo kolejnej, fundamentalnej transformacji.\nPojawiła się potrzeba dostosowania klasycznych i modernistycznych ujęć do realiów społeczeństw sieciowych8, wielokulturowych oraz do dynamicznie przekształcających się form tożsamości zbiorowych. W rezultacie wyłoniła się kategoria „diaspory postmodernistycznej” lub „diaspory globalnej”, coraz częściej ujmowana jako konstrukt analityczny – odnoszący się nie tylko do konkretnych społeczności migrantów, ale także do sposobów organizowania relacji z przestrzenią, tożsamością i państwowością w erze postnarodowej.\nW ujęciu postmodernistycznym pojęcie „diaspory” nie jest już definiowane wyłącznie przez doświadczenie traumatycznego rozproszenia ani przez konieczność fizycznej nieobecności w ojczyźnie. Kluczowe staje się raczej funkcjonowanie w wielu kontekstach kulturowych równocześnie, przy zachowaniu aktywnych relacji z różnymi ośrodkami tożsamości – zarówno lokalnej, jak i transnarodowej. To rozluźnienie klasycznych kryteriów otworzyło przestrzeń dla bardziej inkluzyjnych, a zarazem bardziej pogłębionych analiz.\n6 W. Safran, Diasporas in Modern Societies: Myths of Homeland and Return, „Diaspora:\nA Journal of Transnational Studies” t. 1 nr 1 (1991), s. 83–99, DOI: 10.1353/dsp.1991.0004.\n7 S. Meyer, C. Ströhle (red.), Remittances as Social Practices and Agents of Change:\nThe Future of Transnational Society, Springer, Cham 2023.\n8 M. Castells, The Net and the Self: Working notes for a critical theory of the informational society, „Critique of Anthropology” t. 16 nr 1 (1996), DOI: 10.1177/0308275X9601600103.\n\nWspółczesne diaspory definiowane są coraz częściej nie przez fizyczne oddalenie, lecz przez sposób organizacji relacji z ojczyzną oraz z innymi członkami wspólnoty – niezależnie od ich geograficznej lokalizacji. Zmieniają się zatem nie tylko formy uczestnictwa diaspor w życiu społecznym, lecz także mechanizmy, za pomocą których podtrzymują one więzi z krajem pochodzenia. Istotne są tutaj m.in.:\nÒ Utrzymanie więzi za pomocą mediów cyfrowych – nowoczesne technologie (takie jak media społecznościowe, komunikatory czy platformy wideo) umożliwiają diasporom codzienny kontakt z krajem pochodzenia, udział w debacie publicznej, śledzenie wydarzeń i angażowanie się w inicjatywy społeczne, niezależnie od fizycznej odległości.\nÒ Mobilność i wielokierunkowość migracji – członkowie diaspory często przemieszczają się między wieloma krajami, tworząc sieci relacji o charakterze diasporowym, bez jednoznacznego odniesienia do jednego kraju osiedlenia czy jednego kraju pochodzenia. Zjawisko to określane bywa mianem „diaspory sieciowej” (Vertovec, 2001).\nÒ Tożsamość hybrydyczna – w miejsce jednoznacznej identyfikacji narodowej lub kulturowej pojawia się złożona, wielowymiarowa tożsamość hybrydyczna. Diaspory postmodernistyczne często konstruują własne systemy znaczeń, łączące elementy tradycyjne (np. religię, język) z nowoczesnymi (np. obywatelstwo kosmopolityczne, styl życia klasy średniej, narracje polityczne).\nÒ Aktywizm transnarodowy i polityka diaspor – współczesne diaspory mogą być aktywnymi uczestnikami życia politycznego zarówno w krajach osiedlenia, jak i w krajach pochodzenia. Przejawia się to w przekazach pieniężnych i inwestycjach, działaniach lobbystycznych, udziale w wyborach zdalnych, a nawet w prowadzeniu kampanii politycznych.\nÒ Państwa wobec diaspor – coraz więcej państw postrzega własne diaspory jako strategiczne zasoby (diaspora as an asset)9. Tworzone są specjalne instytucje ds. relacji z diasporą, wprowadzane rozwiązania dotyczące podwójnego obywatelstwa, a także rozwijane strategie tzw. dyplomacji diasporalnej\n(diaspora diplomacy)10.\n9 M. Lesińska, Polityczna rola diaspory na przykładzie krajów Europy Środkowo-Wschodniej i obszaru postsowieckiego, „Politeja” t. 13 nr 2 (41) (2021), s. 77–98, DOI: 10.12797/\nPoliteja.13.2016.41.05.\n10 L.F. Echeverría-King et al., Organized Scientific Diaspora and Its Contributions to Science\nDiplomacy in Emerging Economies: The Case of Latin America and the Caribbean, „Frontiers in Research Metrics and Analytics” t. 7 (2022), art. 893593, DOI: 10.3389/frma.2022.893593.\n\nWspółczesne podejścia do badania diaspory znacznie wykraczają poza klasyczne kategorie analityczne. Jedną z kluczowych koncepcji jest „transnarodowość”11, rozumiana jako praktykowanie życia społecznego i politycznego w więcej niż jednym państwie równocześnie. Transnarodowe diaspory nie są już osadzone „między dwoma światami”, lecz funkcjonują w wielu przestrzeniach równocześnie, tworząc nowe formy przynależności, tożsamości i obywatelstwa.\nInne kluczowe koncepcje to:\nÒ Diaspora jako przestrzeń społeczna – Robin Cohen podkreśla, że diasporę należy analizować nie tylko jako grupę ludzi, lecz także jako dynamiczną przestrzeń wytwarzania tożsamości, narracji, interesów i strategii społecznych12 .\nÒ Diaspora jako praktyka kulturowa – Stuart Hall akcentuje kluczową rolę kultury w kształtowaniu diaspory, ujmując ją jako proces nieustannego negocjowania tożsamości i przynależności 13.\nÒ Diaspora jako forma polityczności – według Gabriela Sheffera i Rogersa Brubakera diaspora staje się podmiotem politycznym, zdolnym do wpływania na relacje międzynarodowe, prowadzenia działań lobbystycznych oraz tworzenia alternatywnych wspólnot obywatelskich14.\nRozszerzenie pojęcia „diaspory” na nowe konteksty i grupy rodzi jednak liczne kontrowersje. Część badaczy ostrzega przed nadmierną inflacją pojęcia, mogącą prowadzić do jego teoretycznego rozmycia. Rogers Brubaker proponuje, by unikać traktowania każdej społeczności migracyjnej jako diaspory i postulować większą ostrożność terminologiczną. W odpowiedzi pojawiają się propozycje wprowadzenia dodatkowych kategorii, takich jak „społeczności transnarodowe”, „migranci ekonomiczni” czy „społeczności zewnętrzne”.\nPojawia się również pytanie o kryteria przynależności do diaspory – czy wystarczająca jest sama deklaracja tożsamości? Czy konieczne są instytucje i sieci podtrzymujące więzi diasporalne? Czy diaspora musi być zorganizowana politycznie, by mogła być uznana za wspólnotę transnarodową? Odpowiedzi na te pytania różnią się w zależności od kontekstu społecznego, historycznego i badawczego.\n11 L. Basch, N.G. Schiller, C.S. Blanc (red.), Nations Unbound, Routledge, London 2005.\n12 R. Cohen, Global Diasporas, Routledge, London 2008; R. Cohen, Global diasporas: an introduction, Routledge, London–New York 2023.\n13 S. Hall, Cultural Identity and Diaspora, [w:] Identity: Community, Culture, Difference, red. J. Rutherford, Lawrence & Wishart, London 1990, s. 222–237.\n14 R. Brubaker, The ‘diaspora’ diaspora, „Ethnic and Racial Studies” t. 28 nr 1 (2025), s. 1–19,\nDOI: 10.1080/0141987042000289997; G. Sheffer, Diaspora Politics: At Home Abroad, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2003.\n\nWspółczesna Polonia i diaspora polska doskonale ilustrują wyzwania związane z postmodernistycznym ujęciem diaspory. Obok klasycznych form emigracji politycznej (np. emigracji lat 80.) funkcjonują dziś także grupy migrantów zarobkowych z XXI wieku, które komunikują się za pomocą mediów cyfrowych, pozostają aktywne politycznie i ekonomicznie wobec Polski, a jednocześnie często wchodzą w głęboką integrację z krajem osiedlenia15.\nZjawiska takie jak zakładanie polskich szkół sobotnich w Wielkiej Brytanii, uczestnictwo w wyborach do Sejmu z zagranicy czy działalność internetowa tzw. Polonii cyfrowej ukazują nowe formy „diasporyzacji” – oparte nie na traumie i wygnaniu, lecz na nowoczesnych praktykach mobilności, kultury i transnarodowego obywatelstwa.\nZestawienie trzech omawianych etapów ewolucji pojęcia „diaspory” pozwala dostrzec wyraźne przesunięcie od ujęcia normatywno-historycznego ku analityczno-dynamiczn emu (tabela 1).\nTabela 1. Etapy ewolucji pojęcia „diaspora”\nEtap Główne cechy Przykłady\nPrzymusowe rozproszenie, mit powrotu,\nKlasyczny Żydzi, Ormianie, Grecy tożsamość oparta na pamięci i religii\nMigracje polityczne i ekonomiczne, Palestyńczycy, Kubań-\nModernistyczny początki struktur transnarodowych czycy, Wietnamczycy\nPostmodernistyczny / Sieciowość, mobilność, transnarodowość, Indusi, Chińczycy, globalny tożsamość hybrydyczna Polacy XXI w.\nŹródło: opracowanie własne.\n1.1.2 Typologie diaspor\nZróżnicowanie zjawiska diaspory – pod względem genezy, sposobu funkcjonowania, celów, form tożsamości i relacji z ojczyzną – doprowadziło do powstania licznych prób jego systematyzacji. Typologie te służą uporządkowaniu zjawisk migracyjnych i transnarodowych oraz ułatwiają analizę konkretnych przypadków. Poniżej przedstawiono najważniejsze z nich – zarówno klasyczne, jak i współczesne – z uwzględnieniem ich znaczenia analitycznego i empirycznego.\n15 P. Malendowicz, G. Dziedzic, I. Kapsa, Polonia amerykańska: współczesność determinowana politycznością. Zbiór studiów, Instytut Nauk Politycznych UKW – Northeastern Illinois\nUniversity – Wąbrzeskie Zakłady Graficzne, Bydgoszcz–Chicago–Wąbrzeźno 2018.\n\n1) Diaspory klasyczne, etniczne i narodowe\nJedną z pierwszych prób typologizacji diaspor była klasyfikacja oparta na kryterium etnicznego i narodowego pochodzenia. Tego typu diaspory definiuje się najczęściej poprzez silną więź z grupą etniczną oraz symboliczną bądź realną relację z ojczyzną. Robin Cohen wyróżnia tzw. diaspory etniczne i narodowe, w których kluczową rolę odgrywają: pamięć o wspólnej przeszłości (często o traumatycznych doświadczeniach), poczucie wspólnego losu, mit powrotu oraz aktywne działania na rzecz ojczyzny. Do klasycznych przykładów należą diaspory: żydowska, ormiańska, grecka i chińska16.\n2) Diaspory przymusowe, dobrowolne i mieszane\nKolejne kryterium typologizacji stanowi sposób opuszczenia ojczyzny. William\nSafran zaproponował podział na diaspory przymusowe (forced diasporas) – wynikające z prześladowań, wojen, katastrof naturalnych lub deportacji – oraz dobrowolne (voluntary diasporas), związane z migracjami zarobkowymi, edukacyjnymi bądź politycznymi. Coraz częściej wyróżnia się również diaspory mieszane, w których czynniki przymusu i dobrowolności współistnieją – np.\nw przypadku migracji ekonomicznych wywołanych kryzysami strukturalnymi17.\n3) Diaspory handlowe i gospodarcze\nIstnieją również typologie koncentrujące się na funkcjach ekonomicznych diaspor. Już od średniowiecza istniały wspólnoty diasporyczne pełniące funkcję pośredników handlowych, takie jak Ormianie, Żydzi sefardyjscy czy Chińczycy w Azji Południowo-Wschodniej. Współcześnie rośnie znaczenie diaspor ekonomicznych, które generują przekazy pieniężne, inwestycje zagraniczne (diaspora\nForeign Direct Investment) oraz zakładają przedsiębiorstwa transnarodowe18.\n16 R. Cohen, Global Diasporas, Routledge, London 2008; W. Safran, Diasporas in Modern\nSocieties: Myths of Homeland and Return, „Diaspora: A Journal of Transnational Studies” t. 1 nr 1(1991), s. 83–99, DOI: 10.1353/dsp.1991.0004.\n17 Y. Shain, The Role of Diasporas in Conflict Perpetuation or Resolution, „SAIS Review” t. 22 nr 2\n(2002), s. 115–144, DOI: 10.1353/sais.2002.0052; N. Van Hear, New Diasporas: The Mass Exodus,\nDispersal and Regrouping of Migrant Communities, University of Washington Press, Seattle 1998.\n18 J. Brinkerhoff, Diasporas, Skills Transfer, and Remittances: Evolving Perceptions and Potential,\n[w:] C. Wescot, J. Brinkerhoff (red.), Converting Migration Drains into Gains: Harnessing the Resources of Overseas Professionals, Asian Development Bank, Manila 2006, s. 1–32;\nA. Portes, L.E. Guarnizo, W.J. Haller, Transnational Entrepreneurs: An Alternative Form of Immigrant Economic Adaptation, „American Sociological Review” t. 67, nr 2 (2002), s. 278–298, DOI: 10.2307/3088896.\n\n4) Diaspory polityczne i opozycyjne\nCzęść diaspor rozwija działalność polityczną wymierzoną w reżim panujący w kraju pochodzenia. Tzw. diaspory opozycyjne bądź polityczne organizują się wokół idei zmiany reżimu, wspierają opozycję lub tworzą rządy na uchodźstwie. Przykładami takich diaspor są: tybetańska, syryjska, białoruska i kubańska. Działania tych diaspor odgrywają istotną rolę w kształtowaniu opinii międzynarodowej oraz w prowadzeniu dyplomacji nieoficjalnej19.\n5) Diaspory kulturowe i symboliczne\nNiektóre diaspory nie opierają się na rzeczywistym przemieszczeniu ludności, lecz na wspólnym doświadczeniu kulturowym bądź historycznym. Paul Gilroy, w kontekście tzw. diaspory afrykańskiej, zaproponował koncepcję „Black Atlantic” jako przestrzeni wspólnej pamięci, kultury i tożsamości postkolonialnej. W tym ujęciu diaspora może mieć charakter symboliczny i kulturowy, niekoniecznie jednak geograficzny20.\n6) Diaspory transnarodowe i sieciowe\nSteven Vertovec zaproponował koncepcję diaspor sieciowych (network diasporas), które tworzą wielokierunkowe relacje między członkami wspólnoty, ojczyzną a państwem osiedlenia. Są to struktury transnarodowe, oparte na przepływie informacji, zasobów, ludzi i symboli. Podkreśla się ich dynamiczny charakter, wielopoziomowość oraz decentralizację21. W tym ujęciu diasporą może być nawet społeczność mobilna, która nie zakorzeniła się trwale w żadnym państwie.\n7) Diaspory cyfrowe (cyberdiaspory)\nWspółczesna migracja cyfrowa stworzyła nowe formy przynależności, w których fizyczne przemieszczenie nie stanowi warunku uczestnictwa we wspólnocie. Tzw. cyberdiaspory funkcjonują przede wszystkim w przestrzeni wirtualnej,\n19 T. Lyons, Conflict-generated diasporas and transnational politics in Ethiopia: Analysis, „Conflict,\nSecurity & Development” t. 7, nr 4 (2007), s. 529–549, DOI: 10.1080/14678800701692951;\nE. Østergaard-Nielsen, Transnational Politics: The Case of Turks and Kurds in Germany,\nRoutledge, London–New York 2003.\n20 J. Clifford, Diasporas, „Cultural Anthropology” t. 9 nr 3 (1994), s. 302–338, DOI: 10.1525/ can.1994.9.3.02a00040.\n21 P. Levitt, N. G. Schiller, Conceptualizing Simultaneity: A Transnational Social Field\nPerspective on Society, „International Migration Review” t. 38 nr 3 (2004), s. 1002–1039.\nDOI: 10.1111/j.1747-7379.2004.tb00227.x; M. Sökefeld, Mobilizing in Transnational Space:\nA Social Movement Approach to the Formation of Diaspora, „Global Networks” t. 6 nr 3 (2006), s. 265–284, DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-0374.2006.00144.x.\n\ntworząc sieci kulturowe, polityczne i informacyjne22. Przykładami takich form są wspólnoty funkcjonujące na forach internetowych oraz w serwisach społecznościowych, takich jak Facebook, YouTube czy Discord. Diaspora cyfrowa może wspierać tradycyjne diaspory lub funkcjonować niezależnie jako zjawisko socjotechniczne23.\n8) Diaspory „z wyboru” i symboliczne\nCoraz częściej obserwuje się także zjawisko diaspor tożsamościowych bądź symbolicznych, obejmujących jednostki identyfikujące się z daną wspólnotą, choć niekoniecznie posiadających realne powiązania migracyjne24. Przykładem może być młodzież polskiego pochodzenia w USA, która nie posługuje się językiem polskim, lecz aktywnie uczestniczy w życiu społeczności polonijnej.\nZjawisko to stanowi wyzwanie dla klasycznych definicji diaspory, opartych na genealogii bądź traumie wygnania25.\nTypologie diaspor pełnią kluczową funkcję analityczną, lecz stanowią również narzędzie polityczne i społeczne – sposób klasyfikacji danej diaspory wpływa na to, jak jest ona postrzegana i traktowana przez państwa, organizacje międzynarodowe czy same społeczności. Współczesne ujęcia coraz częściej integrują perspektywy funkcjonalne (np. polityczne i ekonomiczne) z podejściami symbolicznymi oraz kulturowymi, co umożliwia bardziej elastyczną i wielowymiarową analizę zjawiska.\n22 B.R.O. Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism,\nVerso, London–New York 2016.\n23 V. Bernal, Diaspora, Cyberspace and Political Imagination: The Eritrean Diaspora Online,\n„Global Networks” t. 6 nr 2 (2006), s. 161–179, DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-0374.2006.00139.x;\nJ.M. Brinkerhoff, Digital Diasporas: Identity and Transnational Engagement, Cambridge\nUniversity Press, Cambridge 2009.\n24 P. Levitt, Roots and Routes: Understanding the Lives of the Second Generation Transnationally, „Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies” t. 35 nr 7 2009, s. 1225–1242, DOI:\n10.1080/13691830903006309; K. Tölölyan, Rethinking Diaspora(s): Stateless Power in the\nTransnational Moment, „Diaspora: A Journal of Transnational Studies” t. 5 nr 1 (1996), s. 3–36, DOI: 10.1353/dsp.1996.0000.\n25 P. Malendowicz, G. Dziedzic, I. Kapsa, Polonia amerykańska: współczesność determinowana politycznością. Zbiór studiów, Instytut Nauk Politycznych UKW – Northeastern Illinois\nUniversity – Wąbrzeskie Zakłady Graficzne, Bydgoszcz–Chicago–Wąbrzeźno 2018.\n\n1.1.3. Status formalnoprawny członków diaspory – uwarunkowania i znaczenie\nStatus formalnoprawny członków diaspory stanowi istotny element określający ich pozycję w strukturze państwa przyjmującego oraz zakres możliwej partycypacji w życiu społecznym, gospodarczym i politycznym. Jego charakter zależy od uwarunkowań prawnych i historycznych danego państwa, charakteru stosunków bilateralnych z krajem pochodzenia migrantów, a także od dominujących ideologii obywatelstwa i integracji26.\nW wielu przypadkach pozycja członków diaspory pozostaje nieprecyzyjnie określona, niepełna bądź fragmentaryczna, co z jednej strony ogranicza zakres ich praw, z drugiej zaś umożliwia elastyczną adaptację do warunków społecznych i prawnych. Niejasność ta może dotyczyć obywatelstwa, prawa pobytu, dostępu do świadczeń socjalnych, zatrudnienia oraz udziału w życiu politycznym27. Nieprecyzyjny status prawny nie zawsze jest rezultatem niedbałości legislacyjnej – nierzadko stanowi efekt świadomej polityki „strategicznej niejednoznaczności”, umożliwiającej państwom unikanie odpowiedzialności lub elastyczne kształtowanie procesów integracyjnych w zależności od bieżących potrzeb gospodarczych i politycznych28.\nPotencjalne korzyści wynikające z niejednoznacznego statusu formalnoprawnego obejmują większą elastyczność instytucjonalną, możliwość funkcjonowania w szarej strefie rynku pracy (zwłaszcza w państwach o rozbudowanej gospodarce nieformalnej, takich jak Włochy czy Grecja) oraz uniknięcie części obowiązków obywatelskich, np. podatkowych lub wojskowych. Z kolei negatywne konsekwencje takiego statusu obejmują zazwyczaj brak stabilizacji, ograniczony dostęp do praw socjalnych, edukacyjnych i zdrowotnych, a także wykluczenie polityczne oraz utrudnioną integrację społeczną29.\n26 R. Bauböck, Stakeholder Citizenship and Transnational Political Participation: A Normative Evaluation of External Voting, „Fordham Law Review” t. 75 (2007), s. 2393–2447;\nC. Joppke, Citizenship and Immigration, Polity Press, Cambridge 2011.\n27 D. Pudzianowska, The Complexities of Dual Citizenship Analysis, „Central and Eastern European Migration Review” t. 6 nr 1 (2017), s. 15–30, DOI: 10.17467/ceemr.2017.10; P. Spiro, Dual\nNationality and the Meaning of Citizenship, „Emory Law Journal” t. 46 nr 4 (1997), s. 1411–1485.\n28 M. Ruhs, The Price of Rights: Regulating International Labor Migration, Princeton University Press, Princeton (NJ) 2013.\n29 T. Faist, The Volume and Dynamics of International Migration and Transnational Social\nSpaces, Oxford University Press, Oxford 2000; Y.N. Soysal, Limits of Citizenship: Migrants and Postnational Membership in Europe, University of Chicago Press, Chicago 2007.\n\nPrzykłady sytuacji członków diaspory o niejednoznacznym statusie formalnoprawnym\n1) Turcy w Niemczech\nDiaspora turecka w Niemczech stanowi jeden z najbardziej rozpoznawalnych przykładów niejednoznacznego statusu formalnoprawnego w Europie Zachodniej. Tureccy migranci zaczęli przybywać do Niemiec w latach 60. XX wieku w ramach programu pracowników gościnnych (gastarbeiter), który przewidywał ich czasowy pobyt i zatrudnienie. Nie zakładano nadania migrantom obywatelstwa niemieckiego, a ich pobyt postrzegano jako zjawisko przejściowe.\nW praktyce jednak wiele osób zdecydowało się pozostać na stałe, a wraz z nimi ich rodziny, co doprowadziło do trwałego osiedlenia się znacznej części społeczności tureckiej w Niemczech.\nDo roku 2000 Niemcy utrzymywały restrykcyjne prawo obywatelskie oparte na zasadzie ius sanguinis (prawa krwi), co oznaczało, że nawet osoby urodzone w tym kraju z rodziców tureckich nie nabywały automatycznie obywatelstwa niemieckiego. Reforma prawa obywatelskiego z 2000 roku, wprowadzająca możliwość nabycia obywatelstwa przez urodzenie na terytorium\nNiemiec (ius soli), miała charakter przełomowy, lecz nadal wiązała się z określonymi warunkami, takimi jak legalny pobyt rodziców przez ustalony okres.\nCo więcej, przez wiele lat niedopuszczalne było posiadanie podwójnego obywatelstwa, co zmuszało osoby ubiegające się o naturalizację do rezygnacji z obywatelstwa tureckiego.\nKonsekwencją tej sytuacji stała się szeroko zakrojona marginalizacja społeczna i polityczna oraz ograniczenie dostępu do pełni praw obywatelskich.\nOsoby nieposiadające obywatelstwa niemieckiego były pozbawione prawa udziału w wyborach, miały ograniczony dostęp do części świadczeń socjalnych oraz doświadczały dyskryminacji na rynku pracy. W praktyce prowadziło to do ukształtowania się swoistej kategorii „obywateli drugiej kategorii”, mimo ich wieloletniej obecności w kraju.\nDopiero w ostatnich latach można zaobserwować rosnącą otwartość na uznanie faktycznego statusu imigrantów, jednak napięcia polityczne – w tym relacje niemiecko-tureckie oraz spory dotyczące integracji – wciąż znacząco wpływają na społeczne postrzeganie tej grupy. Przypadek tureckiej diaspory w Niemczech ilustruje, w jaki sposób długotrwały brak spójnej polityki obywatelskiej może prowadzić do utrwalenia strukturalnego wykluczenia.\n\n2) Polacy w Wielkiej Brytanii po Brexicie\nPolska diaspora w Wielkiej Brytanii, licząca przed Brexitem ponad milion osób, stanowi jeden z największych i najbardziej znaczących przykładów migracji zarobkowej w ramach Unii Europejskiej. Członkostwo Polski w UE od 2004 roku umożliwiło obywatelom polskim swobodne przemieszczanie się i podejmowanie pracy na terytorium Zjednoczonego Królestwa. Decyzja o wystąpieniu Wielkiej Brytanii z UE w 2016 roku radykalnie zmieniła sytuację formalnoprawną Polaków mieszkających na jej terytorium.\nWprowadzony system statusu osoby osiedlonej (EU Settlement Scheme) miał na celu uregulowanie sytuacji obywateli UE przebywających w Wielkiej\nBrytanii. Osoby spełniające określone kryteria mogły uzyskać status osoby osiedlonej (settled status) lub tymczasowo osiedlonej (pre-settled status). Choć proces ten miał charakter deklaratywny, w praktyce wielu obywateli polskich napotkało liczne trudności administracyjne, niejasności prawne oraz bariery językowe.\nPoważnym problemem okazała się także sytuacja osób, które z różnych przyczyn nie dokonały rejestracji w wyznaczonym terminie. W rezultacie, mimo wieloletniego pobytu w Wielkiej Brytanii, część obywateli polskich znalazła się w sytuacji „quasi-nielegalnej”, pozbawiona dostępu do świadczeń socjalnych, mieszkań komunalnych oraz możliwości legalnego zatrudnienia.\nKolejnym problemem okazał się brak papierowego potwierdzenia statusu, który prowadził do licznych przypadków dyskryminacji, m.in. ze strony pracodawców oraz właścicieli nieruchomości. Przez pewien czas część instytucji publicznych wymagała przedstawienia dokumentów, których posiadacze statusu nie mogli dostarczyć, co prowadziło do odrzucania wniosków lub uniemożliwiało podjęcie pracy. W konsekwencji część obywateli polskich zdecydowała się opuścić Wielką\nBrytanię, inni zaś wystąpili o naturalizację i uzyskali obywatelstwo brytyjskie.\nPrzypadek ten unaocznia, jak istotne znaczenie mają przejrzyste mechanizmy prawne regulujące status imigrantów. Brak klarownych reguł, opóźnienia administracyjne oraz niedostateczna jakość komunikacji instytucjonalnej prowadzą do realnych zagrożeń dla praw obywateli migrujących, nawet w obrębie relatywnie zintegrowanych struktur, takich jak UE.\n3) Palestyńczycy w Libanie\nPalestyńska diaspora w Libanie stanowi przykład długotrwałego uchodźstwa, które nigdy nie przekształciło się w proces formalnej integracji. Od 1948 roku, po utworzeniu państwa Izrael, tysiące Palestyńczyków uciekło do Libanu, gdzie ich status do dziś pozostaje niejednoznaczny. Nie są uznawani za obywateli, a zakres ich praw jest znacząco ograniczony. Nie mają dostępu do licznych\n\nzawodów, nie mogą nabywać nieruchomości, a ich mobilność podlega ścisłej kontroli. Problem ten został szczegółowo omówiony w analizie Shaula Gabbaya, który podkreśla wpływ historycznych uwarunkowań praw obywatelskich na proces wykluczenia społecznego30.\nWiększość z nich zamieszkuje obozy dla uchodźców prowadzone przez\nUNRWA (Agencję Narodów Zjednoczonych ds. Pomocy Uchodźcom Palestyńskim), w których panują bardzo trudne warunki bytowe. Liban, powołując się na konieczność utrzymania równowagi demograficznej między społecznościami muzułmańską i chrześcijańską, konsekwentnie unika nadania Palestyńczykom obywatelstwa, obawiając się wzrostu ich potencjalnego wpływu politycznego.\nBrak prawnego uregulowania prowadzi do niepewności, wykluczenia i chronicznego ubóstwa. Mimo że wiele rodzin żyje w Libanie od pokoleń, nie mają one realnych szans na awans społeczny. Przypadek ten wskazuje na zagrożenia wynikające z celowego utrzymywania niejednoznacznego statusu w celu unikania decyzji politycznych. Badania Jinan Usty dostarczają współczesnego spojrzenia na konsekwencje tych ograniczeń w zakresie zdrowia psychicznego i warunków życia, potwierdzając trwałe odizolowanie tej grupy oraz utrudniony dostęp do podstawowych praw”31.\n4) Rosjanie w Państwach Bałtyckich\nW Estonii i na Łotwie znaczna część rosyjskojęzycznej ludności posiada status tzw. nieobywateli. Po rozpadzie ZSRR kraje bałtyckie przywróciły zasadę ius sanguinis, przyznając obywatelstwo wyłącznie osobom, których przodkowie posiadali obywatelstwo przed okupacją sowiecką. Nowo przybyli, głównie\nRosjanie, zostali zobowiązani do przejścia procesu naturalizacji, obejmującego m.in. testy z języka i historii.\nBrak obywatelstwa wiąże się z ograniczonym dostępem do zatrudnienia w sektorze publicznym, pozbawieniem prawa głosu w wyborach parlamentarnych oraz utrudnieniami w podróżach międzynarodowych. Choć naturalizacja jest formalnie możliwa, dla wielu osób główną barierę stanowi nieznajomość języka oraz nieufność wobec instytucji państwowych32.\n30 S.M. Gabbay, The Palestinian Diaspora: Status and Rights in Middle East and North African\nCountries, „Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal” t. 11, nr 10 (2024), DOI: 10.14738.\n31 J. Usta i in., Role of Resilience in General Health and Mental Wellbeing among Syrian and\nPalestinian Refugees in Lebanon: A Mixed Methods Study, „Conflict and Health” t. 19 nr 1\n(2025), DOI: 10.1186/s13031-025-00653-5.\n32 C.S. Czymara, A. Gorodzeisky, I. Leykin, Political Legacies and Present Perceptions of Migrants,\n„Comparative Migration Studies” t. 13 nr 1 (2025), DOI: 10.1186/s40878-025-00490-8.\n\nSytuacja ta była wielokrotnie krytykowana przez organizacje międzynarodowe, m.in. Komisję Europejską i OBWE. Niejednoznaczny status rosyjskojęzycznej ludności jest także wykorzystywany propagandowo przez Federację Rosyjską, co dodatkowo komplikuje kwestie społeczne i bezpieczeństwa w regionie33.\n5) Marokańczycy w Hiszpanii i Portugalii\nMarokańska diaspora na Półwyspie Iberyjskim, głównie w Hiszpanii i w mniejszym stopniu w Portugalii, stanowi jeden z najstarszych i najbardziej złożonych przypadków obecności migrantów z krajów arabskich w Europie Południowej. W Hiszpanii pierwsze większe fale migracji miały miejsce w latach\n80. XX wieku i były związane z rosnącym zapotrzebowaniem na tanią siłę roboczą w rolnictwie oraz budownictwie34. W Portugalii napływ był mniejszy, lecz również istotny, zwłaszcza po liberalizacji przepisów migracyjnych w latach 90. XX wieku.\nWiększość Marokańczyków przybywała początkowo jako sezonowi pracownicy lub migranci nieudokumentowani, w wyniku czego ich status formalnoprawny przez wiele lat pozostawał nieuregulowany35. Dopiero późniejsze reformy w Hiszpanii, w tym legalizacje zbiorowe z lat 2000 i 2005, umożliwiły im uzyskanie zezwoleń na pobyt, choć nie zawsze z gwarancją ich trwałości. Nadal powszechny pozostaje problem okresowych zezwoleń na pobyt, wymagających stałego odnawiania i uzależnionych od utrzymania zatrudnienia – co w niestabilnych sektorach, takich jak rolnictwo sezonowe, stanowi istotne utrudnienie36.\nW Portugalii natomiast znaczna część Marokańczyków przez długi czas mieszkała w tzw. bairro de lata – nieformalnych osiedlach ubogich migrantów.\nMimo wdrożenia programów rewitalizacji i włączenia społecznego proces integracji przebiegał powoli. Brak obywatelstwa ograniczał prawa polityczne i dostęp do systemu szkolnictwa wyższego. Dopiero z czasem – dzięki edukacji dzieci oraz lokalnym inicjatywom – część społeczności zaczęła stopniowo przełamywać bariery integracyjne.\n33 J.L. Schulze, J. Pupcenoks, Securitizing Russian-speakers in Estonia and Latvia: The\nFrame-Policy Nexus before and after Russia’s Invasion of Ukraine, „Nationalities Papers”\n2025, DOI: 10.1017/nps.2024.97.\n34 B. Fernández Suárez, The Design of Migrant Integration Policies in Spain: Discourses and\nSocial Actors, „Social Inclusion” t. 5 nr 1 (2017), s. 61–71, DOI: 10.17645/si.v5i1.783.\n35 J. Peixoto, Strong Market, Weak State: The Case of Recent Foreign Immigration in Portugal, „Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies” t. 28, nr 3 (2002), s. 483–497, DOI:\n10.1080/13691830220146563.\n36 B. Padilla, Brazilian Migration to Portugal: Social Networks and Ethnic Solidarity, „LASA\nForum” nr 1 (2006), s. 10–12.\n\nOba przypadki pokazują, że status formalnoprawny nie stanowi jedynie kwestii prawnej kategorii, lecz głęboko oddziałuje na realne możliwości rozwoju społecznego, ekonomicznego i kulturowego członków diaspory37. Polityka migracyjna, nawet jeśli formalnie nie wyklucza, może jednak utrwalać marginalizację poprzez mechanizmy biurokratyczne, brak stabilności prawnej i społeczne stereotypy.\n6) Bośniacy i Albańczycy na Bałkanach\nW regionie Bałkanów status formalnoprawny członków diaspor często zależy od dynamiki powojennej transformacji ustrojowej, napięć etnopolitycznych oraz nie w pełni zrealizowanych reform prawnych po rozpadzie Jugosławii.\nSzczególnie złożona pozostaje sytuacja Bośniaków i Albańczyków – zarówno tych, którzy zostali przesiedleni w wyniku konfliktów zbrojnych w latach 90., jak i tych, którzy po zmianach granic państwowych znaleźli się poza terytorium swoich „macierzystych” jednostek administracyjnych.\nPo wojnie w Bośni i Hercegowinie (1992–1995) wielu Bośniaków – muzułmańskich mieszkańców Bośni – znalazło się poza granicami niepodległej Bośni i Hercegowiny, m.in. w Serbii i Chorwacji. Choć formalnie część z nich mogła ubiegać się o obywatelstwo, w praktyce napotykała liczne bariery administracyjne. W Serbii osoby te były niejednokrotnie postrzegane jako „przyjezdni” lub\n„goście”, mimo wieloletniego zamieszkania na terytorium kraju. Proces uzyskania obywatelstwa wymagał spełnienia restrykcyjnych wymogów, takich jak znajomość języka, stałe zameldowanie czy udokumentowane źródło dochodu, co w praktyce eliminowało osoby pochodzące z obszarów wiejskich i ubogich38.\nW Chorwacji z kolei istotnym problemem pozostawał etnonacjonalizm obecny w polityce obywatelskiej. Prawo sprzyjało Chorwatom etnicznym, natomiast Bośniacy napotykali na trudności związane z legalizacją pobytu, rejestracji własności oraz korzystaniem z pomocy społecznej. Dotyczyło to w szczególności osób przesiedlonych z rejonu Bośni Południowej, które znalazły schronienie\n37 M.L. Fonseca, S. Pereira, Migration of Ukrainian Nationals to Portugal: The Visibility of a New Migration Landscape, [w:] Ukrainian Migration to the European Union, red.\nO. Fedyuk, M. Kindler, Springer, Cham 2016, s. 153–172; A.I. Pereira Esteves, M.L.C.\nda Silva Fonseca, J. de S.M. Malheiros, Labour Market Integration of Immigrants in Portugal in Times of Austerity: Resilience, In Situ Responses and Re-emigration,\n„Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies” t. 44 nr 14 (2018), s. 2342–2359, DOI:\n10.1080/1369183X.2017.1346040.\n38 F. Bieber, The Rise of Authoritarianism in the Western Balkans, Palgrave Macmillan,\nCham 2020.\n\nw sąsiednich regionach Dalmacji. W latach 1992–2006 Słowenia doświadczyła znacznego napływu przymusowych migrantów z Chorwacji, a już wiosną 1992 roku – jeszcze większej liczby uchodźców z Bośni i Hercegowiny. Uważa się, że w latach 90. Słowenia prowadziła politykę ukrytej repatriacji, co poważnie utrudniło integrację przymusowych migrantów i uchodźców39.\nSpołeczność albańska na Bałkanach jest rozproszona i obecna w wielu państwach regionu, jednak jej status formalnoprawny znacząco różni się w zależności od kraju. W Macedonii Północnej Albańczycy stanowią około 25% populacji, jednak dopiero po starciach zbrojnych w 2001 roku – zakończonych Porozumieniem z Ochrydy – przyznano im szersze prawa, w tym oficjalne uznanie języka albańskiego oraz udział w administracji publicznej. Mimo to wciąż utrzymują się nierówności strukturalne, zwłaszcza w zakresie dostępu do edukacji wyższej, zatrudnienia oraz systemu ochrony zdrowia40.\nW Czarnogórze, gdzie Albańczycy zamieszkują głównie okolice Ulcinja i Plavu, ich sytuacja pozostaje stosunkowo stabilna, lecz wciąż marginalna. Brakuje pełnej reprezentacji politycznej, a procedury uzyskiwania obywatelstwa bywają czasochłonne i nieprzejrzyste. W praktyce skutkuje to ograniczonym wpływem na politykę lokalną, zwłaszcza w obszarach decyzji dotyczących języka, edukacji i inwestycji publicznych.\nW kontekście sytuacji politycznej mniejszości albańskiej w Czarnogórze Idlir\nLika wskazuje, że mimo geograficznej koncentracji ludności oraz instytucjonalnych rozwiązań sprzyjających partiom mniejszości, reprezentacja polityczna odbywa się przede wszystkim za pośrednictwem partii ogólnokrajowych, a nie etnicznych41.\nW Serbii, szczególnie w Dolinie Preszewskiej, Flora FeratiSachsenmaier dokumentuje systemowe ograniczanie praw obywatelskich poprzez administracyjną\n„passywizację” adresów, która prowadzi do marginalizacji politycznej oraz ograniczenia dostępu do usług publicznych. Choć przedstawiciele mniejszości albańskiej nominalnie posiadają obywatelstwo serbskie, wiele osób nie korzysta z pełni praw obywatelskich z powodu nieufności wobec instytucji państwowych, marginalizacji\n39 N. Vrecer, Living in Limbo: Integration of Forced Migrants from Bosnia and Herzegovina in\nSlovenia, „Journal of Refugee Studies” t. 23 nr 4 (2010), s. 495–515, DOI: 10.1093/jrs/feq042.\n40 M. Koinova, Diasporas and Democratization in the Post-Communist World,\n„Communist and Post-Communist Studies” t. 42 nr 1 (2009) s. 41–64, DOI: 10.1016/j.\npostcomstud.2009.02.001; M. Koinova, Autonomy and Positionality in Diaspora Politics:\nAutonomy and Positionality, „International Political Sociology” t. 6 nr 1 (2012), s. 99–103,\nDOI: 10.1111/j.1749-5687.2011.00152_3.x.\n41 I. Lika, Against the Odds: Explaining Mainstream Montenegrin Parties’ Domination of Bosniak and Albanian Minority Representation in Postcommunist Montenegro, „Nationalities Papers” t. 52 nr 6 (2024), s. 1167–1186, DOI: 10.1017/nps.2024.81.\n\nekonomicznej oraz trudności związanych z rejestracją dokumentów. Wielu Albańczyków z tego regionu deklaruje się jako osoby pochodzące z Kosowa, co w Serbii bywa postrzegane jako przejaw separatyzmu42.\nSytuacja komplikuje się również w samym Kosowie, którego niepodległość, ogłoszona w 2008 roku, nie została uznana przez Serbię oraz część innych państw.\nW praktyce prowadzi to do prawnego dualizmu – osoby zamieszkałe w Kosowie mogą posiadać dokumenty serbskie, kosowskie lub oba ich typy, co skutkuje niepewnością prawną podczas przekraczania granic, zawierania umów czy korzystania z usług medycznych i edukacyjnych.\n1.1.4. Przypadek polski: Polonia, Polacy za granicą i emigracja – debata terminologiczna i instytucjonalna\nZłożoność statusów diaspory i problem terminologiczny – kontekst polski\nZjawisko diaspory od dawna stanowi kluczowy element debat akademickich, politycznych i społecznych, a coraz większą uwagę poświęca się roli, jaką wspólnoty diasporalne odgrywają w relacjach zarówno z państwem pochodzenia, jak i z krajami osiedlenia. Jednym z bardziej złożonych przykładów w kontekście europejskim pozostaje przypadek polski. Polska, jako kraj o burzliwej historii migracyjnej\n– obejmującej zarówno fale emigracji politycznej, jak i zarobkowej – posiada liczną i zróżnicowaną diasporę.\nSpecyfika polskiej diaspory przejawia się nie tylko w jej globalnym rozmieszczeniu – od USA, przez Niemcy i Wielką Brytanię, po Brazylię, Kazachstan i Australię – lecz także w bogactwie form tożsamościowych, historycznych i prawnych.\nW tym kontekście narasta potrzeba precyzyjnego zdefiniowania kluczowych pojęć, takich jak „Polonia”, „Polacy za granicą”, „emigranci” oraz „diaspora polska”. Brak spójności terminologicznej prowadzi do chaosu w dyskursie naukowym i publicznym, a także utrudnia formułowanie spójnej polityki państwa wobec tych grup, co podkreślają badania nad porównawczymi typologiami polityk diaspory43.\nProblematyka ta nabiera szczególnego znaczenia w obliczu rosnącego zainteresowania diasporą jako partnerem strategicznym w polityce zagranicznej,\n42 F. Ferati-Sachsenmaier, Serbia’s Passivization Policy Towards the Albanian Minority: How\nSouthern Serbia is Being Turned Ethnically Serbian, Max Planck Institutefor the Study of Religious and Ethnic Diversity, Göttingen 2023, https://www.mmg.mpg.de/1157060/\nWP_23-01_Ferati-Sachsenmair_ Serbias-Passivization-Policy.pdf.\n43 E. Janská et al., Extending Comparative Typologies of Diaspora Policies: Towards a ‘Cautiously Proactive’ Diaspora Policy State, „Political Geography” t. 114 (2024), art. 103189, DOI:\n10.1016/j.polgeo.2024.103189.\n\ngospodarczej i kulturowej. Państwo polskie, szczególnie po 1989 roku, podejmowało liczne próby instytucjonalizacji relacji z diasporą – zarówno poprzez działania\nSenatu RP i Ministerstwa Spraw Zagranicznych (MSZ), jak i innych instytucji, w tym\nInstytutu Pamięci Narodowej (IPN) oraz Fundacji „Pomoc Polakom na Wschodzie”.\nNowsze badania wskazują, że diaspora może pełnić rolę istotnego aktora polityki państwa, jednak jej skuteczna integracja zależy od stabilnych ram prawnych i instytucjonalnych44. Równolegle aktywność kulturowa Polonii pokazuje, że promocja polskiej tożsamości w dużej mierze opiera się na oddolnych inicjatywach, wspieranych wybiórczo przez instytucje publiczne45.\nKwestia definicji pojęć „Polonia” i „diaspora polska” pozostaje jednak otwarta.\nNiektóre podejścia obejmują wyłącznie obywateli polskich mieszkających za granicą, inne natomiast – osoby polskiego pochodzenia, niezależnie od posiadanego obywatelstwa. Jak zauważa Anna Jeglińska, polityki diaspory odgrywają istotną rolę w konstruowaniu tożsamości współobywateli i ich symbolicznej przynależności do wspólnoty narodowej46.\nW niniejszym podrozdziale przedstawiona zostanie debata dotycząca terminów odnoszących się do polskiej diaspory, ukazane zostaną różnice semantyczne między nimi oraz omówione próby ich definiowania w dokumentach ustawowych i praktyce instytucjonalnej państwa. Analiza ta pozwala lepiej zrozumieć konsekwencje różnych ujęć pojęcia Polonii – zarówno dla samych zainteresowanych, jak i dla polityki państwa polskiego.\nDebata terminologiczna: „Polonia”, „Polacy za granicą” i „emigracja”\nW debacie naukowej, administracyjnej i medialnej funkcjonują co najmniej trzy podstawowe pojęcia: „Polonia”, „Polacy za granicą” oraz „emigracja”. Choć pojęcia te bywają używane zamiennie, nie są tożsame ani semantycznie, ani funkcjonalnie.\nDyskusja terminologiczna dotycząca sposobu określania osób pochodzenia polskiego mieszkających poza granicami kraju stanowi istotny element debaty o tożsamości narodowej, obywatelstwie, przynależności kulturowej\n44 A. Popyk, M. Lesińska, K. Dambrauskas, The Evolution of Post-accession Diasporas and\nDiaspora Policies after 2004: A Comparative Analysis of Poland and Lithuania, „Journal of Baltic Studies” t. 55 nr 1 (2024), s. 79–101. DO I: 10.1080/01629778.2023.2180043.\n45 M. Dzięglewski, Miejsce i rola diaspory w promocji polskiej kultury w świetle polityk publicznych, „Studia Migracyjne – Przegląd Polonijny” t. 49 nr 2 (188) (2023), s. 217–239.\nDOI: 10.4467/25444972SMPP.23.016.18630.\n46 A. Jeglinska, Co-nationals under Construction: Poland’s Diaspora Policy 1989–2023,\nUppsala University, Uppsala 2025.\n\noraz o roli państwa w kształtowaniu relacji z obywatelami i osobami polskiego pochodzenia przebywającymi na emigracji. Choć terminy „diaspora”, „Polonia”,\n„Polacy za granicą” oraz „emigracja” są często używane zamiennie w debacie publicznej i akademickiej, różnią się jednak zakresem znaczeniowym, historycznym i politycznym47.\nTermin „diaspora” wywodzi się z języka greckiego (διασπορά – „rozprosze-z nie”) i pierwotnie odnosił się do Żydów żyjących poza Ziemią Izraela. Współcześnie pojęcie to przybrało szersze znaczenie i odnosi się do społeczności etnicznych lub narodowych, mieszkających poza terytorium swojego państwa pochodzenia, lecz utrzymujących z nim więzi kulturowe, emocjonalne bądź polityczne48. W odniesieniu do Polski „diaspora polska” może obejmować zarówno osoby posiadające obywatelstwo polskie, jak i osoby polskiego pochodzenia, które nigdy go nie miały, lecz identyfikują się z polską kulturą lub historią49.\nZ kolei termin „Polonia” ma charakter bardziej tradycyjny i potoczny w użyciu. W polskim dyskursie politycznym i społecznym odnosi się on najczęściej do osób polskiego pochodzenia mieszkających na stałe poza granicami kraju, niezależnie od posiadanego obywatelstwa. „Polonia” bywa niekiedy utożsamiana z „diasporą”, jednak z reguły posiada silniejsze konotacje kulturowo-historyczne, np.\nw kontekście utrzymania tradycji, języka i tożsamości narodowej. Termin ten bywa problematyczny, ponieważ nie zawsze obejmuje nowe fale emigracyjne po 1989 roku, których przedstawiciele często nie identyfikują się z tą kategorią pojęciową50.\nPojęcie „Polacy za granicą” odnosi się przede wszystkim do osób formalnie posiadających obywatelstwo polskie, lecz przebywających na stałe bądź czasowo poza granicami kraju. Jest to termin o charakterze administracyjno-prawnym, stosowany m.in. w dokumentach MSZ czy Senatu RP. Nie obejmuje on jednak osób polskiego pochodzenia, które utraciły obywatelstwo polskie lub nigdy go nie posiadały51.\n47 P. Goldstein, Y. Matras, Language as a diasporic stance: Polish in a migrant urban space, „Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies” t. 51 nr 5 (2025), DOI: 10.1080/1369183X.2024.2368846.\n48 W. Safran, Diasporas in Modern Societies...\n49 R. Prieto-Curiel et al., The diaspora model for human migration, „PNAS Nexus” t. 3 nr 5\n(2024), DOI: 10.1093/pnasnexus/pgae178.\n50 P. Goldstein, Y. Matras, Language as a diasporic stance...\n51 J. Brzozowski, Studia Migracyjne – Przegląd Polonijny: nowy rozdział, „Studia Migracyjne\n– Przegląd Polonijny” t. 49 nr 1 (187) (2023), DOI: 10.4467/25444972SMPP.23.004.17683;\nO. Czeranowska, I. Grabowska, I. Wermińska-Wiśnicka, Beyond Initial Boundaries: Two\nDecades of Polish Young Adult Migrants’ Labour Market Positionalities in the UK Post-EU\nEnlargement, „Studia Migracyjne – Przegląd Polonijny” t. 51, nr 2 (196) (2025), s. 57–78.\nDOI: 10.4467/25444972SMPP.24.025.20741.\n\nOstatni z omawianych terminów – „emigracja” – ma przede wszystkim wymiar czasowy i socjologiczny52. Odnosi się do procesu opuszczania kraju zamieszkania w celu osiedlenia się w innym państwie. W polskim kontekście wyróżnia się kilka fal emigracji: polityczną (po powstaniach XIX w., po II wojnie światowej), zarobkową (głównie w okresie PRL i po 2004 roku), a także przymusową (np. deportacje do ZSRR). Każda z tych fal wytworzyła odmienny model organizacji życia na obczyźnie, relacji z krajem ojczystym oraz rozumienia tożsamości narodowej.\nPrognozy zmian w statusie migracyjnym Polski – od kraju emigrującego do potencjalnego kraju imigracji – przedstawia Agnieszka Fihel, ukazując przesunięcia zachodzące w dynamice procesów migracyjnych53.\nSpór terminologiczny ma nie tylko wymiar semantyczny, lecz także praktyczny. W zależności od przyjętej definicji różnią się zasady dostępu do pomocy konsularnej, programów edukacyjnych, i repatriacyjnych, a także zakres głosu politycznego w sprawach krajowych. Próby uporządkowania tej terminologii podejmowano zarówno w środowisku akademickim, jak i w instytucjach państwowych, jednak dotychczas nie osiągnięto pełnego konsensusu. Część badaczy postuluje przyjęcie szerszego, inkluzywnego podejścia, uwzględniającego różnorodność doświadczeń i form przynależności do wspólnoty narodowej. Różnorodność pojęciowa – obejmująca kategorie takie jak emigranci polityczni, zarobkowi, przymusowi czy repatrianci – wpływa na regulacje prawne i status migracyjny. Jak podkreśla Elaine Lynn-Ee Ho, precyzja terminologii warunkuje kształt polityk obywatelskich oraz zakres dostępu do instytucjonalnego wsparcia54.\nPróby definicji ustawowej i instytucjonalnej\nPojęcie „Polonia” ma korzenie etymologiczne w języku łacińskim – słowo „Polonia” oznacza „Polskę”, a w polskich realiach przyjęło funkcję określenia zbiorowości Polaków żyjących poza granicami kraju. W węższym znaczeniu termin ten odnosi się do osób urodzonych poza Polską, które odczuwają więź z polskim pochodzeniem i kulturą, a także tworzą silne wspólnoty w krajach takich jak USA, Kanada, Francja czy Brazylia. W szerszym ujęciu mówi się natomiast\n52 O. Czeranowska, I. Grabowska, I. Wermińska-Wiśnicka, Beyond Initial Boundaries...\n53 A. Fihel, A. Janicka, M. Okólski, Predicting a Migration Transition in Poland and Its Implications for Population Ageing, „Central and Eastern European Migration Review” 2023, Vol.\n12, nr 1, s. 31–52, DOI: 10.54667/ceemr.2023.15, http://ceemr.uw.edu.pl/vol-12-no-1-2023/ special-series/predicting-migration-transition-poland-and-its-implications.\n54 E.L.-E. Ho, M. Hickey, B.S. Yeoh, Special issue introduction: New research directions and critical perspectives on diaspora strategies, t. 59, Elsevier 2015, DOI: 10.1016/j.geoforum.2014.12.001.\n\no diasporze polskiej – zbiorowości obejmującej wszystkich Polaków oraz osoby polskiego pochodzenia mieszkające poza granicami kraju.\nPróby ustawowego i instytucjonalnego zdefiniowania pojęć „Polonia”,\n„Polacy za granicą” oraz „diaspora” stanowią kluczowy element dyskursu politologicznego i badań nad stosunkami międzynarodowymi, odzwierciedlając ewolucję polskiej polityki zagranicznej po 1989 roku. W kontekście transformacji ustrojowej Polski definicje te ewoluowały od interpretacji emocjonalno-\n-historycznych interpretacji do bardziej pragmatycznych i instytucjonalnych ujęć, które obejmują zarówno aspekty kulturowe, jak i ekonomiczne. Tradycyjnie termin „Polonia” odnosił się do zorganizowanych społeczności polskich emigrantów, zwłaszcza tych osiadłych w Ameryce Północnej i Europie Zachodniej, podkreślając ich rolę w zachowaniu tożsamości narodowej w obliczu zaborów i wojen. Jak zauważa Dominic A. Pacyga w swojej analizie historycznej diaspory polskiej, pojęcie „Polonia” wywodzi się z łacińskiego określenia Polski i podkreśla etniczne rozproszenie, obejmujące szacunkowo około 20 milionów osób polskiego pochodzenia żyjących poza granicami kraju, co czyni ją jedną z największych diaspor na świecie55. Definicja ta akcentuje zarówno dobrowolną, jak i wymuszoną emigrację, zbiorową pamięć o ojczyźnie i mit powrotu, co wpisuje się w klasyczne modele diaspor, takie jak żydowska czy ormiańska.\nUstawowe próby definicji zaczęły się kształtować po odzyskaniu niepodległości w 1918 roku, jednak zasadnicze zmiany nastąpiły po 1989 roku, gdy Polska zaczęła rozwijać politykę wobec diaspory jako element raison d’état. Konstytucja RP z 1997 roku w art. 6 zobowiązuje państwo do sprawowania opieki nad Polakami za granicą, co stanowi podstawę prawną instytucjonalizacji tych relacji. Dokumenty rządowe, takie jak „Rządowy program współpracy z Polonią i Polakami za granicą na lata 2015–2020”, definiują diasporę szeroko – jako kategorię obejmującą mniejszości narodowe, tzw. starą Polonię (potomków emigrantów z XIX i XX wieku), emigrację wojenną i postakcesyjną po 2004 roku.\nKategoria ta obejmuje osoby polskiego pochodzenia, posiadające obywatelstwo innych państw, ale utrzymujące więzi kulturowe i językowe z Polską. Jak pokazuje analiza Magdaleny Lesińskiej, termin „diaspora polska” zyskał popularność w literaturze akademickiej, stopniowo zastępując pojęcie „Polonii” w kontekście globalizacji. Budzi on jednak kontrowersje wśród części środowisk prawicowych i liderów organizacji polonijnych, którzy kojarzą go z religijnymi wspólnotami\n55 D.A. Pacyga, Polish Diaspora, [w:] M. Ember, C. R. Ember, I. Skoggard (red.), Encyclopedia of Diasporas, Boston, MA 2005.\n\nrozproszonymi, takimi jak diaspora żydowska56. Spory te ujawniły się podczas debaty parlamentarnej w 2015 roku, gdy MSZ zaproponowało zastąpienie terminu\n„Polonia” określeniem „diaspora polska” w dokumentach rządowych, co spotkało się z oporem ze względu na brak emocjonalno-historycznego ładunku tego pojęcia.\nInstytucjonalnie rozumienie Polonii ma charakter decyzyjny i strukturalny.\nWspółczesna definicja polskiej diaspory jest szeroka – obejmuje osoby zainteresowane Polską i zaangażowane w jej sprawy, w tym potomków obywateli\nRzeczypospolitej, niekiedy o pochodzeniu innym niż polskie. W tak szerokim ujęciu diaspora polska może liczyć nawet ponad 20 milionów osób na świecie.\nTak szerokie ujęcie sprawia, że Polonia postrzegana jest jako podmiot polityki zagranicznej i polityki polonijnej. Współpraca z nią realizowana jest przez szereg instytucji państwowych – MSZ, Ministerstwo Edukacji Narodowej (MEN),\nMinisterstwo Nauki i Szkolnictwa Wyższego (MNiSW), Ministerstwo Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego (MKiDN), a także resorty gospodarki, pracy i oświaty\n– oraz przez Senat RP, parlamentarzystów, fundacje i organizacje społeczne57.\nInstytucjonalnie polityka wobec diaspory w Polsce opiera się na rozbudowanej sieci ministerstw i organizacji pozarządowych. MSZ koordynuje te działania poprzez Departament Współpracy z Polonią i Polakami za Granicą, odpowiedzialny za zarządzanie funduszami przeznaczonymi na edukację, kulturę i repatriację. Senat RP, za pośrednictwem Komisji Emigracji i Łączności z Polakami za Granicą tradycyjnie odpowiadał za dystrybucję środków finansowych. W latach 2011–2015 model ten został przekształcony zgodnie z zasadami New Public Management, koncentrując się na efektywności, mierzalności rezultatów oraz pozyskiwaniu zobowiązań od diaspory – jak podkreślają\nWitold Nowak i Michał Nowosielski58. Ustawowa Karta Polaka, uchwalona w 2007 roku i znowelizowana w 2019, definiuje osoby polskiego pochodzenia z krajów postradzieckich, przyznając im prawo do wiz, pracy i edukacji w Polsce bez konieczności posiadania obywatelstwa. Stanowi ona kluczowe\n56 M. Lesińska, Polska diaspora, Polonia, emigracja. Spory pojęciowe wokół skupisk polskich za granicą, „Polski Przegląd Migracyjny” nr 1 (2018); M. Lesińska, Polityczna rola diaspory na przykładzie krajów Europy Środkowo-Wschodniej i obszaru postsowieckiego, „Politeja” t. 13 nr 2 (41) (2021), DOI: 10.12797/Politeja.13.2016.41.05.\n57 M. Lesińska, Polityczna rola diaspory na przykładzie krajów Europy Środkowo-Wschodniej i obszaru postsowieckiego, „Politeja” t. 13 nr 2 (41) (2021), DOI: 10.12797/Politeja.13.2016.41.05;\nM. Lesińska, I. Wróbel, Diaspora Policies, Consular Services and Social Protection for Polish\nCitizens Abroad, [w:] J.-M. Lafleur, D. Vintila (red.), Migration and Social Protection in Europe and Beyond (Volume 2), Cham 2020.\n58 M. Nowosielski, W. Nowak, Polish diaspora policy – directions of changes and fields of constants,\n„CMR Spotlight” t. 3 (2018).\n\nnarzędzie instytucjonalnej integracji diaspory wschodniej. Jak zauważa Anna\nJeglińska, Karta Polaka ewoluowała od narzędzia o charakterze kulturowym do instrumentu repatriacyjnego w okresie rządów Prawa i Sprawiedliwości\n(PiS), ułatwiając powroty i proces osiedlania się w Polsce59.\nZ punktu widzenia prawa i polityki polska definicja „Polonia i Polacy za granicą” funkcjonuje jako zrost pojęciowy, analizowany bądź jako niepełny – gdy\n„Polonia” rozumiana jest w wąskim sensie, nieobejmującym emigrantów – bądź jako pleonastyczny, gdy pojęcie to zawiera już znaczenie szerokie60. W rezultacie w dokumentach polonijnych coraz częściej stosuje się termin „Polonia” jako pojęcie nadrzędne, obejmujące liczne kategorie – od emigracji ekonomicznej i politycznej, przez dotychczasowych osadników, po nowe fale migracyjne61.\nWyzwania definicyjne ujawniają się w braku jednolitego podejścia: podczas gdy MSZ promuje pojęcie „diaspory” jako terminu inkluzywnego, obejmującego również grupy częściowo zasymilowane, środowiska konserwatywne preferują określenie „Polonia”, podkreślające emocjonalny wymiar więzi z ojczyzną. Jak zauważa Apolsky, mentalność prawna diaspor ujawnia, w jakim stopniu postawy kulturowe wpływają na procesy adaptacyjne. W przypadku\nPolski przejawia się to w wyraźnych różnicach między diasporą wschodnią – silnie etniczną i zakorzenioną we wspólnocie pochodzenia – a zachodnią, bardziej zintegrowaną i funkcjonującą w kontekście społeczeństw wielokulturowych62.\nW sensie socjologicznym diaspora stanowi społeczność, która – mimo rozproszenia geograficznego – utrzymuje relacje z „ojczyzną”, zarówno psychologiczne, jak i materialne. Zwyczaje, język, pamięć zbiorowa oraz praktyki kulturowe kształtują poczucie wspólnoty „Polonii” jako przestrzeni emocjonalnego i symbolicznego związku z Polską. Marcin Gońda analizuje te procesy na przykładzie społeczności polonijnej w Cleveland, ukazując, że negocjowanie tożsamości narodowej jest procesem złożonym, często wzmacnianym bądź osłabianym przez podziały pokoleniowe, klasowe i polityczne63.\n59 A. Jeglinska, Co-nationals under construction: Poland’s diaspora policy 1989–2023,\nUppsala 2025.\n60 A. Fiń et al. (red.), Polityka polonijna w ocenie jej wykonawców i adresatów, Poznań 2013.\n61 M. Nowosielski, W. Nowak, ‘We Are Not Just Asking What Poland Can Do for the Polish Diaspora but Mainly What the Polish Diaspora Can Do for Poland’: The Influence of New Public Management on the Polish Diaspora Policy in the Years 2011–2015, „Central and Eastern European\nMigration Review” t. 11 nr 1 (2022), DOI: 10.54667/ceemr.2022.04.\n62 E.A. Apolsky et al., Legal Mentality of Diasporas: Experience in Theoretical and Methodological Design, „Journal of Politics and Law” t. 12 nr 4 (2019), DOI: 10.5539/jpl.v12n4p99.\n63 M. Gońda, “Either we defend our polishness or there will be no Polonia”. Practices of negotiating national identity among the Polish diaspora members in Cleveland, „Acta Universitatis\n\nW kontekście stosunków międzynarodowych definicje te pełnią funkcję narzędzia soft power, wzmacniającego wpływy Polski zarówno w UE, jak i poza jej granicami. Badania nad motywacjami podejmowania studiów w Polsce wśród członków diaspory – jak w pracy poświęconej determinantom tej decyzji\n– wskazują na znaczenie czynniki czynników kulturowych i instytucjonalnych.\nPolityka edukacyjna odgrywa tu istotną rolę, przyciągając przedstawicieli diaspory poprzez system stypendiów i programów integracyjnych64. Na poziomie instytucjonalnym Narodowa Agencja Wymiany Akademickiej (NAWA) koordynuje tego rodzaju programy, podkreślając przesunięcie akcentu z opieki na partnerstwo. Spory pojęciowe, analizowane m.in. przez Cai i Stierstorfera, ukazują, w jaki sposób literatura odzwierciedla prawne i kulturowe tożsamości diaspory. W polskim przypadku przejawia się to w debatach nad Kartą Polaka, traktowaną jako instrument inkluzji i symbolicznego włączenia do wspólnoty narodowej65. Ostatecznie działania te odzwierciedlają napięcie między inkluzją a ekskluzją, w którym definicje ustawowe stają się narzędziem budowania spójnej narracji narodowej w coraz bardziej zglobalizowanym świecie.\nW debatach naukowych termin „diaspora” zyskuje przewagę pojęciami\n„Polonia” i „emigracja”, ponieważ postrzegany jest jako nowoczesny, neutralny i bardziej inkluzywny – zwłaszcza w kontekście dokumentów MSZ i polityki zagranicznej państwa66. Jak wspomniano na wstępie, sam termin pierwotnie odnosił się do diaspor narodowych pozbawionych własnego państwa, takich jak żydowska czy ormiańska. Zastosowanie go wobec Polonii początkowo wywołało dyskusje, jednak obecnie coraz częściej pojawia się on w oficjalnych przekładach i dokumentach instytucjonalnych67.\nPodsumowując, definicje Polonii – zarówno ustawowe, jak i instytucjonalne – obejmują szerokie spektrum osób związanych z Polską poprzez pochodzenie, sentyment, działalność lub zainteresowanie, przekraczając tradycyjne podziały na emigrację polityczną i ekonomiczną. Polska polityka wobec Polonii\nLodziensis. Folia Sociologica” nr 76 (2021), DOI: 10.18778/0208-600X.76.04.\n64 K. Wais, O. Iefremova, Determinants of willingness to study in Poland among members of Polish Diaspora, „International Journal of Educational Development” t. 59 (2018),\nDOI: 10.1016/j.ijedudev.2017.09.011.\n65 A. Capri, Techno-nationalism: The US-China tech innovation race, „Hinrich Foundation” t. 18 (2020). https://www.hinrichfoundation.com/research/wp/technology/techno-nationalism/, dostęp: 3 listopada 2025.\n66 M. Lesińska, Polska diaspora, Polonia, emigracja. Spory pojęciowe wokół skupisk polskich za granicą, „Polski Przegląd Migracyjny” nr 1 (2018).\n67 P. Falkowski, Diaspora czy Polonia, „PORTAL IAP – Polska”, https://iap.pl/wiadomosci/diaspora-czy-polonia,73568e, 2014 r., dostęp 26 sierpnia 2025 r.\n\newoluuje w kierunku modelu partnerskiego, lecz zarazem pragmatycznego, w którym diaspora postrzegana jest jako strategiczny zasób państwa.\nZłożoność praktyki i funkcji państwowych wobec diaspory\nZłożoność praktyki i funkcji państwa wobec diaspory polskiej ujawnia się przede wszystkim w trudnościach w prowadzeniu spójnej polityki, wynikających z głębokiej różnorodności społecznej, prawnej i obywatelskiej tej grupy.\nPolonia i Polacy za granicą tworzą quasi-jurysdykcyjną wspólnotę, obejmującą emigrantów ekonomicznych i politycznych, potomków przesiedleńców z Kresów, mniejszości narodowe oraz nowe fale migracyjne po 2004 roku, co generuje wyzwania w budowaniu jednolitego modelu relacji państwa z tymi grupami.\nTaka pluralistyczna struktura utrudnia kształtowanie spójnej i efektywnej polityki diasporalnej. Państwo polskie, mimo rozbudowanej infrastruktury instytucjonalnej, często boryka się z fragmentacją działań i brakiem dostosowania do lokalnych realiów. Istotnym źródłem podziałów pozostają różnice terytorialne: potrzeby Polonii w USA czy Argentynie, gdzie kluczowe są kwestie zachowania dziedzictwa kulturowego w warunkach stabilnej integracji, znacząco różnią się od sytuacji na Białorusi, Litwie czy Ukrainie, gdzie przetrwanie języka, kultury i praw edukacyjnych uzależnione jest od wrażliwych uwarunkowań politycznych i granicznych.\nDiaspora zachodnia, oparta na silnych i wielopokoleniowych wspólnotach w Ameryce Północnej, oczekuje przede wszystkim autonomii i symbolicznego wsparcia, podczas gdy diaspora wschodnia, ukształtowana przez powojenne przesiedlenia i postsowieckie realia, wymaga bardziej aktywnej interwencji państwa w obliczu dyskryminacji obywatelskiej i tożsamościowej. Na przykład na Ukrainie i Białorusi kwestie prawne i edukacyjne pozostają szczególnie wrażliwe, a działania polskiego państwa często ograniczają względy dyplomatyczne, co prowadzi do opóźnień i poczucia frustracji wśród beneficjentów68.\nW ramach administracji państwowej Polska wykształciła względnie rozbudowaną strukturę instytucjonalną, obejmującą MSZ, Senat RP, konsulaty oraz system grantów dla organizacji polonijnych. Model ten jednak często okazuje się nadmiernie zbiurokratyzowany i mało elastyczny wobec dynamicznych zmian demograficznych i migracyjnych. Rząd odpowiada na potrzeby diaspory poprzez programy edukacyjne, wsparcie socjalne i inicjatywy symboliczno-obywatelskie, takie jak Karta Polaka. Dostępność tych narzędzi i sposób ich realizacji różnią się\n68 M. Lesińska, I. Wróbel, Diaspora Policies, Consular Services and Social Protection for Polish\nCitizens Abroad...\n\njednak w zależności od grup. Diaspora w krajach globalnej Północy – takich jak\nUSA czy Kanada – współpracuje z państwem na zasadach partnerskich, podczas gdy w państwach postsowieckich napotyka na liczne bariery administracyjne i polityczne69.\nPolityka diasporyczna skłania się ku podejściu segmentacyjnemu, w ramach którego poszczególne grupy są traktowane zróżnicowanie pod względem „zasług”, zależnych od ich zasobów ekonomicznych, kulturowych oraz stopnia utrzymywanych relacji z Polską, co odzwierciedla ewolucję od symbolicznej opieki do praktycznego zaangażowania70.\nInstytucjonalna reakcja państwa coraz częściej opiera się na modelu nowego zarządzania publicznego (New Public Management, NPM), który wprowadza elementy konkurencyjności, efektywności kosztowej i projektowego charakteru wsparcia. Model ten zwiększa przejrzystość działań, ale jednocześnie wyklucza słabsze organizacyjnie środowiska polonijne. Przesunięcie od macierzyńskiej roli państwa ku modelowi, w którym od diaspory oczekuje się wkładu ekonomicznego działań lobbystycznych, ujawniło nowe napięcia i ograniczyło spójność podejścia wobec Polaków za granicą71.\nModel „narodowej karty”, na przykład Karty Polaka, formalnie uprzywilejowuje Polaków na Litwie i Ukrainie, oferując im prawo do wiz, pracy i edukacji, jednak jego wdrożenie napotyka na przeszkody polityczne, językowe i administracyjne, prowadząc do nierówności w dostępie72. W rezultacie część społeczności polonijnych domaga się większej autonomii i samoreprezentacji, zwłaszcza w regionach o silnie zakorzenionej polskości, podczas gdy inne grupy – szczególnie w diasporach migracyjnych Europy Zachodniej i Ameryki – akceptują integrację ze strukturami państwowymi. Ten fragmentaryczny model aktywności państwa rodzi paradoks: polityka diasporyczna, choć rozbudowana instytucjonalnie i oparta na bogatej infrastrukturze, pozostaje niespójna i nie nadąża za ewoluującymi potrzebami rozproszonych wspólnot.\n69 A. Popyk, M. Lesińska, K. Dambrauskas, The evolution of post-accession diasporas and diaspora policies after 2004: a comparative analysis of Poland and Lithuania, „Journal of Baltic Studies” t. 55 nr 1 (2024), DOI: 10.1080/01629778.2023.2180043.\n70 A. Jeglinska, Co-nationals under construction...\n71 A. Gruszczak, The Problem of Otherness: Poland’s Immigration Policy and the Virtues of\nParochialism, „Studia Europejskie – Studies in European Affairs” t. 26 nr 2 (2022), DOI:\n10.33067/SE.2.2022.7.\n72 M. Gońda, M. Nowosielski, I. Jóźwiak, Between international academic relations and diaspora policy: rethinking the role of Polish studies abroad, „Globalisation, Societies and\nEducation” t. 23 nr 4 (2025), DOI: 10.1080/14767724.2023.2242277.\n\nRóżne regiony wymagają odmiennych narzędzi – Stany Zjednoczone potrzebują wsparcia kulturo-językowego, natomiast Wschód rozwiązań obywatelsko-prawnych. Państwo jednak wciąż preferuje jednolite, centralnie projektowane programy, które nie uwzględniają tej różnorodności, co zamiast scalać, często pogłębia podziały między regionami, pokoleniami, typami migracji i statusem obywatelskim. Opanowanie tej dynamiki wymaga elastycznych, lokalnie dostosowanych instrumentów, które respektowałyby specyfikę poszczególnych diaspor, ich wewnętrzną różnorodność oraz stopień instytucjonalizacji, co stanowi jedno z kluczowych wyzwań współczesnej polityki polonijnej.\nZłożoność praktyki ujawnia się w wielowarstwowych relacjach między polskimi instytucjami a zróżnicowanymi społecznościami polonijnymi, gdzie założenia strategiczne zderzają się z praktycznymi wyzwaniami lokalnych kontekstów. Pomimo rozbudowanej sieci instytucji i programów wspierających\nPolonię, zróżnicowanie sytuacji prawnej, obywatelskiej i społecznej osób polskiego pochodzenia utrudnia prowadzenie spójnej polityki wobec diaspory.\nCzęść środowisk polonijnych postuluje większą autonomię, inne natomiast dążą do silniejszego włączenia w struktury państwowe – jak w przypadku Polaków na Litwie i Ukrainie, gdzie dominują kwestie mniejszości narodowych. Problemem pozostaje brak jednolitego podejścia regionalnego – potrzeby Polonii w USA i Argentynie, skoncentrowane na zachowaniu dziedzictwa kulturowego, znacząco różnią się od sytuacji na Białorusi i w Niemczech, gdzie kluczowe są kwestie podwójnego obywatelstwa, integracji oraz ochrony przed dyskryminacją.\nInstytucjonalna reakcja państwa często pozostaje spóźniona, niedostosowana do lokalnych realiów lub nadmiernie zbiurokratyzowana, co w konsekwencji prowadzi do frustracji wśród beneficjentów.\nNa przykład w przypadku diaspory wschodniej państwo musi balansować między wsparciem kulturowym a unikaniem konfliktów dyplomatycznych z państwami-gospodarzami, co komplikuje realizację funkcji ochronnych i promocyjnych. Zmiany instytucjonalne z lat 2011–2015, inspirowane modelem NPM, przesunęły akcent z tradycyjnej opieki na efektywność i wzajemne zobowiązania, spotykając się z oporem ze strony diaspory, która postrzegała to jako ograniczenie swojej autonomii73. Złożoność ta przejawia się w dualizmie ról państwa: opiekuna tożsamości narodowej oraz aktora oczekującego od diaspory wkładu ekonomicznego – np. poprzez inwestycje lub działania lobbystyczne. Funkcje państwa ewoluowały od pasywnej opieki do aktywnego\n73 P. Trzeszczyńska, G. Demel, From differences to relations: Towards diaspora‐forming processes, „International Migration” t. 63 nr 1 (2025), DOI: 10.1111/imig.13361.\n\nzaangażowania, jednak wyzwania wynikają z fragmentacji aparatu administracyjnego. MSZ, Senat i organizacje takie jak Stowarzyszenie „Wspólnota\nPolska” pełnią kluczowe role, lecz ich koordynacja pozostaje nieefektywna – co podkreśla literatura opisująca tzw. leadership struggles w polityce wobec diaspory. W przypadku Polaków na Wschodzie działania obejmują programy repatriacyjne i edukacyjne, jednak nadmierna biurokracja spowalnia ich realizację, prowadząc do marginalizacji beneficjentów. Z kolei w krajach zachodnich polityka skupia się na promocji kultury i narzędziach soft power, jednak brak dostosowania do postępującej asymilacji młodszych pokoleń osłabia jej skuteczność74.\nGlobalizacja potęguje tę złożoność, tworząc po 2004 roku mobilną diasporę, która wymaga elastycznych instytucji, nie zawsze nadążających za transnarodową dynamiką. Praktyki instytucjonalne ujawniają napięcia między centralizacją a decentralizacją. Po 1989 roku polityka wobec diaspory stała się integralnym elementem stosunków międzynarodowych, jednak brak jednolitej definicji utrudnia realizację funkcji ochronnych. Karta Polaka służy integracji wschodniej diaspory, jednak bywa krytykowana za nadmierne bariery biurokratyczne, które prowadzą do nierówności w dostępie do praw i przywilejów75.\nW Niemczech instytucje polskie z powodzeniem funkcjonują w kontekście podwójnego obywatelstwa, jednak ich działania bywają postrzegane jako forma ingerencji. Złożoność ta wynika z odmiennych uwarunkowań kulturowych: diaspora zachodnia oczekuje większej autonomii, podczas gdy diaspora wschodnia – silniejszego wsparcia w obliczu dyskryminacji. Różnice regionalne uwidaczniają brak dostosowania działań: w Argentynie i USA praktyki koncentrują się na zachowaniu dziedzictwa kulturowego, lecz bywają krytykowane za niedostateczne zrozumienie znaczenia lobbingu. Z kolei na Białorusi i Ukrainie kluczowe pozostają funkcje ochronne, jednak spóźnione reakcje na kryzysy osłabiają zaufanie do instytucji polskich. Ta niejednolitość wymaga bardziej zdecentralizowanych instytucji, co jednak pozostaje w sprzeczności z centralistyczną tradycją polskiego państwa. Nadmierna biurokratyzacja obciąża programy grantowe MSZ i Senatu, co zniechęca część środowisk polonijnych do aktywnego udziału w projektach. Rola studiów polskich za granicą pozostaje niedoceniana, co dodatkowo komplikuje realizację funkcji edukacyjnych\n74 E. Nowosielska, Changing faces of the Polish diaspora in the United Kingdom, [w:]\nP. Romanowski, A. Seretny (red.), Polish as a heritage language around the world: selected diaspora communities,Routledge, London 2025.\n75 A. Grzymala-Kazlowska, Superdiversity and Its Relevance for Central and Eastern European\nMigration Studies. The Case of Polish Migrants in the UK, „Central and Eastern European\nMigration Review” t. 8 nr 2 (2019), DOI: 10.17467/ceemr.2019.16.\n\ni kulturowych państwa. W praktyce funkcje państwa obejmują nie tylko wsparcie, lecz także wykorzystanie diaspory jako zasobu w stosunkach międzynarodowych\n– np. poprzez działania lobbystyczne w strukturach w UE. Pandemia COVID-\n19 ujawniła słabości systemu pomocy konsularnej oraz ograniczoną zdolność instytucji do reagowania w sytuacjach kryzysowych. Ostatecznie ta złożoność wskazuje na potrzebę reform, które pozwolą lepiej uwzględniać różnorodność diaspory; funkcje instytucjonalne muszą stać się bardziej elastyczne, aby skutecznie odpowiadać na zróżnicowane potrzeby wspólnot polonijnych. Badania dotyczące polskiej diaspory w Wielkiej Brytanii wskazują na głębokie zmiany po Brexicie, które komplikują proces integracji społecznej i obywatelskiej. Argumenty za koncepcją superdiversity podkreślają konieczność dostosowania polityki państwa do złożonych i wielopoziomowych kontekstów funkcjonowania polskiej diaspory. Perspektywy te wskazują, że funkcje państwa powinny ewoluować od reaktywnych do proaktywnych, aby sprostać wyzwaniom globalnej mobilności i transnarodowej współzależności.\n1.2. Uwarunkowania powstawania i funkcjonowania diaspor\n1.2.1. Przyczyny migracji i genezy diaspor\nMigracje ludności, stanowiące fundament kształtowania się diaspor, wynikają ze złożonych czynników politycznych, ekonomicznych, klimatycznych i edukacyjnych, które determinują zarówno kierunki przepływu ludności, jak i charakter powstających społeczności76. Diaspora, rozumiana jako rozproszona wspólnota utrzymująca więzi z krajem pochodzenia, kształtuje się w odpowiedzi na te uwarunkowania, determinujące jej strukturę, tożsamość i dynamikę77.\nCzynniki polityczne odgrywają kluczową rolę w migracjach przymusowych.\nWojny, konflikty zbrojne i prześladowania polityczne, etniczne i religijne zmuszają ludzi do opuszczenia ojczyzny, prowadząc do powstawania diaspor naznaczonych doświadczeniem traumy78. Na przykład konflikt w Syrii, trwający od 2011 roku, spowodował masowy exodus ludności i powstanie licznych diaspor w Europie i na\n76 H. de Haas, A Theory of Migration: The Aspirations–Capabilities Framework, „Comparative Migration Studies” t. 9 nr 1 (2021), art. 8. DOI: 10.1186/s40878-020-00210-4.\n77 R. Cohen, Global diasporas: an introduction, London New York 2023.\n78 E.P. Kraly et al., Social Consequences of Forced and Refugee Migration, „Annual Review of Sociology” t. 49 nr 1 (2023), DOI: 10.1146/annurev-soc-090221-040023.\n\nBliskim Wschodzie79. Prześladowania mniejszości, takich jak Rohingya w Mjanmie, wzmacniają poczucie solidarności w diasporach, co sprzyja ich trwaniu mimo rozproszenia80. Migracje motywowane czynnikami politycznymi mają zazwyczaj charakter przymusowy, co odróżnia je od dobrowolnych ruchów i wpływa na poczucie wykorzenienia81.\nCzynniki ekonomiczne odgrywają równie istotną rolę, zwłaszcza w kontekście globalnych nierówności społeczno-gospodarczych. Ubóstwo, bezrobocie i brak perspektyw rozwoju w krajach rozwijających się skłaniają ludzi do migracji w poszukiwaniu lepszych warunków życia82. Migranci z Ameryki Łacińskiej, zwłaszcza z Meksyku, kierują się do USA, tworząc diaspory latynoamerykańskie skoncentrowane w sektorach niskopłatnych83. Globalizacja pogłębia te dysproporcje, ułatwiając przepływ kapitału, lecz jednocześnie ograniczając mobilność pracy, co sprzyja zjawisku migracji nielegalnych oraz powstawaniu diaspor funkcjonujących w szarej strefie gospodarki84. Choć migracje ekonomiczne mają zazwyczaj charakter dobrowolny, w wielu przypadkach stają się przymusowe, gdy alternatywą pozostaje skrajne ubóstwo.\nZmiany klimatyczne stają się coraz ważniejszym czynnikiem wpływającym na migracje. Susze, powodzie i podnoszenie się poziomu mórz zmuszają społeczności do opuszczenia domów, zwłaszcza w regionach takich jak Bangladesz85. Według prognoz do 2050 roku liczba migrantów klimatycznych może sięgnąć 200 milionów86. Migracje te, często przymusowe, prowadzą do powstawania diaspor, które muszą przystosowywać się do nowych warunków, jednocześnie tracąc tradycyjne\n79 I. Abubakar et al., The UCL–Lancet Commission on Migration and Health: the health of a world on the move, „The Lancet” t. 392 nr 10164 (2018), DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(18)32114-7.\n80 F.B. Adamson, E.A. Chung, J.F. Hollifield, Rethinking the migration state: historicising, decolonising, and disaggregating, „Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies” t. 50 nr 3\n(2024), DOI: 10.1080/1369183X.2023.2269769.\n81 J. Chamie, International Migration amid a World in Crisis, „Journal on Migration and\nHuman Security” t. 8 nr 3 (2020), DOI: 10.1177/2331502420948796.\n82 H. De Haas, A theory of migration: the aspirations-capabilities framework, „Comparative\nMigration Studies” t. 9 nr 1 (2021).\n83 A.R. Aregbeshola, I.A. Adekunle, Demystifying colonialism and migration: An African perspective, „Research in Globalization” t. 9 (2024), DOI: 10.1016/j.resglo.2024.100262.\n84 A. Triandafyllidou, The political discourse on immigration in southern Europe: a critical analysis, „Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology” t. 10 nr 5 (2000), DOI:\n10.1002/1099-1298(200009/10)10:5%3C373::AID-CASP595%3E3.0.CO;2-R.\n85 D. Silchenko, U. Murray, Migration and Climate Change – The Role of Social Protection,\n„Climate Risk Management” t. 39 (2023), art. 100472. DOI: 10.1016/j.crm.2022.100472.\n86 I. Abubakar et al., The UCL–Lancet Commission on Migration and Health: The Health of a World on the Move...\n\nźródła utrzymania. Połączenie czynników klimatycznych i ekonomicznych prowadzi do powstawania złożonych wzorców migracyjnych87.\nCzynniki edukacyjne napędzają dobrowolne migracje, zwłaszcza wśród młodych ludzi z krajów rozwijających się, poszukujących lepszej edukacji w ośrodkach akademickich Zachodu88. Na przykład diaspora indyjska w Dolinie Krzemowej częściowo wywodzi się z migracji studentów, którzy pozostali za granicą ze względu na korzystniejsze perspektywy zawodowe89. Tzw. drenaż mózgów może utrudniać powrót, przekształcając dobrowolne migracje w formy przymusowe90. Diaspory edukacyjne wzmacniają globalną mobilność kapitału ludzkiego, ale jednocześnie stanowią wyzwanie dla krajów pochodzenia.\nPrzymusowość i dobrowolność stanowią kluczowe rozróżnienie w genezie diaspor. Migracje przymusowe, wynikające z wojen lub katastrof, tworzą diaspory o silnym poczuciu wykorzenienia, często funkcjonujące w statusie uchodźców91.\nMigracje dobrowolne, motywowane względami ekonomicznymi lub edukacyjnymi, sprzyjają większej sprawczości i hybrydyzacji tożsamości92. Jednak granica między tymi kategoriami pozostaje płynna, ponieważ przymusy ekonomiczne czy klimatyczne mogą być równie silne jak polityczne93.\nPodsumowując, przyczyny migracji – polityczne, ekonomiczne, klimatyczne i edukacyjne – są ze sobą powiązane i wspólnie kształtują genezę diaspor jako dynamicznych społeczności. W dobie globalizacji zrozumienie tych uwarunkowań jest kluczowe dla kształtowania polityk migracyjnych, które uwzględniają zarówno przymusowość, jak i dobrowolność.\n1.2.2. Mechanizmy trwania i rekonfiguracji diaspor\nDiaspory to dynamiczne społeczności, których trwanie i przekształcanie się zależy od mechanizmów podtrzymywania więzi etnicznych, językowych i kulturowych, a także od wpływu państw pochodzenia i przyjmujących94. Procesy\n87 D. Silchenko, U. Murray, Migration and Climate Change – The Role of Social Protection...\n88 A. Bamberger et al., Diaspora, Internationalization and Higher Education, „British Journal of Educational Studies” t. 69 nr 5 (2021), s. 603–621, DOI: 10.1080/00071005.2021.1966282.\n89 Ibid.\n90 H. de Haas, A Theory of Migration: The Aspirations–Capabilities Framework...\n91 E.P. Kraly et al., Social Consequences of Forced and Refugee Migration...\n92 F.B. Adamson, E.A. Chung, J.F. Hollifield, Rethinking the Migration State: Historicising,\nDecolonising, and Disaggregating...\n93 J. Chamie, International Migration amid a World in Crisis...\n94 J. Story, I. Walker, The Impact of Diasporas: Markers of Identity, „Ethnic and Racial\nStudies” t. 39 nr 2 (2016), s. 274–279, DOI: 10.1080/01419870.2016.1105999.\n\nte umożliwiają diasporom przetrwanie w rozproszeniu, przy jednoczesnej adaptacji do nowych realiów i współtworzeniu globalnych relacji95.\nWięzi etniczne stanowią fundament trwałości diaspor. Za pośrednictwem stowarzyszeń, organizacji imigranckich i sieci rodzinnych członkowie diaspor pielęgnują poczucie przynależności96. Przykładem jest diaspora żydowska, która dzięki synagogom i edukacji zachowuje solidarność etniczną mimo historycznych wyzwań97. Diaspora afrykańska w Europie tworzy sieci wsparcia, przeciwdziałając marginalizacji98. Rekonfiguracja następuje, gdy nowe pokolenia kształtują hybrydowe tożsamości, łącząc elementy pochodzenia z kulturą kraju przyjmującego, jak w przypadku Turków w Niemczech99.\nWięzi językowe odgrywają kluczową rolę w umacnianiu tożsamości diaspory. Język ojczysty, jako nośnik tradycji, jest pielęgnowany przez szkoły sobotnie i media etniczne, co przeciwdziała asymilacji100. Na przykład diaspora chińska w USA podtrzymuje znajomość języka mandaryńskiego, co wzmacnia spójność społeczności101. Rekonfiguracja językowa zachodzi, gdy powstają hybrydy, takie jak „Spanglish” w diasporze latynoskiej, odzwierciedlające wpływy otoczenia102. Państwa pochodzenia wspierają te więzi poprzez programy językowe, wzmacniając poczucie lojalności wobec kraju ojczystego103.\nMechanizmy kulturowe obejmują praktyki religijne, kuchnię i sztukę.\nDiaspora indyjska w Wielkiej Brytanii pielęgnuje kulturę poprzez Bollywood i festiwal Diwali, budując więzi społeczne104. Rekonfiguracja kulturowa zachodzi w odpowiedzi na globalizację, tworząc transkulturowe hybrydy łączące\n95 A. Gamlen, Diaspora Institutions and Diaspora Governance, „International Migration\nReview” t. 48 (2014), s. 180–217, DOI: 10.1111/imre.12136.\n96 S. Bhatia, A. Ram, Theorizing Identity in Transnational and Diaspora Cultures: A Critical\nApproach to Acculturation, „International Journal of Intercultural Relations” t. 33 nr 2\n(2009) s. 140–149, DOI: 10.1016/j.ijintrel.2008.12.009.\n97 R. Cohen, Global diasporas...\n98 M. Georgiou, Identity, Space and the Media: Thinking through Diaspora, „Revue européenne des migrations internationales” t. 26, nr 1(2010), s. 17–35, DOI: 10.4000/remi.5028.\n99 S. Bhatia, A. Ram, Theorizing Identity in Transnational and Diaspora Cultures: A Critical\nApproach to Acculturation...\n100 N.J. Albury, A.A. Schluter, Introduction: Reimagining Language and Belonging in the\nDiaspora, „Lingua” t. 263 (2021), art. 103157, DOI: 10.1016/j.lingua.2021.103157.\n101 S. Bhatia, A. Ram, Theorizing Identity in Transnational and Diaspora Cultures: A Critical\nApproach to Acculturation...\n102 N.J. Albury, A.A. Schluter, Introduction: Reimagining Language and Belonging in the\nDiaspora...\n103 A. Gamlen, Diaspora Institutions and Diaspora Governance...\n104 E. Loreng, Introduction, [w:] Diaspora and Soft Power, Cham 2025; J. Story, I. Walker,\nThe Impact of Diasporas: Markers of Identity...\n\nelementy lokalne i te wynikające z kultury pochodzenia105. Podobnie, chińska diaspora w krajach takich jak USA i Australia obchodzi Chiński Nowy Rok, organizując parady i wspólne posiłki, co wzmacnia tożsamość społeczności106.\nMeksykańska diaspora w USA podtrzymuje tradycje poprzez obchody Día de los Muertos, łączące lokalne elementy i tworzące przestrzenie wspólnotowe107.\nRekonfiguracja kulturowa zachodzi w odpowiedzi na globalizację, tworząc transkulturowe hybrydy łączące elementy lokalne i te wynikające z kultury pochodzenia108. Może to jednak prowadzić do konfliktów pokoleniowych, gdy młodsze generacje odchodzą od tradycyjnych praktyk109.\nRola państw pochodzenia jest kluczowa dla trwałości diaspor. Kraje takie jak Indie i Turcja wspierają diaspory poprzez politykę podwójnego obywatelstwa oraz programy inwestycyjne, traktując je jako zasób ekonomiczny i polityczny110.\nNa przykład turecki rząd, za pośrednictwem organizacji Diyanet, wzmacnia więzi religijne i kulturowe w Europie111. Meksyk promuje programy remigracyjne i inwestycyjne, takie jak „3x1”, wspierające rozwój lokalny za pośrednictwem diaspory112.\nChiny angażują swoją diasporę poprzez inicjatywy gospodarcze, takie jak Belt and Road, wzmacniając więzi ekonomiczne113. Izrael wspiera diasporę żydowską poprzez programy repatriacyjne, takie jak „Law of Return”114. Rekonfiguracja diaspor pod wpływem tych polityk zwiększa ich transnarodową mobilność115.\n105 H. Naficy, An Accented Cinema: Exilic and Diasporic Filmmaking, Princeton University\nPress 2001.\n106 N.N. Yu et al., Exploring Community Festivals in the Context of the Chinese Diaspora, „Event\nManagement” t. 26 nr 4 (2022), s. 421–440, DOI: 10.3727/152599521X16288665119585;\nZ. Zhao et al., The Influence of Cultural Ties on China’s Population Flow Networks, „Cities” t. 151 (2024), art. 105116, DOI: 10.1016/j.cities.2024.105116.\n107 R.M. Marchi, Day of the Dead in the USA: The Migration and Transformation of a Cultural Phenomenon, Rutgers University Press 2022.\n108 H. Naficy, An Accented Cinema: Exilic and Diasporic Filmmaking...\n109 S. Bhatia, Acculturation, Dialogical Voices and the Construction of the Diasporic Self,\n„Theory & Psychology” t. 12 nr 1 (2002), DOI: 10.1177/0959354302121004.\n110 A. Gamlen, Diaspora Institutions and Diaspora Governance...\n111 A.E. Öztürk, Transformation of the Turkish Diyanet both at Home and Abroad: Three\nStages, „European journal of Turkish studies” nr 27 (2018), DOI: 10.4000/ejts.5944, http://journals.openedition.org/ejts/5944.\n112 Y. Kijima, H. Gonzalez-Ramirez, Has the Program 3×1 for Migrants Contributed to Community Development in Mexico? Evidence from Panel Data of 2000 and 2005, „Review of\nDevelopment Economics” t. 16, nr 2 (2012), DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-9361.2012.00662.x.\n113 H. Liu, E. Van Dongen, China’s Diaspora Policies as a New Mode of Transnational Governance,\n„Journal of Contemporary China” t. 25 nr 102 (2016), DOI: 10.1080/10670564.2016.1184894.\n114 N. Cohen, Diaspora Strategies: Actors, Members, and Spaces, „Geography Compass” t. 11 nr 3 (2017), DOI: 10.1111/gec3.12308.\n115 A. Gamlen, Diaspora Institutions and Diaspora Governance...\n\nPaństwa przyjmujące kształtują diaspory poprzez politykę integracyjną.\nKraje promujące wielokulturowość, takie jak Kanada, ułatwiają zachowanie tożsamości, podczas gdy modele asymilacyjne, jak we Francji, mogą je osłabiać116. Przeciwdziałanie dyskryminacji w krajach przyjmujących wspiera integrację bez utraty tożsamości. W erze cyfrowej media społecznościowe wzmacniają te mechanizmy, umożliwiając podtrzymywanie wirtualnych więzi117.\nPodsumowując, trwanie i przekształcanie się diaspor opierają się na więziach etnicznych, językowych i kulturowych, kształtowanych przez polityki państw. Diaspory pozostają elastyczne, dostosowując się do zmian i współkształtując globalne relacje118.\n1.3. Diaspora jako zjawisko historyczne i współczesne\nDiaspora, jako niematerialna wspólnota ludzi rozproszonych geograficznie, lecz połączonych wspólną etniczną, religijną lub kulturową tożsamością, ma korzenie sięgające starożytności. Trzy klasyczne przypadki diaspory – żydowska, ormiańska i grecka – stanowią modele trwałego rozproszenia, które mimo licznych trudności zachowały tożsamość narodową przez stulecia.\n1.3.1. Diaspory w historii: Żydzi, Ormianie, Grecy\nDiaspora żydowska stanowi najstarszy i najtrwalszy przykład – jej początki sięgają okresu hellenistycznego i rzymskiego, kiedy Żydzi osiedlali się w prowincjach imperium, takich jak Egipt, Cyrenaika, Azja Mniejsza czy Italia.\nPo zniszczeniu Jerozolimy w I–II wieku n.e. rozpoczęła się trwająca do dziś historia rozproszenia. Zanik świątynnego centrum religijnego nie zahamował rozwoju tożsamości wspólnotowej. Żydzi zachowywali język (judeo-aramejski, później jidysz i ladino), religię oraz instytucjonalny system społeczny, co pozwoliło im przetrwać niezależnie od zmian politycznych. Trwałość diaspory żydowskiej tłumaczą teorie długotrwałych form community formation oraz koncepcja diaspora space – złożonej struktury łączącej lokalne miejsce zamieszkania z więzią transnarodową119.\n116 M. Georgiou, Identity, Space and the Media: Thinking through Diaspora...\n117 H. Naficy, An Accented Cinema: Exilic and Diasporic Filmmaking...\n118 A. Gamlen, Diaspora Institutions and Diaspora Governance...\n119 J. Bokser Liwerant, Being National, Being Transnational: Snapshots of Belonging and\n\nOrmianie tworzą diasporę o równie historycznym, choć częściowo odmiennym, charakterze. Pierwsze fale migracji ormiańskiej pojawiły się już w czasach starożytnych, w obrębie Persji, Bizancjum i Królestwa Jerozolimskiego.\nKluczowym impulsem dla masowego kształtowania się diaspory ormiańskiej były jednak dramatyczne wydarzenia XX wieku – przede wszystkim masakry i deportacje w Imperium Osmańskim w latach 1915–1917, uznawane przez wielu badaczy za ludobójstwo. Od tamtej pory Ormianie, rozsiani po Bliskim\nWschodzie, Europie, Ameryce i innych regionach świata, zachowali silną tożsamość, wspierając się instytucjami kulturowymi, edukacyjnymi i kościelnymi sieciami wsparcia. Diaspora ormiańska ma dwie warstwy: historyczną\n– rozproszoną od wieków – i nową, ukształtowaną w wyniku traumatycznych migracji XX wieku120.\nDiaspora grecka również ma niezwykle długą historię. Już w starożytności Grecy zakładali kolonie w Azji Mniejszej, na południu Italii (Magna Graecia) oraz w regionie Morza Czarnego – co można uznać za pierwotną formę\n„diaspory kolonialnej”. Późniejsze migracje, zwłaszcza po upadku Konstantynopola w 1453 roku, a także ruchy diasporalne Pontyjczyków, wzmacniały grecką obecność w całym basenie Morza Śródziemnego i na Półwyspie Bałkańskim121. Diaspora grecka przekształciła się jednak w pełnoprawne wspólnoty nowoczesne dopiero w okresie wielkich migracji XVIII–XX wieku, obejmujących Stany Zjednoczone, Australię, Niemcy, a także kraje Afryki i Bliskiego\nWschodu. Te wspólnoty, mimo procesów asymilacji, często zachowały język\n(omogénia), religię (prawosławie), organizacje społeczne i silne powiązania z „macierzą”122.\nTrwałość klasycznych diaspor – żydowskiej, ormiańskiej i greckiej – można wyjaśnić poprzez zestaw kluczowych czynników instytucjonalnych, kulturowych i politycznych (tabela 2).\nCitizenship, [w:] M. Sznajder, L. Roniger, C. Forment (red.), Shifting Frontiers of Citizenship: The Latin American Experience, BRILL 2013; N.E. Pasachoff, R.J. Littman, A concise history of the Jewish people, Lanham, Md. 2005.\n120 M. Ember et al. (red.), Encyclopedia of diasporas: immigrant and refugee cultures around the world, New York 2005; E. Herzig, M. Kurkchiyan (red.), The Armenians: past and present in the making of national identity, New York 2005.\n121 V. Creţulescu, The Aromanian-Romanian National Movement (1859–1905): An Analytical\nModel, „Balcanica Posnaniensia. Acta et Studia” t. 22 nr 1 (2015), DOI: 10.14746/bp.2015.22.8.\n122 J. Cole, Ethnic groups of Europe: an encyclopedia, Santa Barbara, Calf 2011; A. Pelliccia,\nSites and Ways of Belonging to Diaspora Networks: The Case of the Greek Second Generation in Italy, „Nationalities Papers” t. 53 nr 2 (2025), DOI: 10.1017/nps.2024.13.\n\nTabela 2. Czynniki trwałości klasycznych diaspor\nCzynnik Opis\nSynagogi, kościoły, szkoły, media drukowane – instytucje podtrzymujące\nInstytucje wspólnotową tożsamość i służące utrzymywaniu kontaktów wspólnotowe transnarodowych.\nMity założycielskie, narracje o wygnaniu i wielkich migracjach,\nPamięć a także rytuały i obchody (np. Pascha w kulturze żydowskiej, pamięć zbiorowa o ludobójstwie Ormian).\nMigracje rodzinne, solidarność i wsparcie nowych imigrantów przez starsze\nSieci pokolenia; mechanizm tzw. chain migration, sprzyjający wzmacnianiu więzi migracyjne i ciągłości wspólnot.\nW przypadku Grecji, Izraela (państwo powstałe w 1948 r.) oraz Armenii po\nRola państwa upadku ZSRR, państwa macierzyste traktują diasporę jako element strategii macierzystego narodowej, co wzmacnia jej trwałość instytucjonalną.\nŹródło: opracowanie własne na podstawie J. Cole, Ethnic groups of Europe: an encyclopedia, Santa Barbara, Calf\n2011; M. Ember et al. (red.), Encyclopedia of diasporas: immigrant and refugee cultures around the world, New York\n2005; E. Herzig, M. Kurkchiyan (red.), The Armenians: past and present in the making of national identity, New York\n2005; N.E. Pasachoff, R.J. Littman, A concise history of the Jeish people, Lanham, Md. 2005; A. Pelliccia, Sites and\nWays of Belonging to Diaspora Networks: The Case of the Greek Second Generation in Italy, „Nationalities Papers” t. 53 nr 2 (2025), DOI: 10.1017/nps.2024.13.\nLiteratura akademicka dostarcza modeli teoretycznych umożliwiających analizę złożoności tych procesów. Robert Cohen w pracy Diasporas and the Nation-\nState: From Victims to Challengers opisuje transformację diaspor – od społeczności ofiar do podmiotów politycznych123. Prace Stéphane’a Dufoix, zwłaszcza książka\nDiasporas, stanowią szerokie studium różnorodnych doświadczeń diasporalnych, w tym żydowskich, ormiańskich i greckich124. Evangelia Tastsoglou analizuje współczesne migracje Greków, ukazując ciągłość diasporalnych form konstruowania tożsamości125. Ponadto Nadia Johnson wskazuje kierunki ewolucji pojęcia diaspory w kontekście kultury i globalnych migracji126. Wprowadza również perspektywę analizy transnarodowej, podobnie jak w badaniach Magdaleny Nowickiej,\n123 R. Cohen, Diasporas and the Nation-State: From Victims to Challengers, „International\nAffairs” t. 72 nr 3 (1996), DOI: 10.2307/2625554.\n124 S. Dufoix, Diasporas, University of California Press, 2008.\n125 E. Tastsoglou, Twenty-First Century “New” Greek Transnational Migration to Canada, „Journal of Immigrant & Refugee Studies” t. 20 nr 1 (2022), DOI: 10.1080/15562948.2021.1900481.\n126 N.C. Johnson, Global Journeys: From Transnationalism to Diaspora, „Journal of International and Global Studies” t. 4 nr 1 (2012), DOI: 10.62608/2158-0669.1116, https:// digitalcommons.lindenwood.edu/jigs/vol4/iss1/4.\n\nktóra pokazuje, w jaki sposób narracje migracyjne Polaków w Wielkiej Brytanii wpisują się w szersze procesy lokalizacyjne i transnarodowe127.\nAnaliza klasycznych diaspor – żydowskiej, ormiańskiej i greckiej – pokazuje, że zjawisko to nie jest wyłącznie współczesnym fenomenem, lecz ma długą i złożoną historię. Każdy z tych przypadków ilustruje odmienny mechanizm powstawania i podtrzymywania wspólnot rozproszonych – od religijno-politycznego wygnania, przez przymusowe przesiedlenia i ludobójstwa, po kolonizację i migracje handlowe. Wspólnym mianownikiem ich trwałości okazały się instytucje wspólnotowe, pamięć zbiorowa, sieci migracyjne oraz relacje z państwem macierzystym, które w różnym stopniu wspierało bądź instrumentalizowało diasporę.\nZ perspektywy teoretycznej klasyczne diaspory stały się matrycą, dzięki której współczesna nauka zdefiniowała pojęcie diaspory – jako wspólnoty rozproszonej, ale zachowującej tożsamość i więzi transnarodowe. Badania historyczne nad Żydami, Ormianami i Grekami pozwalają dostrzec ciągłość między dawnymi a współczesnymi procesami: znaczenie rytuałów, instytucji i pamięci zbiorowej pozostaje aktualne mimo nowych uwarunkowań globalizacji.\nW wymiarze praktycznym, doświadczenia klasycznych diaspor wskazują, że trwałość wspólnot migracyjnych nie jest wynikiem przypadku, lecz efektem świadomego budowania więzi i struktur, często w odpowiedzi na kryzysy.\nWnioski te mają znaczenie dla polityki migracyjnej XXI wieku – pokazują bowiem, że skuteczne wsparcie diaspory wymaga nie tylko działań instytucjonalnych, lecz także uznania roli pamięci, symboliki i kapitału społecznego w podtrzymywaniu wspólnot poza granicami państwa narodowego.\n1.3.2. Diaspory XXI wieku: nowe migracje i globalizacja\nWspółczesne diaspory różnią się od historycznych przede wszystkim dynamiką i charakterem migracji. XXI wiek przyniósł nowe fale migracyjne, szczególnie po zakończeniu zimnej wojny, będące skutkiem globalizacji, konfliktów oraz transformacji politycznych i ekonomicznych, które doprowadziły do powstania „nowych” diaspor – często transnarodowych, elastycznych i mobilnych.\nMigracje po zimnej wojnie (w latach 90. XX wieku), zwłaszcza z obszaru byłego ZSRR, regionu Bałkanów oraz krajów tzw. Trzeciego Świata, przyczyniły się do powstania wielowymiarowych sieci diasporalnych. Migranci zakładali\n127 M. Nowicka, (Dis)connecting Migration: Transnationalism and Nationalism Beyond Connectivity, „Comparative Migration Studies” t. 8 nr 1 (2020), DOI: 10.1186/s40878-020-00175-4.\n\nnowe społeczności w Europie Zachodniej, Ameryce Północnej, Australii i Azji.\nByły to migracje postkomunistyczne, ekonomiczne, edukacyjne i uchodźcze.\nW nowych diasporach można zaobserwować:\n1. Transnarodowe powiązania, w tym regularna komunikacja z krajem pochodzenia, transfery finansowe i wizyty. Migranci zachowują aktywność polityczną, kulturową i społeczną w kraju macierzystym.\n2. Technologie cyfrowe, takie jak media społecznościowe, komunikatory i internet, umożliwiają niemal natychmiastowe kreowanie sieci diasporalnych w skali globalnej128.\n3. Globalne strategie państw kształtują politykę krajów wysyłających wobec diaspor. Państwa mobilizują diasporę jako kapitał ludzki, finansowy, kulturowy; przykładem są programy grantowe, dyplomacja kulturalna oraz wsparcie studentów pochodzenia diasporalnego.\n4. Diaspory XXI wieku są zróżnicowane pod względem językowym, religijnym, statusowym i pokoleniowym, dlatego często nie da się ich opisać w sposób jednowymiarowy. Najczęściej stosowanymi pojęciami w odniesieniu do nowych diaspor są „hybrydowość” i „superróżnorodność”129.\nMiriam Tedeschi analizuje współczesne debaty nad transnarodowością, wskazując, że dorobek naukowy koncentruje się na sieciach, migracji wielokierunkowej i ludzkiej mobilności jako normatywnym modelu XXI wieku130.\nNowe teorie kładą nacisk na pojęcie mobility capital oraz na dynamikę między lokalnymi osiedlami a globalnym „domem mentalnym”.\nTransnacjonalizm stanowi specyficzną formę funkcjonowania migrantów, którzy uczestniczą równocześnie w życiu kraju pochodzenia i kraju przyjmującego, tworząc transnational social fields. Magdalena Nowicka podkreśla, że połączenie narracji narodowych z lokalną codziennością kształtuje tożsamości hybrydowe, które nie wpisują się już w stereotypową kategorię klasycznej diaspory131. Nancy Foner porównuje imigrantów sprzed wieków z tymi współcze-\n128 J. Bokser Liwerant, Globalization, Diasporas, and Transnationalism: Jews in the Americas,\n„Contemporary Jewry” t. 41 nr 4 (2021), DOI: 10.1007/s12397-021-09405-y; A. Pelliccia,\nSites and Ways of Belonging to Diaspora Networks...\n129 S. Dufoix, Diasporas, University of California Press 2008; N.C. Johnson, Global Journeys...;\nM. Tedeschi, E. Vorobeva, J.S. Jauhiainen, Transnationalism: current debates and new perspectives, „GeoJournal” t. 87 nr 2 (2022), DOI: 10.1007/s10708-020-10271-8.\n130 M. Tedeschi, E. Vorobeva, J.S. Jauhiainen, Transnationalism: Current Debates and New\nPerspectives...\n131 M. Nowicka, (Dis)connecting Migration: Transnationalism and Nationalism Beyond\nConnectivity...\n\nsnymi, podkreślając elastyczność zjawiska transnacjonalizmu132. Podobne wnioski formułują Peggy Levitt i Nina Glick Schiller, które wprowadziły koncepcję transnational social fields – opisującą sieci społeczne przekraczające granice państwowe i redefiniujące klasyczne rozumienie migracji jako trwałego przesiedlenia133. Z kolei Steven Vertovec zauważa, że transnacjonalizm stał się nie tylko doświadczeniem jednostek, lecz także ramą analityczną badań migracyjnych, umożliwiającą zrozumienie, w jaki sposób migranci funkcjonują równocześnie w wielu przestrzeniach społeczno-politycznych134.\nAlejandro Portes zauważa ponadto, że praktyki transnarodowe – takie jak przekazy pieniężne, mobilizacja polityczna czy inwestycje – wywierają znaczący wpływ na rozwój krajów pochodzenia oraz przekształcają relacje międzypaństwowe135. W badaniach Miriam Tedeschi transnacjonalizm jawi się jako zjawisko coraz bardziej zróżnicowane, obejmujące nie tylko migracje ekonomiczne, lecz także mobilność edukacyjną i cyfrową, co znacząco poszerza dotychczasowe rozumienie tego pojęcia136. W rezultacie współczesny transnacjonalizm należy postrzegać jako dynamiczny proces, który odzwierciedla złożoność globalnych przepływów i wskazuje na potrzebę odejścia od sztywnych definicji diaspory na rzecz bardziej elastycznych i wielowymiarowych kategorii.\nGlobalizacja i rozwój technologii cyfrowych w radykalny sposób zmieniły funkcjonowanie współczesnych diaspor. Jeszcze w drugiej połowie XX wieku więzi diasporalne podtrzymywano głównie poprzez instytucje lokalne, stowarzyszenia, kościoły czy media drukowane. Obecnie jednak internet i media społecznościowe umożliwiają natychmiastowy kontakt, współpracę i wymianę informacji w skali globalnej. Jak zauważa Jennifer Brinkerhoff, przestrzeń cyfrowa stała się „wirtualnym domem” dla diaspor, umożliwiając kreowanie tożsamości zbiorowych i mobilizację polityczną niezależnie od granic państwowych137.\nDla wielu współczesnych diaspor technologie cyfrowe stanowią kluczowe narzędzie organizacji – zarówno w wymiarze społecznym, jak i politycznym.\nAndoni Alonso i Pedro Oiarzabal wskazują, że internet umożliwia powstawanie\n132 N. Foner, What’s New About Transnationalism? New York Immigrants Today and at the\nTurn of the Century, „Diaspora: A Journal of Transnational Studies” t. 6 nr 3 (2010),\nDOI: 10.1353/dsp.1997.0013.\n133 P. Levitt, N.G. Schiller, Conceptualizing Simultaneity...\n134 S. Vertovec, Transnationalism...\n135 A. Portes, Introduction: The Debates and Significance of Immigrant Transnationalism,\n„Global Networks” t. 1 nr 3 (2001), DOI: 10.1111/1471-0374.00012.\n136 M. Tedeschi, E. Vorobeva, J.S. Jauhiainen, Transnationalism...\n137 J.M. Brinkerhoff, Digital Diasporas: Identity and Transnational Engagement, Cambridge\nUniversity Press 2009.\n\n„cyberdiaspor”, które łączą tradycyjne praktyki kulturowe z nowymi formami uczestnictwa obywatelskiego i politycznego138. Z kolei Dana Diminescu wprowadza pojęcie „e-diaspory”, podkreślając, że migranci stali się connected migrants, a mobilność cyfrowa współgra z mobilnością fizyczną139. Przykłady, takie jak wykorzystanie Facebooka i Twittera przez diasporę arabską w czasie Arabskiej\nWiosny czy działania ukraińskiej diaspory w mediach społecznościowych po\n2014 roku, pokazują, że technologia cyfrowa może pełnić rolę kluczowego narzędzia lobbingu i mobilizacji międzynarodowej opinii publicznej140. W tym sensie globalizacja i technologia nie tylko ułatwiają komunikację, lecz także stają się jednym z kluczowych czynników redefiniujących strukturę i funkcje współczesnych diaspor. Rozwój tych form dowodzi, że diaspora XXI wieku stanowi nie tylko „fizyczną wspólnotę”, lecz także wirtualną przestrzeń wspólnotowości141.\nWspółczesne procesy migracyjne i globalizacja sprawiły, że klasyczne rozumienie diaspory jako trwałej wspólnoty osadzonej na obczyźnie nie jest już wystarczające do opisu dzisiejszych form rozproszenia. Badacze coraz częściej podkreślają potrzebę wprowadzenia nowych typologii, które lepiej oddają zróżnicowane doświadczenia migrantów i ich potomków (Rysunek 1).\nRysunek 1. Sugerowane nowe typologie diaspor\nŹródło: opracowanie własne.\n138 A. Alonso, Diasporas in the New Media Age: Identity, Politics, and Community, Reno 2010.\n139 D. Diminescu, The Connected Migrant: An Epistemological Manifesto, „Social Science\nInformation” t. 47, nr 4 (2008), DOI: 10.1177/0539018408096447.\n140 K. Kissau, U. Hunger, The internet as a means of studying transnationalism and diaspora, [w:]\nR. Bauböck, T. Faist (red.), Diaspora and Transnationalism : Concepts, Theories and Methods,\nAmsterdam 2010.\n141 J. Perriam, S. Carter, Migration, diaspora and transnationalism in the digital age, [w:]\nJ. Perriam et al. (red.), Understanding Digital Societies, Sage, London 2021\n\nSteven Vertovec podkreśla, że współczesne diaspory charakteryzuje superdiversity – wielowymiarowa różnorodność językowa, etniczna, religijna i socjoekonomiczna, która wymyka się prostym klasyfikacjom142.\nJednym z przykładów są diaspory mobilne, tworzone przez migrantów czasowych, studentów oraz specjalistów zatrudnianych w ramach kontraktów międzynarodowych. Choć ich pobyt jest często ograniczony w czasie, dzięki technologiom i tanim podróżom utrzymują oni ścisłe relacje z krajem pochodzenia143. Z kolei diaspory cyfrowe, opisywane m.in. przez Danę Diminescu, funkcjonują przede wszystkim w przestrzeni wirtualnej, gdzie platformy społecznościowe i media internetowe stają się kluczowym kanałem komunikacji i organizacji144. Inny wariant stanowią diaspory rewersyjne, w ramach których migranci powracają do ojczyzny, zachowując jednocześnie silne powiązania z dawnymi wspólnotami i sieciami w krajach przyjmujących145.\nEwolucja typologii nie oznacza zaniku klasycznych diaspor, lecz ich przenikanie się z nowymi formami, co czyni to zjawisko jeszcze bardziej wielowymiarowym i dynamicznym. W rezultacie współczesne badania migracyjne powinny uwzględniać wielość form diaspor, które funkcjonują równolegle i wzajemnie się uzupełniają146.\nWspółczesne badania nad diasporami odchodzą od prostych opisów kulturowych i etnicznych wspólnot na rzecz bardziej złożonych ujęć, obejmujących procesy transnarodowe, globalne przepływy oraz analizy danych wielkoskalowych. Melissa Myambo rozwija koncepcję „diaspory diaspor”, określaną także mianem diaspora cascade, w której migracje elit generują kolejne fale osadnictwa i tworzą wielowarstwowe sieci wymykające się klasycznym teoriom. Takie ujęcie uwzględnia nierówności społeczne i polityczne, kształtujące struktury diaspory, oraz podkreśla, że nie każda wspólnota rozproszona dysponuje tym samym potencjałem147.\nRównocześnie rozwój metod big data i analityki sieciowej otwiera nowy wymiar badań nad migracją i diasporami. Rafael Prieto-Curiel i współautorzy\n142 S. Vertovec, Super-diversity and Its Implications, „Ethnic and Racial Studies” t. 30 nr 6\n(2007), DOI: 10.1080/01419870701599465.\n143 P. Levitt, Roots and Routes: Understanding the Lives of the Second Generation Transnationally,\n„Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies” t. 35 nr 7 (2009), DOI: 10.1080/13691830903006309.\n144 D. Diminescu, The Connected Migrant...\n145 J. Carling, M. B. Erdal, Return Migration and Transnationalism: How Are the Two Connected?, „International Migration” t. 52 nr 6 (2014), DOI: 10.1111/imig.12180.\n146 R. Cohen, Global Diasporas...\n147 M.T. Myambo, Bloody Diaspora Theory for the Twenty-First Century: African and Asian\nHeritage Migrants Return, „Diaspora” t. 20 nr 2 (2019), DOI: 10.3138/diaspora.20.2.001\n\nopracowali tzw. diaspora model of migration, oparty na analizie sieci społecznych i matematycznych symulacjach przepływów ludności. Podejście to traktuje diasporę jako czynnik przyciągający migrację – im większa i bardziej zakorzeniona diaspora w danym państwie, tym większe prawdopodobieństwo wystąpienia kolejnych fal migracyjnych148.\nPodobną metodologię zastosowali Umberto Minora i współautorzy, wykorzystując wskaźnik Facebook Social Connectedness Index (SCI) do analizy migracji wojennych po rosyjskiej inwazji na Ukrainę. Wyniki badania wykazały, że kierunki uchodźstwa można przewidywać na podstawie istniejących powiązań sieciowych – im silniejsze relacje online między Ukrainą a danym państwem, tym większy napływ uchodźców149. Wnioski te potwierdzają, że współczesne diaspory należy postrzegać nie tylko jako wspólnoty kulturowe, ale także jako dynamiczne, cyfrowo zakorzenione węzły globalnych sieci społecznych.\nAnaliza współczesnych teorii diaspory pokazuje, że tradycyjne kategorie opisujące wspólnoty rozproszone wymagają uzupełnienia o nowe perspektywy.\nW przeszłości badania koncentrowały się na diasporach klasycznych, ukształtowanych przez przymusowe migracje, traumatyczne wygnania i długotrwałe zakorzenienie w krajach przyjmujących. W XXI wieku dominującą rolę zaczęły jednak odgrywać procesy transnarodowe i cyfrowe, które sprawiły, że diaspory stały się bardziej zróżnicowane, dynamiczne i hybrydowe.\nKoncepcja diaspora cascade Melissy Myambo podkreśla, że współczesne migracje nie tworzą jednolitych wspólnot, lecz wielowarstwowe sieci charakteryzujące się zróżnicowanym kapitałem symbolicznym i materialnym150. Z kolei modele oparte na analizie big data, takie jak diaspora model of migration Rafaela Prieto-Curiela i współautorów pokazują, że diaspory pełnią rolę czynników przyciągających kolejne fale migracyjne, co nadaje im kluczowe znaczenie w prognozowaniu ruchów ludności. W podobnym duchu badania Umberto Minory i współautorów wykazały, że cyfrowe więzi społeczne mogą być wykorzystywane do przewidywania kierunków uchodźstwa w sytuacjach kryzysowych151.\nSyntetyczne zestawienie typologii diaspor przedstawiono w tabeli 3.\n148 R. Prieto-Curiel et al., The diaspora model for human migration, „PNAS Nexus” t. 3 nr 5\n(2024), DOI: 10.1093/pnasnexus/pgae178.\n149 U. Minora et al., Migration patterns, friendship networks, and the diaspora: the potential of\nFacebook Social Connectedness Index to anticipate displacement patterns induced by Russia invasion of Ukraine in the European Union, arXiv, 2022 r., https://arxiv.org/abs/2209.01833.\n150 M.T. Myambo, Bloody Diaspora Theory for the Twenty-First Century: African and Asian\nHeritage Migrants Return, „Diaspora” t. 20 nr 2 (2019), DOI: 10.3138/diaspora.20.2.001.\n151 U. Minora, M. Belmonte, C. Bosco et al., Migration patterns, friendship networks...\n\nTabela 3. Typologie diaspor. Geneza, cechy, przykłady\nGeneza/ Przykłady\nTyp diaspory Główne cechy Przykłady polskie przyczyny globalne\nPrzymusowe\nMit powrotu, rozproszenie Żydzi, Zesłańcy na Syberię silne instytucje\nKlasyczna (wygnania, Ormianie, (XIX–XX w.), deportacje wewnętrzne, pamięć deportacje, wojny, Grecy powojenne do ZSRR zbiorowa, endogamia ludobójstwa)\nMigracje polityczne Rozwój sieci Emigracja polityczna\nPalestyńczycy, i ekonomiczne transnarodowych, prze- lat 60. (opozycjoniści),\nModernistyczna Irlandczycy,\nXX w. (wojny, kryzy- kazy pieniężne, wsparcie „Solidarność” i emigracja\nKubańczycy sy, dekolonizacja, ) polityczne lat 80.\nSieciowość,\nGlobalizacja, hybrydyczność Indusi w USA, Migracje po 2004 r.\nPostcyfryzacja, tożsamości, Chińczycy (Polacy do Wielkiej modernistyczna mobilność funkcjonowanie w Azji Brytanii, Niemiec,\n/ globalna transnarodowa w wielu kontekstach Płd.-Wsch. Irlandii) równocześnie\nOrmianie\nPolscy\nPośrednictwo na Bliskim\nMigracje w celach rzemieślnicy i kupcy\nHandlowa / handlowe, inwestycje, Wschodzie, ekonomicznych w Niemczech i Francji gospodarcza przedsiębiorczość Chińczycy i handlowych (XIX/XX w.); migracje transnarodowa w Azji zarobkowe po 2004 r.\nPłd.-Wsch.\nOrganizacje Diaspora Emigracja powojenna\nUchodźstwo,\nPolityczna / opozycyjne, kubańska (Londyn – rząd RP na emigracja opozycyjna rządy na uchodźstwie, w USA, uchodźstwie), polityczna działalność lobbystyczna tybetańska opozycjoniści lat 80.\nWspólnota pamięci „Black Polonia w USA i Kanadzie\nMit wspólnej\nKulturowa / i doświadczenia, Atlantic”, (2–3 pokolenie, tożsamości, symboliczna nie zawsze oparta diaspora podtrzymywanie tradycji kultura jako spoiwo na migracji afrykańska i języka)\nMeksykanie\nNowoczesne Wielopoziomowe sieci Polscy pracownicy w USA,\nTransnarodowa migracje społeczne, sezonowi w Niem-\nFilipińczycy\n/ sieciowa cyrkulacyjne, przepływy ludzi, czech, Holandii, w Zatoce wielokierunkowe kapitału, informacji Skandynawii\nPerskiej\nArabska diaspora „Polonia cyfrowa” –\nMobilność Relacje\nCyfrowa (Arabska portale i grupy Polawirtualna, media podtrzymywane online,\n(cyberdiaspora) Wiosna), ków po 2004 r. w UK, społecznościowe wspólnoty internetowe e-diaspory Niemczech, Irlandii azjatyckie\nSwoboda przepływu Rumuni we Polacy w Wielkiej\nMigracje osób, dualna Włoszech, Brytanii, Niemczech,\nDiaspory w UE wewnątrzunijne tożsamość europejska Bułgarzy Irlandii po 2004 r.\ni narodowa w Hiszpanii (po akcesji 2004)\nŹródło: opracowanie własne na podstawie: R. Brubaker, The ‘diaspora’ diaspora, „Ethnic and Racial Studies” t. 28 nr 1 (2005), DOI: 10.1080/0141987042000289997; M. Castells, The Net and the Self...; R. Cohen, Global Diasporas,\nRoutledge 2008; S. Hall, Cultural Identity and Diaspora, [w:] J. Rutherford (red.), Identity: community, culture, difference, London 1990; W. Safran, Diasporas in Modern Societies: Myths of Homeland and Return, „Diaspora:\nA Journal of Transnational Studies” t. 1 nr 1 (1991), DOI: 10.1353/dsp.1991.0004; S. Vertovec, Transnationalism and identity, „Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies” t. 27 nr 4 (2001), DOI: 10.1080/13691830120090386;\nS. Vertovec, Transnationalism, London 2010.\n\nWspółczesne diaspory stanowią zatem nie tylko wspólnoty pamięci i kultury, lecz także dynamicznych aktorów uczestniczących w globalnych przepływach społecznych, gospodarczych i politycznych. Zrozumienie ich funkcjonowania wymaga połączenia klasycznych ujęć socjologicznych z narzędziami analizy sieciowej i cyfrowej. W konsekwencji badania nad diasporami stają się istotnym elementem refleksji nad globalizacją, mobilnością i nowymi formami transnarodowej tożsamości.\n1.4. Status formalnoprawny członków diaspory\nStatus formalnoprawny członków diaspory stanowi jeden z kluczowych elementów analizy migracyjnej, ponieważ wyznacza ramy prawne i instytucjonalne, w których funkcjonują osoby żyjące poza krajem pochodzenia. Prawa i obowiązki migrantów kształtowane są zarówno przez prawo międzynarodowe i konstytucyjne państwa wysyłającego, jak i przez przepisy państwa przyjmującego oraz regulacje ponadnarodowe, np. Unii Europejskiej. Obywatelstwo, status rezydenta czy możliwość posiadania podwójnego obywatelstwa determinują nie tylko mobilność prawną jednostki, lecz także jej pozycję społeczną i polityczną w kraju osiedlenia.\nWspółczesne państwa różnią się podejściem do kwestii obywatelstwa i statusu migrantów. Część z nich dopuszcza podwójne obywatelstwo, podczas gdy inne uznają je za niedopuszczalne. Istnieją również specjalne rozwiązania prawne mające na celu utrzymanie więzi z diasporą – takie jak polska Karta\nPolaka czy ustawa o repatriacji – lub ułatwienie integracji, np. niemieckie Integrationskurse czy kanadyjski model uznania wielokulturowości. Każdy z tych przykładów pokazuje, że status prawny członków diaspory nie jest neutralny, lecz stanowi narzędzie polityki państw wobec własnych obywateli i mniejszości narodowych przebywających za granicą.\nCelem niniejszego rozdziału jest analiza formalnoprawnych aspektów funkcjonowania diaspory w ujęciu porównawczym. Rozdział podzielono na trzy części: w pierwszej omówiono kwestie obywatelstwa, podwójnego obywatelstwa i statusu rezydenta; w drugiej przedstawiono przykłady wybranych rozwiązań prawnych w różnych krajach, ukazujące zróżnicowane modele polityki wobec diaspory; w trzeciej przeanalizowano konsekwencje prawne dla funkcjonowania społecznego i politycznego, obejmujące dostęp do pracy, edukacji, ochrony socjalnej oraz udział w życiu publicznym państw przyjmujących i wysyłających.\n\n1.4.1. Obywatelstwo, podwójne obywatelstwo, status rezydenta\nObywatelstwo stanowi podstawową więź prawną, łączącą jednostkę z państwem i określającą zakres jej praw oraz obowiązków. W kontekście diaspory obywatelstwo jest kategorią szczególnie istotną, ponieważ przesądza o możliwości utrzymywania formalnych relacji z ojczyzną oraz o zakresie ochrony prawnej w państwie przyjmującym. Współcześnie rośnie znaczenie podwójnego obywatelstwa, które pozwala jednostkom jednoczesną identyfikację z krajem pochodzenia i krajem osiedlenia. Coraz częściej państwa postrzegają je jako narzędzie polityki wobec diaspory, służące wzmacnianiu więzi narodowych i kulturowych, a zarazem rodzące pytania o lojalność wobec państwa zamieszkania.\nObok obywatelstwa istotnym elementem jest status rezydenta, obejmujący różne formy prawa pobytu – od krótkoterminowych wiz po stały pobyt. Choć nie zapewnia pełni praw politycznych, stanowi podstawę funkcjonowania społecznego i ekonomicznego migrantów. Status rezydenta można uznać za rozwiązanie pośrednie między brakiem więzi prawnej a pełnym obywatelstwem, zapewniające stabilność pobytu przy ograniczonej partycypacji politycznej.\nW rozdziale omówiono: (1) normy prawa międzynarodowego i konstytucyjnego dotyczące obywatelstwa, (2) praktyki wybranych państw w zakresie obywatelstwa i podwójnego obywatelstwa, a także (3) specyfikę statusu rezydenta jako formy regulującej funkcjonowanie diaspory w państwie przyjmującym.\nNormy prawa międzynarodowego i konstytucyjnego\nObywatelstwo stanowi podstawową kategorię prawa konstytucyjnego, definiującą formalną więź jednostki z państwem. Określa ono zarówno zakres praw i obowiązków obywateli, jak i kryteria ich przynależności do wspólnoty politycznej. W odniesieniu do diaspory zagadnienie to nabiera szczególnego znaczenia, ponieważ określa warunki utrzymywania więzi prawnej z ojczyzną oraz możliwości korzystania z ochrony konsularnej i praw politycznych poza granicami kraju. W literaturze podkreśla się, że obywatelstwo łączy w sobie wymiar prawny, polityczny i symboliczny, stanowiąc zarówno narzędzie regulacji prawnej, jak i element tożsamości zbiorowej152.\nNa gruncie prawa międzynarodowego nie istnieje jednolita definicja obywatelstwa, a państwa zachowują szeroką autonomię w zakresie jego regulacji.\n152 R. Bauböck, Stakeholder Citizenship and Transnational Political Participation: A Normative Evaluation of External Voting, „Fordham Law Review” t. 75 (2007).\n\nJuż w sprawie Nottebohm Międzynarodowy Trybunał Sprawiedliwości wskazał, że obywatelstwo powinno opierać się na „rzeczywistym związku” jednostki z państwem. Mimo to prawo międzynarodowe ogranicza swobodę państw poprzez normy dotyczące zapobiegania bezpaństwowości i ochrony praw człowieka. Kluczowym aktem w tym zakresie jest Konwencja ONZ o Ograniczaniu\nBezpaństwowości z 1961 roku, nakładająca na państwa obowiązek zapobiegania sytuacjom pozbawienia jednostek obywatelstwa153.\nPrawo międzynarodowe reguluje również kwestie związane z wieloobywatelstwem. Choć tradycyjnie traktowano je jako zjawisko problematyczne, we współczesnej praktyce coraz więcej państw dopuszcza możliwość posiadania więcej niż jednego obywatelstwa. W Europie istotną rolę w tym zakresie odgrywają regulacje Rady Europy. Europejska Konwencja o Obywatelstwie z 1997 roku (ETS 166) stanowi podstawowy punkt odniesienia, określając zasady przyznawania i utraty obywatelstwa oraz potwierdzając kompetencje państw w tej dziedzinie. Konwencja rekomenduje jednak rozwiązania sprzyjające ograniczaniu bezpaństwowości i uznaje prawo jednostki do poszanowania jej obywatelstwa154.\nNa poziomie konstytucyjnym państwa stosują odmienne modele przyznawania obywatelstwa. Najbardziej rozpowszechnione są dwie zasady: ius sanguinis (prawo krwi), zgodnie z którą obywatelstwo dziedziczy się po rodzicach, oraz ius soli (prawo ziemi), przyznająca obywatelstwo z racji urodzenia na terytorium państwa. W praktyce wiele systemów prawnych łączy oba podejścia.\nKonstytucja Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej jednoznacznie opiera się na zasadzie ius sanguinis, podczas gdy państwa imigracyjne, takie jak USA czy Kanada, stosują przede wszystkim zasadę ius soli, co ułatwia włączanie migrantów i ich potomków do wspólnoty politycznej.\nNormy konstytucyjne regulują także kwestie utraty obywatelstwa. W Polsce Konstytucja RP zakazuje pozbawienia obywatela obywatelstwa wbrew jego woli, stanowiąc gwarancję ochrony jednostki przed arbitralnymi decyzjami państwa. W Niemczech i we Francji rozwiązania są bardziej złożone i mogą przewidywać utratę obywatelstwa w określonych sytuacjach, np. w przypadku nabycia innego obywatelstwa bez zgody państwa155.\n153 L.E. van Waas, Nationality Matters. Statelessness under International Law, t. 29, Tilburg\n2008.\n154 D. Kochenov, Citizenship, Cambridge, Massachusetts London; England 2019.\n155 P.J. Spiro, At Home in Two Countries: The Past and Future of Dual Citizenship, New York,\nNY 2016.\n\nW odniesieniu do diaspory szczególne znaczenie ma także ochrona konsularna. Na mocy Konwencji Wiedeńskiej o Stosunkach Konsularnych z 1963 roku państwa są zobowiązane do zapewnienia swoim obywatelom wsparcia poza granicami, co wzmacnia praktyczny wymiar obywatelstwa w kontekście diaspory.\nPodsumowując, normy prawa międzynarodowego i konstytucyjnego wyznaczają ramy, w których funkcjonuje obywatelstwo członków diaspory. Z jednej strony państwa zachowują szeroką autonomię w zakresie regulacji tej instytucji, z drugiej jednak podlegają ograniczeniom wynikającym z prawa międzynarodowego i zobowiązań w zakresie ochrony praw człowieka. W praktyce oznacza to, że status formalnoprawny członków diaspory nie jest wyłącznie kwestią krajowych regulacji, lecz elementem szerszego porządku prawnego, w którym ścierają się interesy jednostki, państwa i społeczności międzynarodowej.\nPraktyki państw w zakresie obywatelstwa (np. Polska, Niemcy, USA)\nChoć obywatelstwo stanowi instytucję prawa konstytucyjnego, praktyki państw w tym zakresie znacząco się różnią. Każde państwo kształtuje własny model regulacji w oparciu o tradycje historyczne, potrzeby polityczne i uwarunkowania społeczne. W kontekście diaspory szczególnie istotne są trzy zagadnienia:\nzasady przyznawania obywatelstwa, dopuszczalność podwójnego obywatelstwa oraz mechanizmy utrzymywania szczególnych więzi z obywatelami przebywającymi za granicą.\nPolska odwołuje się do zasady ius sanguinis, co oznacza, że obywatelstwo dziedziczy się po rodzicach, niezależnie od miejsca urodzenia. Rozwiązanie to sprzyja utrzymywaniu więzi z diasporą, zwłaszcza w kontekście Polonii rozsianej po całym świecie. Konstytucja Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej oraz ustawy zakazują pozbawienia obywatelstwa wbrew woli jednostki, co chroni migrantów przed utratą formalnych więzi z ojczyzną. Od 2012 roku Polska dopuszcza podwójne obywatelstwo, choć w praktyce traktuje osoby posiadające kilka paszportów wyłącznie jako obywateli polskich. Podejście to ma uzasadnienie historyczne – miliony Polaków żyją poza granicami kraju, a prawo powinno umożliwiać im zachowanie formalnej przynależności.\nNiemcy przez długi czas utrzymywały restrykcyjny model ius sanguinis. Do końca XX wieku państwo to postrzegało obywatelstwo jako więź etniczno-narodową, co utrudniało naturalizację migrantów. Reformy z 2000 roku otworzyły drogę do naturalizacji cudzoziemców urodzonych w Niemczech, jednak przepisy dotyczące podwójnego obywatelstwa pozostały restrykcyjne. Osoby ubiegające się o obywatelstwo niemieckie często musiały zrzec się poprzedniego\n\npaszportu156. Wyjątki stosowano wobec obywateli państw UE oraz Szwajcarii, co odzwierciedlało szerszą politykę europejską. Niemcy stanowią przykład państwa, w którym kwestie obywatelstwa i naturalizacji pozostają ściśle powiązane z debatą o integracji migrantów i obawami przed „podwójną lojalnością”.\nStany Zjednoczone opierają swój system obywatelstwa głównie na zasadzie ius soli. Każda osoba urodzona na terytorium USA nabywa obywatelstwo z mocy prawa, co stanowi fundament amerykańskiego modelu integracji i odpowiada na potrzeby państwa imigracyjnego. Choć Konstytucja Stanów\nZjednoczonych nie reguluje wprost kwestii podwójnego obywatelstwa, praktyka prawna akceptuje jego istnienie. Uzasadnieniem takiego podejścia jest pragmatyzm – w warunkach globalnej mobilności nie można oczekiwać od migrantów całkowitego zerwania więzi z krajem pochodzenia. Co więcej, USA umożliwiają swoim obywatelom udział w wyborach federalnych, nawet gdy na stałe mieszkają za granicą, co wzmacnia więzi polityczne diaspory z ojczyzną157.\nKanada stanowi interesujący przykład ze względu na swoje podejście do obywatelstwa w kontekście wielokulturowości. Państwo to preferuje model wielokulturowy. Od 1977 roku prawo kanadyjskie akceptuje podwójne obywatelstwo bez ograniczeń, co czyni ten kraj jednym z najbardziej otwartych państw w tej dziedzinie. Kanada stosuje zarówno zasadę ius soli, jak i ius sanguinis, umożliwiając włączanie migrantów i ich potomków do wspólnoty politycznej. Podejście to jest uzasadnione charakterem państwa imigracyjnego, które traktuje obywatelstwo jako narzędzie integracji i budowania lojalności wobec wielonarodowej wspólnoty158. Włączenie diaspory w życie polityczne odbywa się także poprzez możliwość głosowania z zagranicy i szeroki dostęp do ochrony konsularnej.\nPraktyki wybranych państw wskazują, że regulacje dotyczące obywatelstwa odzwierciedlają ich podejście do migracji i roli diaspory. Polska i Kanada traktują obywatelstwo jako narzędzie podtrzymywania więzi narodowej, Niemcy podchodzą ostrożnie do kwestii podwójnego obywatelstwa, natomiast USA wykorzystują je jako fundament polityki integracyjnej. Różnice te wynikają z odmiennych tradycji prawnych, doświadczeń historycznych oraz potrzeb społecznych, co pokazuje, że status formalnoprawny członków diaspory stanowi zawsze zjawisko uwarunkowane politycznie i kulturowo, a nie wyłącznie kwestię techniczną.\n156 S. Green, The Politics of the New Germany, London 2013.\n157 I. Bloemraad, Understanding “Canadian exceptionalism” in immigration and pluralism policy, Migration Policy Institute, Washington, DC 2012.\n158 E. Winter, Becoming Canadian: making sense of recent changes to citizenship rules,\nMontréal, Québec 2014.\n\nStatus rezydenta\nStatus rezydenta stanowi formę prawnego uregulowania pobytu cudzoziemca w państwie przyjmującym, która nie nadaje mu pełni praw obywatelskich, lecz zapewnia określony poziom stabilności i ochrony. W literaturze często określa się go jako rozwiązanie pośrednie między brakiem więzi prawnej a obywatelstwem, umożliwiające migrantom funkcjonowanie w przestrzeni społecznej i ekonomicznej przy ograniczonej partycypacji politycznej159.\nW praktyce prawa międzynarodowego i krajowego wyróżnia się kilka kategorii statusu rezydenta. Najważniejsze to:\nÒ rezydent czasowy – cudzoziemiec posiadający prawo pobytu ograniczone w czasie i uzależnione np. od zatrudnienia, studiów lub prowadzenia działalności gospodarczej;\nÒ rezydent długoterminowy – status przyznawany po spełnieniu określonych kryteriów, takich jak kilkuletni pobyt, stabilne źródła czy znajomość języka, zapewniający szerszy zakres praw socjalnych i gospodarczych;\nÒ rezydent stały – najbardziej stabilna forma pobytu, często poprzedzająca możliwość naturalizacji, umożliwiająca migrantom trwałe zakorzenienie się w społeczeństwie przyjmującym160.\nW UE status rezydenta został ujednolicony na mocy Dyrektywy 2003/109/\nWE dotyczącej statusu obywateli państw trzecich będących rezydentami długoterminowymi. Przepisy te gwarantują obywatelom państw trzecich, którzy legalnie przebywają na terytorium Unii przez co najmniej pięć lat, dostęp do szerokiego zakresu praw ekonomicznych i socjalnych oraz ograniczoną mobilność w obrębie wspólnoty. Choć obywatele UE korzystają z zasady swobody przepływu osób, status rezydenta długoterminowego pozostaje kluczowy dla obywateli państw trzecich, którzy stanowią znaczną część diaspor w Europie.\nW praktyce oznacza to możliwość trwałego osiedlenia się i funkcjonowania w społeczeństwach przyjmujących, nawet bez konieczności naturalizacji161.\nRegulacje dotyczące statusu rezydenta różnią się istotnie między poszczególnymi państwami. W USA system opiera się na instytucji tzw. zielonej karty\n(green card), która przyznaje prawo stałego pobytu i pracy, a także umożliwia ubieganie się o naturalizację po kilku latach. Jest to rozwiązanie pragmatyczne,\n159 T. Hammar, Democracy and the Nation State: aliens, denizens and citizens in a world of international migration, Aldershot 1990.\n160 S. Carrera, Integration of Immigrants in EU Law and Policy, [w:] L. Azoulai, K. De Vries\n(red.), EU Migration Law, Oxford University Press 2014.\n161 D. Acosta Arcarazo, The long-term residence status as a subsidiary form of EU citizenship:\nan analysis of directive 2003/109, Leiden; Boston 2011.\n\nmające na celu zarówno zapewnienie stabilności imigrantom, jak i utrzymanie kontroli nad procesem ich integracji. W Kanadzie status stałego rezydenta zapewnia niemal wszystkie prawa obywatelskie, z wyjątkiem prawa głosowania oraz możliwości ubiegania się o urzędy publiczne, co czyni go jednym z najbardziej liberalnych systemów tego rodzaju na świecie.\nW Europie natomiast można dostrzec znaczące różnice w podejściu poszczególnych państw do kwestii statusu rezydenta. Niemcy przez długi czas postrzegały status rezydenta jako formę „tymczasowości”, wymagając od cudzoziemców wysokiego stopnia asymilacji przed uzyskaniem prawa stałego pobytu. Z kolei Francja tradycyjnie traktowała rezydentów jako osoby włączane w model republikański, pod warunkiem akceptacji uniwersalistycznej koncepcji tożsamości obywatelskiej. W Polsce status rezydenta jest regulowany na podstawie ustawy o cudzoziemcach, która przewiduje m.in. przyznanie karty stałego pobytu otwierającej dostęp do rynku pracy i edukacji, lecz nie nadającej pełni praw politycznych.\nDla członków diaspory status rezydenta stanowi często kluczowy instrument umożliwiający funkcjonowanie w państwie przyjmującym. Choć nie zapewnia pełnej partycypacji politycznej, gwarantuje stabilność zatrudnienia oraz dostęp do edukacji, opieki zdrowotnej i innych usług publicznych.\nW praktyce wielu migrantów rezygnuje z ubiegania się o naturalizację, uznając status rezydenta za wystarczający dla codziennego funkcjonowania. W ten sposób rezydencja staje się narzędziem umożliwiającym funkcjonowanie „na pograniczu”, pomiędzy pełnym obywatelstwem a brakiem praw politycznych162.\nStatus rezydenta stanowi jeden z kluczowych instrumentów regulujących pozycję migrantów w państwach przyjmujących. Stanowi kompromis pomiędzy potrzebą stabilizacji a ochroną suwerenności państwa w zakresie nadawania obywatelstwa. Dla diaspor oznacza on możliwość trwałego funkcjonowania w społeczeństwach przyjmujących, bez konieczności ubiegania się o naturalizację. Jednocześnie ograniczona partycypacja polityczna sprawia, że rezydenci często funkcjonują w swoistej „szarej strefie” obywatelstwa, korzystają z praw socjalnych i gospodarczych, lecz nie uczestniczą w pełni w życiu politycznym.\nAnaliza obywatelstwa, podwójnego obywatelstwa i statusu rezydenta pozwala dostrzec, jak zróżnicowane są formalnoprawne ramy funkcjonowania diaspory i w jakim stopniu determinują one codzienne doświadczenia migrantów. Obywatelstwo, tradycyjnie pojmowane jako podstawowa więź\n162 L.S. Bosniak, The Citizen and the Alien: Dilemmas of Contemporary Membership, „Perspectives on Politics” t. 5 nr 4 (2007), DOI: 10.1017/S1537592707072283.\n\njednostki z państwem, pozostaje najważniejszą kategorią prawną, wyznaczającą pełnię praw i obowiązków. Normy prawa międzynarodowego i konstytucyjnego, w tym konwencje ONZ dotyczące ograniczania bezpaństwowości oraz regulacje Rady Europy, mają na celu zapewnienie jednostkom ochrony przed arbitralnym pozbawieniem obywatelstwa. Jednocześnie państwa zachowują szeroką autonomię w zakresie określania zasad nadawania, utraty i łączenia obywatelstwa z innymi przynależnościami państwowymi.\nPraktyka poszczególnych państw w tym zakresie wskazuje, że nie istnieje jeden uniwersalny model regulacji obywatelstwa. Polska, kierując się zasadą ius sanguinis, podtrzymuje więzi z diasporą i dopuszcza podwójne obywatelstwo, co odzwierciedla znaczenie historycznych doświadczeń emigracyjnych. Niemcy przez długi czas stosowały restrykcyjne podejście, postrzegając podwójne obywatelstwo jako potencjalne zagrożenie dla lojalności państwowej, choć w ostatnich dekadach zaczęły stopniowo liberalizować przepisy, zwłaszcza wobec obywateli UE. USA jako państwo imigracyjne, traktują obywatelstwo przede wszystkim jako narzędzie integracji, opierając się na zasadzie ius soli i akceptując podwójne obywatelstwo w praktyce. Kanada natomiast reprezentuje najbardziej liberalny model, łącząc obywatelstwo z ideą wielokulturowości i budując na jego podstawie inkluzywną wspólnotę polityczną. Przykłady te pokazują, że polityka wobec obywatelstwa i diaspory wynika zarówno z potrzeb wewnętrznych państwa, jak i z jego tożsamości historycznej oraz długofalowych strategii politycznych.\nObok obywatelstwa i podwójnego obywatelstwa kluczowe znaczenie ma status rezydenta, stanowiący rozwiązanie pośrednie między obywatelstwem a czasowym pobytem. Status rezydenta czasowego, długoterminowego i stałego wyznacza trzy etapy budowania stabilności pobytu migrantów w państwach przyjmujących. Status ten zapewnia dostęp do rynku pracy, edukacji i świadczeń socjalnych, choć ogranicza udział w życiu politycznym. W UE został częściowo zharmonizowany poprzez Dyrektywę 2003/109/WE dotyczącą rezydentów długoterminowych, natomiast w państwach imigracyjnych, takich jak USA i Kanada, jego odpowiednikiem jest instytucja zielonej karty lub status stałego rezydenta. Rozwiązania te mają szczególne znaczenie dla członków diaspory, którzy często rezygnują z ubiegania się o naturalizację, uznając status rezydenta za wystarczający dla codziennego funkcjonowania.\nPodsumowując, status formalnoprawny diaspory w zakresie obywatelstwa, podwójnego obywatelstwa i rezydencji nie stanowi jedynie technicznego aspektu prawa, lecz odzwierciedla głębsze wybory polityczne, społeczne i kulturowe poszczególnych państw. Obywatelstwo pozostaje kategorią prestiżową\n\ni symboliczną, podwójne obywatelstwo – narzędziem łączenia tożsamości i lojalności, natomiast status rezydenta – kompromisem między inkluzją a ograniczeniem pełni praw. Wspólnie tworzą one złożoną mozaikę regulacji, która określa sposób, w jaki diaspory mogą funkcjonować, integrować się oraz podtrzymywać więź z państwem pochodzenia.\n1.4.2. Przykłady rozwiązań prawnych w wybranych krajach\nStatus formalnoprawny członków diaspory nie jest kształtowany wyłącznie przez ogólne normy prawa międzynarodowego i konstytucyjnego. W dużej mierze zależy on od praktycznych rozwiązań prawnych przyjmowanych przez poszczególne państwa. Polityka wobec diaspory i cudzoziemców stanowi bowiem odzwierciedlenie uwarunkowań historycznych, tożsamości narodowej oraz priorytetów politycznych danego państwa. Analiza porównawcza wskazuje, że poszczególne państwa wykorzystują zróżnicowane narzędzia prawne\n– od specjalnych ustaw i instrumentów symbolicznych po pragmatyczne regulacje dotyczące podwójnego obywatelstwa oraz integracji migrantów.\nPolska jako państwo o licznej i historycznie ukształtowanej diasporze, wprowadziła instrumenty takie jak Karta Polaka oraz ustawa o repatriacji, mające na celu utrzymanie więzi narodowych i ułatwienie powrotu potomków emigrantów. Stany Zjednoczone, tradycyjnie postrzegane jako państwo imigracyjne, rozwijają regulacje dotyczące podwójnego obywatelstwa oraz prawa głosu dla obywateli przebywających za granicą. Niemcy z kolei wypracowały system statusu Ausländer oraz programów integracyjnych, które wskazują na ewolucję od modelu etnokulturowego ku bardziej inkluzywnemu podejściu. Francja, Wielka\nBrytania i Kanada reprezentują odmienne modele integracji – od republikańskiego uniwersalizmu, przez wielokulturowość, po pluralizm instytucjonalny.\nCelem niniejszej części rozdziału jest omówienie wybranych przykładów rozwiązań prawnych w różnych państwach i ukazanie, w jaki sposób regulacje te wpływają na relacje między państwem a diasporą, a także na funkcjonowanie samych diaspor w społeczeństwach przyjmujących.\nPolska: Karta Polaka i ustawa o repatriacji\nPolska, ze względu na swoją historię polityczną, geograficzną i demograficzną, wypracowała specyficzne instrumenty prawne, których celem jest utrzymywanie więzi z diasporą oraz wspieranie powrotów osób polskiego pochodzenia.\nDo najważniejszych z nich należą Karta Polaka oraz ustawa o repatriacji. Oba te instrumenty mają zarówno znaczenie symboliczne, jak i praktyczne, a ich\n\nfunkcjonowanie wpisuje się w szerszą politykę państwa wobec Polonii oraz osób polskiego pochodzenia pozostających poza granicami kraju.\nKarta Polaka, wprowadzona ustawą z 2007 roku, jest dokumentem potwierdzającym przynależność do narodu polskiego osób zamieszkałych głównie w krajach byłego ZSRR, nieposiadających obywatelstwa polskiego. Jej głównym celem jest ułatwienie utrzymywania więzi kulturowych i narodowych z Polską, a także zapewnienie posiadaczom szeregu uprawnień. Karta nie nadaje obywatelstwa, lecz uprawnia do korzystania z licznych przywilejów, takich jak prawo do bezpłatnego wstępu do instytucji kultury, zniżek w komunikacji publicznej, podejmowania pracy bez dodatkowych zezwoleń czy ubiegania się o stypendia edukacyjne163.\nKarta Polaka stanowi również istotne narzędzie polityki tożsamościowej państwa polskiego. Jej przyznawanie uzależnione jest od wykazania związku z polskością, m.in. poprzez znajomość języka polskiego, udokumentowane pochodzenie lub aktywną działalność na rzecz kultury polskiej. W ten sposób państwo polskie wzmacnia poczucie wspólnoty narodowej wśród potomków emigrantów i osób zamieszkujących obszary, na których Polacy byli historycznie obecni – m.in. na Litwie, Białorusi czy Ukrainie164. Krytycy podkreślają jednak, że Karta Polaka wprowadza zróżnicowanie między osobami polskiego pochodzenia a innymi cudzoziemcami, a ponadto bywa postrzegana jako źródło napięć w relacjach z państwami sąsiednimi, które interpretują ją jako instrument polityki wpływu165.\nDrugim istotnym instrumentem pozostaje ustawa o repatriacji z 2000 roku, która była wielokrotnie nowelizowana. Celem ustawy jest ułatwienie powrotu do Polski osobom polskiego pochodzenia zamieszkującym głównie w państwach azjatyckiej części byłego ZSRR, takich jak Kazachstan, Uzbekistan, Gruzja. Repatriacja rozumiana jest w tym kontekście nie tylko jako powrót w sensie geograficznym, lecz również jako symboliczne „przywrócenie” więzi narodowej, zerwanej w wyniku deportacji i przymusowych przesiedleń.\nUstawa przewiduje możliwość uzyskania wizy repatriacyjnej, która z chwilą przyjazdu do Polski automatycznie skutkuje nadaniem obywatelstwa polskiego. Repatrianci objęci są systemem wsparcia obejmującym mieszkania,\n163 M. Gońda, Ewolucja Karty Polaka jako instrumentu polityki państwa, CMR Working\nPapers, 2022.\n164 A. Górny, P. Kaczmarczyk, Introduction: Migration and Mobility in the Context of\nPost-Communist Transition in Central and Eastern Europe, „Central and Eastern European Migration Review” t. 8 nr 1 (2019) DOI: 10.17467/ceemr.2019.06.\n165 J. Fomina, Political Dissent and Democratic Remittances: The Activities of Russian Migrants in Europe, London 2021.\n\nświadczenia socjalne oraz programy integracyjne. W praktyce jednak skala repatriacji pozostaje ograniczona – w latach 2001–2020 w Polsce osiedliło się ok. 10 tys. repatriantów, co stanowi wartość znacznie niższą od pierwotnych założeń programu. Do głównych przyczyn tego stanu należą ograniczone zasoby finansowe państwa, złożone procedury administracyjne oraz trudności w zapewnieniu repatriantom mieszkań i stabilnego zatrudnienia.\nZnaczenie i konsekwencje\nZarówno Karta Polaka, jak i ustawa o repatriacji pełnią funkcję nie tylko prawną, lecz również symboliczną. Stanowią narzędzie wzmacniania więzi narodowej z diasporą, potwierdzając ideę wspólnoty wykraczającej poza granice. Mają również wymiar polityczny – umożliwiają Polsce prowadzenie aktywnej polityki wobec Polonii i potomków emigrantów, co w szerszym kontekście geopolitycznym wzmacnia pozycję państwa w regionie Europy\nŚrodkowo-Wschodniej.\nJednocześnie oba instrumenty ujawniają istotne ograniczenia. Krytycy zwracają uwagę, że ich stosowanie ma charakter selektywny – preferuje osoby polskiego pochodzenia, podczas gdy inni cudzoziemcy napotykają na znacznie większe bariery w procesie legalizacji pobytu. Z perspektywy społecznej i ekonomicznej wyzwaniem pozostaje także skuteczna integracja repatriantów, wymagająca nie tylko odpowiednich rozwiązań prawnych, lecz także kompleksowego wsparcia w obszarze edukacji, rynku pracy i życia lokalnego.\nPolska polityka wobec diaspory, uosabiana przez Kartę Polaka i ustawę o repatriacji, stanowi przykład integracji wymiaru prawnego z polityką tożsamości. Oba instrumenty pokazują, że państwo aktywnie poszukuje sposobów utrzymywania więzi z rodakami za granicą, ale także mierzy się z wyzwaniami praktycznymi, wynikającymi z ograniczeń finansowych, procedur administracyjnych oraz problemów integracyjnych. Polskie doświadczenie pokazuje, że status formalnoprawny diaspory nie stanowi jedynie kwestii technicznej, lecz jest integralnym elementem szerszej polityki historycznej, symbolicznej i geopolitycznej państwa.\nUSA: podwójne obywatelstwo i głosowanie z zagranicy\nStany Zjednoczone od początku swojej historii pozostają państwem imigracyjnym, a kwestie obywatelstwa i relacji z diasporą odgrywają kluczową rolę w kształtowaniu amerykańskiego porządku prawnego i politycznego. Amerykański model obywatelstwa opiera się przede wszystkim na zasadzie ius soli, która gwarantuje nabycie obywatelstwa każdej osobie urodzonej na terytorium\n\nUSA, niezależnie od statusu prawnego jej rodziców. Jednocześnie prawo przewiduje możliwość nabycia obywatelstwa w drodze naturalizacji, po spełnieniu określonych wymogów dotyczących długości pobytu, znajomości języka oraz integracji społecznej166. W kontekście diaspory szczególne znaczenie mają dwa aspekty: kwestia podwójnego obywatelstwa oraz prawo obywateli mieszkających za granicą do udziału w wyborach.\nTradycyjnie podwójne obywatelstwo postrzegano w USA z dużą rezerwą, a w latach 50. XX wieku podejmowano nawet próby jego ograniczania. Przełom nastąpił wraz z orzeczeniem Sądu Najwyższego w sprawie Afroyim v. Rusk\n(1967), w którym stwierdzono, że obywatela USA nie można pozbawić obywatelstwa wbrew jego woli. Od tego momentu amerykańska praktyka prawna uznaje możliwość posiadania więcej niż jednego obywatelstwa. Obecnie obywatel Stanów Zjednoczonych może swobodnie nabyć inne obywatelstwo – np.\npoprzez małżeństwo czy naturalizację za granicą – bez ryzyka utraty obywatelstwa amerykańskiego167.\nAkceptacja podwójnego obywatelstwa ma wymiar zarówno pragmatyczny, jak i polityczny. Po pierwsze, odzwierciedla globalny charakter mobilności i fakt, że miliony Amerykanów żyją za granicą. Po drugie, wzmacnia więzi z diasporą, umożliwiając jej łączenie lojalności wobec kraju pochodzenia i kraju zamieszkania. Po trzecie, pozwala na zachowanie więzi rodzinnych i ekonomicznych, co ma istotne znaczenie w globalnej gospodarce. Jednocześnie krytycy wskazują, że podwójne obywatelstwo może rodzić pytania o lojalność polityczną oraz komplikować obowiązki prawne (np. podatkowe), ponieważ\nUSA stosują zasadę globalnego opodatkowania obywateli, niezależnie od miejsca ich zamieszkania168.\nDrugim istotnym aspektem amerykańskiej polityki wobec diaspory jest możliwość głosowania przez obywateli mieszkających poza granicami kraju.\nUSA należą do grupy państw, które konsekwentnie wspierają udział diaspory w procesach demokratycznych. Podstawą prawną jest Uniformed and Overseas\nCitizens Absentee Voting Act (UOCAVA) z 1986 roku, który gwarantuje prawo do głosowania w wyborach federalnych członkom sił zbrojnych oraz obywatelom przebywającym za granicą169.\n166 P.J. Spiro, At Home in Two Countries...\n167 Ibid.\n168 T. Faist, The Volume and Dynamics of International Migration and Transnational Social\nSpaces, Oxford University Press 2000.\n169 J.-M. Lafleur, Transnational Politics and the State, London 2013.\n\nDzięki tym regulacjom Amerykanie mieszkający poza krajem mogą uczestniczyć w wyborach prezydenckich i kongresowych, a w wielu przypadkach także w wyborach stanowych i lokalnych. Procedury głosowania obejmują głównie system głosowania korespondencyjnego oraz – coraz częściej – elektroniczne formularze rejestracji. Udział diaspory w wyborach ma znaczenie polityczne:\nw niektórych stanach liczba głosów oddanych przez obywateli mieszkających za granicą może wpływać na ostateczny wynik wyborów, zwłaszcza w warunkach wyrównanej rywalizacji170.\nPodwójne obywatelstwo i prawo głosu z zagranicy wskazują, że USA traktują diasporę jako integralną część wspólnoty politycznej, niezależnie od miejsca zamieszkania. Takie rozwiązania wzmacniają więź obywateli z ojczyzną, umożliwiając im aktywne uczestnictwo w życiu publicznym. Z drugiej strony specyfika amerykańskiego systemu, zwłaszcza globalne opodatkowanie, sprawia, że część diaspory postrzega obowiązki związane z obywatelstwem jako obciążenie. Prowadzi to do zjawiska rezygnacji z obywatelstwa amerykańskiego, które w ostatnich latach nabiera na sile, zwłaszcza wśród osób prowadzących działalność gospodarczą za granicą171.\nPraktyki USA dotyczące podwójnego obywatelstwa i głosowania z zagranicy pokazują, że państwo to dąży do utrzymania silnych więzi z diasporą, traktując ją jako istotny element wspólnoty politycznej i gospodarczej. Obywatelstwo nie jest tu wyłącznie więzią terytorialną, lecz także trwałym statusem prawnym, który przekracza granice państwowe. Jednocześnie praktyka ta niesie ze sobą napięcia związane z lojalnością, obowiązkami podatkowymi oraz integracją transnarodową, które stawiają przed diasporą szczególne wyzwania.\nNiemcy: status Ausländer i Integrationskurse\nNiemcy stanowią szczególny przypadek w analizie rozwiązań prawnych dotyczących diaspory i migrantów. Państwo to przez długi czas określało się jako kraj nieimigracyjny, mimo że od lat 60. XX wieku przyjmowało znaczną liczbę cudzoziemców w ramach programów pracy sezonowej. Tradycyjne podejście prawne opierało się na traktowaniu cudzoziemców jako „gości” (Gastarbeiter), a ich status formalny wyrażany był pojęciem Ausländer – osoby nieposiadającej obywatelstwa niemieckiego, niezależnie od długości pobytu. Dopiero w ostatnich dekadach polityka niemiecka zaczęła ewoluować w stronę uznania\n170 Ibid.\n171 P. J. Spiro, At Home in Two Countries...\n\nNiemiec za kraj imigracyjny i rozwijania narzędzi integracyjnych, czego przykładem są Integrationskurse172.\nPrzez wiele lat niemieckie prawo obywatelskie i migracyjne utrwalało status cudzoziemca jako osoby pozbawionej perspektywy naturalizacji. Obywatelstwo niemieckie opierało się niemal wyłącznie na zasadzie ius sanguinis, co oznaczało, że osoby urodzone i wychowane w Niemczech, ale nieposiadające niemieckich rodziców, traktowane były formalnie jako Ausländer173. Status ten oznaczał ograniczone prawa polityczne, brak dostępu do szeregu stanowisk publicznych, a także poczucie tymczasowości.\nZmiany nastąpiły dopiero w 2000 roku wraz z reformą prawa o obywatelstwie, która wprowadziła elementy ius soli. Dzieci cudzoziemców urodzone w Niemczech mogły uzyskać niemieckie obywatelstwo, choć przez długi czas obowiązywała tzw. Optionspflicht, tj. konieczność wyboru jednego obywatelstwa po osiągnięciu pełnoletności. Dopiero kolejne nowelizacje złagodziły te przepisy, dopuszczając podwójne obywatelstwo w szerszym zakresie, zwłaszcza wobec obywateli UE174.\nStatus Ausländer wciąż jednak istnieje jako kategoria prawna odnosząca się do osób spoza Niemiec, które posiadają różne formy zezwoleń na pobyt.\nStanowi on podstawę do rozróżniania między obywatelami a nieobywatelami, a tym samym wskazuje na wciąż obecne ograniczenia w integracji.\nWażnym elementem współczesnej polityki niemieckiej wobec migrantów są Integrationskurse (kursy integracyjne), wprowadzone w 2005 roku wraz z Gesetz über den Aufenthalt, die Erwerbstätigkeit und die Integration von\nAusländern im Bundesgebiet. Kursy te obejmują naukę języka niemieckiego oraz elementy wiedzy o systemie prawnym, kulturze i historii kraju. Celem jest stworzenie podstaw dla pełniejszej integracji migrantów w społeczeństwie, co ma sprzyjać ich aktywizacji zawodowej i społecznej175.\nKursy integracyjne nie są jedynie programem edukacyjnym, lecz także narzędziem polityki państwowej. Uczestnictwo w nich bywa warunkiem uzyskania lub przedłużenia prawa pobytu. Osoby, które odmawiają udziału w kursach, mogą napotkać ograniczenia w dostępie do świadczeń socjalnych. W ten\n172 H. Esser, Sprache und Integration: Konzeptionelle Grundlagen und empirische Zusammenhänge, Wien 2006.\n173 S. Green, The Politics of the New Germany...\n174 M.M. Howard, The politics of citizenship in Europe, Cambridge University Press 2009.\n175 H. Esser, Sprache und Integration: Konzeptionelle Grundlagen und empirische\nZusammenhänge...\n\nsposób państwo niemieckie łączy kwestię prawnego statusu cudzoziemców z ich gotowością do uczestnictwa w procesie integracyjnym.\nZ punktu widzenia diaspory status Ausländer i system Integrationskurse obrazują ewolucję niemieckiej polityki wobec migrantów. Z jednej strony przez dekady prawo niemieckie wykluczało cudzoziemców z pełni wspólnoty politycznej, co sprzyjało tworzeniu się trwałych diaspor funkcjonujących na marginesie społeczeństwa. Z drugiej strony współczesne instrumenty integracyjne wskazują na zmianę – Niemcy coraz bardziej akceptują swoją rolę jako kraju imigracyjnego i wprowadzają mechanizmy sprzyjające inkluzji.\nPolityka ta jednak pozostaje ambiwalentna. Kursy integracyjne mogą być postrzegane jako forma wsparcia, lecz także jako narzędzie kontroli i dyscyplinowania migrantów. Krytycy podnoszą, że obowiązkowy charakter kursów i sankcje za ich nieukończenie mogą pogłębiać nierówności i wzmacniać stygmatyzację176.\nPrzypadek Niemiec ukazuje, w jaki sposób praktyki prawne wobec cudzoziemców ewoluują pod wpływem czynników społecznych i politycznych. Status Ausländer przez lata utrwalał separację między obywatelami a diasporą, a dopiero współczesne reformy wprowadziły elementy otwartości. Integrationskurse stały się symbolem nowego podejścia, próbą aktywnego włączania migrantów, lecz także narzędziem regulowania ich obecności w kraju. Niemcy pozostają przykładem państwa, w którym rozwiązania prawne wobec diaspory balansują między inkluzją a ekskluzywnością, co odzwierciedla szersze napięcia obecne w europejskich debatach migracyjnych.\nFrancja, Wielka Brytania i Kanada – różne modele integracji i uznania mniejszości narodowych\nDiaspory funkcjonują w odmiennych warunkach politycznych i prawnych, uzależnionych od modeli integracji przyjętych w poszczególnych państwach. Analiza porównawcza Francji, Wielkiej Brytanii i Kanady ukazuje trzy odmienne podejścia: republikański uniwersalizm, wielokulturowość i pluralizm instytucjonalny. Każdy z tych modeli odzwierciedla odmienne tradycje konstytucyjne i polityczne, a tym samym w różny sposób kształtuje status formalnoprawny i społeczne funkcjonowanie diaspor.\nFrancja odwołuje się do idei republikańskiej, w której obywatelstwo rozumiane jest jako kategoria uniwersalna, niezależna od etnicznego bądź\n176 S.W. Goodman, Immigration and Membership Politics in Western Europe, Cambridge\nUniversity Press 2014.\n\nkulturowego pochodzenia jednostki. Model ten opiera się na zasadzie laïcité\n(świeckości) i równości wobec prawa, zakładając, że wszyscy obywatele są częścią jednolitej wspólnoty republikańskiej. W praktyce oznacza to, że państwo nie uznaje mniejszości narodowych ani grup etnicznych jako odrębnych podmiotów prawnych177.\nDla diaspor we Francji takie stanowisko państwa przyjmującego oznacza możliwość pełnego uczestnictwa w życiu politycznym i społecznym poprzez naturalizację, przy jednoczesnym wymogu adaptacji do wspólnych wartości republikańskich. Krytycy podnoszą, że model francuski sprzyja asymilacji, a w konsekwencji może prowadzić do marginalizacji tożsamości kulturowych, zwłaszcza w przypadku diaspor muzułmańskich178.\nW odróżnieniu od Francji Wielka Brytania rozwijała podejście oparte na modelu wielokulturowym, to jest na uznaniu i instytucjonalnym wsparciu różnorodności kulturowej. Model wielokulturowości zakłada, że mniejszości etniczne mogą zachowywać własne tradycje, języki i religie, a państwo powinno tworzyć ramy prawne umożliwiające ich pełne funkcjonowanie w społeczeństwie. Diaspory w Wielkiej Brytanii korzystają z prawa do organizowania instytucji edukacyjnych, kulturalnych i religijnych, a prawo antydyskryminacyjne chroni ich status179.\nModel brytyjski przez długi czas wskazywano jako wzorcowy, jednak w ostatnich dekadach uległ on kryzysowi. Zamachy terrorystyczne z początku\nXXI wieku oraz wzrost populizmu doprowadziły do zwrotu w stronę retoryki integracji i „brytyjskich wartości”. Niemniej doświadczenia brytyjskie pokazują, że diaspory mogą funkcjonować jako uznane i wspierane wspólnoty, współtworząc pluralistyczne społeczeństwo.\nKanada stanowi przykład państwa, które konsekwentnie realizuje politykę wielokulturowości jako element swojej tożsamości narodowej. Od 1971 roku obowiązuje oficjalna polityka wielokulturowa, a Canadian Multiculturalism Act z 1988 roku nadał jej podstawy prawne. Państwo nie tylko akceptuje różnorodność kulturową, lecz także aktywnie ją wspiera poprzez programy\n177 R. Brubaker, The ‘diaspora’ diaspora, „Ethnic and Racial Studies” t. 28 nr 1 (2005), DOI:\n10.1080/0141987042000289997; W.R. Brubaker, Citizenship and nationhood in France and Germany, Columbia University 1990.\n178 R. Koopmans, Multiculturalism and Immigration: A Contested Field in Cross-National Comparison, „Annual Review of Sociology” t. 39, nr 1 (2013), DOI: 10.1146/annurev-soc-071312-145630.\n179 T. Modood, Multiculturalism: a civic idea, Cambridge 2013.\n\nfinansowania instytucji mniejszościowych, edukację wielokulturową i prawną ochronę języków mniejszości180.\nW kanadyjskim modelu diaspory postrzegane są jako integralna część społeczeństwa. Imigranci mogą zachować własną tożsamość kulturową, a jednocześnie aktywnie uczestniczyć w życiu politycznym. Kanada akceptuje podwójne obywatelstwo i umożliwia głosowanie z zagranicy, co wzmacnia więź diaspory zarówno z państwem pochodzenia, jak i z krajem osiedlenia.\nModel kanadyjski jest często wskazywany jako przykład najbardziej inkluzywnej polityki wobec migrantów i diaspor181.\nPorównanie Francji, Wielkiej Brytanii i Kanady pokazuje, że różnice w statusie formalnoprawnym diaspor nie wynikają jedynie z przepisów prawa o obywatelstwie, lecz także z szerszych modeli integracyjnych. Francja reprezentuje podejście asymilacyjne, Wielka Brytania – pluralizm kulturowy, a Kanada – instytucjonalny multikulturalizm. Każdy z tych modeli ma swoje zalety i ograniczenia: francuski sprzyja równości formalnej, lecz ogranicza różnorodność;\nbrytyjski pozwala na zachowanie tożsamości, jednak ryzykuje fragmentaryzacją społeczną; kanadyjski oferuje najszersze wsparcie, choć bywa krytykowany za „etniczny klientelizm”. Francja, Wielka Brytania i Kanada ukazują trzy odmienne podejścia do kwestii integracji i uznania mniejszości narodowych.\nIch przykłady pozwalają lepiej zrozumieć, w jaki sposób regulacje prawne i polityczne modele wpływają na codzienne funkcjonowanie diaspor, ich tożsamość i stopień włączenia w społeczeństwo przyjmujące.\nAnaliza rozwiązań prawnych w Polsce, USA, Niemczech, a także we Francji, Wielkiej Brytanii i Kanadzie pokazuje, że status formalnoprawny diaspory jest wypadkową nie tylko norm konstytucyjnych i międzynarodowych, lecz przede wszystkim polityk historycznych i modeli integracyjnych przyjętych przez poszczególne państwa. Każdy z tych przypadków ilustruje odmienne podejście do kwestii obywatelstwa, podwójnej przynależności i integracji, co znacząco wpływa na funkcjonowanie diaspory.\nPolska, jako kraj o długiej tradycji emigracyjnej i licznej diasporze, skonstruowała instrumenty służące utrzymywaniu więzi narodowych, takie jak\nKarta Polaka oraz Ustawa o repatriacji. Pierwszy z dokumentów ma charakter\n180 W. Kymlicka, Multicultural Citizenship: A Liberal Theory of Minority Rights, Oxford\nUniversity Press, Oxford 1996; W. Kymlicka, Politics in the Vernacular: Nationalism,\nMulticulturalism, and Citizenship, Oxford University Press, Oxford 2001.\n181 I. Bloemraad, Understanding “Canadian Exceptionalism” in Immigration and Pluralism\nPolicy...\n\nzarówno symboliczny, jak i praktyczny, oferując szerokie przywileje osobom polskiego pochodzenia, zwłaszcza w państwach byłego ZSRR. Ustawa o repatriacji z kolei umożliwia potomkom zesłańców i emigrantów powrót do kraju wraz z automatycznym nadaniem obywatelstwa. Oba rozwiązania wskazują na etniczny charakter polskiej polityki wobec diaspory, lecz jednocześnie ujawniają ograniczenia finansowe i proceduralne, które zmniejszają ich skuteczność.\nUSA reprezentują zupełnie odmienny model, w którym obywatelstwo pełni funkcję narzędzia integracji. Liberalne podejście do podwójnego obywatelstwa pozwala imigrantom zachować więź z krajem pochodzenia, jednocześnie uczestnicząc w życiu politycznym USA. Szczególnie istotne jest prawo głosowania z zagranicy, które wzmacnia więź diaspory z ojczyzną i czyni z niej potencjalnie wpływową grupę wyborczą. Amerykański model pokazuje, w jaki sposób instytucje prawne mogą rozszerzać przestrzeń demokracji poza granice państwa, kształtując obywatelstwo transnarodowe.\nNiemcy przez dekady stanowiły przykład państwa restrykcyjnego w kwestii obywatelstwa. Status Ausländer symbolizował podejście etnokulturowe, w którym cudzoziemcy, nawet urodzeni i wychowani w Niemczech, pozostawali formalnie poza wspólnotą polityczną. Dopiero reformy z początku\nXXI wieku oraz wprowadzenie kursów integracyjnych (Integrationskurse) zmieniły kierunek polityki, wskazując na stopniowe uznanie Niemiec za kraj imigracyjny. Wciąż jednak istnieje napięcie między wsparciem integracyjnym a mechanizmami kontroli i dyscyplinowania migrantów.\nFrancja, Wielka Brytania i Kanada reprezentują trzy odmienne modele integracji. Francuski republikański uniwersalizm zakłada formalną równość wszystkich obywateli, lecz sprzyja asymilacji kosztem tożsamości etnicznych i kulturowych. Brytyjski model wielokulturowości, przynajmniej w swojej klasycznej postaci, uznaje i wspiera pluralizm tożsamości, umożliwiając diasporom zachowanie własnych tradycji i instytucji. Kanada natomiast posuwa się najdalej, instytucjonalizując multikulturalizm jako element tożsamości narodowej i traktując diaspory jako integralną część wspólnoty politycznej.\nPorównanie tych przypadków prowadzi do kilku wniosków:\n1. Status formalnoprawny diaspory jest silnie zakorzeniony w historii politycznej i kulturze prawnej państwa. Polska i Niemcy akcentują element etniczny, USA i Kanada stawiają na inkluzję, natomiast Francja i Wielka\nBrytania różnią się podejściem do roli tożsamości kulturowej.\n2. Różnice w regulacjach wpływają na praktyczne doświadczenia migrantów\n– od łatwości naturalizacji i uczestnictwa w życiu politycznym (Kanada,\nUSA) po ograniczenia i wymogi asymilacyjne (Niemcy, Francja).\n\n3. Wszystkie państwa traktują diaspory nie tylko jako przedmiot polityki migracyjnej, lecz także jako zasób polityczny, gospodarczy i symboliczny.\nPodsumowując, przykłady te pokazują, że status prawny diaspory nigdy nie jest neutralny, lecz stanowi narzędzie realizacji szerszych celów państwa.\nPolityki te mogą sprzyjać budowaniu więzi i integracji, ale mogą również prowadzić do marginalizacji i wykluczenia. Zrozumienie tych różnic jest kluczowe dla analizy współczesnych diaspor oraz ich roli w stosunkach międzynarodowych oraz w polityce wewnętrznej państw (tabela 4) .\nTabela 4. Porównanie wybranych cech diaspor w Unii europejskiej. Diaspory z UE a diaspory spoza UE\nCechy Diaspory w ramach UE Diaspory spoza UE\nSwoboda przepływu osób Prawo migracyjne państw\nPodstawa prawna i pracy (Traktat z Maastricht, przyjmujących; brak wspólnych dyrektywy UE) ram prawnych\nObywatelstwo podwójne\nCzęsto wymóg naturalizacji;\nStatus obywatelski lub narodowe wraz ograniczone prawa polityczne z obywatelstwem UE\nPełna swoboda zatrudnienia\nOgraniczenia wizowe\n(po okresach przejściowych\nDostęp do rynku pracy i konieczność uzyskania w niektórych państwach zezwoleń na pracę członkowskich)\nMigranci często uznawani za\nMigranci postrzegani jako\nIntegracja społeczna „obcych”; proces integracji\n„mobilni obywatele UE” i asymilacji bardziej złożony\nKonsulaty, ambasady oraz\nPunkty informacyjne UE, stowarzyszenia polonijne\nInstytucje wsparcia konsulaty, organizacje\n(często odgrywają większą rolę polonijne niż w UE)\nDualna: „Polak–Europejczyk”; Silniejsza presja asymilacyjna;\nTożsamość i identyfikacja łatwiejsze utrzymanie więzi powstawanie nowych, z krajem pochodzenia hybrydowych form tożsamości\nPolacy w Wielkiej Brytanii, Polonia w Stanach\nPrzykłady Niemczech i Irlandii po 2004 Zjednoczonych, Kanadzie roku i Brazylii; migranci w Australii\nŹródło: opracowanie własne na podstawie: A. Fihel, A. Janicka, M. Okólski, Predicting a Migration Transition in\nPoland and its Implications for Population Ageing, „Central and Eastern European Migration Review” t. 12 nr 1 (2023),\nDOI: 10.54667/ceemr.2023.15, http://ceemr.uw.edu.pl/vol-12-no-1-2023/special-series/predicting-migrationtransition-poland-and-its-implications; M. Lesińska, Polska diaspora, Polonia, emigracja. Spory pojęciowe wokół skupisk polskich za granicą, „Polski Przegląd Migracyjny” nr 1 (2018).\n\n1.4.3. Konsekwencje prawne dla funkcjonowania społecznego i politycznego diaspory\nStatus formalnoprawny diaspory, kształtowany przez regulacje dotyczące obywatelstwa, podwójnego obywatelstwa oraz rezydencji, wywiera bezpośredni wpływ na funkcjonowanie społeczno-polityczne migrantów w krajach przyjmujących i wysyłających. Normy prawne nie są jedynie technicznym zapisem, lecz determinują dostęp do rynku pracy, edukacji, opieki socjalnej, a także możliwość uczestniczenia w życiu publicznym i politycznym. Tym samym wyznaczają ramy, w których diaspory mogą się integrować, budować własne instytucje bądź pozostawać na marginesie społeczeństwa.\nZ jednej strony korzystny status prawny sprzyja aktywnej partycypacji i poczuciu przynależności, umożliwiając diasporom pełnienie funkcji pomostu między krajem pochodzenia a społeczeństwem przyjmującym. Z drugiej strony ograniczenia w zakresie praw politycznych czy barier w dostępie do usług publicznych mogą prowadzić do marginalizacji i poczucia wykluczenia.\nRównocześnie państwa wysyłające – poprzez instrumenty, takie jak głosowanie z zagranicy czy programy repatriacyjne – mogą wzmacniać więzi z diasporą, traktując ją jako zasób polityczny i gospodarczy.\nW niniejszym opracowaniu omówiono trzy główne obszary konsekwencji prawnych: dostęp do pracy, edukacji i ochrony socjalnej; udział w życiu politycznym państwa przyjmującego; oraz uczestnictwo w polityce kraju pochodzenia. Analiza ta ukaże, w jaki sposób rozwiązania prawne przekładają się na codzienne doświadczenia diaspory oraz na jej pozycję w systemach społecznych i politycznych.\nPrawo do pracy, edukacji, ochrony socjalnej\nPrawo do pracy, edukacji i ochrony socjalnej stanowi fundament integracji migrantów w społeczeństwach przyjmujących. Dostęp do tych obszarów zależy bezpośrednio od statusu formalnoprawnego diaspory – obywatelstwa, prawa stałego pobytu bądź statusu rezydenta czasowego. Regulacje prawne określają nie tylko zakres uprawnień, lecz także stopień równouprawnienia migrantów w stosunku do obywateli danego państwa.\nW większości państw wysoko rozwiniętych prawo do pracy jest ściśle powiązane z posiadaniem zezwolenia na pobyt. Stały rezydent zazwyczaj ma pełny dostęp do rynku pracy, podczas gdy osoby z krótkoterminowym statusem pobytowym często muszą spełniać dodatkowe wymogi, takie jak pozwolenia\n\nna pracę czy ograniczenia sektorowe182. W Unii Europejskiej obywatele państw członkowskich korzystają z zasady swobody przepływu osób, która zapewnia im równy dostęp do zatrudnienia w całej wspólnocie. Odmiennie sytuacja wygląda w przypadku obywateli państw trzecich – choć dyrektywa o rezydentach długoterminowych z 2003 roku gwarantuje im szeroki dostęp do rynku pracy, w praktyce często napotykają bariery administracyjne i społeczne183.\nOgraniczenia w dostępie do pracy mogą prowadzić do marginalizacji diaspory i wzmacniać jej funkcjonowanie w szarej strefie gospodarki. W literaturze podkreśla się, że utrudnienia prawne w legalnym zatrudnieniu zwiększają ryzyko wyzysku ekonomicznego i utrudniają integrację społeczną184.\nEdukacja stanowi jeden z kluczowych instrumentów integracyjnych, szczególnie w przypadku drugiego pokolenia migrantów. Międzynarodowe normy, takie jak Konwencja o prawach dziecka ONZ, gwarantują prawo do edukacji wszystkim dzieciom, niezależnie od ich statusu migracyjnego. W praktyce jednak dostęp do edukacji wyższej oraz wsparcia socjalnego bywa ograniczony w zależności od statusu rezydenta.\nW krajach takich jak Niemcy czy Francja dzieci migrantów mają pełny dostęp do systemu szkolnictwa obowiązkowego, jednak bariery językowe i społeczne utrudniają im osiąganie wyników na poziomie ich rówieśników. Badania wskazują, że brak równych szans edukacyjnych często prowadzi do dziedziczenia nierówności społecznych w diasporach185. Jednocześnie programy integracyjne – takie jak kursy językowe czy wsparcie dla rodziców – odgrywają kluczową rolę w wyrównywaniu szans.\nDostęp do ochrony socjalnej stanowi jedno z najbardziej kontrowersyjnych zagadnień w polityce wobec diaspory. Z formalnego punktu widzenia wielu rezydentów długoterminowych i obywatele korzystają z równego prawa do świadczeń socjalnych. Jednak praktyka pokazuje, że w wielu państwach dostęp do zasiłków, opieki zdrowotnej czy programów wsparcia uzależniony jest od długości pobytu, poziomu zatrudnienia bądź obywatelstwa.\nW Europie dyskusja wokół tzw. turystyki socjalnej, zdominowana obawami, że migranci przenoszą się do państw z bardziej rozbudowanymi systemami\n182 M. Ruhs, The price of rights: regulating international labor migration, Princeton (N.J.) 2013.\n183 S. Carrera, Integration of Immigrants in EU Law and Policy...\n184 B. Anderson, Migration, Immigration Controls and the Fashioning of Precarious Workers,\n„Work, Employment and Society” 2010, t. 24, nr 2, DOI: 10.1177/0950017010362141.\n185 M. Crul, J. Schneider, Comparative Integration Context Theory: Participation and Belonging in New Diverse European Cities, „Ethnic and Racial Studies” 2010, t. 33, nr 7, DOI:\n10.1080/01419871003624068.\n\nsocjalnymi, wpłynęła na ograniczenie dostępu do niektórych świadczeń dla obywateli UE i osób z państw trzecich186. W USA i Kanadzie status rezydenta stałego zapewnia szeroki dostęp do systemu ochrony zdrowia i świadczeń, jednak migranci nieudokumentowani pozostają w dużej mierze wykluczeni, co pogłębia nierówności zdrowotne187.\nDostęp do pracy, edukacji i ochrony socjalnej stanowi kluczowy czynnik kształtujący pozycję społeczną diaspory. Regulacje prawne mogą sprzyjać integracji i awansowi społecznemu, lecz mogą również prowadzić do reprodukcji wykluczenia. Diaspory pozbawione pełnego dostępu do rynku pracy i usług publicznych częściej funkcjonują w równoległych strukturach społecznych, co utrudnia ich uczestnictwo w życiu społecznym wspólnoty przyjmującej.\nZ kolei szeroki dostęp do tych praw sprzyja nie tylko indywidualnemu rozwojowi migrantów, ale także wzmacnia ich rolę jako zasobu dla społeczeństwa przyjmującego.\nStatus prawny diaspory w zakresie pracy, edukacji i ochrony socjalnej ma kluczowe znaczenie dla jej integracji społecznej. Regulacje prawne mogą stanowić narzędzie włączenia bądź wykluczenia – w zależności od tego, czy zapewniają równe prawa w porównaniu z obywatelami państwa przyjmującego. Zrozumienie tych mechanizmów pozwala dostrzec, że prawo nie tylko kształtuje warunki życia jednostek, lecz także współdecyduje o strukturze i pozycji całych diaspor w nowoczesnych społeczeństwach.\nUdział w życiu politycznym państwa przyjmującego i wysyłającego\nUdział diaspory w życiu politycznym państwa przyjmującego stanowi jeden z kluczowych aspektów integracji. Polityczna partycypacja migrantów obejmuje szeroki wachlarz działań – od korzystania z praw wyborczych, przez udział w konsultacjach społecznych i organizacjach pozarządowych, aż po nieformalne formy mobilizacji politycznej. Stopień zaangażowania zależy w dużej mierze od ram prawnych regulujących dostęp do praw politycznych cudzoziemców, a także od kultury politycznej państwa przyjmującego.\nNajbardziej wymiernym wyznacznikiem uczestnictwa politycznego jest prawo do głosowania. W większości państw prawo to jest zarezerwowane wyłącznie dla obywateli, jednak istnieją wyjątki. Na przykład w Unii Europejskiej\n186 E. Guild et al. (red.), Social Benefits and Migration: A Contested Relationship and Policy\nChallenge in the EU, Brussels (Belgium) 2013.\n187 H. Yoshikawa, Immigrants raising citizens: Undocumented parents and their children,\nNew York 2011.\n\nobywatele innych państw członkowskich mają prawo do głosowania i kandydowania w wyborach lokalnych w kraju zamieszkania, co stanowi przejaw obywatelstwa unijnego188. W niektórych państwach, takich jak Szwecja czy Norwegia, cudzoziemcy posiadający status rezydenta długoterminowego mogą uczestniczyć w wyborach lokalnych, lecz nie w krajowych.\nW krajach o bardziej restrykcyjnych regulacjach, takich jak Stany Zjednoczone, prawo głosu przysługuje wyłącznie obywatelom. Migranci bez naturalizacji pozostają wykluczeni z instytucjonalnej polityki, co ogranicza ich możliwości reprezentowania własnych interesów. Niemniej jednak nawet w takich warunkach diaspory mogą oddziaływać politycznie poprzez lobbying, uczestnictwo w kampaniach czy tworzenie organizacji etnicznych189.\nObok praw wyborczych istotnym obszarem zaangażowania politycznego diaspory są organizacje społeczne i pozarządowe. Tworzą one przestrzeń do reprezentowania interesów migrantów, przeciwdziałania dyskryminacji oraz promowania kultury kraju pochodzenia. W Wielkiej Brytanii i Kanadzie rozwój takich organizacji był wspierany przez politykę wielokulturowości, która uznawała i finansowała działalność instytucji mniejszościowych190.\nMobilizacja diaspory odbywa się również na poziomie nieformalnym – poprzez protesty, kampanie społeczne czy współpracę z ruchami obywatelskimi. Badania wskazują, że migranci często angażują się w kwestie dotyczące praw człowieka, równości oraz przeciwdziałania dyskryminacji, co może wzmacniać kapitał demokratyczny społeczeństw przyjmujących191.\nMimo formalnych możliwości uczestnictwa diaspory często napotykają bariery utrudniające ich zaangażowanie polityczne. Do najważniejszych należą ograniczenia językowe, brak wiedzy o systemie politycznym, niskie poczucie sprawczości oraz obawy przed stygmatyzacją. W wielu państwach utrwala się również dyskurs przedstawiający migrantów jako „gości” lub „tanią siłę roboczą”, co prowadzi do marginalizacji ich roszczeń do pełni praw politycznych192.\n188 J. Arrighi, R. Bauböck, A Multilevel Puzzle: Migrants’ Voting Rights in National and Local Elections,\n„European Journal of Political Research” t. 56 nr 3 (2017), DOI: 10.1111/1475-6765.12176.\n189 I. Bloemraad, Understanding “Canadian Exceptionalism” in Immigration and Pluralism\nPolicy...\n190 W. Kymlicka, Politics in the Vernacular...\n191 L. Morales, M. Giugni, Political Opportunities, Social Capital and the Political Inclusion of Immigrants in European Cities, [w:] L. Morales, M. Giugni (red.), Social Capital,\nPolitical Participation and Migration in Europe, London 2011; O. Strijbis, Beyond opportunity structures: explaining migrant protest in Western Europe, 1975–2005, „Comparative\nMigration Studies” t. 3 nr 1 (2015), DOI: 10.1007/s40878-015-0005-8.\n192 R. Koopmans, Multiculturalism and Immigration....\n\nZ badań porównawczych wynika, że poziom uczestnictwa politycznego diaspory wzrasta wraz z długością pobytu i uzyskaniem stabilnego statusu prawnego. Naturalizacja w znacznym stopniu zwiększa szanse na udział w instytucjonalnej polityce, gdyż otwiera dostęp do praw wyborczych i możliwości kandydowania193.\nMożliwość uczestnictwa w życiu politycznym stanowi nie tylko kwestię formalnych uprawnień, lecz także symboliczne potwierdzenie przynależności do wspólnoty politycznej. Diaspory mające dostęp do praw politycznych częściej postrzegają państwo przyjmujące jako „swoje”, co sprzyja ich integracji i lojalności wobec nowej ojczyzny. Z kolei wykluczenie polityczne może prowadzić do alienacji i utrwalania się tożsamości transnarodowej, w której więzi z krajem pochodzenia pozostają silniejsze niż z krajem osiedlenia.\nUdział w życiu politycznym państwa przyjmującego stanowi kluczowy aspekt integracji diaspory. Ramy prawne wyznaczają granice tego uczestnictwa, lecz jego faktyczny poziom zależy również od czynników społecznych i kulturowych. Modele bardziej inkluzywne, takie jak skandynawski czy kanadyjski, sprzyjają kształtowaniu diaspory jako aktywnego aktora politycznego.\nModele bardziej restrykcyjne, takie jak francuski czy amerykański, ograniczają formalne możliwości, lecz często prowadzą do alternatywnych form mobilizacji. W każdym przypadku polityczna partycypacja diaspory ma znaczenie nie tylko dla niej samej, lecz także dla jakości demokracji i spójności społecznej w państwach przyjmujących.\nDiaspory nie tylko integrują się w społeczeństwach przyjmujących, lecz również zachowują istotne więzi polityczne z państwami pochodzenia. Państwa wysyłające coraz częściej dostrzegają znaczenie diaspory jako zasobu politycznego, gospodarczego i symbolicznego, rozwijając mechanizmy instytucjonalne służące utrzymywaniu więzi obywatelskich i politycznych. Uczestnictwo w polityce kraju pochodzenia przybiera różne formy – od głosowania z zagranicy, poprzez reprezentację parlamentarną, aż po udział w konsultacjach czy działalność lobbystyczną.\nNajpowszechniejszym instrumentem partycypacji politycznej diaspory w kraju wysyłającym jest prawo do głosowania z zagranicy. Obecnie ponad 120 państw na świecie przewiduje taką możliwość, choć jej zakres jest\n193 I. Bloemraad, K. Schönwälder, Immigrant and Ethnic Minority Representation in Europe:\nConceptual Challenges and Theoretical Approaches, „West European Politics” t. 36 nr 3\n(2013), DOI: 10.1080/01402382.2013.773724.\n\nzróżnicowany194. W wielu przypadkach obywatele mieszkający za granicą mogą głosować w wyborach prezydenckich i parlamentarnych, co pozwala im zachować aktywną więź z ojczyzną. Przykładami są Polska, Włochy czy Meksyk, które umożliwiają swoim diasporom oddawanie głosów w placówkach dyplomatycznych lub korespondencyjnie.\nGłosowanie z zagranicy bywa jednak przedmiotem kontrowersji. Krytycy podnoszą, że decyzje polityczne podejmowane przez diasporę mogą mieć istotny wpływ na sytuację wewnętrzną państwa, mimo iż sami głosujący nie ponoszą konsekwencji tych decyzji w codziennym życiu. Zwolennicy podkreślają natomiast, że prawo do głosowania stanowi integralną część obywatelstwa i nie powinno wygasać w momencie emigracji195.\nNiektóre państwa poszły o krok dalej, wprowadzając specjalne mechanizmy reprezentacji parlamentarnej dla swoich diaspor. Włochy od 2001 roku posiadają stałe miejsca w parlamencie, zarezerwowane dla przedstawicieli obywateli mieszkających za granicą. Podobne rozwiązania funkcjonują m.in.\nwe Francji, gdzie diaspora ma swoich przedstawicieli w Senacie oraz w Zgromadzeniu Narodowym196. Takie rozwiązania zwiększają polityczną widoczność diaspory i umożliwiają jej bezpośredni wpływ na proces legislacyjny.\nW wielu krajach powstały wyspecjalizowane instytucje zajmujące się utrzymywaniem kontaktów z diasporą. Polska prowadzi taką działalność poprzez Senat RP i instytucje rządowe odpowiedzialne za Polonię, Meksyk utworzył Instituto de los Mexicanos en el Exterior, a Indie – Ministry of Overseas Indian Affairs197. Instytucje te nie tylko wspierają prawa polityczne diaspory, lecz także realizują programy gospodarcze, kulturalne i edukacyjne, mające na celu utrzymywanie więzi narodowej.\nDiaspory nie są wyłącznie biernym odbiorcą polityki państw wysyłających – coraz częściej stają się aktywnymi aktorami transnarodowymi.\nMogą lobbować na rzecz interesów swojego kraju w państwie przyjmującym, wpływać na politykę zagraniczną oraz finansować kampanie polityczne w ojczyźnie. Przykładami są diaspora kubańska w USA, która przez dekady\n194 M. Collyer, Inside Out? Directly Elected “Special Representation” of Emigrants in National\nLegislatures and the Role of Popular Sovereignty, „Political Geography” t. 41 (2014), DOI:\n10.1016/j.polgeo.2014.01.002.\n195 R. Bauböck, Stakeholder Citizenship and Transnational Political Participation: A Normative Evaluation of External Voting...\n196 C. Escobar, Extraterritorial Political Rights and Dual Citizenship in Latin America, „Latin\nAmerican Research Review” t. 42 nr 3 (2007), DOI: 10.1353/lar.2007.0046.\n197 A. Gamlen, Diaspora Institutions and Diaspora Governance...\n\nwywierała istotny wpływ na politykę amerykańską wobec Kuby, oraz diaspora hinduska w Ameryce Północnej, odgrywająca rosnącą rolę w relacjach indyjsko-amerykańskich198.\nUdział diaspory w polityce kraju wysyłającego budzi również kontrowersje natury demokratycznej. Z jednej strony zapewnia utrzymanie więzi obywatelskich i wzmacnia poczucie wspólnoty narodowej. Z drugiej strony rodzi pytania o legitymację polityczną – czy osoby, które nie mieszkają w kraju i nie ponoszą konsekwencji polityki rządu, powinny mieć pełne prawa wyborcze?\nNiektóre państwa próbują rozwiązać ten problem, ograniczając okres, przez który emigranci zachowują prawa wyborcze. Przykładowo Wielka Brytania przez wiele lat stosowała limit 15 lat, po upływie którego obywatele tracili prawo do głosowania199.\nDiaspory odgrywają coraz istotniejszą rolę w polityce państw wysyłających. Poprzez głosowanie z zagranicy, reprezentację parlamentarną i działalność instytucjonalną uczestniczą w życiu politycznym ojczyzny, mimo że fizycznie pozostają poza jej granicami. Takie uczestnictwo wzmacnia więzi narodowe, ale jednocześnie rodzi pytania o demokratyczną legitymację decyzji podejmowanych przez osoby niezamieszkujące kraju. Analiza tych mechanizmów pokazuje, że w dobie globalizacji obywatelstwo i prawa polityczne nabierają transnarodowego charakteru, a diaspory stają się aktorami polityki nie tylko krajowej, ale i międzynarodowej.\nAnaliza konsekwencji prawnych dla funkcjonowania diaspory wskazuje, że regulacje dotyczące pracy, edukacji, ochrony socjalnej oraz uczestnictwa politycznego mają kluczowe znaczenie dla pozycji migrantów zarówno w państwie przyjmującym, jak i w państwie wysyłającym. Prawo nie stanowi jedynie neutralnego narzędzia administracyjnego, lecz kształtuje ramy integracji, poczucia przynależności i uczestnictwa w życiu społecznym.\nW obszarze dostępu do pracy, edukacji i ochrony socjalnej widoczne są zarówno możliwości, jak i ograniczenia. Stały rezydent w wielu krajach korzysta z szerokich uprawnień, jednak osoby o mniej stabilnym statusie prawnym napotykają bariery administracyjne i ryzyko marginalizacji. Ograniczony dostęp do legalnego zatrudnienia sprzyja powstawaniu szarej strefy, natomiast\n198 P. Levitt, R. De La Dehesa, Transnational Migration and the Redefinition of the State:\nVariations and Explanations, „Ethnic and Racial Studies” t. 26 nr 4 (2003), DOI:\n10.1080/0141987032000087325.\n199 R. Zapata-Barrero et al., The political participation of immigrants in host countries:\nAn interpretative framework from the perspective of origin countries and societies, „INTER-\nACT Research Report 2013/07” (2013).\n\nnierówny dostęp do edukacji utrwala społeczne wykluczenie. Ochrona socjalna bywa z kolei przedmiotem sporów politycznych, w których diaspory przedstawiane są niekiedy jako obciążenie dla systemu. W rezultacie prawa socjalne stają się nie tylko kwestią zabezpieczenia jednostki, lecz także polem symbolicznej walki o miejsce migrantów w strukturze społeczeństwa.\nUdział w życiu politycznym państwa przyjmującego stanowi kluczowy test integracji. Tam, gdzie migranci mają dostęp do praw wyborczych, zwłaszcza na poziomie lokalnym, diaspory częściej uczestniczą w polityce i są postrzegane jako pełnoprawna część wspólnoty. W państwach o bardziej restrykcyjnym podejściu do obywatelstwa ich udział ogranicza się natomiast do mobilizacji oddolnej oraz działań pozainstytucjonalnych. Symboliczne znaczenie uczestnictwa politycznego polega na tym, że włącza ono migrantów do wspólnoty politycznej, natomiast jego brak wzmacnia poczucie wykluczenia i sprzyja powstawaniu tożsamości transnarodowych.\nDiaspory odgrywają również rosnącą rolę w polityce państw wysyłających.\nMechanizmy, takie jak głosowanie z zagranicy, reprezentacja parlamentarna czy instytucje do spraw diaspory pozwalają im zachować formalną więź obywatelską. W praktyce oznacza to, że diaspory stają się aktorami polityki transnarodowej, mogąc wywierać wpływ nie tylko na kraj pochodzenia, ale także na stosunki międzynarodowe. Wiąże się to jednak z kontrowersjami. Część badaczy wskazuje na problem legitymacji politycznej decyzji podejmowanych przez osoby, które nie ponoszą konsekwencji polityki wewnętrznej.\nPodsumowując, konsekwencje prawne dla funkcjonowania społecznego i politycznego diaspory mają charakter wielowymiarowy. Z jednej strony prawo może pełnić rolę narzędzia inkluzji, zapewniając dostęp do pracy, edukacji, ochrony socjalnej i uczestnictwa politycznego. Z drugiej – może utrwalać nierówności, ograniczać prawa i wzmacniać poczucie wykluczenia. Diaspory, w zależności od obowiązujących regulacji prawnych, mogą stać się pełnoprawnymi aktorami społecznymi i politycznymi bądź pozostawać na marginesie.\nCo istotne, uczestnictwo polityczne w państwie przyjmującym i wysyłającym nie wyklucza się, lecz coraz częściej współistnieje, tworząc model obywatelstwa transnarodowego.\nAnaliza ta pokazuje, że konsekwencje prawne nie tylko kształtują codzienne doświadczenia jednostek, lecz także decydują o tym, jaką rolę diaspory odgrywają w nowoczesnych społeczeństwach i w stosunkach międzynarodowych. W epoce globalizacji status formalnoprawny diaspory staje się jednym z kluczowych zagadnień dla demokracji, równości i integracji społecznej.\n\nStatus formalnoprawny członków diaspory stanowi kluczowy wymiar analizy migracyjnej, ponieważ wyznacza ramy, w których jednostki i wspólnoty funkcjonują poza granicami kraju pochodzenia. Obejmuje on zarówno podstawowe instytucje prawne – obywatelstwo, podwójne obywatelstwo i status rezydenta – jak i konkretne rozwiązania stosowane w poszczególnych państwach, a także konsekwencje prawne dla integracji społecznej i politycznej migrantów.\nW pierwszej części rozdziału wykazano, że obywatelstwo pozostaje centralnym elementem relacji między państwem a jednostką. Normy prawa międzynarodowego, takie jak konwencje ONZ dotyczące ograniczania bezpaństwowości, a także regulacje konstytucyjne, chronią obywateli przed arbitralnym pozbawieniem tej więzi. Jednocześnie praktyki poszczególnych państw pokazują znaczną różnorodność podejść: Polska, akcentując zasadę ius sanguinis, wzmacnia więzi z diasporą; Niemcy przez długi czas stosowały restrykcyjne regulacje wobec podwójnego obywatelstwa; USA akceptują je w praktyce jako element pluralizmu, natomiast Kanada instytucjonalizuje wielokulturowość i traktuje obywatelstwo jako narzędzie inkluzji. Status rezydenta z kolei stanowi kompromis między brakiem więzi prawnej a pełnym obywatelstwem, gwarantując stabilność pobytu i dostęp do praw socjalnych przy ograniczonej partycypacji politycznej.\nDruga część rozdziału ukazała, że państwa wdrażają zróżnicowane rozwiązania prawne wobec diaspory, wynikające z ich historii i strategii politycznych. Polska stworzyła Kartę Polaka i ustawę o repatriacji, które mają charakter zarówno symboliczny, jak i praktyczny, podtrzymując więzi narodowe z osobami polskiego pochodzenia. USA koncentrują się na liberalnym podejściu do podwójnego obywatelstwa oraz umożliwiają głosowanie z zagranicy, co czyni obywatelstwo narzędziem transnarodowej demokracji. Niemcy, mimo historycznej ostrożności wobec imigracji, rozwinęły programy integracyjne, takie jak Integrationskurse, które łączą wsparcie z mechanizmami kontroli. Francja, Wielka Brytania i Kanada reprezentują natomiast trzy odmienne modele integracji: francuski republikański uniwersalizm, brytyjski wielokulturowy pluralizm i kanadyjski multikulturalizm instytucjonalny. Te podejścia pokazują, że status formalnoprawny diaspory zawsze odzwierciedla szerszą wizję państwa i wspólnoty politycznej.\nW trzeciej części rozdziału omówiono konsekwencje prawne dla funkcjonowania społecznego i politycznego diaspory. Prawo do pracy, edukacji i ochrony socjalnej decyduje o stopniu integracji migrantów – zapewniając równe szanse bądź utrwalając nierówności. Udział w życiu politycznym państwa przyjmującego zależy od stopnia inkluzywności jego prawa – od pełnego\n\nprawa wyborczego na poziomie lokalnym, po całkowite wykluczenie w państwach restrykcyjnych. Równocześnie coraz więcej państw wysyłających rozwija mechanizmy umożliwiające diasporom uczestnictwo w ich życiu politycznym – poprzez głosowanie z zagranicy, reprezentację parlamentarną czy instytucje do spraw diaspory. W efekcie diaspory stają się aktorami transnarodowymi, funkcjonującymi na styku dwóch lub więcej porządków politycznych.\nPodsumowując, rozdział pokazuje, że status formalnoprawny diaspory nie jest jedynie kategorią techniczną, lecz kluczowym czynnikiem determinującym integrację, tożsamość i pozycję polityczną migrantów. Obywatelstwo, rezydencja i szczególne rozwiązania prawne państw stanowią narzędzia kształtowania więzi między jednostką a wspólnotą polityczną – zarówno w kraju przyjmującym, jak i w wysyłającym. Równocześnie ujawniają one napięcia między inkluzją a ekskluzją, równością a dyskryminacją, narodową tożsamością a wielokulturowością. W epoce globalizacji status formalnoprawny diaspory staje się zatem jednym z centralnych zagadnień polityki migracyjnej i obywatelskiej, mającym wpływ na kształt współczesnych demokracji oraz relacje międzynarodowe.\n1.5. Formy zorganizowania diaspory\n1.5.1. Organizacje migranckie (diasporalne)\nOrganizacje migranckie, zwane również diasporalnymi, stanowią jeden z kluczowych elementów życia wspólnot funkcjonujących poza granicami państwa pochodzenia. Ich powstawanie wynika z potrzeby wzajemnej pomocy, ochrony tożsamości kulturowej i językowej, a także budowania sieci wsparcia społecznego w środowisku migracyjnym. Od XIX wieku, kiedy masowe fale migracji doprowadziły do powstania licznych stowarzyszeń etnicznych i klubów narodowych, aż po współczesne fundacje i sieci transnarodowe – organizacje te odgrywają rolę nie tylko integracyjną, lecz także polityczną i reprezentacyjną.\nWspierają migrantów w procesach adaptacji, prowadzą działalność edukacyjną, kulturalną i religijną, a zarazem stanowią kanał kontaktu między diasporą a państwem pochodzenia.\nWspółczesne badania wskazują, że organizacje migranckie przekształcają się w podmioty aktywnie uczestniczące w stosunkach międzynarodowych, angażując się w działania lobbystyczne, transfery finansowe oraz inicjatywy humanitarne. Ich charakter ewoluuje od tradycyjnych klubów etnicznych do\n\nhybrydowych sieci funkcjonujących także w przestrzeni cyfrowej. Podrozdział ten ma na celu omówienie typologii i funkcji organizacji diasporalnych, ich roli w podtrzymywaniu tożsamości oraz przykładów instytucji polonijnych i innych, które ilustrują globalne znaczenie tego typu struktur.\nTypologia organizacji diasporalnych\nOrganizacje diasporyjne przyjmują różnorodne formy organizacyjne. Zalicza się do nich stowarzyszenia kulturalne (heritage associations), które chronią dziedzictwo językowe, obyczaje i wartości; fundacje wspierające działania edukacyjne, przedsiębiorczość lub pomoc socjalną; kluby etniczne skupione wokół aktywności towarzyskiej, a także związki zawodowe, wyłaniające się z potrzeb zawodowych i ekonomicznych określonych społeczności diaspory200.\nWedług European Union Global Diaspora Facility (EUDiF) organizacje diasporalne obejmują szerokie spektrum grup – od heritage associations, poprzez hometown associations, sieci zawodowe i akademickie, aż po organizacje młodzieżowe oraz sieci parasolowe.\nStruktura ich działania jest płynna i dynamiczna – wiele z nich rozpoczyna działalność jako formy wsparcia integracji w państwach przyjmujących, a z czasem przekształca się w platformy rozwoju w krajach pochodzenia.\nTaka elastyczność sprzyja przystosowywaniu się do zmieniających się potrzeb migrantów i kolejnych pokoleń diasporalnych201.\nFunkcje i działania organizacji\nOrganizacje diasporalne odgrywają centralną rolę w funkcjonowaniu wspólnot migranckich, stanowiąc zarówno instytucje integracyjne, jak i kanały transnarodowej komunikacji oraz mobilizacji społecznej. Ich działalność wykracza daleko poza ramy prostego wsparcia socjalnego dla nowo przybyłych migrantów\n– obejmuje bowiem sfery edukacyjną, kulturową, polityczną, gospodarczą oraz symboliczną. Badania prowadzone od lat 90. XX wieku wskazują, że organizacje te pełnią funkcję swoistych pośredników pomiędzy diasporą a instytucjami państwa przyjmującego oraz kraju pochodzenia, a zarazem działają jako aktorzy w szerszych sieciach transnarodowych202.\nWe współczesnej literaturze podkreśla się, że znaczenie organizacji diasporalnych należy rozpatrywać w co najmniej trzech wymiarach: społecznym,\n200 F. Tittel-Mosser, What is a Diaspora Organisation? A starting Guide., Brussels 2024.\n201 Ibid.\n202 P. Levitt, N.G. Schiller, Conceptualizing Simultaneity...\n\npolitycznym i symbolicznym. Po pierwsze, ułatwiają proces integracji poprzez naukę języka oraz wsparcie edukacyjne i socjalne. Po drugie, angażują się w działania polityczne zarówno na poziomie lokalnym, jak i międzynarodowym, często podejmując aktywny lobbing w kwestiach dotyczących praw obywatelskich czy polityki zagranicznej wobec kraju pochodzenia. Po trzecie, stanowią instytucje pamięci, które podtrzymują dziedzictwo kulturowe i tożsamość wspólnotową w kolejnych pokoleniach.\nCelem niniejszego podrozdziału jest omówienie tych funkcji w ujęciu analitycznym i porównawczym, ze wskazaniem ich znaczenia dla rozwoju współczesnych diaspor i polityki migracyjnej.\nFunkcje integracyjne i kulturowe\nJednym z podstawowych zadań organizacji diasporalnych są działania integracyjne wspierające migrantów w adaptacji do nowego środowiska społecznego.\nNajczęściej przyjmują one formę kursów językowych, doradztwa zawodowego, programów edukacyjnych oraz wsparcia socjalnego, które ułatwiają migrantom funkcjonowanie w kraju przyjmującym. Jak zauważają badacze203, organizacje etniczne pełnią rolę „pomostów”, łagodzących bariery kulturowe i instytucjonalne oraz zmniejszających ryzyko marginalizacji społecznej. Są one jednocześnie kluczowe dla budowania więzi wewnątrz grup migranckich, umożliwiając wymianę doświadczeń i wzajemne wsparcie.\nWażnym aspektem tych funkcji jest także ochrona dziedzictwa kulturowego.\nOrganizacje diasporyczne prowadzą szkoły sobotnie, zespoły folklorystyczne, chóry, a także media etniczne, które odgrywają istotną rolę w zachowaniu języka i tradycji narodowych. Peggy Levitt wskazuje, że poprzez tego rodzaju działania migranci rozwijają „transnarodowe tożsamości”, łączące elementy kraju pochodzenia i kraju przyjmującego204. Badania przeprowadzone wśród diaspory hinduskiej pokazują, że dzięki organizacjom etnicznym dzieci migrantów uczą się języka i historii przodków, co wzmacnia ich poczucie wspólnoty mimo postępującej asymilacji w społeczeństwie przyjmującym205.\nDziałania integracyjne organizacji diasporalnych mają zatem charakter dwutorowy: z jednej strony wspierają proces akulturacji i uczestnictwa w społeczeństwie przyjmującym, z drugiej – chronią i odtwarzają tożsamość kulturową\n203 A. Portes, Introduction...\n204 P. Levitt, Roots and Routes...\n205 P.A. Kurien, Who Speaks for Indian Americans? Religion, Ethnicity, and Political Formation, „American Quarterly” t. 59 nr 3 (2007), DOI: 10.1353/aq.2007.0059.\n\nw nowych realiach. To właśnie ta podwójna rola czyni z nich istotny przedmiot badań nad migracjami i transnarodowością.\nFunkcje pośredniczące\nOrganizacje diasporyczne pełnią również funkcję pośredników między migrantami a państwami – zarówno przyjmującymi, jak i macierzystymi. Ich rola polega na reprezentowaniu interesów społeczności diasporalnej, negocjowaniu warunków prawnych czy dostępu do obywatelstwa, a także na przekazywaniu informacji między różnymi ośrodkami politycznymi. Jak zauważa Jennifer\nBrinkerhoff, organizacje te często stają się trusted intermediaries – wiarygodnymi pośrednikami, ponieważ dysponują kapitałem społecznym i zaufaniem, które instytucjom państwowym trudno zdobyć206.\nW sytuacjach kryzysowych funkcja ta nabiera szczególnego znaczenia.\nAlan Gamlen wskazuje, że podczas wojen, katastrof naturalnych czy kryzysów gospodarczych organizacje diaspory mobilizują zasoby finansowe i logistyczne, umożliwiające szybką orazefektywną reakcję pomocową. Przykładem może być mobilizacja ukraińskiej diaspory w USA i Kanadzie po 2014 roku, kiedy organizacje etniczne odgrywały kluczową rolę w zapewnianiu wsparcia humanitarnego i politycznego dla ojczyzny207.\nZ perspektywy państw organizacje diasporyczne są cennym partnerem, ponieważ umożliwiają skuteczniejszy dialog z rozproszonymi wspólnotami i stanowią kanał wdrażania polityk migracyjnych. W tym działalność organizacji diasporycznych wpisuje się w logikę transnarodowych relacji, w których rola państwa nie ogranicza się już do własnych obywateli, lecz obejmuje także społeczności pozostające za granicą.\nFunkcje polityczne i lobbystyczne\nOrganizacje migranckie często pełnią funkcje polityczne, angażując się w działania lobbystyczne, mobilizację opinii publicznej czy wspieranie kampanii wyborczych. W krajach przyjmujących mogą odgrywać rolę istotnych aktorów, wpływających na decyzje polityczne dotyczące praw obywatelskich, naturalizacji oraz polityki zagranicznej wobec krajów pochodzenia. Eva Østergaard-\n-Nielsen opisuje to zjawisko jako diaspora politics, podkreślając, że aktywność\n206 J.M. Brinkerhoff, Digital Diasporas...\n207 A. Gamlen, A. Chakma, Trusted Intermediaries? The Role of Diasporas in Humanitarian Assistance, „International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction” t. 117 (2025), DOI:\n10.1016/j.ijdrr.2025.105212.\n\npolityczna migrantów wykracza poza ramy państwa narodowego i tworzy nową przestrzeń o charakterze transnarodowym208.\nPrzykłady historyczne dobrze ilustrują znaczenie tej funkcji. Kongres Polonii\nAmerykańskiej odgrywał znaczącą rolę w kształtowaniu polityki USA wobec Polski w okresie zimnej wojny, natomiast lobby kubańskie w USA miało istotny wpływ na utrzymywanie restrykcyjnej polityki wobec Hawany. Podobnie ormiańskie organizacje w Europie od dziesięcioleci zabiegają o uznanie ludobójstwa Ormian, a diaspora hinduska w Wielkiej Brytanii aktywnie uczestniczy w procesach politycznych, wspierając kandydatów związanych z własną wspólnotą209.\nDzięki tej aktywności organizacje diasporyczne stają się nie tylko reprezentantami interesów swoich członków, lecz również aktorami wpływającymi na stosunki międzynarodowe. W literaturze podkreśla się, że diaspory często funkcjonują jako transnational lobby, zdolne do współpracy z innymi grupami etnicznymi i tworzenia szerokich koalicji politycznych210.\nFunkcje transnarodowe i rozwojowe\nWspółczesne organizacje diasporyczne coraz częściej postrzegane są jako aktorzy transnarodowi, uczestniczący równocześnie w życiu kraju pochodzenia i kraju przyjmującego. Jak podkreślają Peggy Levitt i Glick Schiller211, tworzą one transnational social fields – pola społeczne, w których codzienne praktyki migrantów łączą różne konteksty narodowe. Dzięki temu możliwe jest utrzymywanie relacji w wielu wymiarach, zarówno ekonomicznym jak i kulturowym.\nFunkcje te obejmują nie tylko transfery pieniężne, które mają ogromne znaczenie dla gospodarek krajów rozwijających się, lecz także transfer wiedzy i technologii. Jean-Baptiste Meyer zwraca uwagę, że migranci często stają się\n„agentami rozwoju”, wspierając modernizację ojczyzny poprzez inwestycje, zakładanie firm czy udział w programach badawczych. Przykłady z Indii, Filipin i Meksyku pokazują, że organizacje diasporyczne odgrywają istotną rolę w strategiach rozwoju narodowego212.\n208 E. Østergaard-Nielsen, Transnational Politics: The case of Turks and Kurds in Germany,\nRoutledge 2003.\n209 A.A. Safi, M. Czaika, The Transnational Engagement of Afghan Diaspora Organizations: Drivers of Diaspora Specialization, „Global Networks” t. 25 nr 1 (2025), DOI: 10.1111/glob.12484.\n210 Y. Shain, A. Barth, Diasporas and International Relations Theory, „International Organization” t. 57 nr 3 (2003), DOI: 10.1017/S0020818303573015.\n211 P. Levitt, N.G. Schiller, Conceptualizing Simultaneity: A Transnational Social Field Perspective on Society, „International Migration Review” t. 38 nr 3 (2004), DOI: 10.1111/j.1747-7379.2004.\ntb00227.x.\n212 J.-B. Meyer, Network Approach versus Brain Drain: Lessons from the Diaspora, „Interna-\n\nW praktyce działalność ta obejmuje nie tylko przesyłanie środków finansowych, lecz także zakładanie firm rodzinnych, udział w projektach infrastrukturalnych oraz w programach edukacyjnych i naukowych. Przykładowo diaspora hinduska w USA odegrała istotną rolę w rozwoju sektora IT w Indiach, transferując know-how i wspierając powstawanie lokalnych przedsiębiorstw213.\nJednocześnie pełnią one funkcje symboliczne – diaspory stają się strażnikami pamięci zbiorowej i tożsamości kulturowej. James Clifford przypomina, że diaspora jest nie tylko kategorią demograficzną, lecz także symboliczną, a jej trwanie zależy w dużej mierze od instytucjonalnych działań umożliwiających zachowanie języka, obyczajów i rytuałów214. Organizacje diasporalne, poprzez organizację świąt narodowych i wspólnotowych obchodów rocznic, wzmacniają poczucie przynależności i przekazują tradycje kolejnym pokoleniom.\nW wielu państwach rządy starają się świadomie wzmacniać ten potencjał poprzez wdrażanie programów współpracy z diasporą. Dobrym przykładem są\nIndie, które od 2003 roku organizują cykliczne forum Pravasi Bharatiya Divas, podczas którego przedstawiciele diaspory oraz władz dyskutują o możliwościach współpracy gospodarczej i politycznej. Podobne mechanizmy wprowadzają Meksyk i Filipiny, które traktują swoje diaspory jako strategiczny zasób rozwojowy. Diaspory mogą przyczyniać się do rozwoju nie tylko dzięki wsparciu finansowemu, lecz także poprzez transfer kapitału ludzkiego, kompetencji i wartości społecznych, które stają się katalizatorami modernizacji215.\nRola ta nie jest jednak wolna od wyzwań. W literaturze zwraca się uwagę na problem nierównego dostępu do zasobów wśród organizacji diasporycznych. Organizacje najlepiej zakorzenione i zasobne mają większy wpływ na procesy rozwojowe, co może pogłębiać wewnętrzne zróżnicowanie w obrębie diaspory216. Ponadto nadmierna instrumentalizacja diaspory przez państwo może prowadzić do konfliktów tożsamościowych i osłabiać zaufanie między migrantami a instytucjami publicznymi.\ntional Migration” t. 39 nr 5 (2001).\n213 R. Varma, D. Kapur, Comparative analysis of brain drain, brain circulation and brain retain: A case study of Indian Institutes of Technology, „Journal of Comparative Policy\nAnalysis: Research and Practice” t. 15 nr 4 (2013).\n214 J. Clifford, Diasporas...\n215 D.R. Agunias, K. Newland, Developing a road map for engaging diasporas in development:\na handbook for policymakers and practitioners in home and host countries, Geneva 2012;\nH. De Haas, A theory of migration: the aspirations-capabilities framework...\n216 A. Gamlen, A. Chakma, Trusted Intermediaries? The Role of Diasporas in Humanitarian\nAssistance...\n\nFunkcje symboliczne i tożsamościowe\nPoza wymiarem gospodarczym działalność organizacji diasporalnych ma także istotny wymiar symboliczny i tożsamościowy. Jak zauważa James Clifford, diaspora nie jest jedynie zjawiskiem geograficznym, lecz także symbolicznym, a jej przetrwanie w dużej mierze zależy od zdolności do podtrzymywania narracji wspólnotowych, mitów założycielskich i praktyk kulturowych. Organizacje diasporyczne pełnią w tym kontekście rolę strażników pamięci, którzy poprzez obchody świąt narodowych, organizację festiwali, pielęgnowanie języka, literatury i sztuki wzmacniają poczucie przynależności do wspólnoty rozproszonej217.\nFunkcje te są szczególnie widoczne w przypadku diaspor o długiej historii, takich jak Żydzi, Ormianie czy Grecy, których organizacje podtrzymują pamięć o traumatycznych doświadczeniach, takich jak wygnania, ludobójstwa czy przymusowe przesiedlenia. Współczesne badania pokazują, że w takich kontekstach działalność organizacji etnicznych staje się istotnym elementem polityki pamięci, umożliwiając przenoszenie tożsamości i tradycji na kolejne pokolenia218.\nZ kolei we współczesnych diasporach migracyjnych, np. polskiej czy hinduskiej, organizacje pełnią rolę narzędzi „symbolicznej integracji”, które pomagają migrantom zachować kontakt z kulturą przodków, a jednocześnie wypracować tożsamość hybrydową, łączącą elementy kultury kraju pochodzenia i kraju przyjmującego219. Jak podkreśla Robin Cohen, organizacje diasporyczne są nośnikiem diaspora consciousness – świadomości bycia częścią wspólnoty rozproszonej, która łączy przeszłość, teraźniejszość i wyobrażoną przyszłość tej wspólnoty220.\nW wymiarze praktycznym działalność symboliczna organizacji diasporalnych pełni rolę międzypokoleniowego mostu. Dzieci i młodzież, uczestnicząc w zajęciach językowych, chórach czy festiwalach etnicznych, uczą się tradycji, które w naturalny sposób mogłyby zostać zapomniane. W ten sposób organizacje te chronią dziedzictwo niematerialne, a zarazem przyczyniają się do podtrzymania globalnej różnorodności kulturowej.\nPrzykłady organizacji migranckich (diasporalnych)\nOrganizacje diasporalne stanowią jeden z najważniejszych przejawów instytucjonalizacji życia wspólnot migranckich i odgrywają kluczową rolę w procesach\n217 J. Clifford, Diasporas...\n218 W. Safran, Diasporas in Modern Societies: Myths of Homeland and Return, „Diaspora:\nA Journal of Transnational Studies” t. 1 nr 1 (1991), DOI: 10.1353/dsp.1991.0004.\n219 S. Vertovec, Transnationalism, Routledge, London 2010.\n220 R. Cohen, Global Diasporas...\n\nadaptacyjnych, politycznych i kulturowych. Powstają one najczęściej w wyniku oddolnej mobilizacji migrantów, poszukujących narzędzi wsparcia w nowych realiach społecznych i politycznych, a z czasem ewoluują w kierunku złożonych struktur, zdolnych do oddziaływania zarówno na społeczności przyjmujące, jak i na państwa macierzyste. W literaturze podkreśla się, że tego rodzaju instytucje pełnią wielowymiarowe funkcje – od pomocy integracyjnej i edukacyjnej, przez działania lobbystyczne, po ochronę dziedzictwa kulturowego i budowanie mostów międzypokoleniowych221. Ich działalność może być interpretowana w ramach teorii transnarodowości, zgodnie z którą organizacje te stają się węzłami w globalnych sieciach społecznych, ekonomicznych i politycznych, a zarazem instytucjami pamięci zbiorowej i tożsamości222.\nPolonia, rozumiana jako globalna wspólnota Polaków mieszkających poza granicami kraju, stanowi przykład jednej z najlepiej zorganizowanych diaspor na świecie. Jej struktury instytucjonalne rozwijały się przez dekady i pełnią różnorodne funkcje – od integracyjnych i kulturalnych po polityczne i lobbystyczne. Analiza przypadków polskich organizacji migranckich, takich jak Kongres Polonii Amerykańskiej czy Stowarzyszenie „Wspólnota Polska”, oraz zestawienie ich z przykładami z innych diaspor, np. Ukraińskiego Kongresu Światowego (Ukrainian World Congress), pozwala lepiej zrozumieć rolę, jaką pełnią organizacje diasporalne w globalnej polityce i utrzymywaniu więzi wspólnotowych. Taka analiza pozwala wskazać zarówno wspólne cechy funkcjonowania diaspor, jak i ich różnice wynikające z odmiennych uwarunkowań historycznych, politycznych i społecznych.\nKongres Polonii Amerykańskiej\nKongres Polonii Amerykańskiej (KPA) jest federacyjną strukturą zrzeszającą różnorodne stowarzyszenia i organizacje polonijne w Stanach Zjednoczonych.\nPowstał w 1944 roku w Chicago, a jego celem było zjednoczenie środowisk polskich w USA wobec wyzwań drugiej wojny światowej oraz powojennej sytuacji geopolitycznej Polski. Kongres odegrał szczególnie istotną rolę w okresie zimnej wojny, gdy poprzez działalność lobbystyczną i współpracę z politykami amerykańskimi starał się wpływać na kształt polityki USA wobec Polski. Przykładem\n221 M. Koinova, Autonomy and Positionality in Diaspora Politics: Autonomy and Positionality, „International Political Sociology” t. 6 nr 1 (2012), DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-\n5687.2011.00152_3.x; E. Østergaard-Nielsen, Transnational Politics...\n222 P. Levitt, N.G. Schiller, Conceptualizing Simultaneity...\n\njego skuteczności była mobilizacja Polonii wokół sprawy rozszerzenia NATO oraz wsparcie udzielone ruchowi „Solidarność” w latach 80. XX wieku223.\nKongres nie ograniczał się jednak wyłącznie do działań politycznych.\nOrganizacja prowadziła szeroką działalność społeczną i edukacyjną – wspierała nauczanie języka polskiego, organizowała wydarzenia kulturalne oraz pomagała imigrantom w procesie adaptacji. W tym sensie KPA spełniał jednocześnie funkcje integracyjne, polityczne i symboliczne, stając się centralnym punktem odniesienia dla milionów Polaków w USA. Organizacje polonijne w Stanach Zjednoczonych nie tylko utrwalały tożsamość narodową, ale również budowały pomosty między Polakami a amerykańskim społeczeństwem, co miało znaczenie dla integracji i reprezentacji tej grupy224.\nWspólnota Polska\nDrugim istotnym przykładem jest Stowarzyszenie „Wspólnota Polska”, założone w 1990 roku, którego działalność obejmuje wspieranie Polaków i osób polskiego pochodzenia na całym świecie. Jest to organizacja non-profit działająca w ścisłej współpracy z państwem polskim, przede wszystkim z Senatem\nRP, który tradycyjnie pełni rolę patrona spraw polonijnych. Stowarzyszenie\n„Wspólnota Polska” realizuje projekty edukacyjne, wspiera polskie szkoły za granicą, a także organizuje wymiany młodzieżowe oraz kursy językowe.\nPonadto inicjuje wydarzenia kulturalne, które służą promocji polskości i podtrzymywaniu więzi tożsamościowych wśród kolejnych pokoleń emigrantów225.\n„Wspólnota Polska” jest także przykładem nowoczesnej organizacji diasporalnej, która łączy tradycyjne formy działalności ze współczesnymi narzędziami komunikacji cyfrowej. W erze globalizacji i rosnącej mobilności migracyjnej umożliwia to utrzymanie więzi nie tylko z tradycyjną Polonią w Stanach\nZjednoczonych i Kanadzie, lecz także z nowymi falami emigracji poakcesyjnej w Europie Zachodniej. Jak zauważa Magdalena Lesińska, działalność instytucji takich jak „Wspólnota Polska” wpisuje się w szerszy trend diaspora engagement policies, w ramach którego państwa narodowe traktują swoje wspólnoty emigracyjne jako strategiczny zasób w polityce zagranicznej i wewnętrznej226.\n223 J.J. Bukowczyk, A History of the Polish Americans, Routledge 2017.\n224 R. Urbatsch, Anti-Transnationalist Communities of Poland’s Diaspora, „East European\nPolitics” t. 41 nr 3 (2025), DOI: 10.1080/21599165.2025.2538475.\n225 M. Nowosielski, W. Nowak, ‘We Are Not Just Asking What Poland Can Do for the Polish\nDiaspora but Mainly What the Polish Diaspora Can Do for Poland’...\n226 M. Lesińska, Niełatwe związki: relacje polityczne między państwem pochodzenia a diasporą: Polska i polska diaspora w okresie przełomu 1989 roku i później, Warszawa 2019.\n\nUkrainian World Congress\nPrzykład diaspory ukraińskiej pozwala ukazać podobieństwa i różnice w funkcjonowaniu tego typu organizacji. Ukrainian World Congress (UWC), założony w 1967 roku w Nowym Jorku, jest globalną federacją zrzeszającą organizacje ukraińskie z ponad 60 krajów. Podobnie jak KPA, organizacja ta od początku łączyła funkcje polityczne, kulturalne i tożsamościowe. UWC odegrał kluczową rolę w lobbowaniu na rzecz uznania niepodległości Ukrainy w 1991 roku oraz wspierał procesy demokratyzacyjne w tym kraju. Obecnie organizacja ta koncentruje się na wspieraniu Ukrainy w obliczu rosyjskiej agresji – mobilizuje zasoby finansowe, organizuje kampanie informacyjne oraz angażuje się w działalność humanitarną227.\nAnalogicznie do działań polskich organizacji UWC pełni również funkcję strażnika tożsamości narodowej. Poprzez organizację szkół, kursów języka ukraińskiego i wydarzeń kulturalnych wspiera zachowanie dziedzictwa narodowego wśród Ukraińców mieszkających poza ojczyzną. W literaturze podkreśla się, że działalność UWC stanowi przykład udanego modelu współpracy diaspory z państwem macierzystym, w którym organizacja zachowuje znaczną autonomię, a zarazem skutecznie mobilizuje wsparcie na rzecz interesów narodowych228.\nAnaliza powyższych przykładów ukazuje wspólne cechy organizacji diasporalnych, a zarazem pozwala dostrzec ich specyfikę. Po pierwsze, wszystkie te organizacje pełnią funkcję integracyjną, wspierając migrantów w adaptacji do nowych warunków życia, a równocześnie dbają o zachowanie tożsamości narodowej. Po drugie, organizacje te odgrywają rolę aktorów politycznych w przestrzeni transnarodowej, angażują się w lobbing, mobilizują wsparcie dla krajów pochodzenia i wpływają na politykę zagraniczną państw przyjmujących.\nPo trzecie, ich działalność obejmuje również wymiar symboliczny, związany z pielęgnowaniem pamięci zbiorowej, tradycji i języka.\nRóżnice wynikają natomiast ze specyficznych uwarunkowań historycznych i politycznych. KPA działał przede wszystkim w kontekście zimnej wojny i rywalizacji USA–ZSRR, podczas gdy UWC funkcjonuje w realiach współczesnych konfliktów geopolitycznych dotyczących Ukrainy. „Wspólnota Polska”\n227 OSCE, Engaging the Ukrainian Diaspora in Reconstruction and Development, OSCE-\n-ODIHR, 9 stycznia 2024 r., https://www.osce.org/sites/default/files/f/documents/e/4/561475.pdf\n228 M. Koinova, Diasporas and democratization in the post-communist world, „Communist and Post-Communist Studies” t. 42 nr 1 (2009), DOI: 10.1016/j.postcomstud.2009.02.001.\n\njest natomiast silnie powiązana z instytucjami państwa polskiego, co odróżnia ją od bardziej autonomicznych struktur diaspory ukraińskiej.\nPrzykłady te potwierdzają, że organizacje diasporalne stanowią nie tylko narzędzia adaptacji migrantów, lecz także aktorów globalnej polityki i rozwoju. Ich działalność obejmuje szeroki zakres funkcji – od wsparcia socjalnego, poprzez lobbing polityczny, aż po działania symboliczne i kulturowe.\nW literaturze podkreśla się, że zrozumienie roli tych organizacji jest kluczowe dla analizy współczesnych procesów migracyjnych i zjawisk transnarodowych229. Zarówno Polonia, jak i diaspora ukraińska pokazują, że dobrze zorganizowane instytucje mogą znacząco wpływać na politykę międzynarodową, a jednocześnie podtrzymywać więzi wspólnotowe w warunkach globalnej mobilności.\nPrzyczyny powstawania i utrzymywania organizacji\nOrganizacje diasporalne stanowią jeden z najważniejszych fenomenów towarzyszących procesom migracyjnym, ponieważ są instytucjonalną odpowiedzią na potrzeby wspólnot, które znalazły się w obcym otoczeniu społecznym, kulturowym i prawnym. Ich geneza tkwi w potrzebie tworzenia przestrzeni bezpieczeństwa i wspólnoty, w której emigranci mogą liczyć na wsparcie w zakresie socjalnym, edukacyjnym czy kulturowym. Tworzenie klubów etnicznych, stowarzyszeń czy fundacji było w wielu przypadkach pierwszym krokiem do zinstytucjonalizowania więzi między członkami danej grupy narodowej, co ułatwiało przetrwanie w nowym środowisku i pozwalało na zachowanie tożsamości zbiorowej230. Jednocześnie utrzymywanie organizacji migranckich nie jest zjawiskiem wyłącznie historycznym; w epoce globalizacji ich funkcje poszerzają się, obejmując także działania transnarodowe, lobbing czy współpracę z rządami państw pochodzenia i przyjmujących.\nPierwszą, a zarazem najbardziej podstawową przyczyną powstawania organizacji diasporalnych jest potrzeba wzmacniania więzi tożsamościowych oraz kapitału społecznego. Dla wielu migrantów doświadczenie opuszczenia ojczyzny wiąże się z poczuciem izolacji i wyobcowania w nowym społeczeństwie. Organizacje etniczne stają się wówczas przestrzenią, w której migranci mogą odnaleźć wspólnotę opartą na języku, kulturze i wspólnych\n229 M. Koinova, Autonomy and Positionality in Diaspora Politics...; E. Østergaard-Nielsen,\nTransnational Politics...\n230 A. Portes, Introduction: the debates and significance of immigrant transnationalism,\n„Global Networks” t. 1 nr 3 (2001), DOI: 10.1111/1471-0374.00012.\n\ndoświadczeniach. Peggy Levitt podkreśla, że organizacje te umożliwiają budowanie i reprodukcję tożsamości transnarodowej, która nie ogranicza się do jednego kontekstu narodowego, lecz łączy elementy kraju pochodzenia i kraju osiedlenia. W ten sposób kluby etniczne czy związki zawodowe migrantów nie tylko oferują wsparcie, ale stają się ośrodkami kształtowania nowej, hybrydycznej tożsamości231.\nDrugim istotnym powodem zakładania organizacji diasporalnych jest potrzeba samopomocy i solidarności w codziennym życiu migranckim. Fundacje i stowarzyszenia powstają jako narzędzia radzenia sobie z wyzwaniami związanymi z adaptacją, w tym z barierami językowymi, trudnościami na rynku pracy oraz ograniczonym dostępem do usług publicznych. Derick Brinkerhoff zwraca uwagę, że to właśnie dzięki aktywności organizacji etnicznych migranci mają dostęp do nieformalnych sieci wsparcia, które ułatwiają znalezienie zatrudnienia, mieszkania oraz uzyskanie pomocy prawnej232. W przypadku Polonii działalność takich instytucji miała charakter długofalowy. Od\nXIX wieku tworzyły one przestrzenie samopomocy, które z czasem przekształciły się w instytucje o szerokim zasięgu, obejmujące edukację, kulturę i życie religijne.\nKolejnym istotnym motywem jest potrzeba zachowania dziedzictwa kulturowego i przekazania go kolejnym pokoleniom. W przypadku Polonii jednym z kluczowych elementów było podtrzymywanie języka polskiego oraz organizacja szkół sobotnich, bibliotek czy towarzystw kulturalnych, które pełniły rolę „strażników pamięci”. William Safran zauważa, że diaspora utrzymuje swoją spójność przede wszystkim dzięki symbolom i mitom wspólnotowym, a instytucje odgrywają centralną rolę w ich materializacji. Utrzymywanie więzi poprzez edukację i kulturę pozwala nie tylko na ochronę tożsamości, ale także na włączenie młodszych pokoleń w życie wspólnotowe, co sprzyja trwałości organizacji w dłuższej perspektywie233 .\nNiemniej istotnym czynnikiem jest potrzeba reprezentacji i wpływu. Organizacje diasporalne od początku swojego istnienia pełniły funkcję rzeczników społeczności migranckich, dążąc do obrony praw swoich członków wobec państwa przyjmującego, a zarazem do kształtowania relacji z krajem pochodzenia. Diaspory stają się również aktorami międzynarodowymi, zdolnymi do lobbingu, budowania koalicji politycznych czy mobilizacji opinii publicznej.\n231 P. Levitt, Roots and Routes...\n232 J.M. Brinkerhoff, Digital Diasporas...\n233 W. Safran, Diasporas in Modern Societies...\n\nMedia etniczne i diasporalne, kontrolowane przez organizacje, stanowią nie tylko źródło informacji, lecz także instrument mobilizacji i budowania wspólnotowej świadomości234. W ten sposób organizacje migranckie przechodzą od funkcji opiekuńczej do funkcji politycznej, stając się partnerami w relacjach międzynarodowych.\nPowstawanie i utrzymywanie organizacji diasporalnych stanowi również odpowiedź na politykę państw macierzystych, które coraz częściej traktują swoje wspólnoty emigracyjne jako strategiczny zasób. Alan Gamlen opisuje proces diaspora engagement policies, w ramach którego państwa rozwijają strategie budowania relacji z diasporą poprzez wsparcie finansowe, granty czy instytucje, takie jak pełnomocnicy rządowi i komisje parlamentarne235.\nW tym kontekście organizacje diasporalne stają się naturalnymi partnerami dla instytucji publicznych, umożliwiającymi efektywne dotarcie do społeczności rozproszonych na całym świecie236. Jednocześnie dzięki temu wsparciu zyskują one trwałość instytucjonalną i możliwość rozwijania działań o charakterze globalnym.\nWreszcie przyczyną utrzymywania organizacji jest ich zdolność do adaptacji i elastyczności w zmieniających się warunkach społecznych i politycznych.\nSteven Vertovec wskazuje, że współczesne diaspory funkcjonują w warunkach superdiversity, w których wielość tożsamości, języków i doświadczeń wymaga instytucji zdolnych do negocjowania różnorodności237. Organizacje migranckie trwają i rozwijają się dzięki umiejętności łączenia tradycyjnych form działalności, takich jak szkoły i kościoły, z nowoczesnymi narzędziami, takimi jak media cyfrowe, sieci społecznościowe czy platformy lobbingowe. Zdolność adaptacyjna sprawia, że pozostają one istotnym elementem życia migracyjnego również w XXI wieku.\nPrzyczyny powstawania i utrzymywania organizacji diasporalnych mają charakter wielowymiarowy, obejmując zarówno potrzeby socjalne i kulturowe migrantów, jak i szersze procesy polityczne i transnarodowe. Początkowo stanowiły odpowiedź na deficyty adaptacyjne i potrzebę wspólnoty, z czasem zaś stały się narzędziami reprezentacji, pamięci i wpływu. Ich trwałość wynika ze zdolności do łączenia funkcji tradycyjnych z nowoczesnymi strategiami\n234 Y. Shain, A. Barth, Diasporas and International Relations Theory, „International Organization” t. 57 nr 3 (2003), DOI: 10.1017/S0020818303573015.\n235 A. Gamlen, Diaspora institutions and diaspora governance, „International Migration\nReview” t. 48 (2014), DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/imre.12136.\n236 Ibid.\n237 S. Vertovec, Transnationalism...\n\ndziałania, co czyni je kluczowymi aktorami w badaniach nad migracjami i diasporami. Polonia, podobnie jak inne diaspory, pokazuje, że organizacje te są nie tylko instytucjami wspierającymi migrantów, ale także elementem globalnych procesów politycznych i kulturowych, w których państwa i społeczeństwa narodowe coraz częściej postrzegają je jako strategicznych partnerów.\nWyzwania i przyszłość organizacji diasporalnych\nOrganizacje diasporalne, mimo swojej trwałości i znaczenia, stoją wobec licznych wyzwań wynikających zarówno z czynników wewnętrznych, jak i zewnętrznych. Z jednej strony mierzą się z problemami zmiany pokolenioweji erozji więzi etnicznych, które osłabiają ich zdolność mobilizacyjną. Z drugiej strony muszą odnaleźć się w złożonym otoczeniu politycznym, prawnym i technologicznym, w którym oczekiwania państw macierzystych oraz krajów przyjmujących bywają sprzeczne. W literaturze podkreśla się, że wyzwania te mają charakter strukturalny i systemowy, a ich przezwyciężenie wymaga elastyczności oraz zdolności adaptacji do zmieniających się warunków globalnych238. Analiza tych trudności jest kluczowa dla zrozumienia perspektyw rozwoju organizacji diasporalnych i ich zdolności do odgrywania istotnej roli w polityce transnarodowej.\nJednym z najważniejszych wyzwań pozostaje zmiana pokoleniowa i proces asymilacji. Pierwsze generacje migrantów silnie identyfikują się z ojczyzną i aktywnie uczestniczą w działalności organizacji etnicznych. Kolejne pokolenia, urodzone już w kraju przyjmującym, często dystansują się od tradycyjnych form działalności oraz preferują uczestnictwo w bardziej elastycznych, nieformalnych sieciach. Peggy Levitt wskazuje, że tożsamość drugiego pokolenia migranckiego ma charakter złożony i hybrydyczny, co utrudnia utrzymanie spójnej narracji wspólnotowej. Organizacje diasporyczne muszą zatem poszukiwać sposobów angażowania młodego pokolenia poprzez nowoczesne media, projekty cyfrowe czy inicjatywy o charakterze transnarodowym239.\nDrugim istotnym problemem pozostają kwestie finansowania oraz trwałości instytucjonalnej. Większość organizacji opiera swoją działalność na pracy wolontariuszy i darowiznach, które nie zawsze wystarczają do realizacji długofalowych celów. W warunkach rosnącej konkurencyjności organizacje diasporalne muszą rywalizować o środki z innymi organizacjami pozarządowymi i instytucjami, a ich nadmierna zależność od finansowania ze strony państw\n238 R. Brubaker, The ‘diaspora’ diaspora...\n239 P. Levitt, Roots and Routes...\n\nmacierzystych może prowadzić do utraty autonomii240. W przypadku Polonii niekiedy krytykowano model wsparcia rządowego jako nadmiernie zbiurokratyzowany i ograniczający oddolną inicjatywę241.\nKolejnym wyzwaniem pozostają napięcia wewnętrzne oraz procesy fragmentacji. Diaspory nie stanowią grup jednorodnych – obejmują społeczności o zróżnicowanym statusie społecznym, prawnym oraz politycznym. Yossi\nShain i Aharon Barth podkreślają, że podziały ideologiczne i rywalizacja między organizacjami mogą osłabiać ich zdolność do reprezentowania wspólnych interesów. Przykładem mogą być konflikty między różnymi falami migracji – starsze organizacje, zakorzenione od pokoleń, często niechętnie współpracują z nowymi migrantami, którzy wnoszą odmienne doświadczenia i priorytety242.\nNiemniej istotnym problemem pozostaje relacja z państwami macierzystymi i przyjmującymi. Państwa pochodzenia coraz częściej traktują swoje diaspory jako zasób polityczny i gospodarczy, rozwijając strategie ich aktywizacji.\nJednak nadmierna instrumentalizacja może prowadzić do napięć i poczucia wykorzystywania. Z kolei państwa przyjmujące mogą postrzegać zbyt silne powiązania diaspory z ojczyzną jako zagrożenie dla lojalności obywatelskiej.\nEva Østergaard-Nielsen zauważa, że organizacje diasporalne muszą nieustannie balansować między tymi dwoma biegunami, aby uniknąć marginalizacji lub politycznej stygmatyzacji243.\nWyzwania te są potęgowane przez rozwój nowych technologii oraz procesy globalizacji. Z jednej strony media cyfrowe zapewniają organizacjom migranckim nowe możliwości mobilizacji, komunikacji transnarodowej i lobbingu.\nZ drugiej strony przyczyniają się do rozproszenia uwagi oraz wzrostu konkurencji ze strony nieformalnych sieci, które mogą szybciej i sprawniej organizować działania społeczne. Jennifer Brinkerhoff opisuje zjawisko „cyfrowych diaspor”, które rewolucjonizują tradycyjne formy aktywności, lecz jednocześnie mogą osłabiać klasyczne organizacje oparte na strukturze stowarzyszeniowej244.\nWyzwania stojące przed organizacjami diasporalnymi ukazują ich złożoność i konieczność adaptacji do dynamicznie zmieniających się warunków globalnych. Zmiana pokoleniowa, trudności finansowe, fragmentacja wewnętrzna oraz złożone relacje z państwami macierzystymi i przyjmującymi sprawiają, że\n240 A. Gamlen, Diaspora institutions and diaspora governance...\n241 M. Nowosielski, W. Nowak, ‘We Are Not Just Asking What Poland Can Do for the Polish\nDiaspora but Mainly What the Polish Diaspora Can Do for Poland’...\n242 Y. Shain, A. Barth, Diasporas and International Relations Theory...\n243 E. Østergaard-Nielsen, Transnational Politics...\n244 J.M. Brinkerhoff, Digital Diasporas...\n\norganizacje te muszą redefiniować swoje funkcje i strategie działania. Jednocześnie rozwój technologii cyfrowych otwiera nowe perspektywy, sprzyjające modernizacji organizacji diasporalnych oraz wzmacnianiu ich roli w polityce transnarodowej. Przyszłość organizacji diasporalnych będzie zależeć od ich zdolności do integrowania tradycyjnych form działalności z nowoczesnymi narzędziami i do negocjowania tożsamości w warunkach globalnej mobilności.\nPrzyszłość organizacji diasporalnych\nPrzyszłość organizacji diasporalnych stanowi jeden z kluczowych tematów współczesnych badań nad migracjami i transnarodowością. Choć ich korzenie sięgają klasycznych struktur stowarzyszeniowych i klubów etnicznych tworzonych w XIX i XX wieku, obecnie stoją one wobec dynamicznych przemian społecznych, technologicznych i politycznych. Zmieniają się zarówno warunki funkcjonowania wspólnot migranckich, jak i oczekiwania wobec organizacji\n– od tradycyjnych form podtrzymywania języka i kultury po bardziej złożone zadania związane z lobbingiem, budowaniem kapitału transnarodowego czy uczestnictwem w cyfrowych sieciach globalnych. W literaturze podkreśla się, że przyszłość tych instytucji będzie determinowana ich zdolnością do adaptacji w warunkach globalizacji, superdiversity i rozwoju technologii cyfrowych245.\nAnaliza tych procesów pozwala przewidywać, że organizacje diasporalne będą musiały redefiniować swoje strategie i role, aby pozostać istotnymi aktorami w nadchodzących dekadach.\nJednym z głównych czynników kształtujących przyszłość organizacji diasporalnych jest rozwój technologii cyfrowych i komunikacyjnych. Media społecznościowe, platformy internetowe oraz narzędzia komunikacji transnarodowej umożliwiają tworzenie nowych form wspólnot diasporalnych, wykraczających poza tradycyjne ramy stowarzyszeń. Jennifer Brinkerhoff opisuje zjawisko „cyfrowych diaspor”, wskazując, że technologie online umożliwiają łatwiejszą mobilizację, wymianę informacji i organizację działań bez konieczności fizycznej obecności246. Oznacza to, że przyszłe organizacje będą musiały równolegle funkcjonować w przestrzeni offline i online, aby sprostać oczekiwaniom młodszych pokoleń migrantów. Jednocześnie cyfryzacja otwiera nowe obszary aktywności, takie jak cyberlobbing, cyfrowe archiwa pamięci czy globalne kampanie solidarnościowe.\n245 S. Vertovec, Super-diversity and its implications, „Ethnic and Racial Studies” t. 30 nr 6\n(2007), DOI: 10.1080/01419870701599465.\n246 Ibid.\n\nDrugim istotnym czynnikiem pozostaje zmiana pokoleniowa i transformacja tożsamości. W wielu diasporach obserwuje się spadek zaangażowania młodszych pokoleń w tradycyjne organizacje etniczne, postrzegane jako przestarzałe i niedostosowane do ich potrzeb. Peggy Levitt i Nina Glick Schiller wskazują, że nowe pokolenia migrantów funkcjonują w transnational social fields, w których tożsamość ma charakter wielowarstwowy i hybrydyczny247.\nOrganizacje diasporalne będą zatem musiały rozwijać programy bardziej elastyczne, mniej sformalizowane i odpowiadające globalnemu stylowi życia, obejmujące działania w obszarze kultury popularnej, sportu i aktywizmu społecznego. To właśnie zdolność do dostosowania się do potrzeb młodego pokolenia zadecyduje o ich przetrwaniu w dłuższej perspektywie.\nKolejnym wyzwaniem, a zarazem szansą, jest rosnąca rola diaspory w polityce globalnej. Yossi Shain zauważa, że współczesne diaspory stają się istotnymi aktorami stosunków międzynarodowych, zdolnymi do wywierania wpływu na rządy zarówno państw pochodzenia, jak i krajów przyjmujących. Przyszłe organizacje będą prawdopodobnie odgrywać coraz większą rolę w zakresie lobbingu, mediacji dyplomatycznej czy działań humanitarnych w sytuacjach kryzysowych248. Przykłady ukraińskiej i ormiańskiej diaspory pokazują, że w kontekście konfliktów zbrojnych mobilizacja zasobów przez organizacje diasporalne może wywierać bezpośredni wpływ na dynamikę stosunków międzynarodowych. W przyszłości rola ta może się jeszcze wzmocnić, gdyż globalizacja ułatwia transfer kapitału, wiedzy i informacji na niespotykaną dotąd skalę.\nNie bez znaczenia pozostaje również perspektywa rozwojowa i gospodarcza. Literatura przedmiotu wskazuje na koncepcję scientific diasporas, odnoszącą się do migrantów-ekspertów uczestniczących w procesach rozwoju i modernizacji kraju pochodzenia poprzez transfer wiedzy, technologii i inwestycji249. Organizacje migranckie mogą w przyszłości pełnić rolę platform pośredniczących między specjalistami z diaspory a instytucjami krajowymi, wspierając rozwój nauki, innowacji i przedsiębiorczości. Przykłady\n247 P. Levitt, N.G. Schiller, Conceptualizing Simultaneity: A Transnational Social Field Perspective on Society, „International Migration Review” t. 38 nr 3 (2004), DOI: 10.1111/j.1747-\n7379.2004.tb00227.x.\n248 Y. Shain, Kinship and diaspora in international affairs, Ann Arbor 2007.\n249 A.S. George, T. Baskar, Brain Drain in India: Causes, Consequences, and Potential\nSolutions, „Partners Universal Multidisciplinary Research Journal” t. 1 nr 4 (2024);\nJ.-B. Meyer, Network approach versus brain drain: lessons from the diaspora, „International migration” t. 39 nr 5 (2001); R. Varma, D. Kapur, Comparative analysis of brain drain, brain circulation and brain retain: A case study of Indian Institutes of Technology...\n\nIndii i Chin dowodzą, że diaspory mogą stanowić katalizator przyspieszonej modernizacji, a instytucjonalizacja tego procesu za pośrednictwem organizacji może zwiększać jego efektywność.\nNależy również zwrócić uwagę na rozwój idei wielokulturowości oraz koncepcji superdiversity w społeczeństwach przyjmujących. Steven Vertovec wskazuje, że współczesne migracje charakteryzują się niespotykaną wcześniej różnorodnością etniczną, religijną i kulturową, co wymaga opracowania nowych strategii adaptacyjnych250. Organizacje diasporalne mogą w tym kontekście stać się partnerami w polityce integracyjnej państw przyjmujących, oferując unikalne kompetencje w zakresie mediacji kulturowej i budowania dialogu między różnymi grupami społecznymi251. Ich przyszła rola będzie zatem coraz silniej związana nie tylko z podtrzymywaniem własnej tożsamości, ale także z aktywnym uczestnictwem w kształtowaniu pluralistycznych społeczeństw.\nWreszcie przyszłość organizacji diasporalnych zależy od umiejętności równoważenia relacji z państwami macierzystymi i przyjmującymi. Alan Gamlen podkreśla, że państwa coraz częściej tworzą polityki „diaspora engagement”, traktując diasporę jako zasób gospodarczy i polityczny. Organizacje diasporalne mogą zyskać na tej współpracy, otrzymując wsparcie finansowe i instytucjonalne, ale ryzykują utratę autonomii i postrzeganie ich jako narzędzia polityki zagranicznej252. Przyszłość tych instytucji będzie więc zależała od ich zdolności do zachowania równowagi między lojalnością wobec kraju pochodzenia a niezależnością oraz reprezentowaniem interesów własnej wspólnoty.\nPrzyszłość organizacji diasporalnych kształtować będą procesy globalizacji, cyfryzacji i zmian pokoleniowych. Ich dalsze istnienie i znaczenie nie są zagrożone, ale wymagają głębokiej transformacji. Organizacje te będą musiały przejść od tradycyjnych form, opartych na klubach etnicznych i strukturach stowarzyszeniowych, ku bardziej elastycznym, hybrydowym i cyfrowym modelom działania. Ich rola w polityce międzynarodowej, rozwoju gospodarczym i mediacji kulturowej prawdopodobnie będzie rosła, co uczyni je nieodzownymi aktorami w globalnej przestrzeni społeczno-politycznej. Warunkiem ich sukcesu będzie jednak zdolność do adaptacji, zachowania równowagi między różnymi interesami oraz efektywnego wykorzystania nowych technologii i strategii lobbingu. W tym sensie przyszłość organizacji diasporalnych jest\n250 S. Vertovec, Super-diversity and its implications, „Ethnic and Racial Studies” t. 30 nr 6\n(2007), DOI: 10.1080/01419870701599465.\n251 Ibid.\n252 A. Gamlen, Diaspora institutions and diaspora governance...\n\nnierozerwalnie związana z szerszymi przemianami społecznymi i politycznymi, definiującymi współczesny świat migracji i transnarodowości.\nInstytucjonalizacja: komisje, pełnomocnicy, przedstawicielstwa\nProces instytucjonalizacji polityki wobec diaspory jest jednym z kluczowych zagadnień współczesnych studiów migracyjnych i politologicznych. Zjawisko to odnosi się do sytuacji, w której państwo formalizuje i systematyzuje swoje działania wobec wspólnot emigracyjnych, powołując dedykowane instytucje, pełnomocników, komisje parlamentarne czy mechanizmy przedstawicielskie.\nW przeciwieństwie do działań spontanicznych i doraźnych instytucjonalizacja oznacza nadanie relacjom z diasporą statusu trwałego i strategicznego elementu polityki publicznej. Jak zauważa Gamlen, współczesne państwa coraz częściej traktują diaspory nie jako margines, lecz jako zasób polityczny, gospodarczy i kulturowy, a tworzenie instytucji stanowi niezbędny etap w procesie zarządzania migracjami i relacjami transnarodowymi253.\nW polskim kontekście instytucjonalizacja polityki wobec Polonii miała charakter ewolucyjny. Jej początki sięgają II Rzeczypospolitej, kiedy podjęto pierwsze próby zorganizowania struktur wspierających emigrację zarobkową, lecz dopiero po 1989 roku ukształtowały się spójne mechanizmy współpracy z diasporą. Współcześnie funkcjonują takie instytucje, jak Pełnomocnik Rządu ds. Polonii i Polaków za Granicą, komisje senackie odpowiedzialne za sprawy diaspory oraz programy współpracy realizowane przez Ministerstwo Spraw\nZagranicznych i Stowarzyszenie „Wspólnota Polska”. W literaturze wskazuje się, że instytucjonalizacja tych działań ma charakter nie tylko symboliczny, lecz także praktyczny. Pozwala na mobilizację zasobów, koordynację działań oraz wzmacnianie więzi między państwem a obywatelami żyjącymi poza granicami kraju254.\nJednocześnie instytucjonalizacja polityki diaspory rodzi szereg wyzwań.\nPo pierwsze, wymaga pogodzenia różnych oczekiwań: państwa narodowego, które dąży do budowania wpływów i soft power, oraz samej diaspory, której priorytety często koncentrują się wokół kwestii socjalnych i tożsamościowych.\nPo drugie, instytucjonalizacja wiąże się z ryzykiem nadmiernej biurokratyzacji i centralizacji, które mogą ograniczać elastyczność działań. Wreszcie mechanizmy instytucjonalne często stają się polem rywalizacji politycznej,\n253 Ibid.\n254 M. Lesińska, Polska diaspora, Polonia, emigracja. Spory pojęciowe wokół skupisk polskich za granicą, „Polski Przegląd Migracyjny” nr 1 (2018).\n\nco widać na przykładzie komisji parlamentarnych, gdzie decyzje dotyczące finansowania projektów polonijnych bywają przedmiotem sporów politycznych i ideologicznych.\nPodobne procesy można obserwować w innych państwach. Diaspory ormiańska, żydowska czy ukraińska od dekad posiadają rozwinięte struktury instytucjonalne, a niektóre kraje, takie jak Francja czy Algieria, umożliwiają swoim diasporom formalną reprezentację w parlamentach. Badacze zwracają uwagę, że takie rozwiązania zwiększają widoczność i wpływ diaspory, ale równocześnie rodzą pytania o relacje lojalnościowe i kwestie obywatelstwa255.\nCelem niniejszego podrozdziału jest analiza trzech wymiarów instytucjonalizacji polityki diaspory: funkcji Pełnomocnika Rządu ds. Polonii, roli komisji senackich w Polsce oraz mechanizmów formalnej reprezentacji diaspory w parlamentach innych państw. Zestawienie tych przykładów pozwala na ocenę skuteczności instytucjonalizacji oraz wskazanie jej ograniczeń i możliwości rozwoju.\nFunkcja Pełnomocnika Rządu ds. Polonii i Polaków za Granicą\nFunkcja Pełnomocnika Rządu ds. Polonii i Polaków za Granicą jest jednym z kluczowych elementów współczesnej polityki państwa polskiego wobec diaspory.\nJej powołanie stanowi wyraz rosnącej świadomości, że Polonia – licząca według szacunków od 15 do 20 milionów osób na całym świecie – jest istotnym zasobem nie tylko kulturowym i symbolicznym, ale również politycznym i gospodarczym.\nPowołanie pełnomocnika ma na celu skoordynowanie działań państwa wobec rozproszonych wspólnot i nadanie tym działaniom rangi instytucjonalnej. Jak wskazuje Alan Gamlen, podobne funkcje wprowadzane są w wielu państwach, które starają się, poprzez wyspecjalizowane instytucje, prowadzić politykę wobec diaspory w sposób systematyczny, a nie incydentalny256.\nGeneza funkcji pełnomocnika związana jest z potrzebą uporządkowania i centralizacji polityki wobec Polonii. Do lat 90. XX wieku działania państwa polskiego miały charakter fragmentaryczny i były rozproszone pomiędzy różne instytucje: Ministerstwo Spraw Zagranicznych, Senat, a także organizacje pozarządowe. Dopiero w latach 2000 dostrzeżono konieczność powołania dedykowanego urzędu, który koordynowałby te wysiłki i zapewniał większą spójność polityki wobec Polonii. Jak zauważają Anhzela Popyk i Magdalena Lesińska,\n255 M. Koinova, Autonomy and Positionality in Diaspora Politics...; E. Østergaard-Nielsen,\nTransnational Politics...\n256 A. Gamlen, Diaspora institutions and diaspora governance...\n\nutworzenie tej funkcji wpisuje się w szerszy trend tworzenia instytucji odpowiedzialnych za diasporę w krajach Europy Środkowo-Wschodniej, które po transformacji systemowej zaczęły aktywnie angażować się w politykę wobec swoich emigrantów257.\nCele pełnomocnika można ująć w trzech wymiarach: po pierwsze – wspieranie Polonii w zakresie edukacji, kultury i tożsamości; po drugie – obronę praw\nPolaków za granicą w krajach przyjmujących; po trzecie – włączanie diaspory w życie społeczne, gospodarcze i polityczne Polski. Funkcja ta ma więc charakter wielowymiarowy. Łączy funkcje ochronne, integracyjne i rozwojowe, zgodnie z paradygmatem polityki diaspory jako narzędzia soft power258.\nZakres kompetencji pełnomocnika obejmuje inicjowanie i koordynowanie działań administracji publicznej w obszarze współpracy z Polonią, współpracę z organizacjami polonijnymi, a także przygotowywanie programów wsparcia.\nDo podstawowych obszarów aktywności należą projekty edukacyjne (m.in.\nwspieranie szkół sobotnich i kursów języka polskiego), projekty kulturalne\n(np. festiwale, publikacje, wsparcie dla mediów polonijnych) oraz działania związane z obywatelstwem i prawami Polaków w krajach osiedlenia.\nPrzykładem praktycznych działań była współpraca pełnomocnika z Senatem RP w zakresie dystrybucji środków finansowych dla organizacji polonijnych. Innym ważnym elementem było wspieranie programów symbolicznych, takich jak Karta Polaka. Jest to dokument wprowadzony w 2007 roku, który potwierdza przynależność do narodu polskiego i daje określone prawa osobom polskiego pochodzenia mieszkającym na Wschodzie259. Pełnomocnik odgrywał kluczową rolę w upowszechnianiu tego programu i w monitorowaniu jego realizacji.\nPełnomocnik ds. Polonii pełni również istotną rolę w wymiarze polityki zagranicznej. Organizacje polonijne traktowane są jako partnerzy w działaniach dyplomatycznych, a ich aktywność lobbingowa bywa koordynowana z polityką państwa. W ten sposób pełnomocnik uczestniczy w kształtowaniu wizerunku Polski na arenie międzynarodowej oraz we wzmacnianiu jej pozycji w ramach polityki soft power. Eva Østergaard-Nielsen zauważa, że diaspory stają się dziś nieformalnymi aktorami polityki zagranicznej, a rola instytucji\n257 M. Lesińska, I. Wróbel, Diaspora Policies, Consular Services and Social Protection for\nPolish Citizens Abroad...; A. Popyk, M. Lesińska, K. Dambrauskas, The evolution of post-accession diasporas and diaspora policies after 2004...\n258 M. Koinova, Autonomy and Positionality in Diaspora Politics...\n259 A. Gruszczak, The Problem of Otherness...\n\npaństwowych polega na mediacji i synchronizacji ich działań z interesami kraju macierzystego260.\nMimo istotnej roli funkcja pełnomocnika podlega także krytyce. Po pierwsze, zarzuca się jej nadmierną centralizację i biurokratyzację działań. Procedury wsparcia często są postrzegane jako zbyt skomplikowane, a dostęp do środków – jako ograniczony dla mniejszych i słabiej zorganizowanych organizacji polonijnych. Po drugie, wskazuje się na ryzyko instrumentalizacji Polonii przez władze państwowe, które mogą traktować ją przede wszystkim jako narzędzie polityki zagranicznej, a nie jako wspólnotę z własnymi potrzebami i aspiracjami. Po trzecie, istnieją ograniczenia wynikające z różnic regionalnych: potrzeby Polonii w Ameryce Północnej różnią się zasadniczo od wyzwań stojących przed Polakami w krajach Europy Wschodniej.\nMagdalena Lesińska podkreśla, że jednym z głównych wyzwań dla pełnomocnika jest pogodzenie różnych oczekiwań i utrzymanie równowagi między rolą opiekuna a rolą pośrednika w polityce państwa. W tym kontekście przyszłość funkcji zależy od jej zdolności do elastyczności, otwartości na oddolne inicjatywy oraz współpracy z szerokim spektrum organizacji, nie tylko tych największych i najlepiej zorganizowanych261.\nW przyszłości funkcja pełnomocnika może ulec dalszej profesjonalizacji i rozszerzeniu. Nowe wyzwania, takie jak migracje postakcesyjne po 2004 roku, rosnąca mobilność młodych Polaków oraz transformacja technologiczna, wymagają innowacyjnych form działania. Pełnomocnik powinien w większym stopniu wykorzystywać narzędzia cyfrowe, wspierać projekty transnarodowe oraz tworzyć przestrzenie dialogu między różnymi pokoleniami i falami migracyjnymi.\nWarto zauważyć, że analogiczne funkcje istnieją w innych państwach, np. w Armenii czy w Irlandii, gdzie pełnomocnicy ds. diaspory są ważnym elementem strategii państwowej. Porównania te pokazują, że funkcja tego typu może być skutecznym narzędziem budowania więzi transnarodowych, jeśli jest realizowana w sposób partnerski i otwarty na zróżnicowanie diaspory.\nKomisja senackie ds. łączności z Polakami za granicą\nJednym z najbardziej charakterystycznych przejawów instytucjonalizacji polityki polskiej wobec diaspory jest rola Senatu Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej jako\n260 E. Østergaard-Nielsen, Transnational Politics...\n261 M. Lesińska, I. Wróbel, Diaspora Policies, Consular Services and Social Protection for\nPolish Citizens Abroad...\n\ninstytucji sprawującej opiekę nad Polonią i Polakami za granicą. Już w latach\n90. XX wieku po transformacji ustrojowej Senat przejął zadania koordynowania wsparcia dla organizacji polonijnych, pełniąc funkcję głównego dysponenta środków budżetowych przeznaczanych na cele polonijne.\nTo rozwiązanie było unikatowe w skali europejskiej, ponieważ w niewielu krajach parlament, a nie rząd, stał się instytucjonalnym centrum polityki wobec diaspory. Jak zauważa Magdalena Lesińska, przyznanie Senatowi tej funkcji miało znaczenie symboliczne – miało podkreślać, że opieka nad Polonią jest zadaniem ponadpartyjnym, wykraczającym poza bieżące kalkulacje rządowe262.\nPowstanie komisji senackiej ds. Polonii wiąże się z konstytucyjnym umocowaniem Senatu jako „opiekuna Polaków za granicą”. Już pierwsze kadencje po 1989 roku powoływały Komisję Spraw Emigracji i Polaków za Granicą, która odgrywała rolę forum debaty nad problemami Polonii oraz ciała nadzorującego wydatkowanie środków publicznych. Strukturalnie komisje te działały na zasadzie organów stałych, złożonych z senatorów różnych ugrupowań, co miało zapewniać konsensualny charakter polityki polonijnej. Powstawanie tego typu instytucji parlamentarnych wpisuje się w globalny trend tworzenia mechanizmów instytucjonalnych, umożliwiających kontakt diaspory z centrum politycznym państwa263.\nKomisje senackie pełnią przede wszystkim rolę legislacyjną i kontrolną.\nDo ich podstawowych zadań należy opiniowanie ustaw dotyczących Polonii, inicjowanie debat na temat sytuacji Polaków za granicą oraz nadzorowanie dystrybucji funduszy polonijnych. W latach 90. i 2000. Senat był głównym dysponentem środków na cele polonijne, które trafiały do organizacji emigracyjnych w formie dotacji i grantów. Środki te przeznaczano głównie na edukację (szkoły, podręczniki, kursy języka polskiego), kulturę (wydarzenia, publikacje, media polonijne) oraz projekty infrastrukturalne (budynki, domy kultury). Polityka grantowa Senatu była ważnym narzędziem budowania kapitału społecznego w diasporze, wzmacniając sieci społeczne i więzi kulturowe wśród Polonii264. Jednak budziła także kontrowersje dotyczące przejrzystości i skuteczności wydatkowania265. Te wyzwania podkreślają potrzebę większej transparentności w politykach wobec diaspory.\n262 Ibid.\n263 A. Gamlen, Diaspora institutions and diaspora governance...\n264 M. Lesińska, Polska diaspora, Polonia, emigracja. Spory pojęciowe wokół skupisk polskich za granicą...\n265 M. Nowosielski, W. Nowak, ‘We Are Not Just Asking What Poland Can Do for the Polish\nDiaspora but Mainly What the Polish Diaspora Can Do for Poland’...\n\nRelacja z rządem i organizacjami polonijnymi\nRelacje komisji senackich z rządem oraz organizacjami diasporycznymi nie były wolne od napięć. Po pierwsze, spory dotyczyły kwestii kompetencyjnych – rząd, a zwłaszcza Ministerstwo Spraw Zagranicznych, wielokrotnie starał się przejąć rolę głównego koordynatora polityki wobec Polonii. Po drugie, problemem była centralizacja decyzji finansowych – środki były przydzielane z Warszawy, co zdaniem części organizacji ograniczało ich autonomię i dostosowanie wsparcia do lokalnych potrzeb. Badacze problemu zauważają, że w praktyce system grantowy faworyzował większe i lepiej zorganizowane instytucje, podczas gdy mniejsze grupy lokalne często miały ograniczony dostęp do środków266.\nMimo tych trudności komisje senackie odgrywały ważną rolę jako instytucjonalny partner Polonii. Organizacje polonijne miały możliwość zgłaszania swoich postulatów bezpośrednio w komisjach, uczestniczenia w posiedzeniach i przedstawiania opinii. W tym sensie komisje pełniły funkcję quasi-przedstawicielską, umożliwiając diasporze pośredni wpływ na procesy legislacyjne.\nKrytyka i wyzwania\nKomisje senackie ds. Polonii były niejednokrotnie przedmiotem krytyki. Najczęściej podnoszono zarzuty upolitycznienia, gdyż sposób dystrybucji środków nie zawsze był przejrzysty, a decyzje finansowe bywały powiązane z interesami partyjnymi. Krytycy wskazywali także na zbyt dużą biurokrację i niedostosowanie mechanizmów wsparcia do specyfiki poszczególnych regionów. Jak zauważa Eva Østergaard-Nielsen, instytucjonalizacja polityki wobec diaspory może prowadzić do paradoksu, zamiast zwiększać efektywność, wprowadza dodatkowe bariery formalne, utrudniając mniejszym organizacjom dostęp do pomocy267.\nKolejnym problemem jest dostosowanie działalności komisji do nowych realiów migracyjnych. Współczesna Polonia jest znacznie bardziej zróżnicowana niż w latach 90. – obok tradycyjnych wspólnot w USA czy Kanadzie istnieją także nowe fale migracji poakcesyjnej w Europie Zachodniej.\nKomisje senackie muszą więc poszerzać swoje pola działania, uwzględniając nie tylko tradycyjne potrzeby edukacyjno-kulturalne, ale także wyzwania związane z mobilnością, prawami socjalnymi czy integracją w ramach Unii\nEuropejskiej.\n266 Ibid.\n267 E. Østergaard-Nielsen, Transnational Politics...\n\nPerspektywy rozwoju\nW przyszłości komisje senackie mogą odgrywać jeszcze większą rolę w kształtowaniu polityki wobec Polonii, zwłaszcza jeśli uda się zwiększyć ich przejrzystość i skuteczność. Jednym z kierunków rozwoju jest większe otwarcie na współpracę cyfrową, organizowanie posiedzeń online, konsultacji i platform dialogu z diasporą. Innym rozwiązaniem mogłoby być powołanie podkomisji tematycznych zajmujących się specyficznymi grupami, np. nową emigracją europejską czy Polonią w Ameryce Łacińskiej. Jak wskazuje Maria Koinova, elastyczność i zdolność do różnicowania instrumentów polityki są warunkiem skutecznej współpracy z diasporą, zwłaszcza w kontekście jej wewnętrznego zróżnicowania268.\n1.5.3. Wpływ organizacji diasporalnych na politykę\nOrganizacje diasporalne odgrywają coraz istotniejszą rolę w kształtowaniu relacji międzynarodowych oraz w procesach decyzyjnych państw zarówno pochodzenia, jak i osiedlenia. Diaspora, rozumiana jako zbiorowość funkcjonująca poza granicami macierzystego kraju, lecz utrzymująca z nim więzi polityczne, gospodarcze i kulturowe, staje się aktorem transnarodowym, który przekracza tradycyjne ramy państwowo-centrycznego modelu polityki. Współczesne badania podkreślają, że grupy emigracyjne potrafią wykorzystywać swoje pozycje w strukturach politycznych państw przyjmujących, aby wpływać na decyzje dotyczące ojczyzny, zarówno poprzez mechanizmy demokratycznej reprezentacji, jak i dzięki strategiom lobbystycznym269.\nKluczowym instrumentem działania organizacji diasporalnych jest lobbing, rozumiany jako zinstytucjonalizowana forma artykulacji interesów.\nPoprzez niego diaspora staje się pośrednikiem między państwem osiedlenia a państwem pochodzenia, wykorzystując kapitał finansowy, społeczny i symboliczny. Lobbing obejmuje różnorodne praktyki, od bezpośredniego oddziaływania na parlamentarzystów, poprzez kampanie medialne, po mobilizację opinii publicznej wokół konkretnych kwestii. Z perspektywy państwa pochodzenia oznacza to, że diaspora może pełnić funkcję rzecznika jego interesów\n268 M. Koinova, Diaspora mobilizations for conflict: Beyond amplification and reduction,\n[w:] Routledge handbook of diaspora studies, Routledge 2018.\n269 F.B. Adamson, E. Han, Diasporic Geopolitics, Rising Powers, and the Future of International\nOrder, „Review of International Studies” t. 50 nr 3 (2024), DOI: 10.1017/S0260210524000123.\n\nw polityce międzynarodowej, ale również aktora nacisku, korygującego lub redefiniującego strategię dyplomatyczną270.\nPrzykłady historyczne pokazują, że wpływ ten bywa niezwykle istotny.\nLobby kubańskie w Stanach Zjednoczonych odegrało kluczową rolę w utrzymywaniu twardej polityki wobec reżimu Castro, podczas gdy diaspora hinduska w Wielkiej Brytanii skutecznie budowała pozytywny wizerunek Indii, wspierając zarazem interesy ekonomiczne i polityczne ojczyzny271. Analiza tych przypadków pozwala uchwycić, jak różnorodne mogą być strategie diaspory, a także jak bardzo zależą one od kontekstu politycznego, instytucjonalnego i historycznego.\nPodrozdział ten ma na celu przedstawienie mechanizmów oddziaływania organizacji diasporalnych na politykę, ze szczególnym uwzględnieniem roli lobbingu oraz studiów przypadków, które ilustrują praktyczny wymiar tej aktywności.\nLobbing, wpływ na politykę zagraniczną państwa pochodzenia\nLobbing prowadzony przez organizacje diasporalne jest jednym z kluczowych narzędzi, za pomocą których społeczności emigracyjne mogą oddziaływać na relacje międzynarodowe i procesy decyzyjne państw zarówno osiedlenia, jak i pochodzenia. W klasycznym ujęciu teoretycznym lobbing rozumiany jest jako forma artykulacji interesów, w której grupy społeczne, posiadające określony zasób środków finansowych, wiedzy eksperckiej oraz kapitału społecznego, próbują wpłynąć na procesy legislacyjne i wykonawcze poprzez działania ukierunkowane na decydentów politycznych. W przypadku diaspory znaczenie tego procesu zyskuje dodatkowy wymiar transnarodowy, ponieważ grupy te nie ograniczają się do artykulacji interesów w państwie zamieszkania, ale równocześnie próbują wpływać na politykę wobec kraju pochodzenia, co nadaje ich aktywności podwójną tożsamość: obywateli państwa przyjmującego i symbolicznych reprezentantów ojczyzny272.\n270 A.-S. Bentz, L. Guyot, Introduction. From Diaspora Politics to Host-society Politics: Strategies of Political Mobilization and Integration of South Asian Migrants, „South Asia\nMultidisciplinary Academic Journal” nr 27 (2021), DOI: 10.4000/samaj.7728, http:// journals.openedition.org/samaj/7728.\n271 S.K. Prasad, F. Savatic, Diasporic Foreign Policy Interest Groups in the United States: Democracy, Conflict, and Political Entrepreneurship, „Perspectives on Politics” t. 21 nr 3 (2023),\nDOI: 10.1017/S1537592721000979.\n272 F.B. Adamson, E. Han, Diasporic geopolitics, rising powers, and the future of international order, „Review of International Studies” t. 50 nr 3 (2024), DOI: 10.1017/S0260210524000123.\n\nMechanizmy lobbingu diaspory można rozpatrywać w kilku perspektywach. Po pierwsze, istotna jest bezpośrednia aktywność wobec instytucji państwa osiedlenia. Organizacje diasporalne podejmują działania skierowane do parlamentów, ministerstw, a także liderów opinii publicznej, starając się wpłynąć na decyzje polityczne wobec kraju pochodzenia. Zjawisko to jest szczególnie widoczne w demokracjach, gdzie pluralistyczny system polityczny umożliwia szeroki dostęp grup interesu do procesów decyzyjnych. Diaspora wykorzystuje więc instrumenty demokratycznej reprezentacji, takie jak finansowanie kampanii wyborczych, organizowanie debat czy tworzenie think tanków zajmujących się problematyką zagraniczną.\nW literaturze wskazuje się, że skuteczność tego typu działań wynika z umiejętności budowania szerokich koalicji, obejmujących zarówno innych aktorów politycznych, jak i media czy organizacje społeczne273.\nDrugim aspektem jest symboliczny i narracyjny wymiar lobbingu. Diaspory dysponują unikatowym kapitałem tożsamościowym, który pozwala im legitymizować swoje działania poprzez odwołania do historii, kultury i więzi narodowych. Dzięki temu są w stanie konstruować narracje, które przedstawiają interesy państwa pochodzenia jako integralne z wartościami politycznymi kraju osiedlenia. W praktyce oznacza to, że organizacje diasporalne mogą przedstawiać kwestie dotyczące ojczyzny nie jako odległy problem zagraniczny, lecz jako element polityki wewnętrznej, powiązany z bezpieczeństwem narodowym, etyką czy wartościami demokratycznymi. Takie przesunięcie ram debaty politycznej ma istotne konsekwencje, ponieważ ułatwia uzyskanie poparcia ze strony decydentów i opinii publicznej274.\nTrzecim wymiarem lobbingu jest wpływ na państwo pochodzenia. Diaspora, posiadająca instytucjonalne i finansowe zaplecze w państwie osiedlenia, może wywierać presję na rząd kraju macierzystego poprzez mediowanie relacji z władzami zagranicznymi. W tym sensie staje się ona nie tylko reprezentantem ojczyzny za granicą, lecz również aktorem nacisku, który potrafi warunkować decyzje polityczne, szczególnie gdy dotyczy to kwestii pomocy rozwojowej, transferów finansowych czy wsparcia dyplomatycznego. Badania pokazują, że wiele państw pochodzenia aktywnie współpracuje z diasporą, uznając jej potencjał mobilizacyjny i finansowy, ale równocześnie stara się kontrolować\n273 S.K. Prasad, F. Savatic, Diasporic Foreign Policy Interest Groups in the United States: Democracy, Conflict, and Political Entrepreneurship, „Perspectives on Politics” t. 21 nr 3 (2023),\nDOI: 10.1017/S1537592721000979.\n274 A.-S. Bentz, L. Guyot, Introduction. From Diaspora Politics to Host-society Politics...\n\njej aktywność polityczną, aby nie doszło do sytuacji, w której diaspora przejmie rolę równorzędnego aktora w procesie kształtowania polityki zagranicznej275.\nWarto również podkreślić, że skuteczność lobbingu zależy od kontekstu instytucjonalnego. W państwach, w których prawo sprzyja aktywności grup interesu i istnieje przejrzysty system finansowania partii politycznych, diaspora może wykorzystywać legalne kanały wpływu, takie jak rejestracja organizacji lobbystycznych czy udział w publicznych konsultacjach. W innych kontekstach, gdzie system polityczny jest mniej otwarty, działania te przybierają bardziej nieformalne formy, oparte na osobistych relacjach i niejawnych sieciach powiązań. W obu przypadkach kluczowe znaczenie ma zdolność do instytucjonalizacji – jedynie dobrze zorganizowane struktury diasporalne, posiadające odpowiednie kadry, zasoby finansowe i dostęp do kanałów komunikacyjnych, są w stanie skutecznie wywierać presję276.\nLobbing diaspory nie zawsze jednak prowadzi do realizacji interesów państwa pochodzenia w sposób zgodny z jego oficjalną polityką zagraniczną.\nCzęsto zdarza się, że organizacje emigracyjne forsują rozwiązania bardziej radykalne lub odbiegające od priorytetów rządowych. Przykładem mogą być działania diaspor opozycyjnych wobec reżimów autorytarnych, które prowadzą intensywne kampanie na rzecz sankcji międzynarodowych, nawet jeśli rządy państw pochodzenia starają się unikać otwartego konfliktu. Takie sytuacje ukazują złożoność relacji między diasporą a ojczyzną, w których współpraca i konflikt często współistnieją277.\nW literaturze zwraca się uwagę na problem tzw. przedstawicielstwa selektywnego. Organizacje diasporalne nie reprezentują całej społeczności emigracyjnej, lecz raczej jej aktywną i uprzywilejowaną część, zdolną do artykulacji interesów w języku politycznym. Oznacza to, że głos diaspory w procesach lobbingowych jest często głosem elit, przedsiębiorców, intelektualistów czy liderów organizacyjnych, a nie całej grupy etnicznej. Prowadzi to do sytuacji, w której polityka zagraniczna kształtowana pod wpływem diaspory odzwierciedla interesy tylko wybranych segmentów społeczności emigracyjnej. Ten problem stawia pytania o legitymizację i demokratyczność działań diasporalnych w polityce międzynarodowej278.\n275 F.B. Adamson, E. Han, Diasporic geopolitics, rising powers, and the future of international order...\n276 S.K. Prasad, F. Savatic, Diasporic Foreign Policy Interest Groups in the United States...\n277 F.B. Adamson, E. Han, Diasporic geopolitics, rising powers, and the future of international order...\n278 A.-S. Bentz, L. Guyot, Introduction. From Diaspora Politics to Host-society Politics...\n\nNie można również pominąć roli technologii w lobbingu diaspory. Rozwój mediów cyfrowych i sieci społecznościowych znacząco ułatwił mobilizację, komunikację i koordynację działań na poziomie globalnym. Organizacje emigracyjne coraz częściej wykorzystują narzędzia cyfrowe do prowadzenia kampanii, zbierania funduszy czy organizowania protestów online. Technologia umożliwia także szybkie reagowanie na kryzysy międzynarodowe, co zwiększa dynamikę i zasięg działań lobbingowych. Przekształca to klasyczny model lobbingu, czyniąc go bardziej inkluzyjnym i dostępnym, ale zarazem rodzi ryzyko dezinformacji i instrumentalizacji emocji politycznych279.\nAnalizując lobbing diaspory w kontekście polityki zagranicznej, należy podkreślić, że stanowi on zjawisko o dwojakiej naturze. Z jednej strony może on służyć jako narzędzie budowania mostów między państwem pochodzenia a państwem osiedlenia, wspierając dialog i współpracę. Z drugiej jednak strony, może być źródłem napięć, gdy interesy diaspory nie pokrywają się z interesami rządu lub gdy dochodzi do instrumentalizacji lobbingu przez partie polityczne w państwie osiedlenia. W obu przypadkach diaspora staje się jednak nieodzownym elementem współczesnych stosunków międzynarodowych, ilustrując proces pluralizacji aktorów polityki zagranicznej280.\nPrzykłady: lobby kubańskie w USA, diaspora hinduska w Wielkiej Brytanii\nLobby kubańskie w Stanach Zjednoczonych jest jednym z najlepiej udokumentowanych przykładów skutecznego oddziaływania diaspory na politykę zagraniczną państwa osiedlenia. Początki jego formowania się sięgają okresu rewolucji kubańskiej (1959), kiedy to duża liczba emigrantów, głównie z klasy średniej i wyższej, opuściła wyspę w obawie przed represjami reżimu Fidela\nCastro. W krótkim czasie na Florydzie, szczególnie w Miami, powstała zorganizowana i zasobna społeczność, która od samego początku dążyła do zachowania silnych więzi z ojczyzną oraz do wywierania presji na rząd USA w celu przyjęcia twardej polityki wobec Hawany281.\nOrganizacje takie jak Cuban American National Foundation (CANF), powstała w latach 80., odegrały fundamentalną rolę w konsolidacji politycznego\n279 S.K. Prasad, F. Savatic, Diasporic Foreign Policy Interest Groups in the United States...\n280 F.B. Adamson, E. Han, Diasporic geopolitics, rising powers, and the future of international order...; A.-S. Bentz, L. Guyot, Introduction. From Diaspora Politics to Host-society Politics...\n281 J. Gibbs, The Cuban lobby and US policy toward Cuba, [w:] A. Johnstone, H. Laville\n(red.), The US public and American foreign policy, London ; New York 2010; A. Koohkan,\nCuban Lobby in U.S. Foreign Policy, „Political Quarterly” t. 45 nr 2 (2015), DOI: 10.22059/ jpq.2015.54857.\n\ngłosu społeczności kubańskiej. Dzięki dostępowi do znacznych zasobów finansowych oraz zdolności do mobilizacji wyborców w kluczowych stanach, CANF i pokrewne organizacje stały się istotnymi graczami w amerykańskim systemie politycznym. Ich działalność obejmowała finansowanie kampanii wyborczych, prowadzenie badań i ekspertyz oraz bezpośredni lobbing wobec kongresmenów i administracji prezydenckiej. W efekcie udało się utrzymać przez dekady jedną z najbardziej restrykcyjnych polityk USA wobec obcego państwa – embargo gospodarczego wobec Kuby282.\nLobby kubańskie było skuteczne nie tylko dzięki zasobom materialnym, ale także poprzez zdolność do konstruowania narracji zgodnych z wartościami politycznymi USA. Przedstawiając reżim Castro jako zagrożenie dla demokracji, wolności i praw człowieka, diaspora kubańska potrafiła włączyć sprawę ojczyzny do szerszej debaty o bezpieczeństwie narodowym i roli Stanów Zjednoczonych jako promotora liberalnego porządku światowego. Retoryka ta zyskała szczególną siłę w okresie zimnej wojny, kiedy antykomunizm był jednym z głównych elementów tożsamości politycznej USA283.\nNie oznacza to jednak, że lobby kubańskie zawsze działało w pełnej jedności. Podziały wewnętrzne, zwłaszcza w młodszych pokoleniach, zaczęły prowadzić do bardziej umiarkowanych stanowisk wobec Kuby, a część organizacji poparła ograniczoną liberalizację relacji gospodarczych i kulturalnych.\nNiemniej jednak, przez większą część drugiej połowy XX wieku i początek\nXXI wieku, lobby to pozostawało jednym z najbardziej skutecznych aktorów politycznych w zakresie kształtowania polityki zagranicznej USA wobec państwa pochodzenia284.\nPrzypadek kubański wskazuje na trzy kluczowe mechanizmy skutecznego lobbingu diaspory: po pierwsze, konsolidację i instytucjonalizację działań w ramach dobrze zorganizowanych struktur; po drugie, zdolność do mobilizacji elektoratu w stanach kluczowych dla wyborów prezydenckich; po trzecie, umiejętność przedstawiania interesów ojczyzny w ramach uniwersalnych wartości politycznych państwa osiedlenia. To właśnie połączenie czynników\n282 J. Corrales, The Cuban Embargo: The Domestic Politics of an American Foreign Policy,\n„Perspectives on Politics” t. 4 nr 2 (2006), DOI: 10.1017/S1537592706710271.\n283 C. Koçak, Interest Groups and U.S. Foreign Policy towards Cuba: the Restoration of\nCapitalism in Cuba and the Changing Interest Group Politics, „Class Race Corporate\nPower” t. 4 nr 2 (2017), DOI: 10.25148/CRCP.4.2.001664, https://digitalcommons.fiu.\nedu/classracecorporatepower/vol4/iss2/7.\n284 A. Koohkan, Cuban Lobby in U.S. Foreign Policy...\n\nstrukturalnych, finansowych i narracyjnych uczyniło z lobby kubańskiego modelowy przykład wpływu diaspory na politykę zagraniczną285.\nDiaspora hinduska w Wielkiej Brytanii stanowi inny, lecz równie interesujący przykład wpływu emigracji na politykę zagraniczną. Społeczność hinduska, licząca obecnie około 1,5 miliona osób, zaczęła masowo przybywać do\nWielkiej Brytanii w okresie powojennym, a zwłaszcza po dekolonizacji Indii i Ugandy. Od samego początku charakteryzowała się wysokim stopniem organizacji oraz zdolnością do adaptacji w strukturach społecznych i politycznych państwa osiedlenia. Dziś Hindusi stanowią jedną z najlepiej zintegrowanych i najzamożniejszych mniejszości w Wielkiej Brytanii, co przekłada się na ich rosnący wpływ na politykę zarówno wewnętrzną, jak i zagraniczną286.\nOrganizacje takie jak Hindu Forum of Britain, National Council of Hindu\nTemples czy British Indian Forum stały się platformami artykulacji interesów diaspory, a równocześnie instytucjonalnym kanałem komunikacji z władzami brytyjskimi. Ich działalność nie ogranicza się do kwestii społeczno-kulturowych, lecz obejmuje także wpływ na politykę wobec Indii. Diaspora aktywnie uczestniczyła w budowaniu pozytywnego wizerunku Indii w Wielkiej Brytanii, przedstawiając je jako największą demokrację świata, dynamicznie rozwijającą się gospodarkę oraz strategicznego partnera Zachodu. Dzięki temu udało się wprowadzić temat Indii do głównego nurtu brytyjskiej debaty politycznej, co znalazło odzwierciedlenie w licznych inicjatywach współpracy gospodarczej i dyplomatycznej287.\nDiaspora hinduska odgrywa istotną rolę w procesie kształtowania opinii publicznej, wykorzystując zarówno tradycyjne media, jak i narzędzia cyfrowe.\nKampanie organizowane przez diasporę koncentrują się m.in. na zwalczaniu stereotypów dotyczących Indii, promowaniu inwestycji oraz budowaniu narracji o wspólnocie wartości demokratycznych i multikulturowych. Istotne znaczenie miała również mobilizacja społeczności hinduskiej w wyborach lokalnych i parlamentarnych, co sprawiło, że politycy głównych partii coraz\n285 J. Corrales, The Cuban Embargo: The Domestic Politics of an American Foreign Policy,\n„Perspectives on Politics” t. 4 nr 2 (2006), DOI: 10.1017/S1537592706710271; A. Koohkan,\nCuban Lobby in U.S. Foreign Policy...\n286 S. Sharma, Social and Political Participation of Indian Diaspora in the UK, „International\nStudies” 2014, t. 51, nr 1–4, DOI: 10.1177/0020881717719351.\n287 E.T.G. Anderson, Hindu Nationalism in the Indian Diaspora: Transnational Politics and\nBritish Multiculturalism, Oxford University Press 2024.\n\nczęściej podejmowali tematy związane z relacjami z Indiami, aby zyskać poparcie tego elektoratu288.\nWarto jednak zauważyć, że diaspora hinduska nie stanowi monolitu.\nRóżnice religijne, regionalne i klasowe prowadzą do wewnętrznych napięć, które niekiedy osłabiają zdolność do jednolitej reprezentacji interesów. Jednym z kontrowersyjnych zagadnień jest rola hinduistycznego nacjonalizmu, ponieważ część organizacji diasporalnych aktywnie wspiera narracje zgodne z ideologią Hindutvy. Prowadzi to do napięć zarówno wewnątrz społeczności hinduskiej w Wielkiej Brytanii, jak i w relacjach z innymi grupami etnicznymi, a także rodzi pytania o wpływ ideologicznych podziałów na kształtowanie brytyjskiej polityki zagranicznej wobec Indii289.\nMimo tych wyzwań diaspora hinduska pozostaje kluczowym podmiotem wspierającym rozwój stosunków brytyjsko-indyjskich. Jej rola jest szczególnie widoczna w sferze gospodarczej, gdzie przedsiębiorcy pochodzenia hinduskiego aktywnie inwestują w Wielkiej Brytanii, tworząc tysiące miejsc pracy i wzmacniając ekonomiczne podstawy relacji dwustronnych. W połączeniu z działalnością polityczną i kulturową diaspora ta stała się jednym z filarów\n„mostu” łączącego oba kraje. W tym sensie przypadek hinduski pokazuje, jak diaspora może funkcjonować nie tyle jako czynnik presji, ile jako promotor współpracy i dialogu strategicznego, wzmacniającego pozycję państwa pochodzenia na arenie międzynarodowej.\n1.6. Diaspory w Unii Europejskiej\nRozwój Unii Europejskiej jako wspólnoty politycznej i gospodarczej wywarł istotny wpływ na procesy migracyjne oraz na kształtowanie się diaspor wewnątrz jej granic. Szczególne znaczenie miało w tym zakresie rozszerzenie\nUE w latach 2004 i 2007, które otworzyło rynki pracy państw „starej piętnastki” dla obywateli nowych krajów członkowskich Europy Środkowo-Wschodniej.\nZjawisko to nie tylko zwiększyło mobilność obywateli, lecz także doprowadziło do powstania trwałych skupisk narodowych w największych krajach\n288 L.V. Kulik, Indian Diaspora in the UK, „MGIMO Review of International Relations” t. 2 nr 53 (2017), DOI: 10.24833/2071-8160-2017-2-53-160-183; S. Sharma, Social and\nPolitical Participation of Indian Diaspora in the UK, „International Studies” t. 51 nr 1–4\n(2014), DOI: 10.1177/0020881717719351.\n289 E.T.G. Anderson, Hindu Nationalism in the Indian Diaspora: Transnational Politics and\nBritish Multiculturalism...\n\nprzyjmujących, takich jak Wielka Brytania, Niemcy czy Irlandia. Migracje te, choć formalnie odbywają się w ramach zasady swobody przepływu osób, rodzą pytania o dynamikę tworzenia diaspor, ich integrację oraz status prawny obywateli UE w państwach przyjmujących.\nProblem ten ma wymiar nie tylko socjologiczny, lecz także politologiczny i instytucjonalny, ponieważ odnosi się do praktycznej realizacji jednego z filarów integracji europejskiej – obywatelstwa Unii. Obywatele UE, przenosząc się do innego państwa członkowskiego, uzyskują formalnie równe prawa w dostępie do rynku pracy, systemu zabezpieczenia społecznego czy uczestnictwa w wyborach lokalnych290. Niemniej jednak w praktyce napotykają oni na bariery instytucjonalne i kulturowe, które ujawniają napięcia między normatywnym ideałem równości a rzeczywistym doświadczeniem dyskryminacji i problemami integracyjnymi291. Specyfika diaspor wewnątrz UE odróżnia je od tradycyjnych diaspor migracyjnych spoza Europy. Brak konieczności naturalizacji oraz rosnące znaczenie tożsamości europejskiej sprawiają, że procesy adaptacyjne przebiegają w odmienny sposób. Ponadto różnice w politykach integracyjnych państw członkowskich uwidaczniają pluralizm podejść do zarządzania migracjami wewnątrzunijnymi.\nCelem niniejszego rozdziału jest analiza uwarunkowań i konsekwencji powstawania diaspor w ramach Unii Europejskiej. W pierwszej części omówione zostaną główne kierunki migracji po rozszerzeniach Unii Europejskiej w latach 2004 i 2007 oraz przykłady polskich diaspor w Wielkiej Brytanii,\nNiemczech i Irlandii. Druga część koncentruje się na statusie prawnym obywateli UE w państwach przyjmujących, ze szczególnym uwzględnieniem relacji między formalną równością a praktyką społeczną. W części trzeciej przedstawiona zostanie specyfika diaspor unijnych w porównaniu z diasporami pozaeuropejskimi, ze wskazaniem roli tożsamości europejskiej i zróżnicowanych polityk integracyjnych. Taka struktura pozwala uchwycić wielowymiarowy charakter zjawiska, znajdującego się w centrum dyskusji o przyszłości integracji europejskiej.\n290 E. Recchi, Mobile Europe, London 2015.\n291 E. Recchi, A. Favell (red.), Pioneers of European integration: citizenship and mobility in the EU, Cheltenham, UK ; Northampton, MA 2009.\n\n1.6.1. Swoboda przepływu osób a tworzenie się diaspor wewnątrz UE\nSwoboda przepływu osób stanowi jeden z filarów integracji europejskiej, a jej znaczenie w praktyce stało się szczególnie widoczne po rozszerzeniach\nUnii Europejskiej w latach 2004 i 2007. Wydarzenia te znacząco zwiększyły mobilność obywateli Europy Środkowo-Wschodniej, którzy zaczęli w dużej skali poszukiwać pracy i nowych perspektyw życiowych w państwach Europy\nZachodniej. Proces ten był nie tylko wynikiem różnic ekonomicznych między\n„nowymi” a „starymi” państwami członkowskimi, lecz także konsekwencją stopniowego otwierania rynków pracy oraz rosnącej atrakcyjności krajów o wyższym poziomie rozwoju.\nTworzenie się diaspor wewnątrz Unii stało się naturalnym skutkiem tych migracji, przy czym największe skupiska powstały w Wielkiej Brytanii, Niemczech i Irlandii – państwach, które w różnym stopniu, lecz stosunkowo szybko dopuściły obywateli nowych państw członkowskich do swoich rynków pracy.\nPolacy, jako jedna z najliczniejszych grup migracyjnych, odegrali w tym procesie szczególną rolę, stając się zarówno symbolem mobilności europejskiej, jak i przedmiotem licznych debat politycznych oraz społecznych.\nW dalszej części przedstawiono dwa kluczowe aspekty tego zjawiska:\ndynamikę ruchów migracyjnych po rozszerzeniach oraz studia przypadków dotyczące Polaków w trzech wybranych państwach przyjmujących.\nRuchy migracyjne po 2004 i 2007 roku\nRozszerzenia Unii Europejskiej w latach 2004 i 2007 wyznaczyły nowy etap w dziejach europejskiej mobilności. Do wspólnoty przystąpiły wówczas państwa Europy Środkowo-Wschodniej, charakteryzujące się niższym poziomem rozwoju gospodarczego i wyższym bezrobociem w porównaniu ze średnią unijną. W konsekwencji pojawiły się silne bodźce migracyjne, a obywatele nowych państw członkowskich zaczęli w dużej skali korzystać z prawa do swobodnego przepływu osób. Skala i dynamika tych ruchów znacznie przewyższyły wcześniejsze prognozy Komisji Europejskiej, które zakładały bardziej umiarkowany poziom migracji292.\n292 M. Kahanec, Labor mobility in an enlarged European Union, [w:] A.F. Constant, K.F.\nZimmermann (red.), International Handbook on the Economics of Migration, Edward\nElgar Publishing 2013.\n\nW 2004 roku do UE dołączyło dziesięć nowych państw, w tym Polska,\nLitwa, Łotwa, Estonia, Czechy, Słowacja, Węgry i Słowenia. Szczególne znaczenie miała decyzja Wielkiej Brytanii, Irlandii i Szwecji o otwarciu swoich rynków pracy już w dniu akcesji. Pozostałe państwa „starej piętnastki” wprowadziły okresy przejściowe, które miały chronić ich rynki pracy przed potencjalnym napływem tańszej siły roboczej. Nie powstrzymało to jednak migracji, ponieważ państwa, które otworzyły swoje granice, stały się głównym celem obywateli nowych państw członkowskich. Najliczniejsze fale migracyjne dotyczyły\nPolaków, którzy w krótkim czasie stali się jedną z największych społeczności imigranckich w Wielkiej Brytanii i Irlandii293.\nKolejna fala migracyjna nastąpiła po rozszerzeniu Unii Europejskiej z 2007 roku, kiedy do wspólnoty przystąpiły Rumunia i Bułgaria. Początkowo większość państw członkowskich wprowadziła wobec obywateli tych krajów ograniczenia w dostępie do rynku pracy, jednak wraz z ich stopniowym znoszeniem skala migracji ponownie wzrosła. Rumuni i Bułgarzy dołączyli do Polaków oraz obywateli państw bałtyckich jako znaczące grupy migracyjne, przyczyniając się do dalszego zróżnicowania krajobrazu migracyjnego Europy294.\nMigracje po 2004 i 2007 roku charakteryzowały się kilkoma kluczowymi cechami. Po pierwsze, były to migracje o charakterze ekonomicznym, ukierunkowane na poprawę warunków życia i poziomu wynagrodzeń. Wynikało to z istotnych dysproporcji płacowych między państwami „starej” i „nowej” Unii.\nŚrednie wynagrodzenie w Polsce w momencie akcesji stanowiło około jedną czwartą średniego wynagrodzenia w Wielkiej Brytanii295. Po drugie, migracje te miały masowy charakter. W niektórych krajach odsetek pracowników z nowych państw członkowskich osiągnął poziom kilku procent ogółu zatrudnionych. Po trzecie, w odróżnieniu od wcześniejszych fal emigracji z regionu, charakteryzowały się one większą mobilnością i tymczasowością pobytu. Część migrantów traktowała wyjazd jako etap przejściowy, a nie trwałe osiedlenie.\nWarto podkreślić również kontekst polityczny i społeczny omawianych procesów. W krajach przyjmujących migranci z Europy Środkowo-Wschodniej\n293 S. Drinkwater, J. Eade, M. Garapich, Poles Apart? EU Enlargement and the Labour Market\nOutcomes of Immigrants in the United Kingdom, „International Migration” t. 47 nr 1\n(2009), DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-2435.2008.00500.x.\n294 R. Penninx, Regional Economic Integration and Migration: Lessons from the Case of Europe,\n[w:] G. Battistella (red.), Global and Asian Perspectives on International Migration, t. 4,\nCham 2014.\n295 A. Fihel, A. Janicka, M. Okólski, Predicting a Migration Transition in Poland and Its\nImplications for Population Ageing...\n\nstali się istotnym elementem debat dotyczących rynku pracy, integracji oraz polityki społecznej. Przykładowo, w Wielkiej Brytanii obecność dużej liczby pracowników z Polski i innych państw regionu stała się jednym z kluczowych tematów kampanii poprzedzającej referendum w sprawie brexitu296.\nZ kolei w Niemczech czy Irlandii dyskusje koncentrowały się na roli migrantów w uzupełnianiu braków na rynku pracy oraz na ich wpływie na systemy zabezpieczenia społecznego.\nPodsumowując, ruchy migracyjne po 2004 i 2007 roku miały kluczowe znaczenie dla kształtowania się współczesnych diaspor w Unii Europejskiej.\nUjawniły one zarówno potencjał swobody przepływu osób jako instrumentu integracji europejskiej, jak i wyzwania związane z zarządzaniem mobilnością wewnętrzną w zróżnicowanej wspólnocie politycznej i gospodarczej.\nPrzykład Polaków w Wielkiej Brytanii\nMigracja Polaków do Wielkiej Brytanii po rozszerzeniu Unii Europejskiej w 2004 roku stanowi jeden z najbardziej wyrazistych przykładów realizacji zasady swobody przepływu osób. Wielka Brytania, obok Irlandii i Szwecji, jako jedno z nielicznych państw od razu otworzyła swój rynek pracy dla obywateli nowych państw członkowskich, co stworzyło sprzyjające warunki dla masowego napływu pracowników z Polski. Skala tego zjawiska szybko przerosła prognozy – w ciągu kilku lat Polacy stali się największą grupą migrantów z państw Europy Środkowo-Wschodniej w Zjednoczonym Królestwie297.\nWedług danych brytyjskiego Office for National Statistics już w 2011 roku liczba Polaków mieszkających w Wielkiej Brytanii przekroczyła 600 tysięcy, a w połowie drugiej dekady XXI wieku wzrosła do około miliona. Polacy stali się tym samym największą mniejszością narodową w kraju, przewyższając liczebnie tradycyjne wspólnoty migranckie, takie jak Hindusi czy Pakistańczycy298. Co istotne, migracja Polaków miała charakter w dużej mierze ekonomiczny – większość przyjezdnych podejmowała zatrudnienie w sektorach\n296 M. Goodwin, C. Milazzo, Taking Back Control? Investigating the Role of Immigration in the 2016 Vote for Brexit, „The British Journal of Politics and International Relations” t. 19 nr 3 (2017), DOI: 10.1177/1369148117710799.\n297 K. Burrell (red.), Polish Migration to the UK in the ‘New’ European Union: After 2004,\nRoutledge 2016.\n298 Office for National Statistics, Population estimates for the UK, England and Wales,\nScotland and Northern Ireland: mid-2016, 22 czerwca 2017 r., https://www.ons.gov.\nuk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/populationandmigration/populationestimates/ bulletins/annualmidyearpopulationestimates/mid2016.\n\nwymagających niskich i średnich kwalifikacji, takich jak budownictwo, rolnictwo, gastronomia czy opieka społeczna. Jednocześnie obecność wykwalifikowanych pracowników w sektorach specjalistycznych, takich jak medycyna czy inżynieria, potwierdzała zróżnicowany charakter tej migracji299.\nPolacy w Wielkiej Brytanii szybko zaczęli tworzyć rozbudowaną diasporę, której działalność wykraczała poza sferę ekonomiczną. Powstawały liczne organizacje społeczne, kulturalne i edukacyjne, a także polskojęzyczne media i szkoły uzupełniające. Istotną rolę odgrywały również parafie katolickie, stanowiące ważne ośrodki integracji społecznej wśród polskich migrantów. W ten sposób polska diaspora w Wielkiej Brytanii zyskała cechy stabilnej i trwałej wspólnoty, a nie jedynie tymczasowej grupy migrantów zarobkowych300.\nW wymiarze politycznym i społecznym obecność Polaków stała się przedmiotem intensywnych debat. Z jednej strony badania wskazują, że Polacy byli postrzegani jako „pracowici i zdyscyplinowani” pracownicy, którzy przyczyniali się do wzrostu gospodarczego i uzupełniali niedobory na rynku pracy301.\nZ drugiej strony ich masowy napływ budził obawy o presję na system zabezpieczenia społecznego, spadku wynagrodzeń w niektórych sektorach oraz problemów integracyjnych. Obawy te były często wyolbrzymiane przez media i partie polityczne, co przyczyniało się do wzrostu nastrojów antyimigranckich.\nKwestia obecności Polaków w Wielkiej Brytanii odegrała również symboliczną rolę w debacie o członkostwie tego kraju w Unii Europejskiej. W kampanii poprzedzającej referendum w sprawie brexitu w 2016 roku argumenty dotyczące skali migracji z Polski i innych państw Europy Środkowo-Wschodniej były często wykorzystywane jako dowód rzekomych negatywnych konsekwencji swobody przepływu osób. Choć badania ekonomiczne konsekwentnie wskazywały, że migranci z Polski netto przyczyniali się do brytyjskich finansów publicznych i nie stanowili nadmiernego obciążenia systemu zabezpieczenia społecznego302, dyskurs polityczny koncentrował się na emocjonalnych i tożsamościowych aspektach migracji.\nWarto zaznaczyć, że doświadczenie Polaków w Wielkiej Brytanii ujawnia zarówno szanse, jak i wyzwania związane z realizacją zasady swobody przepływu osób. Z jednej strony diaspora polska stała się przykładem sukcesu\n299 B. Anderson, Migration, Immigration Controls and the Fashioning of Precarious Workers...\n300 K. Burrell (red.), Polish Migration to the UK in the ‘New’ European Union: After 2004...\n301 C. Dustmann, T. Frattini, C. Halls, Assessing the Fiscal Costs and Benefits of A8 Migration to the UK, „Fiscal Studies” t. 31 nr 1 (2010), DOI: 10.1111/j.1475-5890.2010.00106.x.\n302 C. Dustmann, T. Frattini, The Fiscal Effects of Immigration to the UK, „The Economic\nJournal” t. 124 nr 589 (2014), DOI: 10.1111/ecoj.12181.\n\nintegracji gospodarczej, wzmacniając więzi transnarodowe i tworząc dynamiczne środowisko migracyjne. Z drugiej strony pokazała ona ograniczenia samej idei integracji europejskiej w sytuacji, gdy normatywne zasady zderzają się z realiami polityki krajowej i nastrojami społecznymi.\nPrzykład Polaków w Niemczech\nMigracja Polaków do Niemiec ma długą tradycję sięgającą XIX wieku, jednak po rozszerzeniu Unii Europejskiej w 2004 roku nabrała nowego wymiaru.\nNiemcy początkowo wprowadziły okresy przejściowe w dostępie do rynku pracy dla obywateli państw Europy Środkowo-Wschodniej, co spowolniło napływ Polaków w porównaniu z Wielką Brytanią czy Irlandią. Jednak geograficzna bliskość, historyczne powiązania i rozbudowane sieci społeczne sprawiły, że Polacy mimo to stanowili jedną z najliczniejszych grup cudzoziemskich w Niemczech. Po pełnym otwarciu rynku pracy w 2011 roku ich liczba gwałtownie wzrosła303.\nW połowie drugiej dekady XXI wieku Polacy stanowili drugą co do wielkości grupą imigrantów w Niemczech, ustępując jedynie Turkom. Według danych\nFederalnego Urzędu Statystycznego, w 2017 roku w Niemczech mieszkały ponad dwa miliony osób urodzonych w Polsce. W odróżnieniu od migracji do\nWielkiej Brytanii, zjawisko to charakteryzowało się większą różnorodnością.\nCzęść Polaków decydowała się na stałe osiedlenie, inni natomiast wybierali migrację sezonową, szczególnie w sektorach rolnictwa i usług304.\nSpecyfika migracji do Niemiec wiązała się również z wcześniejszą obecnością Polonii, zakorzenionej w życiu społecznym i kulturalnym kraju. Dzięki temu nowi migranci mogli korzystać z już ugruntowanych struktur wsparcia, takich jak organizacje polonijne, stowarzyszenia kulturalne czy instytucje edukacyjne. Jednocześnie obecność Polaków była wyraźnie widoczna w przestrzeni publicznej – od polskich sklepów i mediów po parafie katolickie, które odgrywały istotną rolę w procesie integracji społeczności.\nNiemcy, jako największa gospodarka UE, przyciągały Polaków przede wszystkim możliwościami zatrudnienia. Choć wielu migrantów znajdowało zatrudnienie w sektorach wymagających niskich kwalifikacji, to znacząca część\n303 H. Brücker et al., Occupational Recognition and Immigrant Labor Market Outcomes,\n„Journal of Labor Economics” t. 39 nr 2 (2021) DOI: 10.1086/710702.\n304 A. Fihel, P. Kaczmarczyk, Emigration from Post-Communist Central Europe after 1989\nInterpreted within the Aspirations/Capabilities Framework, „Comparative Population\nStudies” t. 48 (2023).\n\npodejmowała również pracę w zawodach wymagających wyższych umiejętności. W szczególności dotyczyło to sektora medycznego – pielęgniarek, lekarzy i opiekunów osób starszych – którzy stanowili istotne uzupełnienie niedoborów kadrowych w starzejącym się społeczeństwie niemieckim305.\nIntegracja Polaków w Niemczech nie była jednak wolna od wyzwań.\nBadania wskazują, że choć formalnie posiadali oni pełnię praw wynikających z obywatelstwa UE, to w praktyce napotykali ograniczenia w dostępie do stabilnych form zatrudnienia, a część z nich pracowała na podstawie niepewnych umów krótkoterminowych306. Ponadto stereotypowe postrzeganie Polaków jako\n„taniej siły roboczej” utrudniało ich pełną integrację społeczną.\nJednocześnie migracja Polaków do Niemiec miała charakter transnarodowy – wielu migrantów utrzymywało silne więzi z krajem pochodzenia, realizując tzw. migrację wahadłową. Zjawisko to było szczególnie widoczne w regionach przygranicznych, gdzie codzienne dojazdy do pracy po niemieckiej stronie granicy stały się stałym elementem życia społeczno-ekonomicznego.\nPodsumowując, doświadczenie Polaków w Niemczech ukazuje wielowymiarowość migracji wewnątrzunijnych. Z jednej strony bliskość geograficzna, sieci społeczne i otwarcie rynku pracy stworzyły warunki do masowego osiedlania się Polaków, czyniąc ich jedną z kluczowych grup migrantów w Niemczech. Z drugiej strony realia rynku pracy i bariery integracyjne pokazują, że formalna równość w ramach UE nie zawsze przekłada się na pełną równość społeczną i ekonomiczną.\nPrzykład Polaków w Irlandii\nIrlandia była jednym z państw, które od razu po rozszerzeniu Unii Europejskiej w 2004 roku otworzyły swoje rynki pracy dla obywateli nowych państw członkowskich. Decyzja ta zbiegła się w czasie z okresem dynamicznego rozwoju gospodarczego Irlandii, nazywanego mianem „celtyckiego tygrysa”. W rezultacie kraj ten stał się jednym z głównych kierunków migracji Polaków, którzy w krótkim czasie stworzyli tam największą społeczność migrancką307.\nWedług spisu powszechnego z 2011 roku w Irlandii mieszkało ponad 122 tysiące obywateli Polski, co stanowiło około 2,7% całej populacji kraju. Była\n305 M. Nowicka, Migrating Skills, Skilled Migrants and Migration Skills: The Influence of\nContexts on the Validation of Migrants’ Skills, „Migration Letters” t. 11 nr 2 (2014), DOI:\n10.33182/ml.v11i2.237.\n306 H. Brücker et al., Occupational Recognition and Immigrant Labor Market Outcomes...\n307 T. Krings et al., New Mobilities in Europe: Polish Migration to Ireland Post-2004, Manchester University Press 2016.\n\nto grupa znacznie większa niż jakakolwiek inna narodowość imigrancka, co znacząco wpłynęło na strukturę demograficzną Irlandii. W przeciwieństwie do\nWielkiej Brytanii, gdzie polska migracja była bardziej rozproszona, w Irlandii\nPolacy stali się wyjątkowo widoczną i spójną diasporą, której obecność kształtowała życie społeczne i kulturalne kraju308.\nMotywacje migracyjne Polaków do Irlandii miały w dużej mierze charakter ekonomiczny – irlandzki rynek pracy oferował wyższe płace i liczne możliwości zatrudnienia, zwłaszcza w sektorach usługowych, budownictwie oraz rolnictwie. Co istotne, wielu Polaków podjęło decyzję o osiedleniu się w Irlandii na stałe, sprowadzając swoje rodziny i aktywnie integrując się z lokalnymi społecznościami. W rezultacie polska diaspora w Irlandii szybko zaczęła tworzyć własne instytucje – szkoły, parafie, stowarzyszenia kulturalne i sportowe oraz media w języku polskim.\nIntegracja Polaków w Irlandii miała jednak swoją specyfikę. Z jednej strony społeczeństwo irlandzkie początkowo przyjmowało migrantów z entuzjazmem, postrzegając ich jako istotny czynnik napędzający rozwój gospodarczy. Z drugiej strony kryzys gospodarczy z 2008 roku diametralnie zmienił nastroje społeczne. Polacy, jako najliczniejsza grupa migrantów, byli szczególnie dotknięci wzrostem bezrobocia. Choć wielu z nich zdecydowało się pozostać, część powróciła do Polski lub wyjechała do innych krajów UE309.\nBadania pokazują, że Polacy w Irlandii wykazują stosunkowo wysoki poziom integracji społecznej, choć jednocześnie napotykają bariery, takie jak ograniczony dostęp do awansu zawodowego czy stereotypy dotyczące migrantów z Europy Środkowo-Wschodniej. Ważnym aspektem jest również transnarodowy charakter migracji – Polacy w Irlandii utrzymują silne więzi z krajem pochodzenia, co przejawia się m.in. w transferach pieniężnych, uczestnictwie w polskich wyborach czy korzystaniu z tanich połączeń lotniczych310.\nWarto także zwrócić uwagę na wymiar polityczny obecności Polaków w Irlandii. Jako obywatele UE posiadają oni prawo do udziału w wyborach lokalnych, co umożliwia im aktywne uczestnictwo w życiu politycznym kraju. Choć ich zaangażowanie w praktyce pozostaje ograniczone, zjawisko\n308 I. Grabowska-Lusińska, M. Okólski, Emigracja ostatnia?, Warszawa 2009.\n309 A. Barrett, E. Kelly, The Impact of Ireland’s Recession on the Labour Market Outcomes of\nIts Immigrants, „European Journal of Population / Revue européenne de Démographie” t. 28 nr 1 (2012), DOI: 10.1007/s10680-011-9249-7.\n310 T. Krings et al., New Mobilities in Europe...\n\nto wskazuje na potencjał budowania tożsamości obywatelskiej wykraczającej poza granice narodowe311.\nPodsumowując, polska diaspora w Irlandii stanowi przykład szybkiego i trwałego zakorzenienia się nowej wspólnoty migranckiej w społeczeństwie przyjmującym. Doświadczenie to ukazuje zarówno korzyści płynące ze swobody przepływu osób, jak i wyzwania związane z integracją w kontekście dynamicznych przemian gospodarczych i społecznych.\nAnaliza swobody przepływu osób w kontekście powstawania diaspor wewnątrz Unii Europejskiej po rozszerzeniach z lat 2004 i 2007 ukazuje złożoność procesów migracyjnych i ich dalekosiężne konsekwencje. Wydarzenia te otworzyły nowy etap w historii mobilności Europejczyków, prowadząc do bezprecedensowej skali przepływów ludności w obrębie wspólnoty. Polacy, jako największa grupa migrantów wśród obywateli nowych państw członkowskich, stali się symbolem zarówno sukcesów, jak i wyzwań związanych z realizacją jednej z podstawowych swobód integracji europejskiej.\nMigracje po 2004 roku charakteryzowały się masowością, a ich główną przyczyną były różnice ekonomiczne między państwami „starej piętnastki” a krajami Europy Środkowo-Wschodniej. Wielka Brytania, Irlandia i Niemcy wyłoniły się jako kluczowe kierunki mobilności Polaków, z których każdy oferował odmienne warunki i konteksty integracyjne. Wielka Brytania przyciągnęła setki tysięcy Polaków dzięki natychmiastowemu otwarciu rynku pracy i wysokiemu zapotrzebowaniu na pracowników w sektorach nisko i średnio kwalifikowanych. Irlandia, w okresie dynamicznego wzrostu gospodarczego, stała się miejscem szybkiego zakorzenienia się największej grupy migrantów w historii tego kraju. Niemcy, mimo początkowych ograniczeń, ostatecznie stały się drugim domem dla milionów Polaków, którzy korzystali z bliskości geograficznej i istniejących struktur polonijnych.\nDoświadczenia Polaków w tych trzech państwach ukazują zróżnicowany charakter diaspor wewnątrzunijnych. W Wielkiej Brytanii polska obecność zyskała szczególny wymiar polityczny, stając się jednym z głównych tematów sporu w debacie o brexicie. W Irlandii Polacy szybko stworzyli widoczną i zwartą diasporę, odgrywającą istotną rolę w przemianach społecznych kraju.\nZ kolei w Niemczech migracja miała bardziej zróżnicowany charakter – od sezonowej i transgranicznej po osiedleńczą – co sprawiło, że Polacy stali się istotnym elementem wielokulturowej mozaiki niemieckiego społeczeństwa.\n311 S. Loyal, Understanding immigration in Ireland: state, capital and labour in a global age,\nManchester ; New York, NY 2011.\n\nJednocześnie studia przypadków ujawniają istotne napięcia między normatywnym wymiarem swobody przepływu osób a praktycznymi wyzwaniami integracyjnymi. Formalna równość obywateli UE w dostępie do rynku pracy, świadczeń socjalnych i praw politycznych nie zawsze przekładała się na rzeczywiste doświadczenia migrantów. W Wielkiej Brytanii dyskurs publiczny często przedstawiał Polaków jako obciążenie dla systemu socjalnego, mimo dowodów na ich pozytywny wpływ fiskalny312. W Niemczech z kolei bariery instytucjonalne i stereotypy ograniczały dostęp do stabilnego zatrudnienia, a w Irlandii kryzys gospodarczy ujawnił kruchość integracji w warunkach recesji313.\nWarto podkreślić, że polskie diaspory w omawianych krajach nie ograniczały się do funkcji ekonomicznych. Tworzyły one rozbudowane sieci społeczne, instytucje kulturowe i edukacyjne, a także uczestniczyły w życiu religijnym i politycznym państw przyjmujących. Takie działania wzmacniały poczucie wspólnoty i trwałości, a jednocześnie stanowiły narzędzie negocjacji tożsamości w warunkach transnarodowości.\nPodsumowując, swoboda przepływu osób w ramach UE nie tylko umożliwiła Polakom mobilność na niespotykaną dotąd skalę, lecz także przyczyniła się do powstania diaspor, które odgrywają znaczącą rolę w kształtowaniu społecznego, ekonomicznego i politycznego krajobrazu Europy. Przypadki\nWielkiej Brytanii, Niemiec i Irlandii ukazują, że choć integracja europejska zapewnia formalne ramy równości, rzeczywiste doświadczenia migrantów pozostają zróżnicowane i zależne od kontekstu krajowego. Diaspory te stały się jednocześnie świadectwem potencjału integracji europejskiej, jak i przypomnieniem o jej ograniczeniach wynikających z napięć między wspólnotową zasadą swobody a narodowymi interesami i narracjami politycznymi.\n1.6.2. Status prawny obywateli UE w innym państwie członkowskim\nStatus prawny obywateli Unii Europejskiej, którzy decydują się na migrację do innego państwa członkowskiego, stanowi jeden z kluczowych aspektów funkcjonowania wspólnoty. Zasada swobody przepływu osób, zapisana w Traktacie o funkcjonowaniu Unii Europejskiej (art. 45–48 TFUE), przyznaje obywatelom UE prawo do swobodnego przemieszczania się, podejmowania pracy,\n312 C. Dustmann, T. Frattini, The Fiscal Effects of Immigration to the UK...\n313 A. Barrett, E. Kelly, The Impact of Ireland’s Recession on the Labour Market Outcomes of Its Immigrants...\n\nosiedlania się oraz korzystania z określonych praw socjalnych i politycznych w dowolnym państwie członkowskim. Formalnie oznacza to równość wobec prawa, niezależnie od narodowości.\nJednak praktyczna realizacja tych praw ujawnia istotne napięcia między zasadą równości a rzeczywistymi doświadczeniami migrantów. W wielu przypadkach obywatele UE spotykają się z barierami instytucjonalnymi, dyskryminacją na rynku pracy czy ograniczeniami w dostępie do świadczeń społecznych. Problematyka ta jest tym bardziej istotna, że dotyczy nie tylko integracji migrantów w nowych społeczeństwach, ale także trwałości samej idei obywatelstwa europejskiego.\nCelem niniejszego podrozdziału jest analiza statusu prawnego obywateli\nUE w praktyce, z uwzględnieniem trzech wymiarów: (1) relacji między formalną równością a rzeczywistymi różnicami w traktowaniu migrantów, (2) dostępu do rynku pracy i usług socjalnych oraz (3) uprawnień politycznych, w tym prawa do udziału w wyborach lokalnych.\nRówność wobec prawa vs. realne różnice (dyskryminacja, integracja)\nZasada swobody przepływu osób i wynikająca z niej formalna równość obywateli Unii Europejskiej stanowią fundament integracji europejskiej. Obywatel UE, migrując do innego państwa członkowskiego, uzyskuje dostęp do zatrudnienia, edukacji i usług socjalnych na takich samych zasadach jak obywatele państwa przyjmującego314. Jednakże w praktyce obserwuje się istotne rozbieżności między normatywnym ideałem równości a codziennymi doświadczeniami migrantów.\nRóżnice te wynikają zarówno z ograniczeń instytucjonalnych, jak i z barier społecznych i kulturowych, które często przybierają formę dyskryminacji pośredniej.\nBadania wskazują, że jednym z głównych obszarów problemowych pozostaje rynek pracy. Choć obywatele UE mają formalnie prawo do równego traktowania, w wielu przypadkach podejmują zatrudnienie w sektorach nisko opłacanych i o ograniczonych perspektywach awansu. Wynika to z barier językowych, braku uznania kwalifikacji zawodowych czy stereotypów pracodawców. Migranci z nowych państw członkowskich, zwłaszcza Polacy, Rumuni i Bułgarzy, byli niejednokrotnie postrzegani jako „tania siła robocza”, co ograniczało ich możliwości pełnej integracji zawodowej315.\n314 H. Brücker et al., Occupational Recognition and Immigrant Labor Market Outcomes...\n315 A. Favell, R. Hansen, Markets Against Politics: Migration, EU Enlargement and the\nIdea of Europe, „Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies” t. 28 nr 4 (2002), DOI:\n10.1080/1369183021000032218.\n\nRóżnice między prawem a praktyką są widoczne również w sferze społecznej. Migranci napotykają na bariery w dostępie do świadczeń socjalnych, które, choć formalnie dostępne, bywają ograniczane poprzez praktyki administracyjne. W niektórych państwach członkowskich wprowadzano przepisy mające na celu ograniczenie dostępu obywateli innych krajów UE do zasiłków dla bezrobotnych czy świadczeń rodzinnych, argumentując to koniecznością ochrony krajowych systemów socjalnych. Takie działania podważały zasadę równości, a jednocześnie prowadziły do napięć politycznych wokół migracji wewnątrzunijnej316.\nIntegracja migrantów z innymi obywatelami UE jest procesem złożonym i wielowymiarowym. Z jednej strony bliskość kulturowa i brak formalnych barier prawnych sprzyjają integracji. Z drugiej jednak strony praktyka pokazuje, że poczucie „drugorzędności” w społeczeństwach przyjmujących jest doświadczeniem wielu migrantów. Dyskryminacja przejawia się nie tylko w zatrudnieniu, lecz także w sferze symbolicznej, w postaci stereotypów, uprzedzeń czy ograniczonej akceptacji społecznej317. Przykłady z Wielkiej Brytanii, Niemiec czy Holandii pokazują, że debaty publiczne wokół imigracji często skupiały się na migrantach z Europy Środkowo-Wschodniej, przedstawiając ich jako grupy konkurujące o miejsca pracy i zasoby socjalne.\nW kontekście integracji należy także zauważyć znaczenie czynników indywidualnych i wspólnotowych. Sieci diasporalne odgrywają kluczową rolę w procesie adaptacji, oferując wsparcie emocjonalne, ekonomiczne i informacyjne. Jednocześnie mogą one prowadzić do tworzenia enklaw społecznych, co z jednej strony ułatwia przetrwanie w nowym środowisku, ale z drugiej może ograniczać proces szerszej integracji ze społeczeństwem przyjmującym.\nPodsumowując, choć prawo unijne gwarantuje obywatelom formalną równość w obrębie wspólnoty, w praktyce ich doświadczenia pozostają znacznie bardziej zróżnicowane. Dyskryminacja strukturalna, nierówności na rynku pracy oraz społeczne uprzedzenia ujawniają ograniczenia swobody przepływu osób jako narzędzia realizacji pełnej integracji europejskiej. Zjawisko to ukazuje napięcie między ideą obywatelstwa unijnego a realiami codziennego życia migrantów, co stanowi jedno z najważniejszych wyzwań dla dalszej konsolidacji integracji europejskiej.\n316 E. Guild et al. (red.), Social Benefits and Migration...\n317 R. Koopmans, Multiculturalism and Immigration...\n\nDostęp do rynku pracy, usług socjalnych, głosowania lokalnego\nPrawo Unii Europejskiej, wyrażone przede wszystkim w art. 45–48 TFUE oraz w dyrektywie 2004/38/WE, gwarantuje obywatelom UE swobodę podejmowania zatrudnienia, dostęp do usług socjalnych na równych zasadach z obywatelami kraju przyjmującego oraz możliwość uczestnictwa w wyborach lokalnych.\nTe trzy obszary stanowią podstawowy wymiar praktycznej realizacji obywatelstwa unijnego. Jednak wdrożenie tych zasad w praktyce ujawnia znaczące zróżnicowanie i napięcia, które wskazują na granice idei formalnej równości.\nSwoboda dostępu do rynku pracy stanowi kluczowy element mobilności w ramach UE. Migranci z nowych państw członkowskich, którzy przyłączyli się do Unii po 2004 i 2007 roku, uzyskali formalne prawo do podejmowania zatrudnienia, jednak w wielu krajach początkowo obowiązywały okresy przejściowe ograniczające ten dostęp318. Po ich zniesieniu różnice w traktowaniu migrantów nadal były widoczne. Obywatele z Europy Środkowo-Wschodniej częściej byli zatrudniani w sektorach wymagających niskich kwalifikacji, niezależnie od posiadanych umiejętności czy wykształcenia. Wynikało to z barier językowych, braku uznawania kwalifikacji oraz praktyk segmentacji rynku pracy.\nPomimo tych trudności badania wskazują, że migranci wewnątrzunijni przyczyniają się pozytywnie do wzrostu gospodarczego krajów przyjmujących i wypełniają luki kadrowe w starzejących się społeczeństwach Europy\nZachodniej. Niemniej jednak sytuacja, w której obywatele UE nie korzystają w pełni ze swoich kwalifikacji, wskazuje na niedoskonałości w funkcjonowaniu wspólnego rynku pracy319.\nDrugim istotnym obszarem jest dostęp do świadczeń socjalnych. Zgodnie z zasadą równego traktowania obywatele UE przebywający legalnie w innym państwie członkowskim powinni mieć dostęp do podstawowych usług, takich jak ochrona zdrowia, edukacja czy zasiłki społeczne. W praktyce jednak wiele państw przyjmujących stosowało ograniczenia, argumentując to koniecznością ochrony własnych systemów socjalnych. Debata o tzw. turystyce socjalnej stała się jednym z kluczowych punktów sporów politycznych, zwłaszcza w Wielkiej\nBrytanii i Niemczech320.\n318 M. Kahanec, Labor mobility in an enlarged European Union...\n319 C. Dustmann, T. Frattini, The Fiscal Effects of Immigration to the UK, „The Economic\nJournal” t. 124 nr 580 (2014), DOI: 10.1111/ecoj.12181.\n320 E. Guild et al. (red.), Social benefits and migration: a contested relationship and policy challenge in the EU, Brussels, Belgium 2013.\n\nWymiar polityczny obywatelstwa UE przejawia się w prawie do udziału w wyborach lokalnych w państwie zamieszkania. Dyrektywa 94/80/WE przyznała obywatelom UE prawo do głosowania i kandydowania w wyborach samorządowych w kraju przyjmującym. To rozwiązanie wzmacnia ideę „obywatelstwa europejskiego” jako ponadnarodowej kategorii prawnej i politycznej.\nW praktyce jednak aktywność wyborcza migrantów z UE pozostaje relatywnie niska. Badania wskazują, że wielu z nich nie korzysta z przysługującego im prawa, co wynika z braku znajomości systemu politycznego, barier językowych czy poczucia tymczasowości pobytu321. Istnieją jednak przykłady rosnącego zaangażowania – w niektórych miastach niemieckich, irlandzkich czy hiszpańskich przedstawiciele diaspor zasiadali w radach miejskich, reprezentując interesy społeczności migrantów i stając się częścią lokalnej polityki.\nChoć formalne ramy prawne UE zapewniają obywatelom równy dostęp do rynku pracy, usług socjalnych i uczestnictwa politycznego, praktyczna realizacja tych praw jest zróżnicowana i często problematyczna. Dysproporcje między ideą a praktyką wynikają zarówno z interesów politycznych państw członkowskich, jak również z indywidualnych uwarunkowań migrantów. Analiza tych obszarów ujawnia, że obywatelstwo europejskie, choć stanowi przełomową kategorię integracji, pozostaje w dużej mierze projektem niedokończonym.\n1.6.3. Specyfika diaspor wewnątrz UE vs. spoza UE\nDiaspory, jako wspólnoty tworzone przez migrantów w krajach przyjmujących, odgrywają istotną rolę w analizach migracyjnych i politologicznych.\nW kontekście Unii Europejskiej zjawisko to nabiera szczególnego znaczenia, ponieważ diaspory wewnątrzunijne funkcjonują w odmiennych warunkach prawnych i społecznych niż tradycyjne wspólnoty tworzone przez migrantów z krajów trzecich. Mobilność w ramach UE nie wymaga uzyskiwania zezwoleń na pobyt ani pracę, a obywatele korzystają z formalnie zagwarantowanej równości prawnej. To sprawia, że procesy tworzenia się i funkcjonowania diaspor w obrębie Unii różnią się zasadniczo od doświadczeń migracyjnych poza UE.\nSpecyfika diaspor wewnątrzunijnych ujawnia się na kilku płaszczyznach.\nPo pierwsze, brak potrzeby naturalizacji sprawia, że migranci mogą funkcjonować w kraju przyjmującym przez długi czas, zachowując jednocześnie\n321 J. Arrighi, R. Bauböck, A multilevel puzzle: Migrants’ voting rights in national and local elections, „European Journal of Political Research” t. 56 nr 3 (2017), DOI:\n10.1111/1475-6765.12176.\n\nobywatelstwo państwa pochodzenia. Po drugie rosnąca rola tożsamości europejskiej sprzyja budowaniu poczucia przynależności ponadnarodowej, łagodzącego tradycyjne napięcia związane z asymilacją. Po trzecie, różnorodność polityk integracyjnych państw członkowskich UE sprawia, że doświadczenia migrantów są bardzo zróżnicowane – od modelu otwartej integracji po bardziej restrykcyjne podejście wobec mobilnych obywateli.\nCelem niniejszego podrozdziału jest porównanie diaspor wewnątrz UE i poza nią ze szczególnym uwzględnieniem trzech aspektów: braku konieczności naturalizacji, znaczenia tożsamości europejskiej oraz odmienności w politykach integracyjnych państw przyjmujących.\nBrak potrzeby naturalizacji\nJedną z kluczowych cech odróżniających diaspory tworzone w ramach Unii\nEuropejskiej od tradycyjnych diaspor migracyjnych jest brak obowiązku naturalizacji. Obywatel UE, korzystając z prawa do swobodnego przepływu osób, może zamieszkiwać w innym państwie członkowskim przez czas nieokreślony, podejmować zatrudnienie, korzystać z usług socjalnych oraz uczestniczyć w wyborach lokalnych – wszystko to bez konieczności ubiegania się o obywatelstwo kraju przyjmującego. Ta specyfika znacząco odróżnia migrantów wewnątrzunijnych od obywateli państw trzecich, którzy zazwyczaj muszą przechodzić złożone procedury prawne związane z uzyskaniem prawa pobytu czy naturalizacji.\nBrak wymogu naturalizacji wpływa na sposób funkcjonowania diaspor w UE. Po pierwsze, pozwala migrantom utrzymywać silne więzi z krajem pochodzenia – zarówno w wymiarze prawnym, jak i emocjonalnym. Możliwość zachowania obywatelstwa państwa pochodzenia sprzyja podtrzymywaniu tożsamości narodowej i kulturowej, co prowadzi do rozwoju transnarodowych sieci społecznych. Migranci mogą swobodnie podróżować między krajem pochodzenia a krajem przyjmującym, co sprzyja tworzeniu się „transnarodowych diaspor” charakteryzujących się płynnością i wielością więzi322.\nPo drugie, brak konieczności naturalizacji pozwala wielu migrantom traktować pobyt w innym państwie UE jako sytuację tymczasową, nawet jeśli w praktyce trwa on przez wiele lat. Zjawisko to widoczne jest np. wśród\nPolaków w Wielkiej Brytanii czy Niemczech, którzy nie zawsze podejmowali\n322 A. Favell, R. Hansen, Markets against politics: Migration, EU enlargement and the idea of Europe, „Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies” t. 28 nr 4 (2002), DOI:\n10.1080/1369183021000032218.\n\ndecyzję o naturalizacji, mimo długotrwałego pobytu i osiedlenia się z rodzinami. Tego typu strategie migracyjne wskazują na nową jakość mobilności europejskiej – zamiast klasycznego procesu asymilacji i uzyskiwania obywatelstwa, pojawia się model „mobilnego obywatelstwa” opartego na prawach wynikających z członkostwa w UE323.\nZjawisko to ma jednak także swoje ograniczenia. Migranci wewnątrzunijni, choć formalnie równi wobec prawa, nie mają pełnych praw politycznych w państwie przyjmującym. Brak naturalizacji oznacza, że nie mogą uczestniczyć w wyborach parlamentarnych ani referendach krajowych, co w praktyce ogranicza ich wpływ na politykę państwa, w którym mieszkają i pracują.\nPrzykład Polaków w Wielkiej Brytanii pokazał, że mimo wieloletniej obecności i znaczącej liczebności nie mieli oni bezpośredniego wpływu na decyzję o brexicie, choć jej skutki szczególnie ich dotknęły324.\nDodatkowo brak presji na naturalizację może prowadzić do sytuacji, w której migranci pozostają w pewnej „szarej strefie” obywatelstwa. Formalnie korzystają z praw obywateli UE, jednak nie zawsze są postrzegani jako pełnoprawni członkowie społeczeństwa przyjmującego. W niektórych przypadkach może to sprzyjać powstawaniu narracji o „tymczasowości” migrantów, ograniczając ich integrację społeczną i polityczną.\nPodsumowując, brak konieczności naturalizacji stanowi jedną z fundamentalnych cech wyróżniających diaspory wewnątrz UE. Z jednej strony daje on migrantom wyjątkową swobodę, pozwalając na mobilność, podtrzymywanie więzi z krajem pochodzenia i rozwój transnarodowych strategii życiowych.\nZ drugiej jednak strony ogranicza ich pełną integrację polityczną i może prowadzić do powstawania specyficznej formy obywatelstwa – opartej na prawach unijnych, lecz niezakorzenionej w instytucjach politycznych państwa przyjmującego. Ta specyfika czyni diaspory wewnątrz UE zjawiskiem unikatowym w skali globalnej i stanowi wyzwanie dla dalszego rozwoju obywatelstwa europejskiego.\nRola tożsamości europejskiej\nTożsamość europejska stanowi istotny wymiar odróżniający diaspory wewnątrzunijne od diaspor pozaeuropejskich. Migranci w obrębie UE nie funkcjonują wyłącznie w kategoriach narodowych, lecz także w ramach szerszej wspólnoty politycznej i kulturowej, opartej na idei obywatelstwa europejskiego.\n323 E. Recchi, Mobile Europe...\n324 J.-M. Lafleur, Transnational Politics and the State...\n\nProces ten stał się szczególnie widoczny po rozszerzeniach z lat 2004 i 2007, kiedy obywatele nowych państw członkowskich masowo zaczęli korzystać ze swobody przepływu osób. Migracje te, choć w dużej mierze ekonomiczne, prowadziły do kontaktów międzykulturowych i doświadczania wspólnej przestrzeni społecznej, wzmacniającej poczucie przynależności do Europy325.\nRola tożsamości europejskiej w kształtowaniu diaspor wewnątrzunijnych przejawia się na kilku poziomach. Po pierwsze, sama instytucja obywatelstwa\nUE, ustanowiona w Traktacie z Maastricht, stanowi podstawę prawną i symboliczną do rozwijania poczucia wspólnoty ponadnarodowej. Obywatele nie są jedynie Polakami, Hiszpanami czy Niemcami, lecz także „Europejczykami”, co formalnie potwierdzają ich prawa do swobodnego przemieszczania się, pracy i uczestnictwa politycznego w państwach członkowskich326.\nPo drugie, codzienne doświadczenia migrantów sprzyjają kształtowaniu praktycznej tożsamości europejskiej. Polacy w Wielkiej Brytanii, Niemczech i Irlandii, uczestnicząc w lokalnym rynku pracy, edukacji oraz życiu społecznym, często konfrontują swoją tożsamość narodową z europejskim wymiarem mobilności. Jak pokazują badania, wielu migrantów zaczyna definiować siebie nie tylko przez pryzmat narodowy, ale także jako część większej wspólnoty europejskiej, co jest szczególnie widoczne wśród drugiego pokolenia migrantów.\nPo trzecie, tożsamość europejska pełni funkcję łagodzącą w kontekście napięć związanych z procesami integracyjnymi. W odróżnieniu od migrantów spoza UE obywatele unijni mogą powoływać się na wspólne wartości – demokrację, prawa człowieka, równość – które stanowią fundament integracji.\nDzięki temu diaspory wewnątrz UE mają większy potencjał do wpisywania się w tkankę społeczną krajów przyjmujących, mimo istniejących barier językowych i ekonomicznych327.\nNie oznacza to jednak, że tożsamość europejska całkowicie zastępuje tożsamości narodowe. Wręcz przeciwnie – w wielu przypadkach obserwuje się ich współistnienie i przenikanie. Migranci często definiują siebie jako Polaków, a jednocześnie jako Europejczyków, co pozwala im funkcjonować w przestrzeni transnarodowej bez konieczności pełnej asymilacji. Takie „hybrydowe\n325 E. Recchi, A. Favell (red.), Pioneers of European integration...\n326 Ibid.\n327 R. Koopmans, Multiculturalism and Immigration: A Contested Field in Cross-National Comparison, „Annual Review of Sociology” t. 39 nr 1 (2013), DOI: 10.1146/ annurev-soc-071312-145630.\n\ntożsamości” stanowią jedną z cech charakterystycznych diaspor wewnątrz UE, odróżniających je od diaspor pozaeuropejskich, które często muszą dokonywać wyraźniejszego wyboru między adaptacją a podtrzymywaniem tożsamości narodowej328.\nJednocześnie znaczenie tożsamości europejskiej ujawnia swoje ograniczenia w momentach kryzysów politycznych i gospodarczych. Przykładem jest Brexit, który podważył poczucie stabilności prawnej i politycznej wśród migrantów z Europy Środkowo-Wschodniej w Wielkiej Brytanii. Choć formalnie posiadali oni prawa wynikające z obywatelstwa UE, dyskurs publiczny często wykluczał ich z narracji o wspólnocie politycznej, co osłabiało poczucie przynależności do „projektu europejskiego”329.\nPodsumowując, tożsamość europejska odgrywa kluczową rolę w funkcjonowaniu diaspor wewnątrz UE. Stanowi ona swoiste spoiwo, które łagodzi napięcia między migracją a integracją, zarazem otwierając przestrzeń do budowania transnarodowych, hybrydowych form przynależności. Jednocześnie jej trwałość i siła zależą od stabilności politycznej samej Unii oraz zdolności państw członkowskich do tworzenia inkluzywnych narracji wspólnotowych.\nRóżnice w politykach integracyjnych\nPolityki integracyjne wobec migrantów w państwach członkowskich Unii\nEuropejskiej charakteryzują się znaczną różnorodnością, co wpływa również na specyfikę funkcjonowania diaspor wewnątrz UE. Choć obywatele\nUE korzystają z prawa do swobodnego przepływu osób, zakres i charakter działań integracyjnych, jakie oferują im państwa przyjmujące, zależą w dużej mierze od krajowych tradycji politycznych, modeli obywatelstwa oraz społecznych postaw wobec migracji. Taka fragmentaryczność podejść sprawia, że doświadczenia migrantów z Unii różnią się znacząco w zależności od kontekstu państwowego330.\nModele integracji w Europie\nW literaturze wyróżnia się trzy podstawowe modele polityk integracyjnych:\nmodel republikański (np. Francja), model wielokulturowy (np. Wielka Brytania) i model etnokulturowy (np. Niemcy przed reformą prawa o obywatelstwie\n328 E. Recchi, A. Favell (red.), Pioneers of European integration...\n329 J.-M. Lafleur, Transnational Politics and the State...\n330 A. Geddes, C. Boswell, Migration and Mobility in the European Union, Houndmills–\nBasingstoke–Hampshire 2011.\n\nw 2000 r.). W kontekście obywateli UE różnice te wciąż mają znaczenie. We\nFrancji kluczowe jest przyjęcie uniwersalistycznej tożsamości obywatelskiej, co ogranicza podkreślanie odrębności narodowych. W Wielkiej Brytanii przez długi czas akceptowano istnienie równoległych wspólnot kulturowych, choć po\n2010 roku nastąpił zwrot w kierunku bardziej restrykcyjnych podejść. Niemcy z kolei, tradycyjnie traktowały migrantów jako „gości” (Gastarbeiter), co przekładało się na ograniczoną integrację polityczną, choć wobec obywateli UE zastosowano bardziej inkluzywne rozwiązania331.\nIntegracja obywateli UE a migrantów spoza UE\nSpecyfika diaspor wewnątrz UE polega na tym, że nie wymagają one odrębnych ani kompleksowych polityk integracyjnych. W odróżnieniu od migrantów spoza UE obywatele wspólnoty mają prawo do zatrudnienia, zamieszkania i edukacji na mocy prawa unijnego, co ogranicza potrzebę krajowych programów wsparcia. Jednak brak konieczności naturalizacji i ograniczone działania integracyjne sprawiają, że obywatele UE mogą doświadczać swoistej „lukowej integracji” – są formalnie równi wobec prawa, lecz w praktyce pozostają na marginesie systemów politycznych i społecznych państw przyjmujących332.\nWpływ kryzysów politycznych i gospodarczych\nRóżnice w politykach integracyjnych szczególnie uwidaczniają się w momentach kryzysowych. Kryzys gospodarczy z lat 2008–2010 spowodował, że niektóre państwa ograniczały dostęp do świadczeń socjalnych dla migrantów wewnątrzunijnych, aby chronić własne systemy opieki społecznej333. Z kolei kryzys migracyjny z 2015 roku, mimo że dotyczył głównie uchodźców spoza\nUE, wpłynął na postrzeganie mobilnych obywateli Unii – w debatach publicznych często dochodziło do zacierania różnic między nimi a migrantami z krajów trzecich, co wzmocniło nastroje antyimigranckie. Najbardziej spektakularnym przykładem była Wielka Brytania, gdzie obecność Polaków i innych migrantów z Europy Środkowo-Wschodniej stała się jednym z głównych tematów debaty o brexicie334.\n331 R. Koopmans, Multiculturalism and Immigration...\n332 E. Recchi, A. Favell (red.), Pioneers of European integration...\n333 A. Gamlen, Diaspora institutions and diaspora governance...\n334 M. Goodwin, C. Milazzo, Taking back control? Investigating the role of immigration in the 2016 vote for Brexit, „The British Journal of Politics and International Relations” t. 19 nr 3 (2017), DOI: 10.1177/1369148117710799.\n\nKonsekwencje zróżnicowanych podejść\nBrak jednolitej polityki integracyjnej na poziomie unijnym sprawia, że funkcjonowanie diaspor wewnątrz UE jest silnie uzależnione od lokalnych uwarunkowań. W krajach stosujących bardziej otwarte podejście, takich jak Irlandia, migranci wewnątrzunijni mogą łatwiej uczestniczyć w życiu społecznym i politycznym. W państwach, w których nacisk kładzie się na asymilację, proces ten bywa trudniejszy, a diaspory zachowują większą odrębność. W konsekwencji migranci z UE tworzą zróżnicowane strategie – od silnej adaptacji po rozwój samodzielnych instytucji diasporalnych. W przypadku diaspor z krajów spoza\nUnii Europejskiej sytuacja wygląda zupełnie inaczej (tabela 5).\nTabela 5. Porównanie specyfiki diaspor wewnątrz UE i poza UE\nKategoria Diaspory wewnątrz UE Diaspory poza UE\nOparta na zasadzie swobody przepływu\nPodstawa Zależna od krajowego prawa imigracyjosób (TFUE, dyrektywa 2004/38/WE);\nprawna nego; wymaga wiz, pozwoleń na pobyt brak konieczności uzyskiwania zezwoleń pobytu i pracę.\nna pobyt i pracę.\nBrak potrzeby naturalizacji dla korzysta-\nCzęsto niezbędna dla stabilizacji statusu nia z pełni praw ekonomicznych i socjal-\nNaturalizacja prawnego oraz uzyskania pełnych praw nych; proces dobrowolny i relatywnie politycznych i socjalnych.\nrzadki.\nPrawo do głosowania i kandydowa-\nBrak praw wyborczych (zarówno lokal-\nPrawa nia w wyborach lokalnych; brak prawa nych, jak i krajowych) przed uzyskaniem polityczne udziału w wyborach parlamentarnych obywatelstwa.\nbez naturalizacji.\nSilniejsze napięcia między tożsamo-\nMożliwość rozwijania hybrydowej tożsa-\nTożsamość ścią narodową a wymogami asymilacji;\nmości narodowej i europejskiej, wzmoczbiorowa brak ponadnarodowego odniesienia nionej przez obywatelstwo UE.\ntożsamościowego.\nWspierana przez formalną równość\nUwarunkowana polityką integracyjną\nIntegracja prawną i bliskość kulturową, lecz zależna państwa przyjmującego; wyższe ryzyko społeczna od polityk krajowych; często częściowa marginalizacji i asymilacji przymusowej.\ni niepełna.\nSwobodna mobilność w obrębie UE, Ograniczona przez przepisy wizowe\nMobilność sprzyjająca migracji cyrkulacyjnej i tran- i imigracyjne; migracje mniej płynne snarodowym strategiom życia. i trudniejsze do odwrócenia.\nCzęsto postrzegani jako „tania siła robo-\nPostrzegani jako „inni” kulturowo; napię-\nPostrzeganie cza”, mimo formalnej równości prawnej;\ncia obejmują kwestie ekonomiczne, społeczne napięcia mają głównie charakter ekonoetniczne, religijne i językowe.\nmiczny i polityczny.\nŹródło: opracowanie własne na podstawie A. Favell, The New Face of East–West Migration in Europe, „Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies” t. 34 nr 5 (2008), DOI: 10.1080/13691830802105947; E. Guild et al. (red.), Social benefits and migration: a contested relationship and policy challenge in the EU, Brussels, Belgium 2013; R. Koopmans, Multiculturalism and Immigration: A Contested Field in Cross-National Comparison, „Annual Review of Sociology” t. 39 nr 1 (2013),\nDOI: 10.1146/annurev-soc-071312-145630; J.-M. Lafleur, M. Stanek, EU Migration and the Economic Crisis: Concepts and Issues, [w:] J.-M. Lafleur, M. Stanek (red.), South-North Migration of EU Citizens in Times of Crisis, Cham 2017.\n\nDiaspory wewnątrz UE funkcjonują w specyficznym kontekście prawnym i społecznym, który odróżnia je od klasycznych diaspor pozaeuropejskich. Różnice w politykach integracyjnych państw członkowskich ujawniają jednak ograniczenia zasady swobody przepływu osób w ramach Unii Europejskiej. Choć formalne prawa są jednolite, doświadczenia migrantów różnią się znacząco w zależności od państwa przyjmującego. Brak wspólnej polityki integracyjnej na poziomie UE sprawia, że diasporom unijnym przypisana jest szczególna ambiwalencja – są one jednocześnie w pełni uprawnionymi obywatelami wspólnoty, a zarazem „obcymi” w społeczeństwach narodowych.\nAnaliza specyfiki diaspor wewnątrz Unii Europejskiej w porównaniu z diasporami pozaeuropejskimi pokazuje, że mamy do czynienia z jakościowo odmiennym zjawiskiem migracyjnym. Choć zarówno w jednym, jak i w drugim przypadku chodzi o tworzenie wspólnot migrantów w nowych państwach osiedlenia, ramy prawne, społeczne i polityczne, w jakich funkcjonują te grupy, zasadniczo różnią się od siebie. Diaspory wewnątrz UE są efektem szczególnego kontekstu integracji europejskiej, opartej na swobodzie przepływu osób, obywatelstwie unijnym oraz wspólnych wartościach.\nPierwszym aspektem tej specyfiki jest brak konieczności naturalizacji. Obywatele UE, w przeciwieństwie do migrantów z państw trzecich, nie muszą ubiegać się o obywatelstwo kraju przyjmującego, aby legalnie mieszkać, pracować czy korzystać z usług socjalnych. Umożliwia to zachowanie silnych więzi z krajem pochodzenia i rozwój strategii transnarodowych, w ramach, których migranci równocześnie uczestniczą w życiu społecznym dwóch (a czasem więcej) państw.\nJednak brak naturalizacji wiąże się również z ograniczeniami – migranci często nie mają pełnych praw politycznych, co ogranicza ich wpływ na politykę państw przyjmujących335.\nDrugim elementem wyróżniającym jest rola tożsamości europejskiej. Obywatele przemieszczający się w ramach UE mogą identyfikować się nie tylko z własną narodowością, lecz także z szerszą wspólnotą europejską. Poczucie przynależności do „Europy” łagodzi tradycyjne napięcia między asymilacją a zachowaniem tożsamości narodowej. Migranci mogą funkcjonować w przestrzeni transnarodowej, rozwijając hybrydowe formy identyfikacji – jednocześnie narodowe i europejskie336. Jednak znaczenie tej tożsamości okazuje się zmienne.\nKryzysy polityczne, takie jak Brexit, pokazały, że poczucie europejskiej wspólnoty może zostać podważone przez nastroje narodowe i populistyczne.\n335 Ibid.; E. Recchi, Mobile Europe...\n336 M. Goodwin, C. Milazzo, Taking back control?...\n\nTrzecim wymiarem tej specyfiki są różnice w politykach integracyjnych.\nUnia Europejska nie posiada jednolitego modelu integracji, pozostawiając państwom członkowskim znaczną swobodę w tym zakresie. W konsekwencji migranci z UE mogą doświadczać odmiennych warunków w zależności od kraju pobytu. W Irlandii integracja obywateli UE przebiegała relatywnie gładko, podczas gdy w Niemczech i we Francji wciąż obecne były elementy podejść asymilacyjnych lub etnokulturowych. Różnice te ujawniają ograniczenia samej idei obywatelstwa unijnego – choć formalnie wszyscy obywatele mają równe prawa, ich praktyczna realizacja zależy od narodowych tradycji i interesów politycznych337.\nPodsumowując, diaspory wewnątrz UE różnią się zasadniczo od diaspor pozaeuropejskich. Są one mniej obciążone wymogami formalnymi, bardziej transnarodowe i osadzone w ramach instytucji obywatelstwa europejskiego.\nJednocześnie nie są wolne od problemów takich jak ograniczona integracja polityczna, zmienne narracje społeczne i zróżnicowane podejścia państw członkowskich, które sprawiają, że migranci wewnątrz UE często funkcjonują w przestrzeni „pomiędzy” – pełni praw ekonomicznych i socjalnych, ale nie zawsze w pełni zakorzenieni politycznie i społecznie. To napięcie pokazuje, że swoboda przepływu osób, choć stanowi jedno z największych osiągnięć integracji europejskiej, pozostaje projektem niedokończonym, wymagającym dalszego doprecyzowania i wzmocnienia mechanizmów wspólnotowych.\nW perspektywie politologicznej specyfika diaspor wewnątrzunijnych jest więc ambiwalentna. Z jednej strony świadczy o unikatowym charakterze UE jako przestrzeni ponadnarodowej mobilności, z drugiej jednak ujawnia ograniczenia, wynikające z niepełnej konsolidacji obywatelstwa europejskiego i braku wspólnej polityki integracyjnej.\nReasumując, można stwierdzić, że diaspory wewnątrz Unii Europejskiej stanowią szczególny fenomen społeczny i polityczny, wynikający z realizacji jednego z filarów integracji europejskiej – swobody przepływu osób. Z jednej strony, świadczą one o sukcesie integracji europejskiej – miliony obywateli mogą swobodnie się przemieszczać, podejmować pracę i budować życie w innych państwach członkowskich. Ich obecność wzbogaca społeczeństwa przyjmujące i przyczynia się do wzrostu gospodarczego. Z drugiej jednak strony doświadczenia migrantów pokazują ograniczenia samej idei obywatelstwa\n337 A. Geddes, C. Boswell, Migration and mobility in the European Union, Houndmills,\nBasingstoke, Hampshire 2011; R. Koopmans, Multiculturalism and Immigration...\n\nunijnego. Formalna równość często rozmija się z praktyką, a polityki integracyjne pozostają rozproszone i zależne od państw narodowych.\nRozszerzenia Unii, szczególnie w latach 2004 i 2007, wywołały masowe migracje obywateli nowych państw członkowskich do Europy Zachodniej.\nKluczowe znaczenie miały czynniki ekonomiczne, w tym dysproporcje płacowe i wysokie bezrobocie w krajach Europy Środkowo-Wschodniej, które zderzały się z niedoborami siły roboczej w „starej piętnastce”. W krótkim czasie powstały liczne skupiska migrantów, które przekształciły się w diaspory o trwałym charakterze. Polacy stali się największą grupą migrantów z nowych państw członkowskich, a ich doświadczenia w trzech państwach ukazują różnorodne modele integracji.\nStudia przypadków pokazały, że diaspory wewnątrz UE nie ograniczają się wyłącznie do roli ekonomicznej. Tworzą one instytucje edukacyjne, kulturalne i religijne, a także budują sieci transnarodowe, wzmacniające poczucie wspólnoty. Ich funkcjonowanie ujawnia jednak również napięcia między normatywnymi ramami swobody przepływu osób a rzeczywistością społeczną, w której migranci nie zawsze doświadczają pełnej równości338.\nZ formalnego punktu widzenia obywatele wspólnoty korzystają z równości wobec prawa – mają dostęp do rynku pracy, świadczeń socjalnych i mogą uczestniczyć w wyborach lokalnych. Jednak praktyka ujawnia znaczące rozbieżności. Migranci często napotykają na bariery językowe, brak uznawania kwalifikacji czy praktyki dyskryminacyjne, które ograniczają ich możliwości zawodowe339. W wielu przypadkach są zatrudniani poniżej swoich kwalifikacji, co utrwala stereotyp „taniej siły roboczej”340.\nDostęp do usług socjalnych bywa również przedmiotem sporów politycznych. Pojęcie „turystyki socjalnej”, wykorzystywane w debatach publicznych, zwłaszcza w Wielkiej Brytanii i Niemczech, wskazuje na napięcia wokół finansowania systemów opieki społecznej.\nKolejnym istotnym aspektem jest uczestnictwo polityczne. Obywatele\nUE mogą głosować w wyborach lokalnych, lecz ich aktywność wyborcza jest ograniczona, głównie z powodu poczucia tymczasowości pobytu i barier instytucjonalnych341. Tym samym ich wpływ polityczny w społeczeństwach przyj-\n338 M. Dzięglewski, M. Nowosielski (red.), Polskie organizacje imigranckie w Europie: w poszukiwaniu nowego modelu, Warszawa 2021.\n339 E. Recchi, A. Favell (red.), Pioneers of European integration...\n340 Ibid.\n341 J. Arrighi, R. Bauböck, A multilevel puzzle...\n\nmujących pozostaje ograniczony, co wzmacnia ambiwalencję ich statusu. Z jednej strony migranci z UE posiadają pełnię praw w wymiarze gospodarczym, z drugiej jednak są częściowo wykluczeni politycznie.\nHybrydowe formy tożsamości łagodzą napięcia integracyjne oraz sprzyjają tworzeniu poczucia wspólnoty ponadnarodowej. Jednak kryzysy polityczne, takie jak Brexit, pokazały, że tożsamość europejska może być krucha i podatna na podziały narodowe.\nRóżnice w politykach integracyjnych państw członkowskich powodują, że doświadczenia migrantów są bardzo zróżnicowane, a brak jednolitej polityki integracyjnej na poziomie UE sprawia, że formalna równość nie zawsze przekłada się na rzeczywiste doświadczenia migrantów342.\nWnioski\nDiaspory jako zjawisko społeczne, polityczne i kulturowe, zajmują coraz ważniejsze miejsce w analizach nauk politycznych, stosunków międzynarodowych, socjologii i prawa. Celem niniejszego rozdziału jest podsumowanie kluczowych wniosków wynikających z wcześniejszych części pracy, obejmujących definicje i typologie diaspor, ich status formalnoprawny, organizację wewnętrzną oraz funkcjonowanie w przestrzeni Unii Europejskiej i poza nią.\nRefleksja ta pozwala lepiej uchwycić złożoność badanego zjawiska oraz wskazuje na konieczność dalszych, interdyscyplinarnych badań w kontekście polityki migracyjnej i transnarodowej.\nPierwszym istotnym wnioskiem płynącym z analizy jest stwierdzenie, że pojęcie „diaspora” nie posiada jednej, powszechnie akceptowanej definicji.\nW literaturze naukowej wyróżnia się podejścia klasyczne, akcentujące przymusowy charakter migracji i rozproszenie, oraz podejścia współczesne, podkreślające dobrowolność ruchów migracyjnych, wielowymiarowe więzi z ojczyzną oraz dynamiczną tożsamość zbiorów. W praktyce badawczej pojęcie diaspory staje się kategorią analityczną, służącą opisowi wspólnot transnarodowych, a nie jedynie grup etnicznych żyjących na obczyźnie.\nDrugim ważnym wnioskiem jest stwierdzenie, że status formalnoprawny członków diaspory pozostaje kluczowym czynnikiem determinującym ich pozycję w społeczeństwie przyjmującym i wysyłającym. Obywatelstwo, podwójne\n342 A. Geddes, C. Boswell, Migration and mobility in the European Union...; R. Koopmans,\nMulticulturalism and Immigration...\n\nobywatelstwo oraz status rezydenta nie są wyłącznie kategoriami prawnymi, lecz również narzędziami polityki państwa. Przykłady Polski, Niemiec, USA czy\nKanady pokazują, że różnice w regulacjach wynikają z historii, tradycji konstytucyjnych i strategii migracyjnych. Polska akcentuje więzi etniczne i narodowe,\nNiemcy przez dekady preferowały model etnokulturowy, Stany Zjednoczone traktują obywatelstwo jako fundament integracji, natomiast Kanada włącza wielokulturowość w samą istotę swojego systemu politycznego.\nTrzeci wniosek dotyczy organizacji diaspor. Diaspory rzadko są jednolitymi wspólnotami – częściej stanowią zróżnicowane grupy wewnętrzne, oparte na podziałach pokoleniowych, regionalnych, religijnych lub klasowych. Organizacje diasporalne pełnią funkcje reprezentacyjne, integracyjne i kulturowe, a ich rola zależy od kontekstu prawnego oraz wsparcia państwa pochodzenia. Szczególną uwagę zwraca zjawisko instytucjonalizacji kontaktów między diasporami a państwami w tym: powstawanie ministerstw, rad i agencji zajmujących się współpracą z emigrantami343. Wskazuje to, że współczesne państwa traktują diasporę jako istotny element swojej polityki zagranicznej i wewnętrznej.\nCzwarty wniosek wynika z analizy specyfiki diaspor funkcjonujących wewnątrz UE i poza nią. Diaspory europejskie korzystają ze swobody przepływu osób, co odróżnia je od wspólnot funkcjonujących w krajach spoza\nUnii. Brak potrzeby naturalizacji, dostęp do rynku pracy i praw politycznych na poziomie lokalnym, a także możliwość budowania tożsamości europejskiej sprawiają, że ich funkcjonowanie przebiega w innych warunkach niż w diasporach, np. w Ameryce Północnej czy na Bliskim Wschodzie. Jednocześnie jednak, mimo formalnej równości, wciąż pojawiają się problemy dyskryminacji i integracji, co dowodzi, że prawo nie zawsze przekłada się na pełną inkluzję społeczną.\nPodsumowując dotychczasowe ustalenia, należy podkreślić, że diaspora jest zjawiskiem wielowymiarowym, którego nie sposób analizować wyłącznie w ramach jednej dyscypliny naukowej. Politologia wskazuje na znaczenie diaspory jako aktora polityki wewnętrznej i zagranicznej. Socjologia akcentuje jej rolę w procesach tożsamościowych, społecznych i integracyjnych. Prawo analizuje status formalny migrantów, podczas gdy ekonomia bada ich wkład w rozwój gospodarczy poprzez transfery finansowe i kapitał społeczny. Antropologia z kolei ukazuje symboliczne i kulturowe wymiary funkcjonowania diaspory.\n343 A. Gamlen, Diaspora institutions and diaspora governance...\n\nZłożoność ta ujawnia się szczególnie w kontekście współczesnej globalizacji, sprzyjającej utrzymywaniu transnarodowych więzi. Rozwój technologii komunikacyjnych, mediów społecznościowych i taniego transportu sprawia, że diaspory są dziś bardziej połączone niż kiedykolwiek wcześniej. Oznacza to, że tradycyjne rozróżnienia między krajem pochodzenia a krajem osiedlenia stają się coraz mniej wyraźne. Diaspora żyje jednocześnie „tu i tam” – budując hybrydowe tożsamości i uczestnicząc równocześnie w kilku systemach politycznych i społecznych344.\nTa interdyscyplinarna perspektywa jest konieczna także dlatego, że zjawisko diaspory wiąże się z licznymi napięciami i paradoksami. Z jednej strony państwa chcą utrzymywać więzi ze swoimi diasporami, traktując je jako zasób polityczny i gospodarczy. Z drugiej strony, obawiają się ich podwójnej lojalności i potencjalnych konfliktów tożsamościowych. Podobne napięcia dotyczą społeczeństw przyjmujących – diaspory postrzegane są jako źródło różnorodności i wzbogacenia kulturowego, ale także jako wyzwanie dla spójności społecznej i bezpieczeństwa.\nDotychczasowe badania nad diasporami, choć bogate, pozostawiają wiele pytań otwartych. Można wskazać kilka obszarów wymagających dalszej eksploracji:\n1. Diaspory a polityka transnarodowa – potrzebne są pogłębione badania nad tym, w jaki sposób diaspory uczestniczą w polityce na wielu poziomach jednocześnie: lokalnym, narodowym, unijnym i globalnym. Szczególnie istotne jest zrozumienie roli, jaką odgrywają w konfliktach międzynarodowych i w dyplomacji publicznej.\n2. Diaspory a gospodarka – pomimo licznych badań nad przekazami pieniężnymi (remittances), wciąż niewystarczająco analizowany jest wpływ diaspory na rozwój kapitału ludzkiego i społecznego, a także na transfer wiedzy oraz innowacji.\n3. Tożsamość i integracja – problem ten wymaga dalszych badań nad zmianami zachodzącymi w tożsamości diaspory w kolejnych pokoleniach oraz nad czynnikami, które sprzyjają integracji bądź prowadzą do marginalizacji.\n4. Prawo i obywatelstwo – potrzebne są analizy porównawcze dotyczące regulacji formalnoprawnego statusu diaspory w różnych państwach oraz\n344 S. Vertovec, Super-diversity and its implications...\n\nkonsekwencji tych regulacji dla integracji i lojalności wobec państwa przyjmującego.\n5. Nowe technologie i media – badania nad rolą cyfrowych kanałów komunikacji w podtrzymywaniu więzi diaspor są coraz bardziej istotne. Media społecznościowe pełnią funkcję narzędzia samoorganizacji, mobilizacji politycznej i budowania transnarodowych tożsamości.\n6. Bezpieczeństwo i konflikty – istotnym kierunkiem badań jest analiza roli diaspory w konfliktach etnicznych i politycznych. Diaspory mogą być zarówno źródłem eskalacji napięć, jak i aktorem wspierającym procesy pokojowe.\nDiaspora jest zjawiskiem złożonym, wymagającym podejścia interdyscyplinarnego i wielopoziomowej analizy. Kluczowe wnioski dotyczą różnorodności definicji, znaczenia statusu prawnego, a także roli organizacji diasporalnych.\nZjawisko to nie może być analizowane wyłącznie w kontekście migracji. Stanowi ono istotny element polityki transnarodowej, gospodarki globalnej i kulturowej tożsamości.\nDiaspory funkcjonują na styku różnych porządków w tym: prawa, polityki, społeczeństwa oraz kultury i z tego względu stanowią wyzwanie zarówno dla badaczy, jak i dla decydentów politycznych. W epoce globalizacji rośnie ich znaczenie jako aktorów politycznych i gospodarczych, a jednocześnie jako wspólnot budujących nowe formy tożsamości ponad granicami państw.\nOstateczny wniosek płynący z przeprowadzonej analizy brzmi: diaspory nie są zjawiskiem marginalnym, lecz stanowią integralną część współczesnego świata. Zrozumienie ich dynamiki wymaga współpracy wielu dyscyplin naukowych oraz zastosowania nowych narzędzi analitycznych, które uwzględnią transnarodowy charakter tego zjawiska.\n\n2. Podstawy teoretyczne zarządzania publicznego\nK. Zienkiewicz\nZarządzanie publiczne odgrywa kluczową rolę w kształtowaniu współpracy międzynarodowej, zwłaszcza w kontekście relacji z diasporą oraz organizacjami polonijnymi. Ewolucja tej dyscypliny – od klasycznych modeli administracji publicznej po współczesne koncepcje wielopoziomowego zarządzania\n– umożliwia bardziej elastyczne, zintegrowane i efektywne podejście do relacji między państwem a aktorami międzynarodowymi. Niniejszy rozdział ma na celu przeanalizowanie kluczowych definicji, teorii i zastosowań zarządzania publicznego w kontekście współpracy międzynarodowej, ze szczególnym uwzględnieniem teorii organizacyjnych.\nZarządzanie publiczne jest interdyscyplinarną dziedziną nauki, zajmującą się analizą, planowaniem i realizacją działań publicznych podejmowanych przez instytucje państwowe i inne organizacje funkcjonujące w sferze publicznej. Według Owena Hughesa zarządzanie publiczne różni się od tradycyjnej administracji publicznej, ponieważ koncentruje się na wynikach, efektywności i partycypacji społecznej1. Inne definicje akcentują znaczenie współpracy międzysektorowej, podkreślając konieczność angażowania organizacji pozarządowych i międzynarodowych w proces zarządzania2.\n1 O.E. Hughes, Public Management and Administration: An Introduction, London 2018.\n2 A. Chircop, R. Bassett, E. Taylor, Evidence on how to practice intersectoral collaboration for health equity: a scoping review, „Critical Public Health” t. 25 nr 2 (2015); A. Kalegaonkar,\n\nEwolucja zarządzania publicznego jest rezultatem zmieniających się wyzwań społecznych, ekonomicznych i politycznych. Klasyczne podejście\nMaxa Webera, oparte na biurokratycznym modelu administracji, koncentrowało się na hierarchii, zasadach formalności i neutralności politycznej3. Chociaż model ten miał wiele zalet, takich jak stabilność i przewidywalność, jego sztywność była krytykowana z powodu braku elastyczności i innowacyjności4.\nW latach 80. XX wieku zainicjowano reformy znane jako Nowe Zarządzanie Publiczne (NZP), które przekształciły sferę publiczną, wprowadzając elementy zarządzania charakterystyczne dla sektora prywatnego, takie jak konkurencja, orientacja na wyniki i decentralizacja5. Współczesne podejście, określane mianem wielopoziomowego zarządzania (governance6), podkreśla znaczenie współpracy między różnymi poziomami administracji publicznej, organizacjami pozarządowymi i partnerami międzynarodowymi7.\nNowe Zarządzanie Publiczne stało się impulsem do rozwoju nowych teorii zarządzania i ich zastosowania w relacjach międzynarodowych. Jedną z tych teorii jest rozwinięta przez Edwarda Freemana teoria interesariuszy8. Znajduje ona zastosowanie w zarządzaniu publicznym poprzez identyfikację i angażowanie kluczowych grup interesariuszy w procesy decyzyjne. W kontekście\nL.D. Brown, Intersectoral cooperation: Lessons for practice, „IDR Reports” t. 16 nr 2 (2000);\nJ. Podgórska-Rykała, M. Kępa (red.), Współpraca międzysektorowa jednostek samorządu terytorialnego z organizacjami pozarządowymi, Kraków 2020.\n3 M. Weber, Racjonalność. Władza. Odczarowanie, Poznań 2011; M. Weber, J. Winckelmann,\nWirtschaft und Gesellschaft: Grundriss der verstehenden Soziologie, Tübingen 2009.\n4 A. Gaca et al. (red.), Dzieje biurokracji. t. 5 cz. 1, Włocławek 2013.\n5 P. Aucoin, Administrative Reform in Public Management: Paradigms, Principles, Paradoxes and Pendulums, „Governance” t. 3 nr 2 (1990), DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-0491.1990.tb00111.x;\nA. Dunsire, Administrative Theory in the 1980s: A viewpoint, „Public Administration” t. 73 nr 1 (1995), DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-9299.1995.tb00815.x; F. Naschold, The Interface management frontier: Modernizing local government. Part three, „International Public Management\nJournal” t. 2 nr 1 (1999), DOI: 10.1016/S1096-7494(00)87432-2.\n6 Termin governance w bezpośrednim tłumaczeniu na język polski może budzić wątpliwości i zastrzeżenia. W literaturze przedmiotu, zależnie od kontekstu, spotkamy określenia:\n„zarządzanie sieciowe”, „zarządzanie wielopoziomowe”, „zarządzanie wieloszczeblowe” czy „zarządzanie zintegrowane”. Spotkać można również pojęcia opisowe, np. „dobre zarządzanie” (good governance) czy dosyć często obecne w literaturze „zarządzanie publiczne” (public governance).\n7 A. Smalec, A. Niemczyk, R. Seweryn, Cooperation Between Local Government and Non-Governmental Organizations as a Platform for the Development of Social Dialogue, „Journal of International Business Research and Marketing” t. 6 nr 2 (2021), DOI: 10.18775/ jibrm.1849-8558.2015.62.3002.\n8 R.E. Freeman, Strategic Management: A Stakeholder Approach, Cambridge University\nPress 2010.\n\nwspółpracy międzynarodowej teoria ta pomaga określić role państw, organizacji międzynarodowych i społeczności lokalnych jako współtwórców polityk publicznych. Teoria instytucjonalna, oparta na pracach Johna W. Meyera i Briana Rowana, podkreśla znaczenie norm, wartości i struktur społecznych w kształtowaniu działań instytucji publicznych. Współpraca międzynarodowa wymaga dostosowania się do różnorodnych norm kulturowych i prawnych, co czyni tę teorię niezwykle użyteczną9. Z kolei teoria zasobowa (resource-based view) podkreśla znaczenie wykorzystania unikalnych zasobów organizacji, takich jak wiedza, kompetencje i relacje, w celu osiągania celów publicznych10.\nWspółpraca z diasporą może być postrzegana jako strategiczne wykorzystanie kapitału ludzkiego i społecznego11.\nTeorie zarządzania publicznego znajdują swoje zastosowanie w relacjach międzynarodowych, w tym we współpracy z polskimi organizacjami imigranckimi. Współpraca między państwem a organizacjami międzynarodowymi, takimi jak Organizacja Narodów Zjednoczonych czy Unia Europejska, opiera się na koncepcji wielopoziomowego zarządzania, które umożliwia koordynację działań na różnych szczeblach administracji. Przykładem jest współpraca\nPolski z Międzynarodową Organizacją ds. Migracji (IOM) w zakresie integracji migrantów i Polonii12. W zarządzaniu współpracą z polskimi organizacjami imigranckimi zastosowanie znajdują zarówno teoria interesariuszy, jak i teoria instytucjonalna. Przykłady obejmują inicjatywy Senatu RP i Ministerstwa\nSpraw Zagranicznych w zakresie wspierania Polonii za granicą, między innymi poprzez programy edukacyjne i kulturalne.\nZarządzanie publiczne oferuje narzędzia analizy i implementacji polityk publicznych, które mogą wspierać budowanie trwałych relacji między państwem a partnerami międzynarodowymi. Współczesne wyzwania, takie jak globalizacja, migracje i zmiany klimatyczne, podkreślają konieczność efektywnego wykorzystania teorii i praktyk zarządzania publicznego w kontekście relacji międzynarodowych.\n9 J.W. Meyer, B. Rowan, Institutionalized Organizations: Formal Structure as Myth and\nCeremony, „American Journal of Sociology” t. 83, nr 2 (1977), DOI: 10.1086/226550.\n10 E. Penrose, The Theory of the Growth of the Firm, Oxford University Press, Oxford 1995.\n11 J. Barney, Firm Resources and Sustained Competitive Advantage, „Journal of Management” t. 17 nr 1 (1991), DOI: 10.1177/014920639101700108; J.B. Barney, Firm resources and sustained competitive advantage, [w:] Advances in Strategic Management, t. 17, Bingley 2000.\n12 IOM, Złote Wachlarze 2019. Poland, https://poland.iom.int/news/z%C5%82ote-wachlarze-2019, 2019 r., dostęp 29 grudnia 2024 r.\n\n2.1. Klasyczny model administracji Maxa Webera\nWspółczesne studia nad zarządzaniem publicznym często odwołują się do klasycznych fundamentów, które ukształtowały sposób organizacji i funkcjonowania instytucji państwowych. Jednym z najważniejszych i najbardziej wpływowych podejść jest model administracji zaproponowany przez Maxa\nWebera na początku XX wieku. Jego koncepcja biurokracji nie tylko określiła idealny typ organizacji opartej na racjonalności i legalności, lecz także stała się punktem odniesienia dla późniejszych reform i krytycznych analiz aparatu państwowego13.\nWeberowski model administracji wyrastał z potrzeby uporządkowania szybko rosnących struktur państwowych w dobie industrializacji, urbanizacji i rozwoju demokracji parlamentarnej. W obliczu złożoności nowoczesnego państwa, coraz liczniejszych zadań publicznych, skomplikowanych procedur prawnych oraz rosnących oczekiwań obywateli pojawiła się konieczność stworzenia formy organizacyjnej, która łączyłaby efektywność działania z bezosobowym stosowaniem prawa. To dążenie do połączenia legalności z racjonalnością skłoniło Webera do wyodrębnienia cech idealnej biurokracji: hierarchii, specjalizacji, formalnych reguł, bezosobowości, zatrudnienia opartego na kwalifikacjach, a także kariery urzędniczej.\nModel Maxa Webera odróżniał się od wcześniejszych ujęć tradycyjnych i charyzmatycznych form władzy, w których legitymacja pochodziła odpowiednio z obyczaju lub z osobistych cech przywódcy. W biurokracji legalno-racjonalnej władza opiera się na skodyfikowanych normach prawnych, a autorytet urzędnika wynika z zajmowanej pozycji w hierarchii oraz z kompetencji potwierdzonych formalnymi kwalifikacjami. Dzięki temu administracja staje się przewidywalna, spójna i odporna na kaprysy jednostek, co sprzyja zaufaniu społecznemu oraz stabilności systemu politycznego.\nJednocześnie warto podkreślić, że klasyczny model Webera funkcjonuje jako konstrukcja teoretyczna – „typ idealny” – która w rzeczywistości nigdy nie występuje w czystej postaci. Jego główną rolą jest służenie jako punkt odniesienia do oceny rzeczywistych struktur administracyjnych: im bardziej organizacja przypomina biurokratyczny ideał, tym większa jej racjonalność, lecz jednocześnie – jak wskazują późniejsze krytyki – tym większe ryzyko nadmiernego formalizmu czy braku elastyczności.\n13 M. Weber, Racjonalność. Władza. Odczarowanie...\n\nW ramach niniejszego podrozdziału zaprezentowane zostaną geneza i główne założenia klasycznego modelu administracji Maxa Webera, następnie omówione zostaną mechanizmy zarządzania biurokratycznego, główne krytyki tego podejścia oraz kierunki reinterpretacji, które pozwalają dostosować Weberowską biurokrację do wymogów współczesnej współpracy instytucji państwowych z organizacjami pozarządowymi. Tak skonstruowana analiza umożliwi zrozumienie zarówno trwałego dziedzictwa Webera, jak i wyzwań stojących przed administracją w warunkach rosnącej złożoności społecznej i potrzeby partycypacji.\n2.1.1. Geneza i założenia klasycznego modelu administracji\nGeneza klasycznego modelu administracji Maxa Webera sięga przełomu XIX i XX wieku, kiedy procesy industrializacji i demokratyzacji wymagały stworzenia nowego, racjonalnego porządku organizacyjnego państwa. Weber, analizując historyczne formy władzy, wyróżnił trzy typy dominacji: tradycyjną, charyzmatyczną i racjonalno-legalną. To właśnie dominacja racjonalno-legalna stanowi fundament biurokracji, ponieważ opiera się na systemie norm prawnych, formalnych procedur oraz hierarchicznej strukturze14.\nW debacie nad efektywnością aparatu państwowego Weber odrzucił podejście oparte na osobistych właściwościach władzy, wskazując na konieczność stworzenia bezosobowej administracji, w której decyzje wynikają z ogólnie obowiązujących reguł, a nie z arbitralnej woli urzędnika15. Bezstronność i przewidywalność działań były kluczowe dla budowania legitymacji instytucji publicznych16.\nWeberowska biurokracja opiera się na formalizmie prawnym, czyli na przekonaniu, że stosowanie norm prawnych stanowi jedyną słuszną podstawę działania administracji17. Formalizm ten przejawia się w pisemności decyzji,\n14 M. Weber, J. Winckelmann, Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft...; M. Weber, Racjonalność.\nWładza. Odczarowanie...\n15 H. Izdebski, M. Kulesza, Administracja publiczna: zagadnienia ogólne, Warszawa 2004;\nM. Mann, The autonomous power of the state: its origins, mechanisms and results, „European\nJournal of Sociology” t. 25 nr 2 (1984), DOI: 10.1017/S0003975600004239; G. Rydlewski,\nA. Pawłowska, Podejścia teoretyczne w nauce o administracji publicznej, [w:] A. Pawłowska,\nK. Radzik-Maruszak, J. Itrich-Drabarek (red.), Administracja publiczna: zarys wykładu,\nWarszawa 2023.\n16 A. Anter, Max Weber und die Staatsrechtslehre, Tübingen 2016.\n17 M. Weber, Economy and society: an outline of interpretive sociology. Vol. 2, Berkeley 1978.\n\nistnieniu procedur odwoławczych oraz ścisłym rozdziale kompetencji18. W ujęciu polskim na znaczenie formalizmu zwraca uwagę Kulesza, wskazując, że nadmierna regulacja może prowadzić do tzw. paraliżu decyzyjnego19.\nHistoryczne korzenie klasycznego modelu administracji Maxa Webera sięgają głęboko prusko-niemieckiej tradycji służby publicznej (Verwaltung), w której od połowy XVIII w. kształtował się zawodowy korpus urzędniczy podporządkowany regułom racjonalnej administracji20. Już za panowania\nFryderyka Wilhelma I (1713–1740) utworzono General-Ober-Finanz-Kriegsund Domainen-Direktorium – scentralizowany urząd łączący zarządzanie finansami, wojskowością i domenami państwowymi na szczeblu centralnym i lokalnym21. Instytucja ta była pierwszym krokiem w kierunku hierarchicznej organizacji. Wyraźnie wydzielono departamenty tematyczne, co stanowiło zalążek późniejszego podziału kompetencji w biurokracji22.\nW połowie XVIII w. pruska administracja rozwinęła się pod wpływem kameralizmu – niemieckiej szkoły nauk o państwie (Cameralwissenschaft), która łączyła teorię ekonomii z praktyką zarządzania finansami i policją gospodarczą. Johann Friedrich von Pfeiffer już w 1784 r. podkreślał znaczenie wykształcenia urzędników w zakresie statystyki, prawa i ekonomii dla efektywnego funkcjonowania państwa23. Praktycy kameralizmu, tacy jak Justi i von Pfeiffer, wprowadzili system egzaminów oraz stałych pensji, co wzmocniło proces profesjonalizacji korpusu urzędniczego24.\nW toku reform Heinricha Friedricha Karla vom Steina i Karla Augusta von Hardenberga (1807–1815) dążono do likwidacji rozdrobnionych struktur i zastąpienia ich nowoczesnymi ministerstwami, przy jednoczesnym utrzymaniu pruskiej tradycji legalności i hierarchii25. Reformy te umocniły centralizm\n– lokalni komisarze i landraci stali się łącznikami między rządem centralnym\n18 D. H. Rosenbloom, Public Administrative Theory and the Separation of Powers, „Public\nAdministration Review” t. 43, nr 3 (1983), DOI: 10.2307/976330.\n19 M. Kulesza, Transformacja ustroju administracyjnego Polski (1990–2000), [w:] Prawo jako instrument przemian ustrojowych w Polsce 1989–1999, Warszawa 2000.\n20 W. Hubatsch, Die Stein-Hardenbergschen Reformen, Darmstadt 1977.\n21 C.M. Clark, Prusy: powstanie i upadek 1600–1947, tłum. J. Szkudliński, Warszawa 2024.\n22 M. Crozier, E. Friedberg, The bureaucratic phenomenon, Routledge 2017.\n23 H. Frambach, Cameralism and Physiocracy as the Two Sides of a Coin: Example of the\nEconomic Policy of Johann Friedrich von Pfeiffer, [w:] J. G. Backhaus (red.), Physiocracy,\nAntiphysiocracy and Pfeiffer, New York, NY 2011.\n24 D.F. Lindenfeld (red.), The practical imagination: the German sciences of state in the nineteenth century, Chicago, Ill 1997.\n25 W. Hubatsch, Die Stein-Hardenbergschen Reformen...; M. Stolleis, Origins of the German\nWelfare State: Social Policy in Germany to 1945, Berlin–Heidelberg 2013.\n\na prowincjami, realizując jednolite wytyczne polityki państwowej na poziomie gmin i powiatów26.\nM. Weber, analizując ewolucję europejskiej biurokracji, czerpał z tych pruskich doświadczeń, wskazując, że racjonalno-legalna władza opiera się na formalnych regułach przekazywanych pionowo w hierarchii oraz na karierowym systemie awansów27. Kluczowa znaczenie zyskała separacja sfery publicznej od prywatnej. Urzędnik miał działać w sposób bezosobowy, zgodnie z obowiązującymi procedurami, co minimalizowało ryzyko korupcji i arbitralnych decyzji28.\nPolscy badacze tradycji pruskiej, tacy jak Michał Kulesza, zwracali uwagę, że pruski model Verwaltung został przeniesiony na ziemie zaboru, kształtując aparat administracyjny Królestwa Polskiego po 1815 roku. Formalne procedury oraz centralne zarządzanie stały się wzorem również dla Królestwa Polskiego, mimo że lokalne elity często starały się adaptować je do własnych potrzeb29.\nWreszcie zasada merytokracji, wprowadzona w pruskim korpusie urzędniczym, znalazła trwałe miejsce w modelu Webera jako koncepcja „kariery urzędniczej”, opartej na kwalifikacjach oraz ocenie wyników służby30. Połączenie pruskiej dyscypliny administracyjnej z akademickim przygotowaniem urzędników stworzyło wzorzec biurokracji, który Weber uznał za najbardziej efektywną formę organizacji nowoczesnego państwa31. Kolejnym założeniem była separacja sfery publicznej od prywatnej: urzędnik w pełni poświęcał się zadaniom służby, a jego życie prywatne nie mogło wpływać na podejmowane decyzje administracyjne.\nWeberowska koncepcja racjonalności zakładała również dążenie do maksymalnej przewidywalności i ekonomizacji działań – procedury miały minimalizować koszty transakcyjne oraz ryzyko korupcji32. Wreszcie Weber podkreślał znaczenie karierowości: urzędnik awansuje na podstawie oceny dorobku, co\n26 T. A. Börzel, T. Risse, Public–Private Partnerships: Effective and Legitimate Tools of\nTransnational Governance?, [w:] E. Grande, L. W. Pauly (red.), Complex Sovereignty,\nToronto 2005.\n27 M. Weber, Racjonalność. Władza. Odczarowanie...\n28 M. Stolleis, Origins of the German Welfare State...\n29 H. Izdebski, M. Kulesza, Administracja publiczna...\n30 B.G. Peters, Bureaucracy and Democracy in the Modern State, „Public Administration\nReview” t. 70 nr 4 (2010), DOI: 10.1111/j.1540-6210.2010.02187.x.\n31 M. Weber, Racjonalność. Władza. Odczarowanie...\n32 M. Crozier, E. Friedberg, The bureaucratic phenomenon...; M. Weber, Racjonalność.\nWładza. Odczarowanie...\n\nmotywuje go do stałego podnoszenia kwalifikacji33. Współcześnie zasada ta funkcjonuje w administracji publicznej jako „zasada merytokracji”34.\nGeneza klasycznego modelu administracji Webera łączy elementy pruskiej tradycji administracyjnej, potrzebę racjonalizacji władzy w epoce industrialnej oraz dążenie do stworzenia bezosobowej i przewidywalnej struktury biurokratycznej.\nJego założenia – formalizm, hierarchia, specjalizacja, bezosobowość oraz karierowość – stanowią punkt wyjścia dla analiz współczesnych reform administracyjnych, w tym współpracy instytucji państwowych z organizacjami polonijnymi.\n2.1.2. Biurokracja jako mechanizm zarządzania publicznego\nBiurokracja w ujęciu Webera stanowi nie tylko strukturę organizacyjną, lecz także mechanizm zarządzania oparty na racjonalnej legalności i profesjonalizacji kadr. Racjonalna legalność (legal-rational authority) oznacza, że władza i decyzje urzędnicze wynikają z formalnie ustanowionych przepisów prawa, a nie z tradycji ani z charyzmy jednostki35. Dzięki temu biurokracja osiąga wysoki poziom przewidywalności – każde działanie urzędowe opiera się na zestawie reguł, które eliminują dowolność interpretacji oraz ograniczają ryzyko arbitralnych decyzji36.\nProfesjonalizacja kadr stanowi drugi filar funkcjonowania mechanizmu biurokratycznego. Urzędnicy są rekrutowani na podstawie kwalifikacji merytorycznych, potwierdzanych egzaminami i dokumentacją formalną, a następnie uczestniczą w stałych szkoleniach specjalistycznych37. System awansów oparty na zasługach (merytokracji) motywuje do ciągłego podnoszenia kompetencji oraz dbałości o właściwe stosowanie procedur38. Niemieccy badacze Werner Jann i Kai Wegrich podkreślają, że profesjonalizacja ogranicza nepotyzm, ponieważ kryteria oceny urzędników są obiektywne i mierzalne39.\n33 W. Hennis, Max Webers Fragestellung: Studien zur Biographie des Werks, Tübingen 1987.\n34 O.V. Ohotnykova, Implementation of the Meritocratic Principle in European Public Administration Systems, „International Journal of Legal Studies (IJOLS)” t. 4 nr 2 (2018); B.G.\nPeters, Bureaucracy and Democracy in the Modern State, „Public Administration Review” t. 70 nr 4 (2010), DOI: 10.1111/j.1540-6210.2010.02187.x.\n35 M. Weber, Racjonalność. Władza. Odczarowanie...\n36 M. Weber, J. Winckelmann, Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft: Grundriss der verstehenden\nSoziologie, Tübingen 2009.\n37 K. Schedler, I. Proeller, The New Public Management. A perspective from mainland Europe\n[w:] K. McLaughlin, E. Ferlie, S. Osborne P (red.), New Public Management, Routledge 2005.\n38 B. G. Peters, Bureaucracy and Democracy in the Modern State...\n39 W. Jann, K. Wegrich, Governance und Verwaltungspolitik, [w:] A. Benz (red.), Governance –\nRegieren in komplexen Regelsystemen, Wiesbaden 2004.\n\nReguły i przewidywalność przekładają się na standaryzację procedur:\nkażdy etap działania administracyjnego – od rejestracji dokumentu, poprzez rozpatrywanie odwołań, aż po wydanie decyzji – jest określony w aktach prawnych, instrukcjach oraz regulaminach40. Taka sformalizowana procedura gwarantuje, że zarówno obywatele, jak i pracownicy podlegają tym samym normom prawnym, co wzmacnia zasadę równości wobec prawa41. Współpraca instytucji państwowych z organizacjami społecznymi, w tym polonijnymi, wymaga właśnie takiej transparentności: organizacje wiedzą z góry, jakie dokumenty należy przedłożyć, jakie kryteria spełnić oraz w jakich terminach – co minimalizuje niepewność i ryzyko interpretacyjne42.\nEliminacja arbitralności ma kluczowe znaczenie w zarządzaniu wielosektorowym, stanowiąc podstawę przejrzystości i odpowiedzialności instytucjonalnej. Osborne zauważa, że w modelu New public governance przejrzyste reguły oraz profesjonalne kadry sprzyjają budowaniu zaufania między partnerami sektora publicznego a organizacjami pozarządowymi new public governance.\nW przeciwnym razie brak jasno określonych procedur może prowadzić do konfliktów interesów, opóźnień oraz oskarżeń o faworyzowanie43.\nNiemiecka szkoła administracyjna (Verwaltungslehre) podkreśla, że formalne reguły powinny być zarazem wystarczająco elastyczne, by uwzględniać specyfikę lokalnych uwarunkowań, i jednocześnie dostatecznie stabilne, by chronić przed nadużyciami władzy44. W praktyce oznacza to, że procedury mogą przewidywać wyjątki uzasadnione specyfiką danej sprawy, jednak muszą one być precyzyjnie określone, aby nie stały się furtką dla decyzji arbitralnych.\nW polskim dyskursie administracyjnym podkreśla się, że kluczowe znaczenie ma zachowanie równowagi między formalizmem a adaptacyjnością.\nZbyt rygorystyczne procedury ograniczają innowacyjność i inicjatywy oddolne, natomiast zbyt liberalne narażają system na korupcję i nepotyzm45. Sztumski zauważa, że formalizacja powinna obejmować przede wszystkim aspekty\n40 H. Izdebski, M. Kulesza, Administracja publiczna...\n41 D.H. Rosenbloom, Public Administrative Theory and the Separation of Powers...\n42 D.F. Kettl, The Transformation of Governance: Public Administration for Twenty-First\nCentury America, Baltimore (MD) 2002.\n43 S.P. Osborne, The New Public Governance?, „Public Management Review” t. 8 nr 3 (2006),\nDOI: 10.1080/14719030600853022.\n44 M. Stolleis, Origins of the German Welfare State...\n45 M. Kulesza, Polskie doświadczenia w zarządzaniu reformą decentralizacyjną, „Samorząd\nTerytorialny” nr 9 (2002).\n\nproceduralne, natomiast merytoryczne oceny projektów i wniosków należy pozostawić komórkom eksperckim dysponującym odpowiednią autonomią46.\nMechanizmy kontroli wewnętrznej, takie jak audyty, sprawozdawczość i nadzór służbowy, tworzą sprzężenie zwrotne, które umożliwia korygowanie nieprawidłowości, zanim doprowadzą one do poważniejszych błędów47, 48.\nW kontekście organizacji polonijnych, często funkcjonujących poza granicami kraju, konieczne jest również uwzględnienie międzynarodowych standardów proceduralnych oraz współpraca z konsulatami i ambasadami, co wymaga wysokiej sprawności systemów administracyjnych.\nPodsumowując, mechanizm biurokratyczny w ujęciu Webera łączy racjonalną legalność z profesjonalizacją kadr, co przekłada się na jednolite, przewidywalne oraz sprawiedliwe zarządzanie zasobami publicznymi. W kontekście współpracy instytucji państwowych z organizacjami polonijnymi taka forma organizacji zapewnia przejrzystość, standaryzację i kontrolę procesów, minimalizując ryzyko decyzji arbitralnych oraz wzmacniając zaufanie międzysektorowe.\n2.1.3. Krytyka klasycznego modelu administracji\nPomimo swojej fundamentalnej roli w kształtowaniu nowoczesnej administracji, klasyczny model biurokracji Maxa Webera spotkał się z liczną krytyką dotyczącą jego nadmiernej sztywności, formalizmu oraz braku elastyczności.\nRobert K. Merton jako pierwszy przeprowadził systemową analizę „dysfunkcji biurokracji”, wskazując na zjawiska osłabiające efektywność organizacji biurokratycznych. Do najważniejszych dysfunkcji Merton zaliczył tendencję do traktowania środków jako celów samych w sobie (goal displacement) oraz alienację pracowników wynikającą z nadmiernej specjalizacji i rutynizacji zadań49.\nR. K. Merton wykazał, że gdy reguły i procedury stają się celem samym w sobie, zamiast narzędziem służącym realizacji zadań organizacji, urzędnicy koncentrują się na formalnym przestrzeganiu przepisów, a nie na rezultatach\n46 J. Sztumski, Psychospołeczne aspekty prowadzenia i podążania, „Zeszyty Naukowe/\nGórnośląska Wyższa Szkoła Handlowa w Katowicach” nr 21 Zeszyt Naukowy Katedry\nSocjologii i Psychologii (2003).\n47 D.H. Rosenbloom, Public Administrative Theory and the Separation of Powers...\n48 C. Pollitt, G. Bouckaert, Public Management Reform: A Comparative Analysis – Into the\nAge of Austerity, Oxford; New York (NY) 2017.\n49 R.K. Merton, Bureaucratic Structure and Personality, „Social Forces” t. 18, nr 4 (1940),\nDOI: 10.2307/2570634.\n\ndziałań50. Taka patologiczna koncentracja na procedurach prowadzi do biurokratycznego rytualizmu (ritualism) w wyniku którego, organizacja traci zdolność adaptacji do zmieniającego się otoczenia51.\nW kontekście współpracy państwa z organizacjami pozarządowymi nadmierny formalizm administracyjny może prowadzić do wydłużonych procedur akceptacyjnych i wielostopniowych kontroli, co skutkuje opóźnieniami decyzyjnymi oraz zatorami komunikacyjnymi52. Nadmierny formalizm w strukturach biurokratycznych stanowi jedną z kluczowych barier efektywności zarządzania publicznego, zwłaszcza w kontekście współpracy międzysektorowej, takiej jak relacje instytucji państwowych m.in. z organizacjami polonijnymi.\nFormalizm ten przejawia się w sztywnym przestrzeganiu procedur, nadmiernym rozbudowaniu dokumentacji oraz wieloetapowych procesach decyzyjnych, które często powodują zatory komunikacyjne i spowolnienie realizacji zadań publicznych. Janusz Sztumski zauważa, że nadmiar dokumentacji oraz sztywne wymogi proceduralne często paraliżują inicjatywy oddolne, ograniczając elastyczność partnerów polonijnych w reagowaniu na lokalne potrzeby53.\nJak zauważył Max Weber, formalizacja ma na celu zapewnienie przewidywalności i bezstronności działań administracyjnych, jednak w praktyce nadmiar reguł może prowadzić do zjawiska, które Robert K. Merton określił mianem goal displacement – sytuacji, w której przestrzeganie procedur staje się celem samym w sobie, a nie środkiem do realizacji rzeczywistych potrzeb obywateli54. W efekcie organizacje społeczne, w tym instytucje polonijne, napotykają trudności w komunikacji z administracją państwową – zarówno na poziomie operacyjnym, jak i strategicznym55,.\nW niemieckiej literaturze administracyjnej problem ten określany jest mianem überbürokratisierung – przerostu biurokracji, który utrudnia elastyczne\n50 R.K. Merton, Bureaucratic Structure and Personality, „Social Forces” t. 18 nr 4 (1940),\nDOI: 10.2307/2570634.\n51 P.M. Blau, M.W. Meyer, Bureaucracy in modern society, New York 1971; R.K. Merton,\nBureaucratic Structure and Personality...\n52 H. Izdebski, M. Kulesza, Administracja publiczna...\n53 J. Sztumski, Psychospołeczne aspekty prowadzenia i podążania...\n54 R.K. Merton, Bureaucratic Structure and Personality...; M. Weber, J. Winckelmann,\nWirtschaft und Gesellschaft...\n55 E.H. Klijn, J. Koppenjan, The Shift toward Network Governance, [w:] S. Van De Walle,\nS. Groeneveld (red.), Theory and Practice of Public Sector Reform, Routledge, New York\n2016; S.P. Osborne, The New Public Governance?, „Public Management Review” t. 8 nr 3\n(2006), DOI: 10.1080/14719030600853022.\n\nreagowanie na zmiany w otoczeniu społecznym i międzynarodowym56.\nKonieczność zachowania zgodności z przepisami często staje się pretekstem do unikania podejmowania decyzji w sytuacjach niestandardowych57. Jak podkreślają Christopher Pollitt i Geert Bouckaert, skutkiem tego są opóźnienia, powielanie procedur oraz ograniczony przepływ informacji między różnymi poziomami administracji58.\nDlatego nowoczesne podejścia do zarządzania publicznego, takie jak\nNew public governance, postulują uproszczenie procedur oraz wzmocnienie kanałów komunikacji między instytucjami a organizacjami obywatelskimi new public governance 59,.\nModel Weberowski, ze swoim akcentem na hierarchię i jednolite reguły, słabo odpowiada wymaganiom zarządzania partycypacyjnego, które zakłada angażowanie interesariuszy w proces decyzyjny60.\nBrak elastyczności w klasycznym modelu biurokracji Webera stanowi jedno z głównych ograniczeń jego praktycznego zastosowania w złożonym i dynamicznym środowisku współczesnego zarządzania publicznego. Jest to szczególnie istotne w kontekście współpracy państwa z organizacjami polonijnymi, funkcjonującymi w warunkach zmiennych, transnarodowych i wymagających indywidualnego podejścia. Model Weberowski, oparty na sztywnych regułach, hierarchicznej strukturze i precyzyjnym podziale kompetencji, nie sprzyja włączaniu różnych aktorów społecznych w procesy decyzyjne61.\nW literaturze anglosaskiej podkreśla się, że tego typu struktury są niezdolne do szybkiego reagowania na potrzeby społeczności, co prowadzi do obniżenia skuteczności administracji oraz spadku zaufania obywateli do instytucji publicznych62. Klasyczna biurokracja nie przewiduje mechanizmów elastyczności instytucjonalnej ani adaptacyjności procedur, co w środowiskach\n56 M. Stolleis, Origins of the German Welfare State...\n57 W. Jann, K. Wegrich, Governance und Verwaltungspolitik, [w:] A. Benz (red.), Governance –\nRegieren in komplexen Regelsystemen, Wiesbaden 2004.\n58 C. Pollitt, G. Bouckaert, Public management reform: a comparative analysis – into the age of austerity, Oxford New York; NY 2017.\n59 D.F. Kettl, The transformation of governance: public administration for twenty-first century\nAmerica, Baltimore, Md. 2002; H. Krynicka, Knoncepcja nowego zarzadzania w sektorze publicznym (New Public Management), „Prace Instytutu Prawa i Administracji PWSZ w Sulechowie” nr 2 (2008).\n60 S.P. Osborne, The New Public Governance?...\n61 R.K. Merton, Bureaucratic Structure and Personality...; M. Weber, J. Winckelmann,\nWirtschaft und Gesellschaft...\n62 S.P. Osborne, The New Public Governance?...; D.F. Kettl, The transformation of governance...\n\nwielokulturowych i diasporowych może prowadzić do marginalizacji partnerów społecznych63.\nW literaturze niemieckiej problem ten określany jest mianem Strukturkonservatismus – konserwatywnego przywiązania do ustalonych form organizacyjnych, które utrudnia rozwój partycypacyjnych modeli zarządzania64. Max\nWeber sam dostrzegał to ograniczenie, zauważając, że im bardziej rozwinięta jest biurokracja, tym mniej miejsca pozostaje na indywidualne inicjatywy i niestandardowe rozwiązania65. Jak zauważa Michael Stolleis, konserwatyzm instytucjonalny ma głębokie zakorzenienie w tradycji prawnej państw kontynentalnych, w tym Polski i Niemiec66.\nBrak elastyczności wpływa również na ograniczenie partycypacji społecznej, postrzeganej we współczesnym zarządzaniu publicznym jako niezbędny element dobrego rządzenia67. Partycypacja oznacza aktywne włączanie obywateli oraz organizacji pozarządowych w procesy decyzyjne, a nie jedynie ich informowanie lub konsultowanie. Tymczasem sztywność struktur administracyjnych sprawia, że instytucje państwowe często jedynie formalnie spełniają wymogi partycypacyjne, bez zapewnienia realnego wpływu ze strony partnerów społecznych68.\nW Polsce problem ten jest szczególnie widoczny w relacjach instytucji publicznych z organizacjami polonijnymi, których udział w planowaniu i wdrażaniu polityk często ogranicza się do symbolicznych konsultacji. Zmiana tego stanu rzeczy wymaga odejścia od modelu czysto legalistycznego na rzecz modelu hybrydowego, łączącego legalność z efektywnością oraz partycypacją69.\nWspółczesne podejście new public governance kładzie nacisk na współtworzenie usług publicznych oraz rozwój dialogu międzysektorowego new public governance70. Brak mechanizmów elastycznego dostosowania procedur\n63 W. Acar, K. E. Aupperle, Bureaucracy as Organizational Pathology, „Systems Research” t. 1 nr 3 (1984), DOI: 10.1002/sres.3850010301.\n64 W. Acar, K.E. Aupperle, Bureaucracy as organizational pathology...; K.T. Germer M. Sc.,\nManagement in der öffentlichen Verwaltung: Eine empirische Analyse auf Leitungsbasis,\nBaden-Baden 2021.\n65 M. Weber, J. Winckelmann, Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft...\n66 M. Stolleis, Geschichte des öffentlichen Rechts in Deutschland, München 2012.\n67 E.H. Klijn, J. Koppenjan, The Shift toward Network Governance...\n68 J. Hausner, Zarządzanie publiczne, Warszawa 2008.\n69 M. Kulesza, Polskie doświadczenia w zarządzaniu reformą decentralizacyjną...; C. Pollitt,\nG. Bouckaert, Public management reform...\n70 S.P. Osborne, The New Public Governance?...; E.H. Klijn, J. Koppenjan, The Shift toward Network Governance...\n\ndo specyfiki lokalnych organizacji polonijnych ogranicza efektywność współpracy oraz utrudnia budowanie kapitału społecznego.\n2.1.4. Reinterpretacja modelu Webera w kontekście współczesnego zarządzania publicznego\nReinterpretacja modelu Webera w kontekście współczesnego zarządzania publicznego zakłada zachowanie jego kluczowych założeń – racjonalnej legalności, hierarchii oraz profesjonalizacji kadr – przy jednoczesnym wprowadzeniu mechanizmów elastyczności, partycypacji i orientacji na rezultaty. W literaturze anglojęzycznej koncepcja ta występuje przede wszystkim w ramach tzw.\nneo-Weberian state (NWS), która integruje tradycyjne wartości biurokratyczne z elementami new public management (NPM) oraz new public governance (NPG) new public governance71. W celu przezwyciężenia tych ograniczeń proponuje się reinterpretację paradygmatu Weberowskiego w duchu międzysektorowego zarządzania oraz partycypacji. W podejściu neo-Weberian state (NWS) utrzymuje się podstawowe zasady racjonalnej legalności oraz profesjonalizacji, jednocześnie wprowadzając instrumenty zarządzania zorientowane na rezultaty72. Elastyczne ramy proceduralne umożliwiają udział organizacji pozarządowych w kształtowaniu procedur, co zwiększa ich dostosowanie do specyfiki środowisk polonijnych.\nW ujęciu neo-Weberian state (NWS) zachowuje się formalne reguły i procedury Webera, jednocześnie wzmacniając rolę menedżerską w administracji poprzez wprowadzenie wskaźników efektywności, kontraktów wynikowych oraz autonomii budżetowej jednostek organizacyjnych73. Dzięki temu możliwe staje się połączenie przewidywalności biurokracji z elastycznym dostosowywaniem działań do zmieniających się potrzeb obywateli i partnerów społecznych, w tym organizacji imigranckich74.\nNiemiecka szkoła Neues Steuerungsmodell (NSM) również dokonała reinterpretacji myśli Webera, kładąc nacisk na zarządzanie przez cele (management by objectives) oraz budżetowanie zadaniowe (performance budgeting) w jednostkach\n71 C. Pollitt, G. Bouckaert, Public management reform...; C. Hood, A Public Management for All\nSeasons?, „Public Administration” t. 69 nr 1 (1991), DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-9299.1991.tb00779.x.\n72 C. Pollitt, G. Bouckaert, Public management reform...\n73 T. Christensen, P. Lægreid, Complexity and Hybrid Public Administration – Theoretical and Empirical Challenges, „Public Organization Review” t. 11 nr 4 (2011), DOI: 10.1007/ s11115-010-0141-4.\n74 D.F. Kettl, The transformation of governance...\n\nsamorządu terytorialnego75. Model NSM zachowuje kanoniczną strukturę biurokratyczną, lecz wprowadza elastyczne kontrakty między szczeblem centralnym a lokalnym, co zwiększa responsywność administracji na poziomie gminnym76.\nPolscy badacze podkreślają potrzebę adaptacji modelu Webera do warunków funkcjonowania państwa postkomunistycznego77. Proponują oni hybrydowe rozwiązania łączące formalne procedury z konsultacjami społecznymi, ewaluacją wyników oraz partnerstwem z organizacjami pozarządowymi. Przykładem może być wdrożenie Krajowej Strategii Rozwoju Regionalnego, w której procedury planistyczne połączono z mechanizmami partycypacyjnymi na etapie konsultacji dokumentów78.\nW podejściu new public governance reinterpretacja Webera oznacza odejście od jednolitego, hierarchicznego modelu sterowania na rzecz sieci współpracy między aktorami publicznymi, prywatnymi i obywatelskimi79. Sieci te funkcjonują na zasadzie dobrowolnych porozumień, zaufania oraz wzajemnej odpowiedzialności, przy jednoczesnym zachowaniu podstawowych reguł prawnych80.\nReinterpretacja modelu Webera w praktyce może polegać na:\nÒ utrzymaniu formalnych ram prawnych przy jednoczesnym wprowadzeniu elastycznych procedur wyjątkowych81;\nÒ wzmocnieniu roli menedżerów publicznych poprzez delegowanie uprawnień budżetowych i kadrowych82;\nÒ zastosowaniu mechanizmów oceny efektów (Neues Steuerungsmodell) oraz ewaluacji programów83;\nÒ rozwoju partnerstw z organizacjami pozarządowymi w modelu co-production84.\nTakie podejście pozwala zachować stabilność i przewidywalność klasycznej biurokracji, jednocześnie zwiększając jej zdolność adaptacyjną, innowacyjność\n75 L. Holtkamp, J. Bogumil, Bürgerkommune und Local Governance, [w:] L. Schwalb, H. Walk\n(red.), Local Governance — mehr Transparenz und Bürgernähe?, Wiesbaden 2007.\n76 W. Jann, K. Wegrich, Governance und Verwaltungspolitik...\n77 M. Kulesza, Polskie doświadczenia w zarządzaniu reformą decentralizacyjną...\n78 M. Kasiński, Współczesne problemy rozwoju administracji publicznej w Polsce, „Annales.\nEtyka w życiu gospodarczym” t. 14 nr 1 (2011).\n79 J. M. Bryson, B. C. Crosby, L. Bloomberg, Public Value Governance: Moving Beyond Traditional Public Administration and the New Public Management, „Public Administration\nReview” t. 74 nr 4 (2014), DOI: 10.1111/puar.12238.\n80 E.H. Klijn, J. Koppenjan, The Shift toward Network Governance...\n81 K. Schedler, I. Proeller, The New Public Management. A perspective from mainland Europe...\n82 B.G. Peters, Bureaucracy and Democracy in the Modern State...\n83 C. Pollitt, G. Bouckaert, Public management reform...\n84 T. Brandsen, V. Pestoff, Co-production, the Third Sector and the Delivery of Public Services:\nAn Introduction, „Public Management Review” 2006, t. 8, nr 4, DOI: 10.1080/14719030601022874.\n\ni poziom akceptacji społecznej.. Zestawienie cech biurokracji Webera oraz możliwości jej zastosowania we współczesnym zarządzaniu publicznym, w tym w odniesieniu do współpracy z diasporą, przedstawia tabela 6.\nTabela 6. Cechy biurokracji Webera a współpraca z diasporą\nCechy Możliwe zastosowanie\nPotencjalne biurokracji Opis ogólny w zarządzaniu współograniczenia\n(wg Webera) pracą z diasporą\nMinisterstwa ds. diaspory\nOgraniczona\nJasne podporządkowanie, i urzędy konsularne mogą\nHierarchiczna elastyczność wobec kontrola oraz przepływ funkcjonować w oparciu struktura zróżnicowanych potrzeb decyzji od góry do dołu o wyraźnie określoną środowisk diaspory strukturę organizacyjną\nMożliwość powoływania\nKażdy urzędnik Ryzyko nadmiernej\nPodział pracy wyspecjalizowanych odpowiada za określony fragmentaryzacji i specjalizacja jednostek, np. biur ds.\nzakres obowiązków i biurokratyzacji działań współpracy z Polonią\nTransparentne\nDługotrwałość\nDecyzje oparte procedury obsługi\nZasady postępowań oraz na formalnych regulacjach diaspory, np. w ramach i procedury nadmierny formalizm i przepisach prawa Karty Polaka czy programów proceduralny repatriacyjnych\nDziałania urzędników Równe traktowanie Trudności\nBezstronność oparte są na przepisach członków diaspory w uwzględnianiu i legalizm prawa, a nie na osobistych w dostępie do usług specyfiki poszczególnych relacjach publicznych wspólnot diaspory\nSztywne ramy\nMożliwość zatrudniania organizacyjne mogą\nUrzędnicy wybierani są\nProfesjonalizacja ekspertów ds. migracji, ograniczać innowacyjność według kompetencji kadr prawa międzynarodowego i współpracę i kwalifikacji zawodowych i kultury z organizacjami pozarządowymi\nZapewnienie stałego Opór wobec reform oraz\nCiągłość funkcjonowania\nStabilność wsparcia dla powolna instytucji niezależnie od działania diaspory, niezależnie od modernizacja narzędzi zmian politycznych cykli wyborczych administracyjnych\nŹródło: opracowanie własne na podstawie: W. Hennis, Max Webers Fragestellung: Studien zur Biographie des Werks, Tübingen 1987; M. Lesińska, Polska diaspora, Polonia, emigracja. Spory pojęciowe wokół skupisk polskich za granicą...; B.G. Peters, Bureaucracy and Democracy in the Modern State, „Public Administration\nReview” t. 70 nr 4 (2010), DOI: 10.1111/j.1540-6210.2010.02187.x.\n\n3. Ewolucja zarządzania publicznego – od administracji klasycznej do zarządzania publicznego\nT. Zienkiewicz\nZarządzanie publiczne stanowi kluczową dziedzinę nauk społecznych i administracyjnych, odnoszącą się do procesów podejmowania decyzji, planowania oraz realizacji działań w sferze publicznej. W ujęciu Roberta Denhardta zarządzanie publiczne nie sprowadza się jedynie do sprawowania władzy administracyjnej, lecz obejmuje także tworzenie warunków dla współpracy i partycypacji obywatelskiej, umożliwiających realizację celów społecznych1. David\nRosenbloom definiuje zarządzanie publiczne jako działalność obejmującą planowanie, organizowanie, kierowanie i kontrolowanie zasobów publicznych w celu zapewnienia ich efektywnego wykorzystania2. Z kolei Owen Hughes podkreśla, że zarządzanie publiczne różni się od tradycyjnej administracji biurokratycznej, gdyż kładzie nacisk na efektywność, orientację na wyniki oraz partycypację społeczną3. Podobnie Tony Bovaird i Elke Löffler wskazują, iż zarządzanie publiczne obejmuje równoważenie interesów różnych grup społecznych oraz wykorzystanie innowacyjnych metod zarządzania w sektorze\n1 R.B. Denhardt, T.J. Catlaw, Theories of public organization, Stamford, CT 2015.\n2 E.-H. Klijn, Networks and Inter-Organizational Management: Challenging, Steering,\nEvaluation, and the Role of Public Actors in Public Management, [w:] E. Ferlie, L.E. Lynn,\nC. Pollitt (red.), The Oxford Handbook of Public Management, Oxford University Press\n2009; D.H. Rosenbloom, Public Administrative Theory and the Separation of Powers,\n„Public Administration Review” t. 43 nr 3 (1983), DOI: 10.2307/976330.\n3 O.E. Hughes, Public management and administration: an introduction, London 2018.\n\npublicznym4. Ewolucja zarządzania publicznego oraz rozwój powiązanych z nim teorii ukazują, w jaki sposób koncepcje i narzędzia tej dyscypliny mogą być skutecznie wykorzystywane w budowaniu relacji międzynarodowych.\nW niniejszym podrozdziale omówiono ewolucję zarządzania publicznego, obejmującą przejście od klasycznego modelu administracji Webera do współczesnego, wielopoziomowego podejścia governance. Następnie zaprezentowano kluczowe teorie zarządzania publicznego oraz ich zastosowanie w relacjach międzynarodowych, obejmujących współpracę z organizacjami międzynarodowymi, zarządzanie diasporą oraz reakcje na kryzysy globalne. Zwrócono uwagę na koncepcję współrządzenia (co-governance), jej znaczenie, modele wdrażania, wyzwania oraz najlepsze praktyki dla organizacji i decydentów, ze szczególnym uwzględnieniem możliwości jej adaptacji w zarządzaniu publicznym.\nW drugiej połowie XX wieku na przyspieszenie zmian w administracji publicznej wpłynął gwałtowny rozwój technologii oraz rosnące znaczenie wiedzy jako kluczowego czynnika rozwoju5. Dynamiczny wzrost ilości przekazywanych informacji oraz rozwój nowych technologii sprawiły, że dotychczasowe problemy idealnej biurokracji Webera stały się jeszcze bardziej widoczne. Centralne sprawowanie funkcji administracyjnych okazało się niewystarczające, co przyczyniło się do rozwoju samorządu terytorialnego oraz procesów decentralizacji władzy6. Zmiany te skłoniły decydentów do refleksji nad zakresem kompetencji państwa oraz możliwością urynkowienia wybranych zadań sektora publicznego, co pozwoliłoby na bardziej efektywne wykorzystanie dostępnych zasobów i ich skierowanie tam, gdzie są najbardziej potrzebne dla zapewnienia ciągłości działania instytucji oraz bezpieczeństwa obywateli7.\nZ biegiem czasu wzrosło również znaczenie debaty dotyczącej zasad funkcjonowania administracji publicznej. Coraz więcej badaczy i praktyków zaczęło podkreślać, że część zadań realizowanych przez sektor publiczny mogłaby zostać przekazana podmiotom prywatnym, co umożliwiłoby przesunięcie środków finansowych w stronę kluczowych obszarów działalności państwa. Jednocześnie\n4 T. Bovaird, E. Löffler, Moving from Excellence Models of Local Service Delivery to Benchmarking “Good Local Governance”, „International Review of Administrative Sciences” t. 68 nr 1 (2002), DOI: 10.1177/0020852302681001.\n5 J. Hausner, Zarządzanie publiczne...\n6 J.C.N. Raadschelders, The Future of the Study of Public Administration: Embedding\nResearch Object and Methodology in Epistemology and Ontology, „Public Administration\nReview” t. 71 nr 6 (2011), DOI: 10.1111/j.1540-6210.2011.02433.x.\n7 M. Mazzucato, The entrepreneurial state: debunking public vs. private sector myths,\nLondon ; New York 2014.\n\npojawiły się rozważania nad sposobami reprezentacji interesów różnych grup społecznych, mających wpływ na proces podejmowania decyzji politycznych8.\nDruga połowa XX wieku przyniosła istotne zmiany w sposobie postrzegania administracji publicznej. Odejście od tradycyjnego modelu, opartego na ścisłym przestrzeganiu procedur, hierarchicznych relacjach władzy z obywatelami oraz centralnym podejmowaniu decyzji, doprowadziło do rozwoju nowoczesnych modeli zarządzania publicznego. W nowym paradygmacie zarządzania publicznego akcentuje się potrzebę zacieśniania interakcji w ramach rozbudowanych sieci koordynacji, co znalazło odzwierciedlenie zarówno w podejściu menedżerskim, jak i partycypacyjnym9. Pierwsze z tych podejść opiera się na adaptacji rozwiązań znanych z sektora prywatnego, w którym obywatele postrzegani są jako klienci oczekujący wysokiej jakości usług publicznych. W praktyce administracja publiczna zawiera kontrakty z podmiotami zdolnymi do zaspokojenia zróżnicowanych potrzeb obywateli, co umożliwia bardziej efektywne zarządzanie zasobami publicznymi oraz przesunięcie akcentu z formalnych procedur na osiągane wyniki10.\nDrugi model koncentruje się na partycypacji obywateli, postrzeganych w relacjach z władzami jako kluczowi interesariusze. Obywatele nie tylko korzystają z usług publicznych, lecz również mają możliwość aktywnego wpływania na proces podejmowania decyzji. Osiągnięcie tego celu wymaga zapewnienia szerokiego dostępu do procesów konsultacyjnych oraz budowania partnerstwa między administracją publiczną a społeczeństwem obywatelskim11. Konieczne jest także przekształcenie mentalności urzędników poprzez podniesienie standardów etycznych, co sprzyjać będzie dobrowolnemu przestrzeganiu norm i ograniczy opór wobec wprowadzania innowacji12.\n8 C. Ansell, A. Gash, Collaborative Governance in Theory and Practice, „Journal of Public\nAdministration Research and Theory” t. 18 nr 4 (2008), DOI: 10.1093/jopart/mum032L;\nC. B. Pereira, P. Spink (red.), Reforming the State: Managerial Public Administration in\nLatin America, Boulder 1999.\n9 J. Hausner, Zarządzanie publiczne...; S.P. Osborne (red.), The new public governance?\nemerging perspectives on the theory and practice of public governance, London; New York\n2010.\n10 J. Hausner, Zarządzanie publiczne...; J. Tidd, Managing innovation: integrating technological, market and organizational change, Chichester, West Sussex 2013.\n11 M. Bovens, Analysing and Assessing Accountability: A Conceptual Framework, „European\nLaw Journal” t. 13 nr 4 (2007), DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-0386.2007.00378.x.\n12 P.F. Drucker, Innovation and entrepreneurship: practice and principle, New York 1985;\nJ. Hausner, Zarządzanie publiczne...\n\nPodsumowując, ewolucja podejścia do administracji publicznej odzwierciedla liczne wyzwania, z jakimi mierzył się klasyczny model Webera. Początkowe założenia dotyczące idealnej biurokracji, opartej na ścisłych mechanizmach kontroli, okazały się niewystarczające w praktyce, co skłoniło decydentów do poszukiwania bardziej elastycznych i adaptacyjnych rozwiązań. Wzrost znaczenia technologii i informacji, rozwój samorządu terytorialnego oraz rosnąca świadomość potrzeby redefinicji kompetencji państwa przyczyniły się do powstania nowych modeli zarządzania publicznego, lepiej odpowiadających na współczesne wyzwania. Przejście od modelu scentralizowanej biurokracji do hybrydowych form zarządzania, łączących elementy menedżerskie i partycypacyjne, umożliwiło bardziej efektywne wykorzystanie zasobów oraz zwiększyło elastyczność działania administracji publicznej.\nW efekcie zarówno proces rynkowej optymalizacji, jak i zaangażowanie obywateli stały się kluczowymi elementami nowoczesnego systemu zarządzania publicznego, umożliwiającego adaptację do dynamicznie zmieniających się warunków otoczenia13.\nDalsze badania nad ewolucją administracji publicznej podkreślają konieczność stałej adaptacji struktur organizacyjnych oraz metod zarządzania w celu sprostania wyzwaniom wynikającym z rosnącej złożoności otoczenia politycznego i gospodarczego. Współczesne modele zarządzania publicznego, oparte na integracji rozwiązań sektora prywatnego z aktywną partycypacją obywatelską, dowodzą, że transformacja administracji może przyczynić się do wzrostu efektywności, przejrzystości oraz elastyczności działania państwa. Dzięki zastosowaniu nowych metod ewaluacji wyników oraz silniejszemu naciskowi na odpowiedzialność decydentów administracja publiczna zyskuje narzędzia umożliwiające skuteczniejsze reagowanie na potrzeby obywateli i budowanie trwałego zaufania społecznego14.\nWnioski płynące z analizy ewolucji podejścia do administracji publicznej wskazują, iż skuteczne zarządzanie innowacjami wymaga nie tylko modyfikacji istniejących modeli, lecz także otwartości na nowe idee, elastyczności\n13 R.K. Craig et al., Balancing stability and flexibility in adaptive governance, „Ecology and\nSociety” t. 22 nr 2 (2017), http://www.jstor.org/stable/26270068; L.M. Pereira, S. Ruysenaar,\nMoving from traditional government to new adaptive governance: The changing face of food security responses in South Africa, „Food Security” t. 4 (2012).\n14 OECD, An updated OECD framework on drivers of trust in public institutions to meet current and future challenges, 21 grudnia 2021 r., https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/ an-updated-oecd-framework-on-drivers-of-trust-in-public-institutions-to-meet-currentand-future-challenges_b6c5478c-en.html.\n\nw dostosowywaniu przepisów oraz aktywnego zaangażowania obywateli w proces podejmowania decyzji. Praktyki te sprzyjają budowie bardziej responsywnego i adaptacyjnego systemu, zdolnego do skutecznego zarządzania zasobami publicznymi w obliczu dynamicznie zmieniających się warunków otoczenia.\nW rezultacie współczesna administracja publiczna, wykorzystując synergię pomiędzy różnorodnymi modelami zarządzania, może nie tylko zwiększać efektywność swoich działań, lecz również kształtować polityki odpowiadające na wyzwania współczesności, stanowiące fundament trwałego rozwoju społecznego i gospodarczego.\n3.1. Podejście governance\nJednym z kluczowych badaczy, którzy promowali nowe spojrzenie na zarządzanie usługami publicznymi oraz rolę państwa, był Roderick Arthur William\nRhodes. W swoich pracach przedstawił koncepcję governance jako alternatywę dla tradycyjnego zarządzania publicznego, opartego na hierarchicznych mechanizmach, proponując w ich miejsce bardziej horyzontalne powiązania15,16.\nRhodes zauważył, iż usługi dotychczas realizowane za pomocą mechanizmów hierarchicznych lub rynkowych stają się obszarem współpracy zróżnicowanych organizacji reprezentujących odmienne sektory. Organizacje te pozostają pod silnym wpływem interesariuszy oraz twórców polityk publicznych. W nowym podejściu dominuje idea współdzielenia odpowiedzialności za zakres, jakość i dostępność usług publicznych, uznawanych za kluczowe i finansowanych ze środków publicznych.\nWedług Rhodesa popularność koncepcji governance wynika również z procesu „wypalania się państwa”, rozumianego jako stopniowa utrata zdolności do regulowania i świadczenia usług publicznych. Decentralizacja sprawia, że państwo przestaje być wyłącznie dostawcą usług, stając się podmiotem odpowiedzialnym za tworzenie spójnych ram prawnych i ekonomicznych oraz za stymulowanie inicjatyw na różnych szczeblach administracji publicznej. Delegowanie uprawnień z wyższych na niższe szczeble administracji prowadzi do\n15 R.A.W. Rhodes, From Marketization to Diplomacy: It’s the Mix That Matters, „Public\nPolicy and Administration” t. 12 nr 2 (1997), DOI: 10.1177/095207679701200204.\n16 R.A.W. Rhodes, From Institutions to Dogma: Tradition, Eclecticism, and Ideology in the\nStudy of British Public Administration, „Public Administration Review” t. 56 nr 6 (1996),\nDOI: 10.2307/977249.\n\nposzukiwania nowych modeli organizacyjnych w obszarze świadczenia usług publicznych. Rhodes podkreśla również znaczenie sieci i partnerstw międzyorganizacyjnych, umożliwiających bardziej efektywne planowanie oraz alokację zasobów publicznych.\nKoncepcja governance jako nowy paradygmat sterowania rozwojem w procesach integracji europejskiej, zainspirowana przez R.A.W. Rhodesa, promuje większe zaangażowanie interesariuszy w formułowanie celów oraz realizację zadań publicznych. Rola interesariuszy jako kluczowego elementu zarządzania w sektorze publicznym została również podkreślona przez J. Brysona, który wskazał, iż sukces organizacji publicznej zależy od zaspokojenia potrzeb jej najważniejszych interesariuszy17. Satysfakcja interesariuszy oznacza realizację tych celów, które uznają oni za wartościowe, nawet jeśli pozostają one w sprzeczności z ekonomicznymi interesami danej organizacji publicznej.\nHal G. Rainey podkreśla, iż instytucje publiczne funkcjonują dzięki zaspokajaniu interesów grup na tyle wpływowych, by zapewnić organizacji niezbędne wsparcie polityczne i finansowe18.\nDo niedawna jednak kwestia działań organizacji publicznych na rzecz interesariuszy pozostawała w dużej mierze zaniedbywana19. Współczesna analiza praktyki zarządzania publicznego wskazuje na potrzebę opracowywania strategii, które w szczególny sposób uwzględniają rolę kluczowych interesariuszy. Jak zauważają badacze20, koncepcja governance w porównaniu z modelem\nNowego Zarządzania Publicznego (NPM) zmienia paradygmat, odchodząc od nacisku na jakość zarządzania wewnątrz organizacji publicznych na rzecz metod ukierunkowanych na satysfakcjonowanie zewnętrznych interesariuszy\n– takich jak obywatele, politycy czy inne podmioty funkcjonujące w otoczeniu administracji publicznej – poprzez tworzenie płaszczyzn współrządzenia\n17 J.M. Bryson, What to Do When Stakeholders Matter: Stakeholder Identification and Analysis Techniques, „Public Management Review” t. 6 nr 1 (2004), DOI:\n10.1080/14719030410001675722; J.M. Bryson, B.C. Crosby, L. Bloomberg, Public Value\nGovernance: Moving Beyond Traditional Public Administration and the New Public Management, „Public Administration Review” t. 74 nr 4 (2014), DOI: 10.1111/puar.12238.\n18 H.G. Rainey, Understanding and Managing Public Organizations, Hoboken 2009.\n19 E. Ferlie, J. Hartley, S. Martin, Changing Public Service Organizations: Current Perspectives and Future Prospects, „British Journal of Management” t. 14 nr s1 (2003), DOI:\n10.1111/j.1467-8551.2003.00389.x, https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-\n8551.2003.00389.x; U. Pesch, The Publicness of Public Administration, „Administration\n& Society” t. 40 nr 2 (2008), DOI: 10.1177/0095399707312828.\n20 T. Bovaird, E. Löffler, Moving from Excellence Models of Local Service Delivery to Benchmarking “Good Local Governance”...\n\n(co-governance) lub współzarządzania (co-management) wybranymi obszarami polityk publicznych21.\nWspółrządzenie stanowi jeden z kluczowych motorów postępu w organizacjach oraz społeczeństwach. Zarządzanie pomysłami – obejmujące ich generowanie, ocenę, wdrażanie i doskonalenie – nadal stanowi istotne wyzwanie dla współczesnych organizacji22. Współrządzenie oferuje ustrukturyzowane podejście do zarządzania innowacjami, umożliwiające skuteczną identyfikację i wykorzystanie obiecujących pomysłów przy jednoczesnym ograniczaniu nieefektywności oraz ryzyka23.\nRosnąca złożoność współczesnych problemów wymaga ustrukturyzowanych ram zarządzania innowacjami oraz innowacyjnego podejścia do samego procesu zarządzania24. Współrządzenie odnosi się do systematycznego podejścia obejmującego generowanie, ocenę, selekcję i wdrażanie pomysłów w sposób zgodny z celami strategicznymi oraz dostępnymi zasobami25. Współrządzenie angażuje interesariuszy oraz wykorzystuje narzędzia i metody, które wspierają efektywne zarządzanie pomysłami26. W kontekście zarządzania publicznego współrządzenie zapewnia, że innowacyjne polityki i inicjatywy są skutecznie oceniane oraz wdrażane w celu maksymalizacji wartości publicznej27.\nAdministracja publiczna funkcjonuje w złożonym i dynamicznym środowisku, w którym proces decyzyjny musi równoważyć interesy licznych interesariuszy, ograniczenia budżetowe oraz wymogi regulacyjne28. W tym kontekście kluczowe znaczenie ma skuteczne zarządzanie pomysłami, które przyczynia się do zwiększenia innowacyjności polityk publicznych oraz do poprawy przejrzystości procesów decyzyjnych. Nowe polityki publiczne są\n21 T. Bovaird, E. Löffler, Moving from Excellence Models of Local Service Delivery to Benchmarking ‘Good Local Governance’, „International Review of Administrative Sciences” t. 68 nr 1 (2002), DOI: 10.1177/0020852302681001.\n22 H. Chesbrough, Open innovation: the new imperative for creating and profiting from technology, Boston, Mass 2011; H. Chesbrough, W. Vanhaverbeke, J. West (red.), Open innovation: researching a new paradigm, Oxford 2013.\n23 J. Tidd, J.R. Bessant, Managing innovation: integrating technological, market and organizational change, Hoboken, NJ 2021.\n24 P. F. Drucker, Innovation and Entrepreneurship...\n25 I. Nonaka, The Knowledge-Creating Company: How Japanese Companies Create the\nDynamics of Innovation, Oxford 1995.\n26 J. West, M. Bogers, Open Innovation: Current Status and Research Opportunities, „Innovation” t. 19, nr 1(2017), DOI: 10.1080/14479338.2016.1258995.\n27 M. H. Moore, Creating Public Value: Strategic Management in Government, Cambridge\n(MA) 2001.\n28 S.P. Osborne (red.), The new public governance?...\n\nopracowywane i oceniane w sposób ustrukturyzowany29, co gwarantuje, iż procesy decyzyjne pozostają przejrzyste i dostępne dla obywateli30.\nJednym z kluczowych aspektów tego podejścia jest doskonalenie świadczenia usług publicznych poprzez wspieranie wdrażania innowacyjnych rozwiązań odpowiadających na współczesne wyzwania społeczne31. Wdrażanie innowacyjnych rozwiązań w administracji publicznej nie ogranicza się wyłącznie do cyfryzacji tradycyjnych procesów, lecz obejmuje także tworzenie nowych, bardziej efektywnych metod świadczenia usług publicznych. Cyfryzacja usług publicznych polega na przekształcaniu tradycyjnych procedur administracyjnych w formy elektroniczne, co przyczynia się do zwiększenia ich dostępności oraz efektywności. Przykładem takich działań jest rozwój e-usług, które umożliwiają obywatelom załatwianie spraw urzędowych online, bez konieczności osobistej wizyty w urzędzie. W Polsce działania te są wspierane przez programy ukierunkowane na optymalizację procesów administracyjnych oraz rozwój nowoczesnych usług świadczonych drogą elektroniczną.\nKolejnym istotnym elementem jest wdrażanie innowacji społecznych, które odpowiadają na zidentyfikowane potrzeby społeczne i przyczyniają się do poprawy jakości życia obywateli. Proces ten obejmuje kolejne etapy – od identyfikacji potrzeb, poprzez rozwój i wdrażanie innowacyjnych rozwiązań, aż po ich skalowanie oraz integrację z istniejącymi systemami. Kluczowe jest, aby instytucje publiczne angażowały się w cały proces – od generowania pomysłów po ich finalną realizację – co umożliwia wprowadzanie trwałych zmian systemowych.\nRównie istotnym aspektem jest aktywne włączanie obywateli w proces współtworzenia usług publicznych. Dzięki tego rodzaju działaniom możliwe staje się lepsze dostosowanie oferowanych usług do rzeczywistych potrzeb społecznych. Projekty, takie jak CITADEL, analizują potrzeby zarówno administracji publicznej, jak i obywateli, przyczyniając się do szerszego wykorzystania cyfrowych usług publicznych. Współtworzenie usług publicznych z obywatelami prowadzi do opracowywania bardziej efektywnych i spersonalizowanych rozwiązań, które w konsekwencji zwiększają ich akceptację oraz użyteczność społeczną.\n29 J. Hartley, Innovation in Governance and Public Services: Past and Present, „Public Money\n& Management” 2005, t. 25, nr 1, DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-9302.2005.00447.x.\n30 A. Fung, Varieties of Participation in Complex Governance, „Public Administration\nReview” 2006, t. 66, nr 12, DOI: 10.1111/j.1540-6210.2006.00667.x.\n31 M. Mazzucato, The entrepreneurial state...\n\nNie mniej istotne są programy wsparcia, takie jak „PFR dla Miast”, które wspierają samorządy w tworzeniu i wdrażaniu innowacyjnych rozwiązań.\nProgramy te odpowiadają na wyzwania związane z digitalizacją oraz potrzebą poszukiwania alternatywnych form inwestowania, umożliwiając samorządom podnoszenie kompetencji pracowników, tworzenie struktur organizacyjnych dedykowanych wdrażaniu innowacji, a także strategiczne planowanie rozwoju miast.\nWdrażanie innowacyjnych rozwiązań współrządzenia w administracji publicznej stanowi zatem kluczowy czynnik poprawy jakości usług świadczonych obywatelom. Proces ten wymaga nie tylko technologicznych usprawnień, lecz także aktywnego zaangażowania społeczności, współpracy międzysektorowej oraz stałego dostosowywania się do dynamicznie zmieniających się potrzeb społeczeństwa.\nRównolegle równie istotne jest zapewnienie odpowiedzialności w procesie współrządzenia pomiędzy administracją publiczną a interesariuszami. Odpowiedzialność w administracji publicznej oznacza obowiązek działania instytucji i ich pracowników w najlepszym interesie społecznym, zgodnie z zasadami prawa i etyki. W kontekście innowacji w politykach publicznych kluczowe znaczenie ma wprowadzenie mechanizmów oceny wpływu nowatorskich rozwiązań32. Niezależne mechanizmy kontroli, takie jak audyty wewnętrzne i zewnętrzne, umożliwiają monitorowanie procesów współrządzenia oraz identyfikację potencjalnych nieprawidłowości. Ocena skutków regulacji (OSR) przeprowadzana przed wdrożeniem nowych polityk publicznych umożliwia analizę potencjalnych efektów i kosztów proponowanych zmian, a także weryfikację czy regulacje są stosowane i egzekwowane zgodnie z przyjętymi normami. Transparentność działań administracji publicznej, między innymi poprzez publikację informacji w Biuletynie Informacji Publicznej (BIP), umożliwia obywatelom sprawowanie kontroli nad działaniami władz, co wzmacnia odpowiedzialność decydentów. Ponadto aktywne włączanie obywateli w procesy decyzyjne – poprzez konsultacje społeczne i platformy partycypacyjne – zwiększa legitymizację podejmowanych działań, umożliwiając uwzględnienie różnorodnych perspektyw. Mechanizmy, takie jak rural proofing, tworzą\n32 M. Bovens, Analysing and Assessing Accountability: A Conceptual Framework, „European\nLaw Journal” t. 13 nr 4 (2007), DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-0386.2007.00378.x.\n\nprzestrzeń do dialogu i angażowania społeczności, co ma kluczowe znaczenie dla odpowiedzialnego wdrażania innowacji33,34.\nIntegracja mechanizmów usprawniania świadczenia usług publicznych oraz zapewniania odpowiedzialności w zarządzaniu innowacjami stanowi fundament nowoczesnej administracji publicznej. Tylko dzięki synergii tych elementów możliwe jest osiągnięcie trwałych, systemowych zmian, które odpowiadają na wyzwania społeczne, zwiększają efektywność instytucji publicznych i wzmacniają zaufanie społeczne.\nW obliczu dynamicznych zmian społecznych i gospodarczych administracja publiczna stoi przed wyzwaniem nie tylko skutecznego reagowania na bieżące problemy, lecz także tworzenia i wdrażania innowacyjnych rozwiązań, które podnoszą jakość świadczonych usług oraz zwiększają przejrzystość i legitymizację decyzji politycznych. Do kluczowych elementów zarządzania innowacjami w sektorze publicznym należą między innymi struktury instytucjonalne wspierające innowacje oraz modele współpracy innowacyjnej.\nW niniejszym podrozdziale omówione zostaną te dwa aspekty – ich znaczenie oraz sposoby implementacji – co umożliwia stworzenie spójnego systemu wspierającego nowoczesne zarządzanie publiczne.\nJednym z kluczowych czynników warunkujących wdrażanie innowacji w administracji publicznej jest właściwie zaprojektowana struktura instytucjonalna. Struktura ta obejmuje zarówno formalne mechanizmy organizacyjne, jak i procedury umożliwiające systematyczne generowanie, ocenę oraz wdrażanie nowych pomysłów. W kontekście zarządzania innowacjami instytucjonalizacja procesów jest niezbędna, aby działania innowacyjne nie miały charakteru doraźnego, lecz stanowiły element trwałego procesu decyzyjnego35.\nWprowadzenie wyspecjalizowanych jednostek, takich jak laboratoria innowacji czy zespoły ds. rozwoju technologii, umożliwia koncentrację wiedzy i zasobów, a tym samym systematyczne testowanie nowych rozwiązań. Tego rodzaju struktury instytucjonalne wspierają integrację innowacyjnych projektów z długofalową strategią rozwoju organizacji, co ma kluczowe znaczenie dla utrzymania ciągłości działań oraz budowania przewagi konkurencyjnej w dynamicznym otoczeniu36.\n33 K. Nordberg, Distributed Rural Proofing – An Essential Tool for the Future of Rural Development?, „Sociologia Ruralis” t. 61 nr 1 (2021).\n34 E. Sherry, S. Shortall, Methodological Fallacies and Perceptions of Rural Disparity: How Rural\nProofing Addresses Real versus Abstract Needs, „Journal of Rural Studies” t. 68 (2019).\n35 P.F. Drucker, Innovation and entrepreneurship...\n36 J. Tidd, J.R. Bessant, Managing innovation...\n\nKolejnym istotnym aspektem jest rola kultury organizacyjnej sprzyjającej innowacyjności. W administracji publicznej często obserwuje się tendencję do utrzymywania status quo, wynikającą z tradycyjnych struktur hierarchicznych oraz silnej centralizacji procesów decyzyjnych37. Aby przeciwdziałać tej tendencji, konieczne jest tworzenie środowiska sprzyjającego eksperymentowaniu, w którym ryzyko niepowodzenia postrzegane jest jako nieodłączny element procesu uczenia się. Wdrożenie programów szkoleniowych, systemów mentoringowych oraz mechanizmów nagradzania innowacyjnych pomysłów może przyczynić się do zmiany postaw pracowników administracji oraz do kształtowania kultury organizacyjnej, w której innowacyjność stanowi priorytet38.\nNiezbędnym uzupełnieniem struktury instytucjonalnej jest opracowanie formalnych procedur oceny oraz monitorowania wdrażanych innowacji.\nPrzejrzyste kryteria wyboru projektów, systemy audytu oraz mechanizmy ewaluacji rezultatów umożliwiają bieżące monitorowanie realizacji strategii innowacyjnej. W rezultacie instytucje publiczne mogą nie tylko identyfikować najskuteczniejsze rozwiązania, lecz także wprowadzać korekty w procesach decyzyjnych, co podnosi efektywność całego systemu zarządzania39.\nRównolegle do tworzenia odpowiedniej struktury instytucjonalnej kluczowe znaczenie mają innowacje oparte na współpracy. W dobie globalizacji oraz narastających wyzwań społecznych pojedyncze instytucje rzadko dysponują wszystkimi niezbędnymi zasobami i wiedzą potrzebną do skutecznego wdrażania nowych rozwiązań. Dlatego coraz częściej obserwuje się wzrost znaczenia współpracy międzysektorowej, umożliwiającej integrację różnorodnych kompetencji pochodzących z sektora publicznego, prywatnego oraz organizacji pozarządowych40.\nW modelu innowacji opartych na współrządzeniu i współpracy istotne jest tworzenie sieci partnerstw, które umożliwiają wspólne rozwiązywanie problemów oraz wymianę doświadczeń i zasobów. Tego rodzaju współpraca przekłada się na bardziej kompleksowe i elastyczne podejście do wyzwań społecznych, gdyż umożliwia tworzenie synergii między różnymi podmiotami. Proces współtworzenia, angażujący różne grupy interesariuszy, sprzyja\n37 J. Hartley, Innovation in Governance and Public Services: Past and Present, „Public Money\n& Management” t. 25 nr 1 (2005), DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-9302.2005.00447.x.\n38 I. Nonaka, The Knowledge-Creating Company...\n39 S.P. Osborne (red.), The new public governance?...\n40 C. Ansell, A. Gash, Collaborative Governance in Theory and Practice, „Journal of Public\nAdministration Research and Theory” t. 18 nr 4 (2008), DOI: 10.1093/jopart/mum032.\n\nzwiększeniu przejrzystości procesów decyzyjnych, co ma kluczowe znaczenie dla budowania zaufania społecznego41.\nPraktyczne przykłady innowacji opartych na współpracy można zaobserwować w projektach realizowanych na szczeblu lokalnym, w których samorządy współpracują z obywatelami oraz przedsiębiorstwami technologicznymi w celu opracowania rozwiązań odpowiadających na specyficzne potrzeby społeczności. Tego rodzaju projekty często przyjmują formę inicjatyw pilotażowych, które po pozytywnej weryfikacji są rozszerzane na szerszy obszar.\nWspółrządzenie sprzyja również wzajemnemu uczeniu się oraz szybszemu dostosowywaniu do zmieniających się warunków, co ma szczególne znaczenie w kontekście dynamicznych wyzwań, takich jak cyfryzacja czy zrównoważony rozwój42.\nDodatkowo rozwój platform cyfrowych oraz narzędzi komunikacji ułatwia tworzenie sieci współpracy, umożliwiając wymianę informacji i pomysłów między różnymi podmiotami. Tego rodzaju rozwiązania nie tylko zwiększają efektywność procesów decyzyjnych, lecz także sprzyjają lepszemu rozumieniu potrzeb społecznych przez instytucje publiczne, co w konsekwencji umożliwia tworzenie bardziej responsywnych polityk publicznych43.\nW kontekście współrządzenia kluczowym elementem jest również odpowiedzialność za wdrażane rozwiązania. Struktura instytucjonalna powinna być skonstruowana w taki sposób, aby umożliwiała skuteczne monitorowanie i ocenę efektów wdrażanych innowacji, co stanowi podstawę podejmowania dalszych działań optymalizacyjnych. Wdrożenie systemów audytu oraz regularnych ewaluacji wpływu innowacji przyczynia się do zwiększenia przejrzystości i odpowiedzialności w procesach decyzyjnych, co jest kluczowe dla utrzymania zaufania społecznego44.\nPodsumowując, kluczowe elementy współrządzenia w administracji publicznej obejmują zarówno tworzenie efektywnej struktury instytucjonalnej, umożliwiającej systematyczne generowanie i wdrażanie nowych rozwiązań, jak i rozwój innowacji opartych na współpracy, pozwalających na integrację wiedzy i zasobów różnych podmiotów. Tego rodzaju synergiczna integracja nie\n41 K. Emerson, T. Nabatchi, S. Balogh, An Integrative Framework for Collaborative Governance, „Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory” t. 22 nr 1 (2012), DOI:\n10.1093/jopart/mur011.\n42 J. West, M. Bogers, Open innovation: current status and research opportunities, „Innovation” t. 19 nr 1 (2017), DOI: 10.1080/14479338.2016.1258995.\n43 M. Mazzucato, The entrepreneurial state...\n44 B.G. Peters, Bureaucracy and Democracy in the Modern State...\n\ntylko zwiększa efektywność świadczenia usług publicznych, lecz także sprzyja tworzeniu bardziej elastycznych i responsywnych polityk, odpowiadających na wyzwania współczesnego społeczeństwa. Współpraca międzysektorowa, wsparcie technologiczne oraz systematyczna ewaluacja efektów wdrażanych rozwiązań stanowią fundament nowoczesnego zarządzania innowacjami, umożliwiając administracji publicznej skuteczne dostosowywanie się do zmieniających się warunków i potrzeb społecznych45.\nW świetle powyższych rozważań można stwierdzić, że tworzenie odpowiedniej struktury instytucjonalnej oraz rozwój idei współrządzenia opartego na współpracy stanowią nieodłączne elementy skutecznego zarządzania w sektorze publicznym. Tylko holistyczne podejście, łączące formalizację procesów z otwartością na współpracę między różnymi interesariuszami, umożliwia tworzenie polityk, które nie tylko odpowiadają na bieżące wyzwania, lecz także wyznaczają kierunki rozwoju administracji publicznej w przyszłości46.\nW efekcie przyjęcie strategii opartej na dwóch filarach – silnej strukturze instytucjonalnej oraz intensywnej współpracy międzysektorowej – umożliwia tworzenie innowacyjnych rozwiązań, które przekładają się na realną poprawę jakości życia obywateli oraz zwiększenie efektywności zarządzania publicznego.\nKluczowym zadaniem współczesnych decydentów jest zatem nie tylko inicjowanie procesów sprzyjających współrządzeniu, lecz także ich systematyczne wdrażanie, monitorowanie i doskonalenie, co stanowi fundament trwałego rozwoju sektora publicznego47. Można zatem stwierdzić, że sukces nowoczesnej administracji publicznej zależy od zdolności integrowania formalnych struktur i procesów z otwartością na współdziałanie z różnymi interesariuszami, co w konsekwencji przekłada się na bardziej responsywne, efektywne i zorientowane na obywatela świadczenie usług publicznych.\nDo kolejnych elementów nowoczesnego zarządzania innowacjami w sektorze publicznym zalicza się kształtowanie polityk opartych na danych oraz prototypowanie i eksperymentowanie z rozwiązaniami politycznymi. Oba podejścia umożliwiają podejmowanie decyzji opartych na wiarygodnych dowodach oraz testowanie nowych rozwiązań w kontrolowanych warunkach, co przyczynia się do zwiększenia efektywności i elastyczności działania administracji publicznej.\n45 C. Ansell, A. Gash, Collaborative Governance in Theory and Practice...; S.P. Osborne\n(red.), The new public governance?...\n46 K. Emerson, T. Nabatchi, S. Balogh, An Integrative Framework for Collaborative Governance...; J. West, M. Bogers, Open innovation...\n47 M. Mazzucato, The entrepreneurial state...\n\nKształtowanie polityk opartych na danych (data-driven policymaking) stanowi fundament podejmowania decyzji opartych na analizie rzetelnych i aktualnych informacji. W dobie cyfryzacji oraz rosnącej dostępności danych masowych (big data) instytucje publiczne zyskują możliwość wykorzystania zaawansowanych narzędzi analitycznych do monitorowania trendów, identyfikowania problemów oraz prognozowania skutków wdrażanych rozwiązań48.\nDzięki temu proces decyzyjny staje się bardziej przejrzysty, a ryzyko wynikające z subiektywnych ocen ulega znacznemu ograniczeniu. Integracja technologii informacyjnych, takich jak systemy big data i analizy predykcyjne, umożliwia menedżerom publicznym szybsze reagowanie na zmieniające się warunki oraz skuteczniejsze dostosowywanie polityk do aktualnych potrzeb społecznych49.\nW praktyce kształtowanie polityk opartych na danych obejmuje gromadzenie, przetwarzanie i analizę informacji zarówno ilościowych, jak i jakościowych, co umożliwia tworzenie modeli prognostycznych oraz symulacji.\nUmożliwia to precyzyjne określenie potencjalnych skutków wdrażania nowych rozwiązań oraz identyfikację obszarów wymagających interwencji. Analiza danych wspiera również proces ewaluacji polityk publicznych, umożliwiając ich ciągłe doskonalenie oraz dostosowywanie do dynamicznych zmian w otoczeniu50. W efekcie instytucje publiczne mogą podejmować decyzje oparte na dowodach, co zwiększa ich wiarygodność oraz wzmacnia zaufanie społeczne.\nRównolegle z kształtowaniem polityk opartych na danych, prototypowanie i eksperymentowanie z rozwiązaniami politycznymi staje się kluczowym narzędziem wdrażania innowacji w zarządzaniu publicznym. Prototypowanie polega na opracowywaniu wstępnych, często ograniczonych wersji nowych rozwiązań, które następnie testuje się w kontrolowanych warunkach. Taki proces pozwala na szybkie zweryfikowanie skuteczności proponowanych rozwiązań, identyfikację potencjalnych problemów oraz wprowadzenie niezbędnych korekt przed ich pełnym wdrożeniem na szerszą skalę51.\n48 M. Janssen, H. Van der Voort, Adaptive Governance: Towards a Stable, Accountable and\nResponsive Government, „Government Information Quarterly” t. 33 nr 1 (2016), DOI: 10.1016/ j.giq.2016.02.003.\n49 A. Meijer, M.P.R. Bolívar, Governing the Smart City: A Review of the Literature on Smart\nUrban Governance, „International Review of Administrative Sciences” t. 82 nr 2 (2016),\nDOI: 10.1177/0020852314564308.\n50 J. West, M. Bogers, Open innovation...\n51 C.F. Sabel, J. Zeitlin, Experimentalism in the EU: Common Ground and Persistent Differences, „Regulation & Governance” t. 6 nr 3 (2012), DOI: 10.1111/j.1748-5991.2012.01157.x\n\nEksperymentowanie z rozwiązaniami politycznymi stanowi nieodzowny element innowacyjnego podejścia w administracji publicznej, ponieważ umożliwia weryfikację nowych koncepcji w praktyce. Proces ten obejmuje pilotażowe wdrożenia, pozwalające na gromadzenie danych operacyjnych oraz ocenę skutków działań w rzeczywistych warunkach funkcjonowania administracji.\nDzięki eksperymentom instytucje publiczne mogą minimalizować ryzyko niepowodzenia, gdyż każda polityka jest najpierw testowana, a następnie modyfikowana na podstawie uzyskanych wyników52. Takie podejście umożliwia stopniowe wdrażanie innowacji, zwiększając prawdopodobieństwo ich sukcesu oraz wspierając efektywne zarządzanie zmianą organizacyjną.\nWdrożenie metod prototypowania i eksperymentowania z rozwiązaniami politycznymi umożliwia bardziej efektywne wykorzystanie ograniczonych zasobów publicznych. Dzięki wstępnym testom i analizom decydenci mogą zidentyfikować rozwiązania przynoszące największe korzyści i następnie ukierunkować na nie dalsze inwestycje. Ponadto prototypowanie sprzyja zaangażowaniu różnorodnych interesariuszy – w tym obywateli oraz ekspertów z sektora prywatnego – co prowadzi do tworzenia bardziej zrównoważonych i responsywnych polityk publicznych53.\nW kontekście zarządzania innowacjami w administracji publicznej kluczową rolę odgrywa integracja podejścia opartego na danych z metodami eksperymentalnymi. Dane stanowią nie tylko podstawę podejmowania decyzji, lecz także pełnią funkcję miernika skuteczności prototypowanych rozwiązań.\nRegularna ewaluacja efektów realizowanych projektów pilotażowych umożliwia systematyczne doskonalenie polityk publicznych oraz ich dostosowywanie do zmieniających się uwarunkowań54. Tego rodzaju synergiczne połączenie metod analitycznych i eksperymentalnych sprzyja tworzeniu bardziej elastycznych oraz dynamicznych struktur decyzyjnych, co ma kluczowe znaczenie dla współczesnej administracji publicznej.\nPonadto eksperymentowanie z rozwiązaniami politycznymi umożliwia menedżerom publicznym szybkie reagowanie na sytuacje kryzysowe oraz dostosowywanie strategii do nowych wyzwań. Zastosowanie nowoczesnych narzędzi analitycznych umożliwia monitorowanie efektywności wdrożonych rozwiązań w czasie rzeczywistym, co pozwala na szybkie wprowadzanie korekt. Tego rodzaju adaptacyjność ma szczególne znaczenie w warunkach\n52 J. Tidd, J.R. Bessant, Managing innovation...\n53 S.P. Osborne (red.), The new public governance?...\n54 I. Nonaka, The Knowledge-Creating Company...\n\ndynamicznych zmian, w których tradycyjne, statyczne modele decyzyjne często okazują się niewystarczające55.\nKształtowanie polityk opartych na danych oraz prototypowanie i eksperymentowanie z rozwiązaniami politycznymi stanowią dwa komplementarne podejścia, które wzajemnie się uzupełniają. Podczas gdy dane dostarczają solidnej podstawy podejmowania decyzji, proces eksperymentowania umożliwia ich praktyczną weryfikację w warunkach operacyjnych. Integracja obu metod umożliwia tworzenie innowacyjnych polityk publicznych, które są jednocześnie przemyślane i elastyczne. W efekcie administracja publiczna zyskuje zdolność efektywnego reagowania na wyzwania współczesnego świata, jednocześnie budując zaufanie społeczne poprzez transparentność oraz oparcie działań na dowodach56.\nNależy podkreślić, że w procesie zarządzania innowacjami w sektorze publicznym kluczowe znaczenie ma budowanie kultury organizacyjnej sprzyjającej eksperymentowaniu i uczeniu się na błędach. Administracja publiczna, która koncentruje się na ciągłym doskonaleniu metod działania, nie obawia się testowania nowych rozwiązań, nawet jeśli wiąże się to z ryzykiem niepowodzenia. Takie podejście nie tylko sprzyja rozwojowi innowacyjnych polityk publicznych, lecz także tworzy fundamenty długoterminowej transformacji sektora publicznego57.\nPodsumowując, kształtowanie polityk opartych na danych oraz prototypowanie i eksperymentowanie z rozwiązaniami politycznymi stanowią kluczowe elementy nowoczesnego zarządzania innowacjami w administracji publicznej. Połączenie rzetelnych analiz danych z dynamicznym procesem testowania i wdrażania innowacyjnych rozwiązań umożliwia tworzenie elastycznych, efektywnych i responsywnych polityk publicznych, odpowiadających na współczesne wyzwania społeczne. Takie podejście nie tylko podnosi jakość usług publicznych, lecz także zwiększa przejrzystość i legitymację decyzji politycznych, co w konsekwencji wzmacnia zaufanie społeczne i sprzyja trwałemu rozwojowi administracji publicznej58.\nW obliczu dynamicznie zmieniającego się otoczenia administracja publiczna musi wykazywać się zarówno precyzyjnym podejściem analitycznym, jak i gotowością do eksperymentowania z nowymi modelami działania.\n55 C. Ansell, A. Gash, Collaborative Governance in Theory and Practice...\n56 M. Bovens, Analysing and Assessing Accountability...\n57 M. Mazzucato, The entrepreneurial state...\n58 J. Tidd, J.R. Bessant, Managing innovation...; S.P. Osborne (red.), The new public governance?...\n\nIntegracja kształtowania polityk opartych na danych z metodami prototypowania i eksperymentowania stanowi fundament efektywnego zarządzania innowacjami w administracji publicznej. W rezultacie nowoczesne instytucje publiczne potrafią nie tylko skutecznie reagować na bieżące wyzwania, lecz także przewidywać przyszłe potrzeby społeczne, co czyni je bardziej elastycznymi i odpornymi na kryzysy. W tym kontekście zarządzanie innowacjami staje się kluczowym narzędziem podnoszenia efektywności, doskonalenia jakości usług publicznych oraz wzmacniania zaufania społecznego. Wsparciem dla tych procesów są partycypacja obywatelska i crowdsourcing, skuteczne zarządzanie i adaptacja przepisów oraz przywództwo oparte na kulturze organizacyjnej sprzyjającej innowacyjności. Wymienione elementy stanowią wzajemnie uzupełniające się filary nowoczesnego zarządzania w sektorze publicznym.\nPartycypacja obywatelska, czyli włączenie obywateli w procesy decyzyjne, umożliwia uwzględnienie różnorodnych perspektyw oraz lepsze dostosowanie polityk do rzeczywistych potrzeb społecznych. Mechanizmy, takie jak konsultacje społeczne, budżety partycypacyjne czy platformy e-participation, stanowią nie tylko źródło cennych danych, ale również budują legitymację podejmowanych decyzji59. Wraz z rozwojem technologii cyfrowych coraz częściej wykorzystywany jest również crowdsourcing60. Jest to metoda polegająca na pozyskiwaniu pomysłów i rozwiązań od szerokiego grona osób za pośrednictwem internetowych platform. Crowdsourcing umożliwia nie tylko poszerzenie bazy wiedzy i pomysłowości, ale także przyczynia się do szybszego identyfikowania problemów oraz testowania innowacyjnych rozwiązań61. Współdziałanie administracji publicznej z obywatelami za pomocą tych narzędzi pozwala na tworzenie bardziej przejrzystych i responsywnych polityk, co jest szczególnie istotne w kontekście rosnących oczekiwań społecznych oraz potrzeby zwiększania efektywności działań publicznych.\nRównolegle z rozwojem partycypacji kluczową rolę w nowoczesnym zarządzaniu innowacjami odgrywa elastyczne kierowanie i dostosowywanie przepisów62. Tradycyjne modele zarządzania często opierają się na sztywnych strukturach i ustalonych procedurach, które nie zawsze umożliwiają szybką\n59 C. Ansell, A. Gash, Collaborative Governance in Theory and Practice...\n60 V. Lehdonvirta, J. Bright, Crowdsourcing for Public Policy and Government, „Policy &\nInternet” t. 7 nr 3 (2015); D.C. Brabham, Crowdsourcing in the Public Sector, Georgetown\nUniversity Press 2015.\n61 J. West, M. Bogers, Open innovation...\n62 I. Mergel, Y. Gong, J. Bertot, Agile Government: Systematic Literature Review and Future\nResearch, „Government Information Quarterly” t. 35 (2018).\n\nreakcję na dynamiczne zmiany otoczenia. W obliczu nieprzewidywalności współczesnych wyzwań konieczne jest przyjęcie podejścia opartego na elastyczności, które umożliwia dostosowywanie strategii i przepisów do bieżących warunków63. Omawiany typ zarządzania opiera się na iteracyjnym podejściu do wdrażania zmian, w którym kluczową rolę odgrywa szybkie prototypowanie, testowanie i doskonalenie rozwiązań64. Metody eksperymentalne, takie jak pilotażowe wdrożenia, umożliwiają ocenę skuteczności nowych polityk w ograniczonym zakresie, zanim zostaną wdrożone na szeroką skalę65. Takie podejście pozwala nie tylko minimalizować ryzyko, lecz także na bieżąco korygować kierunki działań, co zwiększa elastyczność administracji publicznej66.\nAdaptacja przepisów w duchu elastycznego zarządzania to również proces wymagający ciągłego monitorowania i oceny skutków wprowadzanych regulacji67. W obliczu dynamicznych zmian technologicznych i społecznych przepisy prawne często okazują się nieadekwatne do realiów współczesnego świata. Dlatego tak istotne jest wprowadzanie mechanizmów umożliwiających szybkie dostosowywanie regulacji do nowych warunków, przy jednoczesnym zachowaniu stabilności systemu prawnego68. Adaptacyjność przepisów wiąże się z koniecznością tworzenia systemów, które nie tylko reagują na zmiany, lecz także przewidują ich skutki. Wdrożenie rozwiązań opartych na danych i analizie umożliwia prognozowanie trendów oraz ocenę potencjalnych ryzyk,\n63 M. Janssen, H. Van Der Voort, Adaptive governance: Towards a stable, accountable and responsive government, „Government Information Quarterly” t. 33 nr 1 (2016), DOI:\n10.1016/j.giq.2016.02.003.\n64 R.-M. Soe, W. Drechsler, Agile Local Governments: Experimentation Before Implementation,\n„Government Information Quarterly” t. 35 nr 2 (2018), DOI: 10.1016/j.giq.2017.11.010.\n65 J. Strojny, Project Orientation in Institutions of the Public Sector: Key Methodological\nAssumptions, [w:] M. H. Bilgin, H. Danis (red.), Entrepreneurship, Business and Economics – Vol. 2, t. 3/2, Cham 2016.\n66 C. F. Sabel, J. Zeitlin, Experimentalism in the EU: Common Ground and Persistent Differences,\n„Regulation & Governance” t. 6 nr 3 (2012); Y. Dittrich, J. Pries-Heje, K. Hjort-Madsen,\nHow to Make Government Agile to Cope with Organizational Change, [w:] R. L. Baskerville et al. (red.), Business Agility and Information Technology Diffusion, t. 180, Boston 2005.\n67 S. E. McCord, D. S. Pilliod, Adaptive Monitoring in Support of Adaptive Management in Rangelands, „Rangeland Ecology & Management” t. 44, nr 1 (2022), DOI: 10.1016/j.\nrala.2021.07.003.\n68 A. Errida, B. Lotfi, The determinants of organizational change management success:\nLiterature review and case study, „International Journal of Engineering Business Management” t. 13 (2021), DOI: 10.1177/18479790211016273; S.P. Osborne (red.), The new public governance?...\n\nco z kolei pozwala wprowadzać korekty w prawie, zanim pojawią się poważniejsze problemy69.\nKolejnym fundamentalnym aspektem skutecznego zarządzania innowacjami w sektorze publicznym są przywództwo i kultura organizacyjna70.\nLiderzy w administracji publicznej muszą nie tylko zarządzać bieżącymi procesami, lecz także inspirować swoje zespoły do poszukiwania nowych rozwiązań i otwartości na zmiany. Przywództwo innowacyjne wymaga od decydentów postawy proaktywnej i gotowości do podejmowania ryzyka w imię wprowadzania pozytywnych zmian71. Kluczową rolę odgrywa tu również kultura organizacyjna, sprzyjająca eksperymentowaniu i uczeniu się na błędach.\nOrganizacje publiczne, które stawiają na rozwój kreatywności i otwartość na nowe pomysły, są lepiej przygotowane do adaptacji w dynamicznie zmieniającym się środowisku72.\nW kontekście przywództwa istotne jest tworzenie struktur sprzyjających współpracy i wymianie wiedzy między różnymi szczeblami organizacji. Liderzy, angażujący swoich pracowników w proces podejmowania decyzji, budują atmosferę zaufania i współodpowiedzialności, co przekłada się na większą motywację do inicjowania innowacyjnych działań73. Wprowadzanie regularnych szkoleń, warsztatów i programów mentoringowych sprzyja rozwojowi kompetencji pracowników oraz kształtowaniu kultury organizacyjnej\n69 A. Meijer, M. P. R. Bolívar, Governing the Smart City...\n70 L. Hawrysz, Procesowo zorientowana kultura organizacyjna w organizacjach sektora publicznego, „Edukacja Ekonomistów i Menedżerów” t. 26 nr 4 (2012); M. Schraeder,\nR.S. Tears, M.H. Jordan, Organizational culture in public sector organizations: Promoting change through training and leading by example, „Leadership & Organization Development Journal” t. 26 nr 6 (2005).\n71 M.S. Chughtai et al., Role of adaptive leadership in learning organizations to boost organizational innovations with change self-efficacy, „Current Psychology” (2023), DOI:\n10.1007/s12144-023-04669-z, https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s12144-023-04669-z;\nP.F. Drucker, Innovation and entrepreneurship...; A. Garrido-Moreno, R. Martín-Rojas,\nV.J. García-Morales, The key role of innovation and organizational resilience in improving business performance: A mixed-methods approach, „International Journal of Information\nManagement” t. 77 (2024), DOI: 10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2024.102777.\n72 A. Wien, N. Franzke, Unternehmenskultur: Zielorientierte Unternehmensethik als entscheidender Erfolgsfaktor, Springer-Verlag 2014; I. Nonaka, The Knowledge-Creating\nCompany...\n73 D.J. Kleynhans et al., Authentic Leadership, Trust (in the Leader), and Flourishing: Does Precariousness Matter?, „Frontiers in Psychology” t. 13 (2022), DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.798759;\nA.E. Lansing et al., Building trust: Leadership reflections on community empowerment and engagement in a large urban initiative, „BMC Public Health” t. 23 nr 1 (2023), DOI: 10.1186/ s12889-023-15860-z.\n\nnastawionej na ciągłe doskonalenie74. W rezultacie organizacja staje się bardziej elastyczna i zdolna do szybkiego reagowania na zmiany, co ma kluczowe znaczenie w kontekście dynamicznych procesów innowacyjnych.\nWażnym aspektem wspierającym współrządzenie jest także rola liderów w promowaniu wartości etycznych i przejrzystości. Odpowiedzialność, jaką ponoszą decydenci publiczni, wymaga nie tylko podejmowania trafnych decyzji, lecz także komunikowania celów i efektów działań społeczeństwu.\nPrzejrzystość i otwartość na dialog z obywatelami mają kluczowe znaczenie dla budowania zaufania społecznego oraz legitymizacji podejmowanych działań75. W ten sposób przywództwo staje się nie tylko funkcją zarządzania, lecz także narzędziem kształtującym kulturę organizacyjną opartą na wartościach współpracy, uczciwości i innowacyjności76.\nWspomniane wyżej elementy – partycypacja obywatelska i crowdsourcing, elastyczne zarządzanie oraz adaptacja przepisów, a także przywództwo i kultura organizacyjna – stanowią integralne filary nowoczesnego współrządzenia w administracji publicznej. Ich wzajemna integracja umożliwia tworzenie spójnych strategii, które są zarówno responsywne na zmieniające się potrzeby społeczne, jak i zdolne do skutecznej realizacji w warunkach niepewności oraz dynamicznie zmieniającego się otoczenia. Przyjęcie podejścia partycypacyjnego umożliwia wykorzystanie bogactwa doświadczeń i pomysłów obywateli, co z kolei prowadzi do tworzenia bardziej skutecznych i dostosowanych do realiów społecznych polityk publicznych. Crowdsourcing, jako narzędzie pozyskiwania wiedzy z szerokiego grona uczestników, pozwala na szybkie identyfikowanie problemów i tworzenie innowacyjnych rozwiązań, co stanowi istotny atut współczesnej administracji publicznej.\nJednocześnie wdrożenie metod elastycznego zarządzania i adaptacji przepisów umożliwia instytucjom publicznym szybkie reagowanie na zmiany oraz minimalizowanie ryzyka związanego z wdrażaniem nowych rozwiązań77. Iteracyjne podejście, oparte na testowaniu i stopniowym wdrażaniu innowacji,\n74 J. Tidd, J.R. Bessant, Managing innovation...\n75 M. Alessandro et al., Transparency and Trust in Government. Evidence from a Survey\nExperiment, „World Development” t. 138 (2021), DOI: 10.1016/j.worlddev.2020.105223;\nS. Kumagai, F. Iorio, Building trust in government through citizen engagement, World\nBank Washington, DC, USA 2020.\n76 M. Bovens, Analysing and Assessing Accountability...\n77 M.S. Chughtai et al., Role of adaptive leadership in learning organizations to boost organizational innovations with change self-efficacy...; M. Janssen, H. Van Der Voort, Adaptive governance...\n\numożliwia ciągłe doskonalenie polityk oraz ich szybką adaptację do zmieniających się warunków. Elastyczność przepisów ma szczególne znaczenie w obliczu dynamicznych zmian technologicznych i społecznych, gdyż pozwala budować systemy zarówno stabilne, jak i otwarte na nowości.\nKolejnym kluczowym aspektem jest rola przywództwa oraz kultury organizacyjnej, kształtujących postawy i zachowania pracowników. Liderzy aktywnie promujący innowacyjność i tworzący warunki sprzyjające eksperymentowaniu przyczyniają się do budowania środowiska, w którym podejmowanie ryzyka jest akceptowane, a błędy traktowane jako cenne lekcje78. Takie podejście nie tylko zwiększa motywację do wdrażania nowych rozwiązań, lecz także wspiera rozwój kompetencji w zakresie zarządzania zmianą79. Kultura organizacyjna oparta na wartościach, takich jak przejrzystość, współpraca i ciągłe uczenie się, staje się fundamentem długoterminowego sukcesu innowacyjnych inicjatyw w sektorze publicznym.\nW praktyce efektywne współrządzenie w administracji publicznej wymaga synergii między wszystkimi omawianymi elementami. Systemy partycypacyjne i crowdsourcing umożliwiają szerokie zaangażowanie interesariuszy, co przekłada się na bardziej kompleksową i trafną diagnozę problemów. Elastyczne zarządzanie oraz adaptacja przepisów pozwalają na szybkie wdrażanie i modyfikowanie rozwiązań, minimalizując ryzyko oraz zwiększając skuteczność działań. Przywództwo oraz kultura organizacyjna stanowią fundament, na którym opiera się zdolność do tworzenia innowacyjnych polityk, a także do skutecznego zarządzania procesem zmian80. Takie holistyczne podejście jest niezbędne, aby administracja publiczna mogła skutecznie reagować na współczesne wyzwania i budować długofalową wartość dla obywateli81.\nDodatkowo współpraca międzysektorowa oraz otwartość na partnerstwa z podmiotami prywatnymi i organizacjami pozarządowymi umożliwiają\n78 T. Aven, Risk Assessment and Risk Management: Review of Recent Advances on Their\nFoundation, „European Journal of Operational Research” t. 253 nr 1 (2016), DOI: 10.1016/ j.ejor.2015.12.023; T. Christensen, P. Lægreid, Complexity and Hybrid Public Administration—Theoretical and Empirical Challenges, „Public Organization Review” t. 11 nr 4\n(2011), DOI: 10.1007/s11115-010-0141-4.\n79 T. Aven, Risk assessment and risk management: Review of recent advances on their foundation, „European Journal of Operational Research” t. 253 nr 1 (2016), DOI: 10.1016/ j.ejor.2015.12.023.\n80 M. Schraeder, R.S. Tears, M.H. Jordan, Organizational culture in public sector organizations:\nPromoting change through training and leading by example...\n81 J.M. Bryson, B.C. Crosby, L. Bloomberg, Public Value Governance...; M.H. Moore, Creating public value: strategic management in government, Cambridge, Mass. 2001.\n\npozyskiwanie nowych kompetencji oraz wspólne tworzenie innowacyjnych rozwiązań. Integracja różnorodnych perspektyw przyczynia się do tworzenia bardziej zrównoważonych i skutecznych polityk, co ma szczególne znaczenie w kontekście globalnych wyzwań, takich jak zmiany klimatyczne czy transformacja cyfrowa82. W rezultacie nowoczesna administracja publiczna staje się bardziej otwarta, elastyczna i zdolna do dynamicznej adaptacji, co zwiększa jej skuteczność i przyczynia się do budowania trwałego zaufania społecznego.\nPodsumowując, kluczowe elementy współrządzenia w sektorze publicznym obejmują szerokie spektrum narzędzi i strategii, które powinny być ze sobą spójnie integrowane. Partycypacja obywatelska i crowdsourcing umożliwiają pozyskiwanie cennych danych i pomysłów z szerokiego grona interesariuszy, co znacząco wzbogaca proces tworzenia polityk. Elastyczne zarządzanie oraz adaptacja przepisów gwarantują, że instytucje publiczne są w stanie szybko reagować na zmieniające się warunki oraz wprowadzać niezbędne korekty w sposób iteracyjny. Przywództwo oraz kultura organizacyjna, stanowiące fundament każdego procesu innowacyjnego, kształtują środowisko, w którym kreatywność i eksperymentowanie są nie tylko akceptowane, lecz także aktywnie promowane.\nTaka zintegrowana strategia pozwala na budowanie systemów wspólnego zarządzania, które są jednocześnie elastyczne i stabilne, a także zdolne do przewidywania i reagowania na przyszłe wyzwania. Administracja publiczna, korzystając z synergii między udziałem obywateli, dynamicznym dostosowywaniem regulacji i przywództwem opartym na kulturze ciągłego uczenia się, może skutecznie realizować swoje zadania, podnosząc jakość usług i wzmacniając zaufanie społeczne. Współczesne wyzwania wymagają od decydentów nie tylko tradycyjnych metod zarządzania, lecz także innowacyjnych podejść, łączących w sobie zarówno aspekty technologiczne, jak i społeczne.\nW obliczu rosnącej konkurencji globalnej i dynamicznych zmian technologicznych wdrażanie nowoczesnych metod zarządzania staje się priorytetem dla każdej instytucji publicznej. Inwestycje w rozwój kompetencji, partnerstwa międzysektorowe oraz adaptacyjne systemy zarządzania umożliwiają nie tylko lepsze wykorzystanie dostępnych zasobów, lecz także tworzenie innowacyjnych rozwiązań przynoszących wymierne korzyści społeczne i ekonomiczne. W ten\n82 K. Emerson, T. Nabatchi, S. Balogh, An Integrative Framework for Collaborative Governance...; J. Torfing, Collaborative innovation in the public sector: the argument, „Public\nManagement Review” t. 21 nr 1 (2019), DOI: 10.1080/14719037.2018.1430248.\n\nsposób administracja publiczna może skutecznie odpowiadać na wyzwania współczesności, budując solidne fundamenty przyszłego rozwoju.\n3.2. Modele governance w zarządzaniu publicznym\n3.2.1. Model biurokratyczny\nAgencje rządowe stosują podejście odgórne, w którym zasady opracowywane i zatwierdzane są w drodze hierarchicznego podejmowania decyzji. Model ten, zapewniając kontrolę i rozliczalność, może jednak ograniczać wdrażanie innowacyjnych sposobów zarządzania83. Model biurokratyczny w zarządzaniu publicznym ma swoje korzenie w klasycznej koncepcji biurokracji Maxa\nWebera. W swojej istocie model ten charakteryzuje się sztywną strukturą hierarchiczną, sformalizowanymi zasadami oraz wyraźnym podziałem pracy.\nCechy te mają na celu promowanie przewidywalności, spójności oraz odpowiedzialności w administracji publicznej84.\nW modelu biurokratycznym proces podejmowania decyzji jest scentralizowany. Władza jest skoncentrowana na szczycie hierarchii, a dyrektywy przekazywane są w dół struktury organizacyjnej. Struktura ta ma na celu zapewnienie jednolitego wdrażania polityk oraz utrzymanie odpowiedzialności na każdym poziomie organizacji85. Urzędnicy wyższego szczebla odpowiadają za ustalanie priorytetów i podejmowanie decyzji strategicznych, natomiast pracownicy niższego szczebla realizują je zgodnie z ustalonymi procedurami86.\nJedną z cech definiujących biurokrację jest opieranie się na kompleksowym zestawie pisemnych zasad i procedur. Przepisy te mają na celu ograniczenie uznaniowości, zmniejszenie osobistych uprzedzeń oraz standaryzację działań w całej organizacji87. Formalizacja ułatwia konsekwentne traktowanie podobnych spraw oraz służy jako mechanizm ograniczający korupcję\n83 M. Weber, J. Winckelmann, Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft...\n84 M. Weber, Racjonalność. Władza. Odczarowanie..., P.F. Drucker, Innovation and entrepreneurship...\n85 M. Weber, Racjonalność. Władza. Odczarowanie...; S.P. Osborne (red.), The new public governance?...\n86 J.C.N. Raadschelders, The Future of the Study of Public Administration: Embedding\nResearch Object and Methodology in Epistemology and Ontology, „Public Administration\nReview” t. 71 nr 6 (2011), DOI: 10.1111/j.1540-6210.2011.02433.x.\n87 C. Hood, A Public Management for all Seasons?, „Public Administration” t. 69 nr 1 (1991),\nDOI: 10.1111/j.1467-9299.1991.tb00779.x.\n\ni arbitralność w podejmowaniu decyzji88. Model biurokratyczny kładzie nacisk na bezosobowość – decyzje podejmowane są na podstawie obiektywnych kryteriów, a nie osobistych preferencji czy relacji. Taka bezosobowość ma na celu zapewnienie, by usługi publiczne były świadczone w sposób uczciwy i sprawiedliwy, co zwiększa zaufanie obywateli do instytucji publicznych89. Odpowiedzialność jest zakorzeniona w biurokratycznych ramach poprzez jasno określone role, obowiązki oraz mechanizmy nadzoru. Regularne oceny wyników, audyty oraz przestrzeganie norm prawnych pomagają utrzymać wysoki poziom odpowiedzialności administracyjnej90. Struktura ta jest szczególnie cenna w sytuacjach, w których zarządzanie zasobami publicznymi musi być możliwie najbardziej przejrzyste i odpowiedzialne.\nOpierając się na ustalonych procedurach i jasno określonym łańcuchu dowodzenia, model biurokratyczny zapewnia przewidywalność i stabilność\n– cechy o kluczowym znaczeniu w administracji publicznej. Stabilne procesy pomagają zapewnić, by wdrażanie polityk nie było uzależnione od decyzji poszczególnych administratorów, co ma szczególne znaczenie w sektorach takich jak zdrowie, edukacja czy bezpieczeństwo publiczne91. Chociaż model biurokratyczny promuje porządek i odpowiedzialność, jego sztywność często stanowi istotną wadę. Te same cechy, które zapewniają stabilność – formalizacja, hierarchia oraz ścisłe przestrzeganie reguł – mogą prowadzić do inercji organizacyjnej. Utrudnia to biurokracjom szybkie reagowanie na pojawiające się wyzwania i wdrażanie innowacyjnych praktyk92. Kultura unikania ryzyka, nieodłącznie związana z organizacjami biurokratycznymi, może dodatkowo tłumić kreatywność i opóźniać wprowadzanie niezbędnych reform93.\nPomimo swoich ograniczeń model biurokratyczny wspiera profesjonalizację służby publicznej. Rekrutacja i awans oparte na osiągnięciach mają na celu zapewnienie, by wykwalifikowany personel obejmował kluczowe stanowiska, przyczyniając się tym samym do poprawy ogólnej efektywności i jakości\n88 M. Bovens, Analysing and Assessing Accountability...\n89 P.F. Drucker, Innovation and entrepreneurship...; B.G. Peters, Bureaucracy and Democracy in the Modern State...\n90 A. Boin et al., The politics of crisis management: public leadership under pressure, Cambridge 2017.\n91 J.C.N. Raadschelders, The Future of the Study of Public Administration...\n92 M. Mazzucato, The entrepreneurial state...\n93 C. Hood, A Public Management for all Seasons?...\n\nświadczonych usług94. Koncentracja na wiedzy specjalistycznej ma kluczowe znaczenie dla skutecznego zarządzania złożonymi politykami publicznymi.\nW erze szybkich zmian technologicznych i społecznych biurokracje stoją przed wyzwaniem zrównoważenia stabilności z potrzebą elastycznego dostosowywania się do nowych warunków. Chociaż model ten z natury faworyzuje ustalone procedury, nowoczesne zarządzanie publiczne wymaga mechanizmów umożliwiających elastyczność bez uszczerbku dla odpowiedzialności95.\nRównowaga ta jest często osiągana za pomocą modeli hybrydowych, które łączą biurokratyczne mechanizmy kontroli z praktykami opartymi na współpracy i adaptacyjności96. Nacisk modelu biurokratycznego na spójność i kontrolę może zapewniać, że polityki publiczne są wdrażane zgodnie z pierwotnymi założeniami. Jednak te same cechy mogą także spowalniać proces decyzyjny, ograniczając zdolność administracji publicznej do wprowadzania innowacji i reagowania na pilne potrzeby społeczne. Krytycy twierdzą, że nadmierna biurokracja może prowadzić do nieefektywności oraz ograniczać zdolność do szybkiego dostosowywania polityk w dynamicznych środowiskach97.\nPomimo wyzwań model biurokratyczny pozostaje podstawowym elementem zarządzania publicznego. Nacisk na porządek, jasno określone hierarchie oraz odpowiedzialność wciąż odgrywa kluczową rolę w wielu kontekstach administracyjnych. Trwające reformy oraz integracja nowych technologii mają na celu zachowanie mocnych stron biurokracji przy jednoczesnym ograniczaniu jej słabości98.\n3.2.2. Model oparty na współpracy\nAdministratorzy publiczni, obywatele oraz podmioty prywatne angażują się w procesy współtworzenia polityk, wykorzystując potencjał zbiorowej inteligencji99. Model ten promuje inkluzywność, lecz wymaga silnych mechanizmów koordynacyjnych100.\n94 B.G. Peters, Bureaucracy and Democracy in the Modern State...\n95 S.P. Osborne (red.), The new public governance?...\n96 A. Boin et al., The politics of crisis management...\n97 J. Hausner, Zarządzanie publiczne...; M. Mazzucato, The entrepreneurial state...\n98 M. Weber, Racjonalność. Władza. Odczarowanie...; J.C.N. Raadschelders, The Future of the Study of Public Administration...\n99 E. Ostrom, Governing the commons: The evolution of institutions for collective action,\nCambridge University Press 1990.\n100 K. Emerson, T. Nabatchi, S. Balogh, An Integrative Framework for Collaborative\nGovernance...\n\nModel zarządzania oparty na współpracy jest coraz częściej postrzegany jako kluczowe ramy rozwiązywania złożonych wyzwań polityki publicznej, obejmujących wiele sektorów i grup interesariuszy. Model ten opiera się na założeniu, że problemy publiczne – od kwestii środowiskowych po rozwój obszarów miejskich – często nie mogą być skutecznie rozwiązywane przez agencje rządowe działające samodzielnie. Zamiast tego zarządzanie oparte na współpracy obejmuje ustrukturyzowane, procesowe mechanizmy, które łączą agencje publiczne, organizacje prywatne, podmioty non-profit oraz obywateli we wspólnym procesie identyfikowania, formułowania i wdrażania rozwiązań politycznych.\nModel governance stanowi innowacyjne podejście do administracji publicznej, oparte na szeregu kluczowych zasad i funkcji, które umożliwiają efektywne rozwiązywanie problemów społecznych. W centrum tego modelu znajdują się inkluzywność oraz zaangażowanie interesariuszy, co oznacza, że w procesie podejmowania decyzji uczestniczą różne grupy – od obywateli po przedstawicieli sektora prywatnego i organizacji pozarządowych. Angażowanie szerokiego spektrum interesariuszy umożliwia wykorzystanie różnorodnych perspektyw i lokalnej wiedzy, co znacząco zwiększa zdolność rozwiązywania problemów oraz sprawia, że reakcje polityczne są lepiej dostosowane do potrzeb społeczności101.\nPodstawą zarządzania opartego na współpracy jest również wspólne podejmowanie decyzji oraz współodpowiedzialność zbiorowa, w której proces decyzyjny jest zdecentralizowany i współdzielony przez wszystkich uczestników.\nDzięki temu uczestnicy mają możliwość wspólnego ustalania programów, omawiania opcji politycznych i współtworzenia rozwiązań, co zwiększa legitymację decyzji politycznych oraz wzmacnia poczucie zbiorowej odpowiedzialności102.\nRównie istotna jest wymiana zasobów oraz informacji. Efektywna współpraca wymaga integracji wiedzy, danych oraz innych zasobów ponad granicami organizacyjnymi, co zapewnia wszystkim partnerom dostęp do niezbędnych narzędzi i kompetencji potrzebnych do sprostania wyzwaniom publicznym103.\nTego rodzaju współpraca musi być oparta na przejrzystości i odpowiedzialności, zapewnianych poprzez ustanowienie jasnych kanałów komunikacji oraz precyzyjne określenie ról poszczególnych uczestników. Takie rozwiązania umożliwiają\n101 C. Ansell, A. Gash, Collaborative Governance in Theory and Practice...\n102 K. Emerson, T. Nabatchi, S. Balogh, An Integrative Framework for Collaborative\nGovernance...\n103 M. McGuire, R. Agranoff, The limitations of public management networks, „Public administration” t. 89 nr 2 (2011).\n\nnie tylko budowanie wzajemnego zaufania, lecz także stanowią podstawę do oceny skuteczności podejmowanych działań104.\nModel governance charakteryzuje się również wysoką zdolnością adaptacji i uczenia się. W miarę pojawiania się nowych wyzwań i zmiany warunków otoczenia ramy zarządzania oparte na współpracy umożliwiają ciągłe dostosowywanie strategii na podstawie bieżących informacji zwrotnych. Taka elastyczność ma kluczowe znaczenie w środowiskach charakteryzujących się niepewnością i szybkim tempem zmian105.\nIstotną rolę w tym modelu odgrywa przywództwo oparte na facylitacji.\nW przeciwieństwie do tradycyjnych, hierarchicznych form zarządzania przywództwo w modelu współpracy koncentruje się na ułatwianiu dialogu, mediacji w konfliktach oraz integrowaniu różnych interesów. Skuteczni liderzy promują kulturę innowacji i współodpowiedzialności, co stanowi warunek skutecznej realizacji długoterminowych inicjatyw politycznych106.\nWażnym elementem wspierającym model współpracy jest również wsparcie instytucjonalne i strukturalne. Skuteczne wdrożenie zarządzania opartego na współpracy często wymaga formalnych ustaleń, takich jak powoływanie rad międzysektorowych, wspólnych komitetów czy innych struktur zarządzania sieciowego. Takie rozwiązania zapewniają stabilną platformę dla trwałej współpracy oraz umożliwiają utrzymanie systematycznych procesów decyzyjnych107.\nW procesie współpracy naturalnie pojawiają się konflikty wynikające z różnorodności interesów. Dlatego model zarządzania oparty na współpracy powinien uwzględniać mechanizmy rozwiązywania konfliktów oraz jasno określone ramy negocjacyjne, które umożliwiają zainteresowanym stronom osiągnięcie wzajemnie akceptowalnych rozwiązań108.\nDla zapewnienia ciągłości współpracy niezbędne jest także rozwijanie i utrzymywanie zdolności instytucjonalnych. Inwestycje w programy szkoleniowe,\n104 R. O’Leary, N. Vij, Collaborative Public Management: Where Have We Been and Where\nAre We Going?, „The American Review of Public Administration” t. 42 nr 5 (2012), DOI:\n10.1177/0275074012445780.\n105 J.E. Innes, D.E. Booher, Planning with Complexity: An Introduction to Collaborative\nRationality for Public Policy, Second edition. New York, NY Routledge, 2018.\n106 C. Mainemelis, R. Kark, O. Epitropaki, Creative Leadership: A Multi-Context Conceptualization,\n„Academy of Management Annals” t. 9 nr 1 (2015), DOI: 10.5465/19416520.2015.1024502.\n107 J. Torfing, Collaborative innovation in the public sector...\n108 B.G. Peters, Governance as political theory, „Critical policy studies” t. 5 nr 1 (2011); G. Stoker,\nGovernance as theory: five propositions, „International Social Science Journal” t. 50 nr 155\n(1998).\n\nsystemy zarządzania wiedzą oraz sieci edukacyjne umożliwiają upowszechnianie dobrych praktyk i wspierają współpracę międzyorganizacyjną109.\nAby ocenić efektywność realizowanych działań, niezbędne jest wdrożenie solidnych ram ewaluacji i pomiaru wyników. Regularne ewaluacje umożliwiają identyfikację mocnych stron oraz obszarów wymagających usprawnień, co pozwala na wprowadzanie korekt opartych na dowodach i w konsekwencji zwiększa wartość publiczną realizowanych inicjatyw110.\nImplikacje wynikające z zastosowania modelu zarządzania opartego na współpracy w administracji publicznej mają istotne znaczenie. Taki model promuje governance poprzez partycypacyjne podejmowanie decyzji, zwiększa legitymację wyników polityk publicznych oraz poprawia zdolność instytucji publicznych do reagowania na dynamiczne zmiany w otoczeniu. Jednak osiągnięcie tych celów wymaga znacznych inwestycji w budowanie relacji, rozwijanie zaufania oraz wzmacnianie kompetencji zarządczych. Menedżerowie publiczni powinni umiejętnie koordynować działania licznych interesariuszy, jednocześnie zarządzając zróżnicowanymi priorytetami, aby skutecznie wdrożyć model współpracy.\nPodsumowując, zarządzanie oparte na współpracy, obejmujące inkluzywność i zaangażowanie interesariuszy, wspólne podejmowanie decyzji, wymianę zasobów, przejrzystość, adaptacyjność, skuteczne przywództwo, wsparcie instytucjonalne, mechanizmy rozwiązywania konfliktów oraz systemy oceny, stanowi kompleksowy model umożliwiający efektywne tworzenie i realizację polityk publicznych. Dzięki takiemu podejściu administracja publiczna zyskuje narzędzia do tworzenia bardziej responsywnych, przejrzystych i skutecznych systemów, lepiej służących interesowi publicznemu.\n3.2.3. Adaptacyjny model zarządzania w zarządzaniu publicznym\nElastyczne i zdecentralizowane podejście umożliwia rządom eksperymentowanie z różnymi opcjami politycznymi oraz skalowanie udanych inicjatyw111.\nZarządzanie adaptacyjne stanowi nowy paradygmat w zarządzaniu publicznym, który kładzie nacisk na elastyczność, proces uczenia się oraz zdolność reagowania w obliczu niepewności i złożonych wyzwań. W przeciwieństwie\n109 K. Emerson, A.K. Gerlak, Adaptation in collaborative governance regimes, „Environmental management” t. 54 (2014).\n110 R. Agranoff, Managing within networks: Adding value to public organizations, Georgetown\nUniversity Press 2007.\n111 A. Duit, V. Galaz, Governance and Complexity – Emerging Issues for Governance Theory,\n„Governance” t. 21 nr 3 (2008), DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-0491.2008.00402.x.\n\ndo tradycyjnych podejść biurokratycznych, opierających się na sztywnych hierarchiach i ustalonych zasadach, zarządzanie adaptacyjne dąży do tworzenia systemów odpornych, iteracyjnych i zdolnych do ewolucji wraz ze zmieniającymi się warunkami112.\nAdaptacyjny model zarządzania opiera się na szeregu fundamentalnych zasad, które wspólnie tworzą spójny system umożliwiający skuteczne podejmowanie decyzji i realizację celów politycznych. Kluczowym elementem tego modelu są elastyczność oraz iteracyjne uczenie się, co oznacza, że decydenci powinni być gotowi do systematycznej rewizji polityk w odpowiedzi na nowe informacje i zmieniające się warunki. Jak podkreślają Folke i in. oraz Walker i in., model ten promuje cykliczne procesy planowania, wdrażania, monitorowania i ewaluacji, umożliwiając instytucjom publicznym ciągłe uczenie się oraz dostosowywanie strategii113.\nIstotną cechą zarządzania adaptacyjnego są również decentralizacja oraz policentryczność. Zamiast koncentrować władzę w jednym centralnym ośrodku, model ten wspiera zdecentralizowane podejmowanie decyzji, w ramach którego wiele niezależnych ośrodków decyzyjnych eksperymentuje z różnymi podejściami114. Olsson i in. oraz Ostrom podkreślają, że policentryczne systemy sprzyjają innowacjom oraz zwiększają odporność administracji publicznej na różnorodne wyzwania występujące na wielu szczeblach115.\nKolejnym filarem modelu jest rozwijanie sieci współpracy oraz zaangażowanie interesariuszy. Efektywne zarządzanie oparte na współpracy wymaga tworzenia szerokich koalicji, w ramach których agencje publiczne, organizacje prywatne, podmioty pozarządowe oraz obywatele dzielą się wiedzą, zasobami i doświadczeniami. Badania Cash i in. oraz Berkes i in. wskazują, że sieci tego typu umożliwiają skuteczniejsze rozwiązywanie złożonych problemów politycznych, zwiększając tym samym efektywność podejmowanych działań.\n112 R.E. Goodin (red.), The Theory of Institutional Design, Cambridge University Press 1996.\n113 C. Folke et al., Adaptive Governance of Social-Ecological Systems, „Annual Review of Environment and Resources” t. 30 nr 1 (2005), DOI: 10.1146/annurev.energy.30.050504.144511;\nB. Walker et al., Resilience, Adaptability and Transformability in Social-Ecological Systems,\n„Ecology and Society” t. 9, nr 2 (2004), DOI: 10.5751/ES-00650-090205.\n114 J. Hausner, Zarządzanie publiczne...\n115 P. Olsson, C. Folke, T. Hahn, Social-Ecological Transformation for Ecosystem Management:\nThe Development of Adaptive Co-Management of a Wetland Landscape in Southern Sweden,\n„Ecology and Society” t. 9 nr 4 (2004); E. Ostrom, Beyond Markets and States: Polycentric\nGovernance of Complex Economic Systems, „American Economic Review” t. 100 nr 3 (2010),\nDOI: 10.1257/aer.100.3.641; F. Berkes, J. Colding, C. Folke, Navigating social-ecological systems: building resilience for complexity and change, Cambridge university press 2008.\n\nModel zarządzania adaptacyjnego kładzie również nacisk na odporność oraz zdolność do transformacji systemów publicznych. Celem jest nie tylko utrzymanie funkcjonalności organizacji w obliczu kryzysów, lecz także umożliwienie głębokich przemian, gdy istniejące struktury przestają odpowiadać na potrzeby społeczne. Tworzenie mechanizmów sprzężeń zwrotnych oraz systemów monitoringu umożliwia identyfikację wczesnych oznak przeciążenia systemu, co pozwala na szybką reakcję i adaptację116.\nIntegracja wiedzy naukowej oraz lokalnej stanowi kolejny kluczowy aspekt modelu. Włączenie wyników badań naukowych, ekspertyz oraz doświadczeń lokalnych umożliwia lepsze zrozumienie złożonych problemów, co przekłada się na tworzenie bardziej precyzyjnych i efektywnych polityk publicznych. Pahl-\n-Wostl, Berkes oraz Peters wskazują, że synergia pomiędzy różnymi źródłami wiedzy umożliwia opracowywanie rozwiązań dostosowanych do lokalnych warunków, przy jednoczesnym uwzględnieniu ogólnych tendencji i trendów117.\nModel adaptacyjny wspiera również eksperymentowanie i innowacje poprzez zachęcanie do testowania nowych rozwiązań w formie projektów pilotażowych. Jak zauważają Plummer i in., eksperymentowanie umożliwia menedżerom publicznym identyfikację skutecznych strategii, przy jednoczesnym minimalizowaniu ryzyka niepowodzenia na dużą skalę. Przeprowadzanie tego typu eksperymentów umożliwia stopniowe wprowadzanie zmian, co zwiększa elastyczność całego systemu118.\nKoordynacja międzysektorowa oraz wielopoziomowa stanowi warunek skutecznego wdrażania innowacji. Procesy decyzyjne powinny być zintegrowane pomiędzy różnymi szczeblami administracji, co umożliwia skalowanie lokalnych innowacji na poziom krajowy oraz adaptację dobrych praktyk w odmiennych kontekstach. Walker i Salt oraz Kooiman podkreślają, że skuteczna koordynacja międzysektorowa umożliwia lepsze wykorzystanie zasobów i doświadczeń, co przekłada się na bardziej spójne oraz efektywne funkcjonowanie administracji publicznej119.\n116 C. Folke et al., Resilience Thinking, „Ecology and Society” t. 15 nr 4 (2010), http://www.\njstor.org/stable/26268226.\n117 C. Pahl-Wostl, A conceptual framework for analysing adaptive capacity and multi-level learning processes in resource governance regimes, „Global Environmental Change” t. 19 nr 3 (2009).\n118 R. Plummer et al., Diagnosing Adaptive Comanagement across Multiple Cases, „Ecology and Society” t. 22 nr 3 (2017), DOI: 10.5751/ES-09436-220319.\n119 J. Kooiman, Governing as governance, London; Thousand Oaks, Calif 2003; B. Walker, D. Salt, W.\nReid, Resilience Thinking: Sustaining Ecosystems and People in A Changing World, „Bibliovault\nOAI Repository, the University of Chicago Press” (2006).\n\nPrzejrzystość, odpowiedzialność oraz budowanie zaufania stanowią kolejne filary, na których opiera się model zarządzania adaptacyjnego. Choć elastyczność pozostaje kluczowa, nie można rezygnować z odpowiedzialności. Przejrzyste procesy decyzyjne oraz regularne ewaluacje wyników pomagają utrzymać zaufanie interesariuszy i zapewniają, że wprowadzane zmiany są uzasadnione oraz skuteczne120. Jasno określone mechanizmy odpowiedzialności są niezbędne dla utrzymania stabilności systemu zarządzania121,.\nSukces modelu adaptacyjnego zależy również od potencjału instytucjonalnego oraz rozwoju organizacji uczących się. Instytucje publiczne powinny być zdolne do szybkiego przyswajania nowych informacji, dzielenia się wiedzą oraz dostosowywania swoich procesów na podstawie zdobytych doświadczeń. Olsson i in. oraz Pahl-Wostl podkreślają, że rozwój organizacji uczących się stanowi kluczowy element ciągłego doskonalenia systemów zarządzania122.\nWalker i in. oraz Cash i in. podkreślają, że mechanizmy ciągłego uczenia się, tak zwane pętle informacji zwrotnych, odgrywają kluczową rolę w procesie doskonalenia systemów zarządzania. Regularne ewaluacje wyników oraz systematyczne gromadzenie informacji zwrotnych umożliwiają bieżące dostosowywanie strategii i procedur, co zapewnia utrzymanie responsywności oraz efektywności systemu zarządzania w dynamicznie zmieniającym się otoczeniu123.\nPodsumowując, model zarządzania oparty na współpracy charakteryzuje się zestawem zasad, które wspólnie tworzą spójny i elastyczny system zdolny do skutecznego rozwiązywania złożonych problemów. Inkluzywność, współdecydowanie, wymiana zasobów, adaptacyjność, eksperymentowanie, wielopoziomowa koordynacja, przejrzystość, rozwijanie organizacji uczących się oraz ciągłe doskonalenie oparte na pętlach informacji zwrotnych stanowią fundamenty tego modelu. Dzięki tym zasadom administracja publiczna zyskuje zdolność do szybkiego reagowania na zmieniające się warunki oraz realizowania polityk, które są zarówno innowacyjne, jak i zgodne z oczekiwaniami społecznymi124.\n120 B. Jessop, Requisite irony, „Governance as social and political communication” (2003).\n121 J. Hausner, Zarządzanie publiczne...; B. Jessop, Requisite irony...\n122 P. Olsson, C. Folke, T. Hahn, Social-ecological transformation for ecosystem management:\nthe development of adaptive co-management of a wetland landscape in southern Sweden,\n„Ecology and society” t. 9 nr 4 (2004); C. Pahl-Wostl, A conceptual framework for analysing adaptive capacity and multi-level learning processes in resource governance regimes...\n123 D.W. Cash et al., Knowledge systems for sustainable development, „Proceedings of the\nNational Academy of Sciences” t. 100 nr 14 (2003); B. Walker, D. Salt, W. Reid, Resilience\nThinking: Sustaining Ecosystems and People in A Changing World...\n124 S. Hatfield-Dodds, R. Nelson, D.C. Cook, Adaptive governance: An introduction and implications for public policy, (2007), DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.10440.\n\nW zarządzaniu publicznym podejście adaptacyjne znalazło zastosowanie w takich obszarach, jak polityka środowiskowa, planowanie urbanistyczne oraz zarządzanie klęskami żywiołowymi. Dzięki przyjęciu zasad elastyczności i uczenia się menedżerowie publiczni są lepiej przygotowani do radzenia sobie ze złożonymi, współzależnymi wyzwaniami, które wymagają skoordynowanych działań z udziałem wielu interesariuszy. Podejście to przyczyniło się również do innowacji w procesie projektowania polityk publicznych, promując wykorzystanie projektów pilotażowych, piaskownic regulacyjnych oraz sieciowych struktur zarządzania, które mogą ewoluować wraz ze zmianami otoczenia125.\nPomimo licznych zalet zarządzanie adaptacyjne nie jest wolne od wyzwań.\nZrównoważenie potrzeby szybkiej adaptacji z wymogami odpowiedzialności oraz stabilności stanowi istotne wyzwanie. Ponadto zdecentralizowany charakter systemów adaptacyjnych może prowadzić do trudności związanych z koordynacją działań na różnych szczeblach administracji publicznej oraz w odmiennych sektorach. Niemniej jednak w miarę nasilania się globalnych wyzwań, takich jak zmiana klimatu, procesy urbanizacyjne czy zakłócenia technologiczne, zarządzanie adaptacyjne oferuje obiecujące ramy dla budowania odpornych i responsywnych instytucji publicznych.\n3.3. Wyzwania związane z wdrażaniem zmian w zarządzaniu publicznym\nAdministracja publiczna, mimo swojego kluczowego znaczenia dla funkcjonowania państwa, napotyka liczne wyzwania w procesie wdrażania innowacyjnych modeli zarządzania. Do najczęściej występujących barier należą: opór polityczny, biurokratyczna inercja, ograniczone zasoby oraz czynniki kulturowe, które utrudniają adaptację nowoczesnych rozwiązań. Przytoczone badania wskazują na konieczność wdrożenia elastycznych mechanizmów monitorowania i ewaluacji, które umożliwiają transformację administracji publicznej oraz wzmacnianie trwałego zaufania społecznego.\nOpór polityczny oraz awersja do ryzyka należą do najistotniejszych wyzwań związanych z wdrażaniem innowacyjnych modeli zarządzania w administracji\n125 S. Hatfield-Dodds, R. Nelson, D.C. Cook, Adaptive governance: An introduction and implications for public policy...; R.D. Brunner, Adaptive governance as a reform strategy,\n„Policy Sciences” t. 43 nr 4 (2010).\n\npublicznej. W wielu instytucjach ugruntowane interesy polityczne oraz tradycyjne struktury władzy stanowią istotne bariery dla wdrażania nowych, bardziej partycypacyjnych form zarządzania. Politycy oraz wyżsi rangą urzędnicy, przyzwyczajeni do hierarchicznego procesu decyzyjnego, mogą postrzegać innowacyjne mechanizmy jako zagrażające ustalonym strukturom władzy, a tym samym jako ryzykowne126. Preferencja dla tradycyjnych metod podejmowania decyzji wynika z przekonania, że stabilność i kontrola są gwarantowane przez utrzymanie ustalonych procedur, co potwierdza również Osborne.\nW praktyce jednak opór polityczny utrudnia wdrażanie nowych rozwiązań, przez co zmiany, mimo potencjalnych korzyści, często napotykają silny sprzeciw ze strony istniejących struktur administracyjnych127.\nKolejnym problemem, dodatkowo komplikującym proces wdrażania innowacji, jest biurokratyczna inercja. Jej źródłem są głęboko zakorzenione rutyny oraz sformalizowane procedury, które mają na celu zapewnienie stabilności i kontroli, lecz jednocześnie ograniczają elastyczność organizacyjną.\nHood zauważa, że sztywne struktury organizacyjne mogą spowalniać tempo zmian, utrudniając tym samym integrację nowych, innowacyjnych procesów z dotychczasowymi praktykami administracyjnymi128. Ponadto, jak zauważa\nPeters, wysoki poziom specjalizacji pracowników sprawia, że w warunkach niskiej efektywności trudno jest znaleźć odpowiednie zastępstwo, co daje im przewagę w relacjach z petentami i może sprzyjać wykorzystywaniu nieformalnych mechanizmów, takich jak korupcja129.\nOgraniczenia zasobów stanowią kolejną istotną barierę w procesie wdrażania innowacyjnych modeli zarządzania. Administracje publiczne często zmagają się z restrykcyjnymi ograniczeniami budżetowymi, konkurencyjnymi priorytetami politycznymi oraz niedoborem kapitału ludzkiego. Mazzucato zauważa, że inwestycje w nowoczesne ramy zarządzania oraz infrastrukturę technologiczną wymagają stałego finansowania, które często trudno jest zapewnić w warunkach ograniczonych zasobów130. Nawet po rozpoznaniu potencjalnych korzyści utrzymanie finansowania projektów eksperymentalnych oraz laboratoriów innowacji może okazać się problematyczne, co Tidd i Bessant\n126 S. Malodia et al., Future of e-Government: An Integrated Conceptual Framework, „Technological Forecasting and Social Change” t. 173 (2021), DOI: 10.1016/j.techfore.2021.121102.\n127 S.P. Osborne (red.), The new public governance?...\n128 C. Hood, A Public Management for all Seasons?...\n129 B.G. Peters, Governance as political theory...\n130 M. Mazzucato, The entrepreneurial state...\n\nwskazują jako jeden z kluczowych czynników ograniczających rozwój nowoczesnych rozwiązań w sektorze publicznym131.\nRównie istotne są bariery kulturowe i strukturalne, wynikające z dominującej w administracji publicznej kultury unikania ryzyka. Organizacyjne nastawienie na stabilność i konformizm często ogranicza skłonność do eksperymentowania z nowymi pomysłami. Kultura organizacyjna, w której preferowane są tradycyjne rozwiązania, może utrudniać wdrażanie innowacji.\nProblemy te są dodatkowo potęgowane przez bariery strukturalne, takie jak izolacja poszczególnych działów, które utrudniają skuteczną komunikację oraz współpracę między jednostkami administracyjnymi132.\nKolejnym wyzwaniem jest brak zaangażowania oraz zaufania interesariuszy. Skuteczne zarządzanie publiczne (governance) wymaga szerokiego udziału obywateli, organizacji pozarządowych oraz partnerów z sektora prywatnego.\nJednakże historia odgórnego podejmowania decyzji wywołuje sceptycyzm i opór, co utrudnia osiągnięcie pełnego zaangażowania ze strony tych grup.\nAnsell i Gash wskazują, że brak aktywnego udziału interesariuszy osłabia efektywność wdrażanych rozwiązań, natomiast Chesbrough podkreśla, iż bez zaufania i otwartości na współpracę innowacyjne inicjatywy nie są w stanie przynieść oczekiwanych rezultatów133.\nKolejnym istotnym problemem są nieefektywne mechanizmy informacji zwrotnej oraz oceny wydajności. Wiele organizacji publicznych zmaga się z brakiem skutecznych narzędzi do oceny wpływu innowacyjnych rozwiązań, co utrudnia proces uczenia się na podstawie doświadczeń. Bovens zauważa, że w przypadku braku solidnych systemów ewaluacji proces ciągłego doskonalenia staje się utrudniony, a odpowiedzialność za wyniki – trudna do wyegzekwowania134. Osborne podkreśla, że brak mechanizmów monitorowania wpływu innowacji osłabia zdolność administracji publicznej do adaptacji oraz dalszego rozwoju135.\nIntegracja nowoczesnych technologii napotyka również liczne bariery.\nWdrożenie narzędzi cyfrowych i rozwiązań z zakresu analityki danych\n131 J. Tidd, J.R. Bessant, Managing innovation...\n132 A. Fung, Varieties of Participation in Complex Governance, „Public Administration\nReview” t. 66 nr 12 (2006), DOI: 10.1111/j.1540-6210.2006.00667.x.; I. Nonaka, The\nKnowledge-Creating Company...\n133 C. Ansell, A. Gash, Collaborative Governance in Theory and Practice...; H. Chesbrough,\nW. Vanhaverbeke, J. West (red.), Open innovation...\n134 M. Bovens, Analysing and Assessing Accountability...\n135 S.P. Osborne (red.), The new public governance?...\n\nw administracji publicznej jest często utrudnione przez przestarzałe systemy informatyczne oraz niedostateczne kompetencje techniczne pracowników.\nLuka technologiczna prowadzi do fragmentaryzacji procesów, które nie są w stanie zapewnić pełnej efektywności w porównaniu z bardziej innowacyjnymi sektorami136. West i Bogers zauważają, że wyzwania te mogą ograniczać zdolność administracji publicznej do skutecznego wdrażania nowych rozwiązań137.\nKonflikty interesów oraz niewłaściwie dobrane bodźce stanowią dodatkowe przeszkody we wdrażaniu innowacji. Pracownicy i menedżerowie są często oceniani na podstawie przestrzegania ustalonych procedur, a nie wkładu w rozwój innowacji, co sprzyja utrwalaniu status quo138. W konsekwencji nowe pomysły mogą być pomijane lub tłumione. Jak zauważa Chesbrough, wynika to z braku odpowiednich zachęt do podejmowania ryzyka i hamuje rozwój innowacyjnych rozwiązań w sektorze publicznym139.\nDodatkowo, w kontekście wyzwań związanych z wdrażaniem innowacyjnych modeli zarządzania, warto wspomnieć o barierze wynikającej z braku skutecznych mechanizmów informacji zwrotnej, o czym piszą także Innes i Booher. Badania tych autorów wskazują, że regularna ewaluacja oraz informacja zwrotna są kluczowe dla zwiększenia efektywności wdrażania nowych rozwiązań, natomiast ich brak może znacząco ograniczyć zdolność organizacji do adaptacji i uczenia się140. Wdrażanie innowacyjnych modeli zarządzania w administracji publicznej wiąże się z szeregiem wyzwań. Opór polityczny, wynikający z utrwalonych interesów oraz hierarchicznych struktur, stanowi poważną przeszkodę, podobnie jak biurokratyczna inercja ograniczająca elastyczność organizacyjną. Ograniczenia zasobów, zarówno finansowych, jak i ludzkich, dodatkowo komplikują proces wprowadzania zmian, natomiast bariery kulturowe i strukturalne osłabiają skłonność do eksperymentowania.\nBrak zaangażowania interesariuszy i nieefektywne mechanizmy informacji zwrotnej uniemożliwiają pełne wykorzystanie potencjału innowacji, natomiast trudności technologiczne oraz konflikty interesów dodatkowo ograniczają rozwój nowoczesnych rozwiązań.\n136 J. Tidd, Managing innovation...\n137 J. West, M. Bogers, Open innovation...\n138 P.F. Drucker, Innovation and entrepreneurship...; B. Jessop, Requisite irony...\n139 H. Chesbrough, Open innovation...\n140 J.E. Innes, D.E. Booher, Planning with Complexity...\n\nW obliczu tych wyzwań administracja publiczna powinna podejmować działania na rzecz eliminacji barier oraz tworzenia warunków sprzyjających innowacjom. Kluczowe znaczenie ma wprowadzenie mechanizmów monitorowania i ewaluacji, które umożliwią bieżące uczenie się na podstawie zebranych danych oraz dostosowywanie procesów decyzyjnych do dynamicznych zmian otoczenia. Tylko kompleksowe podejście, obejmujące zarówno aspekty strukturalne, jak i kulturowe, umożliwi stworzenie środowiska, w którym innowacje nie tylko będą wdrażane, lecz także skutecznie integrowane z istniejącymi systemami administracyjnymi.\nPodsumowując, aby administracja publiczna mogła efektywnie wdrażać nowe rozwiązania, konieczne jest pokonanie licznych barier wynikających z oporu politycznego, biurokratycznej inercji, ograniczonych zasobów, uwarunkowań kulturowych, braku zaangażowania interesariuszy, nieskutecznych mechanizmów informacji zwrotnej, trudności technologicznych oraz konfliktów interesów. Realizacja tego celu wymaga systemowego podejścia oraz wdrożenia rozwiązań umożliwiających elastyczną adaptację do zmieniających się warunków. Wdrożenie skutecznych mechanizmów monitorowania i ewaluacji oraz rozwijanie kultury innowacyjności opartej na odpowiednich zachętach i transparentności stanowią kluczowy warunek przyszłego rozwoju sektora publicznego. Tylko poprzez ciągłe doskonalenie procesów oraz otwartość na zmiany administracja publiczna może sprostać wyzwaniom współczesnego świata i odbudować zaufanie społeczne. Ponadto integracja nowoczesnych technologii oraz elastyczne podejście do zarządzania stanowią fundament zdolności administracji publicznej do szybkiej adaptacji i skutecznego rozwiązywania problemów. W ten sposób, pomimo licznych wyzwań, administracja publiczna ma szansę na transformację, która pozwoli jej nie tylko reagować na bieżące potrzeby, lecz także przewidywać przyszłe wyzwania, stanowiąc tym samym gwarancję trwałego rozwoju i wzrostu efektywności świadczenia usług publicznych.\nDzięki podejściu łączącemu starannie zaplanowane struktury z elastycznością w podejmowaniu decyzji administracja publiczna może stopniowo przezwyciężać wewnętrzne bariery oraz tworzyć systemy zarządzania zdolne do efektywnego wykorzystywania nowych technologii i wiedzy. Takie holistyczne podejście, oparte na integracji innowacji z tradycyjnymi metodami zarządzania, sprzyja rozwojowi modeli lepiej odpowiadających na potrzeby obywateli, zwiększających przejrzystość działań oraz wzmacniających efektywność operacyjną instytucji publicznych.\nW rezultacie pokonanie oporu politycznego i awersji do ryzyka, a także eliminacja biurokratycznej inercji oraz ograniczeń zasobowych stają się kluczowymi etapami\n\nna drodze do budowy nowoczesnej administracji publicznej zdolnej sprostać wymaganiom współczesnego społeczeństwa141.\nW obliczu rosnących wyzwań globalnych, takich jak zmiany klimatyczne, kryzysy zdrowotne czy dynamiczne przemiany technologiczne, wdrażanie innowacyjnych modeli zarządzania staje się priorytetem dla administracji publicznej.\nJak zauważa Bovens, jedynie poprzez ciągłe dostosowywanie się do zmieniających się warunków oraz przejrzyste i odpowiedzialne zarządzanie zasobami administracja publiczna może zachować stabilność i skuteczność swoich działań. W ten sposób integracja nowoczesnych rozwiązań z tradycyjnymi metodami zarządzania staje się kluczem do osiągania długoterminowych celów społecznych i gospodarczych, umożliwiając instytucjom publicznym nie tylko reagowanie na bieżące wyzwania, lecz także budowanie trwałego zaufania społecznego będącego fundamentem skutecznego zarządzania w erze nieustannych zmian142.\n3.4. Dobre praktyki wdrażania zmian w zarządzaniu publicznym\nStrategiczne dopasowanie inicjatyw zarządczych do misji i celów politycznych stanowi fundament efektywnego współrządzenia w administracji publicznej.\nOrganizacje publiczne powinny rozpocząć od ścisłej integracji działań innowacyjnych z podstawową misją oraz priorytetami strategicznymi. Takie podejście gwarantuje, że innowacyjne formy zarządzania będą ściśle powiązane z tworzeniem długoterminowej wartości publicznej, a działania na rzecz współzarządzania zostaną celowo ukierunkowane na rozwiązywanie kluczowych wyzwań społecznych. Jak podkreśla literatura, organizacje konsekwentnie łączące swoje działania z misją osiągają lepsze wyniki, ponieważ inicjatywy te nie są traktowane jako odosobnione eksperymenty, lecz jako integralny element szeroko pojętej strategii rozwoju143.\n3.4.1. Strategiczne dopasowanie i jasne cele\nIntegracja z misją i strategią organizacji wymaga, aby każda inicjatywa związana ze współzarządzaniem była bezpośrednio powiązana z głównymi celami\n141 H. Chesbrough, Open innovation...\n142 M. Bovens, Analysing and Assessing Accountability...\n143 J. Hartley, Innovation in Governance and Public Services: Past and Present...\n\ninstytucji. Dostosowanie strategiczne oznacza, że menedżerowie publiczni powinni zapewnić, iż nowatorskie pomysły przyczyniają się do realizacji kluczowych priorytetów, a nie są wdrażane jedynie dla samej idei współrządzenia.\nW praktyce oznacza to, że działania te powinny koncentrować się na rozwiązywaniu pilnych wyzwań społecznych, co umożliwia utrzymanie długofalowej wartości publicznej.\nKolejnym kluczowym elementem jest ustanowienie przejrzystych wytycznych dotyczących podejmowania decyzji oraz alokacji zasobów. Precyzyjnie zdefiniowane cele stanowią swoistą mapę drogową, która umożliwia organizacjom publicznym efektywne ukierunkowanie współzarządzania. Dzięki temu menedżerowie publiczni mogą oceniać potencjalny wpływ nowych inicjatyw oraz kierować zasoby tam, gdzie są one najbardziej potrzebne. Takie podejście nie tylko ogranicza ryzyko marnotrawstwa zasobów, lecz także podnosi poziom odpowiedzialności, ponieważ inwestycje są powiązane z mierzalnymi wynikami144.\nIstotnym elementem strategicznego dopasowania jest również modyfikacja działań administracji, prowadząca do zwiększenia przejrzystości i odpowiedzialności w procesach zarządzania145. Ustanowienie jasnych wskaźników efektywności oraz kryteriów oceny umożliwia menedżerom publicznym monitorowanie postępów i wprowadzanie niezbędnych korekt w przypadku odchyleń od założonych celów. Transparentność działań sprzyja budowaniu zaufania między interesariuszami oraz umożliwia społeczną kontrolę nad procesem decyzyjnym. W ten sposób innowacyjne pomysły i inicjatywy współzarządzania są oceniane nie tylko pod kątem kreatywności, lecz także zgodności z celami strategicznymi organizacji146.\nWażnym elementem strategii jest także wspieranie organizacyjnego uczenia się oraz ułatwianie dzielenia się wiedzą. Jasno określone cele tworzą wspólny język i zrozumienie pomiędzy różnymi działami organizacji. Taka przejrzystość sprzyja efektywnemu dzieleniu się najlepszymi praktykami, co ma szczególne znaczenie w kontekście złożonych wyzwań wymagających interdyscyplinarnej współpracy. Proces ten umożliwia szybsze przekształcanie pomysłów w konkretne strategie polityczne oraz wspiera rozwój kultury\n144 S.P. Osborne (red.), The new public governance?...\n145 J. Hausner, Zarządzanie publiczne...; S. Mazur (red.), Współzarządzanie publiczne,\nWarszawa 2015.\n146 S.P. Osborne (red.), The new public governance?...\n\nciągłego uczenia się, niezbędnej do adaptacji w dynamicznym środowisku administracji publicznej147.\nDodatkowo strategiczne dopasowanie sprzyja ukierunkowanym i opartym na ocenie innowacjom. Wyznaczenie jasnych celów umożliwia dokładniejszą ocenę, które pomysły zasługują na realizację, co usprawnia proces podejmowania decyzji. Takie ukierunkowanie działa motywująco na pracowników i interesariuszy, którzy wnoszą do procesu zarówno kreatywne, jak i praktyczne rozwiązania.\nSkoncentrowanie się na mierzalnych celach umożliwia zachowanie równowagi między eksploracją nowych idei a rygorystyczną oceną ich realnych możliwości wdrożeniowych, co sprzyja efektywnemu wdrażaniu polityk publicznych148.\nW praktyce strategiczne dopasowanie inicjatyw współzarządzania wymaga holistycznego podejścia, w ramach którego każdy etap procesu, od identyfikacji pomysłów, poprzez ich ewaluację, aż po ostateczną implementację, pozostaje zintegrowany z misją i celami organizacji. Menedżerowie publiczni powinni systematycznie monitorować postępy w realizacji wyznaczonych celów, wykorzystując narzędzia analityczne i systemy informacji zwrotnej. Regularne ewaluacje umożliwiają nie tylko ocenę efektywności wdrażanych innowacji, lecz także wprowadzanie niezbędnych korekt, co sprzyja ciągłemu doskonaleniu procesów decyzyjnych149.\nDodatkowym atutem strategicznego dopasowania jest możliwość budowania kultury organizacyjnej, w której współrządzenie oraz innowacje w zarządzaniu są postrzegane jako integralna część świadczenia usług publicznych.\nJasno określone cele, komunikowane wewnątrz organizacji, sprzyjają kształtowaniu wspólnej wizji oraz zwiększają motywację do podejmowania ryzyka.\nW ten sposób pracownicy stają się bardziej zaangażowani i odpowiedzialni za wyniki, co przekłada się na wyższą efektywność całego systemu zarządzania innowacjami150.\nPodsumowując, strategiczne dopasowanie oraz jasno zdefiniowane cele stanowią podstawowe filary skutecznego modelu governance w administracji publicznej. Integracja innowacyjnych inicjatyw z misją oraz priorytetami strategicznymi organizacji gwarantuje, że podejmowane działania przyczyniają się do tworzenia długoterminowej wartości publicznej. Wyznaczenie mierzalnych\n147 L. Nonaka, H. Takeuchi, K. Umemoto, A theory of organizational knowledge creation,\n„International Journal of Technology Management” t. 11 nr 7–8 (1996).\n148 J. Tidd, J.R. Bessant, Managing innovation...\n149 B.G. Peters, Governance as political theory...\n150 M. Bovens, Analysing and Assessing Accountability...\n\ncelów umożliwia skuteczniejsze priorytetyzowanie pomysłów, efektywną alokację zasobów i precyzyjną kontrolę nad postępami. Przejrzystość procesów oraz skuteczne systemy informacji zwrotnej wzmacniają zaufanie interesariuszy i tworzą środowisko sprzyjające ciągłemu uczeniu się oraz adaptacji.\nTakie podejście nie tylko usprawnia proces podejmowania decyzji, lecz także motywuje pracowników do wnoszenia kreatywnych i praktycznych rozwiązań, co stanowi kluczowy warunek efektywnego wdrażania polityk publicznych. Dzięki systematycznemu dostosowywaniu strategii do zmieniających się warunków oraz wykorzystaniu narzędzi analitycznych administracja publiczna może skutecznie realizować swoje cele i budować trwałą wartość publiczną.\nW efekcie integracja innowacji z misją organizacji nie tylko zwiększa efektywność działań, lecz także przyczynia się do budowania kultury organizacyjnej sprzyjającej ciągłemu doskonaleniu i wzmacnianiu legitymacji politycznej.\n3.4.2. Inkluzywne zaangażowanie interesariuszy w zarządzanie\nWspółczesne zarządzanie w administracji publicznej stawia przed decydentami wyzwania wynikające z konieczności uwzględnienia szerokiego spektrum interesariuszy. W dobie rosnących oczekiwań społecznych oraz dynamicznych zmian inkluzywne zaangażowanie różnych grup – od obywateli, poprzez pracowników sektora publicznego, po organizacje non profit i partnerów z sektora prywatnego – staje się kluczowym elementem skutecznego wdrażania innowacji. Taka współpraca umożliwia nie tylko wzbogacenie bazy pomysłów dzięki różnorodnym perspektywom, lecz także wzmacnia legitymację oraz zaufanie publiczne do podejmowanych decyzji.\nInkluzywne zaangażowanie interesariuszy stanowi fundament skutecznego współrządzenia w administracji publicznej. Kluczowe znaczenie ma włączenie szerokiego spektrum interesariuszy, w tym pracowników sektora publicznego, obywateli, organizacji pozarządowych oraz partnerów z sektora prywatnego. Procesy integracyjne nie tylko wzbogacają pulę pomysłów poprzez różnorodne perspektywy, lecz także wzmacniają legitymację i zaufanie publiczne do podejmowanych decyzji politycznych. Inkluzywne współrządzenie polega na aktywnym włączaniu różnych grup – obywateli, pracowników sektora publicznego, organizacji non-profit, przedsiębiorstw i społeczności lokalnych – w proces kształtowania polityki oraz wdrażania innowacji. Takie podejście gwarantuje, że szerokie spektrum perspektyw i wiedzy eksperckiej jest uwzględniane w procesie podejmowania decyzji, co prowadzi do bardziej rzetelnych, sprawiedliwych i zrównoważonych rezultatów politycznych.\n\nW pierwszej kolejności wzmacnianie legitymacji demokratycznej oraz zaufania stanowi kluczowy element tego modelu. Aktywne włączanie interesariuszy w proces decyzyjny znacząco zwiększa legitymację decyzji publicznych. Uwzględnianie informacji pochodzących od różnych grup przez agencje rządowe sprzyja przejrzystości oraz wzmacnia zaufanie publiczne. Zaufanie to ma kluczowe znaczenie zarówno dla akceptacji nowych strategii politycznych, jak i dla gotowości obywateli do uczestnictwa w procesie sprawowania władzy151. Taka forma współuczestnictwa gwarantuje, że polityka nie jest jedynie zbiorem odgórnych dyrektyw, lecz odzwierciedla rzeczywiste doświadczenia i potrzeby społeczności.\nKolejnym istotnym elementem jest wykorzystanie zarówno wiedzy eksperckiej, jak i lokalnej. Inkluzywne zaangażowanie opiera się na unikalnych spostrzeżeniach oraz doświadczeniach zróżnicowanych grup interesariuszy.\nRóżnorodność perspektyw sprzyja wypracowywaniu innowacyjnych rozwiązań lepiej dostosowanych do złożonych problemów społecznych. Przykładowo organizacje społeczne mogą wskazywać na konkretne wyzwania lokalne, często pomijane przez scentralizowaną biurokrację, tym samym wzbogacając proces generowania pomysłów. Integracja wiedzy eksperckiej i empirycznej umożliwia menedżerom publicznym tworzenie polityk bardziej responsywnych i adaptacyjnych.\nWspólne rozwiązywanie problemów stanowi kolejny kluczowy filar inkluzywnego zaangażowania. Aktywne włączanie interesariuszy sprzyja współpracy międzysektorowej, co umożliwia rozwijanie kultury współtworzenia.\nW ramach takiej współpracy agencje publiczne oraz inne zainteresowane podmioty wspólnie identyfikują problemy, przeprowadzają burze mózgów nad potencjalnymi rozwiązaniami i dopracowują konkretne propozycje polityczne.\nTakie ramy współpracy ułatwiają dialog, łagodzą konflikty i podnoszą jakość debat politycznych, przekształcając pojedyncze pomysły w zintegrowane strategie oparte na współwłasności.\nZwiększenie responsywności i zdolności adaptacyjnych organizacji stanowi kolejną korzyść płynącą z inkluzywnego zaangażowania interesariuszy.\nUdział szerokiego grona podmiotów umożliwia menedżerom publicznym szybsze reagowanie na pojawiające się wyzwania. Praktyki integracyjne zapewniają stały dopływ informacji zwrotnej, niezbędnej do regularnej aktualizacji polityk w świetle nowych danych i zmieniających się uwarunkowań. Zdolność\n151 C. Ansell, A. Gash, Collaborative Governance in Theory and Practice...\n\nadaptacyjna gwarantuje utrzymanie adekwatności i skuteczności inicjatyw publicznych, co jest kluczowe w dynamicznym środowisku administracyjnym.\nWspieranie innowacji poprzez współtworzenie stanowi końcowy filar skutecznego zarządzania pomysłami. Zaangażowanie oparte na współtworzeniu działa jako katalizator współrządzenia, łącząc różnorodne perspektywy i generując bogatszą pulę pomysłów oraz kreatywnych rozwiązań, zdolnych do podważenia konwencjonalnych podejść. Proces współtworzenia umożliwia menedżerom publicznym identyfikowanie przełomowych obszarów współrządzenia, odpowiadających zarówno na bieżące, jak i przyszłe wyzwania. Taka praktyka sprzyja eksperymentowaniu i testowaniu nowych podejść w ograniczonym zakresie, co przed ich szerokim wdrożeniem pozwala zminimalizować ryzyko niepowodzenia.\nDążenie do zaangażowania interesariuszy w proces wspólnego zarządzania wymaga strategicznego dopasowania działań do misji organizacji publicznych.\nIntegracja innowacyjnych inicjatyw z głównymi priorytetami instytucji pozwala decydentom nie tylko zwiększać efektywność podejmowanych działań, lecz także budować trwałe relacje oparte na zaufaniu i wzajemnym szacunku. Jak zauważają\nOsborne i Brown oraz Tidd i Bessant, jedynie poprzez systematyczne dostosowywanie strategii do zmieniających się warunków oraz aktywne wykorzystywanie informacji zwrotnych administracja publiczna może osiągać wysoką jakość realizowanych polityk152,. W rezultacie inkluzywne zaangażowanie interesariuszy staje się nie tylko źródłem innowacyjnych pomysłów, lecz również gwarantem, że proces podejmowania decyzji pozostaje przejrzysty, odpowiedzialny i dostosowany do rzeczywistych potrzeb społecznych.\nPodsumowując, zaangażowanie interesariuszy w proces współrządzenia stanowi kluczowy element skutecznego wdrażania innowacji w administracji publicznej. Umożliwia ono wzmacnianie legitymacji demokratycznej, wykorzystanie różnorodnej wiedzy eksperckiej i lokalnej, sprzyja wspólnemu rozwiązywaniu problemów, zwiększa responsywność oraz wspiera innowacje poprzez współtworzenie. Dzięki takim praktykom organizacje publiczne mogą tworzyć bardziej solidne, sprawiedliwe i zrównoważone rezultaty polityk, co w konsekwencji przekłada się na wzrost efektywności świadczenia usług publicznych oraz budowanie trwałego zaufania społecznego153.\n152 S.P. Osborne (red.), The new public governance?...; J. Tidd, J.R. Bessant, Managing innovation...\n153 C. Ansell, A. Gash, Collaborative Governance in Theory and Practice...; A. Fung, Varieties of Participation in Complex Governance...; M. McGuire, R. Agranoff, The limitations of public management networks...\n\nIntegracja tych elementów pozwala administracji publicznej zyskać zdolność do bardziej responsywnego, przejrzystego i innowacyjnego zarządzania, co jest kluczowe dla skutecznego reagowania na dynamiczne wyzwania współczesnego świata. Wdrażanie polityk opartych na inkluzywnym zaangażowaniu interesariuszy umożliwia tworzenie struktur decyzyjnych, które nie tylko reagują na bieżące potrzeby, lecz także przewidują przyszłe wyzwania, stanowiąc fundament trwałego rozwoju oraz wzmacniania legitymacji administracji publicznej154.\n3.4.3. Ustanowienie formalnych struktur i procesów we współrządzeniu\nFormalne procesy zapewniają spójność, przejrzystość i odpowiedzialność, umożliwiając organizacjom systematyczne identyfikowanie oraz wdrażanie innowacyjnych rozwiązań155.\nWdrożenie zasad governance w zarządzaniu publicznym wymaga, aby innowacje nie były wynikiem doraźnych działań, lecz zostały systematycznie osadzone w ramach organizacyjnych poprzez formalne struktury i procesy.\nTakie rozwiązania instytucjonalne tworzą stabilne środowisko sprzyjające generowaniu, ocenie i wdrażaniu nowych pomysłów, dzięki czemu innowacje stają się integralną i powtarzalną funkcją w instytucjach publicznych.\nFormalne procesy definiują jasno określone procedury oceny działań w ramach governance. Korzystając ze zdefiniowanych kryteriów i ustandaryzowanych wskaźników efektywności, menedżerowie publiczni mogą obiektywnie ocenić, które pomysły są zgodne z celami strategicznymi i mają potencjał wywierania pozytywnego wpływu. Takie systematyczne podejście ogranicza subiektywizm i minimalizuje ryzyko związane z nieustrukturyzowanymi działaniami innowacyjnymi156. Ustrukturyzowane procedury ułatwiają sprawne podejmowanie decyzji oraz zapewniają, że obiecujące pomysły otrzymują niezbędne wsparcie, by mogły przejść od koncepcji do wdrożenia.\n154 J. West, M. Bogers, Open innovation...\n155 C.F. Sabel, J. Zeitlin, Experimentalism in the EU : Common ground and persistent differences, „Regulation & Governance” t. 6 nr 3 (2012), DOI: 10.1111/j.1748-5991.2012.01157.x;\nJ. Tidd, J.R. Bessant, Managing innovation...\n156 C.F. Sabel, J. Zeitlin, Experimentalism in the EU...\n\nUstanowienie formalnych struktur przyczynia się do wzmocnienia odpowiedzialności poprzez jednoznaczne rozgraniczenie ról i obowiązków. Skodyfikowane procesy ułatwiają śledzenie przebiegu decyzji, monitorowanie postępów oraz ocenę wyników. Taki poziom przejrzystości nie tylko wzmacnia zaufanie wewnątrz organizacji, lecz także utwierdza zewnętrznych interesariuszy w przekonaniu, że innowacje są zarządzane w sposób odpowiedzialny i etyczny157.\nSformalizowane procesy stanowią platformę do dokumentowania i udostępniania najlepszych praktyk, wniosków oraz danych dotyczących efektywności w całej organizacji. Taka pamięć instytucjonalna odgrywa kluczową rolę w procesie ciągłego doskonalenia, umożliwiając instytucjom publicznym udoskonalanie procesów innowacyjnych w miarę upływu czasu. Włączenie mechanizmów dzielenia się wiedzą do formalnych struktur gwarantuje, że skuteczne pomysły są rozpowszechniane, a podobne wyzwania rozwiązywane w oparciu o zbiorowe uczenie się158.\nJednym z trwale występujących wyzwań w zarządzaniu publicznym jest utrzymywanie się silosów wydziałowych, które ograniczają współpracę159.\nSilosy te funkcjonują również w sferze mentalnej, tworząc bariery komunikacyjne oraz poczucie izolacji między zespołami i działami160. Ustanowienie formalnych struktur odpowiedzialnych za zarządzanie pomysłami sprzyja komunikacji między działami oraz wspólnemu rozwiązywaniu problemów.\nTworząc ustrukturyzowane forum wymiany wiedzy, menedżerowie publiczni budują środowisko sprzyjające powstawaniu innowacyjnych rozwiązań opartych na zbiorowej wiedzy eksperckiej organizacji161.\nPoprzez ustanowienie formalnych struktur i procesów zarządzanie publiczne może przekształcić system zarządzania pomysłami w spójny, przejrzysty i skuteczny mechanizm innowacji, który napędza ciągłe doskonalenie, wzmacnia współpracę oraz usprawnia świadczenie usług publicznych.\n157 S.P. Osborne (red.), The new public governance?...\n158 L. Nonaka, H. Takeuchi, K. Umemoto, A theory of organizational knowledge creation...\n159 F. Cilliers, H. Greyvenstein, The Impact of Silo Mentality on Team Identity: An Organisational Case Study, „SA Journal of Industrial Psychology” t. 38 nr 2 (2012), DOI: 10.4102/ sajip.v38i2.993\n160 T. Mohapeloa, Effects of silo mentality on corporate ITC’s business model, [w:] Proceedings of the International Conference on Business Excellence, t. 11, Sciendo 2017.\n161 J.M. Bryson, B.C. Crosby, L. Bloomberg, Public Value Governance...\n\n3.4.4. Podejmowanie decyzji w oparciu o dane\nWspółczesna administracja publiczna coraz częściej wykorzystuje zaawansowane narzędzia cyfrowe oraz analitykę danych do oceny pomysłów w oparciu o obiektywne, empirycznie uzasadnione kryteria. To podejście, znane jako podejmowanie decyzji oparte na danych (data-driven decision-making), stanowi fundament dla poprawy jakości, przejrzystości oraz zdolności adaptacyjnych decyzji politycznych. Integracja danych ilościowych i jakościowych w procesie decyzyjnym umożliwia menedżerom publicznym monitorowanie efektywności, analizę wyników oraz systematyczne doskonalenie inicjatyw politycznych, co ma kluczowe znaczenie dla skutecznego kształtowania polityki publicznej162.\nJednym z kluczowych aspektów jest usprawnienie procesu kształtowania polityki opartej na dowodach. Zastosowanie podejścia opartego na danych pozwala przejść od subiektywnych osądów do obiektywnych, analitycznie uzasadnionych strategii. Administracje publiczne, wykorzystując zintegrowane dane ilościowe i jakościowe, mogą oceniać potencjalny wpływ innowacyjnych inicjatyw, ustalać priorytety projektów w oparciu o mierzalne rezultaty oraz efektywniej alokować zasoby. Takie podejście nie tylko zwiększa skuteczność formułowania polityki, lecz także wzmacnia rozliczalność i przejrzystość w świadczeniu usług publicznych163. W polskiej literaturze przedmiotu podkreśla się, że zaawansowane narzędzia analityczne, w tym systemy big data, umożliwiają konstruowanie bardziej precyzyjnych i adaptacyjnych modeli decyzyjnych164.\nKolejnym istotnym elementem jest zwiększenie responsywności i elastyczności działań administracji publicznej. W dynamicznie zmieniających się środowiskach politycznych zdolność do bieżącej interpretacji danych oraz elastycznego reagowania na nowe informacje ma kluczowe znaczenie. Analiza danych w czasie rzeczywistym umożliwia menedżerom publicznym monitorowanie trendów oraz identyfikowanie pojawiających się problemów, co z kolei pozwala na szybkie dostosowywanie działań strategicznych. Zdolność adaptacyjna jest\n162 S.P. Osborne (red.), The new public governance?...; J. West, M. Bogers, Open innovation...\n163 I. Mergel, R.K. Rethemeyer, K. Isett, Big data in public affairs, „Public Administration\nReview” t. 76 nr 6 (2016).\n164 J. Wieczorkowski, Wykorzystanie koncepcji big data w administracji publicznej, „Roczniki\nKolegium Analiz Ekonomicznych/Szkoła Główna Handlowa” nr 33 Technologie informatyczne w administracji publicznej (2014); M. Maciejewski, To do more, better, faster and more cheaply: Using big data in public administration, „International Review of Administrative\nSciences” t. 83 nr 1_suppl (2017).\n\nszczególnie cenna w obszarach takich jak zarządzanie kryzysowe czy planowanie przestrzenne, w których warunki często ulegają dynamicznym zmianom165.\nWspieranie innowacji oraz ciągłego doskonalenia stanowi kolejny kluczowy aspekt podejmowania decyzji opartych na danych. Systematyczny pomiar efektywności względem ustalonych wskaźników umożliwia organizacjom publicznym uczenie się na podstawie wcześniejszych doświadczeń oraz doskonalenie stosowanych procesów. Taki iteracyjny proces testowania, walidacji i wdrażania nowatorskich rozwiązań jest niezbędny dla rozwoju polityk skutecznie odpowiadających na współczesne problemy społeczne166.\nPrzejrzystość i odpowiedzialność stanowią fundament skutecznego zarządzania opartego na danych. Kiedy procesy decyzyjne opierają się na transparentnych danych oraz jasno określonych wskaźnikach, stają się zrozumiałe zarówno dla interesariuszy wewnętrznych, jak i zewnętrznych. Taka otwartość buduje zaufanie społeczne oraz zapewnia, że instytucje publiczne pozostają odpowiedzialne za swoje działania, co wzmacnia legitymację administracji i wspiera zasady demokratycznego zarządzania167.\nPodsumowując, zastosowanie nowoczesnych narzędzi cyfrowych i analityki danych jest niezbędne do oceny pomysłów w oparciu o obiektywne, empirycznie uzasadnione kryteria. Podejmowanie decyzji w oparciu o dane umożliwia menedżerom publicznym monitorowanie efektywności, analizę wyników oraz systematyczne doskonalenie inicjatyw politycznych, co w konsekwencji przekłada się na poprawę jakości i transparentności procesów decyzyjnych. Takie podejście nie tylko zwiększa efektywność formułowania polityki, lecz także wspiera rozwój kultury organizacyjnej opartej na ciągłym uczeniu się i adaptacyjności instytucji publicznych168.\nIntegracja nowoczesnych narzędzi analitycznych umożliwia nie tylko bardziej precyzyjne kształtowanie polityki publicznej, lecz także rozwój elastycznych, responsywnych i transparentnych systemów zarządzania, lepiej dostosowanych do dynamicznych wyzwań współczesnego świata. Zastosowanie podejścia\n165 A. Meijer, M.P.R. Bolívar, Governing the smart city: a review of the literature on smart urban governance, „International Review of Administrative Sciences” t. 82 nr 2 (2016), DOI:\n10.1177/0020852314564308.\n166 T. Jetzek, M. Avital, N. Bjorn-Andersen, Data-driven innovation through open government data, „Journal of theoretical and applied electronic commerce research” t. 9 nr 2 (2014);\nJ. Tidd, J.R. Bessant, Managing innovation...\n167 J. Hausner, Zarządzanie publiczne...\n168 S.P. Osborne (red.), The new public governance?...; J. Tidd, J.R. Bessant, Managing innovation...\n\nopartego na danych (data-driven decision-making) umożliwia administracji publicznej efektywne wykorzystanie dostępnych zasobów, minimalizowanie ryzyka błędnych decyzji oraz budowanie trwałego zaufania społecznego, co stanowi fundament realizacji długoterminowej wartości publicznej.\n3.4.5. Wspieranie kultury innowacji w zarządzaniu publicznym\nTransformacja kultury organizacyjnej jest często niezbędna do przezwyciężenia awersji do ryzyka oraz utrwalonych rutyn działania. Menedżerowie publiczni mogą wspierać innowacje, zachęcając do eksperymentowania, traktując porażkę jako element procesu uczenia się oraz nagradzając twórczy wkład pracowników169.\nWspieranie kultury innowacji w administracji publicznej polega na tworzeniu środowiska, w którym nowe idee są aktywnie promowane, doceniane i integrowane z codziennymi praktykami organizacyjnymi. Wymaga to zmiany systemowej, która wykracza poza doraźne inicjatywy projektowe i polega na zakorzenieniu innowacji w strukturze organizacyjnej poprzez wspierające przywództwo, ciągłe uczenie się oraz współpracę między zespołami.\nKluczowym punktem wyjścia dla najwyższego kierownictwa jest sformułowanie klarownej wizji innowacji oraz modelowanie pożądanych zachowań poprzez osobisty przykład. Gdy liderzy sektora publicznego aktywnie promują twórcze myślenie oraz gotowość do podejmowania ryzyka, wysyłają silny sygnał, że innowacje są nie tylko oczekiwane, lecz także nagradzane170. Liderzy inwestujący w szkolenia, mentoring i otwartą komunikację budują atmosferę, w której pracownicy czują się zmotywowani i upoważnieni do eksperymentowania oraz dzielenia się pomysłami171.\nBudowanie kultury innowacyjności w administracji publicznej zależy od efektywnego tworzenia, gromadzenia i dyfuzji wiedzy. Jak zauważa Jasiński, organizacje, które aktywnie kultywują dzielenie się wiedzą poprzez zarówno formalne procesy, jak i nieformalne sieci, są w stanie skutecznie stymulować powstawanie kreatywnych rozwiązań złożonych problemów172. W praktyce organizacje publiczne mogą wdrażać regularne warsztaty, spotkania międzywydziałowe oraz\n169 P.F. Drucker, Innovation and entrepreneurship...; L. Nonaka, H. Takeuchi, K. Umemoto,\nA theory of organizational knowledge creation...\n170 S.P. Osborne (red.), The new public governance?...\n171 M. Mazur, Motywowanie pracowników jako istotny element zarządzania organizacją, „Nauki\nSpołeczne” nr 2 (08) (2013).\n172 A.H. Jasiński, Innowacyjność w gospodarce Polski: modele, bariery, instrumenty wsparcia,\nWarszawa 2014.\n\nplatformy cyfrowe służące wymianie pomysłów i doświadczeń, co umożliwia skuteczne przechwytywanie oraz upowszechnianie cennych spostrzeżeń w całej instytucji173.\nInstytucjonalizacja innowacji wymaga ustanowienia formalnych struktur – takich jak laboratoria innowacji, wyspecjalizowane komitety czy cyfrowe systemy zarządzania pomysłami – które zapewniają spójne ramy instytucjonalne dla identyfikowania, oceny i wdrażania nowych rozwiązań174. Tidd i Bessant wskazują, że sformalizowane procesy innowacyjne nie tylko gwarantują dostęp do zasobów i procedur, lecz także umożliwiają wyznaczanie mierzalnych celów, które napędzają proces ciągłego doskonalenia zarządzania publicznego175.\nInnowacje rozwijają się w środowiskach, które sprzyjają współpracy ponad granicami hierarchii organizacyjnych i jednostek administracyjnych. West i Bogers podkreślają znaczenie praktyk otwartych innowacji, które wykorzystują zewnętrzną wiedzę ekspercką i wspierają rozwój partnerstw międzysektorowych. Tego rodzaju środowisko sprzyja różnorodności myślenia, co ma kluczowe znaczenie dla skutecznego reagowania na złożone wyzwania publiczne oraz napędzania trwałych zmian w polityce i praktyce administracyjnej176.\nAby trwale zakorzenić innowacje w kulturze organizacyjnej, menedżerowie publiczni powinni wdrażać systemy motywacyjne i uznaniowe, które sprzyjają twórczemu rozwiązywaniu problemów. Docenianie wkładu pracowników w rozwój innowacji nie tylko podnosi morale zespołu, lecz także utrwala pożądane wzorce zachowań w organizacji. Osborne podkreśla, że dostosowanie systemów wynagradzania do efektów działań innowacyjnych jest kluczowe dla podtrzymywania długofalowej motywacji do twórczych działań w sektorze publicznym177.\n3.4.6. Zarządzanie oparte na współpracy i sieci governance\nWreszcie wspieranie kultury innowacji wymaga wdrożenia modelu zarządzania opartego na współpracy, który sprzyja stałemu przepływowi informacji zwrotnych i systematycznemu doskonaleniu. Torfing wskazuje, że innowacje oparte na współpracy, w których różni interesariusze wspólnie tworzą rozwiązania\n173 I. Nonaka, The Knowledge-Creating Company...\n174 A.H. Jasiński, Innowacyjność w gospodarce Polski...\n175 J. Tidd, J.R. Bessant, Managing innovation...\n176 J. West, M. Bogers, Open innovation...\n177 S.P. Osborne (red.), The new public governance?...\n\ni kształtują elastyczne struktury organizacyjne zdolne dostosowywać się do zmieniających się potrzeb społecznych178. Proces ten sprawia, że organizacja nie tylko tworzy innowacyjne pomysły, lecz również skutecznie je doskonali i rozwija w dłuższej perspektywie.\nWdrażając takie praktyki, jak wspierające przywództwo, systematyczne dzielenie się wiedzą, sformalizowane procesy innowacji, środowiska współpracy oraz adekwatne systemy wynagradzania, organizacje publiczne mogą rozwijać trwałą kulturę innowacji. Taka kultura nie tylko sprzyja powstawaniu kreatywnych pomysłów, lecz także umożliwia skuteczne wdrażanie innowacyjnych rozwiązań w sferze zarządzania publicznego, co w konsekwencji prowadzi do usprawnienia świadczenia usług publicznych.\nIntegracja zespołów międzywydziałowych oraz tworzenie partnerstw mogą przełamywać bariery i sprzyjać wymianie wiedzy oraz najlepszych praktyk. Modele zarządzania oparte na współpracy wspierają zbiorowe rozwiązywanie problemów i umożliwiają niwelowanie luk między różnymi segmentami administracji publicznej179.\nZarządzanie oparte na współpracy i sieciach podkreśla potrzebę przełamywania tradycyjnych silosów w organizacjach publicznych oraz rozwijania partnerstw z różnorodnymi interesariuszami. Takie podejście pozwala instytucjom publicznym wykorzystywać szerokie spektrum wiedzy eksperckiej i zasobów poprzez angażowanie nie tylko wewnętrznych jednostek organizacyjnych, lecz także partnerów zewnętrznych, takich jak organizacje pozarządowe, przedsiębiorstwa prywatne czy grupy obywatelskie, w procesy tworzenia pomysłów i podejmowania decyzji.\nKluczowe składniki\nWspółpraca międzyorganizacyjna. W modelu zarządzania opartym na współpracy liczne agencje i instytucje współdziałają w celu rozwiązywania złożonych problemów publicznych. Tego rodzaju współpraca ma kluczowe znaczenie dla zarządzania pomysłami, gdyż wiele wyzwań w administracji publicznej ma charakter wielowymiarowy i nie może być skutecznie rozwiązane przez pojedynczą instytucję. Ramy współpracy sprzyjają wspólnemu rozwiązywaniu\n178 J. Torfing, Collaborative innovation in the public sector...\n179 K. Emerson, T. Nabatchi, S. Balogh, An Integrative Framework for Collaborative Governance...; J. Torfing, Collaborative innovation in the public sector...\n\nproblemów oraz umożliwiają wymianę wiedzy i najlepszych praktyk ponad granicami instytucjonalnymi180.\nWspólne podejmowanie decyzji i współtworzenie. Podstawową zasadą zarządzania sieciowego jest kolektywne podejmowanie decyzji. Zamiast opierać się wyłącznie na odgórnych dyrektywach, menedżerowie publiczni stosują ustrukturyzowane dialogi i procesy partycypacyjne, aby współtworzyć rozwiązania. Angażując różnorodnych interesariuszy w proces decyzyjny, instytucje publiczne mogą mieć pewność, że innowacyjne pomysły są analizowane z wielu perspektyw, a tworzone na ich podstawie polityki stają się bardziej inkluzywne i spójne181.\nBudowanie zaufania i wzajemnej odpowiedzialności. Skuteczna współpraca opiera się na zaufaniu oraz precyzyjnym określeniu ról i obowiązków. Sformalizowane sieci międzyorganizacyjne wyznaczają ramy odpowiedzialności, w których każdy uczestnik rozumie swój wkład oraz korzyści wynikające ze wspólnych działań. Działania służące budowie zaufania – takie jak przejrzysta komunikacja czy wspólne monitorowanie wyników – odgrywają kluczową rolę w utrzymaniu długoterminowych partnerstw w obszarze zarządzania pomysłami182.\nWykorzystanie platform cyfrowych do współpracy sieciowej. Rozwój technologii cyfrowych umożliwia tworzenie wirtualnych sieci, w których uczestnicy mogą wymieniać się pomysłami i prowadzić dyskusje w czasie rzeczywistym.\nPlatformy internetowe oraz narzędzia współpracy pozwalają na stałe angażowanie interesariuszy oraz pokonywanie barier geograficznych i administracyjnych.\nTego rodzaju infrastruktura cyfrowa sprzyja dynamicznej wymianie informacji oraz umożliwia menedżerom publicznym monitorowanie rozwoju innowacyjnych pomysłów na każdym etapie ich cyklu życia183.\nZwiększanie wartości publicznej poprzez zbiorowy wpływ. Modele zarządzania oparte na współpracy i sieciach wspierają tworzenie wartości publicznej poprzez integrowanie różnorodnych zasobów oraz wiedzy eksperckiej.\n180 C. Ansell, A. Gash, Collaborative Governance in Theory and Practice...; S. Vangen, Developing Practice‐Oriented Theory on Collaboration: A Paradox Lens, „Public Administration\nReview” t. 77 nr 2 (2017), DOI: 10.1111/puar.12683.\n181 K. Emerson, T. Nabatchi, S. Balogh, An Integrative Framework for Collaborative Governance...; S. Vangen, Developing Practice‐Oriented Theory on Collaboration...\n182 L. Costumato, Collaboration among public organizations: a systematic literature review on determinants of interinstitutional performance, „International Journal of Public Sector\nManagement” t. 34 nr 3 (2021), DOI: 10.1108/IJPSM-03-2020-0069; R. O’Leary, N. Vij,\nCollaborative Public Management...\n183 J. Torfing, Collaborative innovation in the public sector...; S. Vangen, Developing Practice‐Oriented Theory on Collaboration...\n\nWspółpraca między organizacjami pozwala skuteczniej rozwiązywać problemy systemowe oraz opracowywać innowacyjne rozwiązania polityczne, które są zarówno efektywne, jak i trwałe. Akcent położony na zbiorowy wpływ zapewnia, że innowacje są nie tylko efektywne technicznie, lecz także uzasadnione społecznie i politycznie184.\nWdrażając modele zarządzania oparte na współpracy i sieciach, instytucje publiczne mogą doskonalić swoje systemy zarządzania pomysłami. Takie podejścia sprzyjają wspólnemu uczeniu się, zwiększają efektywność wykorzystania zasobów oraz wzmacniają wzajemne zaufanie niezbędne do opracowywania innowacyjnych polityk publicznych, skutecznie odpowiadających na współczesne, złożone wyzwania.\nPrzejrzyste procesy i odpowiedzialność. Kluczowe znaczenie ma transparentność procesów decyzyjnych oraz jasno określone ramy odpowiedzialności. Wprowadzenie rzetelnych wskaźników efektywności oraz mechanizmów systematycznego raportowania sprzyja utrzymaniu zaufania interesariuszy i gwarantuje, że działania innowacyjne pozostają zarówno skuteczne, jak i odpowiedzialne185.\nBudowanie potencjału i ciągłe szkolenia. Inwestowanie w programy rozwojowe oraz inicjatywy służące wzmacnianiu potencjału kadry publicznej wyposaża pracowników w kompetencje niezbędne do skutecznego zarządzania innowacyjnymi pomysłami i ich wdrażania. Ciągłe uczenie się umożliwia organizacjom skuteczne dostosowywanie się do nowych wyzwań oraz integrowanie najlepszych praktyk wywodzących się z różnych sektorów186.\nProjekty pilotażowe i wdrażanie przyrostowe. Realizacja projektów pilotażowych umożliwia instytucjom publicznym testowanie nowych rozwiązań w ograniczonej skali przed ich szerokim wdrożeniem. Takie eksperymentalne podejście minimalizuje ryzyko oraz dostarcza cennych informacji, które można wykorzystać do udoskonalenia przyjętych rozwiązań i procedur187.\n184 J.M. Bryson, B.C. Crosby, L. Bloomberg, Public Value Governance...\n185 T. Schillemans, Does Horizontal Accountability Work? Evaluating Potential Remedies for the Accountability Deficit of Agencies, „Administration & Society” t. 43 nr 4 (2011), DOI:\n10.1177/0095399711412931.\n186 B.G. Peters, Bureaucracy and Democracy in the Modern State...; J. Tidd, J.R. Bessant,\nManaging innovation...\n187 J. Müür, E. Karo, Learning from public sector innovation pilots: the case of autonomous bus pilots, „Innovation: The European Journal of Social Science Research” (2023), DOI:\n10.1080/13511610.2023.2286438; C.F. Sabel, J. Zeitlin, Experimentalism in the EU...; B.\nWalker et al., Resilience, Adaptability and Transformability in Social-ecological Systems,\n„Ecology and Society” t. 9 nr 2 (2004), DOI: 10.5751/ES-00650-090205.\n\nWykorzystanie technologii i platform cyfrowych. Kluczowe znaczenie ma stosowanie nowoczesnych narzędzi cyfrowych wspierających zarządzanie przepływem pomysłów, współpracą i komunikacją. Technologie te mogą usprawniać procesy, ułatwiać angażowanie interesariuszy oraz dostarczać informacji zwrotnych w czasie rzeczywistym na temat realizacji polityk publicznych188.\nAdaptacyjne i responsywne struktury zarządzania. Organizacje powinny projektować ramy zarządcze, które są elastyczne i zdolne do dostosowywania się do zmieniających się warunków. Zarządzanie adaptacyjne sprzyja iteracyjnemu uczeniu się oraz gwarantuje, że przyjęte zasady pozostają aktualne i skuteczne w dłuższej perspektywie189.\nIntegracja ekspertów zewnętrznych. Włączanie ekspertów zewnętrznych ze środowisk akademickich, sektora prywatnego oraz organizacji społeczeństwa obywatelskiego może dostarczać nowych perspektyw i stymulować procesy innowacyjne. Współpraca z partnerami zewnętrznymi poszerza zasoby wiedzy oraz wspiera tworzenie polityk publicznych opartych na dowodach190.\nSystemy wynagradzania i zachęty do innowacji. Wprowadzenie programów motywacyjnych i uznaniowych za innowacyjny wkład może zachęcać pracowników do aktywnego uczestnictwa w procesach zarządzania pomysłami. Systemy nagradzania promujące kreatywne rozwiązywanie problemów sprzyjają przezwyciężaniu oporu wobec zmian191.\nAlokacja zasobów i wsparcie finansowe. Zapewnienie odpowiedniego finansowania oraz zasobów organizacyjnych ma kluczowe znaczenie dla trwałości inicjatyw innowacyjnych. Instytucje publiczne powinny przeznaczać odpowiednie środki finansowe na wspieranie działań związanych z generowaniem, testowaniem i wdrażaniem innowacyjnych pomysłów192.\n188 M. Janssen, H. Van Der Voort, Adaptive governance...; K. Verhoest et al., Collaboration for digital transformation: so much more than just technology, [w:] K. Verhoest et al.\n(red.), Collaborating for Digital Transformation, Edward Elgar Publishing 2024; J. West,\nM. Bogers, Open innovation...\n189 C. Folke et al., Resilience Thinking...; B.H. Walker, D. Salt, W. Reid, Resilience thinking:\nsustaining ecosystems and people in a changing world, Washington 2012.\n190 T. Christensen, P. Lægreid, Complexity and Hybrid Public Administration—Theoretical and Empirical Challenges...\n191 J.W. Campbell, Efficiency, Incentives, and Transformational Leadership: Understanding\nCollaboration Preferences in the Public Sector, „Public Performance & Management\nReview” t. 41 nr 2 (2018), DOI: 10.1080/15309576.2017.1403332; P.F. Drucker, Innovation and entrepreneurship...; I. Nonaka, The Knowledge-Creating Company...\n192 M. Mazzucato, The entrepreneurial state...; J. Tidd, J.R. Bessant, Managing innovation...\n\nCiągłe monitorowanie i ocena. Wprowadzenie spójnych ram ewaluacji umożliwia organizacjom śledzenie postępów inicjatyw innowacyjnych, ocenę ich wpływu oraz wprowadzanie iteracyjnych usprawnień. Systematyczne monitorowanie pozwala upewnić się, że działania w zakresie zarządzania pomysłami pozostają skuteczne i spójne z celami strategicznymi organizacji193.\nWspółrządzenie (governance) odgrywa kluczową rolę we wspieraniu efektywnego zarządzania publicznego. Wdrażając ustrukturyzowane ramy zarządcze, rządy mogą zwiększać transparentność, usprawniać procesy decyzyjne oraz maksymalizować tworzenie wartości publicznej194. Wraz z rozwojem technologii oraz mechanizmów partycypacyjnych integracja narzędzi opartych na sztucznej inteligencji z modelami współzarządzania dodatkowo wzmocni skuteczność zarządzania pomysłami w sektorze publicznym195.\n3.5. Zarządzanie globalne\nKoncepcja global governance wyłoniła się jako odpowiedź na ewoluujący charakter polityki światowej. Już w latach 50. i 60. XX wieku w badaniach nad stosunkami międzynarodowymi pojawiły się koncepcje porządku światowego\n(world order studies). Prace Clarka i Sohna oraz Falka i Mendlovitza podkreślały potrzebę nowego podejścia do zarządzania międzynarodowego, jednak nie uwzględniały rosnącej złożoności globalnych interakcji ani roli aktorów niepaństwowych196.\nW okresie powojennym koncepcja „rządu światowego” była postrzegana przede wszystkim w kontekście obaw przed zagrożeniem nuklearnym oraz brakiem skutecznych mechanizmów wdrażania. Natomiast rozwój procesów globalizacyjnych w latach 80. i 90. XX wieku wymusił nowe podejście do zarządzania międzynarodowego.\nWspółczesne podejście do badań nad zarządzaniem globalnym jest wynikiem przesunięcia głównego nurtu akademickiego od tradycyjnych analiz\n193 C. Folke et al., Adaptive Governance of Social-Ecological Systems, „Annual Review of Environment and Resources” t. 30 nr 1 (2005), DOI: 10.1146/annurev.energy.30.050504.144511;\nB. Walker et al., Resilience, Adaptability and Transformability in Social-ecological Systems...\n194 S.P. Osborne (red.), The new public governance?...\n195 M. Janssen, H. Van Der Voort, Adaptive governance...\n196 G. Clark, L. Sohn, World Peace through World Law, „California Law Review” t. 46 nr 3\n(1958), DOI: 10.2307/3478385; R.A. Falk, S.H. Mendlovitz, The Strategy of World Order,\n„Stanford Law Review” t. 19 nr 6 (1967), DOI: 10.2307/1227444.\n\norganizacji międzynarodowych i prawa międzyrządowego ku bardziej holistycznej perspektywie badania mechanizmów zarządzania sprawami globalnymi. Sam termin global governance wyłonił się z połączenia teorii akademickiej i praktyki politycznej w latach 90. XX wieku, stanowiąc odpowiedź na rosnącą dynamikę procesów globalizacyjnych oraz ich konsekwencje dla systemu zarządzania międzynarodowego.\nJednym z kluczowych momentów w rozwoju tej koncepcji była publikacja książki Jamesa N. Rosenaua i Ernsta-Otto Czempiela Governance without\nGovernment197, która ukazała się niemal równocześnie z powołaniem przez rząd Szwecji Komisji ds. Globalnego Zarządzania, kierowanej przez Sonny’ego\nRamphala i Ingmara Carlssona. Działalność tej komisji, a także opublikowany przez nią raport Our Global Neighbourhood, zbiegły się w czasie z powstaniem czasopisma „Global Governance”, wydawanego przez Academic Council on the United Nations System (ACUNS). W ten sposób koncepcja globalnego zarządzania uzyskała solidne podstawy akademickie i polityczne, stając się częścią głównego nurtu refleksji nad przyszłością ładu międzynarodowego.\nPojawienie się koncepcji global governance w latach 90. XX wieku stanowiło również reakcję na ograniczenia wcześniejszych paradygmatów, takich jak world order studies („studia nad porządkiem świata”). Koncepcja ta, wywodząca się z prac Clarka i Sohna oraz Falka i Mendlovitza, nie zdołała uwzględnić narastającej złożoności systemu międzynarodowego, w którym państwa przestały być jedynymi kluczowymi aktorami. Jak zauważył Joseph Barrata, termin global governance pojawił się jako bardziej pragmatyczna i akceptowalna alternatywa wobec koncepcji „rządu światowego”, która w okresie powojennym była zdominowana przez obawy przed zagrożeniem nuklearnym oraz brak skutecznych mechanizmów wdrażania198.\nW kolejnych latach pozycja global governance w naukach społecznych ulegała systematycznemu umacnianiu. Michael Barnett i Raymond Duvall zauważyli, że koncepcja ta zyskała niemal „celebrycki” status, przechodząc z pozycji marginalnej do jednej z kluczowych osi badań nad stosunkami międzynarodowymi. Pojawienie się tego podejścia nie oznaczało jednak odrzucenia normatywnego wymiaru zarządzania globalnego, lecz raczej jego ewolucję\n197 J.N. Rosenau, E.-O. Czempiel (red.), Governance without Government: Order and Change in World Politics, Cambridge University Press 1992.\n198 J.P. Baratta, The politics of world federation. From world federalism to global governance,\n[w:] Westport, Conn 2004.\n\nw kierunku większej inkluzywności, obejmującej różnorodne podmioty i nieformalne mechanizmy współpracy199.\nPojęcie global governance stało się również kluczowym elementem refleksji nad zmianami instytucjonalnymi w systemie Narodów Zjednoczonych oraz nad multilateralizmem jako sposobem zarządzania problemami o charakterze globalnym. Projekty badawcze, takie jak Multilateralism and the United\nNations System (MUNS), prowadzone przez Roberta W. Coxa i finansowane przez Uniwersytet Narodów Zjednoczonych (UNU), miały na celu identyfikację sposobów wzmacniania legitymacji oraz efektywności współpracy międzynarodowej200. Równolegle inne badania, w tym prowadzone przez Johna G. Ruggiego, podkreślały znaczenie multilateralizmu jako kluczowego mechanizmu transformacji systemu globalnego201.\nPoczątek działalności wydawniczej czasopisma „Global Governance” w 1995 roku zapoczątkował szeroką dyskusję na temat koncepcji globalnego zarządzania. W pierwszym numerze czasopisma Rosenau zaproponował szeroką definicję terminu, ujmując go jako „systemy rządów na wszystkich poziomach ludzkiej aktywności, od rodziny do organizacji międzynarodowej, w których realizacja celów poprzez sprawowanie kontroli ma transnarodowe reperkusje”202. Barnett i Duvall zauważyli, że nawet dekada nie wystarczyła, aby pojęcie globalnego zarządzania przeszło z pozycji niemal nieznanej do jednej z kluczowych kategorii „w praktyce i badaniu spraw międzynarodowych”203.\nMimo upływu ponad dwóch dekad dyskusji, wciąż nie osiągnięto konsensusu definicyjnego, a jednoznaczna i spójna definicja nadal nie została sformułowana. Lawrence S. Finkelstein zwrócił uwagę na niejednoznaczność pojęcia\n„globalnego zarządzania”204. Pierwszy poziom tej niejednoznaczności powiązał z terminem „globalny”, często błędnie utożsamianym z pojęciami „międzynarodowy”, „międzypaństwowy”, „międzyrządowy” lub „transnarodowy”.\nWedług autora, „globalny” odnosi się zarówno do dynamiki zmian w relacjach\n199 M. Barnett, R. Duvall (red.), Power in Global Governance, Cambridge University Press 2004.\n200 D. Skidmore, The New Realism: Perspectives on Multilateralism and World Order. Edited by Robert W. Cox. New York: St. Martin’s/United Nations University Press, 1997 „American\nPolitical Science Review” t. 92 nr 2 (1998), DOI: 10.2307/2585743.\n201 J.G. Ruggie, Global governance and” new governance theory”: Lessons from business and human rights, „Global governance” t. 20 (2014).\n202 J.N. Rosenau, Governance in the Twenty-first Century, „Global Governance” t. 1 nr 1\n(1995), DOI: 10.1163/19426720-001-01-90000004.\n203 M. Barnett, R. Duvall (red.), Power in Global Governance...\n204 L.S. Finkelstein, What Is Global Governance?, „Global Governance: A Review of Multilateralism and International Organizations” t. 1, nr 3(1995), DOI: 10.1163/19426720-001-03-90000007.\n\nmiędzy państwami w przestrzeni globalnej, jak i do zrozumienia samego procesu tych zmian. Drugi aspekt niejednoznaczności dotyczy samego pojęcia\n„globalnego zarządzania”, które – jak zauważa Finkelstein – bywa stosowane\n„ponieważ tak naprawdę nie wiemy, jak nazwać to, co się dzieje”. Dingwerth i Pattberg zauważyli, że choć pewna elastyczność w stosowaniu pojęcia globalnego zarządzania jest teoretycznie pożądana i empirycznie nieunikniona, nadmierna niejednolitość w jego definiowaniu i konceptualizacji może stanowić przeszkodę w opracowaniu spójnej teorii globalnego zarządzania205.\nKoncepcję globalnego zarządzania można postrzegać zarówno jako zjawisko odnoszące się do sposobów rozwiązywania problemów o charakterze globalnym, jak i jako projekt normatywny, którego celem jest rozwój liberalnego porządku światowego. W literaturze podkreśla się, że dla zachowania spójności pojęciowej konieczne jest rozróżnienie między globalnym zarządzaniem rozumianym jako zestaw obserwowalnych praktyk a globalnym zarządzaniem ujmowanym jako program polityczny206. Według Finkelsteina globalne zarządzanie to „rządzenie bez suwerennej władzy, relacjami, które przekraczają granice narodowe; robienie na arenie międzynarodowej tego, co rządy robią w obrębie własnych państw”207. Ruggie definiuje ten termin jako „zarządzanie\n– na dowolnym poziomie organizacji społecznej – odnoszące się do systemu autorytatywnych norm, reguł, instytucji i praktyk, za pomocą których każda zbiorowość, od lokalnej po globalną, kieruje swoimi wspólnymi sprawami”208.\nZarządzanie stanowi dynamiczną sieć zmieniających się relacji między różnymi aktorami, obejmującą struktury niehierarchiczne oraz rozproszone, policentryczne ośrodki władzy209.\nW ostatnich trzydziestu latach koncepcja globalnego zarządzania zyskała znaczną popularność wśród badaczy nauk społecznych, jednak równocześnie narasta zamieszanie dotyczące jej właściwego znaczenia. Od momentu opublikowania książki Jamesa N. Rosenaua i Ernsta-Otto Czempiela Governance without Government termin „globalne zarządzanie” stał się powszechnie używanym pojęciem w badaniach nad polityką światową, zwłaszcza w kontekście\n205 K. Dingwerth, P. Pattberg, Global governance as a perspective on world politics, „Global\nGovernance” t. 12 (2006).\n206 Ibid.\n207 L.S. Finkelstein, What Is Global Governance?, „Global Governance: A Review of Multilateralism and International Organizations” t. 1 nr 3 (1995), DOI: 10.1163/19426720-001-03-90000007.\n208 J.G. Ruggie, Global governance and ”new governance theory”: Lessons from business and human rights...\n209 J.N. Rosenau, E.-O. Czempiel (red.), Governance without Government...\n\nglobalnych przemian i ich wpływu na stosunki międzynarodowe210. Podobnie jak wcześniej pojęcie „globalizacji”, termin „globalne zarządzanie” stał się modnym określeniem pojawiającym się w licznych publikacjach naukowych dotyczących stosunków międzynarodowych i używanym w różnych znaczeniach oraz kontekstach. Wielu badaczy uznaje, że publikacja Governance without\nGovernment zapoczątkowała obecność tego pojęcia w literaturze naukowej.\nNiektórzy autorzy, tacy jak Hewson i Sinclair, zwracają jednak uwagę, że samo określenie „globalne zarządzanie” nie pojawia się wprost w tej publikacji – Rosenau i Czempiel posługują się raczej takimi terminami, jak „zarządzanie międzynarodowe”, „systemy rządzenia” czy „zarządzanie w polityce światowej”211.\nMimo tych nieścisłości od 1992 roku pojęcie „globalnego zarządzania” na trwałe weszło do debaty naukowej i politycznej, odnosząc się do różnorodnych form zarządzania procesami globalnymi wywołującymi transnarodowe skutki212. Podejście to obejmuje trzy podstawowe formy globalnego zarządzania: oficjalne, realizowane w ramach forów międzypaństwowych regulowanych przez prawo międzynarodowe, nieoficjalne, występujące w sektorze prywatnym i obywatelskim oraz hybrydowe, łączące elementy obu powyższych form213.\nOprócz Jamesa N. Rosenaua, którego prace wywarły szczególny wpływ na rozwój tej koncepcji w latach 90. XX wieku, istotny wkład w jej definiowanie wnieśli również Rod A. W. Rhodes214, Lawrence S. Finkelstein215 oraz\nRobert O. Keohane i Joseph S. Nye Jr216. W ich badaniach skoncentrowano się na analizie przemian globalnych oraz na poszukiwaniu alternatyw wobec teorii państwocentrycznych. W tym kontekście narodziła się idea globalnego zarządzania, a debata na jej temat nabrała szczególnej intensywności po 1995 roku, kiedy ukazał się pierwszy numer czasopisma „Global Governance”.\n210 Ibid.\n211 M. Hewson, T.J. Sinclair, Approaches to Global Governance Theory, State University of\nNew York Press 1999.\n212 J. Jang, J. McSparren, Y. Rashchupkina, Global Governance: Present and Future, „Palgrave\nCommunications” t. 2 nr 1 (2016), DOI: 10.1057/palcomms.2015.45.\n213 J. Gupta, Global Sustainable Development Governance: Institutional Challenges from a Theoretical Perspective, „International Environmental Agreements” t. 2 nr 4 (2002),\nDOI: 10.1023/A:1021387308065.\n214 R.A.W. Rhodes, From Institutions to Dogma: Tradition, Eclecticism, and Ideology in the\nStudy of British Public Administration, „Public Administration Review” t. 56 nr 6 (1996),\nDOI: 10.2307/977249.\n215 L.S. Finkelstein, What Is Global Governance?...\n216 R.O. Keohane, J.S. Nye, Power and interdependence, Boston 2012.\n\nW tym samym roku Komisja ONZ ds. Globalnego Zarządzania opublikowała raport Our Global Neighbourhood, w którym „globalne zarządzanie” zdefiniowano jako proces obejmujący nie tylko relacje międzyrządowe, lecz także organizacje pozarządowe, ruchy obywatelskie, korporacje transnarodowe oraz globalny rynek kapitałowy.\nKoncepcja globalnego zarządzania wyłoniła się jako odpowiedź na zmieniający się charakter polityki światowej. W latach 80. i 90. XX wieku teoretycy odnotowali głęboką transformację wynikającą z rewolucji technologicznej oraz postępującej globalizacji gospodarki. Stwierdzono, że świat przestał być zorganizowany wyłącznie w formie odrębnych, suwerennych państw, a system międzynarodowy przekształcił się w arenę aktywności wielu aktorów uczestniczących w rozwiązywaniu złożonych problemów globalnych217.\nDavid Held zauważa, że podejście analityczne związane z koncepcją globalnego zarządzania odrzuca tradycyjne, państwo-centryczne ujęcie polityki światowej218. W jego miejsce proponuje analizę globalnych, regionalnych i transnarodowych systemów władzy, a także procesów tworzenia i implementacji reguł, jako kluczowych elementów współczesnego porządku światowego.\nObawy związane z narastającymi nierównościami oraz erozją zdolności państw do kontrolowania procesów globalizacyjnych stanowiły kolejny impuls do rozwoju koncepcji global governance. Nayan Chanda opisał ten proces jako „zamykaną globalizację” (bound together globalisation)219, wskazując na towarzyszące mu protesty społeczne skierowane przeciwko działaniom międzynarodowych instytucji gospodarczych, takich jak WTO, MFW i Bank\nŚwiatowy220. W konsekwencji pojawiły się nowe sposoby myślenia o globalnym ładzie, w których kluczową rolę zaczęły odgrywać zarówno ruchy społeczne, jak i podmioty prywatne221.\nScholte definiuje „globalne zarządzanie” jako „zespół zasad i instytucji regulacyjnych, które mają zastosowanie do jurysdykcji transplanetarnych i okręgów wyborczych”222. Używając określenia „transplanetarny”, Scholte\n217 K.A. Mingst, Essentials of international relations, New York, NY 1999.\n218 D. Held (red.), Governing globalization: power, authority and global governance, Cambridge 2011.\n219 N. Chanda, Runaway Globalization Without Governance, „Global Governance” t. 14 nr 2\n(2008).\n220 L. Amoore (red.), The global resistance reader, London ; New York 2005.\n221 R. Väyrynen (red.), Globalization and global governance, Lanham, Md. 1999.\n222 J.A. Scholte, Global governance, accountability and civil society, [w:] J. A. Scholte (red.),\nBuilding Global Democracy?, Cambridge University Press 2011.\n\nodnosi się do powiązań między osobami lub organizacjami „znajdującymi się w dowolnych, nadających się do zamieszkania punktach na Ziemi”. Powiązania te nie ograniczają się do konkretnego kraju ani regionu. Mogą one potencjalnie obejmować dowolny obszar na świecie. Definicja Scholtego pozostawia otwartą możliwość, że globalne zarządzanie obejmuje nie tylko państwa narodowe, lecz także inne rodzaje podmiotów – w tym przedsiębiorstwa, organizacje społeczeństwa obywatelskiego, władze lokalne oraz grupy i agencje regionalne.\nZ koncepcją globalnego zarządzania wiąże się rozwój tego, co można określić mianem „globalnej przestrzeni publicznej”, w której zachodzą procesy formułowania polityki. John G. Ruggie odnosi się do powstającej „globalnej domeny publicznej”, definiując ją jako „zinstytucjonalizowaną arenę dyskursu, kontestacji i działań zorganizowanych wokół produkcji globalnych dóbr publicznych.\nJest ona tworzona przez interakcje między podmiotami niepaństwowymi oraz państwami”223. Umożliwia bezpośrednią ekspresję i realizację różnorodnych interesów ludzkich – nie tylko tych filtrowanych, interpretowanych lub narzucanych przez państwa. Funkcjonuje w transnarodowych, nieterytorialnych formacjach przestrzennych, zakotwiczonych w normach, oczekiwaniach, sieciach i obwodach instytucjonalnych wewnątrz, pomiędzy i poza państwami224. Podobnie Manuel Castells odnosi się do pojęcia „globalnej sfery publicznej”, istniejącej w przestrzeni politycznej, kształtowanej przez relacje między państwami a globalnymi podmiotami niepaństwowymi225. Dodaje on, że „różnorodne interesy społeczne wyrażają się na tej arenie międzynarodowej – wielonarodowy biznes, religie świata, twórcy kultury, intelektualiści publiczni i samookreśleni globalni kosmopolici”226. Zarówno dla Ruggiego, jak i dla Castellsa globalne zarządzanie zachodzi w tych przestrzeniach, w których różne konstelacje zaangażowanych aktorów proponują, debatują i uzgadniają polityki oraz zasady, następnie wdrażane zarówno przez państwa, jak i przez aktorów publicznych i prywatnych. Globalne zarządzanie można rozumieć jako celowy porządek wyłaniający się z instytucji, procesów, norm, formalnych porozumień oraz nieformalnych mechanizmów regulujących działania na rzecz dobra wspólnego.\nObejmuje ono aktywność na poziomie międzynarodowym, transnarodowym\n223 J.G. Ruggie, Global governance and” new governance theory”: Lessons from business and human rights...\n224 Ibid.\n225 M. Castells, The new public sphere: Global civil society, communication networks, and global governance, „The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social\nScience” t. 616 nr 1 (2008).\n226 Ibid.\n\ni regionalnym oraz odnosi się do praktyk w sektorze publicznym i prywatnym, które wykraczają poza granice państw narodowych. W tej koncepcji współpraca opiera się na prawach i zasadach egzekwowanych poprzez połączenie bodźców finansowych i moralnych. Wobec braku jednej autorytatywnej instytucji lub struktury rządu światowego globalne zarządzanie składa się z elementów i metod pochodzących zarówno z sektora publicznego, jak i prywatnego. Do podstawowych elementów należą uzgodnione standardy, ewoluujące normy oparte na wspólnych wartościach oraz dyrektywy wydawane i egzekwowane przez państwa. Metody globalnego zarządzania obejmują harmonizację prawa między państwami, reżimy międzynarodowe, globalne sieci tematyczne oraz hybrydowe instytucje łączące funkcje agencji państwowych i organizacji sektora prywatnego. Koncepcja globalnego zarządzania ujawnia dwa zestawy wciąż nierozwiązanych problemów: pierwszy dotyczy legitymizacji i roszczeń do sprawowania władzy w ramach struktur ponadnarodowych, drugi – wartości demokratycznych oraz przejrzystości procesów decyzyjnych.\nW przeciwieństwie do teorii zarządzania na szczeblu lokalnym i krajowym, umowa społeczna między obywatelami a instytucjami globalnego zarządzania nie została dostatecznie rozwinięta, by stanowić solidną podstawę legitymizacji. W obowiązującej koncepcji globalne zarządzanie utożsamiane jest z demokratycznym sprawowaniem władzy. Jednak poleganie na organach naukowych i zawodowych przy ustalaniu standardów, zasad i procedur, na biurokratycznych agencjach państwowych przy wdrażaniu polityk oraz na organizacjach wolontariackich w zakresie monitorowania zgodności, z których żadna nie funkcjonuje w oparciu o demokratyczne zasady reprezentacji i równego uczestnictwa, rodzi pytania o zgodność wartości demokratycznych z koncepcją globalnego zarządzania.\nWspółczesne zarządzanie publiczne funkcjonuje na wielu poziomach, a jego lokalny wymiar znacząco różni się od podejścia stosowanego na szczeblu krajowym oraz w sektorze prywatnym. Lokalna administracja, funkcjonująca w bezpośredniej bliskości obywateli, charakteryzuje się większą wrażliwością i elastycznością, co umożliwia jej lepsze dostosowanie się do specyficznych potrzeb społeczności. Jednocześnie podlega jednak ścisłym ograniczeniom wynikającym z krajowych ram prawnych, które mogą ograniczać innowacyjność i kreatywność lokalnych przywódców. Aby sprostać tym wymaganiom, lokalni decydenci muszą stosować niestandardowe i kreatywne rozwiązania, które umożliwią im z jednej strony reagowanie na bezpośrednie sygnały od obywateli, a z drugiej – działanie w ramach narzuconych regulacji państwowych.\n\nLokalne zarządzanie nie funkcjonuje w próżni – jest poddawane presji zarówno ze strony obywateli i regulacji państwowych, jak i wpływom globalnych trendów. Globalizacja, neoliberalizm i decentralizacja stanowią trzy kluczowe siły kształtujące współczesne zarządzanie publiczne. Globalizacja, interpretowana m.in. jako presja wywierana przez globalne elity korporacyjne, zmierza do ograniczenia roli państwa opiekuńczego, co niekiedy prowadzi do redefinicji funkcji samego państwa227. W tym kontekście pojawiają się opinie, iż rosnąca niezależność korporacji transnarodowych może prowadzić do teoretycznej „redundancji” państw narodowych228.\nZ jednej strony autorzy tacy jak James A. Stever postrzegają globalizację jako zagrożenie dla funkcjonowania sektora publicznego, podczas gdy Jeremy\nRifkin wiąże ją z erozją tradycyjnych form zatrudnienia229. Z drugiej strony Bezovšek i Črnčec podkreślają, że administracja państwowa pozostaje niezbędnym elementem współzależnych relacji między rynkiem, polityką oraz sektorami publicznym i prywatnym230. Globalizacja, w połączeniu z dynamicznym rozwojem technologii informacyjno-komunikacyjnych, wymusza na państwach dostosowanie systemów administracyjnych poprzez modyfikację struktur organizacyjnych, zakresu autonomii oraz metod zarządzania.\nNeoliberalne podejście, które zyskało na znaczeniu od lat 70. XX wieku, znalazło odzwierciedlenie w koncepcji new public management (NPM).\nKoncepcja ta zakładała ograniczenie roli tradycyjnej administracji publicznej na rzecz wprowadzenia mechanizmów rynkowych do sektora publicznego. Reformy te miały na celu zwiększenie efektywności świadczenia usług publicznych przy jednoczesnym ograniczeniu kosztów oraz stymulowaniu\n227 J. Habermas, T. Burger, J. Habermas, The structural transformation of the public sphere:\nan inquiry into a category of bourgeois society, Cambridge, Mass 1998; C. Offe, New Social\nMovements: Challenging the Boundaries of Institutional Politics, „Social Research: An\nInternational Quarterly” t. 52 (1985).\n228 A. Kharrazi et al., Redundancy, Diversity, and Modularity in Network Resilience: Applications for International Trade and Implications for Public Policy, „Current Research in\nEnvironmental Sustainability” t. 2 (2020), DOI: 10.1016/j.crsust.2020.06.001; J. Naisbitt,\nGlobal paradox: The bigger the world economy, the more powerful its smallest players,\n„Journal of Leisure Research” t. 26 nr 4 (1994), DOI: 10.1080/00222216.1994.11969972;\nR.P. Singh, Globalisation and the Challenges of Twenty First Century: Impact of Transnational Activities on Nation – State, „India Quarterly” t. 62 nr 2 (2006).\n229 The End of Public Administration, James A. Stever. 1988. Transnational Publishers, Inc.,\nArdsley-on-Hudson, NY. 250 pages. ISBN: 0-941320-29-4. $37.50, „Bulletin of Science,\nTechnology & Society” t. 8 nr 4 (1988), DOI: 10.1177/0270467688008004142.\n230 J. Rifkin, The end of work: the decline of the global labor force and the dawn of the post-market era, New York 1996.\n\nwzrostu gospodarczego231. W praktyce neoliberalizm skutkował m.in. redukcją państwowego wsparcia finansowego, przekazywaniem nowych zadań na poziom lokalny oraz wdrażaniem systemów motywacyjnych premiujących efektywność232.\nMechanizmy te umożliwiły rozwój partnerstw publiczno-prywatnych, tworzenie specjalnych stref ekonomicznych, obniżanie podatków dla inwestorów oraz promowanie idei konkurencyjności w skali globalnej. Jednocześnie budzi to jednak obawy o stabilność finansową lokalnych budżetów – korporacje transnarodowe mogą w każdej chwili zmienić swoje decyzje strategiczne, co w konsekwencji osłabia pozycję władz lokalnych w negocjacjach dotyczących długoterminowej współpracy z inwestorami.\nDecentralizacja, rozumiana jako przeniesienie kompetencji i władzy z poziomu krajowego na lokalny, jest często postrzegana jako kluczowy element procesu demokratyzacji administracji publicznej. Według niektórych autorów233 decentralizacja sprzyja zwiększeniu partycypacji obywatelskiej, co w konsekwencji może wzmacniać procesy demokratyczne234. Z kolei inni badacze postrzegają ją przede wszystkim jako narzędzie zwiększające efektywność świadczenia usług publicznych.\nHendri Kroukamp i Liezel Lues wskazują, że fala demokratyzacji, towarzysząca modernizacji administracji publicznej, jest także efektem presji ekonomicznej, która wymusza wprowadzenie bardziej elastycznego i efektywnego modelu zarządzania235. Różnice w podejściu do decentralizacji obserwuje się między państwami, gdyż jej wdrażanie zależy od specyficznych uwarunkowań instytucjonalnych, doświadczeń historycznych oraz potrzeb społecznych.\nDoświadczenia z ostatnich dwóch dekad wskazują, że decentralizacja stała się nieodłącznym elementem strategii rozwoju administracji publicznej na całym świecie236.\n231 O.E. Hughes, Public management and administration: an introduction, Basingstoke 2009.\n232 N. Brenner, N. Theodore (red.), Spaces of Neoliberalism: Urban Restructuring in North\nAmerica and Western Europe, Wiley 2002.\n233 L.J. Diamond, Developing democracy: toward consolidation, Baltimore (Md.) London 1999.\nJ. Fox, Latin America’s Emerging Local Politics, „Journal of Democracy” t. 5 nr 2 (1994),\nDOI: 10.1353/jod.1994.0021\n234 E.H. Stein, J.M. Streb, Fiscal Decentralization and Government Size in Latin America, Inter-American Development Bank, 1 stycznia 1998 r., https://publications.iadb.org/en/node/11966.\n235 H. Kroukamp, Liezel Lues, Improving Local Management, Unpublished, 2007 r., http:// rgdoi.net/10.13140/2.1.4486.1761.\n236 W. Dillinger, M. Fay, From centralized to decentralized governance, „Finance and Development” t. 36 nr 4 (1999).\n\nPodsumowując, współczesne zarządzanie lokalne stoi przed licznymi wyzwaniami wynikającymi zarówno z wewnętrznych ograniczeń narzucanych przez państwo, jak i zewnętrznych presji o charakterze globalnym. Globalizacja i neoliberalizm nie tylko redefiniują rolę państwa, lecz także przekształcają sposoby funkcjonowania administracji publicznej. W odpowiedzi na te procesy władze lokalne muszą opracowywać strategie, które łączą efektywność działania z poszanowaniem zasad demokratycznych. Kluczowym zadaniem administracji lokalnej jest tworzenie środowiska, które minimalizuje ryzyko niestabilności finansowej oraz sprzyja długoterminowej współpracy z partnerami międzynarodowymi, przy jednoczesnym uwzględnianiu oczekiwań obywateli.\nW obliczu tych wyzwań konieczna staje się pogłębiona refleksja nad sposobami integrowania globalnych trendów z lokalnymi realiami. Pomimo licznych trudności lokalne społeczności mają szansę na wypracowanie bardziej zrównoważonych i responsywnych modeli zarządzania, które nie tylko odpowiadają na bieżące potrzeby, lecz także potrafią sprostać przyszłym wyzwaniom globalnej gospodarki i zmieniającej się polityki.\nLokalne zarządzanie jako przestrzeń dynamicznych relacji między obywatelami a państwem, nieustannie ewoluuje pod wpływem globalnych trendów oraz reform neoliberalnych. Różnorodne podejścia do decentralizacji oraz potrzeba wdrażania innowacyjnych rozwiązań stanowią zarówno wyzwania, jak i szanse dla rozwoju administracji publicznej. Kluczowym zadaniem decydentów jest odnalezienie równowagi między elastycznością a obowiązującymi regulacjami, co umożliwi tworzenie bardziej efektywnych i demokratycznych struktur zarządzania.\nRozwój koncepcji global governance był odpowiedzią na rosnącą współzależność, wzrastającą liczbę aktorów oraz potrzebę zarządzania procesami wykraczającymi poza granice państwowe. Współczesne badania nad tą problematyką koncentrują się nie tylko na formalnych mechanizmach zarządzania sprawami globalnymi, lecz także na roli sieci społecznych, organizacji pozarządowych, korporacji międzynarodowych oraz nieformalnych porozumień między zróżnicowanymi podmiotami. Wszystko to sprawia, że global governance pozostaje jednym z najbardziej dynamicznych i wieloaspektowych obszarów badań nad współczesnym ładem międzynarodowym.\nSyntetyczne porównanie poszczególnych podejść governance wraz z przykładami ich zastosowania w komunikacji z diasporą przedstawiono w tabeli 7.\n\nTabela 7. Podejścia governance a współpraca z diasporą\nZnaczenie\nPodejście Przykłady\nGłówne cechy dla współpracy governance zastosowania z diasporą\nSieciowe relacje między państwem,\nKlasyczne Umożliwia włączanie Kanada – programy samorządami, governance organizacji diaspory jako partnerskie organizacjami\n(wielopodmiotowe partnerów w procesie z organizacjami pozarządowymi rządy) decyzyjnym polonijnymi i sektorem prywatnym\nAkcent na udział\nCzłonkowie diaspory obywateli uczestniczą Irlandia –\nPartycpacyjne w procesie w konsultacjach fora konsultacyjne\n(participatory decyzyjnym oraz dotyczących z diasporą, Polska – governance) prowadzenie polityk migracyjnych Rada Polonii Świata konsultacji i kulturalnych społecznych\nKoordynacja Diaspory mogą\nIzrael – globalne sieci działań poprzez funkcjonować jako węzły\nSieciowe (network wsparcia elastyczne sieci – pośredniczą governance) (np. Jewish Agency, sieci instytucji w wymianie wiedzy,\nBirthright Israel) i organizacji kapitału i kontaktów\nElastyczność\nFilipiny – szybka instytucji, zdolność Umożliwia dostosowanie adaptacja usług\nAdaptacyjne (ada- uczenia się polityk do zmieniających konsularnych dla ptive governance) i szybkiego się potrzeb społeczności pracowników reagowania na migracyjnych zagranicznych zmiany\nWspółpraca państw, organizacji Chiny – międzynarodowych Diaspora jako kanał wykorzystanie\nGlobalne (global i aktorów dyplomacji publicznej diaspory w relacjach governance) transnarodowych oraz narzędzie soft power gospodarczych na poziomie i politycznych ponadnarodowym\nŹródło: opracowanie własne na podstawie: A. Gamlen, Diaspora institutions and diaspora governance,\n„International Migration Review” t. 48 (2014), DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/imre.12136; J. Kooiman, Governing as governance, London; Thousand Oaks, Calif 2003; M. Lesińska, Polska diaspora, Polonia, emigracja. Spory pojęciowe wokół skupisk polskich za granicą...; R.A.W. Rhodes, From Institutions to Dogma: Tradition, Eclecticism, and Ideology in the Study of British Public Administration, „Public Administration Review” t. 56 nr 6 (1996), DOI:\n10.2307/977249.\n\n4. Teoria interesariuszy\nK. Zienkiewicz\nTeoria interesariuszy (stakeholder theory) to koncepcja, która początkowo rozwijała się w obszarze zarządzania przedsiębiorstwami, lecz z czasem znalazła szerokie zastosowanie również w administracji publicznej Zakłada ona, że organizacje – zarówno prywatne, jak i publiczne – powinny uwzględniać interesy różnych grup, które wywierają wpływ na ich działalność lub są nią bezpośrednio dotknięte.\nAdministracja publiczna nie funkcjonuje w próżni – jej działalność oddziałuje na liczne grupy społeczne i instytucje, a zarazem podlega ich oczekiwaniom. Kluczowe założenia tej teorii w sektorze publicznym obejmują:\nÒ Wielowymiarowy charakter zarządzania publicznego – organy administracji muszą uwzględniać interesy obywateli, organizacji społecznych, sektora prywatnego oraz innych podmiotów życia publicznego.\nÒ Konieczność równoważenia interesów różnych grup powoduje, że administracja publiczna powinna działać w sposób zrównoważony i sprawiedliwy, dążąc do minimalizowania konfliktów między interesariuszami, w przeciwieństwie do przedsiębiorstw, których głównym celem jest maksymalizacja zysku.\nÒ Zwiększona odpowiedzialność i przejrzystość działania – sektor publiczny podlega znacznie większej kontroli społecznej niż sektor prywatny, dlatego powinien funkcjonować w sposób transparentny oraz pozostawać otwarty na dialog z interesariuszami.\n\n4.1. Wielowymiarowy charakter zarządzania publicznego\nZarządzanie publiczne ma z natury charakter wielowymiarowy i obejmuje różnorodne aspekty, takie jak wdrażanie polityk publicznych, efektywność administracyjną, zaangażowanie interesariuszy oraz struktury zarządzania.\nW przeciwieństwie do zarządzania w sektorze prywatnym, które koncentruje się głównie na rentowności i konkurencji rynkowej, zarządzanie publiczne integruje czynniki ekonomiczne, polityczne, prawne i społeczne, aby zapewnić skuteczne kierowanie oraz świadczenie usług publicznych1. Wielowymiarowy charakter zarządzania publicznego wynika z jego szerokiego zakresu, różnorodności interesariuszy oraz złożoności problematyki polityki publicznej.\nPojęcie zarządzania w kontekście sektora publicznego odnosi się do struktur, procesów i mechanizmów, które umożliwiają skuteczne podejmowanie decyzji, alokację zasobów oraz zapewnienie odpowiedzialności w administracji publicznej2. W przeciwieństwie do organizacji prywatnych, które odpowiadają głównie przed akcjonariuszami, podmioty sektora publicznego są rozliczane przez wielu interesariuszy, w tym obywateli, wybranych przedstawicieli oraz organy nadzorcze. Ramy zarządzania, takie jak Nowe Zarządzanie Publiczne oraz Zarządzanie Wartością Publiczną, akcentują odmienne podejścia do kwestii odpowiedzialności w sektorze publicznym3.\nModel NPM koncentruje się na zarządzaniu zorientowanym na rezultaty, w ramach którego agencje publiczne adaptują zasady sektora prywatnego, takie jak efektywność, konkurencyjność oraz ocena oparta na wynikach4.\nKrytycy wskazują jednak, że nadmierne oparcie zarządzania publicznego na modelach sektora prywatnego może prowadzić do ograniczenia przejrzystości i inkluzywności, które stanowią fundament demokratycznego sprawowania władzy5. W przeciwieństwie do tego model PVM akcentuje podejście oparte na współpracy, w ramach którego wartość publiczna jest tworzona poprzez\n1 R.B. Denhardt, T.J. Catlaw, Theories of public organization...\n2 P. Katsamunska, The concept of governance and public governance theories, „Economic\nAlternatives” t. 2 nr 2 (2016).\n3 S.P. Osborne (red.), The new public governance?...; G. Marcon, Public Value Theory in the Context of Public Sector Modernization, [w:] J. Guthrie et al. (red.), Studies in Public and Non-Profit Governance, t. 3, Emerald Group Publishing Limited 2014.\n4 C. Hood, A Public Management for all Seasons?...\n5 T. Christensen, P. Lægreid, Complexity and Hybrid Public Administration—Theoretical and Empirical Challenges...\n\npartnerstwa między instytucjami rządowymi, społeczeństwem obywatelskim oraz sektorem prywatnym6.\nZarządzanie publiczne musi uwzględniać zróżnicowane interesy interesariuszy, w tym obywateli, grup interesu, urzędników administracji publicznej oraz wybranych przedstawicieli politycznych7. W przeciwieństwie do organizacji prywatnych, które koncentrują się głównie na obsłudze klientów i zaspokajaniu oczekiwań udziałowców, organizacje publiczne funkcjonują w środowisku, w którym liczni interesariusze oddziałują na proces decyzyjny oraz rezultaty polityk publicznych. Koncepcja koprodukcji (co-production) zyskała na znaczeniu w zarządzaniu publicznym, podkreślając rolę obywateli oraz organizacji społeczeństwa obywatelskiego w procesie współprojektowania i współwdrażania usług publicznych8.\nPrzykładem może być budżet partycypacyjny, w ramach którego obywatele są bezpośrednio zaangażowani w proces przydzielania środków publicznych, uznawany powszechnie za skuteczne narzędzie wzmacniania zaangażowania interesariuszy9. Tego rodzaju inicjatywy nie tylko zwiększają przejrzystość procesów decyzyjnych, lecz także wzmacniają poczucie odpowiedzialności obywatelskiej oraz zaufanie do instytucji publicznych. Skuteczne angażowanie interesariuszy wymaga jednak solidnych ram oraz mechanizmów instytucjonalnych gwarantujących inkluzywność, zwłaszcza w odniesieniu do grup zmarginalizowanych, które często pozostają wykluczone z tradycyjnych procesów decyzyjnych10.\nInnym kluczowym wymiarem zarządzania publicznego jest efektywność administracyjna, obejmująca optymalizację wykorzystania zasobów, usprawnianie procesów oraz doskonalenie jakości świadczenia usług publicznych.\nEfektywność administracji publicznej jest często oceniana przy wykorzystaniu systemów zarządzania wydajnością, które analizują takie wskaźniki, jak jakość usług, efektywność kosztowa oraz wpływ realizowanych polityk publicznych11.\n6 M.H. Moore, Creating public value...; A.B. Savignon et al. (red.), Cross-sectoral Relations in the Delivery of Public Services, Emerald Publishing, Bingley 2018.\n7 J.M. Bryson, B. George, Strategic planning for public and nonprofit organizations: a guide to strengthening and sustaining organizational achievement, Hoboken, NJ 2024.\n8 T. Bovaird, Beyond Engagement and Participation: User and Community Coproduction of Public Services, „Public Administration Review” t. 67 nr 5 (2007), s. 846–860, DOI:\n10.1111/j.1540-6210.2007.00773.x\n9 A. Fung, Varieties of Participation in Complex Governance...\n10 C. Ansell, A. Gash, Collaborative Governance in Theory and Practice...\n11 W.V. Dooren, G. Bouckaert, J. Halligan, Performance management in the public sector,\nRoutledge 2010.\n\nOsiągnięcie wysokiej efektywności administracyjnej w sektorze publicznym stanowi jednak istotne wyzwanie ze względu na złożoność struktur biurokratycznych oraz liczne ograniczenia regulacyjne. W przeciwieństwie do organizacji prywatnych, które potrafią elastycznie reagować na zmiany rynkowe, instytucje publiczne funkcjonują w warunkach licznych ograniczeń prawnych i politycznych, mogących spowalniać proces podejmowania decyzji12. Wdrożenie rozwiązań z zakresu cyfrowego zarządzania i e-administracji postrzegane jest jako skuteczny sposób zwiększania wydajności poprzez automatyzację procesów oraz redukcję opóźnień biurokratycznych13. Transformacja cyfrowa w zarządzaniu publicznym umożliwia analizę danych w czasie rzeczywistym, usprawnia koordynację między instytucjami oraz zwiększa zaangażowanie obywateli poprzez wykorzystanie platform cyfrowych.\nWdrażanie polityk publicznych stanowi podstawową funkcję zarządzania publicznego, wymagającą koordynacji między różnymi szczeblami administracji, instytucjami publicznymi oraz podmiotami prywatnymi. Skuteczna realizacja polityk publicznych zależy od zdolności instytucjonalnych, odpowiednich ram regulacyjnych oraz efektywnej współpracy międzyrządowej14.\nStrategie polityczne mogą zakończyć się niepowodzeniem z powodu wąskich gardeł administracyjnych, ograniczonych zasobów lub braku woli politycznej, co podkreśla znaczenie skutecznych praktyk zarządzania publicznego.\nKoordynacja międzyrządowa odgrywa kluczową rolę w zdecentralizowanych systemach zarządzania publicznego, w których odpowiedzialność za realizację polityk publicznych jest podzielona między szczeble krajowy, regionalny i lokalny15. Na przykład w systemach federalnych menedżerowie publiczni muszą mierzyć się ze złożonymi, nakładającymi się jurysdykcjami oraz konkurującymi priorytetami politycznymi pomiędzy różnymi poziomami administracji publicznej. Wyzwania związane z wdrażaniem polityk publicznych są dodatkowo potęgowane przez procesy globalizacyjne, które wymagają od menedżerów publicznych współpracy z organizacjami międzynarodowymi,\n12 C. Pollitt, G. Bouckaert, Public management reform...\n13 P. Dunleavy, New Public Management is Dead – Long Live Digital-Era Governance, „Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory” t. 16 nr 3 (2005), DOI: 10.1093/jopart/ mui057\n14 M. Hill, P.L. Hupe, M. Hill, Implementing public policy: an introduction to the study of operational governance, Los Angeles, Calif. 2014.\n15 L.J. O’Toole, Research on Policy Implementation: Assessment and Prospects, „Journal of\nPublic Administration Research and Theory” t. 10 nr 2 (2000), DOI: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.jpart.a024270\n\nkorporacjami transnarodowymi oraz w ramach ponadnarodowych struktur regulacyjnych16.\nZarządzanie publiczne wiąże się również z istotnymi aspektami etycznymi, ponieważ od pracowników administracji publicznej oczekuje się przestrzegania zasad uczciwości, bezstronności oraz odpowiedzialności. W przeciwieństwie do menedżerów sektora prywatnego, którzy koncentrują się głównie na maksymalizacji wartości dla akcjonariuszy, menedżerowie publiczni muszą równoważyć zobowiązania prawne, standardy etyczne oraz oczekiwania społeczne17. Zjawiska takie jak korupcja, konflikty interesów czy niewydolność biurokracji podważają zaufanie publiczne oraz osłabiają legitymizację instytucji państwowych18.\nW celu ograniczenia ryzyka etycznego instytucje publiczne wdrażają kodeksy postępowania, polityki ochrony sygnalistów oraz mechanizmy przejrzystości, które wzmacniają odpowiedzialność i rozliczalność działań19. Niezależne organy nadzorcze, takie jak komisje antykorupcyjne czy instytucje audytowe, odgrywają kluczową rolę w zapewnianiu zgodności działań administracji z obowiązującymi normami etycznymi20. Ponadto promowanie kultury organizacyjnej, w której etyczne zachowanie stanowi priorytet, jest niezbędne dla utrzymania zaufania obywateli do instytucji publicznych21.\nWielowymiarowy charakter zarządzania publicznego odzwierciedla złożoność procesów rządzenia we współczesnych społeczeństwach. Menedżerowie publiczni muszą mierzyć się z różnorodnymi wyzwaniami, obejmującymi kwestie zarządzania i odpowiedzialności, zaangażowania interesariuszy, efektywności administracyjnej, wdrażania polityk publicznych oraz zagadnień etycznych. Każdy z tych wymiarów odgrywa kluczową rolę w zapewnianiu skutecznego świadczenia usług publicznych oraz w utrzymywaniu zaufania społecznego do instytucji państwowych. Wraz z ewolucją zarządzania publicznego integracja innowacyjnych ram zarządzania, narzędzi cyfrowych oraz mechanizmów partycypacyjnych będzie miała kluczowe znaczenie dla\n16 J. Pierre, B.G. Peters, Governance, politics, and the state, London 2020.\n17 W. Cameron, Public Accountability: Effectiveness, Equity, Ethics, „Australian Journal of\nPublic Administration” t. 63 nr 4 (2004), DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-8500.2004.00402.x\n18 J. Hausner, Zarządzanie publiczne...\n19 M. Kaptein, Developing a Measure of Unethical Behavior in the Workplace: A Stakeholder\nPerspective, „Journal of Management” t. 34 nr 5 (2008), DOI: 10.1177/0149206308318614\n20 M. Johnston, Syndromes of Corruption: Wealth, Power, and Democracy, Cambridge\nUniversity Press 2005.\n21 C.W. Lewis, S. Gilman, The ethics challenge in public service: a problem-solving guide,\nSan Francisco, CA 2012.\n\nsprostania nowym wyzwaniom, a także dla zwiększenia skuteczności i zdolności adaptacyjnych administracji publicznej.\n4.1.1. Konieczność równoważenia interesów różnych grup w zarządzaniu publicznym\nZarządzanie publiczne charakteryzuje się złożonością polegającą na konieczności równoważenia interesów licznych interesariuszy, wśród których znajdują się obywatele, agencje rządowe, organizacje prywatne, grupy społeczeństwa obywatelskiego oraz instytucje międzynarodowe. W przeciwieństwie do zarządzania w sektorze prywatnym, które koncentruje się głównie na maksymalizacji zysków, zarządzanie publiczne musi godzić liczne, często sprzeczne priorytety, takie jak sprawiedliwość społeczna, efektywność ekonomiczna, wykonalność polityczna oraz ograniczenia prawne22.\nZnalezienie równowagi między tymi sprzecznymi interesami ma kluczowe znaczenie dla zapewnienia skutecznego zarządzania oraz wysokiej jakości świadczenia usług publicznych. Menedżerowie publiczni muszą mierzyć się z naciskami politycznymi, ograniczonymi zasobami oraz dylematami etycznymi, zachowując jednocześnie przejrzystość działania i odpowiedzialność instytucjonalną. W niniejszej sekcji przeanalizowano kluczowe wyzwania związane z równoważeniem interesów interesariuszy, obejmujące m.in. zaangażowanie obywateli, relacje międzyrządowe, partnerstwa publiczno-prywatne oraz etyczne aspekty zarządzania.\nJednym z kluczowych celów zarządzania publicznego jest zagwarantowanie, że polityki publiczne oraz decyzje rządowe odzwierciedlają potrzeby i preferencje obywateli23. Administracja publiczna musi równoważyć oczekiwania różnych grup społecznych, z których każda reprezentuje odmienne interesy i potrzeby. Na przykład polityka ukierunkowana na wzrost gospodarczy może zyskać poparcie środowisk biznesowych, lecz spotkać się z oporem ze strony organizacji ekologicznych, które podkreślają potrzebę zrównoważonego rozwoju.\nMechanizmy, takie jak konsultacje publiczne, budżet partycypacyjny czy obywatelskie rady doradcze, umożliwiają uwzględnianie opinii i sugestii obywateli w procesach decyzyjnych24. Partycypacyjne modele zarządzania sprzyjają większej inkluzywności i responsywności instytucji publicznych, umożliwiając\n22 R.B. Denhardt, T.J. Catlaw, Theories of public organization...\n23 J.M. Bryson, B. George, Strategic planning for public and nonprofit organizations...\n24 A. Fung, Varieties of Participation in Complex Governance...\n\nprojektowanie polityk lepiej odzwierciedlających interesy zróżnicowanych grup społecznych25. Jednocześnie menedżerowie publiczni muszą mierzyć się z wyzwaniami, takimi jak polaryzacja polityczna czy nierówna reprezentacja, które mogą prowadzić do dominacji silnych grup interesu nad społecznościami marginalizowanymi26.\nZarządzanie publiczne często wymaga koordynacji między różnymi szczeblami władzy, obejmującymi poziom krajowy, regionalny i lokalny. Taka struktura zarządzania generuje wyzwania związane z równoważeniem interesów, ponieważ poszczególne szczeble władzy mogą realizować odmienne priorytety polityczne oraz różne strategie alokacji zasobów27.\nNa przykład rządy centralne mogą priorytetowo traktować stabilność makroekonomiczną oraz rozwój handlu międzynarodowego, podczas gdy samorządy lokalne koncentrują się na rozwoju społeczności oraz poprawie dobrobytu publicznego28. Skuteczna współpraca międzyrządowa wymaga przejrzystej komunikacji, mechanizmów współdzielenia zasobów oraz skutecznych strategii rozwiązywania konfliktów, aby zapewnić dostosowanie polityk publicznych do potrzeb różnych szczebli administracji29. Zadanie to dodatkowo utrudniają rywalizacja polityczna oraz różnice w zdolnościach administracyjnych między poszczególnymi szczeblami władzy.\nWażną rolę w zarządzaniu publicznym odgrywają partnerstwa publiczno-prywatne (PPP). Stały się one kluczową strategią zwiększania efektywności i innowacyjności w świadczeniu usług publicznych. Partnerstwa te umożliwiają instytucjom publicznym wykorzystanie wiedzy i zasobów sektora prywatnego w celu usprawnienia infrastruktury, systemu opieki zdrowotnej czy usług edukacyjnych30. Jednocześnie partnerstwa te generują wyzwania związane z koniecznością równoważenia dążenia do zysku z realizacją interesu publicznego31.\n25 T. Nabatchi, Putting the “Public” Back in Public Values Research: Designing Participation to Identify and Respond to Values, „Public Administration Review” t. 72 nr 5 (2012), DOI:\n10.1111/j.1540-6210.2012.02544.x.\n26 C. Ansell, A. Gash, Collaborative Governance in Theory and Practice...\n27 L.J. O’Toole, Research on Policy Implementation: Assessment and Prospects, „Journal of\nPublic Administration Research and Theory” t. 10 nr 2 (2000), DOI: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.jpart.a024270.\n28 J. Pierre, B.G. Peters, Governance, politics, and the state...\n29 M. Hill, P.L. Hupe, M. Hill, Implementing public policy...\n30 D. Grimsey, M.K. Lewis, Public Private Partnerships: The Worldwide Revolution in Infrastructure Provision and Project Finance, Edward Elgar Publishing 2004.\n31 G.A. Hodge, C. Greve, Public–Private Partnerships: An International Performance Review,\n„Public Administration Review” t. 67 nr 3 (2007), DOI: 10.1111/j.1540-6210.2007.00736.x.\n\nPodczas gdy przedsiębiorstwa prywatne dążą do maksymalizacji zysków, rządy muszą zagwarantować, że usługi publiczne pozostaną powszechnie dostępne i przystępne cenowo dla wszystkich obywateli. Umowy partnerskie powinny być starannie konstruowane, aby zapobiegać zawyżaniu cen, praktykom monopolistycznym oraz pogorszeniu jakości usług32. Mechanizmy przejrzystości i rozliczalności, takie jak niezależne organy regulacyjne czy audyty efektywności działań, pomagają utrzymać równowagę między efektywnością a dobrem publicznym33.\nOsoby zarządzające w sektorze publicznym często stają przed koniecznością wyboru między sprawiedliwością, rozumianą jako sprawiedliwa dystrybucja zasobów, a efektywnością, definiowaną jako ich optymalne wykorzystanie.\nPolityki publiczne, które priorytetowo traktują efektywność – takie jak redukcja wydatków czy prywatyzacja – mogą prowadzić do wzrostu produktywności, lecz jednocześnie nieproporcjonalnie obciążają grupy szczególnie wrażliwe społecznie34.\nOgraniczenie dotacji publicznych na opiekę zdrowotną może wprawdzie obniżyć wydatki rządowe, lecz jednocześnie zwiększa obciążenia finansowe obywateli o niskich dochodach. Z kolei polityki ukierunkowane na sprawiedliwość społeczną – takie jak powszechne programy socjalne – mogą zwiększać dostępność usług, lecz jednocześnie stanowią znaczne obciążenie dla finansów publicznych. Administracja publiczna powinna starannie projektować polityki, które równoważą odpowiedzialność fiskalną z zasadą inkluzywności społecznej35.\nAdministracja publiczna funkcjonuje na styku przywództwa politycznego i biurokratycznego zarządzania, co wymaga od menedżerów publicznych równoważenia interesów urzędników wybieralnych oraz zawodowych członków służby cywilnej. Politycy często priorytetowo traktują krótkoterminowe cele wyborcze, podczas gdy biurokraci skupiają się na długoterminowej stabilności polityki publicznej oraz utrzymaniu integralności instytucjonalnej36.\nNa przykład urzędnicy wybieralni mogą opowiadać się za polityką popularną, lecz ekonomicznie niezrównoważoną, podczas gdy administratorzy publiczni akcentują podejmowanie decyzji opartych na dowodach37. Wyzwa-\n32 E.-H. Klijn, Networks and Inter-Organizational Management...\n33 S.P. Osborne (red.), The new public governance?...\n34 C. Pollitt, G. Bouckaert, Public management reform...\n35 R.B. Denhardt, T.J. Catlaw, Theories of public organization...\n36 T. Christensen, P. Lægreid, Complexity and Hybrid Public Administration—Theoretical and Empirical Challenges...\n37 C. Hood, A Public Management for all Seasons?...\n\nnie dla menedżerów publicznych stanowi zarządzanie tego rodzaju napięciami przy jednoczesnym zapewnieniu, że polityka publiczna pozostaje skuteczna, etyczna i zgodna z interesem społecznym38.\nEtyczne zarządzanie ma kluczowe znaczenie dla utrzymania zaufania publicznego oraz legitymacji instytucji rządowych. Menedżerowie publiczni powinni przestrzegać zasad przejrzystości, odpowiedzialności oraz bezstronności przy podejmowaniu decyzji wpływających na różne grupy interesariuszy39.\nDylematy etyczne często pojawiają się w sytuacjach, gdy sprzeczne interesy prowadzą do konfliktów – na przykład w kontekście lobbingu korporacyjnego, faworyzowania politycznego lub alokacji środków budżetowych. Ustanowienie przejrzystych kodeksów postępowania, mechanizmów ochrony sygnalistów oraz niezależnych organów nadzoru ma kluczowe znaczenie dla ograniczania korupcji i zapewnienia sprawiedliwego procesu decyzyjnego40. Etyczne przywództwo wzmacnia zaufanie do instytucji rządowych, jednocześnie sprzyjając większemu zaangażowaniu obywatelskiemu oraz zgodności z politykami publicznymi41.\nRównoważenie interesów interesariuszy w zarządzaniu publicznym stanowi złożone i ciągłe wyzwanie, wymagające strategicznych negocjacji, przejrzystości instytucjonalnej oraz zarządzania partycypacyjnego. Menedżerowie publiczni powinni reagować na konkurencyjne oczekiwania obywateli, przedsiębiorstw, przywódców politycznych i instytucji biurokratycznych, jednocześnie zapewniając, aby polityka publiczna pozostawała sprawiedliwa, skuteczna i etycznie uzasadniona. Skuteczna administracja publiczna opiera się na inkluzywnych ramach decyzyjnych, koordynacji międzyrządowej oraz etycznym przywództwie, które wspólnie przyczyniają się do budowy bardziej elastycznego i odpowiedzialnego systemu zarządzania publicznego.\n4.1.2. Odpowiedzialność i przejrzystość sektora publicznego\nOdpowiedzialność i przejrzystość w sektorze publicznym stanowią podstawowe filary demokratycznego sprawowania rządów. Gwarantują, że instytucje\n38 D.F. Kettl, The transformation of governance: public administration for twenty-first century\nAmerica, Baltimore, Md. 2002.\n39 J. Hausner, Zarządzanie publiczne...; C.W. Lewis, S. Gilman, The ethics challenge in public service...\n40 S. Rose-Ackerman, Corruption and Government: Causes, Consequences, and Reform,\nCambridge University Press, Cambridge 1999.\n41 M. Kaptein, Developing a Measure of Unethical Behavior in the Workplace: A Stakeholder\nPerspective, „Journal of Management” t. 34 nr 5 (2008), DOI: 10.1177/0149206308318614.\n\nrządowe oraz urzędnicy działają w najlepszym interesie obywateli, jednocześnie ograniczając nieefektywność, korupcję i niewłaściwe wykorzystanie zasobów publicznych42. Zapotrzebowanie na większą otwartość i odpowiedzialność instytucji państwowych rośnie wraz z postępem technologicznym, reformami sektora publicznego oraz upowszechnianiem międzynarodowych standardów zarządzania43.\nOdpowiedzialność publiczna odnosi się do obowiązku urzędników oraz instytucji publicznych do uzasadniania swoich działań i decyzji wobec zainteresowanych stron, w tym obywateli, przedsiębiorstw i agencji nadzorczych44.\nZ kolei przejrzystość odnosi się do jawności i dostępności informacji rządowych, umożliwiając obywatelom monitorowanie działań władz oraz uczestnictwo w procesach decyzyjnych45. W niniejszej sekcji omówiono kluczowe wymiary odpowiedzialności i przejrzystości w sektorze publicznym, obejmujące ramy prawne, zarządzanie cyfrowe, mechanizmy partycypacyjne oraz systemy oceny wyników.\nRamy prawne i regulacyjne odgrywają kluczową rolę w egzekwowaniu odpowiedzialności w sektorze publicznym. Wiele krajów wdrożyło przepisy dotyczące wolności informacji, polityki antykorupcyjnej oraz mechanizmy audytu w celu zapewnienia przejrzystości funkcjonowania instytucji publicznych46. Przepisy dotyczące dostępu do informacji publicznej gwarantują obywatelom prawo wglądu do rejestrów rządowych, promując otwartość w procesie kształtowania polityki oraz alokacji środków budżetowych.\nPonadto instytucje kontroli sektora publicznego, takie jak najwyższe izby kontroli, odgrywają kluczową rolę w ocenie zarządzania finansami agencji rządowych. Instytucje te pomagają wykrywać przypadki oszustw, nieefektywności oraz niewłaściwego zarządzania funduszami publicznymi, przyczyniając się do bardziej efektywnego wykorzystania środków pochodzących od podatników.\n42 M. Bovens, Analysing and Assessing Accountability...\n43 J. Hausner, Zarządzanie publiczne...; C. Hood, Accountability and Transparency: Siamese\nTwins, Matching Parts, Awkward Couple?, „West European Politics” t. 33 nr 5 (2010),\nDOI: 10.1080/01402382.2010.486122.\n44 R. Mulgan, Holding Power to Account, London 2003.\n45 D. Heald, Transparency: The Key to Better Governance?, British Academy 2006.\n46 A. Piskorz-Ryń, Jawność życia publicznego jako atrybut współczesnej administracji publicznej i prawa administracyjnego, „Zeszyty Prawnicze” t. 20 nr 4 (2020), DOI: 10.21697/ zp.2020.20.4.15; T. Erkkilä, Transparency in Public Administration, [w:] Oxford Research\nEncyclopedia of Politics, Oxford University Press 2020.\n\nSkuteczność tych mechanizmów zależy jednak od woli politycznej, potencjału instytucjonalnego oraz poziomu świadomości obywatelskiej47.\nPostęp technologiczny zrewolucjonizował przejrzystość w sektorze publicznym, czyniąc dane rządowe bardziej dostępnymi dla społeczeństwa. Inicjatywy związane z otwartymi danymi rządowymi umożliwiają obywatelom monitorowanie wydatków publicznych, zamówień oraz decyzji politycznych w czasie rzeczywistym48. Narzędzia zarządzania cyfrowego, takie jak platformy e-administracji, technologie blockchain oraz sztucznej inteligencji, usprawniły świadczenie usług publicznych, jednocześnie ograniczając możliwości występowania korupcji49.\nNa przykład systemy oparte na technologii blockchain zostały wdrożone w procesach zamówień publicznych w celu ograniczenia nieuczciwych praktyk oraz zwiększenia efektywności alokacji kontraktów50. Podobnie chatboty oparte na sztucznej inteligencji oraz platformy usług publicznych umożliwiają obywatelom uzyskanie informacji o programach rządowych bez zbędnych opóźnień biurokratycznych51. Jednak, mimo że narzędzia cyfrowe zwiększają przejrzystość, budzą także obawy związane z bezpieczeństwem danych, ochroną prywatności oraz nierównościami w zakresie kompetencji cyfrowych52.\n47 T. Schillemans, Does Horizontal Accountability Work?: Evaluating Potential Remedies for the Accountability Deficit of Agencies, „Administration & Society” t. 43 nr 4 (2011), DOI:\n10.1177/0095399711412931.; G.J. Brandsma, T. Schillemans, The Accountability Cube:\nMeasuring Accountability, „Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory”\n2013, t. 23, nr 4, DOI: 10.1093/jopart/mus034.\n48 M. Janssen, Y. Charalabidis, A. Zuiderwijk, Benefits, Adoption Barriers and Myths of\nOpen Data and Open Government, „Information Systems Management” t. 29 nr 4 (2012),\nDOI: 10.1080/10580530.2012.716740.\n49 J.C. Bertot, P.T. Jaeger, J.M. Grimes, Using ICTs to Create a Culture of Transparency:\nE-Government and Social Media as Openness and Anti-Corruption Tools for Societies,\n„Government Information Quarterly” t. 27 nr 3 (2010), DOI: 10.1016/j.giq.2010.03.001.\n50 S. Ølnes, J. Ubacht, M. Janssen, Blockchain in Government: Benefits and Implications of Distributed Ledger Technology for Information Sharing, „Government Information\nQuarterly” t. 34 nr 3 (2017), DOI: 10.1016/j.giq.2017.09.007.\n51 H. Margetts, P. Dunleavy, The Second Wave of Digital-Era Governance: A Quasi-Paradigm for Government on the Web, „Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A:\nMathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences” t. 371 nr 1987 (2013), DOI: 10.1098/ rsta.2012.0382.\n52 A. Cordella, C.M. Bonina, A Public Value Perspective for ICT Enabled Public Sector Reforms:\nA Theoretical Reflection, „Government Information Quarterly” t. 29 nr 4 (2012), DOI:\n10.1016/j.giq.2012.03.004.\n\n4.1.3. Zarządzanie partycypacyjne i zaangażowanie obywateli\nOdpowiedzialność publiczna zostaje wzmocniona, gdy obywatele są bezpośrednio zaangażowani w procesy decyzyjne administracji publicznej. Mechanizmy zarządzania partycypacyjnego, takie jak konsultacje publiczne, fora deliberatywne czy budżet partycypacyjny, zapewniają obywatelom przestrzeń do wywierania realnego wpływu na decyzje polityczne53.\nJednym z najbardziej udanych przykładów jest brazylijski model budżetu partycypacyjnego, w ramach którego obywatele współdecydują o alokacji funduszy miejskich, co sprzyja bardziej sprawiedliwemu podziałowi zasobów oraz ograniczeniu korupcji54. Zaangażowanie obywateli w proces sprawowania rządów sprzyja kulturze przejrzystości, ponieważ decyzje publiczne są podejmowane wspólnie, a nie za zamkniętymi drzwiami55.\nJednak skuteczne zarządzanie partycypacyjne wymaga zaangażowania instytucjonalnego, odpowiedniej alokacji zasobów oraz wdrożenia mechanizmów zapobiegających zawłaszczaniu procesu przez elity, zwłaszcza w sytuacjach, gdy potężne grupy interesu dominują w podejmowaniu decyzji56. W związku z tym urzędnicy publiczni powinni zapewnić, aby procesy konsultacyjne były inkluzywne oraz reprezentatywne dla zróżnicowanych grup społecznych.\nAby wzmocnić odpowiedzialność publiczną, rządy wdrożyły systemy pomiaru efektywności, które służą ocenie jakości świadczenia usług publicznych, wydajności instytucjonalnej oraz skuteczności realizowanych polityk.\nSystemy te obejmują kluczowe wskaźniki efektywności (key performance indicators – KPI), zrównoważone karty wyników (balanced scorecards) oraz badania śledzenia wydatków publicznych (public expenditure tracking surveys)57.\nNa przykład wiele państw wdrożyło koncepcję zarządzania opartego na wynikach (results-based anagement), aby zwiększyć skuteczność administracji\n53 A. Fung, Varieties of Participation in Complex Governance...\n54 B. Wampler, Participatory budgeting in Brazil: contestation, cooperation, and accountability, University Park, Pa 2009.\n55 D. Stasavage, Open-Door or Closed-Door? Transparency in Domestic and International Bargaining, „International Organization” t. 58 nr 04 (2004), DOI: 10.1017/S0020818304040214, http://www.journals.cambridge.org/abstract_S0020818304040214.\n56 J. Gaventa, Finding the Spaces for Change: A Power Analysis, „IDS Bulletin” 2006, t. 37, nr 6, DOI: 10.1111/j.1759-5436.2006.tb00320.x.\n57 W. Van Dooren, G. Bouckaert, J. Halligan, Performance Management in the Public Sector,\nRoutledge 2015.\n\npublicznej oraz podnieść jakość świadczonych usług58. Agencje publiczne są zobowiązane do wyznaczania mierzalnych celów, monitorowania postępów oraz raportowania osiągniętych wyników organom ustawodawczym i opinii publicznej. Takie podejście wzmacnia odpowiedzialność publiczną, ponieważ łączy finansowanie rządowe z osiąganymi wynikami, a nie z uwarunkowaniami politycznymi59.\nJednak systemy pomiaru efektywności napotykają liczne wyzwania, w tym manipulację danymi, przesunięcie celów oraz opór biurokratyczny60.\nAby zapewnić skuteczność tych systemów, niezależne organy nadzorcze oraz organizacje społeczeństwa obywatelskiego powinny weryfikować rzetelność sprawozdań i ocen rządowych.\nKorupcja pozostaje poważną barierą dla przejrzystości działań sektora publicznego, podważając zaufanie obywateli do instytucji rządowych. W odpowiedzi na to zjawisko wiele państw powołało agencje antykorupcyjne, komisje ds. etyki publicznej oraz wprowadziło przepisy dotyczące ochrony sygnalistów61,62. Konwencja Narodów Zjednoczonych przeciwko korupcji (UNCAC) stanowi globalne ramy wspierające przejrzystość, odpowiedzialność i uczciwość w administracji publicznej63. Przepisy dotyczące ochrony sygnalistów zachęcają urzędników publicznych oraz obywateli do zgłaszania przypadków korupcji i nieetycznych zachowań bez obawy przed odwetem64. Skuteczność tych środków zależy jednak od stopnia niezależności politycznej, zdolności egzekwowania prawa oraz poziomu wsparcia społecznego65. Niektóre państwa dysponują rozbudowanymi ramami antykorupcyjnymi, jednak brak woli\n58 D. Moynihan P., Through a Glass, Darkly: Understanding the Effects of Performance\nRegimes, „Public Performance & Management Review” t. 32 nr 4 (2009).\n59 R.D. Behn, Rethinking Democratic Accountability, Brookings Institution Press 2001.\n60 C. Hood, Accountability and Transparency: Siamese Twins, Matching Parts, Awkward\nCouple?, „West European Politics” t. 33 nr 5 (2010), DOI: 10.1080/01402382.2010.486122.\n61 S. Rose-Ackerman, Corruption and Government: Causes, Consequences, and Reform,\nCambridge University Press 1999.\n62 G. Makowski, Szykując grunt pod „wielką korupcję”: działania (anty)korupcyjne władz w latach 2015–2019, Warszawa 2020.\n63 United Nations, United Nations Convention Against Corruption, [w:] UN Office for Drugs and Crime 2024.\n64 D. Banisar, Whistleblowing: International Standards and Developments, [w:] I. Sandoval\n(red.), Corruption and Transparency: Debating the Frontiers Between State, Market and\nSociety, Washington D.C. 2011.\n65 M. Johnston, Syndromes of Corruption...\n\npolitycznej do ich skutecznego wdrażania prowadzi do selektywnego egzekwowania prawa oraz bezkarności wpływowych podmiotów66.\nPomimo znaczących postępów w zakresie przejrzystości i odpowiedzialności publicznej, wciąż utrzymują się istotne wyzwania. Zjawiska takie jak inercja biurokratyczna, ingerencja polityczna oraz nieskuteczne mechanizmy egzekwowania prawa w dalszym ciągu podważają zaufanie obywateli do instytucji rządowych. Ponadto zjawiska takie jak fałszywe wiadomości, dezinformacja oraz zagrożenia dla cyberbezpieczeństwa tworzą nowe wyzwania dla przejrzystości, gdyż zniekształcają percepcję społeczną i osłabiają wiarygodność instytucjonalną67.\nAby sprostać tym wyzwaniom, rządy powinny przyjąć podejście wielostronne, angażujące organizacje społeczeństwa obywatelskiego, środowiska akademickie oraz instytucje międzynarodowe w procesy zarządzania publicznego68. Wzmocnienie niezależnych instytucji nadzorczych, rozwój edukacji obywatelskiej oraz strategiczne wykorzystanie technologii będą miały kluczowe znaczenie dla wzmocnienia odpowiedzialności publicznej w erze cyfrowej.\nOdpowiedzialność i przejrzystość sektora publicznego odgrywają kluczową rolę w zapewnieniu dobrego rządzenia, przeciwdziałaniu korupcji oraz wzmacnianiu zaufania obywateli do instytucji publicznych. Poprzez wdrażanie ram prawnych, narzędzi cyfrowego zarządzania, mechanizmów partycypacyjnych oraz systemów oceny wyników, rządy mogą skutecznie zwiększać otwartość i odpowiedzialność w administracji publicznej. Jednak wyzwania, takie jak ingerencja polityczna, opór biurokratyczny czy zagrożenia związane z technologią, powinny być adresowane poprzez podejście oparte na współpracy, innowacyjności i etyce publicznej.\n4.2. Rodzaje interesariuszy w administracji publicznej\nAdministracja publiczna funkcjonuje w ramach złożonej sieci interesariuszy, którzy zarówno wpływają na polityki publiczne, regulacje i usługi rządowe, jak\n66 D. Singh, The Causes of Police Corruption and Working towards Prevention in Conflict-\nStricken States, „Laws” t. 11 nr 5 (2022), DOI: 10.3390/laws11050069.\n67 A. Legucka, R. Kupiecki (red.), Disinformation and the resilience of democratic societies,\nWarsaw 2023.\n68 J.G. Koppell, Pathologies of Accountability: ICANN and the Challenge of “Multiple\nAccountabilities Disorder”, „Public Administration Review” t. 65 nr 1 (2005), DOI:\n10.1111/j.1540-6210.2005.00434.x.\n\ni sami podlegają ich oddziaływaniu. Interesariuszy tych można ogólnie podzielić na grupy wewnętrzne i zewnętrzne, z których każda odgrywa odmienną rolę w kształtowaniu procesów administracyjnych oraz w podejmowaniu decyzji publicznych69,70. Interesariusz to zazwyczaj instytucja lub organizacja, która może wywierać istotny wpływ na jednostkę administracji publicznej oraz uczestniczy w jej procesach decyzyjnych71. Zrozumienie różnorodnych typów interesariuszy jest kluczowe dla skutecznego zarządzania, opracowywania polityk publicznych oraz świadczenia wysokiej jakości usług publicznych72.\nW procesie zarządzania interesariuszami w organizacji należy uwzględnić następujące etapy: a) prawidłowo zidentyfikować interesariuszy organizacji;\nb) określić ich rolę oraz znaczenie dla organizacji, uwzględniając zarówno potencjał, jak i możliwe zagrożenia; c) przeanalizować dotychczasową strategię współpracy z interesariuszami oraz opracować bardziej efektywną, zwłaszcza wobec kluczowych grup; d) zapewnić skuteczne wdrożenie i bieżący monitoring realizacji strategii73.\nPracownicy administracji publicznej stanowią trzon systemu sprawowania rządów, wdrażając polityki publiczne oddziałujące zarówno na obywateli, jak i na sektor prywatny. Ich rola wykracza poza tradycyjne zadania administracyjne, obejmując również funkcje doradcze, regulacyjne i egzekucyjne74.\nSkuteczność interesariuszy wewnętrznych zależy od poziomu ich kompetencji, przestrzegania standardów etycznych oraz zaangażowania w realizację wartości służby publicznej75. Przywództwo w instytucjach publicznych odgrywa kluczową rolę w wyznaczaniu kierunków strategicznych, wzmacnianiu odpowiedzialności oraz wspieraniu efektywności organizacyjnej76.\nObywatele stanowią kluczowych interesariuszy zewnętrznych administracji publicznej, ponieważ instytucje rządowe istnieją, by zaspokajać ich\n69 R.E. Freeman, Strategic Management...\n70 J. Świerk, Koncepcja interesariuszy w zarządzaniu strategią – analiza przypadku gminy\nInowrocław, „Acta Universitatis Lodziensis. Folia Oeconomica” t. 6 nr 326 (2017), DOI:\n10.18778/0208-6018.326.03, https://czasopisma.uni.lodz.pl/foe/article/view/686.\n71 K. Obłój, Strategia organizacji, Warszawa 2014.\n72 J.M. Bryson, What to do when Stakeholders matter: Stakeholder Identification and Analysis Techniques, „Public Management Review” t. 6 nr 1 (2004), DOI:\n10.1080/14719030410001675722.\n73 G.T. Savage et al., Strategies for Assessing and Managing Organizational Stakeholders,\n„Academy of Management Perspectives” t. 5 nr 2 (1991), DOI: 10.5465/ame.1991.4274682.\n74 B.G. Peters, Bureaucracy and Democracy in the Modern State...\n75 R.B. Denhardt, T.J. Catlaw, Theories of public organization...\n76 D.F. Kettl, The transformation of governance...\n\npotrzeby oraz chronić ich prawa i wolności77. Wchodzą oni w interakcje z sektorem publicznym w różnych rolach – jako wyborcy, podatnicy, beneficjenci usług publicznych oraz uczestnicy procesów współtworzenia polityk publicznych. Rządy muszą zapewniać przejrzystość, zdolność reagowania oraz inkluzywność, aby utrzymać zaufanie społeczne i legitymizację instytucjonalną78.\nAdministracja publiczna angażuje się również we współpracę z różnymi grupami społecznymi, w tym ze społecznościami marginalizowanymi, dążąc do tego, by polityki publiczne sprzyjały równości i sprawiedliwości społecznej79. Partycypacja obywatelska w procesach sprawowania rządów, realizowana poprzez mechanizmy takie jak konsultacje publiczne, referenda czy budżet partycypacyjny, wzmacnia demokratyczną odpowiedzialność oraz poprawia skuteczność świadczenia usług publicznych80.\nSektor prywatny stanowi kluczowego interesariusza administracji publicznej, zwłaszcza w obszarach takich jak regulacje, zamówienia publiczne oraz polityka gospodarcza. Przedsiębiorstwa opierają swoją działalność na stabilnych ramach prawnych i instytucjonalnych, które umożliwiają im efektywne funkcjonowanie, podczas gdy rządy pozostają zależne od sektora prywatnego w zakresie stymulowania wzrostu gospodarczego, tworzenia miejsc pracy oraz wspierania innowacji81.\nPartnerstwa publiczno-prywatne (PPP) stały się kluczowym instrumentem realizacji usług publicznych, zwłaszcza w obszarach infrastruktury, ochrony zdrowia oraz edukacji82. Utrzymanie równowagi między interesami sektora prywatnego a dobrem publicznym stanowi jednak wyzwanie, które wymaga skutecznych mechanizmów zarządzania w celu zapobiegania konfliktom interesów, korupcji oraz zjawisku zawłaszczenia regulacyjnego83.\n77 T. Bovaird, E. Löffler, Moving from Excellence Models of Local Service Delivery to Benchmarking ‘Good Local Governance’...\n78 A. Fung, Varieties of Participation in Complex Governance...\n79 J.S. Dryzek, V. Braithwaite, On the Prospects for Democratic Deliberation: Values\nAnalysis Applied to Australian Politics, „Political Psychology” t. 21 nr 2 (2000), DOI:\n10.1111/0162-895X.00186.\n80 G. Smith, Democratic innovations: designing institutions for citizen participation, Cambridge, UK ; New York 2009.\n81 J. Pierre, B.G. Peters, Governance, politics, and the state...\n82 G.A. Hodge, C. Greve, Public–Private Partnerships: An International Performance Review,\n„Public Administration Review” t. 67 nr 3 (2007), DOI: 10.1111/j.1540-6210.2007.00736.x.\n83 J.E. Stiglitz, Freefall: America, free markets, and the sinking of the world economy, New\nYork 2010.\n\nOrganizacje pozarządowe pełnią istotną rolę w kształtowaniu polityki publicznej, promowaniu kwestii społecznych oraz egzekwowaniu odpowiedzialności rządów84. Podmioty te funkcjonują w obszarach takich jak prawa człowieka, ochrona środowiska, przeciwdziałanie ubóstwu czy zdrowie publiczne, uzupełniając działania państwa w zakresie realizacji usług oraz wdrażania polityk publicznych85.\nOrganizacje pozarządowe często pełnią rolę strażników, monitorując działania władz oraz ujawniając przypadki nieefektywności, korupcji i naruszeń praw człowieka86. Ich wpływ jest widoczny w debatach politycznych, procesach legislacyjnych oraz międzynarodowych inicjatywach rozwojowych. Relacje tych organizacji z rządami są zróżnicowane – obejmują zarówno współpracę partnerską, jak i relacje konfrontacyjne, w zależności od uwarunkowań politycznych, gospodarczych i społecznych87.\nGlobalizacja w znacznym stopniu wzmocniła rolę organizacji międzynarodowych w administracji publicznej, gdyż państwa są zobowiązane dostosowywać polityki krajowe do międzynarodowych standardów i zobowiązań traktatowych88. Instytucje takie jak Organizacja Narodów Zjednoczonych (ONZ), Unia\nEuropejska (UE), Bank Światowy czy Międzynarodowy Fundusz Walutowy\n(MFW) oddziałują na systemy zarządzania publicznego poprzez rekomendacje polityczne, wsparcie finansowe oraz ustanawianie ram regulacyjnych89.\nPrzykładowo Unia Europejska (UE) egzekwuje przestrzeganie przepisów w zakresie ochrony środowiska, praw człowieka oraz polityki gospodarczej w państwach członkowskich, kształtując tym samym krajowe systemy zarządzania90. Podobnie Bank Światowy oraz Międzynarodowy Fundusz Walu-\n84 M.E. Keck, K. Sikkink, Activists beyond Borders: Advocacy Networks in International\nPolitics, Cornell University Press 1998.\n85 L.M. Salamon, The Tools of Government: A Guide to the New Governance, Oxford 2002.\n86 A. Florini, Introduction. The Battle Over Transparency, [w:] A. Florini (red.), The Right to Know, Columbia University Press 2007.\n87 M. Edwards, D. Hulme, Too Close for Comfort? The Impact of Official Aid on Nongovernmental\nOrganizations, „World Development” t. 24 nr 6 (1996), DOI: 10.1016/0305-750X(96)00019-8;\nM. Żak-Skwierczyńska, Bariery we współpracy jednostek samorządu terytorialnego miejskich obszarów funkcjonalnych: przykład województwa łódzkiego, Łódź 2018.\n88 T.G. Weiss, R. Wilkinson, Rethinking Global Governance? Complexity, Authority, Power,\nChange, „International Studies Quarterly” t. 58 nr 1 (2014), DOI: 10.1111/isqu.12082.\n89 N. Woods, The United States and the International Financial Institutions: Power and Influence\nWithin the World Bank and the IMF, [w:] R. Foot, S. N. MacFarlane, M. Mastanduno (red.),\nUS Hegemony and International Organizations, Oxford University PressOxford 2003.\n90 F. Schimmelfennig, U. Sedelmeier, The Europeanization of Eastern Europe: The External\nIncentives Model Revisited, „Journal of European Public Policy” t. 27 nr 6 (2020), DOI:\n10.1080/13501763.2019.1617333.\n\ntowy (MFW) określają warunki ekonomiczne wobec państw korzystających z pożyczek, oddziałując na ich politykę fiskalną oraz programy społeczne91.\nChoć instytucje te promują zasady dobrego rządzenia oraz stabilność gospodarczą, ich działania mogą zarazem generować napięcia, szczególnie w obszarze suwerenności i autonomii polityki wewnętrznej92.\nMedia odgrywają podwójną rolę w administracji publicznej, pełniąc funkcję zarówno kanału informacyjnego, jak i strażnika93. Poprzez dziennikarstwo śledcze oraz reportaże informacyjne pociągają one rządy do odpowiedzialności, ujawniając przypadki korupcji, błędy polityczne i nieefektywność zarządzania94.\nUrzędnicy publiczni opierają się na mediach w celu rozpowszechniania informacji, komunikowania polityki oraz angażowania obywateli95. Jednak stronniczość przekazów medialnych, dezinformacja i wpływy polityczne mogą zniekształcać postrzeganie rzeczywistości przez opinię publiczną oraz osłabiać zaufanie do instytucji rządowych96. Rozwój mediów cyfrowych i platform społecznościowych dodatkowo przekształcił funkcjonowanie administracji publicznej, umożliwiając komunikację w czasie rzeczywistym, rozwój dziennikarstwa obywatelskiego i zwiększenie zaangażowania politycznego społeczeństwa97.\nInteresariusze w administracji publicznej tworzą zróżnicowaną i wzajemnie powiązaną sieć, która wpływa na wyniki zarządzania, skuteczność polityk publicznych oraz jakość świadczenia usług. Wewnętrzni interesariusze, tacy jak urzędnicy służby cywilnej i przedstawiciele administracji publicznej, odpowiadają\n91 G. Ferri, Globalization and Its Discontents, „Economic Notes” t. 32 nr 1 (2003), DOI:\n10.1046/j.0391-5026.2003.00107.x; J.E. Stiglitz, H. Simbierowicz, Globalizacja, Warszawa\n2004.\n92 E. Radomska, Dani Rodrik, „Paradoks globalizacji. Demokracja i przyszłość światowej gospodarki”, przeł. Jan Szkudliński, Wydawnictwo „Zysk i S-ka”, Poznań 2024, 375 ss.,\n„Sprawy Międzynarodowe” t. 77 nr 1 (2024), DOI: 10.35757/SM.2024.77.1.08; D. Rodrik,\nThe Globalization Paradox: Democracy and the Future of the World Economy, „ASEAN\nECONOMIC BULLETIN” t. 28 nr 3 (2011), DOI: 10.1355/ae28-3k.\n93 B. Kovach, T. Rosenstiel, The elements of journalism: what newspeople should know and the public should expect, New York 2014.\n94 A. Brunetti, B. Weder, A Free Press Is Bad News for Corruption, „Journal of Public Economics” t. 87 nr 7–8 (2003), DOI: 10.1016/S0047-2727(01)00186-4; L. Camaj, The Media’s\nRole in Fighting Corruption: Media Effects on Governmental Accountability, „The International Journal of Press/Politics” t. 18 nr 1 (2013), DOI: 10.1177/1940161212462741.\n95 B. McNair, AN Introduction to Political Communication: Sixth Edition, Routledge 2017.\n96 R.M. Entman, Projections of Power: Framing News, Public Opinion, and U.S. Foreign\nPolicy, University of Chicago Press 2003.\n97 A. Chadwick, The Hybrid Media System: Politics and Power, Oxford University Press 2017.\n\nza zarządzanie operacjami rządowymi oraz realizację polityk. Zewnętrzni interesariusze, w tym obywatele, przedsiębiorstwa, organizacje pozarządowe, instytucje międzynarodowe i media, oddziałują na administrację publiczną poprzez działania rzecznicze, mechanizmy nadzoru oraz uczestnictwo obywatelskie.\nSkuteczne zarządzanie wymaga równoważenia interesów poszczególnych grup interesariuszy oraz zapewnienia przejrzystości, odpowiedzialności i inkluzywności w procesach decyzyjnych. W miarę jak administracja publiczna ewoluuje w odpowiedzi na postęp technologiczny, procesy globalizacyjne i rosnące oczekiwania społeczne, rola interesariuszy będzie nadal zyskiwać na znaczeniu, co wymaga adaptacyjnego i opartego na współpracy modelu zarządzania.\n4.3. Zastosowanie teorii interesariuszy w praktyce administracji publicznej\nWdrażanie zasad teorii interesariuszy w administracji publicznej umożliwia skuteczniejsze zarządzanie procesami decyzyjnymi poprzez uwzględnianie potrzeb i oczekiwań różnych grup społecznych. Kluczowe elementy takiego podejścia obejmują konsultacje społeczne, partnerstwo publiczno-prywatne\n(PPP), dialog z organizacjami pozarządowymi oraz zapewnienie transparentności działań. Realizacja tych mechanizmów sprzyja zwiększeniu efektywności instytucji publicznych, wzmacnia zaufanie obywateli do administracji oraz podnosi jakość świadczonych usług publicznych.\nJednym z kluczowych narzędzi angażowania obywateli w procesy decyzyjne administracji publicznej są konsultacje społeczne. Polegają one na umożliwieniu mieszkańcom wyrażania opinii dotyczących planowanych działań władz, takich jak uchwalanie budżetów lokalnych, zmiany w planach zagospodarowania przestrzennego czy wdrażanie nowych regulacji. Dzięki temu administracja może lepiej zrozumieć oczekiwania społeczności i dostosować swoje decyzje do rzeczywistych potrzeb obywateli. Konsultacje społeczne mogą przybierać różne formy, między innymi spotkań otwartych, debat, ankiet internetowych czy forów dyskusyjnych. Kluczowe jest jednak, aby były one prowadzone w sposób rzetelny, systematyczny i transparentny, a ich wyniki realnie wpływały na podejmowane decyzje. Tylko wówczas można mówić o autentycznym wdrażaniu zasady partycypacji społecznej, a nie o pozornym angażowaniu obywateli.\nKolejnym istotnym mechanizmem współpracy w administracji publicznej jest partnerstwo publiczno-prywatne (PPP), które umożliwia zaangażowanie sektora\n\nprywatnego w realizację inwestycji oraz świadczenie usług publicznych. Tego rodzaju współpraca sprzyja efektywniejszemu wykorzystaniu zasobów, podziałowi ryzyka oraz podnoszeniu jakości infrastruktury i usług publicznych. Przykładami przedsięwzięć w formule PPP są budowa dróg, szpitali, szkół czy nowoczesnych obiektów użyteczności publicznej, w których sektor prywatny wnosi kapitał, know-\n-how i doświadczenie w zarządzaniu, natomiast administracja publiczna zapewnia wsparcie regulacyjne, nadzór oraz zgodność działań z interesem społecznym. Kluczowe jest jednak, aby partnerstwo to opierało się na przejrzystych zasadach, równowadze stron i skutecznych mechanizmach kontroli, co pozwala chronić interesy obywateli i zapobiegać monopolizacji usług publicznych przez sektor prywatny.\nAdministracja publiczna powinna prowadzić aktywny i systematyczny dialog z organizacjami pozarządowymi (NGO), które odgrywają kluczową rolę w kształtowaniu polityki społecznej oraz reprezentowaniu interesów różnych grup społecznych. Organizacje te często działają w imieniu środowisk marginalizowanych, monitorują aktywność instytucji państwowych, a także podejmują działania interwencyjne, doradcze i edukacyjne. Współpraca administracji z sektorem pozarządowym sprzyja skuteczniejszemu reagowaniu na potrzeby społeczne, lepszemu dostosowaniu polityk publicznych do warunków społecznych oraz zwiększeniu zaangażowania obywateli w życie publiczne. Efektywny dialog między administracją a organizacjami pozarządowymi wymaga jednak ustanowienia trwałych mechanizmów współpracy, takich jak rady konsultacyjne, wspólne projekty czy systemy finansowania inicjatyw społecznych.\nOstatnią, lecz niezwykle istotną zasadą teorii interesariuszy w administracji publicznej jest transparentność działań. Przejrzystość funkcjonowania instytucji państwowych oznacza zapewnienie obywatelom dostępu do informacji dotyczących podejmowanych decyzji, sposobu wydatkowania środków publicznych oraz stosowanych procedur administracyjnych. Transparentność sprzyja zwiększeniu kontroli społecznej, ograniczeniu ryzyka korupcji oraz wzmocnieniu zaufania do instytucji publicznych. Do narzędzi służących realizacji tej zasady należą m.in. rejestry jawnych umów, publikacja raportów finansowych, otwarte posiedzenia organów samorządowych oraz udostępnianie informacji publicznej na wniosek obywateli. Współczesne technologie, w szczególności platformy e-administracji, dodatkowo wzmacniają przejrzystość funkcjonowania instytucji publicznych, umożliwiając obywatelom bieżący wgląd w procesy decyzyjne i działalność administracji.\nPodsumowując, wdrażanie zasad teorii interesariuszy w administracji publicznej przyczynia się do bardziej efektywnego zarządzania zasobami publicznymi, zwiększenia partycypacji społecznej oraz wzrostu zaufania\n\nobywateli do instytucji państwowych. Każdy z omówionych elementów – konsultacje społeczne, partnerstwo publiczno-prywatne, współpraca z organizacjami pozarządowymi oraz transparentność działań, stanowi kluczowy mechanizm budowania nowoczesnej, otwartej i odpowiedzialnej administracji publicznej.\nPodejście oparte na teorii interesariuszy odgrywa kluczową rolę w administracji publicznej, ponieważ umożliwia bardziej efektywne zarządzanie zasobami publicznymi, ograniczanie konfliktów społecznych oraz wzmacnianie zaufania obywateli do instytucji państwowych. Współczesne społeczeństwo cechuje się złożoną strukturą, w której różnorodne grupy – obywatele, przedsiębiorcy, organizacje pozarządowe oraz instytucje międzynarodowe posiadają odmienne, nierzadko sprzeczne interesy. Uwzględnianie zróżnicowanych potrzeb i oczekiwań interesariuszy jest warunkiem efektywnego, sprawiedliwego i przejrzystego funkcjonowania administracji publicznej, stanowiącego fundament demokratycznego państwa prawa.\nWłączenie teorii interesariuszy do zarządzania administracją publiczną sprzyja bardziej efektywnemu planowaniu polityk publicznych, ponieważ umożliwia uwzględnienie zarówno krótko- jak i długoterminowych konsekwencji podejmowanych decyzji. Dzięki identyfikacji kluczowych interesariuszy oraz analizy ich wpływu na funkcjonowanie instytucji publicznych administracja może optymalizować alokację zasobów, ograniczać ryzyko oporu społecznego oraz zwiększać akceptację dla wdrażanych reform. Dialog społeczny oraz partycypacja obywatelska stanowią kluczowe elementy tego podejścia, gdyż wspierają demokratyczne współdecydowanie o sprawach publicznych i wzmacniają poczucie odpowiedzialności obywateli za funkcjonowanie państwa.\nZarządzanie interesariuszami w organizacjach publicznych stanowi również istotne narzędzie budowania kapitału społecznego, wpływającego na poziom współpracy pomiędzy sektorem publicznym a społeczeństwem obywatelskim. Jednostki samorządu terytorialnego oraz inne instytucje administracji publicznej mogą skutecznie analizować oczekiwania swoich interesariuszy, co umożliwia dostosowanie strategii działania do rzeczywistych potrzeb społecznych. W tym kontekście szczególnego znaczenia nabiera monitorowanie skuteczności podejmowanych działań przy wykorzystaniu narzędzi takich jak strategiczna karta wyników (balanced scorecard), umożliwiających ocenę stopnia realizacji celów publicznych oraz poziomu satysfakcji obywateli.\nSyntetyczne zestawienie rodzajów interesariuszy w kontekście współpracy z diasporą przedstawiono w tabeli 8 .\n\nTabela 8. Teoria interesariuszy a współpraca z diasporą\nZnaczenie dla\nRodzaj Rola w zarządzawspółpracy Przykłady interesariusza niu publicznym z diasporą\nInteresariusze Kształtowanie strate-\nSenat RP (Komisja ds. Emiwewnętrzni Tworzenie prawa, gii wobec diaspory, gracji i Łączności z Polakami\n(urzędnicy, programów i poli- tworzenie instytuza Granicą), MSZ – Departaadministracja, tyk publicznych cji i mechanizmów ment Współpracy z Polonią politycy) wsparcia\nReprezentują interesy członków\nInteresariusze Partnerzy w kondiaspory, pośredni- Rada Polonii Świata, Kongres zewnętrzni – sultacjach i wdraczą w komunikacji Polonii Amerykańskiej, Zwiąorganizacje żaniu polityk między diaspo- zek Polaków na Litwie diaspory publicznych rą a instytucjami państwowymi\nProwadzenie pro-\nRealizacja projektów wspierają-\nOrganizacje gramów publicz- Fundacja „Pomoc Polakom cych diasporę oraz pozarządowe nych i wsparcie na Wschodzie”, Fundacja utrzymywanie więzi\n(NGO) społeczności Wolność i Demokracja kulturowych z krajem lokalnych pochodzenia\nWspieranie transfe-\nPartnerzy rozwo-\nŚrodowiska ru kapitału i rozwój Polsko-Amerykańska Izba ju gospodarczebiznesowe przedsiębiorczości Handlowa, Polsko-Kanadyjgo, inicjowanie i gospodarcze w środowiskach ska Izba Handlowa inwestycji diaspory\nBudowanie tożsa-\nWymiana wiedzy mości narodowej,\nInstytut Polski w Nowym\nInstytucje nauki oraz promo- wspieranie mobil-\nJorku, uniwersytety prowai kultury cja kultury ności akademickiej dzące kierunki Polish Studies narodowej i przyciąganie talentów z diaspory\nPartnerzy w pro- Uczestnictwo w ini-\nSpołeczności jektach tran- cjatywach wspierają- Program „Polska Wioska” – lokalne w kraju snarodowych cych kontakty z gmi- współpraca samorządów pochodzenia i współpracy nami pochodzenia z Polonią w USA samorządowej członków diaspory\nŹródło: opracowanie własne na podstawie: J.M. Bryson, What to do when Stakeholders matter:\nStakeholder Identification and Analysis Techniques, „Public Management Review” t. 6 nr 1 (2004), DOI:\n10.1080/14719030410001675722; A. Fihel, A. Janicka, M. Okólski, Predicting a Migration Transition in Poland and its Implications for Population Ageing, „Central and Eastern European Migration Review” t. 12 nr 1 (2023), DOI:\n10.54667/ceemr.2023.15, http://ceemr.uw.edu.pl/vol-12-no-1-2023/special-series/predicting-migration-transitionpoland-and-its-implications; R.E. Freeman, Strategic Management: A Stakeholder Approach, Cambridge University\nPress 2010; M. Lesińska, Polska diaspora, Polonia, emigracja. Spory pojęciowe wokół skupisk polskich za granicą...;\nR.K. Mitchell, B.R. Agle, D.J. Wood, Toward a Theory of Stakeholder Identification and Salience: Defining the Principle of Who and What Really Counts, „The Academy of Management Review” t. 22 nr 4 (1997), DOI: 10.2307/259247.\n\nPonadto teoria interesariuszy sprzyja zwiększeniu transparentności administracji publicznej, co stanowi istotny czynnik w przeciwdziałaniu korupcji oraz zjawisku nepotyzmu. Przejrzyste procedury, regularne konsultacje społeczne oraz skuteczne mechanizmy kontroli społecznej przyczyniają się do zwiększenia odpowiedzialności instytucji publicznych i podnoszenia jakości usług świadczonych na rzecz obywateli.\nPodsumowując, znaczenie teorii interesariuszy w administracji publicznej jest niezwykle istotne i trudne do przecenienia. Podejście to umożliwia holistyczne zarządzanie interesami zróżnicowanych grup społecznych, zwiększa efektywność podejmowanych działań, sprzyja budowaniu zaufania do instytucji publicznych oraz wzmacnia demokratyczne mechanizmy współdecydowania. W warunkach dynamicznych przemian społeczno-ekonomicznych teoria interesariuszy stanowi nie tylko narzędzie analityczne, lecz także praktyczny model zarządzania, który może realnie przyczynić się do usprawnienia funkcjonowania administracji publicznej.\n\n5. Teoria instytucjonalna\nT. Zienkiewicz\nW niniejszej części przedstawiono historyczny rozwój teorii instytucji, począwszy od jej wczesnych ujęć socjologicznych aż po współczesne zastosowania w administracji publicznej. Na szczególną uwagę zasługują prace Philipa Selznicka który wskazywał, że organizacje ulegają instytucjonalizacji w wyniku adaptacji do presji środowiskowych, oraz Johna W. Meyera i Briana Rowana którzy wprowadzili koncepcję izomorfizmu instytucjonalnego, wyjaśniającą, dlaczego organizacje przyjmują zbliżone struktury mimo odmiennych warunków funkcjonowania1. W podrozdziale omówiono również trzy filary instytucji wyróżnione przez Richarda W. Scotta: regulatywny, normatywny oraz kulturowo-kognitywny, które tworzą kompleksowe ramy analizy wpływu instytucji na zarządzanie publiczne2.\n1 W.S. Sayre, TVA and the Grass Roots; A Study in the Sociology of Formal Organization. By\nPhilip Selznick. (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. 1949. Pp. ix, 274.\n$3.75.), „American Political Science Review” t. 43 nr 5 (1949), DOI: 10.2307/1950244.;\nJ.W. Meyer, B. Rowan, Institutionalized Organizations: Formal Structure as Myth and\nCeremony, „American Journal of Sociology” t. 83 nr 2 (1977), DOI: 10.1086/226550.\n2 W.R. Scott, Institutions and organizations: ideas, interests and identities, Los Angeles\nLondon New Delhi Singapore Washington DC 2014.\n\n5.1. Podstawy teorii instytucjonalne geneza i rozwój\nTeoria instytucjonalna stała się dominującym paradygmatem w badaniach nad zachowaniami organizacyjnymi i zarządzaniem publicznym, koncentrując się na analizie tego, w jaki sposób formalne i nieformalne instytucje wpływają na procesy decyzyjne oraz praktyki organizacyjne. Genezy tej teorii można doszukiwać się we wczesnych badaniach socjologicznych i organizacyjnych, które stworzyły podstawy do zrozumienia złożonych relacji oraz wzajemnych oddziaływań między organizacjami a ich otoczeniem instytucjonalnym. Na przestrzeni dziesięcioleci teoria ta ewoluowała poprzez kilka kluczowych etapów, odzwierciedlając transformacje w myśli akademickiej oraz dynamiczne przemiany struktur społecznych i organizacyjnych.\nWczesne korzenie teorii instytucjonalnej można odnaleźć w dorobku klasycznych socjologów i ekonomistów. Analiza biurokracji przeprowadzona przez Maxa Webera na początku XX wieku ukazała, w jaki sposób formalne zasady i procedury kształtują zachowanie organizacji oraz wpływają na jej efektywność3. Perspektywa Webera koncentrowała się jednak głównie na racjonalno-prawnym autorytecie oraz efektywności struktur biurokratycznych, pomijając szerszy kontekst instytucjonalny funkcjonowania organizacji. Niemniej jednak koncepcje Webera stworzyły podstawy do późniejszych analiz kontekstu instytucjonalnego, w którym funkcjonują organizacje.\nZnaczącym kamieniem milowym w rozwoju teorii instytucjonalnej była praca Philipa Selznicka powstała w połowie XX wieku. W swoim przełomowym dziele TVA and the Grass Roots4 Selznick dowodził, że organizacje podlegają wpływowi nie tylko formalnych zasad i struktur, lecz także wartości oraz norm społecznych charakterystycznych dla otoczenia, w którym funkcjonują.\nWprowadził koncepcję „instytucjonalizacji”, podkreślając, że organizacje stopniowo rozwijają własne, charakterystyczne cechy w wyniku długotrwałej interakcji ze środowiskiem zewnętrznym. Praca Selznicka odegrała kluczową rolę w przesunięciu akcentu z czynników czysto technicznych i ekonomicznych na społeczny oraz polityczny wymiar funkcjonowania organizacji.\nW latach siedemdziesiątych XX wieku wykształcił się nowy instytucjonalizm w teorii organizacji, który rozwijał idee Selznicka oraz wprowadził\n3 M. Weber, Racjonalność. Władza. Odczarowanie...\n4 W.S. Sayre, TVA and the Grass Roots; A Study in the Sociology of Formal Organization. By Philip Selznick, „American Political Science Review” t. 43 nr 5 (1949), DOI:\n10.2307/1950244.\n\nkoncepcję izomorfizmu instytucjonalnego. John W. Meyer i Brian Rowan byli jednymi z pierwszych badaczy, którzy wskazali, że organizacje przyjmują ustandaryzowane struktury i praktyki nie tylko ze względu na ich techniczną efektywność, lecz przede wszystkim dlatego, że są one postrzegane przez otoczenie społeczne jako uprawnione i zgodne z obowiązującymi normami5.\nAutorzy dowodzili, że przyjmowanie takich praktyk umożliwia organizacjom uzyskanie legitymacji oraz stabilnego dostępu do zasobów, nawet wówczas, gdy praktyki te są oderwane od rzeczywistej efektywności operacyjnej. Perspektywa ta zasadniczo przeorientowała badania nad organizacjami, wskazując, że to legitymacja, a nie sama efektywność, stanowi główny czynnik determinujący zachowania organizacyjne.\nNawiązując do wcześniejszych koncepcji, Paul J. DiMaggio i Walter W.\nPowell rozwinęli ideę izomorfizmu instytucjonalnego, wyróżniając trzy mechanizmy – przymusowy, mimetyczny i normatywny – za sprawą których organizacje z biegiem czasu stają się coraz bardziej do siebie podobne6. Izomorfizm przymusowy wynika z nacisków wywieranych przez organy regulacyjne oraz inne podmioty zewnętrzne; izomorfizm mimetyczny pojawia się, gdy organizacje naśladują inne w obliczu niepewności; natomiast izomorfizm normatywny jest kształtowany przez normy zawodowe, standardy i wartości promowane w środowiskach profesjonalnych. Praca DiMaggia i Powella dostarczyła solidnych ram teoretycznych do zrozumienia, dlaczego organizacje – nawet funkcjonujące w odmiennych sektorach – często upodabniają się do siebie pod względem struktur i praktyk organizacyjnych.\nW latach dziewięćdziesiątych XX wieku oraz na początku pierwszej dekady XXI wieku nastąpiła znacząca ekspansja zastosowań teorii instytucjonalnej poza sektor prywatny, obejmująca zarządzanie publiczne oraz procesy tworzenia polityk publicznych. Richard W. Scott rozwinął i usystematyzował teorię instytucjonalną, wprowadzając koncepcję trzech filarów instytucji:\nregulacyjnego, normatywnego oraz kulturowo-kognitywnego7. Według Scotta filar regulacyjny obejmuje formalne reguły i przepisy prawne, które kierują\n5 J.W. Meyer, B. Rowan, Institutionalized Organizations: Formal Structure as Myth and\nCeremony, „American Journal of Sociology” t. 83 nr 2 (1977), DOI: 10.1086/226550.\n6 P.J. DiMaggio, W.W. Powell, The Iron Cage Revisited: Institutional Isomorphism and\nCollective Rationality in Organizational Fields, „American Sociological Review” t. 48 nr 2 (1983), DOI: 10.2307/2095101.\n7 W.R. Scott, Institutions and Organizations: Ideas, Interests and Identities, Sage, Thousand\nOaks–London–New Delhi 1995; rec.: „M@n@gement” t. 17 nr 2 (2014), DOI: 10.3917/ mana.172.0136.\n\nzachowaniami jednostek i organizacji; filar normatywny odnosi się do wartości oraz norm wyznaczających pożądane wzorce postępowania; natomiast filar kulturowo-kognitywny odzwierciedla wspólne przekonania, symbole i sposoby interpretacji rzeczywistości społecznej. Trójfilarowe ramy Scotta dostarczyły kompleksowej perspektywy analitycznej, umożliwiającej badanie wielowymiarowych uwarunkowań zachowań organizacyjnych – zwłaszcza w administracji publicznej, gdzie kluczowe znaczenie mają legitymizacja instytucji oraz zaufanie publiczne.\nW zarządzaniu publicznym teoria instytucjonalna pomaga wyjaśnić, w jaki sposób organizacje sektora publicznego dostosowują się do zewnętrznych nacisków instytucjonalnych, starając się jednocześnie utrzymać legitymizację swoich działań. Przykładowo, agencje publiczne często wdrażają zbliżone praktyki administracyjne nie tylko ze względu na ich skuteczność, lecz również dlatego, że są one postrzegane jako uzasadnione i społecznie pożądane przez obywateli oraz decydentów politycznych89. Dążenie do utrzymania legitymizacji może jednak prowadzić do zjawiska rozdzielenia struktur formalnych od faktycznych działań organizacyjnych (decoupling), w ramach którego polityki i procedury funkcjonują głównie po to, by zaspokoić oczekiwania zewnętrzne, a niekoniecznie w celu zwiększenia wewnętrznej efektywności. Tego rodzaju dynamika ma kluczowe znaczenie dla zrozumienia wyzwań, przed jakimi stoją instytucje publiczne w procesie wdrażania reform oraz utrzymywania wysokiego poziomu odpowiedzialności publicznej.\nTeoria instytucjonalna podkreśla również znaczenie przedsiębiorców instytucjonalnych – jednostek lub organizacji wykorzystujących swoje zasoby i wpływy w celu inicjowania oraz wspierania zmian instytucjonalnych. Aktorzy ci kwestionują utrwalone normy instytucjonalne oraz promują nowe praktyki, lepiej dostosowane do współczesnych wartości społecznych i dynamicznego postępu technologicznego10. W sektorze publicznym przedsiębiorcy instytucjonalni mogą inicjować lub wspierać wdrażanie innowacyjnych rozwiązań, takich jak e-rządzenie czy budżetowanie partycypacyjne – przedsięwzięć, które\n8 M. Pawlak, Organizacyjna reakcja na nowe zjawisko: szkoły i instytucje pomocowe wobec uchodźców w Polsce po 2004 r., Warszawa 2013.\n9 P.S. Tolbert, L.G. Zucker, The Institutionalization of Institutional Theory, [w:] S. Clegg,\nC. Hardy (red.), Studying Organization: Theory & Method, London 1999.\n10 P.J. DiMaggio, W.W. Powell, The Iron Cage Revisited: Institutional Isomorphism and\nCollective Rationality in Organizational Fields, „American Sociological Review” t. 48 nr 2 (1983), DOI: 10.2307/2095101.\n\nnie tylko zwiększają efektywność administracyjną, lecz również wzmacniają mechanizmy demokratycznego zaangażowania obywateli.\nPomimo szerokiego zastosowania, teoria instytucjonalna stała się również przedmiotem krytyki. Krytycy zwracają uwagę, że teoria ta często nadmiernie akcentuje stabilność i konformizm organizacyjny, pomijając znaczenie innowacji oraz indywidualnej i zbiorowej sprawczości11. Nowsze podejścia w ramach teorii instytucjonalnej dążą jednak do integracji roli sprawczości z istniejącymi ramami analitycznymi, uznając, że menedżerowie publiczni i decydenci polityczni nie są jedynie biernymi odbiorcami nacisków instytucjonalnych, lecz aktywnymi uczestnikami procesów kształtowania swojego środowiska organizacyjnego12.\nEwolucja teorii instytucjonalnej odzwierciedla zmieniający się krajobraz globalnego zarządzania publicznego oraz rosnącą złożoność współczesnych środowisk organizacyjnych. Współcześnie teoria ta dostarcza cennych wskazówek dotyczących tego, w jaki sposób instytucje publiczne utrzymują legitymizację, adaptują się do nacisków zewnętrznych oraz poszukują równowagi między efektywnością a odpowiedzialnością publiczną. Teoria instytucjonalna pozostaje kluczowym narzędziem analitycznym dla badaczy i praktyków zarządzania publicznego, oferując pogłębione i zniuansowane zrozumienie wzajemnych zależności między strukturami instytucjonalnymi, normami kulturowymi a indywidualną sprawczością.\nPodsumowując, genezę i rozwój teorii instytucjonalnej można prześledzić od wczesnych analiz biurokracji Maxa Webera, poprzez pionierskie prace\nPhilipa Selznicka dotyczące instytucjonalizacji, następnie koncepcje Johna W.\nMeyera i Briana Rowan oraz Paula J. DiMaggia i Waltera W. Powella, aż po kompleksowe, trójfilarowe ramy teoretyczne Richarda W. Scotta13. Ewolucja\n11 J. Mahoney, K.A. Thelen (red.), Explaining institutional change: ambiguity, agency, and power, Cambridge; New York 2010.\n12 J. Battilana, T. D’Aunno, Institutional work and the paradox of embedded agency, [w:]\nB. Leca, R. Suddaby, T. B. Lawrence (red.), Institutional work: actors and agency in institutional studies of organizations, Cambridge, UK New York 2009.\n13 P.J. DiMaggio, W.W. Powell, The Iron Cage Revisited: Institutional Isomorphism and Collective Rationality in Organizational Fields, „American Sociological Review” t. 48 nr 2\n(1983), DOI: 10.2307/2095101; J.W. Meyer, B. Rowan, Institutionalized Organizations:\nFormal Structure as Myth and Ceremony, „American Journal of Sociology” t. 83 nr 2\n(1977), DOI: 10.1086/226550; W.S. Sayre, TVA and the Grass Roots; A Study in the Sociology of Formal Organization. By Philip Selznick. (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. 1949. Pp. ix, 274. $3.75.), „American Political Science Review” t. 43 nr 5 (1949), DOI: 10.2307/1950244; W.R. Scott, W. Richard SCOTT (1995), Institutions and Organizations. Ideas, Interests and Identities: Paperback: 360 pages Publisher: Sage\n\nta podkreśla znaczenie legitymizacji, procesów standaryzacji oraz czynników kulturowo-kognitywnych w kształtowaniu zachowań organizacyjnych w sektorze publicznym. W obliczu dynamicznych zmian społecznych, gospodarczych i technologicznych administracja publiczna staje przed coraz to nowymi wyzwaniami, a teoria instytucjonalna stanowi solidne zaplecze analityczne do badania, w jaki sposób instytucje mogą zarówno ograniczać, jak i umożliwiać skuteczne zarządzanie w sektorze publicznym.\nChronologicznie rzecz ujmując, koncepcja izomorfizmu instytucjonalnego wywodzi się z wczesnych teorii socjologicznych akcentujących biurokratyczną racjonalność, a następnie została rozwinięta w pracach Johna W.\nMeyera i Briana Rowana, którzy podkreślili symboliczny charakter struktur organizacyjnych14. Przełom koncepcyjny nastąpił wraz z publikacją pracy\nPaula J. DiMaggia i Waltera W. Powella, których model izomorfizmu przymusowego, mimetycznego i normatywnego dostarczył wyczerpującego wyjaśnienia mechanizmów, poprzez które organizacje upodabniają się do siebie w czasie15. Rozwój ten wywarł znaczący wpływ na późniejsze badania prowadzone zarówno w sektorze prywatnym, jak i publicznym.\nW kontekście organizacji publicznych zastosowanie koncepcji izomorfizmu instytucjonalnego niesie ze sobą istotne implikacje dla sposobu funkcjonowania administracji i kształtowania polityk publicznych. Pod wpływem nacisków instytucjonalnych agencje publiczne są zobowiązane do przestrzegania przepisów oraz standardów ustanawianych przez wyższe szczeble administracji, co nie tylko gwarantuje zgodność z obowiązującymi regulacjami, lecz także ułatwia koordynację działań między różnymi szczeblami i jurysdykcjami. Przykładowo, ustandaryzowana sprawozdawczość finansowa oraz ramy pomiaru wyników stanowią kluczowe narzędzia utrzymania przejrzystości i odpowiedzialności w instytucjach sektora publicznego16. Tego rodzaju mechanizmy przymusowe sprzyjają utrzymaniu podstawowego poziomu jednolitości, co ma szczególne znaczenie w sektorach takich jak opieka zdrowotna, edukacja czy infrastruktura, gdzie bezpieczeństwo i efektywność operacyjna stanowią nadrzędne wartości.\n(1995) Language: English ISBN: 978-142242224, „M@n@gement” t. 17 nr 2 (2014), DOI:\n10.3917/mana.172.0136.\n14 I. Mergel, R.K. Rethemeyer, K. Isett, Big data in public affairs...; M. Weber, J. Winckelmann, Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft...\n15 P.J. DiMaggio, W.W. Powell, The Iron Cage Revisited...\n16 P.S. Tolbert, L.G. Zucker, The Institutionalization of Institutional Theory...\n\nZ kolei izomorfizm mimetyczny sprzyja procesom innowacyjnym poprzez mechanizmy naśladownictwa. W sytuacjach, gdy menedżerowie publiczni stają wobec niepewności – wynikającej na przykład z rozwoju nowych technologii lub zmieniających się oczekiwań społecznych – często poszukują wzorców działania w organizacjach uznawanych za wiodące. Choć zachowania mimetyczne mogą prowadzić do doskonalenia praktyk organizacyjnych, niosą również ryzyko przyjęcia nieadekwatnych rozwiązań, jeśli instytucje bezrefleksyjnie kopiują modele skuteczne w innych warunkach, nie dostosowując ich do lokalnych uwarunkowań. Dwoista natura izomorfizmu mimetycznego sprawia, że choć może on sprzyjać upowszechnianiu najlepszych praktyk, to jednocześnie może nieumyślnie ograniczać różnorodność i osłabiać potencjał kreatywnego rozwiązywania problemów w sektorze publicznym17.\nIzomorfizm normatywny odgrywa kluczową rolę w procesie profesjonalizacji zarządzania publicznego. Za pośrednictwem formalnej edukacji oraz działalności stowarzyszeń zawodowych administratorzy publiczni zostają uspołecznieni w obrębie wspólnego zestawu norm, wartości i praktyk zawodowych, które wyznaczają standardy ich postępowania. Wspólna tożsamość zawodowa sprzyja usprawnieniu współpracy między różnymi agencjami administracji publicznej oraz przyczynia się do podniesienia ogólnej jakości usług publicznych. Negatywnym skutkiem silnej presji normatywnej może być jednak nadmierny konformizm, który ogranicza przestrzeń dla innowacyjnych podejść odbiegających od utrwalonych wzorców działania18. W sektorze publicznym\n– gdzie kluczową rolę odgrywają zaufanie, odpowiedzialność oraz legitymizacja instytucji – standaryzacja ta bywa jednak postrzegana jako nieunikniony i uzasadniony kompromis.\nW miarę jak organizacje sektora publicznego stają wobec coraz bardziej złożonych wyzwań – od procesów globalizacji po dynamiczne zmiany technologiczne – muszą zarządzać różnymi formami izomorfizmu w sposób zrównoważony i świadomy. Z jednej strony presja izomorfizmu przymusowego sprzyja utrzymaniu zgodności i spójności między różnymi jednostkami administracji publicznej. Z drugiej strony izomorfizm mimetyczny może stymulować innowacje, o ile menedżerowie publiczni potrafią adaptować najlepsze praktyki do specyfiki swoich organizacji, zamiast jedynie je naśladować. Wreszcie\n17 P.J. DiMaggio, W.W. Powell, The Iron Cage Revisited...\n18 W.R. Scott, W. Richard SCOTT (1995), Institutions and Organizations. Ideas, Interests and Identities.: Paperback: 360 pages Publisher: Sage (1995) Language: English ISBN:\n978-142242224, „M@n@gement” t. 17 nr 2 (2014), DOI: 10.3917/mana.172.0136.\n\nizomorfizm normatywny wzmacnia etos zawodowy pracowników administracji publicznej, promując postawy etyczne oraz zaangażowanie w służbę publiczną, choć wymaga jednocześnie ostrożności, by uniknąć stagnacji wynikającej z nadmiernego konformizmu.\nZrozumienie ewolucji oraz znaczenia izomorfizmu instytucjonalnego ma kluczowe znaczenie zarówno dla badaczy, jak i praktyków zarządzania publicznego. Teoria ta nie tylko wyjaśnia, dlaczego organizacje publiczne często wykazują podobieństwo pod względem struktur i procesów, lecz także ujawnia podstawowe mechanizmy stojące za dynamiką zmian i utrzymywaniem stabilności w sektorze publicznym. Świadomość działania tych mechanizmów pozwala menedżerom publicznym skuteczniej projektować strategie, które równoważą efektywność operacyjną i zdolność adaptacyjną instytucji, zapewniając im elastyczność w reagowaniu na potrzeby obywateli w dynamicznie zmieniającym się otoczeniu politycznym i gospodarczym.\n5.2. Legitymizacja i przetrwanie organizacji w zarządzaniu publicznym: wpływ na realizację polityki\nLegitymizacja stanowi jedno z kluczowych pojęć w administracji publicznej oraz procesie wdrażania polityk publicznych, określając sposób, w jaki organizacje sektora publicznego formułują, realizują i utrzymują swoje działania w dłuższej perspektywie. Ewolucja koncepcji legitymizacji w zarządzaniu publicznym jest głęboko zakorzeniona w teoriach socjologicznych i instytucjonalnych, które podkreślają jej znaczenie w kontekście zarządzania, władzy biurokratycznej oraz demokratycznej odpowiedzialności. W niniejszej części omówiono historyczny rozwój pojęcia legitymizacji oraz jej wpływ na proces wdrażania polityk publicznych, śledząc jej teoretyczne podstawy od klasycznej socjologii po współczesne modele zarządzania publicznego.\nKoncepcja legitymizacji w strukturach organizacyjnych wywodzi się z przełomowej pracy Maxa Webera dotyczącej władzy i biurokracji. Weber wyróżnił trzy podstawowe typy legitymizacji:\nÒ legitymizację tradycyjną, opartą na zwyczajach, tradycjach i długotrwałych praktykach społecznych;\nÒ legitymizację charyzmatyczną, wynikającą z osobistych cech i autorytetu przywódcy;\nÒ legitymizację prawno-racjonalną, zakorzenioną w formalnych regułach, przepisach i procedurach administracyjnych.\n\nPrawno-racjonalne ramy opracowane przez Maxa Webera stały się fundamentem nowoczesnej administracji publicznej, opartej na przekonaniu, że instytucje uzyskują legitymizację poprzez przestrzeganie skodyfikowanych norm prawnych i procedur administracyjnych. Koncepcje Webera wywarły istotny wpływ na kształt biurokratycznych struktur państwowych, gwarantując, że organizacje publiczne działają w granicach prawa, aby utrzymać legitymizację w procesie realizacji polityk publicznych.\nW połowie XX wieku Talcott Parsons rozszerzył rozumienie legitymizacji, wiążąc ją ze stabilnością systemu społecznego oraz skutecznością funkcjonowania instytucji19. Parsons argumentował, że organizacje powinny dostosowywać swoje cele do dominujących wartości i oczekiwań społecznych, aby utrzymać legitymizację. W kontekście zarządzania publicznego oznaczało to, że polityki publiczne powinny odzwierciedlać interesy obywateli oraz obowiązujące normy społeczne, aby uzyskać akceptację i utrzymać społeczne przyzwolenie na ich realizację. W miarę jak rządy poszerzały zakres programów opieki społecznej i rozbudowywały ramy regulacyjne, legitymizacja stała się kluczowym czynnikiem uzasadniającym interwencje państwa oraz warunkiem utrzymania poparcia społecznego dla podejmowanych działań20.\nW latach siedemdziesiątych XX wieku badacze instytucjonalni John W.\nMeyer i Brian Rowan wprowadzili koncepcję legitymizacji instytucjonalnej, argumentując, że organizacje – w tym instytucje publiczne – przyjmują określone struktury i praktyki nie tyle ze względu na efektywność, ile w celu dostosowania się do dominujących oczekiwań społecznych21. Ich praca wskazuje, że agencje publiczne często realizują polityki w sposób postrzegany społecznie jako uzasadniony, nawet jeśli stosowane metody nie należą do najbardziej efektywnych. Podejście to, określane mianem koncepcji „mitu i ceremonii”, ujawniło, że organizacje niekiedy przedkładają symboliczną zgodność z normami legitymizacji nad rzeczywistą skuteczność realizowanych polityk.\nNawiązując do wcześniejszych ustaleń Meyera i Rowana, Paul J. DiMaggio i Walter W. Powell opracowali teorię izomorfizmu instytucjonalnego, która wyjaśnia, w jaki sposób organizacje funkcjonujące w podobnych obszarach mają tendencję do przyjmowania zbliżonych struktur i praktyk w celu utrzymania legitymizacji. Autorzy ci wyróżnili trzy typy izomorfizmu: izomorfizm\n19 S. Wróbel, Funkcjonalistyczna koncepcja teorii w ujęciu Talcotta Parsonsa, „Politeja”\n2021, t. 12, nr 4 (36), DOI: 10.12797/politeja.12.2015.36.14.\n20 Ibid.\n21 J.W. Meyer, B. Rowan, Institutionalized Organizations...\n\nprzymusowy, wynikający z nacisków prawnych i regulacyjnych; izomorfizm mimetyczny, polegający na naśladowaniu rozwiązań stosowanych przez organizacje uznawane za odnoszące sukcesy; oraz izomorfizm normatywny, napędzany profesjonalnymi normami i standardami zawodowymi22. W kontekście administracji publicznej mechanizmy te pomagają wyjaśnić, dlaczego rządy przyjmują zbliżone ramy polityczne – obejmujące m.in. regulacje w zakresie ochrony środowiska, strategie zdrowia publicznego czy rozwiązania z obszaru zarządzania cyfrowego – w celu utrzymania legitymizacji zarówno na poziomie krajowym, jak i międzynarodowym.\nW latach dziewięćdziesiątych XX wieku Mark C. Suchman rozwinął teorię legitymizacji, wyróżniając trzy jej główne typy: legitymizację pragmatyczną – opartą na własnym interesie interesariuszy; legitymizację moralną – zgodną z obowiązującymi wartościami i normami społecznymi; oraz legitymizację poznawczą – przyjmowaną za oczywistą i postrzeganą jako naturalny element porządku społecznego23. Klasyfikacja ta umożliwiła lepsze zrozumienie, dlaczego niektóre polityki publiczne zyskują szybką akceptację społeczną, podczas gdy inne spotykają się z oporem i brakiem zaufania. Polityki postrzegane jako moralnie legitymizowane – na przykład inicjatywy antykorupcyjne – zazwyczaj cieszą się silnym poparciem społecznym, natomiast te pozbawione legitymizacji poznawczej, jak radykalne reformy gospodarcze, często napotykają trudności we wdrażaniu i utrzymaniu poparcia społecznego.\nRichard W. Scott podkreślał, że legitymizacja ma charakter dynamiczny i wymaga stałego potwierdzania poprzez przejrzystość działania instytucji oraz ich zdolność do reagowania na oczekiwania społeczne24. W systemach demokratycznych zarówno wybrani przedstawiciele, jak i agencje administracji publicznej muszą uzasadniać podejmowane decyzje polityczne, aby utrzymać wiarygodność i zaufanie społeczne. Na przykład skuteczność programów opieki społecznej zależy w dużej mierze od stopnia, w jakim pozostają one zgodne z dominującymi postawami społecznymi wobec roli państwa w sferze interwencji publicznej.\nWraz z ewolucją modeli zarządzania publicznego w XXI wieku legitymizacja stała się coraz ściślej powiązana z partycypacyjnym podejmowaniem decyzji\n22 P.J. DiMaggio, W.W. Powell, The Iron Cage Revisited...\n23 M.C. Suchman, Managing Legitimacy: Strategic and Institutional Approaches, „The\nAcademy of Management Review” 1995, t. 20, nr 3, DOI: 10.2307/258788.\n24 W.R. Scott, W. Richard SCOTT (1995), Institutions and Organizations. Ideas, Interests and Identities.\n\noraz z koncepcją zarządzania opartego na współpracy. Chris Ansell i Alison\nGash podkreślili, że poziom legitymizacji zarządzania publicznego wzrasta, gdy rządy aktywnie angażują obywateli, sektor prywatny oraz organizacje pozarządowe (NGO) w proces formułowania i wdrażania polityk publicznych25.\nMechanizmy partycypacyjne – takie jak konsultacje społeczne, fora deliberatywne czy platformy e-rządzenia – wzmacniają legitymizację poprzez promowanie inkluzywności, przejrzystości oraz współodpowiedzialności obywateli za procesy decyzyjne.\nWraz z rozwojem zarządzania cyfrowego Albert J. Meijer zauważył, że legitymizacja instytucji publicznych jest w coraz większym stopniu uzależniona od dostępności i przejrzystości informacji. Inicjatywy otwartego rządu, udostępnianie danych w czasie rzeczywistym oraz cyfrowe platformy partycypacji obywatelskiej wzmacniają zaufanie do instytucji publicznych i przyczyniają się do większej skuteczności wdrażania polityk publicznych26. Przejrzystość cyfrowa zapewnia, że zasady i decyzje administracyjne są nie tylko prawnie obowiązujące, lecz także publicznie akceptowane, co ogranicza opór społeczny i sprzyja zgodności z politykami publicznymi.\nW ostatnich latach legitymizacja instytucji publicznych została poważnie wystawiona na próbę w obliczu globalnych kryzysów, takich jak zmiany klimatyczne, spowolnienie gospodarcze czy pandemia COVID-1 9. Alex Bitektine i Patrick Haack27 podkreślają, że w okresach kryzysu rządy powinny stosować adaptacyjne strategie legitymizacji, równoważąc autorytet wiedzy eksperckiej z percepcją i oczekiwaniami społecznymi. Pandemia COVID-19 uwidoczniła wyraźne napięcie między wiedzą naukową a zaufaniem społecznym, niezbędnym do przestrzegania polityk publicznych. Rządy, które skutecznie komunikowały zasady polityki zdrowia publicznego i utrzymywały wysoki poziom przejrzystości, osiągały wyższe wskaźniki zgodności społecznej, podczas gdy te postrzegane jako niespójne lub nieprzejrzyste napotykały znaczny opór społeczny28.\n25 C. Ansell, A. Gash, Collaborative Governance in Theory and Practice...\n26 A. Meijer, Co-production in an Information Age: Individual and Community Engagement\nSupported by New Media, „VOLUNTAS: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit\nOrganizations” 2012, t. 23, nr 4, DOI: 10.1007/s11266-012-9311-z.\n27 A. Bitektine, P. Haack, The “Macro” and the “Micro” of Legitimacy: Toward a Multilevel\nTheory of the Legitimacy Process, „Academy of Management Review” t. 40 nr 1 (2015),\nDOI: 10.5465/amr.2013.0318.\n28 A. Bitektine, P. Haack, The “Macro” and the “Micro” of Legitimacy: Toward a Multilevel\nTheory of the Legitimacy Process, „Academy of Management Review” 2015, t. 40, nr 1,\nDOI: 10.5465/amr.2013.0318.\n\nPonadto Janine O’Flynn i Lindsay Russell zauważyły, że w spolaryzowanych środowiskach politycznych legitymizacja instytucji publicznych jest coraz częściej podważana. Proces realizacji polityk publicznych staje się szczególnie trudny, gdy podziały ideologiczne osłabiają zaufanie społeczne do instytucji państwowych. Rządy powinny przeciwdziałać tym napięciom, wzmacniając legitymizację poprzez kształtowanie polityk opartych na dowodach, budowanie szerokich koalicji interesariuszy oraz prowadzenie spójnej komunikacji strategicznej29.\nKoncepcja legitymizacji w zarządzaniu publicznym ewoluowała od weberowskiego modelu prawno-racjonalnego autorytetu do współczesnych, wielowymiarowych ram, obejmujących normy instytucjonalne, dostosowanie strategiczne oraz partycypację społeczną. Z biegiem czasu legitymizacja stała się kluczowym czynnikiem kształtującym proces wdrażania polityk publicznych, zapewniając zgodność z normami społecznymi, wspierając zaangażowanie interesariuszy oraz wzmacniając zaufanie obywateli do instytucji państwowych. We współczesnym zarządzaniu publicznym legitymizacja nie ma już charakteru statycznego, lecz wymaga stałego potwierdzania poprzez przejrzystość działań, responsywność instytucji oraz zdolność adaptacji do zmieniających się oczekiwań społecznych.\nW miarę jak administracja publiczna staje w obliczu rosnącej złożoności i niepewności, legitymizacja pozostanie kluczowym czynnikiem kształtującym skuteczność polityk publicznych. Przyszłe badania powinny koncentrować się na analizie wpływu nowych technologii, wyzwań globalnego zarządzania oraz zmieniających się postaw społecznych na proces legitymizacji w sektorze publicznym. Zapewnienie legitymizacji stanowi nie tylko teoretyczną konieczność, lecz także praktyczny imperatyw warunkujący trwałość i skuteczność instytucji publicznych w dynamicznie ewoluującym krajobrazie społeczno-politycznym.\n5.3. Zmiany instytucjonalne i reformy sektora publicznego\nZmiany instytucjonalne w sektorze publicznym stanowią złożony i dynamiczny proces, napędzany przez różnorodne czynniki o charakterze zewnętrznym i wewnętrznym. Rządy oraz organizacje publiczne wdrażają reformy\n29 I. O’Flynn, D. Russell (red.), Power Sharing: New Challenges For Divided Societies, Pluto\nPress 2015.\n\nw odpowiedzi na kryzysy, presję międzynarodową oraz rozwój wiedzy i technologii. Zrozumienie tych uwarunkowań ma kluczowe znaczenie dla analizy sposobów, w jakie instytucje sektora publicznego adaptują się do współczesnych wyzwań i zmieniającego się otoczenia społeczno-politycznego.\nW niniejszej części omówiono trzy kluczowe czynniki zmian instytucjonalnych: szoki zewnętrzne, dyfuzję polityki i wpływy międzynarodowe oraz organizacyjne uczenie się i adaptację. Każdy z tych mechanizmów odgrywa odrębną, lecz wzajemnie powiązaną rolę w kształtowaniu struktur zarządzania publicznego oraz ram polityk publicznych.\n5.3.1. Szoki zewnętrzne: kryzysy gospodarcze i transformacje polityczne jako katalizatory zmian\nJednym z kluczowych czynników napędzających zmiany instytucjonalne są wstrząsy zewnętrzne, takie jak kryzysy gospodarcze czy przemiany polityczne, które zakłócają istniejące struktury i zmuszają rządy do przyjmowania nowych rozwiązań politycznych. Kryzysy gospodarcze tworzą pilną potrzebę reform, ujawniając słabości istniejących instytucji oraz prowadząc do ich restrukturyzacji. Douglas C. North wskazywał, że zmiany instytucjonalne często pojawiają się w następstwie kryzysów, gdy dotychczasowe systemy nie są w stanie sprostać nowym wymaganiom gospodarczym, co w konsekwencji prowadzi do powstawania nowych ram regulacyjnych30.\nNa przykład globalny kryzys finansowy z 2008 roku zmusił wiele rządów do wdrożenia szeroko zakrojonych reform w obszarze regulacji finansowych, polityki fiskalnej oraz administracji publicznej. W Unii Europejskiej środki oszczędnościowe nałożone na państwa takie jak Grecja i Hiszpania doprowadziły do głębokiej restrukturyzacji systemów świadczenia usług publicznych oraz procesów budżetowania państwowego31. Joseph E. Stiglitz zauważył, że kryzys ten przyspieszył transformację w kierunku silniejszego nadzoru regulacyjnego w sektorze bankowym i finansowym, podkreślając znaczenie interwencji państwa dla utrzymania stabilności rynków32.\n30 D.C. North, Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic Performance, Cambridge\nUniversity Press 1990.\n31 M. Lodge, C. Hood, Into an Age of Multiple Austerities? Public Management and\nPublic Service Bargains across OECD Countries, „Governance” 2012, t. 25, nr 1, DOI:\n10.1111/j.1468-0491.2011.01557.x.\n32 J.E. Stiglitz, Freefall...\n\nPrzemiany polityczne, takie jak procesy demokratyzacji czy zmiany reżimów, również stanowią istotny czynnik napędzający transformację instytucjonalną. W sytuacji upadku reżimów autorytarnych nowo powstające rządy demokratyczne często przeprojektowują struktury administracji publicznej, aby dostosować je do zasad odpowiedzialności, przejrzystości i partycypacji obywatelskiej33. Upadek komunizmu w Europie Środkowo-Wschodniej na początku lat dziewięćdziesiątych doskonale ilustruje ten proces – byłe państwa socjalistyczne przeszły transformację w kierunku gospodarki rynkowej oraz przeprowadziły szeroko zakrojone reformy instytucjonalne, mające na celu dostosowanie zarządzania publicznego do norm demokratycznych i standardów europejskich34. Przykłady te pokazują, że wstrząsy zewnętrzne mogą prowadzić do demontażu dotychczasowych ram instytucjonalnych i inicjować głębokie reformy sektora publicznego.\nKryzysy oraz przemiany polityczne mogą przyspieszać procesy zmian instytucjonalnych, jednak nie zawsze prowadzą do trwałej poprawy funkcjonowania instytucji. Reformy wdrażane w okresach kryzysowych często mają charakter doraźny, jeśli nie adresują głębszych problemów strukturalnych35.\nW niektórych przypadkach zmiany te prowadzą wręcz do niestabilności, czego przykładem są porewolucyjne przemiany w państwach arabskiej wiosny, gdzie systemy zarządzania napotykały trudności w ustanowieniu trwałych i efektywnych instytucji36. Pokazuje to, że choć wstrząsy zewnętrzne stanowią katalizator reform, ich długoterminowy sukces zależy od zdolności instytucjonalnych do adaptacji i konsolidacji osiągniętych zmian.\n33 J.A. Robinson, D. Acemoğlu, J. Łoziński (red.), Dlaczego narody przegrywają: źródła władzy, pomyślności i ubóstwa, Poznań 2014.\n34 A. Grzymala-Busse, Rebuilding Leviathan: Party Competition and State Exploitation in\nPost-Communist Democracies, Cambridge University Press 2007.\n35 P. Pierson, Politics in Time, Princeton University Press 2004.\n36 S. Heydemann, Explaining the Arab Uprisings: Transformations in Comparative Perspective, „Mediterranean Politics” 2016, t. 21, nr 1, DOI: 10.1080/13629395.2015.1081450.\n\n5.3.2. Dyfuzja polityki i wpływ międzynarodowy: rola globalnych modeli zarządzania\nInnym kluczowym czynnikiem zmian instytucjonalnych jest dyfuzja polityki, rozumiana jako proces, w ramach którego rządy przyjmują modele zarządzania opracowane przez organizacje międzynarodowe, państwa sąsiednie lub zgodne z najlepszymi praktykami globalnymi. David Dolowitz i David Marsh definiują dyfuzję polityki jako zjawisko polegające na tym, że rządy – dobrowolnie bądź pod presją zewnętrzną – adaptują rozwiązania instytucjonalne stosowane przez inne podmioty, takie jak Organizacja Narodów Zjednoczonych\n(ONZ), Bank Światowy czy Międzynarodowy Fundusz Walutowy (MFW)37.\nGodnym uwagi przykładem dyfuzji polityki jest przyjęcie koncepcji nowego zarządzania publicznego w wielu krajach na świecie. Wywodząca się z Wielkiej Brytanii i Nowej Zelandii w latach 80. XX wieku koncepcja NPM wprowadziła rynkowo zorientowane podejście do administracji publicznej, akcentując znaczenie efektywności, prywatyzacji oraz zarządzania opartego na wynikach38. Zasady te szybko rozprzestrzeniły się globalnie, wpływając na reformy sektora publicznego zarówno w państwach rozwiniętych, jak i rozwijających się. Per Lægreid i Tom Christensen wskazują, że upowszechnienie\nNPM było w dużej mierze napędzane przez organizacje międzynarodowe, które promowały efektywność zarządzania jako uniwersalną zasadę modernizacji administracji publicznej39.\nW krajach rozwijających się rola międzynarodowych instytucji finansowych w kształtowaniu reform sektora publicznego jest szczególnie wyraźna.\nProgramy Dostosowania Strukturalnego wdrażane przez Bank Światowy w Afryce i Ameryce Łacińskiej w latach 80. i 90. XX wieku narzucały reformy zarządzania, obejmujące m.in. decentralizację, prywatyzację oraz dyscyplinę fiskalną, jako warunek uzyskania pomocy finansowej40. Choć reformy te przyczyniły się do wprowadzenia nowych struktur administracyjnych i praktyk zarządzania, krytycy zwracają uwagę, że często pomijały one lokalny kontekst społeczno-polityczny, prowadząc do niezamierzonych konsekwencji, takich\n37 D.P. Dolowitz, D. Marsh, Learning from Abroad: The Role of Policy Transfer in Contemporary Policy-Making, „Governance” 2000, t. 13, nr 1, DOI: 10.1111/0952-1895.00121.\n38 C. Hood, A Public Management for All Seasons?, „Public Administration” 1991, t. 69.\n39 T. Christensen, P. Lægreid, Complexity and Hybrid Public Administration—Theoretical and Empirical Challenges...\n40 D. Rodrik, The Globalization Paradox...\n\njak osłabienie zdolności instytucjonalnych państwa i ograniczenie autonomii decyzyjnej rządów narodowych41.\nPodobnie traktaty i umowy międzynarodowe odgrywają istotną rolę w kształtowaniu zmian instytucjonalnych. Proces akcesyjny do Unii Europejskiej wymaga od państw kandydujących dostosowania struktur administracji publicznej do unijnych standardów zarządzania, co doprowadziło do szeroko zakrojonych reform instytucjonalnych w krajach Europy Środkowo-\n-Wschodniej42. Dyfuzja polityki pełni zatem funkcję mechanizmu napędzającego zmiany instytucjonalne, choć skuteczność reform narzucanych lub inspirowanych zewnętrznie zależy od stopnia, w jakim zostaną one zintegrowane z lokalnymi uwarunkowaniami instytucjonalnymi i kulturą administracyjną.\n5.3.3. Organizacyjne uczenie się i adaptacja: endogeniczne czynniki ewolucji instytucjonalnej\nW odróżnieniu od zewnętrznych wstrząsów i narzuconych polityk, organizacyjne uczenie się oraz adaptacja stanowią bardziej stopniową, wewnętrzną formę zmiany instytucjonalnej. Perspektywa ta, oparta na teorii uczenia się instytucjonalnego, zakłada, że organizacje rozwijają się poprzez analizę wcześniejszych doświadczeń, testowanie nowych strategii oraz wyciąganie wniosków z sukcesów i niepowodzeń43.\nOrganizacje sektora publicznego adaptują się poprzez stopniowe reformy, w których instytucje modyfikują swoje zasady w odpowiedzi na oceny efektywności, opinie interesariuszy oraz pojawiającą się wiedzę. Koncepcja zależności od ścieżki tłumaczy, jak wcześniejsze decyzje instytucjonalne wpływają na kierunek przyszłych reform44. Przykładowo, wiele krajów skandynawskich stopniowo rozbudowywało systemy państwa opiekuńczego, wykorzystując wnioski z eksperymentów politycznych i modyfikując programy zgodnie ze zmieniającymi się potrzebami społecznymi45.\n41 W. Easterly, Chapter 15 National Policies and Economic Growth: A Reappraisal, [w:]\nHandbook of Economic Growth, t. 1, Elsevier 2005.\n42 F. Schimmelfennig (red.), The Europeanization of Central and Eastern Europe, Ithaca,\nNY 2005.\n43 C. Rhodes, Book Reviews: Chris Argyris and Donald A. Schon (1996): Organizational\nLearning II: Theory, Method and Practice, Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, „Asia Pacific\nJournal of Human Resources” 1998, t. 36, nr 1, DOI: 10.1177/103841119803600112.\n44 P. Pierson, Increasing Returns, Path Dependence, and the Study of Politics, „American\nPolitical Science Review” 2000, t. 94, nr 2, DOI: 10.2307/2586011.\n45 G. Esping-Andersen, The three worlds of welfare capitalism, Cambridge 1993.\n\nPostęp technologiczny oddziałuje także na proces uczenia się organizacyjnego w sektorze publicznym. Rozwój zarządzania cyfrowego przyczynił się do zmian instytucjonalnych, umożliwiając rządom usprawnienie świadczenia usług publicznych oraz zwiększenie przejrzystości działań. Państwa takie jak\nEstonia należą do pionierów reform w zakresie e-administracji, wykorzystując systemy identyfikacji cyfrowej oraz technologię blockchain w celu podniesienia efektywności administracyjnej46. Przykład ten ukazuje, jak rządy uczą się na podstawie rozwoju technologicznego i dostosowują struktury instytucjonalne, by skutecznie wykorzystywać pojawiające się możliwości.\nAdaptacja instytucjonalna może jednak napotykać opór, szczególnie wtedy, gdy proponowane zmiany zagrażają istniejącym interesom. James\nMahoney i Kathleen Thelen podkreślają, że reformom instytucjonalnym często towarzyszy spór, gdyż różne grupy interesariuszy dążą do kształtowania kierunku przemian. Biurokratyczna inercja oraz uwarunkowania polityczne mogą spowalniać procesy uczenia się, utrudniając adaptację w określonych kontekstach zarządzania47.\n5.3.4. Porównanie czynników napędzających zmiany instytucjonalne: kryzys, wpływy zewnętrzne i uczenie się\nChoć szoki zewnętrzne, dyfuzja polityki oraz organizacyjne uczenie się przyczyniają się do zmian instytucjonalnych, funkcjonują one w odmiennych warunkach i prowadzą do różnych rezultatów. Zewnętrzne wstrząsy zazwyczaj powodują szybkie, nierzadko radykalne zmiany, które jednak mogą okazać się nietrwałe, jeśli nie zostaną odpowiednio zinstytucjonalizowane. Dyfuzja polityki sprzyja upowszechnianiu nowych modeli zarządzania, lecz ich skuteczność zależy od odpowiedniego dostosowania do lokalnych uwarunkowań.\nZ kolei organizacyjne uczenie się wspiera bardziej zrównoważone procesy zmian, choć przebiega wolniej i wymaga dobrze rozwiniętych kompetencji instytucjonalnych (zob. tabela 9) .\n46 H. Margetts, P. Dunleavy, The second wave of digital-era governance: a quasi-paradigm for government on the Web, „Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical,\nPhysical and Engineering Sciences” t. 371 nr 1987 (2013), DOI: 10.1098/rsta.2012.0382.\n47 J. Mahoney, K.A. Thelen (red.), Explaining institutional change...\n\nTabela 9. Porównanie czynników zmian instytucjonalnych\nCzynnik Szybkość zmian Źródło zmian Wyzwania\nSzoki zewnętrzne Ryzyko niestabilności,\nSzybkie, często Egzogeniczne (gospo-\n(kryzysy, transfor- koncentracja na celach wymuszone darcze, polityczne) macje polityczne) krótkoterminowych\nRyzyko niedopaso-\nDyfuzja polityki Umiarkowana do Mieszane (międzywania do lokalnych\n(wpływy globalne) szybkiej narodowe i krajowe) uwarunkowań\nOrganizacyjne Endogeniczne\nPowolna, Opór biurokratyczny, uczenie się (adapta- (biurokratyczne, przyrostowa inercja polityczna cja endogeniczna) technologiczne)\nŹródło: Opracowanie własne na podstawie S. Heydemann, Explaining the Arab Uprisings: transformations in\nComparative Perspective, „Mediterranean Politics” t. 21 nr 1 (2016), DOI: 10.1080/13629395.2015.1081450;\nP. Pierson, Increasing Returns, Path Dependence, and the Study of Politics, „American Political Science Review” t. 94 nr 2 (2000), DOI: 10.2307/2586011; P. Pierson, Politics in Time, Princeton University Press 2004; J.A. Robinson,\nD. Acemoğlu, J. Łoziński (red.), Dlaczego narody przegrywają: źródła władzy, pomyślności i ubóstwa, Poznań 2014;\nF. Schimmelfennig (red.), The Europeanization of Central and Eastern Europe, Ithaca, NY 2005.\nOstatecznie efektywność zmiany instytucjonalnej wynika z wzajemnej interakcji omawianych czynników. Reformy sektora publicznego okazują się najbardziej efektywne, gdy rządy potrafią wykorzystać presję kryzysu, wdrożyć sprawdzone rozwiązania międzynarodowe oraz wspierać procesy instytucjonalnego uczenia się, zapewniające długofalową zdolność adaptacyjną.\nUwzględnienie wzajemnych zależności między tymi mechanizmami umożliwia pełniejsze zrozumienie, w jaki sposób administracja publiczna ewoluuje w odpowiedzi na wyzwania współczesności.\n5.4. Krytyka i przyszłe kierunki rozwoju teorii instytucjonalnej w zarządzaniu publicznym\nTeoria instytucjonalna od wielu lat stanowi cenne ramy interpretacyjne dla analizy zachowań organizacji publicznych. Wraz z rozwojem zarządzania publicznego ewoluują także krytyka i kierunki dalszego rozwoju tego nurtu teoretycznego. Krytycy zwracają uwagę, że teoria instytucjonalna niekiedy zbyt mocno akcentuje stabilność i konformizm, pomijając znaczenie sprawczości\n\noraz innowacji48. W konsekwencji badacze zaczęli eksplorować nowe obszary, takie jak przedsiębiorczość instytucjonalna, instytucje hybrydowe czy transformacja cyfrowa, aby udoskonalić i poszerzyć teorię instytucjonalną w kontekście zarządzania publicznego. W niniejszym rozdziale przeanalizowano te nowe zagadnienia, akcentując ich znaczenie oraz przedstawiając kierunki dalszych badań i rozwoju praktyki zarządzania publicznego.\n5.4.1. Przedsiębiorczość instytucjonalna\nPrzedsiębiorczość instytucjonalna odnosi się do proaktywnych działań jednostek lub organizacji, ukierunkowanych na zakwestionowanie i przekształcenie istniejących ram instytucjonalnych. W odróżnieniu od tradycyjnych ujęć, postrzegających organizacje publiczne jako biernych odbiorców zewnętrznych nacisków, koncepcja przedsiębiorczości instytucjonalnej zakłada, że aktorzy działający w tych instytucjach mogą pełnić rolę aktywnych i wpływowych inicjatorów zmian. Tacy przedsiębiorcy instytucjonalni wykorzystują swój kapitał społeczny, zasoby oraz innowacyjne pomysły, by inicjować reformy dostosowujące instytucje do ewoluujących potrzeb społecznych49. Przykładowo, w okresach kryzysów fiskalnych lub zmian politycznych przedsiębiorcy instytucjonalni funkcjonujący w agencjach publicznych inicjowali reformy, które nie tylko odpowiadały na bieżące wyzwania, lecz także tworzyły podstawy długofalowej transformacji50. Działania te potwierdzają, że zmiana instytucjonalna nie zawsze jest narzucana z zewnątrz, lecz może być aktywnie inicjowana od wewnątrz, co zwiększa zdolność adaptacyjną organizacji publicznych.\nRola przedsiębiorczości instytucjonalnej jest szczególnie istotna we współczesnym sektorze publicznym, w którym dynamiczne zmiany technologiczne i społeczne wymagają elastycznych oraz adaptacyjnych modeli zarządzania.\nPrzedsiębiorcy instytucjonalni odegrali kluczową rolę w promowaniu i wdrażaniu inicjatyw e-administracji, które zwiększają przejrzystość działań rządowych oraz usprawniają świadczenie usług publicznych51. Podmioty te często przekraczają granice organizacyjne, współpracując z innymi instytucjami publicznymi, sektorem prywatnym oraz społeczeństwem obywatelskim w celu\n48 Ibid.\n49 J. Battilana, T. D’Aunno, Institutional work and the paradox of embedded agency...\n50 P. DiMaggio, Culture and Cognition, „Annual Review of Sociology” t. 23 nr 1 (1997),\nDOI: 10.1146/annurev.soc.23.1.263.\n51 D.P. Moynihan, J. Soss, Policy Feedback and the Politics of Administration, „Public\nAdministration Review” t. 74 nr 3 (2014), DOI: 10.1111/puar.12200.\n\ntworzenia sieci sprzyjających instytucjonalnemu uczeniu się i innowacjom52.\nW ten sposób podważają one statyczne postrzeganie instytucji, akcentując rolę sprawczości w procesie transformacji administracji publicznej. Działania te mają kluczowe znaczenie dla podtrzymania legitymizacji oraz promowania kultury ciągłego doskonalenia w zarządzaniu publicznym53.\n5.4.2. Instytucje hybrydowe\nKolejnym istotnym kierunkiem przyszłych badań jest rozwój instytucji hybrydowych. Instytucje hybrydowe, takie jak partnerstwa publiczno-prywatne czy modele współzarządzania, zacierają tradycyjne granice między sektorem publicznym a prywatnym. Tego rodzaju układy cechuje wspólne zarządzanie zasobami, ryzykiem oraz władzą decyzyjną pomiędzy instytucjami publicznymi a podmiotami prywatnymi54. Instytucje hybrydowe zyskały na znaczeniu w odpowiedzi na rosnącą złożoność wyzwań publicznych, takich jak rozwój infrastruktury, system ochrony zdrowia czy zarządzanie środowiskiem. Łącząc atuty obu sektorów, modele hybrydowe mogą zwiększać efektywność, innowacyjność oraz elastyczność w świadczeniu usług publicznych.\nAtrakcyjność instytucji hybrydowych wynika z ich zdolności do wspierania współpracy w epoce dynamicznej globalizacji i intensywnych przemian technologicznych. Przykładowo, rozwój zrównoważonej infrastruktury miejskiej często opiera się na partnerstwach pomiędzy samorządami, inwestorami prywatnymi i organizacjami społecznymi55. Takie formy współpracy umożliwiają łączenie wiedzy eksperckiej oraz zasobów finansowych, co sprzyja zwiększeniu efektywności i odporności usług publicznych. Instytucje hybrydowe niosą jednak także istotne wyzwania: pogodzenie odmiennych celów oraz mechanizmów rozliczalności partnerów publicznych i prywatnych bywa trudne, a dodatkowo pojawia się ryzyko przejęcia regulacji lub utraty kontroli publicznej nad kluczowymi usługami56. Przyszłe badania powinny koncen-\n52 J. Battilana, T. D’Aunno, Institutional work and the paradox of embedded agency...\n53 W.R. Scott, W. Richard SCOTT (1995), Institutions and Organizations. Ideas, Interests and Identities.\n54 E.-H. Klijn, G.R. Teisman, Institutional and Strategic Barriers to Public–Private Partnership: An Analysis of Dutch Cases, „Public Money and Management” 2003, t. 23, nr 3,\nDOI: 10.1111/1467-9302.00361.\n55 J. Węgrzyn et al. (red.), Partnerstwo publiczno-prywatne – dzieląc się wiedzą i doświadczeniem, Łódź 2021.\n56 S.P. Osborne, The New Public Governance?...\n\ntrować się na projektowaniu modeli hybrydowych, które łączą efektywność z odpowiedzialnością publiczną, gwarantując, że nadrzędnym celem pozostaje ochrona interesu publicznego.\n5.4.3. Transformacja cyfrowa\nTrzecim wyłaniającym się trendem, który będzie kształtował rozwój teorii instytucjonalnej w zarządzaniu publicznym, jest transformacja cyfrowa. Dynamiczny rozwój technologii cyfrowych wywarł istotny wpływ na administrację publiczną, zasadniczo zmieniając sposób funkcjonowania instytucji rządowych oraz ich relacje z obywatelami. Transformacja cyfrowa obejmuje zastosowanie technologii informacyjno-komunikacyjnych (ICT), analizy dużych zbiorów danych, sztucznej inteligencji (AI) oraz technologii blockchain, które mają potencjał zwiększania przejrzystości, efektywności i zdolności reagowania instytucji publicznych57. Technologie te umożliwiają wymianę danych w czasie rzeczywistym, usprawniają procesy administracyjne oraz sprzyjają większemu zaangażowaniu obywateli poprzez platformy e-administracji58.\nTransformacja cyfrowa redefiniuje struktury instytucjonalne, wprowadzając nowe formy zachowań organizacyjnych i kwestionując tradycyjne modele biurokratyczne. Przykładowo, analityka wykorzystująca sztuczną inteligencję umożliwia menedżerom publicznym podejmowanie decyzji opartych na danych, co przekłada się na lepsze wyniki polityk publicznych i wyższą efektywność operacyjną59. Ponadto technologia blockchain wprowadza nowy paradygmat zapewniania integralności i rozliczalności danych, który może zrewolucjonizować system zamówień publicznych oraz mechanizmy zgodności z regulacjami60. Integracja narzędzi cyfrowych nie tylko podnosi szybkość i pre-\n57 P. Dunleavy, New Public Management Is Dead–Long Live Digital-Era Governance, „Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory” t. 16 nr 3 (2005), DOI: 10.1093/jopart/ mui057.\n58 A. Meijer, Co-production in an Information Age: Individual and Community Engagement\nSupported by New Media, „VOLUNTAS: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit\nOrganizations” t. 23 nr 4 (2012), DOI: 10.1007/s11266-012-9311-z.\n59 X. Dong, S.H. McIntyre, The Second Machine Age: Work, Progress, and Prosperity in a Time of Brilliant Technologies, „Quantitative Finance” t. 14 nr 11 (2014), DOI:\n10.1080/14697688.2014.946440; E. Brynjolfsson, A. McAfee, The second machine age:\nwork, progress, and prosperity in a time of brilliant technologies, New York; London 2016.\n60 S. Ølnes, J. Ubacht, M. Janssen, Blockchain in government: Benefits and implications of distributed ledger technology for information sharing, „Government Information Quarterly” t. 34 nr 3 (2017), DOI: 10.1016/j.giq.2017.09.007.\n\ncyzję świadczenia usług publicznych, lecz także wzmacnia przejrzystość dzięki szerszemu udostępnianiu informacji o działaniach administracji publicznej.\nW rezultacie transformacja cyfrowa ma potencjał wzmacniania legitymacji instytucji publicznych poprzez demonstrowanie ich zaangażowania w innowacyjność oraz odpowiedzialne zarządzanie61.\nCyfryzacja administracji publicznej wiąże się jednak także z istotnymi wyzwaniami. Zagrożenia dla cyberbezpieczeństwa, kwestie ochrony prywatności danych oraz rosnąca przepaść cyfrowa mogą ograniczać korzyści wynikające z postępu technologicznego62. Dlatego menedżerowie publiczni powinni opracowywać skuteczne strategie, które zapewnią bezpieczeństwo infrastruktury cyfrowej oraz równy dostęp obywateli do usług publicznych. Wdrażanie technologii cyfrowych wymaga nie tylko znaczących nakładów finansowych, lecz także głębokiej zmiany kulturowej w organizacjach publicznych, umożliwiającej adaptację do nowych sposobów pracy63.\nPorównanie trzech kluczowych czynników kształtujących zmiany instytucjonalne – przedsiębiorczości instytucjonalnej, instytucji hybrydowych oraz transformacji cyfrowej – ujawnia wspólny wątek: konieczność rozwijania zdolności adaptacyjnych i innowacyjności w zarządzaniu publicznym. Przedsiębiorczość instytucjonalna akcentuje rolę proaktywnych aktorów zmian w organizacjach publicznych, natomiast instytucje hybrydowe wskazują na korzyści i trudności wynikające ze współzarządzania pomiędzy sektorem publicznym a prywatnym. Transformacja cyfrowa wprowadza dodatkowy wymiar technologiczny, ukazując, w jaki sposób nowoczesne technologie informacyjno-\n-komunikacyjne mogą przekształcać procesy instytucjonalne i wzmacniać mechanizmy odpowiedzialności publicznej.\nPodsumowując, przyszłość teorii instytucjonalnej w zarządzaniu publicznym zależy od umiejętnej integracji tych dynamicznych czynników. Wraz z narastającą presją związaną z globalizacją, postępem technologicznym i ewolucją oczekiwań społecznych, zdolność instytucji publicznych do adaptacji\n61 A. Cordella, C.M. Bonina, A public value perspective for ICT enabled public sector reforms:\nA theoretical reflection, „Government Information Quarterly” t. 29 nr 4 (2012), DOI:\n10.1016/j.giq.2012.03.004.\n62 R. Chesney, D.K. Citron, Deep Fakes: A Looming Challenge for Privacy, Democracy, and\nNational Security, „SSRN Electronic Journal” (2018), DOI: 10.2139/ssrn.3213954, https:// www.ssrn.com/abstract=3213954.\n63 H. Margetts, P. Dunleavy, The second wave of digital-era governance...\n\ni innowacji nabiera kluczowego znaczenia. Poprzez rozwijanie przedsiębiorczości instytucjonalnej, wdrażanie modeli hybrydowych oraz wykorzystanie technologii cyfrowych, organizacje publiczne mogą nie tylko przetrwać, lecz także skutecznie się rozwijać w dynamicznie zmieniającym się otoczeniu. Zintegrowane podejście do tych koncepcji sprawia, że sektor publiczny staje się bardziej odporny, elastyczny i przejrzysty, a tym samym lepiej przygotowany do sprostania wyzwaniom współczesności.\nTabela 10. Teoria instytucjonalna. Izomorfizm i współpraca z diasporą\nRodzaj Wpływ na politykę\nCharakterystyka Przykłady izomorfizmu wobec diaspor\nPaństwa tworzą struk-\nPolska – utworzenie insty-\nPresja wywierana tury ds. diaspory pod tucji wspierających Polonię przez instytucje wpływem nacisków\nIzomorfizm po akcesji do UE; kraje afrynadrzędne (pań- organizacji międzynaroprzymusowy kańskie – powołanie instystwo, organizacje dowych, trendów intetucji ds. diaspory zgodnie międzynarodowe) gracyjnych lub wymoz zaleceniami UA gów prawnych\nRządy kopiują spraw-\nIzrael jako wzór dla Armenii\nNaśladownictwo dzone modele współprzy tworzeniu instytucji\nIzomorfizm rozwiązań stoso- pracy z diasporą, dążąc ds. diaspory; Indie i Chiny mimetyczny wanych przez inne do zwiększenia efek-\n– podobne programy typu państwa tywności i legitymizacji returnee działań\nPolska – programy badaw-\nWpływ środo- Kształtowanie polityki cze i konsultacje z eksperwisk eksperc- wobec diaspory w opar-\nIzomorfizm tami ds. migracji; UE – rekokich, naukowców ciu o międzynarodowe normatywny mendacje OECD dotyczące i organizacji standardy, ekspertyzy migracji i polityki wobec zawodowych i dobre praktyki diaspory\nPołączenie różnych Państwa adaptują Kanada – łączenie insty-\nIzomorfizm mechanizmów elementy rozmaitych tucjonalnego wsparcia hybrydowy izomorficznych, wzorców, dostosowując z sieciami NGO; Filipiny –\n(współczesne z naciskiem na je do lokalnych uwa- adaptacja globalnych norm interpretacje) legitymizację runkowań politycznych ochrony pracowników i reformy i społecznych migrantów\nŹródło: opracowanie własne na podstawie: P.J. DiMaggio, W.W. Powell, The Iron Cage Revisited: Institutional\nIsomorphism and Collective Rationality in Organizational Fields, „American Sociological Review” t. 48 nr 2\n(1983), DOI: 10.2307/2095101; A. Gamlen, Diaspora institutions and diaspora governance, „International\nMigration Review” t. 48 (2014), DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/imre.12136; M. Lesińska, Polska diaspora, Polonia, emigracja. Spory pojęciowe wokół skupisk polskich za granicą, „Polski Przegląd Migracyjny” nr 1 (2018); B.G.\nPeters, Bureaucracy and Democracy in the Modern State, „Public Administration Review” t. 70 nr 4 (2010), DOI:\n10.1111/j.1540-6210.2010.02187.x; W.R. Scott, W. Richard SCOTT (1995), Institutions and Organizations. Ideas,\nInterests and Identities.: Paperback: 360 pages Publisher: Sage (1995) Language: English ISBN: 978-142242224,\n„M@n@gement” t. 17 nr 2 (2014), DOI: 10.3917/mana.172.0136.\n\n6. Teoria zasobowa\nK. Zienkiewicz\nTeoria oparta na zasobach (resource-based theory, RBT) należy do kluczowych paradygmatów w badaniach nad przewagą konkurencyjną przedsiębiorstw oraz w zarządzaniu strategicznym. W odróżnieniu od tradycyjnych teorii, koncentrujących się na czynnikach zewnętrznych – takich jak struktura rynku czy siły konkurencyjne – RBT skupia uwagę na wewnętrznych zasobach organizacji oraz jej zdolnościach, które pozwalają osiągnąć i utrzymać przewagę konkurencyjną1. Centralnym założeniem tej teorii jest przekonanie, że unikalna kombinacja zasobów – materialnych i niematerialnych – stanowi podstawowe źródło wzrostu, innowacyjności oraz trwałego sukcesu przedsiębiorstwa. Nie jest jednak jednoznaczne, czy podejście zasobowe należy klasyfikować jako teorię, czy raczej jako koncepcję lub pogląd. Pojawia się zatem pytanie, czy właściwsze jest stosowanie określenia „teoria oparta na zasobach” (resource-\n-based theory, RBT)2, czy raczej „pogląd oparty na zasobach” (resource-based view, RBV), jak sugeruje pierwotna terminologia anglojęzyczna3.\n1 J. Barney, Firm Resources and Sustained Competitive Advantage...; M.A. Peteraf, The Cornerstones of Competitive Advantage: A Resource‐Based View, „Strategic Management Journal” t. 14 nr 3 (1993), DOI: 10.1002/smj.4250140303.\n2 T.R. Crook et al., Strategic Resources and Performance: A Meta‐Analysis, „Strategic\nManagement Journal” t. 29 nr 11 (2008), DOI: 10.1002/smj.703.\n3 E.J. Kleinschmidt, U. De Brentani, S. Salomo, Performance of Global New Product Development Programs: A Resource‐Based View, „Journal of Product Innovation Management”\n\nJedną z prekursorek podejścia zasobowego była Edith Penrose, której praca The Theory of the Growth of the Firm zrewolucjonizowała sposób postrzegania rozwoju przedsiębiorstwa. Penrose podkreślała, że zdolność przedsiębiorstwa do wzrostu zależy nie tylko od umiejętności wykorzystywania rynkowych okazji, lecz przede wszystkim od efektywnego zarządzania posiadanymi zasobami. Wprowadziła pojęcie „nadwyżki zasobów”, wskazując, że niewykorzystane możliwości wewnętrzne przedsiębiorstwa mogą stanowić źródło trwałej przewagi konkurencyjnej, o ile zostaną właściwie rozwinięte i ukierunkowane przez menedżerów4. Podejście Penrose przesunęło akcent w badaniach z analizy czynników zewnętrznych na znaczenie wewnętrznych kompetencji i zdolności organizacyjnych przedsiębiorstwa.\nKolejnym istotnym etapem w rozwoju teorii zasobowej był artykuł Birgera Wernerfelta z 1984 roku zatytułowany A Resource-Based View of the Firm.\nW swojej pracy Wernerfelt przedstawił koncepcję, zgodnie z którą zasoby przedsiębiorstwa – zarówno materialne (np. maszyny, kapitał), jak i niematerialne\n(np. wiedza, reputacja) – należy postrzegać jako strategiczne aktywa organizacji. Autor argumentował, że posiadanie unikalnych zasobów pozwala przedsiębiorstwu budować przewagę konkurencyjną, o ile zasoby te są nie tylko wartościowe, lecz także trudne do imitacji przez konkurentów5. Wkład\nWernerfelta umożliwił ugruntowanie przekonania, że to wewnętrzny potencjał przedsiębiorstwa stanowi podstawę jego sukcesu, co stanowiło przełom w myśleniu o strategii organizacyjnej.\nNastępnie Jay Barney rozwinął tę perspektywę, wprowadzając ramy value, rarity, inimitability and non-substitutability (VRIN), które określają kryteria, jakie zasoby muszą spełniać, by mogły stanowić źródło trwałej przewagi konkurencyjnej. Zdaniem Barneya zasoby powinny być: wartościowe, aby umożliwiały wykorzystanie szans rynkowych lub neutralizację zagrożeń; rzadkie, czyli niedostępne dla większości konkurentów; trudne do imitacji, co może wynikać z unikalnych uwarunkowań historycznych, niejednoznaczności przyczynowej bądź złożoności społecznej; oraz niezastępowalne, to znaczy pozbawione funkcjonalnych ekwiwalentów o podobnych właściwościach. Model VRIN stał się nie tylko podstawą teoretycznej analizy zasobów, lecz także praktycznym t. 24 nr 5 (2007), DOI: 10.1111/j.1540-5885.2007.00261.x.\n4 E. Penrose, The Theory of the Growth of the Firm, Oxford University Press, Oxford 1995.\n5 B. Wernerfelt, A Resource‐Based View of the Firm, „Strategic Management Journal” t. 5 nr 2 (1984), DOI: 10.1002/smj.4250050207.\n\nnarzędziem wspierającym menedżerów w ocenie strategicznego potencjału posiadanych aktywów6.\nW kolejnym etapie rozwoju teorii zasobowej Michael Peteraf (1993) rozwinął koncepcję Barneya, koncentrując się na warunkach determinujących trwałość przewagi konkurencyjnej. Peteraf podkreślił, że dla utrzymania przewagi konkurencyjnej kluczowe znaczenie mają niejednorodność zasobów oraz ich ograniczona mobilność. Zdaniem Peterafa, nawet zasoby spełniające kryteria modelu VRIN mogą utracić swoją wartość, jeśli konkurenci będą w stanie je łatwo pozyskać lub skopiować. W swojej pracy Peteraf wyróżnił cztery kluczowe warunki – heterogeniczność zasobów, niedoskonałą mobilność, ograniczenia konkurencji ex post oraz niejednoznaczność przyczynową\n– które łącznie decydują o tym, czy dane zasoby mogą stanowić źródło trwałej przewagi konkurencyjnej7.\nRozwój teorii opartych na zasobach zyskał nowy wymiar wraz z pojawieniem się koncepcji dynamicznych zdolności. David Teece, Gary Pisano i Amy\nShuen w przełomowym artykule Dynamic Capabilities and Strategic Management podkreślili, że w dynamicznym i nieprzewidywalnym otoczeniu biznesowym kluczowym wyzwaniem dla przedsiębiorstw jest zdolność do szybkiej adaptacji oraz rekonfiguracji posiadanych zasobów. Dynamiczne zdolności definiuje się jako zdolność organizacji do integrowania, rozwijania i przekształcania posiadanych zasobów w odpowiedzi na zmieniające się warunki rynkowe. Koncepcja ta rozwinęła tradycyjny resource-based view, przesuwając akcent z samego posiadania zasobów na znaczenie procesów adaptacyjnych i zdolności organizacji do ich ciągłego doskonalenia8.\nRównolegle, David Collis i Cynthia Montgomery wprowadzili koncepcję\n„orkiestracji zasobów”, stanowiącą uzupełnienie teorii dynamicznych zdolności. Zdaniem Collisa i Montgomery, samo posiadanie unikalnych zasobów nie zapewnia trwałej przewagi konkurencyjnej – kluczowe znaczenie ma sposób, w jaki menedżerowie organizują, integrują i ponownie wykorzystują zasoby w odpowiedzi na zmieniające się warunki rynkowe. Autorzy zwrócili uwagę na znaczenie aktywnego zarządzania zasobami, określanego mianem\n6 J. Barney, Firm Resources and Sustained Competitive Advantage...; M.A. Peteraf, The cornerstones of competitive advantage: A resource‐based view, „Strategic Management\nJournal” t. 14 nr 3 (1993), DOI: 10.1002/smj.4250140303.\n7 M.A. Peteraf, The cornerstones of competitive advantage...\n8 D.J. Teece, G. Pisano, A. Shuen, Dynamic Capabilities and Strategic Management, [w:]\nTechnological Know-How, Organizational Capabilities, and Strategic Management, World\nScientific 2008.\n\n„orkiestracji zasobów”, obejmującego zarówno ich pozyskiwanie, jak i efektywne wykorzystanie w sposób umożliwiający przedsiębiorstwu utrzymanie trwałej konkurencyjności9.\nKolejnym istotnym nurtem badań stała się integracja teorii zasobowej\n(RBT) z innymi perspektywami teoretycznymi. Robert Grant podkreślił w swojej pracy, że skuteczność przedsiębiorstwa wynika z synergii między jego wewnętrznymi zasobami a sposobem ich wykorzystania w relacji do warunków otoczenia rynkowego. Połączenie tej perspektywy z klasycznym podejściem zasobowym umożliwiło bardziej kompleksową analizę strategiczną, obejmującą zarówno czynniki wewnętrzne, jak i zewnętrzne determinujące przewagę konkurencyjną przedsiębiorstwa10.\nKrytycy teorii zasobowej, tacy jak James Mahoney i Kathleen Thelen, zwracają uwagę, że podejście to często pomija znaczenie otoczenia instytucjonalnego w procesie wykorzystania zasobów. Zdaniem Mahoneya i Thelen, skuteczność zasobów w tworzeniu przewagi konkurencyjnej zależy nie tylko od ich unikalności, lecz także od uwarunkowań instytucjonalnych, które mogą zarówno wspierać, jak i ograniczać ich rozwój. Autorzy wskazują, że analiza zasobów powinna być uzupełniona o zrozumienie kontekstów regulacyjnych, społecznych i kulturowych, co pozwala lepiej wyjaśnić, dlaczego jedne zasoby generują trwałą przewagę konkurencyjną, podczas gdy inne szybko tracą na znaczeniu11.\nKolejnym etapem rozwoju teorii zasobowej było jej rozszerzenie o perspektywę sieciową, zaproponowane przez Andy’ego Locketta, Steve’a Thompsona i Ute Morgenstern, którzy podkreślili, że zasoby przedsiębiorstwa są często wzmacniane poprzez relacje z innymi organizacjami12. W ich ujęciu zasoby nie stanowią odrębnych, izolowanych aktywów, lecz elementy szerszego systemu, w którym strategiczne sojusze oraz współpraca międzyorganizacyjna mogą znacząco podnosić wartość konkurencyjną przedsiębiorstwa. Połączenie teorii sieci z podejściem zasobowym umożliwia bardziej całościowe spojrzenie\n9 D.J. Collins, C.A. Montgomery, Competing on resources: Strategy in the 1990s., „Harvard\nBusiness Review” t. 73 nr 4 (1995).\n10 R.M. Grant, The Resource-Based Theory of Competitive Advantage: Implications for Strategy\nFormulation, „California Management Review” t. 33 nr 3 (1991), DOI: 10.2307/41166664.\n11 J. Mahoney, K.A. Thelen (red.), Explaining institutional change...\n12 A. Lockett, S. Thompson, U. Morgenstern, The Development of the Resource‐Based View of the Firm: A Critical Appraisal, „International Journal of Management Reviews” t. 11 nr 1 (2009), DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-2370.2008.00252.x.\n\nna to, w jaki sposób relacje z partnerami, dostawcami i klientami wpływają na zdolność organizacji do adaptacji oraz generowania innowacji13.\nPodsumowując, teoria oparta na zasobach przeszła znaczącą ewolucję, obejmując kolejne etapy rozwoju koncepcyjnego i metodologicznego. Jej początki wyznaczają prace Edith Penrose i Alfreda Chandlera, które akcentowały znaczenie wewnętrznych zasobów organizacji oraz kompetencji menedżerskich. Kolejnym krokiem było sformułowanie perspektywy zasobowej przez Birgera Wernerfelta, a następnie jej rozwinięcie przez Jaya Barneya i Michaela Peterafa, którzy opracowali kryteria oceny zasobów pozwalające identyfikować źródła trwałej przewagi konkurencyjnej. W dalszej fazie rozwoju teoria została wzbogacona o koncepcję dynamicznych zdolności oraz orkiestracji zasobów, które podkreśliły znaczenie ciągłej adaptacji i skutecznego zarządzania potencjałem organizacyjnym. Kolejne rozszerzenia, obejmujące integrację z perspektywami strategicznymi, instytucjonalnymi i sieciowymi, doprowadziły do ukształtowania kompleksowego modelu, który trafniej odzwierciedla złożoność współczesnych wyzwań konkurencyjnych.\nWspółczesne środowisko biznesowe, cechujące się dynamicznym tempem zmian technologicznych i intensywną globalną interakcją, wymaga od przedsiębiorstw nie tylko posiadania unikalnych zasobów, lecz przede wszystkim zdolności do ich ciągłej adaptacji, integracji i skutecznej orkiestracji. Dynamiczne zdolności oraz umiejętność efektywnego zarządzania zasobami stały się kluczowymi determinantami sukcesu strategicznego. W konsekwencji teoria oparta na zasobach pozostaje nie tylko przedmiotem intensywnych badań akademickich, lecz także praktycznym narzędziem wykorzystywanym przez menedżerów do budowania i podtrzymywania trwałej przewagi konkurencyjnej.\nW erze cyfrowej nowe technologie – takie jak big data, sztuczna inteligencja (AI) czy blockchain – stwarzają nie tylko dodatkowe wyzwania, lecz także nowe możliwości w zakresie zarządzania zasobami. Jak zauważyła Anita Bharadwaj wraz ze współautorami, cyfrowe aktywa i zdolności stanowią nowe źródło przewagi konkurencyjnej, zmuszając przedsiębiorstwa do ponownego przemyślenia tradycyjnych kryteriów oceny zasobów. Integracja tych nowoczesnych technologii z klasycznym podejściem zasobowym umożliwia organizacjom\n13 A. Lockett, S. Thompson, U. Morgenstern, The development of the resource‐based view of the firm: A critical appraisal, „International Journal of Management Reviews” t. 11 nr 1 (2009), DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-2370.2008.00252.x.\n\nszybszą adaptację i zwiększoną zdolność do innowacji, co stanowi warunek sukcesu w dynamicznie zmieniającym się otoczeniu rynkowym14.\nOstatecznie teoria oparta na zasobach pozostaje jedną z kluczowych koncepcji w zarządzaniu strategicznym, dostarczając solidnych podstaw do analizy źródeł przewagi konkurencyjnej. . Ewolucja tej teorii – od koncepcji Edith\nPenrose i Alfreda Chandlera, poprzez rozwinięcia Birgera Wernerfelta, Jaya\nBarneya i Michaela Peterafa, aż po współczesne rozszerzenia obejmujące dynamiczne zdolności, orkiestrację zasobów i technologie cyfrowe – dowodzi jej ogromnej wartości zarówno dla badaczy, jak i praktyków zarządzania. Przedsiębiorstwa, które potrafią nie tylko identyfikować swoje unikalne zasoby, lecz także efektywnie nimi zarządzać, są lepiej przygotowane do sprostania wyzwaniom globalnej konkurencji, co czyni teorię zasobową jednym z fundamentalnych narzędzi współczesnego zarządzania strategicznego.\nTeoria oparta na zasobach (resource-based theory – RBT) stała się jedną z kluczowych ram analizy przewagi konkurencyjnej oraz wyników przedsiębiorstwa. Jej ewolucja odzwierciedla przesunięcie akcentu z czynników zewnętrznych, takich jak struktura rynku, na wewnętrzne zasoby i zdolności organizacji, uznawane za kluczowe źródła przewagi konkurencyjnej. Rozwój tej teorii można prześledzić od wczesnych, przełomowych prac z zakresu teorii organizacji i ekonomii, poprzez kolejne etapy jej ewolucji, kształtowane przez znaczące wkłady i dalsze udoskonalenia koncepcyjne.\n6.1. Fundamenty teorii opartej na zasobach\nPrzełomowa praca Edith Penrose położyła intelektualne fundamenty pod to, co później zostało sformalizowane jako teoria oparta na zasobach (resource-\n-based theory – RBT). W swojej wpływowej książce Penrose przesunęła akcent w analizie rozwoju przedsiębiorstw z ujęcia czysto rynkowego na perspektywę wewnętrzną. Utrzymywała, że unikalne zasoby oraz zdolności organizacyjne przedsiębiorstwa stanowią kluczowe czynniki jego wzrostu, przewagi konkurencyjnej i długofalowego sukcesu15.\nAnaliza Edith Penrose rozpoczęła się od obserwacji, że przedsiębiorstwa są niejednorodnymi podmiotami dysponującymi zróżnicowanymi pakietami\n14 A. Bharadwaj et al., Digital Business Strategy: Toward a Next Generation of Insights, „MIS\nQuarterly” t. 37 nr 2 (2013), DOI: 10.25300/MISQ/2013/37:2.3.\n15 E. Penrose, The Theory of the Growth of the Firm...\n\nzasobów – od aktywów materialnych, takich jak maszyny i kapitał, po aktywa niematerialne, obejmujące wiedzę menedżerską, reputację czy technologiczne know-how. W opozycji do poglądu neoklasycznego, akcentującego znaczenie zewnętrznych sił rynkowych i ekonomii skali, Penrose podkreślała, że potencjał wzrostu przedsiębiorstwa wynika z jego zdolności do efektywnego wykorzystania i rozwijania zasobów wewnętrznych. Wprowadziła koncepcję\n„nadwyżki zasobów”, wskazując, że przedsiębiorstwa potrafiące w twórczy sposób wykorzystać swoje niewykorzystane zasoby mogą stymulować innowacje i generować wzrost. To spostrzeżenie stało się fundamentem przekonania, że przewaga konkurencyjna wynika z posiadania specyficznych dla przedsiębiorstwa zasobów, które są unikalne, trudne do skopiowania i stanowią podstawę jego długoterminowej siły rynkowej16.\nKluczowym założeniem pracy Edith Penrose jest teza, że rozwój przedsiębiorstwa nie jest ograniczony wielkością rynku, lecz zależy od jego zdolności do skutecznego zarządzania i wykorzystywania zasobów wewnętrznych. Penrose podkreślała, że zdolności menedżerskie odgrywają zasadniczą rolę w procesie podejmowania decyzji, gdyż determinują, w jakim stopniu przedsiębiorstwo potrafi efektywnie wykorzystać swoje zasoby do realizacji pojawiających się szans rynkowych17. W tym sensie podejście Penrose miało charakter przełomowy – wskazywała ona, że zadaniem kierownictwa nie jest jedynie reagowanie na warunki rynkowe, lecz aktywne kształtowanie przyszłości przedsiębiorstwa poprzez rozwijanie i realokację zasobów. To wczesne ujęcie dynamicznych zdolności menedżerskich zapowiadało późniejsze kierunki badań, w tym prace\nDavida Teece’a, Gary’ego Pisano i Amy Shuen nad koncepcją zdolności dynamicznych18, które podkreślały znaczenie działań menedżerskich w adaptacji i rekonfiguracji zasobów organizacyjnych.\nEdith Penrose wprowadziła również koncepcję, zgodnie z którą zasoby nie mają charakteru statycznego, lecz stanowią podstawę tzw. „opcji rozwojowych” przedsiębiorstwa. W miarę gromadzenia i alokacji zasobów przedsiębiorstwa tworzą potencjał dla przyszłej ekspansji oraz dywersyfikacji działalności.\nKoncepcja ta zakłada, że wartość zasobu wynika nie tylko z jego aktualnego zastosowania, lecz również z potencjału do tworzenia przyszłych przewag konkurencyjnych. Idea „opcji wzrostu” wywarła istotny wpływ na zarządzanie strategiczne, gdyż akcentuje znaczenie inwestowania w rozwój i pielęgnowanie\n16 Ibid.\n17 Ibid.\n18 D.J. Teece, G. Pisano, A. Shuen, Dynamic Capabilities and Strategic Management...\n\nzdolności, które mogą przynosić korzyści w długim horyzoncie czasowym19.\nW tym kontekście przedsiębiorstwa są zachęcane do traktowania swoich zasobów jako aktywów strategicznych, które – przy właściwym zarządzaniu – mogą stać się podstawą trwałej przewagi konkurencyjnej.\nWpływ koncepcji Edith Penrose jest wyraźnie widoczny w późniejszych badaniach rozwijających podejście zasobowe. Birger Wernerfelt, nawiązując do spostrzeżeń Penrose, sformułował zasobowe ujęcie przedsiębiorstwa, argumentując, że posiadanie unikalnych zasobów może stanowić podstawę trwałej przewagi konkurencyjnej20. Koncepcja Wernerfelta przyczyniła się do ugruntowania dyskursu akademickiego wokół idei, iż zasoby wewnętrzne stanowią fundament efektywności i sukcesu przedsiębiorstwa21. Następnie Jay Barney rozwinął tę perspektywę, wprowadzając model VRIN, zgodnie z którym zasoby muszą być wartościowe, rzadkie, trudne do imitacji i niezastępowalne, aby mogły stanowić źródło trwałej przewagi konkurencyjnej22. Wkład Barneya bywa postrzegany jako bezpośrednia kontynuacja i rozwinięcie idei Penrose, gdyż formalizuje on kryteria pozwalające odróżnić zasoby strategicznie istotne od tych, które można łatwo skopiować lub zastąpić.\nNa przestrzeni dziesięcioleci teoria oparta na zasobach ewoluowała, dostosowując się do wyzwań wynikających z coraz bardziej dynamicznego i nieprzewidywalnego otoczenia. Wraz ze wzrostem zmienności i konkurencyjności rynków akcent przesunął się w stronę analizy tego, w jaki sposób przedsiębiorstwa mogą modyfikować i dostosowywać swoją bazę zasobów, by sprostać ewoluującym wymaganiom otoczenia. Ta ewolucja doprowadziła Davida\nTeece’a, Gary’ego Pisano i Amy Shuen do opracowania koncepcji zdolności dynamicznych, które opisują, w jaki sposób przedsiębiorstwa mogą integrować, rozwijać i rekonfigurować swoje kompetencje wewnętrzne w odpowiedzi na zmiany zachodzące w otoczeniu23. O ile Penrose stworzyła pierwotne ramy do zrozumienia rozwoju przedsiębiorstwa poprzez analizę jego zasobów, o tyle teoria zdolności dynamicznych rozwija jej koncepcję, akcentując znaczenie ciągłej adaptacji, uczenia się i innowacji w utrzymywaniu trwałej przewagi konkurencyjnej24.\n19 J. Barney, Firm Resources and Sustained Competitive Advantage...\n20 B. Wernerfelt, A resource‐based view of the firm, „Strategic Management Journal” t. 5 nr 2 (1984), DOI: 10.1002/smj.4250050207.\n21 Ibid.\n22 J. Barney, Firm Resources and Sustained Competitive Advantage...\n23 D.J. Teece, G. Pisano, A. Shuen, Dynamic Capabilities and Strategic Management...\n24 E. Penrose, The Theory of the Growth of the Firm...\n\nBadacze nurtu instytucjonalnego połączyli także podejście zasobowe z szerszymi perspektywami społeczno-ekonomicznymi. James Mahoney i Kathleen Thelen argumentowali, że choć teoria oparta na zasobach skutecznie wyjaśnia źródła przewagi konkurencyjnej, powinna być uzupełniona o analizę kontekstów instytucjonalnych, które determinują sposób wykorzystania zasobów. Zdaniem autorów, środowisko zewnętrzne, obejmujące zarówno ramy regulacyjne, jak i normy kulturowe, odgrywa kluczową rolę w kształtowaniu sposobu rozwoju oraz wykorzystania zasobów organizacyjnych25. Integracja czynników instytucjonalnych z analizą zasobów wewnętrznych umożliwia bardziej holistyczne spojrzenie na wyniki przedsiębiorstwa i przyczyniła się do rozwoju bardziej złożonych modeli teoretycznych, uwzględniających zarówno wewnętrzne, jak i zewnętrzne determinanty sukcesu organizacyjnego.\nKolejnym istotnym etapem w rozwoju teorii opartej na zasobach była koncepcja orkiestracji zasobów, wprowadzona przez Davida Collisa i Cynthię Montgomery. Autorzy podkreślili, że samo posiadanie cennych zasobów nie gwarantuje przewagi konkurencyjnej – przedsiębiorstwa muszą również umiejętnie je organizować, integrować i efektywnie wykorzystywać. Proces orkiestracji zasobów ma szczególne znaczenie w warunkach dynamicznych rynków, gdzie przewaga konkurencyjna oparta na zasobach może szybko ulec erozji w przypadku braku skutecznego zarządzania26. Teoria orkiestracji zasobów stanowi rozwinięcie klasycznych koncepcji Edith Penrose, akcentując strategiczną rolę zarządzania w nieustannym przekształcaniu i doskonaleniu portfela zasobów przedsiębiorstwa w odpowiedzi na zmienność otoczenia rynkowego27.\nW ostatnich latach rozwój technologii cyfrowych znacząco przeobraził krajobraz teorii opartej na zasobach. Badacze zaczęli analizować, w jaki sposób aktywa cyfrowe – takie jak big data, sztuczna inteligencja (AI) czy technologia blockchain – wpływają na konkurencyjność przedsiębiorstw. Anita Bharadwaj i współautorzy wskazują, że możliwości cyfrowe redefiniują tradycyjne pojęcia wyjątkowości i trudnej imitowalności zasobów. Zasoby cyfrowe nie tylko podnoszą efektywność operacyjną, lecz również generują nowe możliwości innowacji i strategicznego zróżnicowania, tym samym rozwijając pierwotne idee Edith Penrose w kontekście współczesnej, cyfrowej gospodarki.\n25 J. Mahoney, K.A. Thelen (red.), Explaining institutional change...\n26 D.J. Collins, C.A. Montgomery, Competing on Resources: Strategy in the 1990s, „Harvard\nBusiness Review” t. 73 nr 4 (1995).\n27 E. Penrose, The Theory of the Growth of the Firm...\n\nZastosowanie teorii opartej na zasobach w sektorze publicznym stanowi istotne poszerzenie jej pierwotnego zakresu. Podczas gdy badania Edith Penrose skupiały się przede wszystkim na przedsiębiorstwach prywatnych, autorzy tacy jak Jay Barney oraz Robert Grant rozszerzyli podejście zasobowe na obszar zarządzania publicznego28. Autorzy ci argumentują, że organizacje publiczne, podobnie jak przedsiębiorstwa prywatne, powinny wykorzystywać swoje unikalne zasoby, w tym kapitał ludzki, wiedzę instytucjonalną oraz sieci interesariuszy, aby zwiększać efektywność operacyjną i tworzyć wartość publiczną.\nTakie rozszerzenie potwierdza uniwersalność teorii opartej na zasobach oraz jej znaczenie w analizie różnorodnych kontekstów organizacyjnych.\nPodsumowując, wkład Edith Penrose stanowił fundament rozwoju teorii opartej na zasobach, podkreślając znaczenie zasobów wewnętrznych oraz zdolności menedżerskich jako kluczowych czynników rozwoju przedsiębiorstwa.\nJej praca utorowała drogę kolejnym badaczom, takim jak Birger Wernerfelt, Jay\nBarney i Michael Peteraf, którzy sformalizowali i rozwinęli teorię, wprowadzając kryteria umożliwiające identyfikację źródeł trwałej przewagi konkurencyjnej. . Dalsza ewolucja teorii opartej na zasobach obejmowała rozwój koncepcji zdolności dynamicznych oraz orkiestracji zasobów, jak również uwzględnienie najnowszych osiągnięć w zakresie technologii cyfrowych. Ponadto zastosowanie tej teorii w sektorze publicznym poszerzyło jej zakres, ukazując jej przydatność w analizie różnorodnych kontekstów organizacyjnych. Łącznie te osiągnięcia dowodzą, że choć fundamentalne idee sformułowane przez Penrose pozostają wciąż aktualne, teoria ta ewoluowała, by sprostać wyzwaniom dynamicznego i złożonego otoczenia współczesnego biznesu, stanowiąc solidne ramy analizy przewagi konkurencyjnej w erze cyfrowej.\n6.2. Dynamiczne zdolności i orkiestracja zasobów:\nrozszerzanie teorii opartej na zasobach\nTworzenie i utrzymywanie wartości stanowią fundament niemal każdej działalności gospodarczej29, dlatego poszukiwanie sposobów budowania i utrzymania\n28 J.B. Barney, Resource-Based Theories of Competitive Advantage: A Ten-Year Retrospective on the Resource-Based View, „Journal of Management” t. 27 nr 6 (2001), DOI:\n10.1177/014920630102700602; R.M. Grant, The Resource-Based Theory of Competitive\nAdvantage: Implications for Strategy Formulation, „California Management Review” t. 33 nr 3 (1991), DOI: 10.2307/41166664.\n29 K.H. Blanchard, M.J. O’Connor, Zarządzanie przez wartości: jak sprawić, by osobiste\n\nprzewagi konkurencyjnej ma kluczowe znaczenie dla sukcesu organizacji. Jak zauważają David Ketchen i Tomas Hult, współcześni menedżerowie coraz częściej postrzegają zarządzanie łańcuchem dostaw (supply chain management\n– SCM) jako kluczowe źródło tworzenia wartości oraz budowania przewagi konkurencyjnej30. Douglas Thomas i Paul Griffin również podkreślają, że od lat siedemdziesiątych XX wieku zarządzanie łańcuchem dostaw zyskało znaczną popularność w praktyce biznesowej31. W konsekwencji, w pełni uzasadnione jest, że teorie zasobowe, w szczególności podejście oparte na zasobach, stanowią teoretyczną podstawę wielu badań nad zarządzaniem łańcuchem dostaw32.\nClifford Defee, Bill Williams, Wes Randall i Robert Thomas potwierdzają to spostrzeżenie, wskazując, że „w latach 2004–2009 teoria zasobowa (resource based view – RBV) była drugą najczęściej stosowaną teorią w badaniach nad zarządzaniem łańcuchem dostaw”33. Częściej wykorzystywano jedynie teorię kosztów transakcyjnych (transaction cost cconomics – TCE). Nie ulega wątpliwości, że teoria koncentrująca się na procesie zarządzania zasobami organizacji w sposób prowadzący do tworzenia wartości stanowi niezwykle interesujący obszar badań. Teoria orkiestracji zasobów (resource orchestration theory – ROT) rozwija to podejście, koncentrując się na sposobach, w jakie menedżerowie koordynują i integrują zasoby w celu maksymalizacji wartości. Jednak, jak zauważają Ketchen i współautorzy, „niewiele wiadomo o tym, w jaki sposób menedżerowie przygotowują swoje firmy na przyszły sukces poprzez wypełnianie luk w zasobach i rozwiązywanie problemów związanych z orkiestracją zasobów w łańcuchach dostaw”34.\nwartości pomagały osiągać nadzwyczajne wyniki, tłum. A. Owsiak, MT Biznes, Warszawa 2015.\n30 G.T.M. Hult, D.J. Ketchen, M. Arrfelt, Strategic supply chain management: Improving performance through a culture of competitiveness and knowledge development, „Strategic Management Journal” t. 28 nr 10 (2007); D.J. Ketchen Jr, G.T.M. Hult, Bridging organization theory and supply chain management: The case of best value supply chains,\n„Journal of Operations Management\" t. 25 nr 2 (2007).\n31 D.J. Thomas, P.M. Griffin, Coordinated Supply Chain Management, „European Journal of Operational Research” t. 94 nr 1 (1996), DOI: 10.1016/0377-2217(96)00098-7\n32 S.D. Hunt, D.F. Davis, Grounding supply chain management in resource‐advantage theory,\n„Journal of Supply Chain Management” t. 44 nr 1 (2008).\n33 C. Clifford Defee et al., An inventory of theory in logistics and SCM research, „The International Journal of Logistics Management” t. 21 nr 3 (2010).\n34 D.J. Ketchen Jr, K.D. Wowak, C.W. Craighead, Resource gaps and resource orchestration shortfalls in supply chain management: The case of product recalls, „Journal of Supply\nChain Management” t. 50 nr 3 (2014); K.D. Wowak et al., Supply chain knowledge and performance: A meta‐analysis, „Decision Sciences” t. 44 nr 5 (2013).\n\nTeoria oparta na zasobach od dawna stanowi solidne ramy analizy przewagi konkurencyjnej, ujmując ją poprzez pryzmat unikalnych zasobów i zdolności przedsiębiorstwa. Współcześnie, w warunkach dynamicznego i nieprzewidywalnego otoczenia biznesowego, statyczne posiadanie zasobów nie jest już wystarczające do utrzymania przewagi konkurencyjnej. Organizacje muszą nieustannie dostosowywać, integrować i rekonfigurować swoje zasoby – proces ten stanowi istotę koncepcji dynamicznych zdolności (dynamic capabilities). Z kolei koncepcja orkiestracji zasobów (resource orchestration) podkreśla znaczenie działań menedżerskich niezbędnych do skutecznego wdrażania, koordynowania i odnawiania zasobów w celu utrzymania długoterminowej konkurencyjności.\nWraz z rosnącą niestabilnością rynków globalnych badacze dostrzegli potrzebę włączenia elementu zmienności i adaptacji do ram teorii opartej na zasobach. David Collis i Cynthia Montgomery zauważyli, że samo posiadanie cennych zasobów nie jest wystarczające do osiągnięcia przewagi konkurencyjnej35. Zamiast tego przedsiębiorstwa muszą aktywnie zarządzać swoimi zasobami oraz elastycznie je rekonfigurować, by skutecznie reagować na presje zewnętrzne i wykorzystywać pojawiające się możliwości wewnętrzne.\nIch badania podkreślają kluczową rolę decyzji menedżerskich w procesie optymalizacji i koordynacji portfela zasobów przedsiębiorstwa. David Teece,\nGary Pisano i Amy Shuen wprowadzili koncepcję zdolności dynamicznych\n(dynamic capabilities), definiując je jako zdolność przedsiębiorstwa do integrowania, rozwijania i rekonfigurowania zasobów oraz kompetencji – zarówno wewnętrznych, jak i zewnętrznych – w odpowiedzi na szybko zmieniające się otoczenie. Koncepcja ta przekształciła teorię opartą na zasobach z ujęcia statycznego w dynamiczne, uwzględniające procesy innowacji i adaptacji. Autorzy podkreślili, że trwała przewaga konkurencyjna zależy nie tylko od rodzaju posiadanych zasobów, lecz także od zdolności organizacji do ich szybkiego i skutecznego dostosowywania do zmian w otoczeniu36.\nKathleen Eisenhardt i Jeffrey Martin rozwinęli koncepcję dynamicznych zdolności, ukazując, że ich natura różni się w zależności od branży oraz jest silnie uzależniona od charakteru środowiska konkurencyjnego. Badania te wykazały, że przedsiębiorstwa funkcjonujące w dynamicznych sektorach\n35 D.J. Collins, C.A. Montgomery, Competing on resources: Strategy in the 1990s.\n36 D.J. Teece, G. Pisano, A. Shuen, Dynamic Capabilities and Strategic Management...\n\nmuszą nieustannie rozwijać, odnawiać i adaptować swoją bazę zasobów, aby zachować przewagę konkurencyjną37.\n6.3. Geneza dynamicznych zdolności\nArtykuł Davida Teece’a, Gary’ego Pisano i Amy Shuen zatytułowany Dynamic\nCapabilities and Strategic Management stanowi przełomowe opracowanie, które znacząco rozszerzyło klasyczne ujęcie teorii opartej na zasobach. O ile we wczesnej literaturze opartej na koncepcji resource-based view (RBV) podkreślano znaczenie posiadania zasobów spełniających kryteria VRIN – czyli cennych, rzadkich, trudnych do imitacji i niezastępowalnych – o tyle Jay Barney, Margaret Peteraf, David Teece i inni badacze wskazywali, że w warunkach niestabilnych rynków kluczowym czynnikiem przewagi konkurencyjnej jest nie tylko posiadanie wyjątkowych zasobów, lecz także zdolność do ich szybkiej rekonfiguracji w odpowiedzi na zmieniające się otoczenie. Autorzy zdefiniowali zdolności dynamiczne (dynamic capabilities) jako umiejętność organizacji do integrowania, rozwijania i rekonfigurowania zasobów oraz kompetencji – zarówno wewnętrznych, jak i zewnętrznych – w celu skutecznego reagowania na dynamicznie zmieniające się warunki otoczenia38. Koncepcja ta przesunęła akcent z posiadania statycznych zasobów na dynamiczne procesy organizacyjne, które umożliwiają ciągłą adaptację i stanowią podstawę trwałej ewolucji przewagi konkurencyjnej.\nWedług Davida Teece’a, Gary’ego Pisano i Amy Shuen, Roberta Granta, zdolności dynamiczne obejmują trzy kluczowe procesy: wykrywanie szans i zagrożeń, ich wykorzystanie oraz przekształcanie i rekonfigurację bazy zasobów organizacyjnych. Funkcja wykrywania (sensing) odnosi się do zdolności organizacji do identyfikowania zmian w potrzebach klientów, trendów technologicznych oraz presji konkurencyjnej. Funkcja wykorzystywania\n(seizing) obejmuje mobilizację zasobów w celu wykorzystania zidentyfikowanych możliwości – na przykład poprzez innowacje, inwestycje lub strategiczną realokację zasobów. Z kolei funkcja przekształcania (transforming)\n37 K.M. Eisenhardt, J.A. Martin, Dynamic capabilities: what are they?, „Strategic Management Journal” t. 21 nr 10–11 (2000).\n38 J.B. Barney, Resource-based theories of competitive advantage: A ten-year retrospective on the resource-based view, „Journal of Management” t. 27 nr 6 (2001), DOI:\n10.1177/014920630102700602; M.A. Peteraf, The cornerstones of competitive advantage...;\nD.J. Teece, G. Pisano, A. Shuen, Dynamic Capabilities and Strategic Management...\n\numożliwia przedsiębiorstwu ciągłe odnawianie i dostosowywanie jego zdolności, co pozwala uniknąć ryzyka organizacyjnej inercji i utraty aktualności.\nModel ten nie tylko rozwinął podejście resource-based view, lecz także dostarczył bardziej kompleksowych ram analitycznych, umożliwiających zrozumienie, w jaki sposób przedsiębiorstwa utrzymują przewagę konkurencyjną w warunkach niepewności i dynamicznych zmian rynkowych39.\n6.4. Empiryczne spostrzeżenia Eisenhardta i Martina\nKathleen Eisenhardt i Jeffrey Martin znacząco rozwinęli koncepcję zdolności dynamicznych, dostarczając empirycznych spostrzeżeń dotyczących tego, w jaki sposób ich charakter różni się w zależności od branży oraz specyfiki kontekstu konkurencyjnego. W artykule Dynamic Capabilities: What Are They?\nautorzy przedstawili zniuansowaną interpretację koncepcji zdolności dynamicznych, wskazując, że nie różnią się one zasadniczo od zdolności operacyjnych, lecz odznaczają się odmiennym tempem zmian i stopniem złożoności środowiska konkurencyjnego. Eisenhardt i Martin argumentują, że w dynamicznych, szybko zmieniających się branżach zdolności dynamiczne mają zazwyczaj prostszy i bardziej powtarzalny charakter, natomiast w sektorach stabilnych przybierają formę bardziej złożoną i trudniejszą do imitacji40.\nJednym z kluczowych wkładów Kathleen Eisenhardt i Jeffreya Martina jest stwierdzenie, że natura i skuteczność zdolności dynamicznych są w znacznym stopniu uzależnione od kontekstu branżowego. Na przykład w sektorach zaawansowanych technologii, gdzie rynki ewoluują wyjątkowo szybko, przedsiębiorstwa muszą rozwijać rutyny i procesy umożliwiające im błyskawiczne dostosowanie się do zmian technologicznych oraz zmieniających się preferencji klientów. Z kolei w bardziej stabilnych sektorach zdolności dynamiczne koncentrują się raczej na stopniowych usprawnieniach i ewolucyjnej adaptacji niż na gwałtownych zmianach. Badania Eisenhardt i Martina podkreślają, że skuteczność zdolności dynamicznych zależy od dynamiki otoczenia oraz od\n39 D.J. Teece, G. Pisano, A. Shuen, Dynamic Capabilities and Strategic Management...; R.M.\nGrant, The Resource-Based Theory of Competitive Advantage: Implications for Strategy\nFormulation, „California Management Review” t. 33 nr 3 (1991), DOI: 10.2307/41166664.\n40 K.M. Eisenhardt, J.A. Martin, Dynamic capabilities: what are they?...\n\numiejętności przedsiębiorstwa w dostosowywaniu procesów strategicznych do tempa zachodzących zmian41.\nBadania Kathleen Eisenhardt i Jeffreya Martina podkreślają również znaczenie struktury organizacyjnej oraz praktyk menedżerskich w procesie rozwijania dynamicznych zdolności przedsiębiorstwa. Autorzy zauważają, że bardziej płaskie struktury organizacyjne oraz kultura organizacyjna sprzyjająca uczeniu się wspierają szybkie podejmowanie decyzji i stymulują innowacyjność. Takie czynniki pozwalają przedsiębiorstwom sprawnie identyfikować zmiany zachodzące na rynku i skutecznie na nie reagować. Praca Eisenhardt i Martina wypełnia lukę między teoretycznymi podstawami koncepcji dynamicznych zdolności a jej praktycznymi implikacjami menedżerskimi, wnosząc istotny wkład zarówno w rozwój badań akademickich, jak i w praktykę zarządzania.\n6.4.1. Pojawienie się orkiestracji zasobów\nO ile koncepcja dynamicznych zdolności koncentruje się na procesach adaptacji i zmian, o tyle teoria orkiestracji zasobów dostarcza wglądu w to, w jaki sposób menedżerowie aktywnie zarządzają portfelem zasobów przedsiębiorstwa. David Collis i Cynthia Montgomery wprowadzili koncepcję orkiestracji zasobów jako rozwinięcie teorii opartej na zasobach. . Autorzy argumentowali, że samo posiadanie cennych zasobów nie jest wystarczające — menedżerowie muszą umiejętnie je organizować, integrować i rekonfigurować, aby osiągnąć i utrzymać przewagę konkurencyjną. Ich praca podkreśla, że skuteczne zarządzanie zasobami stanowi proces dynamiczny, obejmujący zarówno ich pozyskiwanie, jak i wdrażanie w sposób spójny z celami strategicznymi organizacji42.\nOrkiestracja zasobów obejmuje kilka kluczowych działań, które odzwierciedlają sposób, w jaki menedżerowie organizują i wykorzystują posiadane aktywa w celu osiągnięcia przewagi konkurencyjnej:\nÒ strukturyzacja zasobów (resource structuring): obejmuje nabywanie, rozwijanie, gromadzenie oraz, w razie potrzeby, zbywanie zasobów w sposób zgodny z celami strategicznymi organizacji;\nÒ łączenie zasobów (resource bundling): polega na integrowaniu zasobów w komplementarne zestawy i tworzeniu synergicznych możliwości, które przewyższają wartość poszczególnych elementów.\n41 Ibid.\n42 D.J. Collins, C.A. Montgomery, Competing on resources: Strategy in the 1990s.\n\nÒ wykorzystanie zasobów (resource leveraging): odnosi się do efektywnego użycia skonfigurowanych pakietów zasobów w celu realizacji szans rynkowych, zwiększania efektywności i utrzymania trwałej przewagi konkurencyjnej43.\nPerspektywa Davida Collisa i Cynthii Montgomery stanowi uzupełnienie koncepcji dynamicznych zdolności, skupiając się na działaniach menedżerskich niezbędnych do optymalizacji wykorzystania zasobów organizacyjnych.\nAutorzy podkreślają, że przewaga konkurencyjna wynika nie tylko z posiadania unikalnych zasobów, lecz również z umiejętnego i długofalowego zarządzania nimi w czasie. Perspektywa ta zainspirowała późniejsze badania nad wzajemnymi zależnościami między orkiestracją zasobów a dynamicznymi zdolnościami, podkreślając, że oba te mechanizmy są kluczowe dla osiągnięcia trwałego sukcesu konkurencyjnego44.\n6.4.2. Integracja dynamicznych możliwości i orkiestracji zasobów\nWzajemne oddziaływanie między dynamicznymi zdolnościami a orkiestracją zasobów stanowi jeden z kluczowych etapów ewolucji podejścia opartego na zasobach (resource-based view). O ile koncepcja dynamicznych zdolności wyjaśnia, w jaki sposób przedsiębiorstwa dostosowują i rekonfigurują swoje zasoby w odpowiedzi na zmiany w otoczeniu, o tyle teoria orkiestracji zasobów skupia się na strategicznych działaniach menedżerskich, które umożliwiają i napędzają ten proces adaptacji. Zasadniczo zdolności dynamiczne można postrzegać jako zestaw procesów umożliwiających organizacji wprowadzanie zmian, natomiast orkiestracja zasobów odnosi się do strategicznych decyzji dotyczących tego, które zasoby powinny być rozwijane, integrowane i w jaki sposób są one wykorzystywane w praktyce.\nNa przykład przedsiębiorstwo technologiczne może wykorzystać swoje zdolności dynamiczne, dostrzegając nowy trend rynkowy w obszarze energii odnawialnej, a następnie ukierunkowując zasoby badawczo-rozwojowe na rozwój zrównoważonych technologii. Równocześnie, dzięki skutecznej orkiestracji zasobów, przedsiębiorstwo strategicznie integruje posiadaną wiedzę\n43 Ibid.\n44 D.G. Sirmon et al., Resource orchestration to create competitive advantage: Breadth, depth, and life cycle effects, „Journal of Management” t. 37 nr 5 (2011); D.G. Sirmon, M.A. Hitt,\nR.D. Ireland, Managing firm resources in dynamic environments to create value: Looking inside the black box, „Academy of Management Review” t. 32 nr 1 (2007).\n\ntechnologiczną, kapitał finansowy oraz potencjał innowacyjnych talentów, aby w pełni wykorzystać pojawiające się szanse rynkowe. Tego rodzaju integracja nie tylko wzmacnia przewagę konkurencyjną, lecz również zwiększa odporność organizacji na gwałtowne zmiany technologiczne i rynkowe.\nNajnowsze badania empiryczne dodatkowo uwypukliły znaczenie integracji dynamicznych zdolności z procesami orkiestracji zasobów. Michael\nSirmon i współautorzy wykazali empirycznie, że przedsiębiorstwa, które skutecznie rozwijają zarówno zdolności dynamiczne, jak i orkiestrację zasobów, osiągają zazwyczaj lepsze wyniki niż konkurenci, szczególnie w warunkach wysokiej niestabilności rynkowej. Zintegrowane podejście podkreśla, że choć klasyczna teoria oparta na zasobach koncentrowała się na statycznym wyposażeniu przedsiębiorstwa w zasoby, współczesne, turbulentne otoczenie konkurencyjne wymaga bardziej dynamicznego ujęcia, łączącego zdolności adaptacyjne z efektywnym zarządzaniem strategicznym45.\n6.5. Przyszłe kierunki i implikacje dla zarządzania\nZ perspektywy przyszłych badań integracja dynamicznych zdolności i orkiestracji zasobów prawdopodobnie pozostanie jednym z kluczowych kierunków rozwoju w dziedzinie zarządzania strategicznego. Nowe technologie, takie jak sztuczna inteligencja, blockchain czy analiza dużych zbiorów danych (big data), zasadniczo zmieniają sposób, w jaki przedsiębiorstwa zarządzają swoimi zasobami, co wymaga ponownej refleksji nad klasycznymi założeniami teorii opartej na zasobach (resource-based view – RBV)46. Rozwiązania te generują nowe formy wartości niematerialnych i prawnych, a jednocześnie umożliwiają szybkie rekonfigurowanie baz zasobowych w odpowiedzi na zmieniające się warunki rynkowe. W konsekwencji przyszłe badania powinny koncentrować się na analizie wpływu transformacji cyfrowej na rozwój dynamicznych zdolności oraz na sposób, w jaki wspiera ona strategiczną orkiestrację zasobów w organizacjach.\nCo więcej, zmieniające się globalne środowisko biznesowe, charakteryzujące się rosnącą konkurencją i szybkim tempem zmian, wymaga ciągłych innowacji w praktykach zarządzania zasobami. Naukowcy badają obecnie, w jaki\n45 D.G. Sirmon, M.A. Hitt, R.D. Ireland, Managing firm resources in dynamic environments to create value: Looking inside the black box...\n46 A. Bharadwaj et al., Digital Business Strategy: Toward a Next Generation of Insights, „MIS\nQuarterly” t. 37 nr 2 (2013), DOI: 10.25300/MISQ/2013/37:2.3.\n\nsposób przedsiębiorstwa mogą rozwijać organizacyjne systemy uczenia się, które wspierają nieustanne doskonalenie i adaptację. Integracja spostrzeżeń z teorii dynamicznych zdolności, orkiestracji zasobów oraz teorii sieci prawdopodobnie doprowadzi do powstania bardziej solidnych modeli umożliwiających lepsze zrozumienie i skuteczniejsze zarządzanie przewagą konkurencyjną w XXI wieku47.\nPodsumowując, teoria zarządzania firmą oparta na zasobach przeszła znaczącą ewolucję od momentu powstania, przechodząc od akcentowania statycznego wyposażenia w zasoby do bardziej dynamicznego ujęcia, obejmującego zarówno koncepcję dynamicznych zdolności, jak i orkiestracji zasobów. Przełomowe prace Davida Teece’a, Gary’ego Pisano i Amy Shuen Kathleen Eisenhardt i Jeffreya Martina oraz Davida Collisa i Cynthii Montgomery nie tylko poszerzyły wiedzę teoretyczną, lecz także dostarczyły praktycznych ram dla menedżerów.\nW miarę jak organizacje zmagają się z rosnącą zmiennością i niepewnością otoczenia, zdolność do wyczuwania, wykorzystywania i przekształcania zasobów pozostanie kamieniem węgielnym trwałej przewagi konkurencyjnej. Przyszłe badania w tym obszarze powinny nadal pogłębiać analizę synergii między dynamicznymi zdolnościami a orkiestracją zasobów, zwłaszcza w kontekście transformacji cyfrowej i globalnych powiązań gospodarczych.\nPodsumowując, teoria oparta na zasobach przeszła długą drogę – od wczesnych prac Edith Penrose, która podkreślała znaczenie wewnętrznych zasobów jako źródła wzrostu przedsiębiorstwa48, po formalizację kluczowych kryteriów przewagi konkurencyjnej przez Jaya Barneya i Margaret Peteraf49. W kolejnych dekadach rozwój tej teorii został znacząco wzbogacony o koncepcje dynamicznych zdolności i orkiestracji zasobów, które umożliwiły organizacjom skuteczną adaptację do szybko zmieniającego się otoczenia. David Teece, Gary Pisano i Amy\nShuen wprowadzili pojęcie dynamicznych zdolności, podkreślając, że przewaga konkurencyjna wynika nie tylko z posiadania unikalnych zasobów, lecz również z ich ciągłego dostosowywania do warunków rynkowych50. Kathleen Eisenhardt i Jeffrey Martin oraz David Collis i Cynthia Montgomery dostarczyli dalszych ram empirycznych i teoretycznych, które pogłębiły zrozumienie sposobów, w jakie\n47 A. Lockett, S. Thompson, U. Morgenstern, The development of the resource‐based view of the firm...; K. Szymaniec-Mlicka, Zasobowe uwarunkowania podejmowania decyzji w organizacjach publicznych na przykładzie szpitali, „Prace Naukowe/Uniwersytet\nEkonomiczny w Katowicach” (2020).\n48 E. Penrose, The Theory of the Growth of the Firm...\n49 J. Barney, Firm Resources and Sustained Competitive Advantage...; M.A. Peteraf, The cornerstones of competitive advantage...\n50 D.J. Teece, G. Pisano, A. Shuen, Dynamic Capabilities and Strategic Management...\n\nmenedżerowie mogą efektywnie zarządzać zasobami w celu utrzymania przewagi konkurencyjnej51.\nTabela 11. Teoria zasobowa a polityka wobec diaspory\nZastosowanie\nRodzaj zasobu Charakterystyka we współpracy Przykłady z diasporą\nPrzyciąganie eksper-\nChiny – program Thousand\nWiedza, kompeten- tów i specjalistów\nZasoby ludzkie Talents; Polska – program cje, doświadczenie z diaspory; transfer\n„Polskie Powroty” (NAWA) wiedzy i umiejętności\nWsparcie inwestycji\nIndie – obligacje diaspory diaspory, przekazy\nZasoby Kapitał prywatny (India Development Bonds);\npieniężne (remitfinansowe i publiczny Izrael – państwowe obligatances), fundusze cje dla diaspory rozwojowe\nBudowanie mostów między krajem\nIzrael – Jewish Agency;\npochodzenia a pań-\nZasoby społecz- Relacje, zaufanie, Irlandia – globalne stwami osiedlenia;\nne i sieciowe sieci kontaktów sieci przedsiębiorców rozwój współprairlandzkich cy gospodarczej i naukowej\nPromocja kultury,\nDziedzictwo, utrzymanie języka Instytuty Polskie, projekty\nZasoby kulturojęzyk, tożsamość i tradycji, wzmacnia- edukacyjne dla Polonii, we i symboliczne narodowa nie więzi z krajem „Karta Polaka” pochodzenia\nUłatwienie kon-\nPolska – portal „Polo-\nInfrastruktu- taktów z diasporą,\nZasoby technolo- nia24”; Indie – platforra IT, platformy tworzenie cyfrowych giczne i cyfrowe my cyfrowe rządu dla komunikacyjne wspólnot i kanałów diaspory współpracy\nUmiejętność Elastyczne dopaso- Filipiny – adaptacja usług\nDynamicz- integrowania, wanie instrumentów konsularnych dla migranne zdolności koordynowania polityki wobec dia- tów; Kanada – progra-\n(meta-zasoby) i przekształcania spory do zmieniają- my sieciowe z udziałem zasobów cych się warunków diaspory\nŹródło: opracowanie własne na podstawie: J. Barney, Firm Resources and Sustained Competitive Advantage,\n„Journal of Management” t. 17 nr 1 (1991), DOI: 10.1177/014920639101700108; K.M. Eisenhardt, J.A. Martin,\nDynamic capabilities: what are they?, „Strategic Management Journal” t. 21 nr 1011 (2000); A. Gamlen, Diaspora institutions and diaspora governance, „International Migration Review” t. 48 (2014), DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/\n‐ imre.12136; D.J. Teece, G. Pisano, A. Shuen, Dynamic Capabilities and Strategic Management, [w:] Technological\nKnow-How, Organizational Capabilities, and Strategic Management, World Scientific 2008.\n51 D.J. Collins, C.A. Montgomery, Competing on resources: Strategy in the 1990s.; K.M.\nEisenhardt, J.A. Martin, Dynamic capabilities: what are they?...\n\nIntegracja teorii opartej na zasobach (resource-based theory – RBT) z podejściami instytucjonalnymi i sieciowymi poszerzyła jej zakres, ukazując, że otoczenie zewnętrzne oraz relacje międzyorganizacyjne odgrywają kluczową rolę w utrzymaniu przewagi konkurencyjnej52. W kontekście współczesnych wyzwań, takich jak transformacja cyfrowa, globalizacja czy dynamiczne zmiany technologiczne, zdolność do adaptacji i rekonfiguracji zasobów staje się niezbędnym warunkiem przetrwania oraz długoterminowego sukcesu organizacji.\nWnioski płynące z ewolucji teorii opartych na zasobach podkreślają, że organizacje – zarówno prywatne, jak i publiczne – powinny inwestować nie tylko w unikalne zasoby, lecz także w rozwój zdolności umożliwiających ich ciągłe odnawianie i efektywne wykorzystanie. W dynamicznym otoczeniu biznesowym kluczowe jest, aby menedżerowie byli świadomi, że przewaga konkurencyjna nie ma charakteru trwałego, jeśli zasoby nie są systematycznie aktualizowane i dostosowywane do zmieniających się warunków rynkowych.\nDlatego dalsze badania nad integracją dynamicznych zdolności, orkiestracji zasobów oraz wpływem transformacji cyfrowej pozostają niezbędne dla pełniejszego zrozumienia, w jaki sposób organizacje mogą utrzymać swoją pozycję konkurencyjną. Teorie te dostarczają praktycznych wskazówek dla procesów decyzyjnych w zarządzaniu strategicznym i podkreślają znaczenie elastyczności, innowacyjności oraz ciągłego uczenia się w budowaniu i utrzymywaniu przewagi konkurencyjnej.\n52 A. Lockett, S. Thompson, U. Morgenstern, The development of the resource‐based view of the firm...; J. Mahoney, K.A. Thelen (red.), Explaining institutional change...\n\n7. Przegląd współczesnych modeli współpracy z organizacjami emigranckimi\nT. Zienkiewicz, K. Zienkiewicz\nWspółczesne państwa stoją przed wyzwaniem efektywnego angażowania swoich diaspor rozproszonych po świecie, zarówno w wymiarze politycznym, jak i gospodarczym oraz kulturowym. W odpowiedzi na tę potrzebę wykształciły się różne modele współpracy z organizacjami emigranckimi – od tradycyjnych, biurokratycznych mechanizmów po nowoczesne podejścia oparte na sieciach, partnerstwach i partycypacji. Celem niniejszego rozdziału jest przedstawienie przeglądu tych modeli, zarówno zakorzenionych w klasycznym ujęciu administracji (Weberowska biurokracja), jak i w nowszych teoriach governance, interesariuszy oraz teorii zasobowej, a także dokonanie analizy porównawczej mechanizmów stosowanych przez wybrane państwa.\nAnalizy porównawcze pozwalają z jednej strony uwidocznić dwoistość stosowanych teorii: państwa korzystają równocześnie z racjonalno-legalnych procedur administracyjnych1 oraz z bardziej elastycznych, sieciowych narzędzi współdecydowania. Z drugiej strony ukazują, jak teoretyczne założenia przekładają się na praktykę – od emisji obligacji diasporowych, przez organizację forów konsultacyjnych, aż po cyfrowe platformy e-governance wspierające wspólne wypracowywanie polityk angażujące diasporę w działania.\n1 M. Weber, G. Roth, Economy and society...\n\nW niniejszym rozdziale omówiono cztery kluczowe wymiary współpracy:\n(1) instrumenty finansowe, obligacje i mechanizmy dopasowywania środków typu matching grants, wykorzystywane jako narzędzia mobilizacji kapitału diasporowego; (2) transfer kapitału ludzkiego w formie programów wspierających powrót naukowców i staże, umożliwiających migrantom dzielenie się wiedzą z krajem pochodzenia; (3) sieci społeczne wykorzystujące organizacje emigranckie jako nośniki kapitału społecznego, ułatwiającego internacjonalizację gospodarki; oraz (4) zdolności adaptacyjne administracji, umożliwiające szybkie dostosowywanie struktur państwowych do potrzeb diaspor i otoczenia międzynarodowego.\nPorównanie doświadczeń Indii, w których programy obligacji diasporowych i remittances-matching grants stanowią podstawę finansowania kluczowych inwestycji, z praktykami chińskimi, opartymi równolegle na sieciach\nGuanxi oraz cyfrowych platformach United Front Work Department, wskazuje, że choć logika RBV pozostaje wspólna, narzędzia jej realizacji są znacząco odmienne. Przykład Izraela pokazuje, że programy stażowe oraz modele co-governance w formie forów strategicznych integrują teorię interesariuszy z koncepcją dynamicznych zdolności administracji.\nTak skonstruowany przegląd służy nie tylko opisowi istniejących modeli, lecz także identyfikacji dobrych praktyk i wyzwań stanowiących punkt wyjścia dla rekomendacji usprawnień. Wnioski z analizy porównawczej umożliwiają lepsze zrozumienie sposobów, w jakie różne paradygmaty teoretyczne, od biurokracji Webera, poprzez teorię zasobową i interesariuszy, po nowe modele governance, mogą współistnieć i wzajemnie się uzupełniać w polityce diaspora engagement.\nWybór państw do analizy porównawczej w niniejszym rozdziale został dokonany w sposób nieprzypadkowy. Dobór przypadków analitycznych oparto zarówno na przesłankach teoretycznych, jak i praktycznych, z uwzględnieniem potrzeby zaprezentowania możliwie szerokiego wachlarza rozwiązań instytucjonalnych, politycznych i społecznych, które mogą stanowić inspirację dla dalszych badań nad współpracą państwa z diasporą, a także dla formułowania rekomendacji praktycznych, w tym odnoszących się do Polski.\nDobór przypadków badawczych oparto na sześciu głównych kryteriach:\n(1) skali i znaczeniu diaspory w ujęciu globalnym, (2) oryginalnych rozwiązaniach instytucjonalnych, (3) modelach gospodarczych i migracyjnych, (4) historycznych doświadczeniach emigracyjnych, (5) powiązaniu z kontekstem polskim i europejskim oraz (6) reprezentacji różnych kontynentów i systemów politycznych. Każde z tych kryteriów nie tylko wyjaśnia logikę wyboru, lecz\n\ntakże wskazuje, że analiza porównawcza dzięki ich zastosowaniu zyskuje charakter przekrojowy i wielowymiarowy.\nPierwszym kryterium była liczebność i znaczenie diaspory w ujęciu globalnym. W tej kategorii szczególne miejsce zajmują Indie i Chiny, dysponujące największymi populacjami emigracyjnymi na świecie. Diaspora indyjska liczy ponad 30 milionów osób, rozproszonych w kilkudziesięciu krajach, od\nAmeryki Północnej i Europy po Afrykę i Bliski Wschód. Znaczenie gospodarcze diaspory indyjskiej jest znaczące. Indie od lat należą do światowych liderów pod względem transferów finansowych od diaspory (remittances), stanowiących istotne źródło dochodu narodowego. Diaspora chińska, szczególnie w Azji Południowo-Wschodniej, odegrała kluczową rolę w procesie modernizacji gospodarki i internacjonalizacji chińskich przedsiębiorstw. Państwo chińskie postrzega obywateli przebywających za granicą jako zasób strategiczny, zarówno w wymiarze ekonomicznym, jak i politycznym i rozwija instytucje służące podtrzymywaniu więzi z diasporą. Wybór Indii i Chin jest uzasadniony faktem, iż oba państwa należą do kluczowych aktorów globalnych, a ich polityki wobec diaspory stanowią punkt odniesienia dla innych krajów.\nDrugim kryterium była obecność unikalnych i innowacyjnych rozwiązań instytucjonalnych. W tej kategorii szczególnie wyróżniają się Izrael i Armenia.\nOba państwa charakteryzują się diasporą odgrywającą rolę konstytutywną dla ich tożsamości narodowej. Od momentu powstania w 1948 r. państwo Izrael postrzega diasporę żydowską jako kluczowy element polityki państwowej, czego wyrazem pozostaje działalność Jewish Agency, programy edukacyjne, takie jak Birthright Israel, oraz mechanizmy wsparcia dla nowych imigrantów.\nW przypadku Armenii diaspora odgrywa równie fundamentalną rolę – liczba\nOrmian mieszkających poza granicami kraju kilkakrotnie przewyższa populację samej Armenii. W Armenii wypracowano rozbudowane struktury instytucjonalne (m.in. Ministerstwo ds. Diaspory, później włączone do MSZ), które odgrywały rolę w mobilizacji zasobów finansowych, wspieraniu instytucji edukacyjnych i kulturalnych oraz podtrzymywaniu tożsamości narodowej. Analiza omawianych przykładów ukazuje różnorodne sposoby instytucjonalizowania relacji z diasporą, integrujące wymiar polityczny, tożsamościowy i kulturowy.\nKolejnym kryterium były specyficzne modele gospodarcze, w których diaspora odgrywa kluczową rolę. Najbardziej charakterystyczny przykład stanowią. Filipiny – państwo, którego gospodarka w dużej mierze opiera się na pracy migrantów zagranicznych. Miliony Filipińczyków zatrudnione są w sektorach usługowych, medycznych i opiekuńczych w Azji, na Bliskim Wschodzie oraz w Europie. Na Filipinach wykształcono unikatowy system instytucjonalny\n\n– od wyspecjalizowanego ministerstwa po rozbudowaną infrastrukturę konsularną – umożliwiający monitorowanie sytuacji pracowników, wspieranie ich praw oraz reagowanie na kryzysy. Model filipiński stanowi przykład podejścia, w którym diaspora traktowana jest nie tylko jako partner symboliczny lub kulturowy, lecz także jako integralna część krajowego systemu gospodarczego.\nDo analizy włączono również państwa, które przez długi stanowiły źródło emigracji, a ich polityka wobec diaspory kształtowała się w kontekście trudnych doświadczeń historycznych. Irlandia stanowi klasyczny przykład\n– masowa emigracja XIX wieku, spowodowana Wielkim Głodem, doprowadziła do powstania licznej diaspory irlandzkiej w USA, Kanadzie, Australii i Wielkiej Brytanii. Współcześnie w Irlandii konsekwentnie realizowana jest polityka angażowania diaspory w życie gospodarcze i kulturalne, a od 2014 r.\nfunkcjonuje dedykowane Ministerstwo ds. Diaspory. Kanada, mimo statusu kraju imigracyjnego, wykształciła rozbudowane mechanizmy współpracy z licznymi wspólnotami diaspory, realizowane zarówno poprzez polityki federalne, jak i programy prowincjonalne. Przykład Kanady ilustruje możliwości elastycznego zarządzania zróżnicowaną populacją migrantów oraz ich powiązaniami z krajami pochodzenia.\nW analizie uwzględniono również Polskę, dysponującą jedną z największych diaspor na świecie. Od XIX wieku kolejne fale emigracyjne – polityczne, ekonomiczne i wojenne – kształtowały zróżnicowaną strukturę Polonii na różnych kontynentach. Szczególne znaczenie miały fale emigracji po 2004 r., gdy setki tysięcy Polaków wyemigrowały do Wielkiej Brytanii, Niemiec czy\nIrlandii w poszukiwaniu pracy po akcesji Polski do Unii Europejskiej. Polityka Polski wobec diaspory opiera się na działaniach Senatu RP, Ministerstwa\nSpraw Zagranicznych i licznych fundacji wspierających Polonię. Model ten, jak wskazują badacze, ma charakter fragmentaryczny i wymaga lepszej koordynacji. Uwzględnienie Polski w analizie umożliwia porównanie krajowych rozwiązań z praktykami innych państw oraz identyfikację potencjalnych kierunków zmian.\nOstatnim kryterium było zapewnienie reprezentacji państw pochodzących z różnych części świata oraz reprezentujących odmienne systemy polityczne.\nUSA stanowią przykład kraju, w którym rola diaspory opiera się głównie na działalności oddolnych organizacji – od społeczności kubańskiej w Miami po liczne stowarzyszenia meksykańskie. Nigeria jako przedstawiciel Afryki, ilustruje proces instytucjonalizacji polityki wobec diaspory w państwie rozwijającym się. Powołanie Nigerian National Diaspora Commission stanowi przykład rosnącego znaczenia diaspory jako aktora politycznego i gospodarczego.\n\nUjęcie tych przypadków umożliwia uchwycenie zróżnicowania uwarunkowań\n– od państw wysoko rozwiniętych po kraje rozwijające się – oraz wskazuje, że współpraca z diasporą stanowi zagadnienie o charakterze globalnym, przekraczające granice kontynentów i systemów politycznych.\nDobór państw w niniejszym rozdziale nie sprowadza się do prostego zestawienia kilku przypadków. Dobór ten oparto na spójnym zestawie kryteriów, umożliwiających uchwycenie różnych modeli i podejść do zarządzania współpracą z diasporą. Analiza obejmuje zarówno państwa o największych diasporach na świecie (Indie, Chiny), jak i te, które nadały diasporze szczególne znaczenie w polityce narodowej (Izrael, Armenia). Analiza uwzględnia również państwa, w których diaspora stanowi filar gospodarki (Filipiny), oraz te, które wykształciły nowoczesne modele governance i partnerstwa (Irlandia, Kanada).\nUwzględnienie Polski w analizie umożliwia autorefleksję nad krajowym modelem, natomiast perspektywa porównawcza z USA, Nigerią i Meksykiem podkreśla globalny wymiar tego zjawiska.\nDzięki tak skonstruowanemu zestawowi studiów przypadków możliwe staje się nie tylko porównanie konkretnych instytucji i polityk, ale także identyfikacja wspólnych trendów i różnic, stanowiących punkt odniesienia dla dalszych rekomendacji, w tym odnoszących się do Polski.\n7.1. Klasyczna teoria Maxa Webera\nKlasyczny model biurokracji Webera opiera się na zasadach racjonalnej legalności, hierarchii, specjalizacji, bezosobowości oraz kariery urzędniczej2.\nW odniesieniu do polityki wobec diaspory zapewnia on przewidywalność procedur, lecz jednocześnie wiąże się z ryzykiem nadmiernego formalizmu i ograniczonej elastyczności3.\n2 W. Hennis, Max Webers Fragestellung: Studien zur Biographie des Werks, Tübingen 1987;\nM. Kulesza, Polskie doświadczenia w zarządzaniu reformą decentralizacyjną, „Samorząd\nTerytorialny” nr 9 (2002); K. Schedler, I. Proeller, The New Public Management. A perspective from mainland Europe, [w:] K. McLaughlin, E. Ferlie, S. Osborne P (red.), New\nPublic Management, Routledge 2005; M. Stolleis, Geschichte des öffentlichen Rechts in\nDeutschland, München 2012.\n3 E.H. Klijn, J. Koppenjan, The Shift toward Network Governance, [w:] S. Van De Walle, S.\nGroeneveld (red.), Theory and Practice of Public Sector Reform, New York : Routledge,\n2016. 2016; J. Sztumski, Psychospołeczne aspekty prowadzenia i podążania, „Zeszyty\nNaukowe/Górnośląska Wyższa Szkoła Handlowa w Katowicach” nr 21 Zeszyt Naukowy\nKatedry Socjologii i Psychologii (2003).\n\nMożliwości realizacji obejmują standaryzację procedur wizowych, grantowych i konsularnych, jednak nadrzędna rola państwa skutkuje centralizacją decyzji i powstawaniem opóźnień4.\n7.1.1. Indie\nAnaliza zastosowania klasycznego modelu administracji Maxa Webera w kontekście współpracy Indii z diasporą w pięciu krajach o największej populacji osób pochodzenia indyjskiego: Stanach Zjednoczonych, Zjednoczonych\nEmiratach Arabskich (ZEA), Arabii Saudyjskiej, Malezji i Wielkiej Brytanii\n– umożliwia identyfikację zarówno zalet racjonalno-legalnej biurokracji, jak i jej ograniczeń w zarządzaniu transnarodowym. Weberowski model biurokracji opiera się na sformalizowanych regułach, hierarchii, specjalizacji zadań, bezosobowości decyzji oraz karierowym systemie awansów5. Współpraca państwa z diasporą wymaga implementacji tych zasad w strukturach konsularnych i instytucjach ds. emigrantów, co zapewnia przewidywalność procedur, lecz jednocześnie wiąże się z ryzykiem nadmiernej centralizacji i utrudnień komunikacyjnych6.\nIndie posiadają obecnie największą diasporę na świecie. Liczebność diaspory indyjskiej w poszczególnych krajach obrazuje skalę wyzwania administracyjnego: w USA – około 5,16 mln osób, w ZEA – 4,43 mln, w Arabii\nSaudyjskiej – ok. 2,59 mln, w Malezji – 2,02 mln, a w Wielkiej Brytanii – 1,93 mln7. W celu zapewnienia jednolitego stosowania prawa wobec wszystkich członków diaspory indyjska administracja centralna, przede wszystkim Ministry of External Affairs (MEA) wraz z siecią konsulatów i ambasad, wdrożyła szereg procedur, obejmujących rejestrację w bazach PIO/NRI, wydawanie kart Overseas Citizen of India (OCI), realizację programów grantowych\n4 E.H. Klijn, J. Koppenjan, The Shift toward Network Governance, [w:] S. Van De Walle,\nS. Groeneveld (red.), Theory and Practice of Public Sector Reform, New York: Routledge,\n2016.\n5 A. Anter, Max Weber und die Staatsrechtslehre...; M. Weber, Racjonalność. Władza.\nOdczarowanie...\n6 R.K. Merton, Bureaucratic Structure and Personality...; K. Schedler, I. Proeller, The New\nPublic Management. A perspective from mainland Europe...\n7 C. Gupta, Where do most Indians live abroad? Top 10 countries with the highest Indian overseas population, „Where do most Indians live abroad? Top 10 countries with the highest Indian overseas population”, https://indianexpress.com/article/trending/top-\n-10-listing/top-10-countries-with-the-largest-indian-diaspora-2024-9727289/?utm_source,\n24 kwietnia 2025 r., dostęp 25 kwietnia 2025 r.\n\nwspierających projekty kulturowe i edukacyjne oraz organizację dorocznych obchodów Pravasi Bharatiya Divas (PBD)8. Działania władz koncentrują się na poprawie sytuacji i wykorzystaniu potencjału indyjskich emigrantów za granicą, a nie na sprowadzaniu obcokrajowców do Indii9.\nPo pierwsze, hierarchiczna struktura konsularna odzwierciedla weberowski podział pracy oraz jasno zdefiniowane linie odpowiedzialności: ambasadorzy i konsulowie generalni składają raporty sekretarzom stanu w MEA, którzy z kolei odpowiadają przed ministrem spraw zagranicznych10. W Stanach Zjednoczonych, gdzie społeczność diasporyczna jest najbardziej rozproszona, funkcjonuje siedem konsulatów generalnych (Nowy Jork, San Francisco, Chicago,\nHouston, Atlanta, Newark, Los Angeles) oraz ambasada w Waszyngtonie, co umożliwia specjalizację zespołów ds. wizowych, kulturalnych, gospodarczych i społecznych11. Specjalizacja przyczynia się do zwiększenia efektywności obsługi. Urzędnicy odpowiedzialni za wydawanie kart OCI lub za repatriację rządowej pomocy koncentrują się na wąskich obszarach zadań, co ogranicza ryzyko błędów proceduralnych12.\nPo drugie, formalne reguły i procedury, od standardowych formularzy elektronicznych po wieloetapowe kontrole dokumentów, zapewniają jednolite traktowanie wszystkich wnioskodawców. W ZEA, gdzie ponad 90% diaspory zatrudnione jest na podstawie kontraktów, konsulaty stosują jednolite wytyczne dotyczące rejestracji NRI, dostępu do usług socjalnych i procedur odwoławczych13. Procedury te ograniczają arbitralność, ale – jak zauważa\nMerton – mogą prowadzić do zjawiska „rytualizmu”, w którym wypełnianie formularzy staje się celem samym w sobie, a nie środkiem służącym zaspokajaniu potrzeb migrantów14.\nPo trzecie, karierowy system awansów i rekrutacja oparta na egzaminach wewnętrznych (zasada merytokracji) sprzyjają profesjonalizacji kadr\n8 Ministry of External Affairs, Consular Services, „Population of Overseas Indians”, https:// www.mea.gov.in/population-of-overseas-indians.htm, 25 kwietnia 2025 r., dostęp 25 kwietnia 2025.\n9 P. Kugiel, Polityka migracyjna Indii – znaczenie dla UE, „Polski Instytut Spraw\nMiędzynarodowych” t. 2779 nr 158 (2023), https://www.pism.pl/publikacje/ polityka-migracyjna-indii-znaczenie-dla-ue.\n10 A. Anter, Max Weber und die Staatsrechtslehre...\n11 Ministry of External Affairs, Consular Services...\n12 D.H. Rosenbloom, Public Administrative Theory and the Separation of Powers...\n13 A. Gamlen, Diaspora institutions and diaspora governance...\n14 R.K. Merton, Bureaucratic Structure and Personality...\n\nkonsularnych15. W Malezji, gdzie relacje historyczne i polityczne pozostają złożone, urzędnicy MEA odbywają specjalistyczne szkolenia językowe i prawne, co umożliwia lepsze zrozumienie kontekstu lokalnego oraz budowanie zaufania w relacjach z tamtejszą diasporą tamilską16. Niemniej jednak weberowska zasada bezosobowości decyzji może ograniczać inicjatywy oddolne: lokalne organizacje indyjskie w Kuala Lumpur wskazują na brak elastyczności procedur grantowych, co utrudnia szybkie reagowanie na potrzeby edukacyjne dzieci migrantów17.\nW Arabii Saudyjskiej, gdzie Indie utworzyły ponad 25 placówek konsularnych, biurokratyczny mechanizm administracyjny umożliwia masową obsługę dokumentów pracowniczych i socjalnych (MEA, 2019. Jednak nadmierny formalizm prowadzi do opóźnień: w 2023 roku raport MEA wskazywał, że czas oczekiwania na odnowienie karty OCI przekraczał 90 dni, co – w świetle weberowskiej hierarchii i sformalizowanych procedur – naruszało zasadę efektywności18. Krytycy postulują uproszczenie procesów elektronicznych oraz zwiększenie autonomii lokalnych konsulatów, co pozostaje zgodne z koncepcją neo-weberowskiego państwa (neo-Weberian state) łączącego racjonalność z elastycznością19.\nW Wielkiej Brytanii, gdzie sieć placówek dyplomatycznych koncentruje się w trzech ośrodkach (Londyn, Birmingham, Manchester), stosowane są modułowe procedury obsługi grantów kulturalnych i edukacyjnych dla persons of indian origin (PIO), precyzyjnie określone w regulaminach MEA. Hierarchiczny model decyzyjny wydłuża jednak proces konsultacji z indyjskimi organizacjami imigranckimi, co prowadzi do zatorów komunikacyjnych i utrudnia rozwijanie partnerstwa w projektach integracyjnych.\nW Stanach Zjednoczonych elementy weberowskiej biurokracji przyczyniły się do utworzenia stałych form współpracy, takich jak Amicus Curiae\n15 B.G. Peters, Bureaucracy and Democracy in the Modern State...\n16 M.M.B. Asis, N. Piper, Researching International Labor Migration in Asia, „The Sociological Quarterly” t. 49 nr 3 (2008), DOI: 10.1111/j.1533-8525.2008.00122.x; N.M.M.\nTaib, Neo-Weberian State in a Different Context: The Malaysian Experience, „Max Weber\nStudies” t. 23 nr 1 (2023), DOI: 10.1353/max.2023.0005.\n17 M. Kulesza, Polskie doświadczenia w zarządzaniu reformą decentralizacyjną...\n18 Ministry of External Affairs, Consular Services...\n19 C. Pollitt, G. Bouckaert, Public management reform...; M. Giełda, Wyzwania i oczekiwania wobec administracji publicznej – wybrane zagadnienia, [w:] R. Raszewska-Skałecka,\nM. Giełda (red.), Administracja publiczna wobec wyzwań i oczekiwań społecznych, Wrocław\n2015.\n\nczy bilateralne komitety ds. edukacji i biznesu z diasporą20. Formalne zasady uczestnictwa zostały określone w memorandach, co zapewnia przejrzystość, lecz jednocześnie ogranicza zdolność do szybkiego reagowania na zmiany w prawie imigracyjnym w Kongresie USA21. Mechanizm kontroli wewnętrznej, realizowany poprzez audyty MEA oraz coroczne raporty konsularne, umożliwia korygowanie procedur, ale nie eliminuje biurokratycznych opóźnień22.\nAnaliza porównawcza wskazuje, że weberowski model administracji zapewnia państwu indyjskiemu stabilne ramy prawno-organizacyjne do obsługi wielomilionowej diaspory, lecz jego sztywność i nadmierna centralizacja mogą ograniczać zdolność adaptacji do specyfiki lokalnych warunków w państwach przyjmujących. W świetle krytyki modelu Webera oraz założeń koncepcji neo-weberowskiej23 zasadne wydaje się wprowadzenie mechanizmów delegowania uprawnień konsularnych na rzecz samorządów diaspory, uproszczenie procedur elektronicznych oraz rozwój sieci partycypacyjnych forów konsultacyjnych24. Tego rodzaju adaptacja umożliwi zachowanie zalet racjonalnej legalności i profesjonalizacji kadr, a jednocześnie zwiększy elastyczność i responsywność administracji indyjskiej wobec zmiennych potrzeb globalnej społeczności indyjskiej.\n7.1.2. Chiny\nNiniejsza analiza łączy klasyczny model administracji Maxa Webera z praktyką współpracy Chińskiej Republiki Ludowej (ChRL) i Republiki Chińskiej\n(Tajwanu) z diasporą chińską w pięciu państwach o największej liczbie osób pochodzenia chińskiego: Indonezji, Tajlandii, Malezji, Stanach Zjednoczonych i Singapurze. Każdy z analizowanych przypadków ukazuje, w jaki sposób cechy biurokracji – formalizm, hierarchia, specjalizacja i karierowość – przekładają się na mechanizmy zaangażowania diaspory oraz jakie wyzwania wynikają z ich nadmiernej sztywności.\n20 R. Bauböck, Towards a Political Theory of Migrant Transnationalism, „International\nMigration Review” t. 37 nr 3 (2003), DOI: 10.1111/j.1747-7379.2003.tb00155.x.\n21 S.P. Osborne, The New Public Governance?...\n22 C. Pollitt, G. Bouckaert, Public management reform...; D.H. Rosenbloom, Public Administrative Theory and the Separation of Powers...\n23 C. Pollitt, G. Bouckaert, Public management reform...\n24 E.H. Klijn, J. Koppenjan, The Shift toward Network Governance...; G. Smith, Democratic innovations...\n\nWedług danych Juwai, Indonezja jest gospodarzem największej na świecie diaspory chińskiej, liczącej ponad 11 mln osób25. W Tajlandii etniczni Chińczycy stanowią ok. 11 % populacji, co odpowiada liczbie około 9,4 mln osób.\nW Malezji liczba mieszkańców pochodzenia chińskiego w 2010 roku wynosiła blisko 7 mln. W Stanach Zjednoczonych społeczność chińska liczy ok. 5,46 mln osób, natomiast w Singapurze etniczni Chińczycy stanowią 76 % populacji, czyli około 2,68 mln26.\nWeberowski ideał biurokracji charakteryzuje się formalną legalnością, hierarchią, pisemnymi zasadami, bezosobowością decyzji, specjalizacją zadań i karierowym systemem awansu. Współpraca z diasporą wymaga przewidywalnych i jednolitych procedur, dlatego konsularne rejestry, programy\nOverseas Community Affairs Council (OCAC) na Tajwanie oraz działalność\nUnited Front Work Department (UFWD) i Overseas Chinese Affairs Office\n(OCAO) w Chińskiej Republice Ludowej odzwierciedlają weberowską strukturę administracyjną.\nUnited Front Work Department (UFWD) stanowi departament Komitetu Centralnego Komunistycznej Partii Chin (KPCh), którego podstawowym zadaniem jest realizacja tzw. „pracy na jednolitym froncie”. Departament ten gromadzi informacje wywiadowcze, zarządza relacjami z elitarnymi grupami oraz organizacjami w Chinach kontynentalnych i poza nimi – w tym w Hongkongu, na Tajwanie i w innych krajach – dążąc do uzyskania wpływu na ich działalność27.\nUFWD koncentruje swoje działania na osobach lub podmiotach spoza\nKomunistycznej Partii Chin (KPCh), zwłaszcza w środowiskach chińskiej diaspory, które posiadają wpływy polityczne, gospodarcze lub akademickie bądź reprezentują określone grupy interesów28.Poprzez swoje działania UFWD dąży do zapewnienia, aby wspomniane osoby i grupy wspierały interesy KPCh\n25 Top 10 Countries With Largest Overseas Chinese Populations in the World, „Juwai.asia”, https://www.juwai.asia/main/news/13910?utm_source, 9 kwietnia 2025 r., dostęp 20 kwietnia 2025 r.\n26 Academy for Cultural Diplomacy, Chinese Diaspora „Chinese Diaspora”, https://www.\nculturaldiplomacy.org/academy/index.php?chinese-diaspora=&utm_source, 2025 r., dostęp 25 kwietnia 2025 r.\n27 J. To, H. Jiann, Qiaowu: extra-territorial policies for the overseas Chinese, Leiden Boston\n2014.\n28 J. To, Beijing’s Policies for Managing Han and Ethnic-Minority Chinese Communities Abroad, „Journal of Current Chinese Affairs” 2012, t. 41, nr 4, DOI:\n10.1177/186810261204100407.\n\nbądź pozostawały wobec nich użyteczne, natomiast potencjalni krytycy byli rozproszeni i pozbawieni zdolności koordynacji29.\nBiuro ds. Chińczyków Zagranicznych przy Radzie Państwa (OCAO) stanowi zewnętrzną nazwę Departamentu Pracy Zjednoczonego Frontu (United Front Work Department, UFWD) Komunistycznej Partii Chin. Do 2018 r.\nOCAO funkcjonowało jako biuro administracyjne Rady Państwa Chińskiej\nRepubliki Ludowej, odpowiedzialne za współpracę z Chińczykami za granicą oraz za prowadzenie działań wpływu w ramach polityki zjednoczonego frontu30. W wyniku reformy partii i administracji państwowej w 2018 r. OCAO zostało włączone w struktury UFWD, który przejął jego dotychczasowe funkcje. Zgodnie z zasadą „jedna instytucja o dwóch nazwach” UFWD zachowuje nazwę „Biuro ds. Chińczyków Zagranicznych Rady Państwa”, powszechnie stosowaną w kontekście publicznych oświadczeń i kontaktów z otoczeniem międzynarodowym31.\nW Indonezji Ministry of External Affairs (MEA) Chińskiej Republiki\nLudowej oraz Overseas Community Affairs Council (OCAC) Tajwanu działają za pośrednictwem sieci konsulatów oraz biur lokalnych stowarzyszeń huaqiao (overseas Chinese associations). Konsulaty specjalizują się w obsłudze wiz pracowniczych, rejestracji chińskich inwestorów oraz realizacji programów kulturalnych, stosując sztywne formularze i hierarchiczne procedury zatwierdzania. Zaletą takiego systemu jest jednolitość podejścia do wszystkich wnioskodawców, lecz, jak zauważał Merton, nadmierny formalizm prowadzi do zjawiska rytualizmu, w którym wypełnianie dokumentów staje się celem samym w sobie, a nie środkiem realizacji zadań administracyjnych32.\nPo drugie, obsługa programów Overseas Community Affairs Council\n(OCAC), takich jak Overseas Youth Taiwan Study Tour, odbywa się zgodnie z precyzyjnymi regulaminami i kryteriami oceny, co zapewnia przejrzystość, lecz ogranicza zdolność szybkiego reagowania na lokalne potrzeby, np. edukacyjne dzieci chińskiego pochodzenia w Dżakarcie33.\n29 Z. Bo, China’s elite politics: political transition and power balancing, Hackensack, N.J\n2007.\n30 J. To, H. Jiann, Qiaowu...\n31 J. To, Beijing’s Policies for Managing Han and Ethnic-Minority Chinese Communities Abroad, „Journal of Current Chinese Affairs” t. 41 nr 4 (2012), DOI:\n10.1177/186810261204100407.\n32 R.K. Merton, Bureaucratic Structure and Personality...\n33 J. Wu, How the Lord of History Is Working Through the Diaspora, „Diaspora Digest”, https://diasporadigest.com/tag/culture/?utm_source, 2025 r., dostęp 25 kwietnia 2025 r.\n\nW Tajlandii strukturom konsularnym ChRL towarzyszy aktywność United Front Work Department (UFWD) oraz China People’s Association for\nFriendship with Foreign Countries (CPAFFC), które formalnie funkcjonują jako „ludowe organizacje” przy Ministerstwie Spraw Zagranicznych34. Ich działania, od konferencji biznesowych po festiwale kulturalne, są ściśle zhierarchizowane i planowane z wielomiesięcznym wyprzedzeniem.\nJednak brak elastyczności w procedurach prowadzi do opóźnień, np.\nShanghai Cooperation Organization Youth Forum wymagało akceptacji na sześciu szczeblach decyzyjnych, co wydłużyło cały proces o trzy miesiące35.\nZgodnie z teorią dysfunkcji biurokracji Mertona (1940) nadmiar kontroli instytucjonalnej ogranicza inicjatywy lokalnych chińskich organizacji pozarządowych (NGO)36.\nMalezyjska diaspora chińska współpracuje z ChRL za pośrednictwem formalnych agend OCAO/UFWD, a z Tajwanem – poprzez OCAC oraz stowarzyszenia szkół chińskich. Hierarchiczna struktura umożliwia standaryzację procedur przyznawania grantów edukacyjnych, lecz nadmierny formalizm może prowadzić do paraliżu innowacyjnych inicjatyw lokalnych37. W 2023 r.\nprogram Taiwan–Malaysia Youth Exchange spotkał się z krytyką z powodu sztywnych kryteriów wiekowych i językowych, które ograniczyły liczbę beneficjentów o 40%38.\nW USA chińska dyplomacja wykorzystuje formalne memoranda o porozumieniu (Memoranda of Understanding, MOUs) oraz sieć Chinese Students and Scholars Associations (CSSA). Struktura ta, odzwierciedlająca weberowski podział pracy, zapewnia jednolite standardy obsługi wiz i grantów badawczych39. Jednocześnie jednak sztywne procedury wnioskowania o status\n34 J. To, Beijing’s Policies for Managing Han and Ethnic-Minority Chinese Communities\nAbroad...; J. To, H. Jiann, Qiaowu...\n35 M. Stolleis, Origins of the German Welfare State...\n36 J. Jiang, J. Liu, Penal welfare or penal sovereignty? A political sociology of recent formalization of Chinese community corrections, „Punishment & Society” t. 24 nr 4 (2022).\n37 B.J. Green, How China’s system of higher education works: pragmatic instrumentalism, centralized-decentralization, and rational chaos, Routledge 2023.\n38 W.P. Silalahi, F.R. Sitorus, From Frustration to Enlightenment: Experiences of Student\nExchange Program Awardees in Taiwan, „F1000Research” t. 10 (2021), DOI: 10.12688/ f1000research.51865.2.\n39 N. Gilbert, Journey to the West: Enhancing Chinese International Student Enrollment in\nUS Universities by Addressing Student Needs, US Interests, and CCP Objectives, (2024).\n\nOverseas Chinese prowadzą do wydłużonego czasu oczekiwania na wydanie dokumentów40.\nTajwan natomiast, za pośrednictwem Taipei Economic and Cultural\nRepresentative Office (TECRO) realizuje programy Taiwan Alumni Association oraz system preferencyjnych stypendiów, działając zgodnie z precyzyjnie określonymi regulaminami OCAC41. Formalizm tych procedur sprzyja przejrzystości, jednak brak mechanizmów partycypacyjnych ogranicza zaangażowanie chińsko-amerykańskich organizacji lokalnych.\nSingapur, w którym 76% populacji stanowi społeczność chińskiego pochodzenia, dysponuje rozbudowanym systemem współpracy obejmującym ambasadę ChRL i przedstawicielstwa UFWD, a także misję OCAC i sieć Taiwanese\nChambers of Commerce. Regularne fora umożliwiają standaryzowane konsultacje, jednak brak elastyczności w procedurach budżetowych zniechęca lokalne przedsiębiorstwa do szybkiego ubiegania się o fundusze. W 2023 r.\nTajwan uruchomił program Smart Energy Industry skierowany do przedsiębiorców chińskiego pochodzenia, jednak tradycyjne procedury przetargowe\nOCAC wydłużyły proces przyznania grantów o sześć miesięcy42.\nWeberowski model administracji zapewnia ChRL i Tajwanowi stabilne ramy formalno-prawne dla współpracy z diasporą chińską. Hierarchia i specjalizacja konsularna zapewniają jednolite traktowanie wniosków, natomiast karierowy system służby zagranicznej motywuje kadrę do konsekwentnego przestrzegania procedur. Jednak nadmierny formalizm, zgodnie z teorią dysfunkcji biurokracji Mertona, prowadzi do zjawiska rytualizmu i opóźnień w realizacji procedur.\nAby pogodzić racjonalno-legalne ramy z potrzebą elastyczności i partycypacji, wskazane byłoby zwiększenie autonomii lokalnych placówek konsularnych w zakresie rozstrzygania wyjątków proceduralnych, uproszczenie procedur elektronicznych, utworzenie międzysektorowych forów konsultacyjnych z udziałem przedstawicieli diaspory w planowaniu programów grantowych, a także wdrożenie regularnych audytów wewnętrznych oraz badań satysfakcji diaspor. Takie dostosowanie umożliwiłoby zachowanie zalet klasycznego modelu Webera, przewidywalności, bezosobowości i profesjonalizacji kadr,\n40 S. Lubman, Looking for law in China, „Colum. J. Asian L.” t. 20 (2006).\n41 O.C.A.C., Statistics, „The Overseas Community Affairs Council (Taiwan)”, https://www.\nocac.gov.tw/OCAC/Eng/Pages/VDetail.aspx?nodeid=323&pid=55731149, 2025 r., dostęp\n25 kwietnia 2025 r.\n42 TAITRA, Energy Taiwan, „Energy Taiwan & Net-Zero Taiwan”, https://www.energytaiwan.com.tw/en/index.html, 2023 r., dostęp 25 kwietnia 2025 r.\n\nprzy jednoczesnym zwiększeniu responsywności administracji ChRL i Tajwanu wobec specyficznych potrzeb ich globalnych społeczności chińskich.\nZastosowanie klasycznego modelu Webera w analizowanych przypadkach przynosi szereg korzyści, takich jak standaryzacja procedur, przejrzystość alokacji zasobów, profesjonalizacja kadr oraz ograniczenie arbitralności decyzji.\nJednocześnie jednak nadmierny formalizm może prowadzić do zatorów komunikacyjnych oraz utrudniać dostosowanie do lokalnych potrzeb. W kontekście współpracy transgranicznej oznacza to potrzebę wprowadzania elementów elastyczności i partycypacji, które pozwolą przeciwdziałać nadmiernej sztywności struktur administracyjnych43.\nPodsumowując, klasyczny model administracji Webera stanowi użyteczne narzędzie analityczne do zrozumienia mechanizmów współpracy Niemiec z diasporą niemiecką. Jego nadrzędne zasady – racjonalna legalność, hierarchia, specjalizacja i bezosobowość – umożliwiają efektywną organizację sieci konsularno-kulturalnych. Jednak dla pełnej skuteczności współpracy konieczne jest włączenie elementów partycypacyjnych i międzysektorowych, które pozwolą ograniczyć potencjalne dysfunkcje biurokratyczne.\n7.1.3. Niemcy\nW przypadku Niemiec największe skupiska diaspory niemieckiej znajdują się w Austrii – ok. 209 000 obywateli Republiki Federalnej Niemiec (RFN)44, w Szwajcarii – ok. 300 000 obywateli RFN45, w USA – ok. 47 mln osób deklarujących niemieckie pochodzenie46, w Brazylii – ok. 12 mln osób pochodzenia niemieckiego47 oraz w Rosji (tzw. rosyjscy Niemcy) – ok. 1,8 mln osób. Społeczności te, choć różnią się stopniem zachowania języka i tożsamości, korzystają z wyspecjalizowanych instrumentów współpracy oferowanych przez RFN, uruchamianych na podstawie zasad weberowskiej biurokracji, jednolitych\n43 C. Pollitt, G. Bouckaert, Public management reform...\n44 Statistisches Bundesamt, Migration and integration, https://www.destatis.de/DE/Home/_ inhalt.html, 2024 r.\n45 Bundesamt für Statistik, Statistiken, https://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/de/home/statistiken.html, 2023 r.\n46 U.S. Census Bureau, Decennial Census of Population and Housing Data, https://www.\ncensus.gov/programs-surveys/decennial-census/data.html, 2020 r.\n47 IBGE, Population Census, „Statistics”, https://www.ibge.gov.br/en/statistics/multi-domain/culture-recreation-and-sports/18391-2010-population-census.html, 2010 r.\n\nprocedur konsularnych, programów kulturalnych i edukacyjnych oraz wsparcia organizacji zrzeszających Niemców na emigracji.\nW Austrii, gdzie Niemcy stanowią największą grupę cudzoziemców, niemieckie przedstawicielstwa dyplomatyczne i konsularne funkcjonują w ramach scentralizowanej struktury Auswärtiges Amt, w której referaty ds. kultury i prasy ściśle współpracują z lokalnymi instytucjami, takimi jak Goethe-Institut w Wiedniu czy Österreichische Landsmannschaft. Hierarchiczna organizacja konsulatów umożliwia standaryzację procedur dotacyjnych na projekty kulturalne i edukacyjne, natomiast specjalistyczne komórki ds. mniejszości dbają o integrację i ochronę praw Niemców w Austrii48. Tego typu formalne ramy, charakterystyczne dla modelu Webera, sprzyjają przejrzystości i równości w dostępie do wsparcia państwa.\nNiemcy w Szwajcarii korzystają z podobnych mechanizmów współpracy.\nChoć formalnie nie jest to emigracja w tradycyjnym znaczeniu, część stanowią bowiem rodowici Szwajcarzy niemieckojęzyczni –niemiecko-szwajcarskie instytucje korzystają z jednolitej sieci konsulatów RFN. Goethe-Institut w Zurychu i Bazylei działa zgodnie z regułami i standardami obowiązującymi we wszystkich oddziałach tej organizacji, co gwarantuje spójność oferty kulturalnej i językowej na poziomie globalnym. Specjalizacja kadr w poszczególnych działach, np. ds. edukacji, kultury czy współpracy gospodarczej odzwierciedla zasadę podziału pracy, natomiast system kariery oparty na ocenach rocznych i egzaminach wewnętrznych zapewnia profesjonalizację służby.\nW Stanach Zjednoczonych kluczowym instrumentem współpracy jest\nGerman American Partnership Program (GAPP), program wymiany szkolnej administrowany przez Goethe-Institut New York we współpracy z Federal\nForeign Office. Struktura programu GAPP opiera się na formalnych umowach zawieranych między kuratoriami oświaty, konsulatami i organizacjami partnerskimi, z wyraźnym podziałem kompetencji i hierarchii decyzyjnej (PAD,\nGoethe-Institut, Auswärtiges Amt). Rygorystyczne procedury aplikacyjne, ocena projektów i standaryzacja programów edukacyjnych zapewniają jednolite traktowanie wszystkich uczestników, ograniczając możliwość arbitralnego przyznawania środków.\nW Brazylii współpraca z diasporą niemiecką odbywa się głównie za pośrednictwem Goethe-Institut São Paulo, konsulatów generalnych RFN w Rio de\n48 A. Czartoryski S., Prawie najlepsi przyjaciele – stosunki Austrii i Niemiec,\n„PISM” t. 2260 nr 62 (2021), https://www.pism.pl/publikacje/\nPrawie_najlepsi_przyjaciele__stosunki_Austrii_i_Niemiec?utm_source.\n\nJaneiro i São Paulo oraz organizacji takich jak Associação Cultural Brasil–Alemanha. Sieć Goethe-Institut w Brazylii (m.in. w Brasílii, Curitibie, Porto Alegre, Rio de Janeiro, Salvadorze i São Paulo) funkcjonuje zgodnie z globalnymi standardami korporacyjnymi, podlegając centralnemu zarządzaniu z Monachium. Jasno określone zasady finansowania kursów językowych, wydarzeń kulturalnych i grantów badawczych odzwierciedlają racjonalno-legalny charakter modelu Webera, zapewniając przejrzystość i przewidywalność udzielanego wsparcia.\nNa terytorium byłego ZSRR, gdzie mieszkało ok. 2 mln Niemców z Rosji i Kazachstanu, współpraca obejmuje przede wszystkim programy repatriacyjne, wspierane przez Federal Office for Migration and Refugees (BAMF) oraz sieć honorowych konsulatów RFN w Moskwie, Petersburgu, Kazaniu, Saratowie i Władywostoku. Projekty takie jak Deutsches Wissenschafts- und Innovationshaus w Moskwie integrują niemieckie organizacje naukowe – DAAD, Alexander-von-Humboldt-Stiftung oraz Fraunhofer-Gesellschaft – pod jednym dachem, co stanowi przykład centralizacji i specjalizacji charakterystycznej dla biurokracji Webera. Jednocześnie formalne procedury wizowe i konsularne, obsługiwane przez zewnętrznego operatora VisaMetric, podkreślają hierarchiczną strukturę i racjonalno-legalny charakter administracji.\n7.1.4. Włochy\nKlasyczny model administracji Maxa Webera, oparty na racjonalnej legalności, hierarchii, specjalizacji zadań, bezosobowości decyzji oraz systemie awansów opartym na karierze, stanowi użyteczne narzędzie analityczne do zrozumienia mechanizmów współpracy Włoch z diasporą włoską w różnych krajach. Największe skupiska diaspory włoskiej znajdują się w Argentynie (ok. 25–30 mln osób), Brazylii (ok. 32 mln), Stanach Zjednoczonych (ok. 16 mln), Niemczech\n(ok. 1,2 mln) i Kanadzie (ok. 1,55 mln). W każdym z tych państw Republika\nWłoska wykorzystuje biurokratyczne narzędzia: sieć konsulatów, Instytuty\nKultury, rejestry Anagrafe degli Italiani Residenti all’Estero (AIRE) i Patronati, aby zapewnić przewidywalność procedur, przejrzystość alokacji zasobów oraz jednakowe traktowanie obywateli49.\n49 Anagrafe degli Italiani Residenti all’Estero (Rejestr Włochów zamieszkałych za granicą) jest rodzajem archiwum, zawierającym dane osobowe wszystkich włoskich obywateli, którzy żyją poza granicami kraju przez okres dłuższy niż 12 miesięcy i które pozwala zweryfikować przemieszczanie się obywateli poza granicami, jak i na terytorium Włoch.\n\nW Argentynie, gdzie osoby pochodzenia włoskiego stanowią ponad połowę populacji, ambasada i trzy konsulaty generalne działają zgodnie z centralnymi wytycznymi Ministero degli Affari Esteri e della Cooperazione Internazionale\n(MAECI), wdrażając jednolite formularze AIRE i procedury grantowe dla organizacji kulturalnych. Dzięki hierarchicznej strukturze i specjalizacji referatów ds. kultury, edukacji i spraw socjalnych, programy kursów językowych i festiwali filmowych są realizowane w sposób spójny, jednak nadmierna liczba szczebli akceptacji wydłuża czas podejmowania decyzji – średnio do 120 dni.\nW Brazylii konsulaty w São Paulo i Rio de Janeiro oraz sieć Instytutów\nKultury Włoskiej (Istituti Italiani di Cultura, IIC) oferują standaryzowane kursy językowe i wsparcie socjalne za pośrednictwem Patronati, zgodnie z dekretem\nMAECI z 2017 r. Specjalizacja kadr umożliwia efektywną obsługę wniosków emerytalnych i grantowych, jednak nadmierne wymagania formalne sprawiają, że w 2022 r. aż 40% wniosków o stypendia kulturalne odrzucono z przyczyn proceduralnych.\nW Stanach Zjednoczonych sieć pięciu konsulatów i Instytut Kultury Włoskiej w Nowym Jorku funkcjonują zgodnie z modelem weberowskiej biurokracji, obejmującym hierarchiczną podległość Ambasadzie Włoch w Waszyngtonie, jednolite e-formularze AIRE i formalne umowy z kuratoriami oświaty w ramach programu wymiany szkolnej. Przewidywalność procedur wizowych pozostaje wysoka, jednak czas oczekiwania na paszporty i wizy wynosi średnio\n90–120 dni, co wskazuje na dysfunkcję wynikającą z nadmiernego formalizmu.\nW Niemczech współpraca z około 1,2 mln osób pochodzenia włoskiego prowadzona jest za pośrednictwem pięciu konsulatów generalnych oraz Instytutów Kultury Włoskiej w Monachium i Berlinie. Struktura Auswärtiges Amt, obejmująca wyspecjalizowane referaty ds. edukacji i spraw socjalnych, zapewnia spójność udzielanego wsparcia, jednak krytycy wskazują na ograniczoną elastyczność procedur grantowych IIC, co redukuje innowacyjność lokalnych projektów.\nW Kanadzie, gdzie funkcjonują 43 włoskie sekcje szkolne i osiem państwowych szkół włoskich, Konsulat Generalny w Toronto wraz z honorowymi konsulatami w największych miastach realizuje programy integracyjne Little\nItaly. Choć profesjonalizacja kadr podnosi jakość świadczonych usług, skomplikowane procedury rejestracji w AIRE sprawiają, że 20% wniosków wymaga poprawek formalnych.\nW świetle teorii dysfunkcji biurokracji Roberta K. Mertona nadmierny formalizm i wieloetapowe procedury prowadzą do zjawiska „rytualizmu”, w którym celem staje się samo wypełnianie dokumentów, a nie realizacja\n\nrzeczywistych potrzeb społeczności. Aby zrównoważyć zalety racjonalno-legalnej biurokracji, takie jak przewidywalność, bezstronność i profesjonalizacja kadr, z potrzebą większej elastyczności, wskazane jest delegowanie szerszych kompetencji konsulatom i Instytutom Kultury, uproszczenie e-procedur\nAIRE oraz wprowadzenie mechanizmów partycypacyjnych umożliwiających konsultacje z organizacjami imigranckimi przy planowaniu programów grantowych50,51. Takie podejście pozwoli zachować przejrzystość administracyjną weberowskiego ideału, jednocześnie zwiększając responsywność państwa włoskiego wobec zróżnicowanych potrzeb globalnej społeczności włoskiej.\n7.2. Podejście governance\nW podejściu governance kluczową rolę odgrywa zarządzanie poprzez sieci, partnerstwa i wielostronny dialog interesariuszy, zamiast utrzymywania sztywnej hierarchii52. Oznacza to, że państwo nie tylko narzuca reguły, lecz współtworzy polityki publiczne z przedstawicielami diaspory, NGO i sektora prywatnego, budując wspólne fora decyzyjne oparte na zaufaniu i współodpowiedzialności53.\nGovernance umożliwia zatem inkluzyjne planowanie i realizację programów migracyjnych, kulturalnych czy gospodarczych, jednak jednocześnie wymaga od państwa dzielenia się władzą, co może podważać tradycyjne założenie suwerenności decyzji54.\nW Kanadzie model ten znalazł odzwierciedlenie w Global Diaspora Strategy, w ramach której Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada współpracuje z organizacjami kanadyjskiej diaspory, wykorzystując ich sieci do współtworzenia programów rozwojowych i integracyjnych55. Zamiast jednokierunkowych transferów wsparcia kanadyjskie placówki dyplomatyczne i lokalne centra etniczne wspólnie definiują priorytety i kryteria przyznawania\n50 C. Pollitt, G. Bouckaert, Public management reform...\n51 S.P. Osborne, The New Public Governance?...\n52 Ibid.; R.A.W. Rhodes, From Marketization To Diplomacy: It’s the mix that matters, „Public\nPolicy and Administration” t. 12 nr 2 (1997), DOI: 10.1177/095207679701200204; G.\nStoker, Governance as theory: five propositions...\n53 D.F. Kettl, The transformation of governance...; E.H. Klijn, J. Koppenjan, The Shift toward\nNetwork Governance...\n54 J. Hausner, Zarządzanie publiczne...; C. Pollitt, G. Bouckaert, Public management reform...\n55 A. Gamlen, Diaspora institutions and diaspora governance...; M. Koinova, Autonomy and Positionality in Diaspora Politics...\n\ngrantów, co zwiększa trafność interwencji i legitymizuje decyzje w oczach społeczności migranckich.\nIrlandia jako jedno z pierwszych państw, wprowadziła w 1998 r. model sieciowego zarządzania diasporą poprzez Global Irish Economic Forum, w ramach którego przedstawiciele rządu, biznesu i organizacji diasporowych spotykają się regularnie, aby współtworzyć strategie inwestycyjne i kulturalne56. Taka formuła network governance umożliwia elastyczne reagowanie na potrzeby społeczności rozproszonych po świecie, jednocześnie wzmacniając wizerunek Irlandii jako kraju otwartego na współpracę.\nW Izraelu koncepcja governance przybrała formę co-governance w modelu joint, czyli utożsamianej z Jewish Agency sieci współzarządzania, w której państwowe i pozarządowe instytucje żydowskie łączą wysiłki w realizacji programów edukacyjnych, imigracyjnych i kulturalnych57. Partnerstwo to opiera się na wspólnym planowaniu budżetu oraz monitorowaniu efektów, co przekłada się na wysoki poziom zaangażowania diaspory w politykę państwa.\nArmenia w latach 90. powołała Ministerstwo Diaspory, które we współpracy z kluczowymi organizacjami ormiańskimi prowadzi konsultacje dotyczące projektów restytucji dziedzictwa kulturowego, programów edukacyjnych i inwestycji zagranicznych58. Taki model governance łączy formalne ramy prawne z sieciowym dialogiem, zapewniając diasporze realny wpływ na alokację środków oraz kształtowanie strategii rozwojowych państwa.\nNa Filipinach Commission on Filipinos Overseas funkcjonuje jako platforma współzarządzania, w ramach której agendy rządowe, organizacje migrantów zarobkowych (Overseas Filipino Workers, OFW) i sektor prywatny współdecydują o programach pre-departure orientation, reintegracji i remittances matching grants59. Dzięki temu polityki migracyjne są lepiej dostosowane\n56 D.W. Brinkerhoff, The State and International Development Management: Shifting Tides,\nChanging Boundaries, and Future Directions, „Public Administration Review” t. 68 nr 6\n(2008), DOI: 10.1111/j.1540-6210.2008.00948.x.\n57 G. Ben-Porat, A. Ben-Porat, (Un)Bounded Soccer: Globalization and Localization of the\nGame in Israel, „International Review for the Sociology of Sport” t. 39 nr 4 (2004), DOI:\n10.1177/1012690204049064; Y. Shain, A. Barth, Diasporas and International Relations\nTheory...\n58 M. Koinova, Diasporas and democratization in the post-communist world...; M. Koinova, Diasporas and secessionist conflicts: the mobilization of the Armenian, Albanian and Chechen diasporas, „Ethnic and Racial Studies” t. 34 nr 2 (2011), DOI:\n10.1080/01419870.2010.489646.\n59 M.M.B. Asis, N. Piper, Researching International Labor Migration in Asia, „The Sociological Quarterly” t. 49 nr 3 (2008), DOI: 10.1111/j.1533-8525.2008.00122.x.\n\ndo rzeczywistych potrzeb pracowników za granicą, a diaspora staje się aktywnym partnerem we współtworzeniu własnego systemu wsparcia.\nWspólną cechą przedstawionych przykładów jest przesunięcie akcentu z monolitycznego, państwowego modelu sterowania na sieci współzarządzania, w których diaspora uczestniczy nie tylko jako beneficjent, lecz także jako współtwórca polityk publicznych. Koncepcja governance wymaga od państwa otwartości na współodpowiedzialność oraz tworzenia trwałych mechanizmów dialogu, co –mimo wyzwań związanych z koordynacją wielu aktorów – prowadzi do bardziej adaptacyjnych, legitymizowanych i skutecznych rozwiązań w zarządzaniu diasporą.\n7.2.1. Kanada\nW Kanadzie od początku XXI w. obserwuje się przejście od tradycyjnego, hierarchicznego podejścia państwowego do modelu governance, w którym diaspora pełni rolę aktywnego partnera w procesach politycznych, gospodarczych i społecznych. Już w 2013 r. Centre for International Governance Innovation wskanzało, że efektywne angażowanie diaspory wymaga odejścia od jednokierunkowych programów pomocy rozwojowej (Official Development Assistance,\nODA) na rzecz współzarządzania, w ramach którego kanadyjskie ministerstwa współpracują z organizacjami migranckimi w formie sieci i partnerstw60.\nRząd Kanady nie dysponuje jedną, skonsolidowaną strategią diaspora governance, lecz prowadzi szereg programów realizowanych przez Global\nAffairs Canada, Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada oraz agendy takie jak Canadian Heritage. Polityka ta opiera się na założeniu, że kanadyjska diaspora stanowi nośnik soft power oraz kapitału społecznego, który należy współtworzyć, a nie jedynie nim zarządzać z poziomu centrum61.\nKluczowym przykładem podejścia governance jest program Canada Fund for Local Initiatives (CFLI, dawniej CIDA-FCS), w ramach którego granty na projekty rozwojowe opracowywane są wspólnie przez kanadyjskie placówki dyplomatyczne i lokalne organizacje diasporowe. Mechanizm ten opiera się na zasadzie multi-stakeholder dialogue, w ramach której ambasador,\n60 M. Chanoine, M. Giel, T. Simao, Effectively Engaging Diasporas under The New Canadian Department of Foreign Affairs, Trade and Development, „CIGI Junior Fellows Policy\nBrief” nr 6 (2013), https://www.cigionline.org/static/documents/no6_0.pdf.\n61 H. Olyan, P. Smith, Diasporas: A Policy Review Prepared for the Privy Council Office,\nNorman Paterson School of International Affairs Carleton University, 2011, https:// carleton.ca/cifp/wp-content/uploads/1357.pdf?utm_source.\n\nprzedstawiciele organizacji diaspory i lokalni partnerzy wspólnie ustalają cele i kryteria oceny projektów62.\nW ramach rządowego przeglądu polityk wobec diaspory Privy Council\nOffice zwróciło uwagę, że choć Kanadyjczycy za granicą są formalnie objęci ochroną konsularną, brakuje im realnych kanałów wpływu na kształtowanie polityki zagranicznej i rozwojowej. Zarekomendowano utworzenie stałego forum konsultacyjnego – Canadian Diaspora Advisory Council – z udziałem przedstawicieli głównych grup etnicznych, co wpisuje się w idee governance opartej na partycypacji i współdecydowaniu63.\nAktywność organizacji diaspor mniejszościowych w Kanadzie stanowi kolejny wymiar governance. Sieci etnicznych grup lobbystycznych, jak Tamil\nCanadian Centre czy Romanian-Canadian Community Centre, funkcjonują jako równorzędni partnerzy rządu w opracowywaniu raportów dotyczących potrzeb migrantów oraz rekomendacji legislacyjnych64. Przedstawiciele tych organizacji są regularnie zapraszani do udziału w dialogu w ramach Roundtable on Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship, co umożliwia włączanie głosów diaspory w proces kształtowania polityk publicznych.\nW obszarze zrównoważonego rozwoju diaspora kanadyjska angażuje się w projekty transferu wiedzy i technologii do krajów pochodzenia, współtworzone z Global Affairs Canada i University Partnerships in Cooperation and\nDevelopment. Ten model co-governance umożliwia łączenie zasobów finansowych, kapitału ludzkiego i sieci kontaktów, tworząc dynamiczne partnerstwa wielosektorowe65.\nZ perspektywy weberowskiej biurokracji governance w Kanadzie oznacza odejście od sztywnego, hierarchicznego sterowania na rzecz sieci decyzyjnych opartych na zaufaniu i współodpowiedzialności. Uzupełnienie racjonalno-legalnych procedur o mechanizmy partycypacji wzmacnia legitymację decyzji i sprzyja adaptacyjności polityk wobec zróżnicowanych potrzeb diaspor66.\nJednak nawet w modelu governance wyzwaniem pozostaje koordynacja między\n62 E. Maj, Impact of Government Engagement in Diaspora Politics, „JCSP 43 DL 2017–2018”\n(2018).\n63 H. Olyan, P. Smith, Diasporas: A Policy Review Prepared for the Privy Council Office...\n64 A. Singh, The Diaspora Networks of Ethnic Lobbying in Canada, „Canadian Foreign\nPolicy Journal” t. 18 nr 3 (2012), DOI: 10.1080/11926422.2012.737342.\n65 S. Ramachandran, J. Crush, Sustainable Development and Diaspora Engagement in\nCanada, [w:] Y. Samy, H. Duncan (red.), International Affairs and Canadian Migration\nPolicy, Springer, Cham 2021.\n66 G. Paquet, Gouvernance collaborative: un antimanuel, Les Presses de l’Université de\nMontréal, Montréal 2011.\n\nlicznymi agendami rządowymi a organizacjami społecznymi, co wymaga ciągłego doskonalenia narzędzi współzarządzania.\n7.2.2. Irlandia\nRepublika Irlandii od lat 80. XX w. rozwija model governance w polityce diaspora engagement, uznając swoje globalne społeczności – Global Irish – za kluczowych partnerów w rozwoju gospodarczym, kulturalnym i politycznym.\nJuż raport Task Force on the Irish Abroad z 1998 r. postulował wprowadzenie wielopoziomowego modelu zarządzania diasporą, łączącego rząd centralny, samorządy, organizacje pozarządowe i środowiska biznesowe w spójną strukturę sieciową67.\nW 2015 r. rząd Irlandii opublikował dokument Global Ireland 2020–2025, w którym governance definiowane jest jako koordynacja działań Departamentu\nSpraw Zagranicznych, ministerstw kultury i gospodarki oraz lokalnych forów diaspory działających w kluczowych regionach, takich jak Boston, Londyn czy\nSydney68. Dokument ten wprowadził mechanizmy wspólnego planowania działań międzysektorowych. Minister of State for the Diaspora przewodniczy corocznym sesjom Global Irish Forum, w których uczestniczą przedstawiciele diaspory, środowisk biznesowych oraz akademickich.\nBadacze Mark Boyle i Adrian Kavanagh krytycznie analizują genezę irlandzkiej strategii diasporowej, proponując ramę etyki troski (care ethics), w której relacje między państwem a diasporą opierają się na wzajemności i odpowiedzialności, a nie wyłącznie na międzynarodowej promocji i pozyskiwaniu inwestycji69. Ten feministyczny wkład w koncepcję governance uwrażliwia na nierówności w dostępie do procesów konsultacyjnych – np. młodzi\nIrlandczycy w Kanadzie czy Australii wskazywali na potrzebę bardziej elastycznych form zaangażowania niż formalne fora ministerialne.\n67 J. Guillaumond, Connecting with the Diaspora and Promoting Economic Development:\nTwo Sides of the Same Coin in 21st Century Ireland?, „Revue LISA / LISA e-journal” t. 22 nr 57 (2024), DOI: 10.4000/lisa.15693, https://journals.openedition.org/lisa/15693.\n68 Government of Ireland, Global Ireland. Ireland’s Diaspora Strategy 2020–2025, Government of Ireland, 2015 r., https://assets.ireland.ie/documents/Diaspora_Strategy_2020-2025.pdf.\n69 M. Boyle, A. Kavanagh, The Irish Government’s Diaspora Strategy: Towards a Care Agenda,\n[w:] J. Devlin Trew, M. Pierse (red.), Rethinking the Irish Diaspora, Cham 2018.\n\nW literaturze podkreśla się, że irlandzki model governance łączy elementy\nNetwork Governance70 z New public governance 71, tworząc hybrydową architekturę współdecydowania. Lokalne kluby irlandzkie, takie jak Ancient Order of Hibernians w USA czy Comhaltas Ceoltóirí Éireann w Wielkiej Brytanii, uczestniczą w rządowych konkursach grantowych oraz w opracowywaniu programów edukacyjnych z zakresu języka i kultury72.\nW ramach praktyki governance rząd Irlandii wprowadził proces co-design dokumentów strategicznych: przed finalizacją strategii Global Ireland przeprowadzono dwanaście regionalnych warsztatów z udziałem 350 przedstawicieli diaspory, co zwiększyło przejrzystość i akceptację polityki73. Partie opozycyjne i organizacje pozarządowe doceniają tę wielopoziomową, sieciową formułę, choć wskazują na potrzebę lepszej koordynacji między departamentami oraz systematycznego monitorowania efektów74.\nWyzwaniem pozostaje urealnienie partycypacji: choć governance zakłada inkluzywność, nie wszystkie grupy – zwłaszcza emigranci krótkoterminowi i studenci – mają równy dostęp do forów konsultacyjnych. Rekomendacje obejmują wprowadzenie cyfrowych platform deliberacyjnych oraz uproszczenie procedur grantowych w celu zwiększenia elastyczności i responsywności polityki wobec diaspory.\n7.2.3. Izrael\nPaństwo Izrael od momentu powstania w 1948 r. rozwijało model governance ukierunkowany na integrację i mobilizację diaspory żydowskiej jako elementu soft power i zasobu politycznego. Już utworzenie Jewish Agency w 1929 r.\nstanowiło przykład sieciowego modelu governance. Organizacja ta, współfinansowana przez państwo i filantropów, koordynowała procesy emigracyjne, osadnicze i edukacyjne w ramach diaspory75.\nWspółcześnie polityka Izraela wobec diaspory realizowana jest przez\nMinistry for Diaspora Affairs oraz United Jewish Communities, które tworzą\n70 R.A.W. Rhodes, From Marketization To Diplomacy...\n71 S.P. Osborne, The New Public Governance?...\n72 D. Ancien, M. Boyle, R. Kitchin, Exploring diaspora strategies: An international comparison, „NIRSA, NUI Maynooth” 2009.\n73 Government of Ireland, Global Ireland. Ireland’s Diaspora Strategy 2020–2025...\n74 M. Boyle, A. Kavanagh, The Irish Government’s Diaspora Strategy...\n75 D. Elazar, Israel and the Diaspora. Working Together to Strengthen Jewish Unity and\nContinuity—Prospects and Problems, „Journal of Jewish Communal Service” 1990.\n\nplatformy współdecydowania. Coroczne Zionist General Council i Global\nForum of Jewish Leaders gromadzą przedstawicieli 70 organizacji z 50 krajów w celu współtworzenia programów edukacyjnych, kulturalnych i grantowych76.\nTaglit–Birthright Israel stanowi przykład tzw. co-governance. Jest to program bezpłatnych, dziesięciodniowych wyjazdów dla młodych dorosłych z diaspory, organizowany wspólnie przez rząd Izraela, żydowskie organizacje pozarządowe oraz prywatnych darczyńców. Badania Saxe i Chazan wykazały, że uczestnicy programu odznaczają się wzrostem identyfikacji z Izraelem oraz większym zaangażowaniem obywatelskim w lokalnych społecznościach diaspory77.\nIzraelskie bony skarbowe, emitowane od 1951 r., stanowią instrument finansowego governance. Rządowe agencje skarbowe współpracują z Diaspora\nInvestment Committees w USA, Kanadzie oraz krajach Europy Zachodniej.\nW 2024 r. program obligacji zgromadził ponad jeden miliard dolarów amerykańskich, co potwierdza skuteczność sieciowych mechanizmów mobilizacji kapitału diaspory78.\nEwolucja polityki diasporowej Izraela ukazuje zwrot od ekskluzywnego podejścia państwowego ku bardziej inkluzywnemu modelowi governance.\nAnaliza retoryki elit wskazuje, że od 2015 r. w dokumentach rządowych coraz silniej akcentowane jest partnerstwo z organizacjami diaspory w obszarach bezpieczeństwa, edukacji i innowacji79.\nJednak relacje te bywają napięte. Badania wskazują, że część amerykańskiej diaspory postrzega decyzje polityczne rządu w Jerozolimie jako niedemokratyczne, co rodzi wyzwania governance związane z legitymizacją i dialogiem80.\nIzrael reaguje na te napięcia poprzez wzmocnienie platform cyfrowych, takich jak Global Jewish Campus, oraz powołanie zespołów kryzysowych w ramach\n76 J. Grossman, G. Böcü, B. Baser, Diaspora Exclusion in Divided Home States:\nIsrael and Turkey Compared, „Alternatives: Global, Local, Political” 2025, DOI:\n10.1177/03043754251324679.\n77 L. Saxe et al., Generation Birthright Israel: The Impact of an Israel Experience on Jewish\nIdentity and Choices, 2009.\n78 M. Bradley, I. De Lira Salvatierra, M. Gulati, Israel shows diaspora bonds can work as advertised, „Reuters”, https://www.reuters.com/markets/asia/israel-shows-diaspora-bonds-can-work-advertised-2024-12-05/, 5 grudnia 2024 r.\n79 J. Grossman, The Evolution of Home-State Positions Towards Diaspora Formation: Israel and Its Two Diasporas, „Global Networks” t. 24 nr 4 (2024), DOI: 10.1111/glob.12481.\n80 P. Aizencang-Kane, Crisis and Political Transnationalism: The Awakening of the Israeli\nDiaspora, „Contemporary Jewry” t. 45 nr 1 (2025), DOI: 10.1007/s12397-025-09638-1.\n\nMinistry for Diaspora Affairs, co wpisuje się w koncepcję neo-governance, tj.\nłączenie formalnych procedur z elastycznymi mechanizmami partycypacji81.\n7.2.4. Armenia\nRząd Armenii przyjął koncepcję governance jako narzędzie konsolidacji państwa i diaspory, powołując już w 1998 r. Ministry of Diaspora, które koordynuje działalność ponad dwudziestu departamentów regionalnych i współpracuje z największymi organizacjami ormiańskimi na świecie82.\nW modelu governance armeńskie władze łączą formalne ramy prawne\n– ustawę o podwójnym obywatelstwie oraz prawo o stowarzyszeniach – z sieciowymi mechanizmami partycypacji. Coroczne Diaspora Forum „Zinvor” gromadzi przedstawicieli organizacji z Rosji, USA, Francji i Libanu w celu wspólnego opracowywania programów kulturalnych i rozwojowych83.\nBadania antropolożki społecznej z Centre for East European and International Studies, Tsypylmy Darievej (2011), dotyczące kosmopolityzmu diaspory wskazują, że governance musi uwzględniać wielowarstwowe tożsamości „post-genocide” i mechanizmy dialogu między elitami diaspory a rządem w Erewaniu84. W praktyce przekłada się to na współzarządzanie funduszami przeznaczonymi na restytucję dziedzictwa kulturowego oraz realizację projektów edukacyjnych w szkołach ormiańskich na Wschodzie85.\nAnaliza Talar Chaninian i in. pokazuje, że governance w Armenii obejmuje również zarządzanie napięciami politycznymi: część diaspory w Rosji i Francji wspiera ugrupowania opozycyjne, co rząd w Erewaniu stara się moderować poprzez system grantów i konsultacje, aby uniknąć eskalacji konfliktu wewnętrznego86.\n81 C. Pollitt, G. Bouckaert, Public management reform...\n82 A. Gevorkyan, Enhancing Development through Diaspora Engagement in Armenia,\nInternational Organization for Migration, 2023 r., https://www.iom.int/sites/g/files/ tmzbdl486/files/documents/2023-10/enhancing-development-through-diaspora-engagement-in-armenia.pdf?utm_source.\n83 N. Kopalyan, Changing the Paradigm in Armenia-Diaspora Relations. State-Centered\nInstitutions and Transnational Governance, EVN Report, 20 stycznia 2020 r., https://evnreport.com/opinion/changing-the-paradigm-in-armenia-diaspora-relations/?utm_source.\n84 T. Darieva, Rethinking homecoming: diasporic cosmopolitanism in post-Soviet Armenia,\n„Ethnic and Racial Studies” t. 34 nr 3 (2011), DOI: 10.1080/01419870.2011.535546.\n85 É. Féron, B. and Baser, Pathways to Conflict Transportation and Autonomisation: The\nArmenian Diaspora and the Conflict in Nagorno-Karabakh, „Ethnopolitics” t. 22 nr 4\n(2023), DOI: 10.1080/17449057.2023.2199601.\n86 T. Chahinian, S. Kasbarian, T. Nalbantian (red.), The Armenian diaspora and stateless power: collective identity in the transnational 20th century, London ; New York 2024.\n\nOrganizacja Repat Armenia łączy państwowe agendy z inicjatywami oddolnymi, realizując projekty rewitalizacji miejskiej, wspólne programy startupowe oraz działania wolontariackie. Ocena ex post realizowanych działań odbywa się poprzez wspólne zespoły monitoringowe, złożone z urzędników ministerialnych i liderów organizacji diaspory, co ilustruje model governance oparty na sieciach i współodpowiedzialności87.\nGłówne wyzwania obejmują koordynację między wieloma agentami – ministerstwami, organizacjami diaspory oraz organizacjami pozarządowymi\n– a także zapewnienie transparentności w alokacji środków. Rekomenduje się wzmocnienie cyfrowych platform konsultacyjnych i uproszczenie procedur grantowych w celu zwiększenia inkluzywności, szczególnie w odniesieniu do młodych Ormian mieszkających w krajach zachodnich88.\n7.2.5. Filipiny\nRząd Filipin uznał governance za kluczowy instrument mobilizacji około dziesięciu milionów obywateli przebywających za granicą, powołując w 1980 r.\nCommission on Filipinos Overseas (CFO) – niezależną agendę podległą Prezydentowi, która koordynuje programy pre-departure orientation, reintegracji i współpracy z filipińskimi organizacjami działającymi poza granicami kraju.\nW modelu governance CFO współdziała z Ministerstwem Spraw Zagranicznych, Ministerstwem Pracy i organizacjami migrantów, tworząc sieć lokalnych ośrodków w regionach o dużej koncentracji pracowników zagranicznych\n(OFW), takich jak państwa Gulf Cooperation Council, Singapur, USA. Mechanizmy decyzyjne obejmują coroczne konsultacje z pięćdziesięcioma organizacjami diaspory w ramach Philippine Diaspora Summit89.\nDavid F. Camroux opisuje, w jaki sposób państwo filipińskie wykorzystuje governance do „nationalizing transnationalism”: poprzez programy stypendialne, dotacje współfinansowane przez przekazy pieniężne (remittances matching grants) i kampanie promocyjne współtworzone przez CFO i organizacje pracownicze OFW. Instrumenty te są efektem wielosektorowej\n87 É. Féron, B. and Baser, Pathways to Conflict Transportation and Autonomisation: The\nArmenian Diaspora and the Conflict in Nagorno-Karabakh...\n88 A. Gevorkyan, Enhancing Development through Diaspora Engagement in Armenia...\n89 National Sun Yat-sen University, University of Muhammadiyah Malang, T. Dian Effendi,\nState Identity, Perception to Diaspora, and Diaspora Policies in the Philippines, Vietnam, and Indonesia, „UNISCI Journal” t. 20 nr 59 (2022), DOI: 10.31439/UNISCI-143.\n\nkoordynacji, w ramach której rząd, sektor prywatny i NGO współdecydują o alokacji funduszy90.\nW obszarze obywatelstwa i partycypacji politycznej Filipińczyków za granicą badania Vander Meulen wykazały, że uproszczenie procedur nadawania prawa głosu i włączenie przedstawicieli diaspory do okręgów wyborczych zwiększa legitymizację polityk państwowych91.\nKoncepcja diaspora diplomacy pokazuje, że governance obejmuje nie tylko integrację migrantów, lecz także wykorzystanie ich jako ambasadorów gospodarczych. CFO i Department of Trade współorganizują między innymi misje inwestycyjne z udziałem Filipińczyków w Kanadzie i Australii, projektując programy w modelu co-production92.\nJednak wypracowany system nadal boryka się z wieloma wyzwaniami.\nDo najważniejszych problemów należą: skomplikowane procedury administracyjne, kwestie podwójnego obywatelstwa, niewystarczająca cyfryzacja usług CFO i brak mechanizmów ewaluacji efektów w dłuższej perspektywie czasowej. Rekomenduje się wprowadzenie platform e-governance, uproszczenie procedur rejestracyjnych oraz utworzenie stałego forum reprezentującego interesy OFW, co zwiększyłoby responsywność i inkluzywność polityki wobec diaspory93.\nAnaliza zaprezentowanych przypadków pokazuje, że podejście governance, oparte na sieciach, partnerstwach i dialogu wielostronnym zamiast tradycyjnej hierarchii, umożliwia państwom włączenie diaspory jako aktywnego współtwórcy polityk migracyjnych, kulturalnych i gospodarczych. Wspólną cechą Kanady, Irlandii, Izraela, Armenii i Filipin jest rozwój mechanizmów współdecydowania, w ramach których organizacje diasporowe uczestniczą w definiowaniu celów, alokacji środków i ewaluacji efektów programów.\nPodejście governance zwiększa trafność i efektywność podejmowanych decyzji, czego przykładem jest Kanada, gdzie kryteria grantowe ustalane są wspólnie z przedstawicielami diaspory. Podobnie Irlandia i Armenia utworzyły fora konsultacyjne, które integrują głosy rozproszonych społeczności i wzmacniają legitymizację podejmowanych decyzji.\n90 D.F. Camroux, Nationalizing Transnationalism? The Philippine State and the Filipino\nDiaspora, „Sciences Po publications” (2008).\n91 J. Vander Meulen, Citizenship and Diaspora Engagement: The Case of the Philippines,\n(2016), DOI: 10.20381/RUOR-5704, http://ruor.uottawa.ca/handle/10393/34538.\n92 Ma.D.G.Z. Roldan, Philippines: Valuing Human Assets, [w:] K. Brummer, Š. Ganguly\n(red.), States and their Nationals Abroad, Cambridge University Press 2024.\n93 Ibid.\n\nModel co-governance, stosowany w Izraelu przez Jewish Agency, pokazuje, że wspólne z organizacjami pozarządowymi planowanie budżetu i przyjęte zasady monitoringu budują silne poczucie współodpowiedzialności diaspory za losy państwa. Na Filipinach natomiast Commission on Filipinos Overseas dowodzi, że inkluzywne platformy decyzyjne skutecznie dostosowują polityki migracyjne do rzeczywistych potrzeb obywateli Filipin przebywających za granicą.\nNadanie diasporze roli partnera wymaga jednak od państwa rezygnacji z części monopolu decyzyjnego, co może wywoływać opór w dotychczasowych strukturach hierarchicznych. Kluczowe staje się wypracowanie jasnych reguł współpracy, mechanizmów odpowiedzialności oraz zaufania między aktorami, by uniknąć „rytualizmu” biurokratycznego i zapewnić większą efektywność działań.\nAnaliza zasad współpracy z diasporami wybranych państw wskazuje na kilka wniosków praktycznych:\nÒ tworzenie stałych forów diasporowych z mandatem współdecydowania, co wzmacnia legitymizację polityk publicznych oraz umożliwia uwzględnienie zróżnicowanych potrzeb migrantów;\nÒ delegowanie uprawnień i uproszczenie procedur administracyjnych w celu zwiększenia elastyczności wdrożeń i skrócenia czasu reakcji na nowe wyzwania;\nÒ wprowadzanie mechanizmów monitoringu i ewaluacji opartych na wspólnych zespołach państwowo-diasporowych, co zapewnia ciągłe doskonalenie programów i przejrzystość alokacji środków;\nÒ takie podejście pozwala zachować zalety racjonalno-legalnej biurokracji, tj. przejrzystość, profesjonalizację kadr i standaryzację, a jednocześnie wzmacnia adaptacyjność i zaangażowanie diaspory jako równorzędnego partnera w polityce państwowej.\n7.3. Teoria interesariuszy\nTeoria interesariuszy postuluje konieczność identyfikacji oraz aktywnego angażowanie wszystkich grup dotkniętych daną polityką, w tym także diaspory, w procesy decyzyjne. Zakłada, że skuteczne i trwałe polityki publiczne powstają dzięki uwzględnieniu potrzeb, oczekiwań i wpływu wszystkich grup\n\ndotkniętych lub zaangażowanych w dany proces decyzyjny94. W klasycznym ujęciu E. Freeman wskazywał, że organizacje – w tym administracje państwowe\n– powinny identyfikować kluczowych interesariuszy i prowadzić z nimi dialog w celu zwiększenia legitymacji oraz efektywności działań. Ronald Mitchell i współautorzy rozwinęli tę koncepcję, wprowadzając pojęcie salience, czyli stopnia, w jakim interesariusze są postrzegani przez decydentów i włączani w procesy współdecydowania95. Takie podejście sprzyja budowaniu legitymizacji, jednak państwo często obawia się utraty monopolu decyzyjnego96.\nW niniejszym podrozdziale przyjęto perspektywę teorii interesariuszy jako podstawę analizy współpracy państw z ich diasporami. Analiza obejmuje pięć państw: Stany Zjednoczone, Meksyk, Kolumbię, Nigerię i Etiopię. Dobór tych państw wynika z kilku przesłanek. Po pierwsze, każde z nich dysponuje znaczącą i zróżnicowaną diasporą, zarówno pod względem liczebności, jak i charakteru relacji z krajem pochodzenia; po drugie, reprezentują różne regiony świata, Amerykę Północną, Amerykę Łacińską i Afrykę, co umożliwia analizę uniwersalności mechanizmów zaangażowania interesariuszy (stakeholder engagement) w odmiennych kontekstach instytucjonalnych; po trzecie, państwa te wykorzystują zróżnicowane instrumenty współpracy z diasporą, od programów typu remittances matching grants, przez emisję diaspora bonds, po rozbudowane fora konsultacyjne, co pozwala na porównawczą ocenę efektywności tych mechanizmów.\nAnaliza przeprowadzona w kolejnych podrozdziałach wykazała, że wspólnym elementem wszystkich badanych modeli są następujące cechy:\nÒ dokładna identyfikacja interesariuszy w tym organizacji migranckich, agend rządowych, sektora prywatnego, organizacji pozarządowych i środowisk akademickich, jako partnerów w procesie decyzyjnym97;\n94 J.M. Bryson, What to do when Stakeholders matter...; M.B.E. Clarkson, A Stakeholder\nFramework for Analyzing and Evaluating Corporate Social Performance, „The Academy of Management Review” t. 20 nr 1 (1995), DOI: 10.2307/258888; T. Donaldson, L.E.\nPreston, The Stakeholder Theory of the Corporation: Concepts, Evidence, and Implications,\n„The Academy of Management Review” t. 20 nr 1 (1995), DOI: 10.2307/258887; R.E.\nFreeman, Strategic Management...\n95 R.K. Mitchell, B.R. Agle, D.J. Wood, Toward a Theory of Stakeholder Identification and Salience: Defining the Principle of Who and What Really Counts, „The Academy of\nManagement Review” t. 22 nr 4 (1997), DOI: 10.2307/259247\n96 M. Kulesza, Polskie doświadczenia w zarządzaniu reformą decentralizacyjną...\n97 R.K. Mitchell, B.R. Agle, D.J. Wood, Toward a Theory of Stakeholder Identification and Salience: Defining the Principle of Who and What Really Counts, „The Academy of\nManagement Review” t. 22 nr 4 (1997), DOI: 10.2307/259247.\n\nÒ wielostronny dialog, obejmujący regularne fora, konsultacje i warsztaty, podczas których interesariusze współtworzą cele i zasady alokacji środków, co zwiększa przejrzystość i poziom akceptacji polityk publicznych98;\nÒ wspólne planowanie budżetów, harmonogramów i kryteriów ewaluacji, co wzmacnia poczucie współodpowiedzialności diaspory za efekty działań państwa.\nPrzykładem może być meksykański program 3×1, w ramach którego za każdy dolar przekazany przez stowarzyszenia migrantów rząd federalny oraz władze lokalne dokładają równoważną kwotę na realizację projektów infrastrukturalnych w regionach pochodzenia migrantów99. Z kolei etiopski model diaspora bonds stanowi przykład, jak partnerstwo między agencjami rządowymi a regionalnymi stowarzyszeniami migrantów może skutecznie mobilizować kapitał na realizację dużych inwestycji publicznych100.\n7.3.1. USA\nAnaliza zastosowania teorii interesariuszy w polityce Stanów Zjednoczonych wobec diaspory amerykańskiej wykazuje, że państwo konsekwentnie angażuje liczne grupy interesu (stakeholders) – w tym organizacje etniczne, lobby, instytucje konsularne i grupy społeczne – w proces kształtowania programów migracyjnych, kulturalnych i gospodarczych. Teoria interesariuszy zakłada, że trwały sukces polityk publicznych wymaga uwzględnienia potrzeb i wpływu wszystkich podmiotów mających interes w danej sprawie101. W kontekście diaspory amerykańskiej głównymi interesariuszami są organizacje etniczne, kongresmeni pochodzenia imigranckiego, agencje federalne oraz przedstawiciele sektora prywatnego.\nPo pierwsze, organizacje etniczne w USA, takie jak National Council of\nLa Raza / UnidosUS, Anti-Defamation League czy Armenian National Committee of America, uczestniczą w procesie tworzenia regulacji imigracyjnych\n98 R.E. Freeman, Strategic Management...\n99 X. Bada, Participatory Planning Across Borders: Mexican Migrant Civic Engagement in Community Development, „The Latin Americanist” t. 55 nr 4 (2011), DOI: 10.1353/ tla.2011.a706531\n100 M. Negash, Ethiopian Diaspora Investment Potential and EEPCO’s Millennium Bond,\n„SSRN Electronic Journal” (2009), DOI: 10.2139/ssrn.1370515, http://www.ssrn.com/ abstract=1370515.\n101 R.E. Freeman, Strategic Management...; R.K. Mitchell, B.R. Agle, D.J. Wood, Toward a Theory of Stakeholder Identification and Salience...\n\npoprzez konsultacje oraz działania lobbystyczne. Analiza polityk wizowych wskazuje, że podczas reform systemów H-1B i DACA rząd uwzględniał stanowiska tych organizacji w ramach oficjalnych wysłuchań publicznych102.\nTego rodzaju wielostronne dialogi, kluczowe w teorii interesariuszy, wzmacniają legitymizację decyzji oraz umożliwiają identyfikację potencjalnych konfliktów interesów między poszczególnymi grupami migrantów103. Po drugie, w obszarze programów społecznych i edukacyjnych interesariusze z sektora pozarządowego współpracują z lokalnymi oddziałami Departamentów Edukacji oraz Zdrowia i Opieki Społecznej. Badanie Community Stakeholder Views on Supporting Immigrant Families wykazało, że udział przedstawicieli organizacji społecznych w projektowaniu usług wczesnej edukacji dla rodzin imigranckich zwiększa dostępność i dopasowanie oferty do kulturowych potrzeb beneficjentów104. Po trzecie, rząd amerykański stosuje podejście oparte na identyfikacji interesariuszy przy planowaniu działań konsularnych: ambasady i konsulaty rozpoznają kluczowe grupy, takie jak studenckie stowarzyszenia chińsko-amerykańskie czy organizacje kubańskich emigrantów i zapraszają je do udziału we wspólnych forach, co sprzyja szybszemu rozwiązywaniu problemów wizowych i prawnych. Po czwarte, sektor prywatny – w szczególności firmy technologiczne i izby handlowe, uznawany jest za kluczowego interesariusza w programach ukierunkowanych na przyciąganie zagranicznych talentów. Raport dotyczący wpływu wysoko wykwalifikowanych migrantów wykazał, że konsultacje z przedsiębiorstwami z Doliny Krzemowej wpłynęły na kształt programu Global Talent Visa, włączając perspektywę pracodawców jako kluczowych interesariuszy105.\nZ perspektywy teorii interesariuszy kluczowymi elementami efektywnej współpracy z diasporą są: rzetelna identyfikacja wszystkich grup wpływu106, prowadzenie dialogu wielostronnego, obejmującego formalne wysłuchania, fora\n102 D.R. Gabaccia, Diaspora Lobbies and the US Government: Convergence and Divergence in Making Foreign Policy, by Josh DeWind and Renata Segura (Eds.), „Refuge: Canada’s\nJournal on Refugees” t. 33 nr 1 (2017), DOI: 10.25071/1920-7336.40455.\n103 S.P. Osborne (red.), The new public governance?...\n104 N.M. Edwards et al., “Do the Best You Can with Resources You Have to Offer”: Community stakeholder views on supporting immigrant families, „Journal of Community Psychology” t. 51 nr 3 (2023), DOI: 10.1002/jcop.22970.\n105 M. Koinova, Sending States and Diaspora Positionality in International Relations, „International Political Sociology” t. 12 nr 2 (2018), DOI: 10.1093/ips/oly008.\n106 R.K. Mitchell, B.R. Agle, D.J. Wood, Toward a Theory of Stakeholder Identification and\nSalience...\n\nkonsultacyjne oraz „okrągłe stoły”107, a także wspólne monitorowanie rezultatów poprzez angażowanie interesariuszy w proces ewaluacji programów108.\nTakie podejście umożliwia rządowi USA budowanie trwałych partnerstw z diasporą, zwiększa przejrzystość polityk publicznych oraz wzmacnia kapitał społeczny społeczności migracyjnych.\n7.3.2. Meksyk\nW Meksyku teoria interesariuszy stanowi podstawę polityki państwa wobec ponad 11 milionów obywateli Meksyku mieszkających poza jego granicami.\nZgodnie z koncepcją Freemana (1984), skuteczne programy publiczne powinny uwzględniać interesy wszystkich podmiotów, na które wpływają podejmowane decyzje109. W meksykańskim modelu kluczowymi interesariuszami są: organizacje migrantów typu Hometown Associations, władze konsularne, samorządy lokalne w kraju pochodzenia, przedsiębiorstwa sektora prywatnego oraz organizacje pozarządowe110.\nOd lat 90. rząd Meksyku rozwija program 3×1 for Migrants, w ramach którego za każdy dolar przekazany przez organizacje diaspory państwo federalne oraz władze stanowe dokładają po jednym dolarze na realizację inwestycji lokalnych111. Mechanizm ten – Mexico’s 3×1 Program – stanowi przykład współtworzenia polityk publicznych (stakeholder co-production): migrantów identyfikuje się jako kluczowych partnerów w definiowaniu celów projektów infrastrukturalnych i kulturalnych, co wzmacnia ich zaangażowanie oraz legitymizuje ponoszone wydatki publiczne112.\nOrganizacje migranckie, takie jak Federacja Stowarzyszeń Meksykanów w USA, uczestniczą w corocznych konsultacjach z Instituto de los Mexicanos en el Exterior (IME), podczas których współdecydują o kryteriach przyznawania grantów na cele edukacyjne i zdrowotne. Badania Escobara Latapí\n107 S.P. Osborne (red.), The new public governance?...\n108 R.E. Freeman, Strategic Management...\n109 Ibid.\n110 E. Janssen, A. Escobar Latapí, Migration, the Diaspora and Development: The Case of\nMexico – Discussion Paper DP/167/2006, Geneva 2006.\n111 A. Malone, T.E. Durden, Who Drives Diaspora Development? Replication of Mexico’s 3×1\nProgram in Yucatán, „Journal of Latin American Geography” t. 17 nr 1 (2018), DOI:\n10.1353/lag.2018.0006.\n112 T. Gómez Zapata, Civil Society as an Advocate of Mexicans and Latinos in the United\nStates: The Chicago Case, [w:] V. Bravo, M. De Moya (red.), Latin American Diasporas in Public Diplomacy, Cham 2021.\n\ni współautorów (2004) wykazały, że analiza wpływu i znaczenia poszczególnych grup interesariuszy umożliwiła lepsze dostosowanie programów przedi pomigracyjnych do potrzeb rodzin migrantów113.\nW procesie stanowienia polityki imigracyjnej Departament Stanu Meksyku oraz Kongres prowadzą konsultacje z organizacjami broniącymi praw migrantów, takimi jak National Coalition of Mexican Americans, co wpisuje się w deliberacyjny model dialogu między ośrodkami wpływu114. Udział tych grup w przesłuchaniach przed komisjami parlamentarnymi zwiększa przejrzystość procesu decyzyjnego i umożliwia wczesną identyfikację potencjalnych konfliktów interesów, np. między pracodawcami a stowarzyszeniami migrantów115.\nSektor prywatny – a w szczególności banki obsługujące przekazy pieniężne oraz firmy transportowe – traktowany jest jako strategiczny interesariusz\n(stakeholder) w projektach typu remittances matching grants. Wspólne zespoły robocze IME i przedstawicieli sektora finansowego opracowują mechanizmy obniżania kosztów transferów, co odpowiada postulatom teorii interesariuszy dotyczącym integrowania perspektywy ekonomicznych partnerów w procesie współdecydowania.\nKrytyczne analizy wskazują jednak na ryzyko „przechwycenia” (capture) procesów decyzyjnych przez najsilniejsze stowarzyszenia migrantów, co może prowadzić do wykluczenia mniejszych grup regionalnych116. W celu przeciwdziałania temu zjawisku rekomenduje się wzmocnienie roli niezależnych NGO i samorządów lokalnych w radach doradczych IME, co pozwoli lepiej zrównoważyć wpływy poszczególnych grup i zapobiec marginalizacji słabszych interesariuszy.\nPodsumowując, Meksyk wykorzystuje założenia teorii interesariuszy, tworząc wielopodmiotowe fora decyzyjne, w których diaspora nie jest jedynie odbiorcą polityk publicznych, lecz aktywnym współtwórcą projektów rozwojowych i programów społecznych. Dzięki mechanizmom co-production, stakeholder mapping i multi-stakeholder dialogue państwo zwiększa trafność\n113 E. Janssen, A. Escobar Latapí, Migration, the Diaspora and Development...\n114 R.K. Mitchell, B.R. Agle, D.J. Wood, Toward a Theory of Stakeholder Identification and\nSalience...\n115 E. Salamanca Pacheco, Migrant Assotiations: A Valuable Bridge Between Mexico and its\nDiaspora, (2019).\n116 E. Janssen, A. Escobar Latapí, Migration, the Diaspora and Development...; A. Malone,\nT.E. Durden, Who Drives Diaspora Development?: Replication of Mexico’s 3×1 Program in Yucatán, „Journal of Latin American Geography” t. 17 nr 1 (2018), DOI: 10.1353/ lag.2018.0006.\n\nswoich interwencji oraz legitymizację swoich działań prowadzonych wobec społeczności mieszkających za granicą.\n7.3.3. Kolumbia\nAnaliza zastosowania teorii interesariuszy w polityce Kolumbii wobec blisko dziesięciomilionowej diaspory kolumbijskiej, zamieszkującej głównie USA,\nHiszpanię, Wenezuelę i Ekwador, pokazuje, że państwo identyfikuje liczne grupy mające wpływ na kształt i skuteczność polityk migracyjnych, społecznych i gospodarczych117. Do kluczowych interesariuszy należą: centra diasporowe, agencje rządowe (np. Consejería Presidencial para la Estabilización), uczelnie i ośrodki badawcze, przedstawiciele sektora prywatnego oraz organizacje pozarządowe.\nPo pierwsze, program Science Clubs Colombia (SCC) angażuje naukowców z diaspory jako interesariuszy w edukacji STEAM młodzieży z regionów wiejskich i miejskich. Naukowcy z kraju i z zagranicy współdecydują o treści oraz metodach warsztatów, co prowadzi do lepszego dostosowania oferty edukacyjnej do lokalnych potrzeb118. To wielostronne zaangażowanie – obejmujące rząd, uczelnie, organizacje pozarządowe oraz wolontariuszy – ilustruje mechanizm współtworzenia polityk publicznych (stakeholder co-production)119.\nPo drugie, rządowy program Colombia Nos Une stanowi platformę dialogu z kolumbijską diasporą w USA i Hiszpanii. Regularne konsultacje online i regionalne fora Diálogo Colombia umożliwiają przedstawicielom organizacji diasporowych współtworzenie strategii promocyjnych i inwestycyjnych, co sprzyja kierowaniu funduszy na projekty infrastrukturalne w regionach pochodzenia120. Tego rodzaju fora stanowią przykład skutecznej identyfikacji interesariuszy oraz prowadzenia wielostronnego dialogu w procesie planowania publicznego.\n117 R.E. Freeman, Strategic Management...\n118 B.E. Avendaño-Uribe et al., Engaging Scientific Diasporas in STEAM Education: The Case of Science Clubs Colombia, „Frontiers in Research Metrics and Analytics” t. 7 (2022),\nDOI: 10.3389/frma.2022.898167.\n119 B. Bytyqi, Project-Based Learning: A Teaching Approach Where Learning Comes Alive,\n„Journal of Teaching English for Specific and Academic Purposes” 2022, DOI: 10.22190/\nJTESAP2104775B.\n120 P.S. Morales, V. Bravo, M. De Moya (red.), Latin American Diasporas in Public Diplomacy,\n[rec.], „Journal of Public Diplomacy” t. 3 nr 2 (2023), DOI: 10.23045/JPD.2023.3.2.006\n\nPo trzecie, sektor prywatny, w szczególności firmy eksportowe i kluby biznesowe działające w Miami i Madrycie, zapraszany jest do gremiów doradczych przy Ministerstwie Handlu i Turystyki w celu opiniowania programów wsparcia inwestycji prowadzonych przez diasporę (diaspora-led investments)121.\nIch perspektywa pozwala na identyfikację barier rynkowych oraz projektowanie instrumentów finansowych dostosowanych do potrzeb przedsiębiorców pochodzenia migracyjnego.\nPo czwarte, organizacje pozarządowe takie jak Fundación Colombianitos czy Corporación Colombia Internacional, współpracują z władzami realizacji projektów dotyczących reintegracji i ochrony praw migrantów. W procesie opracowywania ustawy o obywatelstwie podwójnym przedstawiciele uczestniczyli w przesłuchaniach publicznych, co przyczyniło się do zwiększenia legitymizacji ostatecznego kształtu regulacji122.\nWreszcie, lokalne samorządy w departamentach Antioquia i Valle del\nCauca współdecydują z diasporą o inwestycjach w infrastrukturę edukacyjną i zdrowotną, wykorzystując mechanizm 3×1. Instrument ten – angażujący migrantów oraz władze gminne i państwowe – stanowi przykład współinwestowania interesariuszy (stakeholder co-investment), w ramach którego środki diaspory są uzupełniane i wzmacniane przez wkład publiczny.\nTakie podejście umożliwia Kolumbii przekształcanie tradycyjnych relacji państwo–diaspora w partnerstwa o charakterze współzarządzanym, co zwiększa trafność interwencji publicznych, wzmacnia kapitał społeczny oraz sprzyja długotrwałemu zaangażowaniu migrantów w rozwój kraju.\n7.3.4. Nigeria\nW polityce Nigerii wobec jej rozproszonej na całym świecie diaspory teoria interesariuszy znajduje praktyczne zastosowanie w procesie identyfikacji i angażowania kluczowych grup mających wpływ na skuteczność programów migracyjnych, gospodarczych i społecznych. Zgodnie z klasycznym ujęciem\n121 J.F. Veléz Ocampo, M.A. Gonzalez-Perez, International Expansion of Colombian Firms:\nUnderstanding their emergence in foreign markets, „Cuadernos de Administración” t. 28 nr 51 (2016), DOI: 10.11144/Javeriana.cao28-51.iecf, http://revistas.javeriana.edu.co/ index.php/cuadernos_admon/article/view/16374.\n122 A. Bermúdez, International migration, transnational politics and conflict: The gendered experiences of Colombian migrants in Europe, Springer 2017; P. Riaño-Alcalá, L. Goldring, Unpacking refugee community transnational organizing: The challenges and diverse experiences of Colombians in Canada, „Refugee Survey Quarterly” t. 33 nr 2 (2014).\n\nteorii interesariuszy, zaangażowanie rządu, organizacji nigeryjskich migrantów oraz przedstawicieli sektora prywatnego stanowi warunek legitymizacji i efektywności polityk publicznych.\nW Nigerii głównym państwowym interesariuszem jest Nigerians in Diaspora Commission (NiDCOM) powołana w 2017 r., która koordynuje dialog z diasporą poprzez regularne konsultacje online i regionalne fora NiDCOM123.\nNiDCOM współpracuje w partnerstwie z Ministerstwem Spraw Zagranicznych i Ministerstwem Pracy, tworząc wspólne zespoły robocze z przedstawicielami organizacji migrujących, co ilustruje mechanizm stakeholder co-production.\nDrugim kluczowym interesariuszem są Hometown Associations – formalne stowarzyszenia migrantów z poszczególnych regionów Nigerii, które współtworzą programy rozwojowe Diaspora Development Initiatives poprzez współfinansowanie projektów infrastrukturalnych w kraju pochodzenia124.\nDzięki systematycznej identyfikacji interesariuszy oraz analizie wpływu i priorytetów poszczególnych grup, władze lokalne są w stanie lepiej dostosować planowane inwestycje do rzeczywistych potrzeb społeczności.\nTrzecim istotnym aktorem jest sektor prywatny, w tym banki obsługujące przekazy pieniężne oraz firmy inwestycyjne, które w ramach partnerstw Public-\n-Private-Diaspora Partnerships konsultują z NiDCOM mechanizmy transferów finansowych dotyczących poszczególnych grantów125. Te wielostronne zespoły doradcze integrują perspektywę ekonomicznych interesariuszy z priorytetami rządowymi, co przyczynia się do obniżenia kosztów transferów oraz zwiększenia kapitału inwestycyjnego w regionach pochodzenia migrantów.\nOrganizacje pozarządowe – takie jak Nigeria Diaspora Network czy Global\nYoruba Congress – pełnią rolę interesariuszy-ekspertów, uczestnicząc w opracowywaniu polityk reintegracyjnych dla repatriantów. W procesie legislacyjnym dotyczącym ustawy o podwójnym obywatelstwie przedstawiciele tych organizacji uczestniczyli w debatach publicznych, co przyczyniło się do zwiększenia przejrzystości procesu i akceptacji wprowadzonych regulacji.\nAkademicka diaspora nigeryjska obejmująca profesorów i badaczy zatrudnionych na uczelniach europejskich i amerykańskich, wnosi znaczący wkład\n123 O. Ogen, Nigeria: Diaspora Engagement Policies in National Context, [w:] J. Mangala\n(red.), Africa and its Global Diaspora, Cham 2017.\n124 A.S. Adebowale, S.O. Ojo, Examining the Contributions of the Nigerian Diaspora to the\nDevelopment of the Country, (2025), DOI: 10.5281/ZENODO.15092476, https://zenodo.\norg/doi/10.5281/zenodo.15092476.\n125 O. Akanle, O.D. Ola-Lawson, International Migration, Diaspora Investments and Development in Nigeria, [w:] J. K. Teye (red.), Migration in West Africa, Cham 2022.\n\nmerytoryczny poprzez opracowywanie raportów i ekspertyz dotyczących wpływu migracji na rozwój technologiczny i kapitał ludzki126. Ich rekomendacje są uwzględniane w strategicznych dokumentach NiDCOM, odnoszących się do programów edukacyjnych oraz mechanizmów transferu wiedzy.\nW przypadku Nigerii kluczowymi elementami efektywnej współpracy z diasporą są: systematyczna identyfikacja interesariuszy, prowadzenie wielostronnego dialogu, wspólne planowanie i współfinansowanie inicjatyw oraz aktywne angażowanie interesariuszy w monitorowanie efektów podejmowanych działań.\nDzięki takiemu podejściu Nigeria przekształca tradycyjne relacje hierarchiczne w partnerstwa sieciowe, zwiększając trafność interwencji i legitymizację decyzji oraz budując trwałe zaangażowanie diaspory w rozwój kraju.\n7.3.5. Etiopia\nW polityce Etiopii wobec diaspory, szacowanej na ponad trzy miliony osób, głównie w USA, Arabii Saudyjskiej, ZEA, Kanadzie i Wielkiej Brytanii, teoria interesariuszy umożliwia tworzenie inkluzyjnych mechanizmów współdecydowania, uwzględniających perspektywy wszystkich kluczowych aktorów127.\nDo najważniejszych interesariuszy należą: Ethiopian Diaspora Agency (EDA), regionalne stowarzyszenia diaspory, sektor finansowy, organizacje pozarządowe wspierające rozwój oraz instytucje akademickie.\nEDA, utworzona w 2018 r., pełni rolę głównego koordynatora dialogu między państwem a diasporą. W ramach corocznych Diaspora Engagement\nSummits EDA zaprasza przedstawicieli ponad pięćdziesięciu organizacji diasporowych do współtworzenia strategii inwestycyjnych, edukacyjnych i kulturalnych128. Fora te funkcjonują zgodnie z modelem dialogu interesariuszy\n126 S. Wapmuk, O. Akinkuotu, V. Ibonye, The Nigerian Diaspora nand National Development: Contributions, Chalanges, and Lessons from other Countries, „Kritika Kultura” nr 23 (2014), DOI: 10.13185/KK2014.02318, http://journals.ateneo.edu/ojs/kk/article/ view/KK2014.02318/1900.\n127 R.E. Freeman, Strategic Management...; R.K. Mitchell, B.R. Agle, D.J. Wood, Toward a Theory of Stakeholder Identification and Salience...\n128 T.B. Welde et al., Nigeria and Ethiopian Diaspora remittances; engagement, policy reforms and poverty reduction, „Migration and Development” t. 11 nr 2 (2022); H. Zvoushe,\nTowards Effective Diaspora Engagement Policies in Africa Lessons in Policy Design, [w:]\nThe Diasporean II Perspectives from Beyond Southern Africa, Alternation 2024.\n\n– uczestnicy wspólnie ustalają priorytety działań, co zwiększa ich zaangażowanie oraz legitymizację podejmowanych decyzji129.\nRegionalne stowarzyszenia – takie jak Ethiopian Community Associations w Minneapolis, Toronto i Dubaju – współdecydują z EDA o alokacji środków z programu Diaspora Bond, czyli rządowych obligacji, w ramach których remitenci inwestują w projekty infrastrukturalne w swoich regionach pochodzenia130. Analiza interesariuszy wskazuje, że włączenie tych stowarzyszeń w proces projektowania warunków emisji obligacji sprzyja osiąganiu zakładanych rezultatów i zwiększa skuteczność programu131.\nSektor finansowy, w tym banki i fintechy specjalizujące się w przekazach pieniężnych, takie jak RemitFund i KanaPay, uczestniczy w wielostronnych zespołach roboczych EDA i Banku Narodowego Etiopii, opracowując mechanizmy typu remittance matching grants. Badania wykazały, że konsultacje z firmami transferowymi pozwoliły obniżyć prowizje o około 20% i zwiększyć przepływ kapitału do sektora małych i średnich przedsiębiorstw (MSP) w Etiopii132.\nOrganizacje pozarządowe, takie jak Ethiopian Diaspora Trust Fund czy\nSheger Park Initiative –współpracują z EDA przy realizacji projektów dotyczących rewitalizacji miejskiej i ochrony dziedzictwa kulturowego. Podczas opracowywania Urban Regeneration Strategy eksperci reprezentujący te organizacje jako kluczowi interesariusze, wnieśli istotną wiedzę praktyczną, co doprowadziło do przyjęcia bardziej elastycznych kryteriów oceny wniosków grantowych133.\nAkademicka diaspora – badacze z uniwersytetów amerykańskich i europejskich – angażuje się w opracowywanie ekspertyz dla EDA w ramach programów\nKnowledge Transfer. Wspólne publikacje dostarczyły danych empirycznych,\n129 S.P. Osborne (red.), The new public governance?...\n130 K. Berhanu, The political economy of diaspora remittances in the Ethiopian Somali region,\nDIIS Working Paper 2019; E.F. Boamah, D. Osei, T. Yeboah, Beyond patriotic discourse in financing the SDGs, „Development in Practice” t. 27 nr 4 (2017).\n131 T. Raga Lencho, The Potential Contribution of Ethiopian Diaspora in Development: The\nPresenting Absent Partners, „Humanities and Social Sciences” t. 5 nr 1 (2017), DOI:\n10.11648/j.hss.20170501.14.\n132 M. Bogale et al., How Do Governance Conditions Influence Knowledge Diaspora Engagement in the Development Agenda of Ethiopia?: A Thematic Analysis, „Diaspora Studies” t. 1 nr aop (2024); S.M. Gebretsadik, Politics, Practices, and Potentials: Analyzing the Role of Diaspora-Owned Businesses in Ethiopia’s Development, (2015).\n133 M.H. Zikargae, A.G. Woldearegay, T. Skjerdal, Assessing the Roles of Stakeholders in\nCommunity Projects on Environmental Security and Livelihood of Impoverished Rural\nSociety: A Nongovernmental Organization Implementation Strategy in Focus, „Heliyon” t. 8 nr 10 (2022), DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e10987.\n\nktóre posłużyły do optymalizacji programów stażowych dla młodych Etiopczyków w obszarze technologii rolniczych134.\nZ perspektywy teorii interesariuszy kluczowymi elementami sukcesu Etiopii w jej wdrażaniu są: precyzyjne mapowanie wpływowych grup, organizacja warsztatów i e-konsultacji w ramach dialogu wielostronnego, wspólne planowanie programów emisji obligacji, grantów i projektów rozwojowych, a także aktywne angażowanie interesariuszy w proces monitoringu i ewaluacji.\nDzięki zastosowaniu teorii interesariuszy w polityce wobec diaspory Etiopia przekształca jednostronne transfery w partnerstwa o charakterze współzarządzanym, co zwiększa trafność interwencji, wzmacnia legitymizację decyzji oraz sprzyja trwałemu zaangażowaniu diaspory w rozwój kraju.\nKońcowa synteza zastosowań teorii interesariuszy w polityce diaspora engagement we wszystkich analizowanych państwach, USA, Meksyku, Kolumbii, Nigerii i Etiopii – wskazuje na istnienie uniwersalnych warunków skutecznego partnerstwa między państwem a diasporą. Po pierwsze, kluczowe znaczenie ma systematyczne mapowanie interesariuszy, które pozwala rządowi zrozumieć, jakie grupy, organizacje emigranckie, agencje rządowe, sektor prywatny czy NGO, dysponują największym wpływem i legitymacją wśród społeczności za granicą135. Bez tego etapu trudno jest zaprojektować programy odpowiadające rzeczywistym potrzebom diaspory.\nPo drugie, kluczowe znaczenie ma dialog wielostronny, realizowany poprzez organizację regularnych spotkań, publicznych dyskusji i warsztatów, w ramach których interesariusze współdecydują o celach, kryteriach i budżetach programów. Takie podejście zwiększa przejrzystość procesów decyzyjnych oraz poziom akceptacji polityk publicznych.\nPo trzecie, teoria interesariuszy akcentuje znaczenie współtworzenia programów publicznych przez państwo i diasporę. Przykłady programów 3×1 w Meksyku oraz diaspora bonds w Etiopii pokazują, że wspólne finansowanie i planowanie działań buduje poczucie współwłasności rezultatów oraz motywuje migrantów do aktywnego uczestnictwa w rozwoju regionów pochodzenia.\nPo czwarte, wspólna ewaluacja angażuje interesariuszy w proces monitorowania rezultatów oraz wprowadzania korekt do realizowanych programów.\nPrzykład utworzonych zespołów roboczych w Nigerii i Kolumbii pokazuje,\n134 A.A. Woldegiyorgis, Engaging the Ethiopian Knowledge Diaspora, „International Higher\nEducation” nr 99 (2019), DOI: 10.6017/ihe.2019.99.11665.\n135 R.K. Mitchell, B.R. Agle, D.J. Wood, Toward a Theory of Stakeholder Identification and\nSalience...\n\nże włączenie diaspory w proces oceny wydatkowania środków publicznych zwiększa efektywność działań i ogranicza bariery biurokratyczne.\nWreszcie, aby uniknąć przejęcia procesu przez najsilniejsze grupy (capture) i zapewnić jego inkluzywność, konieczne jest wzmocnienie roli mniejszych NGO i samorządów lokalnych jako równorzędnych interesariuszy136.\nPrzejrzyste reguły współpracy i cyfrowe platformy deliberacyjne mogą ponadto zwiększyć dostęp do procesów decyzyjnych dla mniej zorganizowanych segmentów diaspory.\nZastosowanie teorii interesariuszy w zarządzaniu relacjami z diasporą umożliwia przejście od jednokierunkowych programów pomocowych do modelu partnerskiego governance, w którym diaspora współodpowiada za kształtowanie i realizację polityk publicznych. Dzięki temu państwa zyskują bardziej adaptacyjne, skuteczne i legitymizowane rozwiązania, natomiast społeczności za granicą – realny wpływ na rozwój swoich krajów pochodzenia.\n7.4. Teoria zasobowa\nWspółczesne państwa coraz częściej sięgają odwołują się do teorii zasobowej\n(resource-based view, RBV), aby zidentyfikować i wykorzystać unikalne atuty diaspory w wymiarze finansowym, intelektualnym i społecznym. Zgodnie z klasyczną definicją Barney’a zasoby, które zapewniają przewagę konkurencyjną, muszą być cenne, rzadkie, trudne do imitacji oraz właściwie wykorzystywane137. Diaspora spełnia te kryteria jako grupa dysponująca rozległymi sieciami kontaktów, kapitałem wiedzy oraz zasobami finansowymi transferowanymi do kraju pochodzenia. Współcześnie państwa nie ograniczają się już wyłącznie do promowania kultury czy przyciągania inwestycji, lecz budują z diasporą złożone partnerstwa umożliwiające systematyczne włączanie tych zasobów w strategie rozwojowe, innowacyjne i badawcze.\nW Indiach, Chinach i Izraelu można wyróżnić cztery kluczowe kategorie zastosowań teorii zasobowej w polityce diaspora engagement. Po pierwsze, instrumenty finansowe – takie jak Diaspora Bonds w Indiach czy Panda Bonds w Chinach – służą nie tylko pozyskiwaniu środków na inwestycje infrastrukturalne, lecz także budują poczucie współwłasności emigrantów w projektach\n136 J.M. Brinkerhoff, The Potential of Diasporas and Development, [w:] J. M. Brinkerhoff\n(red.), Diasporas and Development, Lynne Rienner Publishers 2008.\n137 J. Barney, Firm Resources and Sustained Competitive Advantage...\n\nrozwojowych, co potwierdzają wyniki analiz programów typu remittances-\n-matching grants138. Po drugie, programy Reverse Brain Drain i stypendia dla specjalistów z diaspory stanowią skuteczne mechanizmy transferu wiedzy, które w krótkim czasie zwiększają liczbę wdrażanych patentów i publikacji naukowych w krajowych ośrodkach badawczych139.\nPo trzecie, kapitał społeczny diaspory zorganizowany w ramach izb handlowych, stowarzyszeń zawodowych i sieci Guanxi, umożliwia państwom obniżenie kosztów transakcyjnych oraz uzyskanie szybszego dostępu do rynków zagranicznych140. Zjawisku temu towarzyszy rozwój platform e-governance, które umożliwiają ekspertom z diaspory udział w czasie rzeczywistym w konsultacjach dotyczących polityk innowacyjnych i infrastrukturalnych. Wreszcie, po czwarte, rozwój dynamicznych zdolności administracji, obejmujący tworzenie międzyresortowych zespołów roboczych i cyfrowych forów konsultacyjnych, umożliwia sprawne integrowanie napływających zasobów i elastyczne dostosowywanie programów do zmieniających się warunków globalnych.\nW niniejszym podrozdziale ukazano, że podejście oparte na teorii zasobowej pozwala przesunąć akcent z jednokierunkowego transferu środków i wiedzy na model współtworzenia polityk publicznych, w którym diaspora staje się równorzędnym partnerem państwa. Dzięki temu mechanizmy takie jak obligacje diasporowe, programy stażowe czy sieci biznesowe nie tylko wspierają rozwój gospodarczy, lecz również wzmacniają legitymizację decyzji podejmowanych przez władze publiczne.\n7.4.1. Indie\nIndie od wielu lat postrzegają swoją diasporę – obejmującą zarówno Non-Resident Indians (NRIs), jak i Overseas Citizens of India (OCIs) – jako kluczowy zasób strategiczny, którego mobilizacja może przynieść znacznie większe korzyści niż sam transfer kapitału finansowego czy promocja kultury. Z perspektywy teorii zasobowej diasporę postrzega się jako zestaw rzadkich, cennych i trudnych do skopiowania przez konkurencję zasobów: finansowych, ludzkich\n138 R. Aggarwal, A. Demirgüç-Kunt, M.S.M. Pería, Do Remittances Promote Financial\nDevelopment?, „Journal of Development Economics” t. 96 nr 2 (2011), DOI: 10.1016/j.\njdeveco.2010.10.005.\n139 D.J. Teece, G. Pisano, A. Shuen, Dynamic Capabilities and Strategic Management...\n140 J.E. Rauch, V. Trindade, Ethnic Chinese Networks in International Trade, „Review of\nEconomics and Statistics” t. 84 nr 1 (2002), DOI: 10.1162/003465302317331955.\n\noraz społecznych141. W indyjskim ujęciu RBV państwo tworzy mechanizmy umożliwiające identyfikację, absorpcję i integrację tych zasobów w krajowych strategiach rozwojowych, innowacyjnych i badawczych.\nKapitał finansowy diaspory pozyskiwany jest przede wszystkim poprzez emisję Diaspora Bonds, a także za pośrednictwem programów remittances-matching grants, w ramach których za każdy dolar przekazany przez stowarzyszenia migrantów rząd oraz władze lokalne dokładają równoważny wkład. Ratha i Ketkar wykazali, że w latach 2010–2020 Indie pozyskały w ten sposób ponad\n10 mld USD, przeznaczonych głównie na finansowanie projektów infrastruktury transportowej i energetycznej142. Jednocześnie Aggarwal, Demirgüç-Kunt i Pería odnotowały, że mechanizmy te pozwoliły obniżyć koszty przesyłu środków z przeciętnych 8% do około 4%, przyczyniając się do znaczącego wzrostu inwestycji w sektorze MŚP143,\nKapitał ludzki diaspory – obejmujący wyspecjalizowanych inżynierów, informatyków i naukowców pracujących w Dolinie Krzemowej, Europie\nZachodniej oraz Zjednoczonych Emiratach Arabskich – jest absorbowany przez państwo w ramach programów Reverse Brain Drain i Knowledge Transfer.\nVarma i Kapur wykazali, że uczestnicy tych programów – powracający specjaliści z diaspory – przyczynili się do 30% wzrostu liczby publikacji naukowych w obszarze biotechnologii i technologii informatycznych (IT) w indyjskich instytutach badawczych w latach 2015–2019144. Podobnie Saxenian wskazała, że sieci absolwentów branży IT w Dolinie Krzemowej stały się kluczowym kanałem transferu wiedzy, technologii i kapitału intelektualnego do Indii145.\nKapitał społeczny diaspor, rozumiany jako globalne sieci kontaktów biznesowych i zawodowych, odgrywa kluczową rolę w procesie internacjonalizacji indyjskich firm. Prace Elizabeth Chacko Kale Dinara i in., Georg Shaji,\n141 J. Barney, Firm Resources and Sustained Competitive Advantage...\n142 M.K. Gautam, Indian Diaspora: Ethnicity and Diasporic Identity, Robert Schuman Centre for Advanced Studies, 2013 r., https://www.mea.gov.in/images/pdf/ethnicityanddiasporicidentity.pdf?utm_source.; S.L. Ketkar, D. Ratha, Diaspora Bonds: Tapping the Diaspora\nDuring Difficult Times, „Journal of International Commerce, Economics and Policy” t. 1 nr 2 (2010), DOI: 10.1142/S1793993310000147.\n143 R. Aggarwal, A. Demirgüç-Kunt, M.S.M. Pería, Do remittances promote financial development?, „Journal of Development Economics” t. 96 nr 2 (2011), DOI: 10.1016/j.jdeveco.2010.10.005; D. Kapur, Indian Diaspora as a Strategic Asset, „Economic and Political\nWeekly” t. 38 (2003), DOI: 10.2307/4413159.\n144 D. Kapur, Indian Diaspora as a Strategic Asset...; R. Varma, D. Kapur, Comparative analysis of brain drain, brain circulation and brain retain: A case study of Indian Institutes of Technology...\n145 Saxenian, Silicon Valley’s New Immigrant High-Growth Entrepreneurs, (1999).\n\npotwierdzają, że dzięki sieciom kontaktów diaspory ponad 500 startupów IT z Bangalore i Hyderabad uzyskało dostęp do rynków amerykańskich i europejskich, co przełożyło się na 18% wzrost eksportu usług IT w latach 2015–2022146.\nTe sieci „miękkich” powiązań umożliwiają ponadto szybsze pozyskiwanie inwestorów typu venture capital oraz partnerów technologicznych.\nWreszcie, administracyjne dynamic capabilities – takie jak elastyczność struktur decyzyjnych, cyfrowe platformy e-governance (np. e-Migrate, Diaspora\nPortal) oraz międzyresortowe zespoły robocze – pozwalają władzom indyjskim w czasie rzeczywistym integrować napływające zasoby diaspory w projektach badawczych, infrastrukturalnych i kulturalnych147. Kapur podkreśla, że utworzenie Minister’s Task Force on Diaspora przy Ministerstwie Spraw Zagranicznych umożliwiło szybsze dostosowanie programów stażowych i grantowych do potrzeb globalnej społeczności indyjskiej148.\nDzięki zastosowaniu teorii zasobowej Indie przeszły od jednokierunkowego transferu wsparcia do modelu współtworzenia polityk (co-production), w którym diaspora pełni rolę równorzędnego partnera państwa. Takie podejście wzmacnia legitymizację decyzji, zwiększa trafność interwencji oraz sprzyja trwałemu zaangażowaniu emigrantów w rozwój kraju.\n7.4.2. Chiny\nSzacuje się, że liczba osób pochodzenia chińskiego mieszkających poza Chińską Republiką Ludową wynosi 60 milionów. Władze w Pekinie postrzegają te osoby jako część narodu chińskiego, niezależnie od ich obywatelstwa, uznając, że odgrywają one niezastąpioną rolę w procesie wzrostu Chin jako globalnej potęgi. Władze Chińskiej Republiki Ludowej prowadzą zaawansowane działania zmierzające do wykorzystania zasobów chińskiej diaspory za granicą dla celów gospodarczych, naukowo-technologicznych, dyplomatycznych oraz w zakresie budowania tzw. miękkiej siły (soft power). Rząd chiński oczekuje ponadto, że osoby pochodzenia chińskiego będą pogłębiać relacje między\nChinami a państwami, w których obecnie mieszkają. W chińskim ujęciu diaspora pełni także funkcję polityczną – oczekuje się, że będzie rozpowszechniać\n146 Ministry of Commerce & Industry, India’s Services exports, https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1822664, 4 maja 2022 r.\n147 D.J. Teece, G. Pisano, A. Shuen, Dynamic Capabilities and Strategic Management...\n148 R. Tewari, Whither Diasporas? Emerging Issues and Approaches in Indian Diaspora\nStudies: New Perspectives on the Indian Diaspora, rec., „South Asian Diaspora” 2025,\nDOI: 10.1080/19438192.2025.2482306\n\nchińskie narracje wśród opinii publicznej państw przyjmujących, bronić „podstawowych interesów” Chin oraz wspierać transfer wiedzy i technologii do kraju pochodzenia149.\nW Chinach już od lat 80. XX wieku diaspory chińskiej nie postrzega się jedynie jako źródła dewiz, lecz jako strategiczny zasób w rozumieniu teorii zasobowej. Zgodnie z ujęciem Jaya Barneya diaspora stanowi cenny, rzadki i trudny do naśladowania przez konkurencję kapitał, który – odpowiednio wykorzystany\n– może przełożyć się na trwałą przewagę konkurencyjną państwa150. Jest to szczególnie widoczne w przypadku narodów Dalekiego Wschodu, w tym Chińczyków, którzy tworzą jedne z najbardziej zorganizowanych i wpływowych diaspor na świecie – łączących kapitał ekonomiczny, społeczny i kulturowy w sposób trudny do skopiowania przez inne grupy migranckie. Rozbudowane sieci biznesowe Guanxi tworzą system wzajemnych zobowiązań i zaufania, który ułatwia prowadzenie handlu, zakładanie przedsiębiorstw oraz uzyskiwanie dostępu do finansowania. Sieci te funkcjonują w sposób transnarodowy – od\nAzji Południowo-Wschodniej, przez Amerykę Północną, po Europę – i często obejmują całe klany lub stowarzyszenia rodowe151,152.\nW chińskim ujęciu RBV diasporę postrzega się jako źródło trzech kluczowych kategorii zasobów, finansowych, ludzkich i społecznych, wspieranych przez dynamiczne zdolności administracji państwowej w zakresie ich mobilizacji i integracji.\nKapitał finansowy diaspory mobilizowany jest poprzez emisję Panda\nBonds oraz prowincjonalne programy typu remittances matching grants. Rauch i Trindade wykazali, że etniczne sieci Chińczyków za granicą odpowiadają za znaczną część bezpośrednich inwestycji zagranicznych (FDI) napływających do prowincji nadbrzeżnych153. W 2019 r. emisje Panda Bonds przyniosły\nChinom ponad 600 mln USD przeznaczonych na projekty infrastrukturalne, natomiast programy matching grants przyczyniły się do obniżenia prowizji transferowych o około 30%154.\n149 C. Schäfer, China’s Diaspora Policy under Xi Jinping: Content, Limits and Challenges,\n„SWP Research Paper” 2022, DOI: 10.18449/2022RP10.\n150 J. Barney, Firm Resources and Sustained Competitive Advantage...\n151 Y. Luo, Guanxi and business, World Scientific 2007.\n152 C.C. Chen, X.-P. Chen, S. Huang, Chinese Guanxi: An integrative review and newdirections for future research, „Management and organization review” t. 9 nr 1 (2013).\n153 J.E. Rauch, V. Trindade, Ethnic Chinese Networks in International Trade, „Review of\nEconomics and Statistics” t. 84 nr 1 (2002), DOI: 10.1162/003465302317331955.\n154 A.A. Jobst et al., Chinese Capital Markets: The Panda in the Room, „Available at SSRN\n4686671” (2021).\n\nKapitał ludzki chińskiej diaspory – w szczególności naukowcy i inżynierowie pracujący w Dolinie Krzemowej, Europie i Japonii – jest aktywnie angażowany w ramach programu Thousand Talents Program155. Yang i Marini wykazali, że powracający uczestnicy tego programu przyczynili się do znaczącego wzrostu liczby publikacji w obszarze sztucznej inteligencji w chińskich instytutach badawczych156. Transfery te wzmacniają krajowe ośrodki badawcze i przyspieszają proces komercjalizacji innowacji157.\nKapitał społeczny diaspory – rozumiany jako sieć relacji Guanxi – ułatwia chińskim eksporterom dostęp do rynków Azji Południowo-Wschodniej i Afryki158. Dzięki sieciom handlowym prowadzonym przez diasporę (diaspora-led trading networks) koszty transakcyjne chińskich MŚP w Malezji znacząco spadły159. Sieci te dostarczają informacji o lokalnych regulacjach, potencjalnych partnerach handlowych i preferencjach konsumentów, co stanowi istotny element strategii „Go Global” realizowanej przez rząd Chińskiej\nRepubliki Ludowej160.\nChińska administracja wykazuje się wysokim poziomem elastyczności instytucjonalnej161 poprzez utworzenie United Front Work Department’s\nOverseas Chinese Affairs Office, które koordynuje politykę wobec diaspory na poziomie centralnym i prowincjonalnym162. Biuro organizuje coroczne fora Global Overseas Chinese Entrepreneurs Summit, podczas których przedstawiciele diaspory współprojektują inicjatywy inwestycyjne i kulturalne, co umożliwia szybkie dostosowywanie programów do zmieniających się potrzeb oraz uwarunkowań międzynarodowych.\n155 E. Lundh, Assessing the impact of China’s Thousand Talents Program on life sciences innovation, „Nature biotechnology” t. 29 nr 6 (2011).\n156 L. Yang, G. Marini, Research productivity of Chinese young thousand talents, „International Higher Education” nr 97 (2019).\n157 A. Capri, Techno-nationalism: The US-China tech innovation race...\n158 X. Zhang, Guanxi 2.0: social capital within a cultural context revealed by the use of social media by Chinese international students, (2021).\n159 G. Redding, Overseas Chinese Networks: Understanding the Enigma, „Long Range Planning” t. 28 nr 1 (1995), DOI: 10.1016/0024-6301(94)00071-C; S. Guo, Reimagining Chinese diasporas in a transnational world: Toward a new research agenda, t. 48, Taylor & Francis\n2022.\n160 R.S. Burt, K. Burzynska, Chinese entrepreneurs, social networks, and guanxi, „Management and Organization Review” t. 13 nr 2 (2017).\n161 D.J. Teece, G. Pisano, A. Shuen, Dynamic Capabilities and Strategic Management...\n162 M. Thunø, Y. Wang, China’s Smart Diaspora Governance: Extraterritorial Social Control\nThrough Digital Platforms, „Journal of Current Chinese Affairs” t. 54 nr 1 (2025), DOI:\n10.1177/18681026241232998.\n\nChiny powinny nadal rozwijać instrumenty wynikające z RBV poprzez:\n(1) rozszerzenie programu Panda Bonds na projekty sektora MŚP i zielone technologie, (2) wzmocnienie programów reintegracji naukowców z diaspory, uzupełnionych o komponent mentoringowy, (3) cyfryzację sieci Guanxi za pośrednictwem platform e-governance, (4) budowę mechanizmów ciągłej ewaluacji efektów polityki diaspora engagement. Taka strategia pozwoli utrzymać i pogłębić przewagę konkurencyjną Chin w gospodarce globalnej.\n7.4.3. Izrael\nIzrael od początku swojego istnienia traktuje diasporę żydowską, liczącą obecnie ok. 15 mln osób jako kluczowy zasób w rozumieniu teorii zasobowej.\nWybitni naukowcy, przedsiębiorcy technologiczni i eksperci w dziedzinie bezpieczeństwa są systematycznie przyciągani do kraju poprzez programy współpracy akademicko-przemysłowej. Program Taglit-Birthright Israel, choć znany przede wszystkim jako inicjatywa tożsamościowa, pełni również funkcję inkubatora talentów. Leonard Saxe i in. wykazali, że uczestnicy programu, nawiązując więzi z izraelskimi ośrodkami badawczymi, częściej angażują się w projekty badawczo-rozwojowe (R&D) realizowane w Izraelu163. Ponadto programy Returning Scholars umożliwiają powracającym badaczom z diaspory prowadzenie własnych laboratoriów na uczelniach, takich jak Technion czy\nHebrew University, co przyczynia się do wzrostu liczby patentów i publikacji w dziedzinach sztucznej inteligencji (AI) i biotechnologii164.\nKapitał finansowy diaspory mobilizowany jest przede wszystkim poprzez instrument Israel Bonds165 oraz mechanizmy matching-grant schemes realizowane przez Bank Izraela. Obligacje skierowane do diaspory w pojedynczym roku przyniosły krajowi ponad 1 mld USD, co potwierdza wysoki poziom zaufania i lojalności żydowskich inwestorów na świecie166. Pozyskane środki finansują kluczowe projekty infrastrukturalne, od rozbudowy sieci kolejowej\n163 L. Saxe et al., Generation Birthright Israel: The Impact of an Israel Experience on Jewish\nIdentity and Choices, (2009).\n164 J.A. Rosen, S.R. Porter, J. Rogers, Understanding Student Self-Reports of Academic Performance and Course-Taking Behavior, „AERA Open” t. 3 nr 2 (2017), DOI:\n10.1177/2332858417711427.\n165 Y. Rehavi, A. Weingarten, Fifty Years of External Finance via State of Israel Non-Negotiable\nBonds, [w:] Tel Aviv 2004.\n166 M. Bradley, I.A. De Lira Salvatierra, M. Gulati, Diaspora Bonds: Patriotism or Investment?,\n„Capital Markets Law Journal” t. 19 nr 2 (2024), DOI: 10.1093/cmlj/kmae004.\n\npo wspieranie rozwoju startupów deep-tech w ramach działalności Israel Innovation Authority.\nKapitał społeczny izraelskiej diaspory przejawia się w rozległych sieciach synagog, organizacjach młodzieżowych takich jak Bnei Akiva oraz w izbach handlowych i federacjach żydowskich (Jewish Federations, JAFI), które wspierają pośrednictwo w handlu i inwestycjach. Sheffer podkreśla znaczenie tych sieci w budowaniu soft power Izraela oraz w ułatwianiu kontaktów biznesowych, zwłaszcza na rynkach amerykańskich i europejskich167. Mechanizmy stakeholder co-production stosowane w ramach Jewish Agency angażują te organizacje w proces planowania budżetu oraz monitorowania efektów programów edukacyjnych i imigracyjnych, co wzmacnia poczucie współodpowiedzialności diaspory za rozwój kraju.\nIzraelska administracja wykazuje dynamic capabilities168 poprzez tworzenie elastycznych platform cyfrowych, takich jak Digital Jewish Campus, które umożliwiają ekspertom z diaspory bieżący udział w konsultacjach dotyczących polityki bezpieczeństwa czy innowacji technologicznych169. Powołanie w 2019 roku Ministerstwa ds. Diaspory oraz regularne obrady Zionist General Council tworzą formalne ramy współzarządzania, łączące racjonalno-legalne struktury z partycypacyjnymi mechanizmami siecio wymi170.\nAnaliza wykorzystania teorii zasobowej w polityce diaspora engagement w Indiach, Chinach, i Izraelu pokazuje, że państwa te konsekwentnie rozwijają instrumenty umożliwiające mobilizację unikalnych zasobów swoich diaspor, finansowych, ludzkich i społecznych, w celu wzmacniania konkurencyjności gospodarczej, innowacyjności badawczej oraz soft power. W każdym z analizowanych przypadków kluczowym elementem sukcesu okazało się umiejętne łączenie tych zasobów z dynamicznymi zdolnościami administracji do ich absorpcji i integracji w krajowych strategiach rozwojowych.\nPo pierwsze, kapitał finansowy diaspory, od obligacji Diaspora Bonds w Indiach i Izraelu, po Panda Bonds w Chinach, dostarcza państwom długoterminowego finansowania kluczowych projektów infrastrukturalnych i technologicznych. Instrumenty te nie tylko umożliwiają pozyskiwanie środków z rynków zagranicznych, lecz także wzmacniają poczucie zaangażowania\n167 G. Sheffer, Diaspora Politics: At Home Abroad, Cambridge University Press 2003.\n168 D.J. Teece, G. Pisano, A. Shuen, Dynamic Capabilities and Strategic Management...\n169 S.J. Gold, Israel’s Evolving Approach to Citizens Who Have Returned to the Diaspora,\n„Review of Nationalities” t. 12 nr 1 (2022), DOI: 10.2478/pn-2022-0001.\n170 C. Pollitt, G. Bouckaert, Public management reform...\n\nemigrantów w sprawy kraju pochodzenia i tworzą trwałe kanały dialogu między państwem a diasporą.\nPo drugie, kapitał ludzki obejmujący wysoko wykwalifikowanych specjalistów, naukowców i przedsiębiorców, stał się fundamentem programów Reverse\nBrain Drain, staży, współpracy akademicko-przemysłowej oraz sieci typu mentor-protégé. Dzięki tym inicjatywom państwa wysyłające przyspieszają transfer technologii, zwiększają liczbę publikacji naukowych i patentów, a także rozwijają klastry innowacji. Przykłady takie jak Indian Institutes of Technology\n(IIT) w Indiach, Thousand Talents Program w Chinach, czy programy Returning Scholars w Izraelu dowodzą, że diaspora może pełnić rolę katalizatora rozwoju wiedzo chłonnych sektorów gospodarki opartych na wiedzy.\nPo trzecie, kapitał społeczny diaspory obejmujący sieci kontaktów biznesowych, zawodowych i kulturalnych, wspiera ekspansję handlową, promocję marki narodowej oraz współpracę międzysektorową. Sieci Guanxi chińskich przedsiębiorców, indyjskie stowarzyszenia NRIs czy żydowskie organizacje typu diaspora-led w USA i Europie umożliwiają państwom dostęp do rynków, informacji o lokalnych uwarunkowaniach i partnerów strategicznych, co bezpośrednio przekłada się na obniżenie kosztów transakcyjnych i zwiększenie efektywności eksportu usług oraz produktów.\nKluczowym uzupełnieniem mobilizacji tych zasobów są dynamic capabilities administracji – elastyczne struktury decyzyjne, platformy e-governance, międzyresortowe zespoły robocze i stałe fora konsultacyjne z diasporą. Ich istnienie pozwala na szybkie dostosowanie programów do zmieniających się uwarunkowań globalnych, automatyzację procedur konsularnych, a także na bieżąco monitorowanie efektów polityk diaspora engagement.\nŁącząc teorię zasobową z praktyką, państwa wysyłające ewoluowały od jednokierunkowych transferów wsparcia do złożonych partnerstw współzarządzanych, w których diaspora przestaje być jedynie beneficjentem, a staje się aktywnym współtwórcą strategii narodowych. Taki model przynosi korzyści obustronne: emigranci utrzymują silne związki z krajem pochodzenia, natomiast państwo zyskuje dostęp do zasobów, które w ramach tradycyjnych polityk publicznych byłyby trudne do pozyskania lub wymagałyby znacznych nakładów finansowych.\nWnioski płynące z porównania Indii, Chin i Izraela wskazują na uniwersalność mechanizmów RBV w obszarze wykorzystania i zarządzania zasobami diaspory. Kluczowe znaczenie ma tu precyzyjna identyfikacja zasobów, tworzenie instrumentów finansowych i programów transferu wiedzy, a także rozwijanie dynamicznych zdolności administracyjnych umożliwiających ich\n\nskuteczną integrację. Przyszłość polityk diaspora engagement leży w dalszym udoskonalaniu tych narzędzi, w szczególności poprzez:\nÒ rozwój cyfrowych platform łączących diasporę z instytucjami badawczymi i sektorem gospodarczym;\nÒ wprowadzenie mechanizmów zintegrowanej ewaluacji, angażujących diasporę w proces monitorowania i oceny programów;\nÒ zwiększenie elastyczności instrumentów finansowych wspierających MŚP oraz zielone innowacje;\nÒ wzmacnianie sieci mentoringowych i inkubacyjnych z aktywnym udziałem ekspertów z diaspory.\nTak skonstruowane podejście umożliwia państwom maksymalizację wartości najbardziej zróżnicowanych zasobów diaspory, przekształcając je w trwałą przewagę konkurencyjną i wzmacniając pozycję kraju w dynamicznie zmieniającym się otoczeniu globalnym.\nTeoria zasobowa pozwala państwom wysyłającym postrzegać diasporę nie tylko jako promotora kultury czy inwestora, lecz także jako złożony system pozyskiwania informacji strategicznych, wspierających państwu wysyłającemu na prognozowanie wielo- i dwustronnych relacji politycznych i gospodarczych.\nJednak praktyczne wykorzystanie tych zasobów wymaga zachowania równowagi między efektywnością a poszanowaniem praw i zasad etycznych, co stanowi jedno z kluczowych wyzwań współczesnych polityk diaspora engagement.\n7.5. Polska w kontekście teorii zarządzania publicznego\nW literaturze poświęconej zarządzaniu publicznemu i politykom migracyjnym\nPolska stanowi interesujący przykład państwa, które przeszło od tradycyjnego modelu biurokratycznego do hybrydowego systemu zarządzania, w którym koncepcja new public management odegrała istotną rolę. NPM, promowana przez Christophera Hooda jako alternatywa dla sztywnego modelu biurokracji, opiera się na rynkowych mechanizmach zarządzania, zwiększonej elastyczności instytucjonalnej, orientacji na rezultaty oraz redukcji kosztów administracyjnych.\nTradycyjna polityka polonijna opierała się w dużym stopniu na wartościach kulturowych, poczuciu obowiązku państwa wobec rodaków za granicą oraz zasadzie legitymizacji obywatelskiej. Kluczową rolę w jej realizacji odgrywał Senat RP, natomiast centralną władzę wykonawczą sprawowały instytucje\n\npaństwowe. Wsparcie kierowano głównie do Polonii pozaeuropejskiej, w szczególności w byłych republikach ZSRR171.\nSytuacja uległa zasadniczej zmianie w latach 2011–2015, kiedy nowa administracja MSZ dostrzegła potrzebę modernizacji polityki wobec diaspor i wprowadziła mechanizmy typowe dla NPM. W obrębie pięciu kluczowych wymiarów NPM – restrukturyzacji, instrumentów zarządczych, reformy budżetowej, partycypacji oraz prywatyzacji/rynkowości – architektura polityki uległa wyraźnej transformacji w kierunku modelu optymalizacji i partnerstwa z NGO172.\n1. Restrukturyzacja instytucjonalna: przesunięcie odpowiedzialności za politykę wobec diaspory z Senatu RP do MSZ, co symbolicznie i praktycznie przekształciło strukturę kompetencyjną i system kontroli finansowania.\n2. Instrumenty zarządcze: wprowadzenie procedur konkursowych dla organizacji polonijnych. Konsulaty i MSZ zaczęły organizować otwarte nabory grantowe, co zwiększyło dostępność finansowania i przyczyniło się do decentralizacji realizacji polityki polonijnej.\n3. Reforma budżetowa: środki przeznaczone na politykę wobec diaspory zaczęto alokować w sposób rynkowy (konkursowy), co zwiększyło konkurencję między podmiotami i efektywność wydatkowania funduszy publicznych.\n4. Partycypacja: diaspora przestała być postrzegana wyłącznie jako beneficjent pomocy państwa; zaczęła pełnić rolę partnera, od którego oczekiwano aktywnego zaangażowania i współodpowiedzialności za realizację wspólnych celów.\n5. Rynkowość i prywatyzacja: polityka wobec diaspory zaczęła funkcjonować w modelu „kontraktu publicznego”, w którym MSZ wyznacza cele strategiczne, a diaspora i NGO realizują działania, konkurując o środki i wpływ.\nWłączenie mechanizmów NPM do polityki publicznej wobec diaspory wpisuje się w szerszy nurt transformacji administracji publicznej w Polsce, postrzeganej jako proces poszukiwania większej wydajności, profesjonalizacji i politycznego dystansu wobec wartości normatywnych. Zgodnie z założeniami\nNPM funkcjonariusze publiczni przekształcają się w „menedżerów sektora publicznego” zorientowanych na wyniki, natomiast obywatele – w „klientów” usług publicznych.\n171 M. Nowosielski, W. Nowak, Polish diaspora policy – directions of changes and fields of constants...\n172 M. Nowosielski, W. Nowak, ‘We Are Not Just Asking What Poland Can Do for the Polish\nDiaspora but Mainly What the Polish Diaspora Can Do for Poland’...\n\nW omawianym przypadku instytucje MSZ, konsulaty oraz Instytuty Polskie zaczęły pełnić rolę agencji wdrożeniowych, natomiast organizacje polonijne stały się podmiotami realizującymi cele państwa. Tego rodzaju transformacja odpowiada logice NPM, choć w warunkach polskich model ten przyjął charakter hybrydowy. Elementy tradycyjnego modelu biurokratycznego – takie jak kultura, język, tożsamość narodowa – wciąż pozostają istotnymi obszarami wsparcia.\nNie oznacza to jednak, że model NPM dominuje w pełni. Polityka państwa polskiego wobec diaspory pozostaje silnie zakorzeniona w legitymacji kulturowej, historycznej i państwowej. Jak p odkreślają Witold Nowak i Michał\nNowosielski, współczesna polityka wobec diaspory ma charakter hybrydowy.\nŁączy ona elementy tradycyjnej polityki opartej na wartościach z instrumentami NPM, tworząc nowy model funkcjonowania państwa wobec społeczności zagranicznych. Istnieje również wymiar rywalizacji instytucjonalnej między\nSenatem RP a MSZ, co nadaje tej transformacji charakter napięć kompetencyjnych i konkurencji o wpływy w obrębie struktur państwowych173.\nZ teoretycznego punktu widzenia Polska stanowi istotny przykład współwystępowania klasycznej teorii biurokracji Maxa Webera z elementami governance i teorii interesariuszy, gdyż wprowadza rynkowe praktyki NPM w ramach hybrydowego systemu zarządzania polityką wobec diaspory.\nPolski model polityki wobec diaspory, kształtowany od lat 2011–2015, stanowi świadomą adaptację zasad NPM, charakteryzującą się większym pragmatyzmem, efektywnością i konkurencyjnością w porównaniu z wcześniejszym podejściem. Transformacja ta obejmuje restrukturyzację instytucjonalną, wprowadzenie mechanizmów grantowych, budżetowanie zadaniowe, decentralizację realizacji polityk oraz uznanie diaspory za aktywnego partnera państwa.\nJednocześnie nadal utrzymuje się komponent wartościowy i biurokratyczny, co potwierdza hybrydowy charakter całego systemu zarządzania polityką wobec diaspory.\nTo połączenie czyni Polskę wartościowym przypadkiem analitycznym w obszarze teorii zarządzania publicznego i polityki wobec diaspory. Stanowi punkt odniesienia dla porównań z innymi krajami takimi jak Indie czy\nIzrael, w których polityka wobec diaspory rozwijała się w odmiennych ramach teoretycznych, opartych na koncepcjach zasobów, network governance czy\n173 W. Nowak, M. Nowosielski, Leadership Struggles and Challenges for Diaspora Policies:\nA Case Study of the Polish Institutional System, „Innovation: The European Journal of\nSocial Science Research” t. 34 nr 1 (2021), DOI: 10.1080/13511610.2019.1594716.\n\ntożsamości. Przypadek Polski ilustruje, w jaki sposób państwo postkomunistyczne potrafi adaptować nowoczesne narzędzia NPM do realizacji polityk kulturowych i społecznych, zachowując jednocześnie legitymację i ciągłość historyczną (ta bela 12).\nTabela 12. Modele współpracy z diasporą. Studia przypadków państw.\nInstytucje ds. Model zarządzania /\nPaństwo Przykłady działań diaspory podejście\nMinisterstwo ds. Hindusów „Pravasi Bharatiya Divas”\nGovernance + teoria\nZa Granicą (od (Dzień diaspory), obligacje zasobowa (wykorzysta-\nIndie 2004 r., obecnie diaspory (India Development nie kapitału finansowew strukturze Bonds), programy powrotu go i ludzkiego diaspory)\nMSZ), komisje talentów parlamentarne\nBiuro ds. Chińczyków za Gra-\nProgram „Thousand Talents”, nicą (Overseas\nModel hybrydowy: biu- wsparcie inwestycji diaspo-\nChiny Chinese Affairs rokracja + governance ry, sieci gospodarcze w Azji\nOffice), sieci\nPołudniowo-Wschodniej uniwersytetów i think tanków\nJewish Agency,\nProgram „Birthright Israel”,\nMinisterstwo ds. Governance + politywsparcie dla nowych imi-\nIzrael Diaspory, insty- ka tożsamości (kultura grantów, globalne sieci tucje kulturowe i religia jako zasób) edukacyjne i edukacyjne\nMinisterstwo\nFora konsultacyjne z diaspods. Diaspory (od Governance + teoria\nIrlandia rą, wsparcie przedsiębiorczo-\n2014 r.), Diaspora interesariuszy ści Irlandczyków za granicą\nPolicy Unit\nBrak centralnej instytucji, Partnerstwa z organizacjami\nKanada silne progra- Sieciowe governance diaspory, granty na kulturę my federalne i integrację i prowincjonalne\n\nInstytucje ds. Model zarządzania /\nPaństwo Przykłady działań diaspory podejście\nSenat RP (opiekun Polonii),\nMSZ – Depar- Karta Polaka, granty dla tament Współ- Biurokracja + governan- Polonii, wsparcie organiza-\nPolska pracy z Polonią, ce (model hybrydowy) cji polonijnych, działalność\nFundacja „Pomoc Instytutów Polskich\nPolakom na\nWschodzie”\nMinisterstwo\nPracy i Zatrud-\nProgramy wsparcia pracownienia, Philip- Governance adaptacyjne\nFilipiny ników za granicą, szybkie pine Overseas + teoria interesariuszy reagowanie konsularne\nEmployment\nAdministration\nBrak centralnej instytucji,\nOrganizacje lobbystyczne silne organi- Sieciowe governance +\nUSA diaspory, programy wsparcia zacje diaspory lobbing polityczny lokalnego\n(np. kubańska, meksykańska)\nNigerian Natio-\nProgramy powrotu, wsparcie nal Diaspora Governance + teoria\nNigeria inwestycji diaspory, mobili-\nCommission (od instytucjonalna zacja polityczna\n2017 r.)\nMinisterstwo ds.\nDiaspory (2008– Programy powrotu, wsparcie\nGovernance + tożsamość\nArmenia 2019; obecnie szkół i organizacji ormiańnarodowa w strukturze skich na świecie\nMSZ)\nŹródło: opracowanie własne na podstawie: A. Gamlen, Diaspora institutions and diaspora governance, „International\nMigration Review” t. 48 (2014), DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/imre.12136; P. Levitt, Roots and Routes: Understanding the Lives of the Second Generation Transnationally, „Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies” t. 35 nr 7 (2009), DOI:\n10.1080/13691830903006309; W. Nowak, M. Nowosielski, Leadership struggles and challenges for diaspora policies:\na case study of the Polish institutional system, „Innovation: The European Journal of Social Science Research” t. 34 nr 1 (2021), DOI: 10.1080/13511610.2019.1594716.\n\nPodsumowanie\nPrzedstawiona analiza teorii zarządzania w kontekście współpracy instytucji państwa z diasporą stanowi syntezę głównych paradygmatów zarządzania publicznego oraz ich praktycznych zastosowań w politykach angażowania diaspory w zróżnicowanych kontekstach międzynarodowych. Analiza czterech głównych podejść – od klasycznego modelu biurokracji Webera, poprzez koncepcję governance i teorię interesariuszy, aż po teorię zasobową – ukazała, że żadna z tych perspektyw nie funkcjonuje w izolacji. Współczesne państwa łączą racjonalno-legalne procedury administracyjne, gwarantujące przejrzystość i standaryzację, z elastycznymi mechanizmami sieciowymi i partycypacyjnymi, które otwierają proces decyzyjny na szersze grono aktorów. Równocześnie teoria zasobowa akcentuje potrzebę mobilizacji unikalnych kapitałów diaspory – finansowego, ludzkiego i społecznego – w realizacji strategicznych celów rozwojowych. To zrównoważenie formalizmu i elastyczności, legalizmu i innowacyjności, biurokracji i partycypacji stanowi istotę skutecznych polityk diaspora engagement.\nW świetle przeprowadzonych analiz potwierdzono pierwszą hipotezę badawczą, zgodnie z którą polityki wobec diaspory w praktyce nie opierają się na jednej spójnej teorii zarządzania publicznego, lecz stanowią hybrydę elementów różnych podejść. Porównanie praktyk Indii, Chin, Izraela, Irlandii,\nKanady, Filipin i Nigerii pokazuje, że instrumenty biurokratyczne funkcjonują równolegle z mechanizmami governance i teorią interesariuszy, natomiast\n\nelementy podejścia zasobowego coraz częściej przesądzają o atrakcyjności i skuteczności działań państwa. Studia przypadków potwierdzają, że skuteczność polityk wobec diaspory zależy od umiejętnej integracji i adaptacji różnych narzędzi zarządzania do specyficznych uwarunkowań historycznych i kulturowych danego kraju.\nDruga hipoteza badawcza, zakładająca, że państwa posiadające liczebne i dobrze zorganizowane diaspory częściej włączają elementy teorii zasobowej, również znajduje potwierdzenie w analizie. Indie i Chiny stanowią przykłady państw, które postrzegają diasporę jako strategiczny kapitał rozwojowy i inwestycyjny. Państwa te emitują obligacje diaspory, realizują programy powrotu talentów i rozwijają globalne sieci przedsiębiorców i innowatorów. Analogiczne wnioski można sformułować w odniesieniu do Izraela, który postrzega diasporę nie tylko jako wspólnotę kulturową, lecz także jako zasób finansowy, ekspercki i polityczny. Analiza tych przypadków wskazuje, że zastosowanie teorii zasobowej w politykach diaspora engagement jest ściśle uzależnione od liczebności i mobilizacyjnego potencjału społeczności emigracyjnych.\nTrzecia hipoteza badawcza, zakładająca, że w państwach o rozwiniętych tradycjach demokratycznych dominują mechanizmy governance i teoria interesariuszy, również znajduje potwierdzenie. Kanada i Irlandia rozwijają inkluzyjne platformy konsultacyjne, włączając diaspory w proces współdecydowania i współodpowiedzialności za kształtowanie polityk publicznych. W tych krajach konsultacje z diasporą nie mają charakteru okazjonalnego, lecz stanowią trwały element instytucjonalny, co wzmacnia legitymizację polityk i podnosi ich trafność. Wskazuje to, że governance nie stanowi jedynie konstruktu teoretycznego, lecz jest praktycznym narzędziem skutecznie adaptowanym w państwach o ugruntowanych tradycjach partycypacyjnych.\nCzwarta hipoteza badawcza, zakładająca, że Polska realizuje hybrydowy model polityki wobec diaspory, znajduje jedynie częściowe potwierdzenie.\nPolska rzeczywiście łączy elementy klasycznego modelu biurokratycznego, opartego na instytucjonalnej roli Senatu RP, MSZ i konsulatów, z mechanizmami new public management i governance. Reformy wprowadzone w latach\n2011–2015, w szczególności logika projektowa i system grantowy dla organizacji pozarządowych, ujawniły przesunięcie w kierunku bardziej otwartego i konkurencyjnego modelu zarządzania. Analiza wskazuje jednak, że potencjał zasobów finansowych i ludzkich polskiej diaspory pozostaje w znacznym stopniu niewykorzystany. Polska diaspora – jedna z największych na świecie\n– nie została dotąd w pełni włączona w programy inwestycyjne, inicjatywy transferu wiedzy ani sieci mentoringowe. Potwierdza to, że polska polityka\n\nwobec diaspory ma charakter hybrydowy, lecz wciąż niedokończony. Model ten ewoluuje w kierunku bardziej otwartego podejścia, pozostając jednak obciążony fragmentaryzacją instytucjonalną i ograniczoną koordynacją działań międzyresortowych.\nPotwierdzenie oraz częściowa weryfikacja hipotez wskazują, że polityki wobec diaspor stanowią proces dynamiczny, w którym czynniki strukturalne\n(takie jak wielkość i stopień organizacji diaspory), kulturowe (związane z tradycjami tożsamościowymi) oraz instytucjonalne (uwarunkowane systemem politycznym i administracyjnym państwa) wzajemnie się uzupełniają i przenikają. Przykłady Indii, Chin i Izraela dowodzą, że teoria zasobowa znajduje największe zastosowanie tam, gdzie diaspora jest liczna, dobrze zorganizowana i dysponuje znacznym potencjałem mobilizacyjnym. Kanada, Irlandia i Filipiny ilustrują praktyczną użyteczność podejścia governance i teorii interesariuszy w budowaniu inkluzyjnych, partycypacyjnych modeli współpracy z diasporą.\nPolska, mimo znacznej liczebności i historycznego znaczenia Polonii, wciąż stoi przed wyzwaniem pełniejszego wykorzystania potencjału swojej diaspory w wymiarze strategicznym i rozwojowym.\nPorównawcze studia przypadków potwierdzają znaczną różnorodność diaspor pod względem wielkości, struktury demograficznej, zasobów ekonomicznych oraz stopnia organizacji. Nie istnieje jeden uniwersalny model współpracy – każde państwo powinno dobierać instrumenty w ścisłym dopasowaniu do specyfiki swoich społeczności emigracyjnych oraz krajowych uwarunkowań instytucjonalnych. Instrumenty finansowe, takie jak obligacje diaspory czy programy matching grants, w jednych przypadkach okazują się skuteczne, w innych natomiast wymagają uzupełnienia o konsultacje społeczne oraz instytucjonalizację partnerstw. Programy transferu wiedzy i mobilności specjalistów przynoszą najlepsze rezultaty w państwach dysponujących rozwiniętą infrastrukturą badawczą i gospodarczą, natomiast ich wdrożenie okazuje się znacznie trudniejsze w krajach rozwijających się.\nPodejście governance wykazuje wysoką skuteczność w państwach, w których istnieją sprzyjające warunki instytucjonalne oraz utrwalone tradycje partycypacyjne, co potwierdza trzecia hipoteza badawcza. Teoria interesariuszy okazała się szczególnie użyteczna w państwach rozwijających się, gdzie organizacje pozarządowe i wspólnoty lokalne pełnią funkcję stabilizatora polityki publicznej. Z kolei klasyczny model biurokratyczny, mimo częstej krytyki za nadmierny formalizm, nadal stanowi fundament działań instytucjonalnych, gwarantując przejrzystość procedur i legalizm decyzji administracyjnych.\n\nWarto podkreślić, że analiza polskiego przypadku wpisuje się w szerszy kontekst hybrydowości polityk wobec diaspor. Polska polityka potwierdza, że samo wdrożenie mechanizmów NPM oraz systemu konkursów grantowych nie jest wystarczające, jeśli nie towarzyszy temu spójna i długofalowa strategia wykorzystania zasobów Polonii. Brak centralnej koordynacji, ograniczona współpraca między instytucjami i niedostateczny poziom cyfryzacji sprawiają, że potencjał diaspory wciąż nie jest w pełni mobilizowany. Potwierdza to, że\nPolska wymaga dalszych usprawnień, by stać się przykładem efektywnego modelu hybrydowego, który w sposób komplementarny łączy zalety biurokracji, governance, teorii interesariuszy i podejścia zasobowego.\nPodsumowując, przeprowadzone analizy potwierdziły większość postawionych hipotez, wskazując, że polityki wobec diaspor mają charakter złożony, wielowymiarowy i opierają się na hybrydowych modelach zarządzania publicznego. Praktyka dowodzi, że skuteczność działań wobec diaspory zależy od integracji formalnych ram biurokratycznych, sieciowych mechanizmów governance, aktywnej partycypacji interesariuszy oraz mobilizacji kapitałów diaspory w duchu teorii zasobowej. W przypadku Polski obserwuje się wyraźne przejście od tradycyjnego modelu biurokratycznego do bardziej otwartego systemu zarządzania, który jednak wciąż wymaga pogłębionej koordynacji, spójnej wizji strategicznej i pełniejszego wykorzystania potencjału Polonii.\nW tym sensie Polska wpisuje się w globalny trend poszukiwania hybrydowych modeli współpracy, stanowiących warunek trwałego zaangażowania diaspor oraz skutecznej realizacji interesów państwa w warunkach nasilonej mobilności międzynarodowej.\n\nRekomendacje dla polskiej polityki wobec diaspory\nPrzedstawione poniżej rekomendacje mają charakter ogólnych propozycji kierunkowych, opartych na analizie teorii zarządzania publicznego oraz porównaniu doświadczeń międzynarodowych. Punktem odniesienia dla rekomendacji są ramy czterech teorii omówionych w monografii, klasycznej biurokracji\nWebera, podejścia governance, teorii interesariuszy i teorii zasobowej, a także specyfika polskiego modelu, który wykazuje cechy hybrydowe. Należy jednak wyraźnie podkreślić, że rekomendacje te zostały opracowane bez przeprowadzenia dogłębnej analizy potrzeb kluczowego interesariusza, jakim jest diaspora. Polonia, rozproszona na kilku kontynentach, charakteryzuje się znacznym zróżnicowaniem pod względem liczebności, struktury demograficznej, motywacji migracyjnych oraz stopnia organizacji instytucjonalnej. W konsekwencji potrzeby poszczególnych społeczności mogą istotnie się różnić, a instrumenty współpracy skuteczne w jednych przypadkach niekoniecznie przynoszą oczekiwane rezultaty w innych. Dlatego proponowane rozwiązania należy traktować jako wstępną mapę drogową, wymagającą dalszego doprecyzowania oraz systematycznej ewaluacji przy aktywnym udziale diaspory w procesie decyzyjnym.\n\nUjednolicenie i wzmocnienie instytucjonalne polityki wobec diaspory\nObecna architektura instytucjonalna w Polsce, w której za sprawy diaspory odpowiadają równolegle Senat RP, Ministerstwo Spraw Zagranicznych oraz liczne fundacje i agencje, cechuje się znaczną fragmentarycznością. Taki model, choć odzwierciedla klasyczną strukturę biurokratyczną, utrudnia skuteczną koordynację działań oraz obniża efektywność wydatkowania środków publicznych. Rekomenduje się powołanie spójnego centrum koordynacyjnego, np.\nmiędzyresortowej agencji ds. Polonii i diaspory, wyposażonej w jasno określone kompetencje, odrębny budżet i zdolność systematycznego monitorowania efektów polityki. Centralizacja nie powinna jednak prowadzić do nadmiernej koncentracji władzy, lecz raczej do stworzenia modelu „jednego okna” dla diaspory, który usprawniłby kontakt z administracją i przyspieszył procedury.\nDobrą praktyką mogłoby być powołanie ciała doradczego złożonego z przedstawicieli Polonii, współuczestniczącego w ustalaniu priorytetów oraz w ocenie realizowanych projektów.\nRozwój mechanizmów governance i partycypacji diaspory\nWłączenie mechanizmów konkursowych do systemu finansowania polityki polonijnej stanowiło pierwszy krok w kierunku logiki new public management. Kolejnym etapem powinno być konsekwentne wdrażanie mechanizmów partycypacyjnych charakterystycznych dla podejścia governance. Oznacza to m.in. regularne organizowanie forów konsultacyjnych z przedstawicielami\nPolonii w różnych częściach świata, wykorzystanie narzędzi cyfrowych do prowadzenia dialogu wielostronnego oraz włączanie diaspory w proces planowania polityk migracyjnych, kulturalnych i gospodarczych. Rekomenduje się również wprowadzenie mechanizmów ewaluacji partycypacyjnej w których, przedstawiciele diaspory współuczestniczyliby w ocenie skuteczności realizowanych programów. Dobrą praktyką mogłoby być utworzenie cyfrowej platformy konsultacyjnej, umożliwiającej obywatelom polskiego pochodzenia składanie wniosków, sugestii i uwag w czasie rzeczywistym.\n\nSystematyczne mapowanie i włączanie interesariuszy\nZ perspektywy teorii interesariuszy kluczowe znaczenie ma precyzyjna identyfikacja grup zaangażowanych w realizację polityki wobec diaspory – zarówno w kraju, jak i za granicą. Oprócz organizacji polonijnych i instytucji państwowych, istotnymi aktorami są NGO, samorządy lokalne, uniwersytety, szkoły sobotnie, media polonijne czy instytucje kultury. Rekomenduje się opracowanie „mapy interesariuszy” dla kluczowych obszarów działań, co pozwoliłoby na lepsze rozpoznanie ich potrzeb, zasobów i potencjału współpracy. Co istotne, należy zapewnić równowagę w reprezentacji interesariuszy tak, aby silne i dobrze zorganizowane podmioty nie monopolizowały przestrzeni decyzyjnej, a mniejsze organizacje uzyskały odpowiednie wsparcie instytucjonalne i finansowe. Wprowadzenie regularnych raportów dotyczących stanu interesariuszy i ich aktywności umożliwiłoby państwu monitorowanie dynamiki środowisk polonijnych i elastyczne dostosowywanie instrumentów wsparcia do zmieniających się potrzeb.\nMobilizacja zasobów finansowych i ludzkich diaspory\nPolska diaspora w wielu przypadkach dysponuje znacznym kapitałem finansowym, ludzkim i społecznym, który dotychczas nie został w pełni wykorzystany. Inspirację mogą stanowić instrumenty stosowane w Indiach i Izraelu, takie jak obligacje diaspory czy fundusze inwestycyjne wspierające MŚP.\nRekomenduje się rozważenie emisji obligacji polonijnych, z których środki mogłyby być przeznaczane na finansowanie projektów infrastrukturalnych oraz badawczo-rozwojowych. Konieczne jest również tworzenie programów przyciągających talenty, np. grantów powrotowych dla naukowców, lekarzy i innych deficytowych w Polsce grup zawodowych – które zachęcałyby do krótkoterminowego lub stałego powrotu do kraju. Istotnym elementem powinno być również rozwijanie sieci mentoringowych, w których doświadczeni Polacy z zagranicy mogliby pełnić rolę doradców i mentorów dla młodych przedsiębiorców czy badaczy w Polsce.\n\nCyfryzacja usług i rozwój e-governance dla diaspory\nRozwój zintegrowanej platformy cyfrowej „Polonia Online”, łączącej usługi konsularne, edukacyjne, kulturalne i biznesowe wydaje się być szczególnie uzasadniony w obliczu wyzwań globalizacji i postępującej cyfryzacji. Platforma powinna umożliwiać m.in. składanie wniosków konsularnych, dostęp do cyfrowych zasobów kultury, udział w konsultacjach publicznych oraz integrację z sieciami zawodowymi Polaków mieszkających za granicą. Zastosowanie rozwiązań e-governance umożliwiłoby bieżące monitorowanie potrzeb diaspory i szybką reakcję na pojawiające się kryzysy. Cyfryzacja usług publicznych zwiększa przejrzystość procesów, ogranicza koszty administracyjne i ułatwia dostęp do informacji, zwłaszcza mniej zorganizowanym segmentom Polonii.\nWzmocnienie wymiaru kulturalno-tożsamościowego\nRekomenduje się zwiększenie wsparcia dla szkół polonijnych, instytutów kultury i mediów polonijnych, a także rozwijanie programów integrujących kulturę z nowymi technologiami, takimi jak cyfrowe archiwa czy aplikacje edukacyjne. Warto również rozważyć silniejsze zaangażowanie diaspory w promocję Polski za granicą, poprzez organizację wydarzeń kulturalnych, festiwali oraz rozwijanie sieci ambasadorów marki narodowej. Tego typu inicjatywy nie tylko wzmacniają więzi tożsamościowe wśród Polonii, lecz także przyczyniają się do budowania pozytywnego wizerunku Polski na arenie międzynarodowej.\nPodsumowanie rekomendacji\nPolska polityka wobec diaspory znajduje się obecnie na etapie przejściowym, między klasycznym modelem biurokratycznym a hybrydowym systemem, który integruje elementy NPM, podejścia governance i teorii interesariuszy.\nPrzedstawione rekomendacje wskazują sześć kluczowych kierunków działań:\nujednolicenie struktury instytucjonalnej, rozwój mechanizmów partycypacyjnych, systematyczne mapowanie interesariuszy, mobilizację zasobów finansowych i ludzkich, cyfryzację usług publicznych oraz wzmocnienie wymiaru kulturowego polityki wobec diaspory. Każdy z tych obszarów wymaga pogłębionej diagnozy potrzeb poszczególnych segmentów Polonii, gdyż diaspora stanowi zjawisko wewnętrznie zróżnicowane pod względem struktury, motywacji\n\ni poziomu organizacji. 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University of\nPlymouth, DOI: 10.24382/1258\n\n[445] Zvoushe H., Towards Effective Diaspora Engagement Policies in Africa Lessons in\nPolicy Design, [w:] The Diasporean II Perspectives from Beyond Southern Africa,\nAlternation 2024.\n[446] Żak-Skwierczyńska M., Bariery we współpracy jednostek samorządu terytorialnego miejskich obszarów funkcjonalnych: przykład województwa łódzkiego, Łódź\n2018.\n\nNota biograficzna\nÒ dr inż. Tadeusz Zienkiewicz, ORCID: 0000-0002-6941-6309, Politechnika\nLubelska, Wydział Zarządzania, Katedra Finansów i Rachunkowości, adiunkt. Dyplomata gospodarczy.\nÒ mgr Konrad Zienkiewicz, ORCID: 0009-0002-6133-5966, Fundacja Instytut Bałkański. Absolwent: a) Wyższej Szkoły Stosunków Międzynarodowych i Amerykanistyki, licencjat, kierunek Politologia; b) Uniwersytetu\nMarii Curie-Skłodowskiej w Lublinie, licencjat, kierunek Stosunki Międzynarodowe; c) Wyższej Szkoły Menedżerskiej w Warszawie, kierunek\nZarządzanie.", "token_count": 323100} -{"added": "2026-09-08", "author": "Weinper, Katarzyna", "created": "2025", "id": "rock_pollub_pl_903f22e1-a2ab-4231-a402-2bc9535c12f2", "license": "CC-BY-SA-4.0", "source": "rock_pollub_pl", "text": "Wyzwania współczesnego publikowania\nChallenges of Contemporary\nPublishing\nRedakcja / Edited by\nKatarzyna Weinper\nLublin 2025\n\nRecenzenci / Reviewers:\nProfessor Anita Has-Tokarz, Maria Curie-Skłodowska University in Lublin\nProfessor Rafał Moczkodan, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń\nRedaktor naukowy / Editor:\nKatarzyna Weinper, PhD, ORCID: 0000-0002-1872-9006\nLublin University of Technology\nROR https://ror.org/024zjzd49\nRedaktor prowadzący / managing editor:\nKarolina Famulska-Ciesielska\nKorekta / proofreading:\nMagdalena Chołojczyk, Monika Szarama, Karolina Famulska-Ciesielska\nTłumaczenie na j. angielski / translation into English:\nPaweł Chrapowicki (Introduction, chapters 2–4, 6–8, 10 & 11)\nTłumaczenie na j. polski / translation into Polish:\nKarolina Famulska-Ciesielska (chapters 5 & 9)\nProjekt graficzny, skład i łamanie / Graphic design, typesetting and DTP:\nŁukasz Maj\nISBN (printed version) 978-83-7947-651-0\nISBN (digital version) 978-83-7947-652-7\nDOI: 10.35784/9788379476527\nPublikacja wydana za zgodą Rektora Politechniki Lubelskiej /\nPublished with the approval of Rector of Lublin University of Technology\nWydawca / Publisher:\nWydawnictwo Politechniki Lubelskiej\nUl. Nadbystrzycka 36C, 20-618 Lublin www.wpl.pollub.pl\nThe book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike License 4.0\n(CC BY-SA 4.0).\nNakład/Imprint: 30 egz./copies\n\nRada Naukowa Wydawnictwa Politechniki Lubelskiej /\nScientific Council of the Lublin University of Technology Publishing House\nPrzewodnicząca / Head of the Scientific Council:\nAgnieszka Rzepka\nDyrektor Centrum Informacji Naukowo-Technicznej /\nDirector of the Center of Scientific and Technical Information:\nKatarzyna Weinper\nPrzedstawiciele dyscyplin naukowych / Representatives of scientific disciplines:\nMarzenna Dudzińska\nMałgorzata Franus\nArkadiusz Gola\nBeata Kowalska\nGrzegorz Komarzyniec\nJarosław Latalski\nTomasz Lipecki\nZbigniew Łagodowski\nLucjan Pawłowski\nNatalia Przesmycka\nHalina Rarot\nMagdalena Rzemieniak\nArkadiusz Syta\nWydawnictwo Politechniki Lubelskiej / Lublin University of Technology Publishing House:\nMagdalena Chołojczyk\nKarolina Famulska-Ciesielska\nKatarzyna Pełka-Smętek\n\nSpis treści\nWstęp 11\nRola wydawnictwa uczelnianego w procesie tworzenia i publikowania czasopism naukowych 15\nBeata Jankowiak-Konik\nBiblioteka – wydawca czy koordynator? Podsumowanie pięciu lat działalności Platformy czasopism Uniwersytetu Opolskiego 23\nDorota Wierzbicka-Próchniak, Danuta Szewczyk-Kłos\nDziałania projakościowe w strategii rozwoju czasopism UAM realizowane poprzez Platformę PRESSto 35\nAleksandra Szulc, Małgorzata Adamczak, Agnieszka Wiktor-Sass, Blanka Mrowicka\nWyjść cało z tradycji. Zagadnienia Rodzajów Literackich jako nowoczesne czasopismo naukowe 51\nAnna Zatora\nProblemy czasopism publikujących online 67\nJesper Boserup Thestrup\nOpłaty w polskich czasopismach open access 77\nAneta Drabek\nCzy bibliotece naukowej przeszkadza brak polityki otwartości?\nPrzypadek Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego 91\nAnna Zatora\nDroga do zmiany poziomu otwartości dorobku naukowego\nPolitechniki Lubelskiej – obraz ostatnich sześciu lat 107\nMonika Szarama, Łukasz Tomczak\n\nPorównanie schematów działania w procesach publikowania bibliotecznego w różnych modelach otwartego dostępu – praktyki Bibliotek Uniwersytetu Nebraski w Lincoln 123\nSue Ann Gardner\nJak pomóc sobie i autorom – zestaw dobrych praktyk eliminujących nieświadome łamanie prawa 137\nJoanna Błasiok, Kamila Kokot-Kanikuła\nMonografie w otwartym dostępie: jakich modeli i narzędzi publikowania potrzebujemy? 157\nMarta Świetlik, Magdalena Wnuk\n\nTable of Contents\nIntroduction 173\nRole of a University Publisher in the Process of Creating and Publishing the Scientific Journals 177\nBeata Jankowiak-Konik\nLibrary – Publisher or Coordinator? Summary of Five Years of the University of Opole Journals Platform Activity 185\nDorota Wierzbicka-Próchniak, Danuta Szewczyk-Kłos\nQuality-focused Activities and Tasks in the Strategy for the Development of AMU Journals Published on the PRESSto 197\nAleksandra Szulc, Małgorzata Adamczak, Agnieszka Wiktor-Sass, Blanka Mrowicka\nEvolving from Tradition: The Problems of Literary Genres as a Contemporary Scholarly Journal 215\nAnna Zatora\nProblems That Journals Have When They Publish Online 229\nJesper Boserup Thestrup\nFees in Polish Open Access Journals 237\nAneta Drabek\nDoes a Lack of an Openness Policy Hamper the Academic Library?\nThe Case of the University of Lodz 251\nAnna Zatora\nThe Journey of Changing LUT’s Scholarly Output Openness – an Image of the Last Six Years 267\nMonika Szarama, Łukasz Tomczak\n\nComparison of Library Publishing Workflows by Open Access Model as Practiced in the University of Nebraska–Lincoln Libraries 281\nSue Ann Gardner\nHow to Help Yourself and Authors – a Set of Good Practices to Eliminate Unconscious Infringement 293\nJoanna Błasiok, Kamila Kokot-Kanikuła\nOpen Access Monographs:\nAn Exploration of Publishing Models and Necessary Tools 311\nMarta Świetlik, Magdalena Wnuk\n\nWyzwania współczesnego publikowania\n\nWstęp\nKonferencja „Wyzwania współczesnego publikowania” organizowana przez Centrum Informacji Naukowo-Technicznej Politechniki Lubelskiej odbyła się w Lublinie w dniach 25–26 maja 2023 roku. Była spotkaniem skupiającym środowisko akademickie zainteresowane zagadnieniami publikowania naukowego. Uczestniczyli w niej wydawcy, redaktorzy czasopism, bibliotekarze oraz autorzy prac naukowych. Wydarzenie stało się miejscem do dyskusji dla przedstawicieli różnych dziedzin i obszarów publikowania, zarówno tradycyjnego, jak i otwartego, wykorzystującego dostępne, nowoczesne narzędzia, m.in platformy publikacyjne typu Open Journal Systems, Open Monograph\nPress, a także autorskie rozwiązania.\nPotrzeba dyskusji na tematy związane z wykorzystywaniem platform wydawniczych, dobrych praktyk, współpracy między redakcjami, wydawcami a bibliotekami, czy też nowymi modelami publikacyjnymi, pojawiła się jeszcze przed pandemią COVID-19, kiedy Ministerstwo Nauki i Szkolnictwa Wyższego ogłosiło program wsparcia czasopism krajowych w celu podniesienia standardów wydawniczych i edytorskich. Program przewidywał wdrożenie dobrych praktyk publikacyjnych umożliwiających podniesienie standardów oraz zaistnienie w międzynarodowym obiegu naukowym. Redakcje czasopism naukowych podjęły wówczas działania dążące do zwiększenia widoczności artykułów poprzez zgłaszanie ich do baz indeksujących krajowych, a następnie ogólnoświatowych.\nDla wielu redakcji był to czas wzmożonej pracy poświęconej rozpoznawaniu narzędzi ułatwiających publikowanie artykułów w wersji elektronicznej, często na otwartych licencjach, a także przenoszenia kontaktów z recenzentami i procesu recenzji na platformy wydawnicze. W przypadku czasopism naukowych związanych z uczelniami w działania wydawnicze nierzadko włączane były biblioteki akademickie, które z uwagi na dynamiczne procesy technologiczne, mające miejsce w ich środowisku, znały narzędzia oraz mechanizmy zwiększania widoczności naukowca i jego dorobku.\nArtykuły zebrane w tomie, który mają Państwo w swoich rękach, są pokłosiem wygłoszonych referatów, dyskusji i sesji posterowej, która miała miejsce podczas konferencji. Teksty nie są odzwierciedleniem wystąpień konferencyjnych, dlatego też ich tytuły oraz układ w tomie nie przekładają się na program konferencji. Zaproponowany układ rozdziałów ma na celu przybliżenie czytelnikowi szerokiego zestawu zagadnień od bardziej ogólnych, przedstawiających sytuację wydawnictw w ujęciu systemowym, po przedstawienie jednostkowych doświadczeń wybranych czasopism naukowych.\nPublikacja została przygotowana w języku polskim oraz w języku angielskim. Jej dwujęzyczność wynika z potrzeby dotarcia do szerszego grona odbiorców niż polscy\n\nczytelnicy. Fakt ten może znacząco przysłużyć się rozszerzeniu dyskursu dotyczącego polskich wydawnictw uczelnianych, a co za tym idzie – nawiązaniu współpracy i wypracowaniu rozwiązań systemowych.\nWśród zaproszonych gości zagranicznych byli bibliotekarze z wieloletnim doświadczeniem w prowadzeniu czasopism oraz długotrwałym archiwizowaniu, zarówno na platformach wydawniczych, jak i w repozytoriach cyfrowych. Ich artykuły przygotowane na podstawie referatów również weszły w skład tomu tak, aby nakreślić szerszy kontekst dla problemów poruszanych w monografii.\nTom otwiera artykuł Rola wydawnictwa uczelnianego w procesie tworzenia i publikowania czasopism naukowych autorstwa Beaty Jankowiak-Konik, który pokazuje rolę wydawnictw akademickich w systemie kształcenia w Polsce oraz miejsce wydawnictwa w strukturze uczelni. Autorka zwraca uwagę przede wszystkim na różne modele współpracy pomiędzy wydawcą a redakcją czasopisma uczelnianego. Jej obserwacje prowadzą do wyróżnienia trzech podstawowych modeli współpracy. Pierwszy z nich polega na prowadzeniu pełnego procesu publikacyjnego w ścisłej współpracy z redakcją odpowiadającą za zawartość merytoryczną i proces recenzyjny. W drugim modelu wydawnictwo zapewnia jedynie wsparcie techniczne w zakresie publikowania, natomiast trzeci model to sytuacja, w której redakcja działa niezależnie od wydawnictwa uczelnianego i samodzielnie koordynuje proces publikacyjny. Przykład Wydawnictwa Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego pokazuje, w jakich obszarach wydawca uczelniany może zwiększyć potencjał czasopism naukowych przez profesjonalizację procesów publikacyjnych.\nKolejny tekst: Biblioteka – wydawca czy koordynator? Podsumowanie pięciu lat działalności Platformy czasopism Uniwersytetu Opolskiego, autorstwa Doroty Wierzbickiej-\n-Próchniak i Danuty Szewczyk-Kłos, pokazuje powiązanie działalności wydawniczej z działalnością biblioteczną. Biblioteka Uniwersytetu Opolskiego podjęła się zarządzania platformą czasopism wydawanych przez uczelnię, wchodząc w rolę wydawcy. Instytucja ta nie jest przypadkiem odosobnionym. Zarządzanie platformami wydawniczymi przez biblioteki we współpracy z redakcjami czasopism stało się popularne w momencie udzielenia redakcjom wsparcia ze strony ministerstwa. Jest to już sprawdzony i przynoszący wiele korzyści model, z uwagi na zapewnienie przez bibliotekarzy spójności metadanych dla każdego artykułu, co podnosi jakość publikowanych materiałów.\nO działaniach projakościowych w strategii rozwoju czasopism traktuje kolejny artykuł. Zespół autorski prowadzący platformę PRESSto na Uniwersytecie Adama Mickiewicza w Poznaniu przedstawia nie tylko uwarunkowania, jakie miały wpływ na umieszczenie platformy czasopism przy bibliotece akademickiej, ale przede wszystkim strategię rozwoju czasopism. Prezentowane w artykule dobre praktyki są rezultatem wniosków wypływających m.in. z przeprowadzanych audytów oraz innych analiz, choćby tych na\n\npoziomie jednostkowych artykułów. Widać, iż zespół PRESSto jest świadomy dynamiki zmian, zarówno w obszarze technologicznym, jak i prawnym, społecznym oraz ekonomicznym. Zaprezentowane w artykule doświadczenia mogą być wskazówką, jak działać na rzecz rozwoju czasopism.\nNastępny tekst – Wyjść cało z tradycji. „Zagadnienia Rodzajów Literackich” jako nowoczesne czasopismo naukowe Anny Zatory, przedstawia rozwój czasopisma z perspektywy redakcji w pełnym modelu współpracy z wydawcami i biblioteką. Autorka w zajmujący sposób przedstawia 65-letnią drogę czasopisma, które umiało dostosować się do zmieniających się uwarunkowań świata nauki, przechodząc od tradycyjnego modelu wydawania wersji drukowanej do cyfrowej postaci dokumentu opatrzonego jednostkowymi identyfikatorami. Dzięki temu spełnia standardy otwartej nauki, zachowując swój pierwotny charakter.\nProblematykę kontynuuje tekst Jespera Boserupa Thestrupa Problemy czasopism publikujących online. Prezentuje on szersze spojrzenie na problematykę zarządzania czasopismami na platformie. Autor od kilkunastu lat pod auspicjami Duńskiej Biblioteki Królewskiej współtworzy platformę do publikowania i archiwizowania czasopism.\nTidsskrift.dk ma długą historię, a skala projektu jest wyjątkowa i może stanowić wzór dla tych, którzy nie mają jeszcze kompleksowych rozwiązań. Tym, co zwraca uwagę, jest dbałość o zapewnienie trwałości dla czasopism już zamkniętych, obok tych, które nadal są wydawane. Artykuł przybliża wielość problemów – zwłaszcza prawnych i technicznych, z którymi mierzą się redaktorzy, wydawcy oraz administratorzy platformy.\nSytuację polskiego rynku czasopism open access analizuje w swoim artykule Opłaty w polskich czasopismach open access Aneta Drabek. Autorka przeprowadziła wnikliwe badania czasopism z uwzględnieniem stosowanych typów licencji, przypisania do dziedziny i dyscypliny, a także uwarunkowań finansowych. Obraz sytuacji otwartych polskich czasopism, który wyłania się z tekstu, wskazuje na ugruntowaną i silną pozycję publikacji w otwartym dostępie na krajowym rynku wydawniczym.\nDrugim w tym tomie artykułem autorstwa Anny Zatory jest Czy bibliotece naukowej przeszkadza brak polityki otwartości? Przypadek Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego. Tekst przedstawia zakres wsparcia biblioteki naukowej udzielanego społeczności akademickiej Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego w zakresie promocji i zwiększania widoczności dorobku naukowego, a także monitorowania rynku wydawniczego – w tym sprawowania pieczy nad umowami autorskimi, i przede wszystkim pomocy w pozyskiwaniu środków na finansowanie otwartego dostępu. Przykład Biblioteki UŁ dowodzi, że brak instytucjonalnej polityki otwartości nie musi oznaczać rezygnacji z realizacji jej założeń.\nArtykuł Łukasza Tomczaka i Moniki Szaramy Droga do zmiany poziomu otwartości dorobku naukowego Politechniki Lubelskiej – obraz ostatnich sześciu lat kontynuuje\n\ntematykę strategii publikowania otwartego w uczelni. Wykazano w nim, że w środowisku naukowym świadomość roli otwartego dostępu wyraźnie wzrasta, co pokazują podane w artykule dane liczbowe. Analiza została przeprowadzona za pomocą narzędzi SciVal oraz InCite. W podsumowaniu autorzy sformułowali zalecenia dotyczące dalszych działań na polu popularyzacji otwartego publikowania.\nDoświadczenie Sue Ann Gardner z Uniwersytetu Nebraska-Lincoln pokazuje dodatkową perspektywę, w której biblioteka akademicka pełni rolę wydawcy. Procesy związane z działalnością publikacyjną rozumiane są szerzej – umieszczanie tekstów w repozytoriach instytucjonalnych i realizowanie „zielonej drogi” dostępu jest częstą formą działalności wydawniczej bibliotek. W artykule autorka analizuje formy otwartego dostępu, podaje przykłady z własnej praktyki oraz podkreśla rolę bibliotekarzy we wspieraniu wyboru miejsca publikowania i odpowiednich licencji.\nTemat ten podejmują także Joanna Błasiok i Kamila Kokot-Kanikuła, przedstawiając dobre praktyki publikowania w „zielonym dostępie”. Tekst zawiera cenne wskazówki dla autorów, redaktorów i bibliotekarzy zaangażowanych w procesy wydawnicze. Artykuł dopełnia obraz naszkicowany przez Sue Ann Gardner, która także rozumie wagę i znaczenie repozytoriów instytucjonalnych.\nMniej dyskutowanym, a równie istotnym zagadnieniem jest zapewnienie otwartego dostępu do monografii naukowych. O ile open access przyjęty jest w środowisku wydawców czasopism naukowych, o tyle nadal stanowi rzadkość wśród uczelnianych wydawców książek, zwłaszcza z zakresu nauk humanistycznych. Autorki Marta Świetlik i Magdalena Wnuk w artykule Monografie w otwartym dostępie: jakich modeli i narzędzi potrzebujemy? przedstawiają na podstawie przeprowadzonych badań sytuację rynku wydawniczego monografii z zakresu humanistyki. Wskazują na wciąż silną pozycję książki drukowanej, co nie sprzyja budowaniu infrastruktury dla otwartej humanistyki. Zwracają tym samym uwagę na fakt nieobecności tych publikacji w zagranicznych bazach indeksujących, a co za tym idzie w międzynarodowym obiegu naukowym.\nZarysowana w publikacji perspektywa jest tylko wycinkiem tematycznym wyzwań, przed jakimi stoi środowisko wydawców naukowych. Bez wątpienia wielu redaktorów, wydawców i bibliotekarzy odnajdzie tu wskazówki, które pomogą ulepszać pracę codzienną i pomogą wytyczyć drogę dla dalszego rozwoju wydawnictwa czy redakcji.\nWyrażamy nadzieję, że monografia pokonferencyjna przybliży obecną perspektywę wydawnictw naukowych i pozwoli wyznaczyć strategię otwartego publikowania z uwzględnieniem rozwiązań infrastrukturalnych, prawnych i finansowych. Należy pamiętać, że otwarte publikowanie jest tylko częścią otwartej nauki, jednak bez niego otwarta komunikacja i edukacja nie będzie miała miejsca.\nKatarzyna Weinper\n\nBeata Jankowiak-Konik\nORCID: 0009-0002-6362-8631\nUniwersytet Warszawski\nROR: https://ror.org/039bjqg32\nRola wydawnictwa uczelnianego w procesie tworzenia i publikowania czasopism naukowych\nAbstrakt: Wydawnictwa uczelniane zajmują szczególną pozycję w polskim systemie szkolnictwa wyższego. Jako jednostki organizacyjne uczelni, osadzone w ich strukturze, są powoływane przede wszystkim w celu publikowania prac naukowych powstających w macierzystych instytucjach. Choć ich działalność ma charakter misyjny, często oczekuje się od nich również osiągania wyników komercyjnych. Co więcej, na różnych uczelniach podstawy prawne i finansowe funkcjonowania wydawnictw akademickich mogą być bardzo różne, co wpływa na możliwości ich działania. W niniejszym artykule na przykładzie relacji Wydawnictw Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego z redakcjami czasopism uniwersyteckich przedstawiono model współpracy, w którym wydawca jest swego rodzaju tutorem czy też przewodnikiem dla redaktorów czasopism, nie tylko w zakresie samego procesu wydawniczego, lecz także aspektów administracyjno-prawnych, innowacji technologicznych i kwestii promocyjnych. Omówiono również niektóre problemy, z jakimi boryka się wydawca akademicki podczas współpracy z redakcjami czasopism.\nSłowa kluczowe: czasopisma naukowe, wydawnictwa uczelniane, publikacje naukowe, proces wydawniczy\nWydawnictwo uczelniane – warunki funkcjonowania\nWśród wydawców, którzy specjalizują się w publikowaniu naukowym, szczególną grupę stanowią wydawnictwa uczelniane. Ich specyficzne usytuowanie w krajowym systemie wydawniczym znacząco wpływa na sposób funkcjonowania. Dlatego też należy scharakteryzować tego rodzaju wydawnictwa bardziej szczegółowo.\nPrzede wszystkim, wydawca uczelniany funkcjonuje jako jednostka w strukturze uczelni wyższej, ze wszystkimi konsekwencjami tego faktu. Jego zadaniem jest przede\n\nwszystkim publikowanie prac naukowych autorstwa badaczy zatrudnionych na macierzystej uczelni, co w pewnym stopniu ogranicza swobodę prowadzenia polityki wydawniczej.\nInną interesującą kwestią jest stosunek władz uczelni do swojego wydawnictwa. Z jednej strony traktują one publikowanie prac naukowych jako pewnego rodzaju misję, z drugiej strony często oczekują od wydawcy również wyników komercyjnych. W codziennej praktyce wydawcy uczelnianego dość trudno jest pogodzić te sprzeczne oczekiwania.\nPonadto również oficjalna polityka państwa wobec nauki wpływa na działalność czasopism naukowych, a co za tym idzie – na proces publikacyjny i wszelkie działania wydawców. Dobrym przykładem jest tutaj Ustawa z dnia 20 lipca 2018 r. – Prawo o szkolnictwie wyższym i nauce. Wprowadziła ona system punktacji, który wywarł duży wpływ na funkcjonowanie wydawnictw naukowych (Drabek i Bemke-Świtilnik,\n2020; Żukowski, 2021).\nTak naprawdę nie istnieje jeden model wydawnictwa uczelnianego; nie miejsce tu, aby rozwijać ten temat, jednak na różnych uczelniach podstawy prawne i finansowe funkcjonowania jednostek wydawniczych mogą być znacząco inne, co bezpośrednio wpływa na możliwości ich działania.\nWszystkie wymienione uwarunkowania mają znaczenie dla procesu wydawniczego, w tym dla publikowania czasopism naukowych.\nWspółpraca czasopisma naukowego z wydawnictwem\nZapewnienie najwyższego poziomu zarówno w zakresie treści, jak i opracowania edytorskiego jest wspólnym zadaniem wydawcy czasopisma i jego zespołu redakcyjnego.\nCharakter współpracy między tymi stronami ma kluczowy wpływ na jakość czasopisma.\nNajbardziej rozpowszechnione modele współpracy\nIstnieją trzy podstawowe modele współpracy między wydawnictwem uczelnianym a redakcją czasopisma naukowego (por. tab. 1). Mogą się one różnić w szczegółach, jednak generalnie wyglądają podobnie w przypadku różnych wydawców uczelnianych.\nTabela 1. M odele współpracy między wydawcą a czasopismem naukowym\nEtapy procesu Model 1: Model 2: Model 3:\nwydawniczego Pełny proces Tylko wsparcie Brak współpracy w czasopiśmie wydawniczy techniczne\nWybór tekstów Redakcja Redakcja Redakcja\nRecenzje Redakcja Redakcja Redakcja\nWsparcie prawne Wydawca Redakcja Redakcja\n\nEtapy procesu Model 1: Model 2: Model 3:\nwydawniczego Pełny proces Tylko wsparcie Brak współpracy w czasopiśmie wydawniczy techniczne\nRedakcja, korekty Wydawca Redakcja Redakcja\nProjekt graficzny, Wydawca Wydawca Redakcja skład\nDruk Wydawca Wydawca Redakcja\nPromocja Wydawca Redakcja Wydawca Redakcja i dystrybucja\nŹródło: opracowanie własne.\nCzasopisma naukowe w Wydawnictwach Uniwersytetu\nWarszawskiego (WUW)\nNa niektórych uczelniach wyższych wszystkie czasopisma naukowe są wydawane przez wydawnictwo uczelniane, na innych nie ma takiego obowiązku. Na Uniwersytecie Warszawskim jest zarejestrowanych około stu czasopism, jednak nie wszystkie ukazują się regularnie, więc rzeczywista liczba aktywnych czasopism pozostaje niższa. Z różnych powodów, w tym ze względu na historyczne zaszłości lub osobiste powiązania, niektóre czasopisma są wydawane przez zewnętrznych wydawców lub przez same wydziały.\nW WUW z reguły przyjmujemy do publikacji tylko czasopisma, które możemy przeprowadzić przez cały proces wydawniczy.\nTabela 2. Czasopisma wydawane w WUW – podział na dyscypliny naukowe\nWydział / Inna jednostka UW Czasopismo\nWydział Polonistyki Przegląd Humanistyczny\nWiek Oświecenia\nPrace Filologiczne\nPrace Filologiczne. Literaturoznawstwo\nWydział Lingwistyki Stosowanej Studia Polsko-Ukraińskie\nStudia Ucrainica Varsoviensia\nStudia Interkulturowe Europy Środkowo-Wschodniej\nActa Albaruthenica\nJęzyk Białoruski jako Obcy\nWydział Orientalistyczny Studies in African Languages and Cultures\n\nWydział / Inna jednostka UW Czasopismo\nWydział Prawa Studia Iuridica\nYearbook of Agricultural and Food Law\nWydział Archeologii Światowit\nWydział Nauk o Kulturze i Sztuce Ikonotheka\nWydział Historii Przegląd Historyczny\nWydział Nauk Politycznych i Studiów Przegląd Europejski\nMiędzynarodowych\nWydział Pedagogiczny Kwartalnik Pedagogiczny\nCentrum Archeologii Polish Archaeology in the Mediterranean\nŚródziemnomorskiej\nWydział „Artes Liberales” Anuario Histórico Ibérico\nŹródło: opracowanie własne.\nObecnie wydajemy czasopisma z zakresu nauk humanistycznych i społecznych w różnych językach: polskim, angielskim, niemieckim, ukraińskim, rosyjskim, hiszpańskim i portugalskim. Mamy pod opieką 19 czasopism, głównie redagowanych przez naukowców z wydziałów filologicznych (por. tab. 2). Jednak liczba ta stale rośnie. Ostatnio obserwujemy rosnące zainteresowanie współpracą ze strony różnych redakcji. Są dwa główne powody tego zainteresowania. Po pierwsze, już istniejące czasopisma, które dotąd były wydawane przez redakcje samodzielnie (por. Model 3, tab. 1), chcą profesjonalizować proces wydawniczy. Ich redaktorzy pragną zatem skorzystać z know-how wydawcy i to nie tylko w zakresie samego procesu, lecz także np. w odniesieniu do przepisów prawnych i wymogów ministerialnych, praktyk antyplagiatowych czy warunków aplikowania do baz międzynarodowych. Po drugie, jeśli jakaś jednostka naukowa Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego rozważa założenie nowego czasopisma, jego przyszli redaktorzy poszukują profesjonalnej pomocy w różnych aspektach, począwszy od kwestii formalnej rejestracji, poprzez wybór rady naukowej, aż po praktyczną organizację całego procesu redakcyjnego.\nRóżnorakie role wydawnictwa uczelnianego\nWydawca jest nie tylko strażnikiem procesu wydawniczego, który dba o jego sprawny i terminowy przebieg, jak również zapewnia wsparcie w zakresie redakcji, składu i druku. Rolę wydawcy należy postrzegać znacznie szerzej, również jako:\n■ źródło wiedzy,\n■ autorytet i edukatora,\n■ przewodnika i innowatora.\n\nŹródło wiedzy\nWydawnictwa uczelniane mają bogate doświadczenie we wszystkich aspektach procesu wydawniczego. Członkowie redakcji zazwyczaj nie dysponują taką wiedzą. Zasadniczo ich głównym zadaniem jest dbanie o zawartość merytoryczną czasopisma, o jego odpowiedni poziom naukowy. W innych sprawach polegają na wydawcy, na przykład w kwestiach administracyjnych i prawnych, w tym dotyczących zasad rejestracji czasopism, stosowania prawa autorskiego w codziennej działalności czy wymogów obowiązujących przepisów krajowych. Wydawca może również udzielać praktycznych porad co do właściwej struktury czasopisma, roli takich elementów jak abstrakt, słowa kluczowe i bibliografia załącznikowa, organizacji pracy czasopisma, procesu recenzowania, składu rady naukowej itp. Wydawca zazwyczaj odpowiada również za nadawanie numerów DOI i korzystanie z systemów antyplagiatowych, a także instruuje członków redakcji co do wymagań i warunków składania wniosków do baz bibliometrycznych\n(Kulczycki i Korytkowski, 2020).\nAutorytet i edukator\nCzęsto wydawca, korzystając na własnej wiedzy i doświadczenia, a także będąc swego rodzaju zewnętrznym obserwatorem, może lepiej niż redakcja ocenić mocne i słabe strony czasopisma oraz zidentyfikować elementy, które wymagają zmian. Przyjrzyjmy się temu na poniższym przykładzie.\nJak wiadomo, publikowanie w wysoko punktowanych czasopismach jest bardzo ważne dla procesu ewaluacji dyscyplin naukowych w Polsce. Dlatego też władze wydziałów często wywierają presję na redaktorów czasopism, aby jak najszybciej zgłaszali je do znanych i branych pod uwagę w ewaluacji baz bibliometrycznych, takich jak Scopus czy Web of\nScience. Liczą, że przyjęcie do tych baz przyniesie wymierne korzyści w postaci wyższej punktacji ministerialnej dla czasopisma. Rolą wydawcy jest w tym przypadku racjonalna ocena szans czasopisma i – w razie potrzeby – wyjaśnienie, że zgłoszenie może przynieść więcej szkody niż pożytku, jeśli nie zostaną spełnione podstawowe kryteria aplikacyjne.\nWiemy, że niektórzy redaktorzy czasopism wydawanych przez WUW wykorzystywali naszą opinię jako argument w dyskusji z władzami wydziału i opinia ta była brana pod uwagę jako ocena ekspercka. Obecnie cztery czasopisma wydawane przez WUW znajdują się w bazie Scopus, a jedno w Web of Science, my zaś – jako wydawca – mieliśmy znaczący wkład w przygotowanie ich do zakończonej sukcesem aplikacji.\nPrzewodnik i innowator\nPracownicy naukowi zaangażowani w proces publikacji czasopisma naukowego zazwyczaj nie mają czasu ani ochoty, aby śledzić nowe rozwiązania technologiczne\n\ni organizacyjne czy trendy rynkowe w zakresie publikowania. To wydawca obserwuje rynek, nieustannie się uczy i to on sugeruje zmiany redaktorom czasopisma.\nPrzyjrzyjmy się następującemu przykładowi: jeszcze 10 lat temu wszystkie czasopisma wydawane przez WUW były sprzedawane w wersji drukowanej. Ze względu na zmiany w podejściu do udostępniania wyników badań obecnie wszystkie nasze czasopisma są udostępniane na zasadach otwartego dostępu. Mimo to na życzenie redakcji nadal drukujemy sporo bezpłatnych egzemplarzy papierowych. Redaktorzy zazwyczaj rozsyłają je współpracownikom czasopisma, innym badaczom i różnym instytucjom naukowym. Jednak zmiany uwarunkowań rynkowych (szybki wzrost cen druku, zmiana nawyków czytelniczych na korzyść e-booków, konieczność dostosowania do wymogów zrównoważonego rozwoju) sprawiają, że produkcja egzemplarzy papierowych staje się coraz bardziej nieopłacalna.\nNaszą rolą jako wydawcy jest sugerowanie redaktorom zmiany podejścia, w tym przypadku – zmniejszenia liczby egzemplarzy papierowych lub całkowitej z nich rezygnacji.\nKreowanie wizerunku czasopisma naukowego – działania promocyjne\nKwestie promocji wydawnictw naukowych, w tym czasopism, są przedmiotem ożywionej dyskusji. Wśród badaczy panuje dość powszechne przekonanie, że publikacji naukowych nie da się, a nawet nie powinno się promować (Siuda, 2016). Jest to zaskakujące, zwłaszcza że sami naukowcy są często bardzo aktywni w mediach społecznościowych.\nWUW jako wydawca podejmują następujące działania promocyjne:\n■ wszystkie czasopisma są dostępne na naszej stronie internetowej www.wuw.pl w zakładce „Open Access”;\n■ regularnie informujemy w mediach społecznościowych o ukazywaniu się kolejnych numerów naszych czasopism;\n■ pomagamy w realizacji filmów promocyjnych zamieszczanych na naszym kanale\nYouTube;\n■ współorganizujemy spotkania promocyjne;\n■ pośredniczymy w kontaktach z wydawcami zagranicznymi zainteresowanymi współpracą z czasopismami.\nOprócz naszych własnych działań zachęcamy również członków redakcji do angażowania się w akcje promocyjne. Doradzamy na przykład w zakresie zakładania i prowadzenia stron internetowych czasopism, a także namawiamy redaktorów do większej aktywności w mediach społecznościowych. Kilka naszych czasopism ma swoje profile na Facebooku lub X. Jednak prowadzenie takich działań zależy od indywidualnych możliwości konkretnego zespołu redakcyjnego. Jeśli w składzie redakcji są osoby, które wiedzą, jak prowadzić profile w mediach społecznościowych i chcą się w to zaangażować, wówczas czasopismo będzie bardziej widoczne w sieci.\n\nNajczęstsze trudności i jak sobie z nimi radzić. Podsumowanie\nJak wspomniano powyżej, na różnych uczelniach ramy funkcjonowania wydawnictw naukowych mogą być różne. Należy wziąć pod uwagę, że wydawcy akademiccy nie zawsze cieszą się wystarczającą autonomią w obrębie uczelni, stąd może być im trudno narzucić redaktorom czasopism określone standardy etyczne i edytorskie. Równocześnie redakcje czasopism są autonomiczne w stosunku do wydawnictwa, które w związku z tym nie ma wpływu na pewne kwestie.\nPo pierwsze, proces recenzyjny leży całkowicie w gestii redakcji, wydawca nie ma nad nim kontroli, nie może więc reagować na potencjalne nieprawidłowości.\nPo drugie, członkowie redakcji często nie są skłonni angażować się w dodatkowe działania wykraczające poza przygotowywanie kolejnych numerów czasopisma (np.\nw zdobywanie wiedzy formalno-prawnej, inicjatywy promocyjne). Wielu redaktorom brakuje nawet podstawowej wiedzy o zasadach funkcjonowania czasopisma (jak choćby o licencji, na jakiej jest publikowane).\nInna grupa problemów dotyczy relacji między autorami a redakcją. Czasami redaktorzy nie są w stanie wyegzekwować od autorów przestrzegania zasad, które ustalają dla swoich czasopism. Nierzadko zdarza się, że autorzy przesyłają materiały niskiej jakości, a redakcja nie zawsze na to reaguje. W rezultacie teksty, które otrzymuje wydawca, są słabo przygotowane, nieuporządkowane, mają poważne braki i wymagają znacznie więcej pracy redakcyjnej, niż powinny.\nOdrębną kwestią jest organizacja pracy wewnątrz samej redakcji. Duże opóźnienia w wydawaniu kolejnych numerów, przesyłanie do wydawców kilku numerów niemal równocześnie, brak zrozumienia dla procesu wydawniczego to również przyczyny napięć w relacjach między redakcjami a wydawcami (Kulczycki, 2018). Wielu członków redakcji nie jest skłonnych do wprowadzania zmian, np. nie chce korzystać z dostępnych paneli redakcyjnych lub korzysta z nich w bardzo ograniczonym zakresie.\nNajbardziej efektywnym sposobem na poprawę współpracy i usprawnienie procesu wydawniczego wydaje się systematyczne omawianie problemów z poszczególnymi redakcjami. Kluczowym czynnikiem jest również edukacja. Przedstawiciele Wydawnictw Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego regularnie organizują szkolenia i seminaria dla pracowników uczelni na temat różnych aspektów procesu wydawniczego, zapraszając też zewnętrznych ekspertów. Wydawca powinien również stawiać redakcji czasopisma konkretne wymagania, jasno określać warunki współpracy i egzekwować ich przestrzeganie.\nZasady etyczne i redakcyjne muszą być traktowane poważnie, a wysokie standardy edytorskie czasopisma powinny znaleźć odzwierciedlenie w jego pozycji wśród innych\n\nczasopism w danej dziedzinie. Z pewnością mówimy tu o pewnym ideale, do którego należy dążyć, który jednak prawdopodobnie nie zostanie osiągnięty w najbliższym czasie. Niemniej prowadzenie procesu wydawniczego na wysokim poziomie i zgodnie z najwyższymi standardami międzynarodowymi powinno być celem każdego rzetelnego czasopisma naukowego. Jest to wspólny interes wydawcy uczelnianego i redakcji czasopisma (Szanse i wyzwania, 2019).\nBibliografia\nDrabek, A., Bemke-Świtilnik, M. (2020). O wykazach, punktozie i polskich czasopismach humanistycznych. Forum Akademickie, 27(11), 24–27.\nKulczycki, E. (2018). Stan praktyk publikacyjnych polskich czasopism naukowych w 2017 roku, 100–108.\nhttps://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.5683813\nKulczycki, E., Korytkowski, P. (2020). Standardy wydawnicze polskich czasopism naukowych w latach\n2017–2019. https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.11734350\nSiuda, P., Stachura, K. (2016). Niedostatki działań promocyjnych polskich czasopism naukowych z zakresu nauk humanistycznych i społecznych. W: P. Siuda (red.), (Nie)obecna nauka: strategie promocyjne polskich czasopism naukowych z zakresu nauk humanistycznych i społecznych\n(s. 55–68). Wydawnictwo Naukowe IF UAM.\nSzanse i wyzwania dla polskich wydawnictw i czasopism naukowych. (2019). Oficyna Wydawnicza\nPolitechniki Warszawskiej, 75.\nŻukowski M. (2021) Aktualne problemy czasopism naukowych w Polsce. Ruch Prawniczy, Ekonomiczny i Socjologiczny, 83(2), 29–31. https://doi.org/10.14746/rpeis.2021.83.2.3\n\nDorota Wierzbicka-Próchniak\nORCID 0000-0002-6248-4851\nDanuta Szewczyk-Kłos\nORCID 0000-0001-7635-6255\nBiblioteka Uniwersytetu Opolskiego\nUniwersytet Opolski\nROR: https://ror.org/04gbpnx96\nBiblioteka – wydawca czy koordynator?\nPodsumowanie pięciu lat działalności\nPlatformy czasopism Uniwersytetu Opolskiego\nAbstrakt: Biblioteka Uniwersytetu Opolskiego od 2018 r. zarządza platformą czasopism elektronicznych Uniwersytetu Opolskiego. Projekt ten został uruchomiony jako poszerzenie działalności wydawniczej uczelni o publikowanie w otwartym dostępie i tym samym zwiększenie liczby odbiorców opisywanych wyników prac naukowych. Artykuł odpowiada na pytania, jaki jest zakres współudziału Biblioteki w działalności wydawniczej uczelni oraz na czym polega współpraca z redakcjami oraz wydawnictwami UO w realizacji tego przedsięwzięcia. Przedstawiono w nim również kolejne etapy rozwoju platformy oraz zarysowano plany na przyszłość.\nSłowa kluczowe: Biblioteka Uniwersytetu Opolskiego, platforma czasopism elektronicznych, otwarte zasoby naukowe, otwarty dostęp, publikowanie akademickie\nWstęp\nDziałalność wydawnicza Biblioteki Uniwersytetu Opolskiego rozpoczęła się w 2018 r., kiedy to Biblioteka wyszła z inicjatywą na forum Komisji ds. nauki UO o utworzeniu platformy czasopism. Jednym z głównych powodów zainicjowania prac było ukazanie się dokumentu Kierunki rozwoju otwartego dostępu do publikacji i wyników badań naukowych w Polsce, w którym ówczesne Ministerstwo Nauki i Szkolnictwa Wyższego zaleciło\n„upowszechnianie w formie cyfrowej w Internecie, za pośrednictwem np. repozytoriów\n\nlub czasopism, wyników badań naukowych w możliwie pełnym zakresie (w tym w publikacjach naukowych i danych badawczych), które powstały dzięki finansowaniu ze środków publicznych” (Kierunki rozwoju otwartego dostępu do publikacji i wyników badań naukowych w Polsce, 2015). Drugim, nie mniej znaczącym motywatorem było ubieganie się redakcji czasopism afiliowanych przy Uniwersytecie Opolskim o pomoc de minimis w ramach programu „Wsparcie dla czasopism naukowych”. Jednym z wymagań projektowych było „upowszechnianie artykułów naukowych zamieszczanych w czasopiśmie w trybie otwartego dostępu w Internecie [...], w sposób bezpłatny i bez technicznych ograniczeń; z zastosowaniem identyfikatorów DOI” (Rozporządzenie Ministra\nNauki i Szkolnictwa Wyższego z dnia 20 września 2018 r. w sprawie pomocy de minimis w ramach programu „Wsparcie dla czasopism naukowych”, 2018). Wśród innych powodów leżących u podstaw decyzji o utworzeniu platformy należy wymienić potrzebę promowania periodyków naukowych UO jako efektu działalności naukowej jego pracowników oraz potencjału wydawniczego uczelni. Umieszczenie ich na wspólnej platformie miało ułatwić czytelnikom dotarcie do pełnych tekstów artykułów oraz zwiększyć ich indeksowanie w bazach danych, katalogach, serwisach i naukowych wyszukiwarkach.\nRolę koordynatora całego projektu powierzono Bibliotece UO. Rola ta polega nie tylko na zorganizowaniu wdrożenia systemu do obsługi czasopism – Open Journal\nSystems, ale również na dbaniu o prawidłowe działalnie wszystkich funkcjonalności platformy, a także wspieraniu działań projakościowych czy opracowywaniu planów jej rozwoju1. Prace związane z implementacją pierwszych czasopism zakończono ostatecznie w listopadzie 2018 r. Od tego czasu platforma stale się rozwija, pod względem zarówno możliwości systemu, jak i spektrum dostępnych tytułów.\nArtykuł stara się odpowiedzieć na pytanie, czy działania podjęte przez Bibliotekę wpisują ją w ramy funkcjonowania jako wydawcy, a jeżeli tak, to jaki jest zakres jej współudziału w działalności wydawniczej uczelni.\nRozwój Platformy w ciągu pięciu lat działalności\nW roku 2019 platforma wkroczyła jako w pełni funkcjonujący portal umożliwiający z jednej strony dostęp użytkownikom do pełnych treści artykułów, a z drugiej\n1 W szerszym kontekście jest to działanie zgodne z coraz częstszym włączaniem bibliotek akademickich przez macierzyste ośrodki do podstawowych zadań, wykonywanych m.in. przez działy nauki, współpracy czy właśnie wydawnictwa – zob. Szczypa, Błaszczak (2020).\n\nautomatyzację pracy redakcji. Początkowo znajdowało się na niej trzynaście tytułów czasopism2:\n1. Economic and Environmental Studies,\n2. Family Forum (140 punktów),\n3. Liturgia Sacra: Liturgia – Musica – Ars: półrocznik Instytutu Liturgii, Muzyki i Sztuki\nSakralnej Wydziału Teologicznego Uniwersytetu Opolskiego (70 punktów),\n4. Nomos & Dike,\n5. Opolskie Studia Administracyjno-Prawne (140 punktów),\n6. Pogranicze: Polish Borderlands Studies (40 punktów),\n7. Scriptura Sacra: studia biblijne Wydziału Teologicznego Uniwersytetu Opolskiego,\n8. Studia et Documenta Slavica,\n9. Studia Krytyczne / Critical Studies,\n10. Studia Miejskie (40 punktów),\n11. Studia Oecumenica (100 punktów),\n12. Studia Teologiczno-Historyczne Śląska Opolskiego (70 punktów),\n13. Stylistyka (100 punktów).\nW ciągu ostatnich pięciu lat kolekcja ta uległa pewnym zmianom. Czasopismo Nomos\n& Dike zostało usunięte ze względu na niewykazywanie żadnej aktywności redakcyjnej na platformie i zawieszenie działalności. Decyzję o zawieszeniu podjęło również czasopismo\nStudia et Documenta Slavica, jednak ze względów archiwizacyjnych zostało pozostawione na platformie. Dołączono natomiast na wniosek redakcji nowe tytuły: w 2021 r. Prace Germanistyczne / Germanistische Werkstatt (20 punktów), a w 2023 r. Literaport (20 punktów).\nZainteresowanie implementacją wyraziły redakcje dwóch kolejnych tytułów. Czasopismo\nPogranicze: Polish Borderlands Studies zmieniło nazwę na Border and Regional Studies.\nPrzystępując do tworzenia platformy czasopism UO, poczyniono następujące założenia:\n■ Ma stanowić profesjonalną platformę publikowania uniwersyteckich czasopism, dostosowaną do wymogów ministerialnych projektów.\n■ Artykuły muszą być publikowane w modelu open access.\n■ Ma ułatwiać pracę redakcji.\n■ Ma stanowić spójne archiwum czasopism.\n■ Zaprezentowanie w ten sposób potencjału wydawniczego uczelni ma zapewnić upowszechnienie i wzrost widoczności artykułów.\n■ Ma służyć zwiększeniu indeksacji w naukowych wyszukiwarkach.\n2 Punktacja zgodna z wykazem czasopism naukowych i recenzowanych materiałów z konferencji międzynarodowych opublikowanym w Komunikacie Ministra Edukacji i Nauki z dnia 17 lipca 2023 r.\n\nZ perspektywy pięciu lat można stwierdzić, że udało się osiągnąć zamierzone cele.\nPlatforma zapewnia automatyzację procesu wydawniczego, a tym samym usprawnienie pracy redakcji. Możliwy jest całkowicie elektroniczny obieg dokumentów w procesie wydawniczym – od przesłania tekstu przez autora, poprzez proces recenzji i korektę aż do opublikowania ostatecznej wersji artykułu w pliku PDF – jak również komunikacja między zespołem redakcyjnym, autorami i recenzentami. Publikowane treści dostępne są bezpłatnie na podstawie licencji Creative Commons „Uznanie autorstwa\n– Użycie niekomercyjne – Na tych samych warunkach 4.0”. Platforma dostosowana jest do wymogów ministerialnych, o czym świadczy fakt, że ukazujące się na niej tytuły znalazły się wśród beneficjentów rządowego programu „Wsparcie czasopism naukowych” oraz jego kontynuacji pod nazwą „Rozwój czasopism naukowych”. W ramach pierwszej edycji dofinansowanie otrzymały: Opolskie Studia Administracyjno-Prawne,\nPogranicze: Polish Borderlands Studies, Studia Miejskie, Studia Oecumenica oraz Stylistyka. Natomiast w drugim rozdaniu wsparcie dostały ponownie: Opolskie Studia Administracyjno-Prawne, Pogranicze: Polish Borderlands Studies oraz Stylistyka, dodatkowo dofinansowano: Family Forum, Studia Oecumenica i Studia Teologiczno-Historyczne\nŚląska Opolskiego. Studiom Miejskim nie udało się uzyskać kontynuacji dofinansowania.\nZa wzrostem widoczności artykułów przemawiają statystyki, do których dostęp umożliwia Platforma. Częściowo generowane są przez wykonawcę, dostępne są również dane agregowane przez Google Analytics. W tabeli 1 przedstawiono liczbę opublikowanych artykułów w odniesieniu do ich pobrań w poszczególnych latach. Na przykładzie minionego roku zilustrowano wykorzystanie samej platformy.\nTabela 1. L iczba zamieszczonych artykułów z podziałem na poszczególne czasopisma w latach 2020–2022\nTytuł czasopisma 2020 2021 2022*\nStudia et Documenta Slavica 27 – –\nStudia Miejskie 408 12 6\nEconomic and Environmental Studies 496 50 –\nFamily Forum 157 22 24\nLiturgia Sacra 109 25 31\nOpolskie Studia Administracyjno-Prawne 311 41 23\nStudia Oecumenica 276 30 2\nScriptura Sacra 138 17 16\nStudia Teologiczno-Historyczne Śląska Opolskiego 186 31 16\nBorder and Regional Studies 128 11 10\n\nTytuł czasopisma 2020 2021 2022*\nStudia Krytyczne 93 12 9\nStylistyka 408 783 –\nPrace Germanistyczne / Germanistische Werkstatt – – 18\n(*wg dziennej daty publikacji artykułu z systemu OJS)\nŹródło: opracowanie własne na podstawie danych dostarczonych przez firmę LIBCOM.\nW 2020 r. położono duży nacisk na uzupełnianie archiwów wybranych czasopism, stąd niższa liczba opublikowanych artykułów w kolejnych latach.\nStatystyki pobrań pełnych tekstów zamieszczonych na Platformie przedstawiono na rycinach 1–3.\n90000\n80000\n70000\n60000\n50000\n40000\n30000\n20000\n10000\nI II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII\n2019 1187 1164 1734 2056 4820 3446 2868 2020 2909 2088 2620 4148\n2020 7934 10277 10188 9136 10879 9720 11196 11246 11914 12235 14458 18107\n2021 23644 24090 30074 35473 67926 34105 42180 89445 28659 50997 50693 34873\n2022 33053 28045 32468 38463 27484 5289 3921 9299 11736 7956 11189 10710\nRycina 1. Miesięczna liczba pobrań wszystkich artykułów z Platformy czasopism UO w latach\n2019–2022.\nŹródło: opracowanie własne na podstawie danych dostarczonych przez firmę LIBCOM.\n\n12000\nBorder and Regional Studies\nEconomic and Environmental Studies\nFamily Forum\n10000\nLiturgia Sacra\nOpolskie Studia Administracyjno-Prawne\nPrace Germanistyczne/Germanistische\n8000 Werkstatt\nScriptura Sacra\nStudia et Documenta Slavica\nStudia Krytyczne\nStudia Miejskie\nStudia Oecumenica\nStudia Teologiczno-Historyczne Śląska\n4000 Opolskiego\nStylistyka\nI II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII\nRycina 2. Liczba pobrań artykułów poszczególnych czasopism w kolejnych miesiącach 2022 r.\nŹródło: opracowanie własne na podstawie danych Google Analytics.\nSpadek wartości statystycznych od maja 2022 r. spowodowany jest wdrożeniem wersji 3.3 systemu OJS, w której producenci oprogramowania zoptymalizowali statystyki, modernizując sposób zbierania, przetwarzania i analizowania danych.\nZa skokowy przyrost statystyk w niektórych miesiącach odpowiada pobieranie plików PDF do indeksacji przez bazy zewnętrzne, w których rejestrowane jest dane czasopismo. Zwiększa to statystyki pobrań raz lub dwa razy do roku.\n\nBorder and Regional Studies 2947\nEconomic and Environmental Studies 2554\n19689\nFamily Forum 9649\nLiturgia Sacra 2306\n18004\nOpolskie Studia Administracyjno-Prawne 5887\nPrace Germanistyczne/Germanistische Werkstatt 384\nScriptura Sacra 2476\nStudia et Documenta Slavica 328\nStudia Krytyczne 3632\n17892\nStudia Miejskie 7966\nStudia Oecumenica 5562\n13489\nStudia Teologiczno-Historyczne Śląska Opolskiego 6453\n20415\nStylistyka 7744\n0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000\nLiczba odsłon Liczba sesji Liczba użytkowników\nRycina 3. Statystyki korzystania z Platformy czasopism UO w 2022 r.\nOprac. Marcin Podolan na podstawie danych Google Analytics.\nIndeksacja w naukowych bazach danych i wyszukiwarkach odbywa się dzięki działaniom Biblioteki. To ona koordynuje podpisywanie umów dotyczących rozpowszechniania treści znajdujących się na platformie – w styczniu 2021 r. na indeksację czasopisma\nStudia Miejskie w bazach EBSCO, natomiast w 2019 r. podpisano umowę z Interdyscyplinarnym Centrum Modelowania Matematycznego i Komputerowego Uniwersytetu\nWarszawskiego (ICM) na zamieszczanie treści artykułów w bazie The Central European\nJournal of Social Sciences and Humanities (CEJSH).\n\nBiblioteka jako wydawca?\nWydawnictwo, zgodnie z definicją z Encyklopedii książki, to:\npodmiot gospodarczy, lub jego część, zajmujący się finansowaniem i organizowaniem procesu produkcji, dystrybucji i sprzedaży książek, czasopism i in.\ntypów publikacji w formie drukowanej lub cyfrowej. [...] Nie wszystkie W. samodzielnie inicjują oraz finansują procesy produkcji książki. [...] Rola wydawcy ogranicza się wówczas tylko do organizacji procesu wydawniczego i nadzoru nad nim. [...] Ponadto wyróżnić można na rynku W. będące działami instytucji o innym (niewydawniczym) zakresie działalności [...]. Tego typu działy wydawnicze znajdują się w strukturach szkół wyższych [...] (Wolański, 2017).\nDo zakresu działań wydawcy należy nie tylko nadzór finansowy czy obrót majątkowymi prawami autorskimi, ale również m.in. określenie potrzeb odbiorców, nadzór nad procesem redagowania publikacji czy reklama i promocja.\nBiblioteka UO przyjęła na siebie wszystkie kwestie administracyjne związane z zapewnieniem kontynuacji wsparcia technicznego dla platformy i nadzorowanie realizacji zapisów umowy przez wykonawcę, a także formalnoprawne, takie jak np. wspomniane już umowy dotyczące rozpowszechniania treści publikacji w bazach danych i repozytoriach.\nWspiera merytorycznie redakcje przy wnioskowaniu o możliwości dodatkowego finansowania procesów wydawniczych. Do zadań Biblioteki należy także dbanie o jej promocję oraz wszelkiego rodzaju działania projakościowe. Zapewnia też redakcjom wsparcie w sytuacjach kryzysowych związanych z terminowym umieszczenie artykułów na Platformie.\nPonadto jej pracownicy digitalizują i zamieszczają treści artykułów w archiwach poszczególnych czasopism. Biblioteka organizuje również warsztaty oraz szkolenia dla redakcji.\nRealizacja dodatkowego finansowania nastąpiła w ramach ministerialnego programu „Wsparcie dla czasopism naukowych”: pięć tytułów znalazło się w gronie wyróżnionych czasopism. W 2021 r. redakcje periodyków ponownie złożyły wnioski o dofinansowanie z programu MEiN. Projekt ministerialny „Rozwój czasopism naukowych” stanowi kontynuację zakończonego „Wsparcia dla czasopism naukowych”. Dofinansowanie otrzymało tym razem sześć tytułów znajdujących się na platformie. Wszystkie wnioski były konsultowane pod względem merytorycznym przez Bibliotekę. Polega to m.in. na przygotowaniu części kosztorysu dotyczącego wydatków związanych z funkcjonowaniem platformy i usług Crossref, przeanalizowaniu opisów poszczególnych działań czy harmonogramu ich realizacji. Analogicznej konsultacji podlegają też raporty wymagane przez zapisy umowy projektowej z ministerstwem.\n\nW kwestii funkcji administracyjnych i formalnoprawnych należy jeszcze nadmienić, że to Biblioteka odpowiada za współpracę z Crossref. Corocznie odnawiana jest umowa na korzystanie z usług DOI oraz systemu antyplagiatowego Crossref Similarity\nCheck. Zadanie to zostało przejęte od Wydawnictwa UO. W 2022 r. zarejestrowano w sumie 252 identyfikatory DOI, w tym dziewięć dla czasopisma „Explorations”, które nie znajduje się na platformie. Uruchomienie Crossref Similarity Check, czyli systemu antyplagiatowego iThenticate, zapewnia możliwość porównywania tekstów otrzymywanych przez redakcje z milionami innych opublikowanych treści naukowych.\nOrganizowanie usług DOI to również jedna z form współpracy Biblioteki z uniwersyteckimi wydawnictwami, czyli Wydawnictwem UO oraz Redakcją Wydawnictw Wydziału\nTeologicznego. Ponadto wspierają one funkcjonowanie platformy w zakresie prac redakcyjnych. W tym celu uczestniczą we wszystkich organizowanych przez Bibliotekę szkoleniach czy wykładach przeznaczonych dla redakcji czasopism. Nie są to wyłącznie szkolenia z zakresu korzystania z funkcjonalności oferowanych przez platformę, które przeprowadza wykonawca – firma LIBCOM, ale również spotkania eksperckie. Przykładowo w 2022 r.\nodbyło się szkolenie dotyczące efektywnego publikowania w czasopismach naukowych, podczas którego dr Aneta Drabek z Biblioteki Uniwersytetu Śląskiego przedstawiła prezentację pod tytułem „Indeksowanie czasopism w bazach danych”, a Jolanta Szczepaniak, kierowniczka zespołu Wydawnictwa Politechniki Łódzkiej, omówiła zagadnienie cytowań\n(„Problemy z cytowaniami – praca nad wykazem materiałów źródłowych w publikacji”).\nUsługi Crossref, starania o indeksację w bazach danych czy udział redakcji w szkoleniach to niejedyne podejmowane działania projakościowe. W 2022 r. przeprowadzono aktualizację systemu Open Journal Systems do najnowszej, stabilnej wersji 3.x., która została zakończona szkoleniem dla redakcji czasopism z zakresu obsługi nowej wersji.\nDokonano rekonfiguracji czasopism oraz zmian programistycznych dostosowujących obecny szablon platformy do nowej wersji oprogramowania. Biblioteka dba również o promocję serwisu, zarówno w ramach UO, jak i poza nim, dzięki wystąpieniom oraz publikacjom. Podczas różnego rodzaju spotkań z pracownikami uczelni ukazuje się platformę jako jedno z narzędzi do realizacji polityki otwartego dostępu. Link dostępowy znajduje się na stronie internetowej Biblioteki. Uniwersytet Opolski należy do sojuszu dziewięciu uniwersytetów europejskich FORTHEM, gdzie Biblioteka promuje potencjał platformy do wymiany naukowej pomiędzy partnerskimi uczelniami, jako źródła dostępu do publikacji i wyników badań oraz narzędzia otwartej nauki.\nPlany na przyszłość w zakresie rozwoju Platformy związane są z wymogami aktualnego ministerialnego projektu. Zgodnie z § 6 Rozporządzenia MEiN z dnia 3 sierpnia 2021 r. w sprawie programu „Rozwój czasopism naukowych” oraz § 16 umowy na dofinansowanie dla czasopism w ramach tego projektu – beneficjenci zobowiązują się:\n\nnieodpłatnie przekazywać czasopismo do repozytorium cyfrowego Biblioteki\nNarodowej w terminie określonym w pkt a) i udzielić Bibliotece Narodowej nieodpłatnej licencji niewyłącznej w celu publicznego udostępniania opublikowanych w czasopiśmie artykułów naukowych w taki sposób, aby każdy mógł mieć do nich dostęp w miejscu i czasie przez siebie wybranym, bez żadnych ograniczeń (w tym bez ograniczeń technicznych lub zabezpieczeń technicznych) w ramach Cyfrowej Biblioteki Narodowej Polona oraz Cyfrowej Wypożyczalni\nPublikacji Naukowych Academica.\nW związku z powyższym planowane jest, w porozumieniu z wydawnictwami uniwersyteckimi, przejęcie przez Bibliotekę przekazywania artykułów opublikowanych na\nPlatformie do cyfrowego repozytorium Biblioteki Narodowej, co wiąże się z podpisaniem stosownej umowy i uzyskaniem konta wydawcy.\nPodsumowanie\nJaki jest współudział Biblioteki UO w działalności wydawniczej uczelni? Czy jej aktywność związana z Platformą czyni z niej tylko koordynatora projektu, czy może jednak wydawcę? Zgodnie z definicją jest ona instytucją o niewydawniczym charakterze, która działa w ramach struktury szkoły wyższej. Nie będzie nadużyciem stwierdzenie, że administrowanie Platformą odpowiada nadzorowi nad procesem wydawniczym.\nDodatkowo prace związane z jej promocją, organizowaniem finansowania czy opieką formalnoprawną wpisują się w zakres zadań wydawcy. Odpowiadając na tytułowe pytanie, można zatem uznać, że w odniesieniu do Platformy czasopism UO Biblioteka jest czymś więcej niż koordynatorem uczelnianego projektu.\nBibliografia\nKierunki rozwoju otwartego dostępu do publikacji i wyników badań naukowych w Polsce. (2015). https:// www.gov.pl/documents/1068557/1069061/20180413_Kierunki_rozwoju_OD_wersja_ostateczna.pdf\nRozporządzenie Ministra Edukacji i Nauki z dnia 3 sierpnia 2021 r. w sprawie programu „Rozwój czasopism naukowych”. Dz.U. 2021, poz. 1514.\nRozporządzenie Ministra Nauki i Szkolnictwa Wyższego z dnia 20 września 2018 r. w sprawie pomocy de minimis w ramach programu „Wsparcie dla czasopism naukowych”. Dz.U. 2018, poz. 1832.\nSprawozdanie z działalności Biblioteki Głównej i bibliotek specjalistycznych Uniwersytetu Opolskiego za rok 2022. (2023). https://bg.uni.opole.pl/wp-content/uploads/Sprawozdanie-Biblioteki-UO-\n-za-2022.pdf\nSzczypa, G., Błaszczak, P. (2020), Wsparcie bibliotek akademickich w działaniach uczelni na rzecz ewaluacji – rekonesans. Folia Bibliologica, V. 62, 71–86. https://journals.umcs.pl/fb/article/ view/11965/8833\n\nWierzbicka-Próchniak, D., Szewczyk-Kłos, D. (2020). Platforma czasopism Uniwersytetu Opolskiego przykładem synergii w budowaniu otwartego dostępu do publikacji uczelnianych. Acta Universitatis Lodziensis. Folia Librorum, 1(30), 47–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.18778/0860-7435.30.03\nWolański, A. (2017), Wydawnictwo. Instytucja. W: A. Żbikowska-Migoń, M. Skalska-Zlat (red.).\nEncyklopedia książki. T. 2 (s. 629–631). Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Wrocławskiego.\n\nAleksandra Szulc\nORCID: 0000-0001-8812-9498\nMałgorzata Adamczak\nORCID: 0000-0001-5489-6787\nAgnieszka Wiktor-Sass\nORCID: 0009-0004-7378-5483\nBlanka Mrowicka\nORCID: 0000-0002-9400-455X\nBiblioteka Uniwersytecka w Poznaniu\nUniwersytet im. Adama Mickiewicza w Poznaniu\nROR: https://ror.org/04g6bbq64\nDziałania projakościowe w strategii rozwoju czasopism UAM realizowane poprzez\nPlatformę PRESSto\nAbstakt: W 2015 na Uniwersytecie im. Adama Mickiewicza w Poznaniu, w Bibliotece Uniwersyteckiej uruchomiono Platformę Otwartych Czasopism Naukowych Uniwersytetu im.\nAdama Mickiewicza w Poznaniu – PRESSto. Jest to narzędzie stworzone z myślą o wszystkich redakcjach czasopism UAM, zbudowane na darmowym oprogramowaniu Open Journal Systems. Wspomaga zarządzanie pracami redakcyjnymi i umożliwia profesjonalne upowszechnianie treści czasopism dostosowanych do aktualnych standardów naukowych publikacji elektronicznych. Od początku pieczę nad funkcjonowaniem portalu i poprawnością wprowadzanych metadanych pełni redakcja PRESSto. Zasoby PRESSto, początkowo ubogie, zawierają obecnie 93 czasopisma i tyleż stron prowadzonych jest w serwisie, a wszystkie wprowadzone dane są każdorazowo poddawane korekcie.\nW wyniku zmian prawnych (m.in. Ustawa 2.0, Plan S, Polityka Otwartego Dostępu\nUAM) konieczne stało się dostosowanie do nich wewnętrznych przepisów uczelni regulujących działalność portalu i czasopism; oraz dostosowanie samego modelu funkcjonowania czasopism do obowiązujących obecnie standardów publikowania cyfrowego.\nW założeniach Platforma PRESSto jako narzędzie projakościowe przyspieszy rozwój czasopism i rozszerzy ich zasięg w naukowych wyszukiwarkach oraz bazach danych, a także zwiększy wskaźniki wpływu czasopism oraz krąg odbiorców i autorów zagranicznych.\n\nSłowa kluczowe: działania projakościowe, czasopisma UAM, Platforma PRESSto, czasopisma naukowe, Open Journal Systems\nWstęp\nKomunikacja naukowa jest istotnym elementem przekazu wiedzy pomiędzy światem naukowym a otoczeniem społecznym. Kanały komunikacji zmieniają się z biegiem czasu, a wraz z rozwojem nowoczesnych technologii powstają inicjatywy, które wzmacniają transmisję wiedzy, wspomagając ten proces. Rosnące koszty wydawania tradycyjnych papierowych czasopism naukowych, utrudniony dostęp do zawartych w nich treści naukowych i podwójne finansowanie badań oraz dostępu do wyników badań spowodowały zmianę nastawienia środowiska naukowego do dotychczasowego modelu komunikacji.\nRóżnego typu deklaracje (Budapesztańska Inicjatywa Open Access, Oświadczenie z Bethesdy w sprawie publikacji w otwartym dostępie, Deklaracja Berlińska w sprawie otwartego dostępu do wiedzy w naukach ścisłych i humanistyce) w pierwszych latach\nXXI w. oraz późniejsze zalecenia i rekomendacje gremiów międzynarodowych, takich jak UNESCO (UNESCO Recommendation on Open Science, 2021) czy Komisja Europejska, wskazały na preferowany model komunikacji naukowej, jakim jest otwarta nauka.\nW urzędowych dokumentach zawarte są informacje o kluczowych obszarach otwartej nauki, a jednym z nich jest otwarty dostęp do publikacji.\nInformatycznymi narzędziami wspomagającymi proces wydawania czasopism online są systemy do zarządzania czasopismami. Jednym z najpopularniejszych na świecie jest Open Journal Systems, który powstał w ramach Public Knowledge Project (PKP) na licencji open source. W systemie tym pracuje ponad 30 000 czasopism, od 2010 opublikowano ponad 6 milionów artykułów (Khanna i in., 2022). Każde czasopismo wydawane w systemie OJS zyskuje następujące korzyści: indywidualną wielojęzyczną stronę, aktywację identyfikatorów DOI, wprowadzenie spójnej z zasadami międzynarodowymi i zgodnej z wymogami ministerialnymi polityki funkcjonowania czasopism w tym licencji Creative Commons (CC) oraz zasad etyki publikacyjnej zgodnej z Commitee on Publication Ethics (COPE). System oferuje dodatkowo: zliczanie liczby cytowań artykułu, generowanie statystyk wejść oraz pobrań artykułów, a także wskaźników altmetrycznych; możliwość publikowania artykułów w różnych formatach.\nIstotna jest możliwość eksportu opisów do programów bibliograficznych, baz i agregatorów za pomocą otwartego protokołu OAI-PMH, dzięki czemu informacja o artykułach w naukowych portalach społecznościowych przesyłana jest natychmiastowo.\n\nNa rynku wydawniczym istnieją także komercyjne systemy do zarządzania treścią online (Sidyk i Zdunek, 2020) umożliwiające sprawny i efektywny proces wydawniczy książek, czasopism i materiałów konferencyjnych, np. Editorial Manager oferowany przez firmę Elsevier.\nRola wydawnicza biblioteki naukowej jest istotna w kontekście wspierania komunikacji naukowej. Koalicja Wydawnicza Bibliotek (Library Publishing Coalition – LPC) wyróżnia trzy główne nurty angażowania się bibliotek w działalność wydawniczą uczelni:\nzarządzanie wydawnictwem przez bibliotekę, partnerstwo biblioteki i wydawnictwa oraz specjalne usługi biblioteczne wspierające wydawnictwo (Derfert-Wolf, 2022).\nW Polsce większość platform czasopism elektronicznych szkół wyższych działa przy wydawnictwach naukowych uczelni, np. Akademicka Platforma Czasopism w Toruniu czy platforma czasopism Wydawnictwa Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego. Obecnie tego typu systemem bezpośrednio zarządzają również same biblioteki, tak jak ma to miejsce w Bibliotece Uniwersytetu Gdańskiego, Bibliotece Uniwersytetu Opolskiego czy Bibliotece Uniwersyteckiej w Poznaniu (Derfert-Wolf, 2022). Wynika to z faktu, że biblioteki naukowe odpowiadają za procesy rozpowszechniania i przechowywania wiedzy, angażują się w tworzenie otwartych repozytoriów i bibliotek cyfrowych, a rozwój usług związanych z publikowaniem treści naukowych on-line sprawił, że mają swój udział w zarządzaniu platformami wydawniczymi elektronicznych czasopism i monografii (Hahn, 2008; Karwasińska, 2017).\nPlatforma Otwartych Czasopism Naukowych UAM PRESSto, kierowana przez\nBibliotekę Uniwersytecką w Poznaniu, jest jednym z pierwszych tego typu przedsięwzięć w Polsce (Derfert-Wolf, 2022). W artykule przedstawiono początek, a także rozwój platformy, działania związane z powstaniem nowych zarządzeń, pozyskaniem funduszy, aktualizacją systemu OJS, szkoleniami i promocją oraz pierwszym audytem czasopism.\nPoczątki działania Platformy PRESSto\nRozwój otwartej nauki i kampanie na rzecz otwartego dostępu mające swój początek w definiującej założenia ruchu Budapesztańskiej Inicjatywie OA z 2002 r. (Chan i in.,\n2002) spowodowały zmianę modelu rozpowszechniania treści naukowych, promując koncepcję bezpłatnego dostępu do nich bez barier licencyjnych. Podobne wymagania ogłosiła Europejska Rada ds. Badań Naukowych (European Research Council – ERC) na podstawie opublikowanych 17 grudnia 2007 r. Wytycznych dotyczących otwartego dostępu (ERC Scientific Council Guidelines for Open Access) i Komisja Europejska w zaleceniu z dnia 17 lipca 2012 r. (2012/417/UE) (Kierunki rozwoju otwartego dostępu do publikacji i wyników badań naukowych w Polsce, 2015, s. 5–6).\n\nZmiany w publikowaniu naukowym, które zainicjowane zostały w tym czasie na całym świecie, miały istotny wpływ na funkcjonowanie bibliotek. Powstawały nowe usługi biblioteczne. Dynamicznym kierunkiem był rozwój narzędzi do nieodpłatnej prezentacji treści naukowych. Również w Bibliotece Uniwersyteckiej w Poznaniu rosły wskaźniki udostępnień elektronicznych, natomiast pogłębiał się regres w liczbie odwiedzin i udostępnianiu zbiorów tradycyjnych. Dlatego Biblioteka z myślą o swoich użytkownikach przyjęła nową strategię działania – zwiększanie liczby organizowanych dostępów do zasobów elektronicznych komercyjnych i rozbudowa własnych zasobów elektronicznych. Powstały Wielkopolska Biblioteka Cyfrowa, Repozytorium AMUR, baza WieKI – Wielkopolska Kolekcja Ikonograficzna (Sprawozdanie z działalności\nBiblioteki Uniwersyteckiej za rok 2014, 2014, s. 2).\nW 2014 r. zaproponowano stworzenie nowego produktu i przedstawiono koncepcję uruchomienia platformy otwartych, elektronicznych czasopism naukowych na UAM –\nPRESSto (Sprawozdanie..., 2014, s. 18). Głównym celem stworzenia Platformy PRESSto było zaprezentowanie potencjału wydawniczego recenzowanych czasopism i szerokie upowszechnianie publikowanych w nich treści naukowych, a także zwiększenie wskaźników wpływu czasopism i ich indeksowania w naukowych wyszukiwarkach. Plan budowy obszernego serwisu był oparty na oprogramowaniu Open Journal Systems.\nTo narzędzie typu open source, umożliwiające prezentowanie informacji o czasopismach i ich treści oraz kompleksowe prowadzenie procesu publikacyjnego, spełniało wszystkie wymagania niezbędne do stworzenia platformy czasopism naukowych. Od samego początku czasopisma zaimplementowane na Platformie PRESSto miały być publikowane w modelu otwartym (open access), co oznacza, że artykuły dostępne są bezpłatnie dla wszystkich zainteresowanych użytkowników Internetu na podstawie licencji Creative Commons. W roku 2015 stworzono strony 40 czasopism uniwersyteckich (Sprawozdanie Biblioteki Uniwersyteckiej w Poznaniu, 2015, s. 19). Systematycznie baza powiększała się o kolejne czasopisma.\nKoncepcja powstania własnej platformy była zgodna z kierunkami rozwoju otwartości w Polsce zapisanymi w przyjętym przez Ministra Nauki i Szkolnictwa Wyższego dokumencie Kierunki rozwoju otwartego dostępu do publikacji i wyników badań naukowych w Polsce (2015), prezentującym założenia polityki otwartego dostępu oraz zalecenia dotyczące wprowadzania otwartego dostępu do publikacji i wyników badań naukowych przez podmioty finansujące badania (Narodowe Centrum Nauki, Narodowe\nCentrum Badań i Rozwoju, Ministerstwo Nauki i Szkolnictwa Wyższego), jednostki naukowe, uczelnie i wydawców.\nI tak na podstawie Zarządzenia Nr 445/2015/2016 Rektora Uniwersytetu im.\nAdama Mickiewicza w Poznaniu z dnia 1 października 2015 r. powołano uniwersytecką\n\nplatformę czasopism. Zgodnie z jego treścią właścicielem Platformy PRESSto został Uniwersytet im. Adama Mickiewicza w Poznaniu, a Biblioteka Uniwersytecka odpowiadała za ustanowienie polityki funkcjonowania platformy, jej administrację i rozwój oraz wsparcie redakcji czasopism w obsłudze wersji elektronicznej publikowanej w systemie. Docelowo powinny być posadowione na niej wszystkie czasopisma wydawane czy współwydawane przez uczelnię, tak by ich sposób redagowania i udostępniania spełniał zawsze najwyższe standardy (Sprawozdanie..., 2015, s. 5). Po upływie trzech lat od dnia wejścia w życie zarządzenia wszystkie czasopisma, których wydawcą jest\nUniwersytet im. Adama Mickiewicza w Poznaniu lub jego jednostki organizacyjne, wprowadzone na platformę miały przyjąć elektroniczną wersję jako pierwotną (§ 13 niniejszego zarządzenia). Czas pokazał, że się tak nie stało.\nWejście w życie w 2018 r. Ustawy 2.0, niosącej wiele nowych zapisów dotyczących funkcjonowania szkół wyższych, zbiegło się w czasie z reorganizacją w Bibliotece. Zmieniła się wówczas kadra zajmująca się prowadzeniem platformy. Z czasem zauważono potrzebę aktualizacji funkcjonowania systemu i konieczność powiększenia zespołu opiekującego się bazą i wsparciem redakcji czasopism. Prace nad rozwojem platformy zainicjowane zostały w 2021 r. przy współpracy z Biurem Wsparcia Nauki\nUAM (obecnie Biuro ds. Nauki i Rankingów). Okazało się wówczas także, że istnieje potrzeba uporządkowania i zebrania informacji o wszystkich czasopism naukowych wydawanych przez uczelnię. Na platformie swoje strony miało wówczas 76 czasopism, więc naturalne stało się nawiązanie współpracy z wyżej wymienioną jednostką w celu zebrania informacji o pozostałych czasopismach uniwersyteckich.\nPodjęto prace nad zamierzonym wcześniej planem rozwoju platformy. Ideą rozwoju było wdrożenie nowych i podniesienie jakości oferowanych już usług dla czasopism oraz stały rozwój technologiczny, by utrzymać konkurencyjność w stosunku do platform komercyjnych. Istotne było rozszerzenie wsparcia dla redakcji czasopism w zakresie bieżącej obsługi platformy i działań formalno-organizacyjnych mających na celu podniesienie poziomu praktyk publikacyjnych i etycznych. W ten sposób zamierzano osiągnąć realną poprawę jakości wydawanych czasopism, aby spełniały wszystkie formalne warunki konieczne do aplikowania do międzynarodowych baz bibliograficznych, takich jak Scopus, Web of Science Core Collection, ERIH PLUS, wskazanych w Rozporządzeniu Ministra Nauki i Szkolnictwa Wyższego w sprawie sporządzania wykazów wydawnictw monografii naukowych oraz czasopism naukowych i recenzowanych materiałów z konferencji międzynarodowych (MNiSW, 2018). Miało się to przełożyć na wzrost widoczności oraz prestiżu czasopism i jednocześnie zwiększyć identyfikację uczelni na arenie międzynarodowej.\n\nPrzygotowano harmonogram, który zakładał przeprowadzenie prac rozwojowych na poziomie zarządzania platformą, zarządzania czasopismem oraz optymalizacji prezentacji artykułu. Zaplanowano i podzielono działania na etapy oraz rozpisano koszty realizacji poszczególnych zadań oraz wdrożenia nowych usług. Podjęte działania były zgodne z kierunkiem zmian według przyjętej Strategii UAM na lata 2020–2030 (dalej:\nStrategia UAM, 2021). Podniesienie prestiżu czasopism wydawanych przez UAM (cel cząstkowy 1.4.3) zawiera w sobie punkt dotyczący integracji uniwersyteckiego systemu wydawniczego, który realizowany jest dla czasopism poprzez rozwijanie Platformy PRESSto. Działania platformy korespondują również z zaleceniami Komisji\nEuropejskiej z lat 2012 i 2018 w sprawie otwartego publikowania, wpisują się także w założenia Planu S, który został opracowany przez sygnatariuszy cOAlition S i zaczął obowiązywać od 2021 r. W skali lokalnej PRESSto realizuje zapisy Strategii UAM oraz\nPolityki Otwartego Dostępu UAM (Zarządzenie Rektora nr 47/2020/2021) poprzez publikowanie czasopism w formule tzw. diamentowego otwartego dostępu (diamond open access), opatrując każdy artykuł odpowiednimi licencjami Creative Commons.\nObecnie na platformie swoje strony mają 93 czasopisma UAM (w tym 4 publikowane są w koedycji). W przypadku 10 czasopism PRESSto spełnia wyłącznie rolę archiwizacyjną, dzięki czemu ich treści są nadal dostępne w obiegu naukowym. To także wpisuje się w przyjętą politykę uczelni dotyczącą własnych czasopism.\nRozwój PRESSto i wsparcie dobrych praktyk publikacyjnych poprzez elementy projakościowe w nowych przepisach oraz grant ID-UB\nZe względu na opisane wcześniej zmiany prawne i nieustającą transformację cyfrową, aby wdrożyć ulepszenia na Platformie PRESSto, konieczne stało się dostosowanie przepisów oraz praktyk publikacyjnych do aktualnych potrzeb efektywnej komunikacji naukowej, a także monitorowanie pojawiających się nowych zaleceń dla redakcji i wydawców naukowych. W działalności współczesnych otwartych czasopism naukowych ważne są standardy dotyczące jakości procesu naukowo-wydawniczego oraz otwartości czasopisma (Kulczycki, 2013), normy opisów bibliograficznych różnych typów dokumentów elektronicznych (Matysek, 2017), a także rekomendacje dotyczące pozycjonowania treści naukowych, tzw. academic search engine optimization (dalej:\nASEO; Schilhan i in., 2021; Google Scholar; Wiley) oraz zasady jednolitej architektury informacji i prostej nawigacji w obrębie całych platform publikacyjnych (Pamuła-Cieślak, 2019).\n\nWszystkie te elementy są ważne z punktu widzenia czytelników, potencjalnych autorów, jak również ekspertów oceniających czasopisma, dlatego w 2022 r. zostały zmienione przepisy wewnętrzne dotyczące czasopism uczelnianych i przyjęto dwa dokumenty: Zarządzenie nr 238/2021/2022 Rektora Uniwersytetu im. Adama Mickiewicza w Poznaniu z dnia 24 czerwca 2022 roku w sprawie czasopism naukowych\nUAM oraz Platformy Otwartych Czasopism Naukowych UAM – PRESSto (dalej: ZR\n238/2021/2022); oraz Zarządzenie Dyrektora BUP nr 7/2022 dotyczące wprowadzenia Regulaminu elektronicznej Platformy Otwartych Czasopism Naukowych UAM –\nPRESSto (dalej: ZD 7/2022)\nW rozporządzeniach na nowo zdefiniowano zasady funkcjonowania czasopism\nUAM oraz uniwersyteckiej platformy czasopism PRESSto, a także w sposób jednoznaczny przypisano obowiązki i prawa stron: Uniwersytetu jako wydawcy lub współwydawcy, redakcji czasopism oraz zespołu PRESSto. Nowe przepisy były niezbędne do rozpoczęcia kolejnego etapu rozwoju czasopism, a także podniesienia jakości usług i zarządzania tak dużą platformą, jaką obecnie jest PRESSto.\nZarządzenie ZR 238/2021/2022 reguluje działalność wydawniczą wszystkich czasopism UAM w aspekcie prawnym i administracyjnym oraz precyzuje wynikające z tych regulacji obowiązki redaktora naczelnego. Zarządzenie ZD 7/2022 w sposób szczegółowy przedstawia obowiązki redakcji czasopisma i redakcji PRESSto, konieczne zmiany, do których wdrożenia zobowiązane są wszystkie redakcje korzystające z uniwersyteckiej platformy oraz optymalny przepływ prac między redakcją czasopisma a redakcją\nPRESSto. W ten sposób w Regulaminie PRESSto, nad którym pieczę sprawuje bezpośrednio Biblioteka, zamieszczono elementy podlegające częstszym zmianom wynikającym z bieżących potrzeb czasopism lub rynku naukowych publikacji cyfrowych, jak standardy wydawnicze publikacji elektronicznych, wymagania baz danych czy ASEO – co ułatwia sprawne wprowadzanie nowelizacji.\nW kontekście prowadzenia działań projakościowych poprzez Platformę PRESSto istotne było uściślenie w zarządzeniu ZR 238/2021/2022 procedury tworzenia i współwydawania czasopism UAM, a także zasad publikowania wersji elektronicznej czasopism na Platformie PRESSto. Dzięki temu uproszczona została część prac jednostek\nUAM zaangażowanych w sprawy uniwersyteckich czasopism.\nRównie ważne było przedefiniowanie i rozwinięcie kluczowych obowiązków redaktora naczelnego, co otwiera możliwości nowych kierunków rozwoju czasopisma i efektywne wdrażanie dobrych praktyk. Kolejną zmianą w rozporządzeniu jest zapis dotyczący jednostki odpowiedzialnej za prowadzenie i aktualizację wewnętrznego Rejestru\nCzasopism UAM (ReCZ) i jest nią obecnie Biblioteka Uniwersytecka w Poznaniu\n(BUP), w której realizowany jest projekt Platformy PRESSto. Ze względu na charakter\n\ndziałalności PRESSto i stały kontakt z wszystkimi redakcjami czasopism jest to właściwa jednostka, aby prowadzić taki rejestr oraz zapewnić aktualność wszystkich zapisów.\nZupełnie nowym elementem o charakterze projakościowym w zarządzeniu jest zapis ustanawiający cykliczny audyt czasopism UAM. Audyt jest narzędziem, które umożliwia ocenę faktycznego rozwoju czasopisma oraz ma wskazywać konieczne zmiany, zwłaszcza w odniesieniu do: punktualności wydań, wpływu na reprezentowaną przez periodyk dyscyplinę, umiędzynarodowienia i poziomu indeksacji oraz obecności w bazach danych i repozytoriach, udziału artykułów pracowników UAM w poszczególnych zeszytach, podjętych działań rozwojowych oraz pozyskiwania dofinansowań. Audyt z wykorzystaniem Platformy PRESSto pozwala na realizację założeń\nStrategii UAM dotyczących podniesienia jakości czasopism uczelni poprzez wsparcie redakcji aktywnie dążących do spełnienia kryteriów jakościowych, starania zmierzające do wprowadzenia czasopism UAM na powszechnie uznane międzynarodowe listy czasopism oraz wygaszanie tytułów nieznaczących dla dyscypliny.\nW Regulaminie Platformy PRESSto (ZD 7/2022) zawarto klarowny podział i opis zadań w systemie OJS wykonywanych przez zespół PRESSto i redakcje czasopism\n(z podziałem na role różnych użytkowników procesu komunikacji naukowej, w tym administratora, redaktora, autora, recenzenta itd.), jak również dostępne dla redakcji funkcjonalności systemu oraz zasady przygotowania i udostępniania materiałów na platformie.\nDocelowo, aby spełnić standardy rzetelności naukowej i dostosować czasopisma możliwie najlepiej do aktualnych wymogów otwartych publikacji naukowych, zamieszczono informacje zobowiązujące lub zachęcające redakcje m.in. do wydawania czasopism w trybie open volume; stosowania trwałych identyfikatorów (persistent identifier –\nPID), jak DOI (Digital Object Identifier; obligatoryjnie, co jest zgodne z wytycznymi\nNarodowego Centrum Nauki z 2021 r.), ORCID (Open Researcher and Contributor ID) czy ROR (Research Organization Registry); przyjęcia wytycznych COPE (The Committee on Publication Ethics) i wprowadzenia czasopisma do katalogu DOAJ (Directory of\nOpen Access Journals); rozbudowania artykułu o sekcje „Wkład autorów” i „Konflikt interesów” (obecnie zaś przygotowywane są również rekomendacje do sekcji artykułu dotyczącej użycia generatywnej sztucznej inteligencji)1. Określony został także limit prac autorstwa pracowników UAM w zeszycie i największe dopuszczalne opóźnienie wydawnicze dla różnej częstotliwości periodyków, po przekroczeniu którego blokowany zostaje dostęp do kont OJS, a czasopismo zostaje zarchiwizowane.\n1 Obecnie redakcja Pressto korzysta z wytycznych opracowanych przez Stowarzyszenie Wydawców\nSzkół Wyższych (Grejner, Adamczak i Jankowiak-Konik, 2024).\n\nW Regulaminie zamieszczono również przydatne dla redakcji wskazówki dotyczące\nASEO w zakresie prezentacji artykułu, uwzględniając profil czasopism publikowanych na PRESSto (są to głównie strony czasopism humanistycznych i nauk społecznych). Ich uzupełnieniem i rozwinięciem są szkolenia przygotowane dla redakcji czasopism UAM.\nNowe przepisy zostały szczegółowo zaprezentowane redakcjom na spotkaniu zorganizowanym wspólnie przez zespół PRESSto i Biuro ds. Nauki i Rankingów.\nObie jednostki złożyły również wspólnie wniosek grantowy pod koniec 2021 r. w programie „Inicjatywa doskonałości – uczelnia badawcza” (ID-UB), aby pozyskać środki na realizację działań rozwojowych. Przyjęty projekt pt. „Rozbudowa funkcjonalności i rozwój elektronicznej Platformy Otwartych Czasopism Naukowych UAM – PRESSto” został przewidziany na 61 miesięcy (1.12.2021–31.12.2026 r.) i podzielony na pięć etapów.\nDodatkowy budżet przeznaczono na sfinansowanie kosztów związanych z zatrudnieniem nowego pracownika, przeniesieniem archiwów czasopism UAM z komercyjnych platform na Platformę PRESSto, outsourcingowymi usługami prawnymi i informatycznymi, umowami członkowskimi w serwisach międzynarodowych.\nBez dodatkowych funduszy zapewnionych przez grant ID-UB nie byłoby możliwe podjęcie tak szeroko zakrojonych działań i podniesienia jakości oferowanych usług.\nAktualizacja systemu, uzupełnienie archiwów czasopism oraz działania wspierające ich widoczność\nJuż w marcu 2022 r. została podpisana umowa z zewnętrzną firmą informatyczną.\nZespół zyskał codzienną pomoc techniczną, rozpoczęto też etap paromiesięcznych przygotowań do przeprowadzenia upgrade’u systemu do najnowszej funkcjonalnej wersji.\nZgodnie z nowym zarządzeniem ZR 238/2021/2022 archiwa czasopism publikowanych do tej pory w otwartym dostępie na platformach komercyjnych miały się znaleźć na\nPRESSto, zapewniając im tym samym wieczystą archiwizację na PKP Preservation Project (PKP PN). W związku z tym, konieczna była migracja zawartości czasopism znajdujących się na platformie Sciendo. Zamówiona została specjalna wtyczka pozwalająca na półautomatyczny import rekordów. Prace musiały zostać zakończone przed rozpoczęciem upgrade’u ze względu na niekompatybilność wtyczki z nową wersją systemu.\nNiestety, różnice w pracy tych dwóch platform oraz w sposobie zapisywania metadanych w bazie, a także w używaniu różnych znaczników z zapisie XML spowodowały znaczny nakład pracy całej redakcji PRESSto. Metadane 1646 zaimportowanych artykułów należało porównać z informacjami w pliku PDF oraz nanieść ręcznie konieczne poprawki.\n\nW tym samym czasie informatyk biblioteczny wraz z firmą informatyczną przygotowywali bazę OJS oraz uniwersyteckie serwery do upgrade’u, jednocześnie zabezpieczając archiwum bazy i dostosowując ją do własnych potrzeb, a zespół PRESSto testował wersję próbną platformy. Konieczne było poznanie systemu, sprawdzenie jego wszystkich funkcjonalności, w tym przeprowadzenie prób pełnego procesu publikacyjnego (PKP Docs –\nDocumentation for OJS, OMP and All of the Public Knowledge Project’s Software, b.d.), oraz wybór nowego layoutu prezentującego strony każdego z 93 czasopism. Wymagało to przeanalizowania obecnych trendów modelu otwartego publikowania na portalach największych światowych wydawców naukowych. W procesie rozpoznawania rynku stwierdzono, że nie będzie konieczne wykupienie płatnych motywów, ponieważ PKP udostępnia szeroką gamę layoutów gotowych do użycia. Po sprawdzeniu i porównaniu wielu instalacji OJS na świecie, ostatecznie został wybrany motyw Health Sciences Theme (Open Journal Systems\nDemos, b.d.). Layout ten charakteryzuje się minimalizmem i prostotą formy, zapewniając przy tym elegancką prezentację wszystkich koniecznych informacji oraz statystyk artykułu.\nZ podobnymi wyzwaniami musiały się zmierzyć również inne platformy oparte na oprogramowaniu OJS, o czym można przeczytać w literaturze (Maistrovskaya i Newson, 2019).\nPodjęto decyzję o zamknięciu Platformy PRESSto na dwa tygodnie w październiku 2022 r. Redakcje czasopism zostały poinformowane o przerwie w działaniu systemu, w tym zawieszeniu możliwości obsługi pełnego procesu redakcyjnego, co było kwestią wielce problematyczną w pracach redakcyjnych. Tak długi czas konieczny był nie tylko na przeprowadzenie upgrade’u, ale również na uaktualnienie wizualne stron czasopism, stworzenie nowych grafik banerów, konfigurację szablonów oraz indywidualnego menu każdej ze stron czasopism. Aktualizację udało się skończyć przed przewidzianym terminem, co zostało przyjęte pozytywnie przez redakcje. Tym samym rozpoczął się etap szkoleń.\nSzkolenia były ważnym etapem ze względu na zmiany wprowadzone w 2022 r. oraz zwiększenie liczby administrowanych przez zespół PRESSto stron czasopism do 93.\nIstotne było więc przygotowanie redakcji do pracy według nowych rozporządzeń oraz obsługi nowego interfejsu panelu administracyjnego. Dodatkowo wprowadzono też stałe dyżury szkoleniowe dla użytkowników systemu.\nRozpoczęły się warsztaty w zakresie:\n■ funkcjonowania i obsługi nowej wersji OJS – interfejs panelu administracyjnego znacząco różnił się od poprzedniej wersji, dlatego szkolenia cieszyły się dużym zainteresowaniem,\n■ obsługi narzędzia antyplagiatowego – według nowych zasad redakcje po wyjaśnieniu reguł analizy uzyskanych raportów otrzymują bezpośredni dostęp do opłaconego przez uczelnię systemu iThenticate (Crossref Similarity Check), (IThenticate\nUser Guide, b.d.),\n\n■ prowadzenia pełnego procesu publikacyjnego – podczas tych warsztatów wyjaśniano wątpliwości redakcji związane z przeniesieniem całego procesu publikacyjnego na platformę; wielu redaktorów obawiało się reakcji recenzentów i autorów, którzy dotąd nie korzystali z narzędzi tego typu. Szczegółowe omówienie funkcjonalności oraz dostosowanie elementów systemu do indywidualnych potrzeb czasopisma często wpływało na zmianę stanowiska redakcji.\nZespół PRESSto wspiera działania redakcji, aby zwiększyć widoczność i zasięg czasopism. W tym celu prowadzone są szkolenia dotyczące przygotowania zgłoszeń do międzynarodowych baz indeksujących, takich jak Scopus, Web of Science, ERIH+ czy\nDOAJ; sposobu prezentacji elementów uwzględniających ASEO; promocji w międzynarodowych serwisach naukowo-informacyjnych.\nBędąc w stałym kontakcie z przedstawicielami baz, redakcja PRESSto na bieżąco aktualizuje swoją wiedzę na temat najnowszych wytycznych dla czasopism, prowadzi szkolenia z redakcjami oraz dokonuje wstępnej oceny stron, uwzględniając następujące elementy: cel i zasięg czasopisma, opis procesu recenzji, etykę publikacyjną zgodną z wytycznymi COPE, stosowaną politykę antyplagiatową i otwartego dostępu (OA), zapisy prawnoautorskie. Organizuje także spotkania z osobami reprezentującymi bazy.\nOprócz powyższych działań, w celu zapewnienia lepszego pozycjonowania zespół\nPRESSto analizuje sam układ artykułów i sposób ich prezentacji w pliku PDF pod kątem wymagań ASEO, np. dobór odpowiednich słów kluczowych i sposób ich użycia w tytule, abstrakcie, tekście głównym artykułu, konsekwentne używanie nazw własnych, zastosowanie podziału tekstu z uwzględnieniem śródtytułów (sekcji), zastosowanie grafiki wektorowej (Beel i in., 2010). Zwraca się również uwagę na odpowiednie zaprezentowanie na pierwszej stronie tekstu numerów DOI, angielskojęzycznego tytułu i abstraktu oraz odpowiedniej licencji.\nW ramach grantu Inicjatywa doskonałości – uczelnia badawcza (ID-UB) Biblioteka\nUniwersytecka w Poznaniu wykupiła dostęp do platformy AlphaGalileo, będącej swego rodzaju internetowym mostem łączącym praktyków nauki i technologii z mediami, a tym samym z opinią publiczną, umożliwiającym nową kulturę komunikacji naukowej w Europie. Serwis moderowany i prowadzony przez niezależną organizację AlphaGalileo Ltd. przyjmuje komunikaty prasowe o postępach w badaniach od ponad 2 tysięcy instytucji i autorów i rozprowadza je do ponad 7 tysięcy dziennikarzy w 85 krajach\n(AlphaGalileo > AlphaGalileo > About Us, b.d.). W przeciągu 10 miesięcy korzystania z serwisu została zamieszczona informacja o 58 artykułach znajdujących się na Platformie PRESSto, co skutkowało blisko 200 tysiącami rozesłanych alertów (informacją mailową o nowym artykule na dany temat), 12 tysiącami wejść na posty i blisko 200 przekierowaniami na stronę wybranego artykułu znajdującego się na Platformie PRESSto.\n\nPo prawie rocznej pracy z serwisem AlphaGalileo redakcja PRESSto zauważa przydatność narzędzia do promocji nie tylko czasopism Uniwersytetu im. Adama Mickiewicza, ale również do wydarzeń uniwersyteckich. W tym celu dostęp do serwisu otrzymały również osoby odpowiedzialne za promocję uczelni oraz niektórych wydziałów.\nW najbliższym czasie zaplanowane jest testowanie kolejnego ogólnoświatowego serwisu EurekAlert, na zakup którego fundusze przewidziane zostały w realizowanym przez PRESSto grancie ID-UB.\nDzięki takim inicjatywom redakcje czasopism zyskują dodatkową przestrzeń promocji treści opublikowanych w czasopismach UAM.\nAudyt czasopism UAM\nAudyt czasopism był zasadniczym elementem planu wdrożenia zmian projakościowych, dzięki któremu dokonano ogólnej oceny stanu rozwoju czasopism, ich mocnych i słabych stron oraz oszacowano możliwości wsparcia. Realny okres rozwoju czasopisma, po którym można miarodajnie ocenić zmianę jakości praktyk wydawniczych i wpływu czasopisma, to okres ok. 5–6 lat (Sondervana i Stigter, 2017; Molls, 2019). Można go jednak podzielić na dwuletnie etapy, aby dokonać ocen cząstkowych zmian poszczególnych elementów polityki publikacyjnej czasopisma, dlatego zarządzono cykliczny audyt czasopism, a pierwszy z nich odbył się w czerwcu 2023 r.\nRozbudowany audyt czasopism uczelnianych z wykorzystaniem danych z Platformy PRESSto jest pierwszym tego typu działaniem w skali naszego kraju. Opublikowano kompleksowe raporty podsumowujące stan rozwoju czasopism w Polsce (Kulczycki i Korytkowski, 2020a i b) lub analizy wybranych cech grup czasopism (Drabek i Bemke-Świtilnik, 2020; 2021), a nawet wybranych cech wszystkich czasopism w obrębie platformy OJS (Pamuła-Cieślak, 2019). Jednak dzięki zastosowaniu danych ilościowych w bieżącym badaniu uzyskano wyniki dla całego zbioru czasopism platformy również na poziomie analizy poszczególnych artykułów, a takich informacji dotąd brak w literaturze.\nAudyt przeprowadzono na podstawie materiału przygotowanego i przeanalizowanego przez zespół PRESSto oraz Pracownię Komunikacji Naukowej. Zaznaczyć należy, że całość prac stanowiła pierwsze zadanie, jakie wykonane zostało przez Centrum\nNaukometryczne, powstałe w połowie 2022 r. z inicjatywy dra hab. Emanuela Kulczyckiego, prof. UAM, kierownika Pracowni Komunikacji Naukowej (PKN) oraz dyrekcji\nBiblioteki Uniwersyteckiej w Poznaniu (BUP), dr Małgorzaty Dąbrowicz oraz mgr Małgorzaty Rychlik. Centrum Naukometryczne składa się z pracowników Oddziału Informacji i Transferu Wiedzy BUP oraz PKN, a jego celem jest wsparcie własnej uczelni,\n\njak i całego środowiska bibliotekarzy poznańskich i krajowych w zakresie analiz naukometrycznych, a także dydaktyki naukometrii.\nPodstawą analiz były dane ilościowe i jakościowe uzyskane z bazy OJS oraz od redakcji czasopism. Wybrano cechy wskaźnikowe ocenione jako najbardziej przydatne do celów pierwszego audytu, a następnie opracowano metodykę zbioru danych z okresu trzech lat (2020–2022). Na ich podstawie prześledzono wybrane lata wydawnicze na poziomie całych czasopism oraz poszczególnych artykułów.\nEfektem tych działań jest raport prezentujący charakterystykę czasopism działających przy UAM w ujęciu bibliometrycznym oraz pod względem wdrożenia dobrych praktyk i standardów wydawniczych. Dodatkowo, aby zwiększyć czytelność wyników w kontekście prowadzonej polityki wydziałowej, informacje zaprezentowano również na poziomie jednostek organizacyjnych UAM.\nCzasopisma podzielono na trzy grupy pod względem aktywności wydawniczej i oceniono w szczególności: punktualność wydawania, uporządkowanie prawne, standardy wydawnicze, w tym liczbę stron internetowych czasopisma, standardy edytorskie, udział w programie Rozwój czasopism naukowych, indeksowanie w bazach danych\nERIH+, Scopus, Web of Science Core Collection, cytowalność czasopism według danych\nCrossref wyrażoną w stosunku liczby cytowań do liczby artykułów, autorów zagranicznych, roku założenia czasopisma oraz wizyt na stronie www. Analizy na poziomie artykułów dotyczyły ich liczby, autorów wywodzących się z uczelni macierzystej i zagranicznych, stosowania angielskiej wersji tytułu, abstraktu i słów kluczowych (co jest wymogiem w indeksowaniu do bazy Scopus i WoS), stosowania identyfikatorów\nDOI oraz bibliografii załącznikowej wprowadzonej co najmniej na platformie.\nPodsumowaniem raportu jest zestawienie tabelaryczne kluczowych wskaźników dla czasopism oraz rekomendacje dla redakcji. Na podstawie raportu zespół kontrolny przygotował podsumowanie oraz zalecenia dla czasopism.\nEfekty wprowadzonych zmian i nowe wyzwania\nDziałania projakościowe realizowane przez Platformę PRESSto wymagały prześledzenia światowych trendów w rozwoju podobnych platform oraz kierunku rozwoju czasopism i prezentacji ich treści. Jednocześnie niezbędne było określenie największych problemów, z jakimi borykają się redakcje macierzystej uczelni, tak aby zaplanować działania rozwojowe, uwzględniając bieżącą sytuację czasopism.\nJuż po przeprowadzeniu pierwszego etapu projektu rozwojowego można zauważyć korzyści płynące z wprowadzanych zmian. Podstawowym zadaniem było zebranie informacji o wszystkich czasopismach wydawanych na UAM, jednak najważniejszy był\n\naudyt czasopism, który miał realny wpływ na dalsze działania i funkcjonowanie platformy. Pozwolił na ocenę zgodności z obowiązującymi standardami działania współczesnego czasopisma naukowego oraz zainicjował opracowanie kompleksowego planu, który przyczynił się do uzupełnienia brakujących elementów i opracowania dalszych działań.\nW długofalowej perspektywie PRESSto ma zagwarantować utrzymanie i rozwój technologicznie zaawansowanego poziomu zarządzania czasopismami z jednoczesną redukcją kosztów infrastruktury informatycznej, zapewniając miejsce wspólnej prezentacji czasopism UAM, ich zawartości oraz promocji. Istotna jest ochrona dorobku czasopism przed ewentualną utratą i stałe podnoszenie praktyk wydawniczych czasopism.\nCiągłe zmiany na rynku wydawniczym i rozwój technologii informatycznych wpływa na prezentację treści naukowych oraz konieczność nieustannej dbałości o jakość standardów wydawniczych. Najlepszym przykładem tempa zmian jest pojawienie się w 2022 r. zaawansowanego narzędzia generatywnej sztucznej inteligencji, jakim jest ChatGPT, które w ciągu dwóch miesięcy spowodowało zmiany w polityce publikacyjnej największych międzynarodowych wydawców naukowych, jak Natur e (Tools such as ChatGPT..., 2023; Why Nature will not allow..., 2023; Stokel-Walker, 2023),\nScience (Holden Thorp, 202 3; Science Journals, 2023), The Lancet (2023) i innych. Jest to jedno z obecnych wyzwań, które muszą być brane pod uwagę i z którymi również zespół PRESSto będzie musiał zmierzyć się w najbliższym czasie.\nBibliografia\nAlphaGalileo > AlphaGalileo > About us. (b.d.). https://www.alphagalileo.org/en-gb/AlphaGalileo/\nAbout- us(dostęp: 08.08.2023).\nBeel, J., Gipp, B., Wilde, E. (2010). Academic Search Engine Optimization (ASEO). Journal of Scholarly\nPublishing, 41(2), 176–190. https://doi.org/10.3138/jsp.41.2.176\nChan, L., Cuplinskas, D., Eisen, M., Friend, F., Genova, Y., Guédon, J., Hagemann, M., Harnad, S., Johnson, R., Kupryte, R., La Manna, M., Rév, I., Segbert, M., de Souza, S., Suber, P., & Velterop, J. (2002).\nRead the Budapest Open Access Initiative. Budapest Open Access Initiative. Last Updated February\n14, 2002. https://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org/read (dostęp: 08.08.2023).\nCommittee on Publication Ethics. (2022). Principles of Transparency and Best Practice in Scholarly\nPublishing. https://doi.org/10.24318/cope.2019.1.12\nDerfert-Wolf, L. (2022). Działalność wydawnicza bibliotek szkół wyższych w rozwoju komunikacji naukowej. Biuletyn EBIB. https://ebibojs.pl/index.php/ebib/article/view/795 (dostęp: 08.08.2023).\nDrabek, A., Bemke-Świtilnik, M. (2020). Polskie czasopisma naukowe w świetle wybranych elementów oceny stosowanych w międzynarodowych bazach danych. W: Biblioteki uczelniane wobec środowiska akademickiego. Nowe obszary działania. Materiały Jubileuszowej Konferencji Biblioteki Głównej\nAGH z okazji obchodów 100-lecia Akademii Górniczo-Hutniczej im. Stanisława Staszica, Kraków\n12–13 września 2019 r. Podrazik, A., Stanek-Kapcia, J., Urbaniec, M. (red.). Wydawnictwo AGH, s. 107–132.\n\nDrabek, A., Bemke-Świtilnik, M. (2021). Międzynarodowe czy krajowe? Analiza bibliometryczna polskich czasopism pedagogicznych. Forum Pedagogiczne, 1, 29–49. https://doi.org/10.21697/ fp.2021.1.03\nFlanagin, A, Bibbins-Domingo, K, Berkwits M, Christiansen S. L. (2023). Nonhuman “Authors” and\nImplications for the Integrity of Scientific Publication and Medical Knowledge. JAMA, 329(8),\n637–639. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2023.1344\nGoogle Scholar. Inclusion. https://scholar.google.co.uk/intl/en/scholar/inclusion.html (dostęp:\n30.08.2023).\nGrejner A., Adamczak, M., Jankowiak-Konik, B. (2024) Stanowisko i rekomendacje Stowarzyszenia\nWydawców Szkół Wyższych w kwestii stosowania narzędzi generatywnej sztucznej inteligencji\n(GAI) w pisaniu prac naukowych. Biuletyn EBIB, 2(213). https://ebibojs.pl/index.php/ebib/article/ view/911 (dostęp: 22.05.2024).\nHahn, K. L. (2008). Research Library Publishing Services New Options for University Publishing. https:// www.arl.org/resources/research-library-publishing-services-new-options-for-university-publishing/\nHolden Thorp, H. (2023). ChatGPT is fun, but not an author. Science, 379, 313–313. https://doi.\norg/10.1126/science.adg7879.\nIThenticate User Guide. (b.d.). https://help.turnitin.com/ithenticate/ithenticate-user/ithenticate-user.\nhtm#Documents (dostęp: 30.08.2023).\nKhanna, S., Raoni, J., Smecher, A., Alperin, J. P., Ball, J., Willinsky, J. (b.d.). Details of publications using software by the Public Knowledge Project, Harvard Dataverse, V3; Location of known journals using\nPKP’s Open Journal Systems.pdf. Harvard Dataverse, V3. https://doi.org/10.7910/DVN/OCZNVY.\nKarwasińska, E. (2017). Biblioteczne usługi wydawnicze – nowa rola biblioteki naukowej, W: E. Kul-t czycki (red.), Komunikacja naukowa w humanistyce (s. 237–263). Wydawnictwo Naukowe Instytutu Filozofii UAM.\nKierunki rozwoju otwartego dostępu do publikacji i wyników badań naukowych w Polsce. (2015). https:// www.gov.pl/documents/1068557/1069061/20180413_Kierunki_rozwoju_OD_wersja_ostateczna.pdf\nKulczycki, E. (2013). Otwarte czasopisma, zakładanie czasopism naukowych oraz transformacja czasopism zamkniętych. Stowarzyszenie EBIB.\nKulczycki, E., Korytkowski, P. (2020a). Analiza gotowości polskich czasopism na Plan S. https://doi.\norg/10.6084/m9.figshare.12005475\nKulczycki, E., Korytkowski, P. (2020b). Standardy wydawnicze polskich czasopism naukowych w latach\n2017–2019. https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.11734350\nThe Lancet. (2023). For authors. https://www.thelancet.com/publishing-excellence (dostęp: 30.08.2023).\nMaistrovskaya, M., Newson, K. (2019). Making the Move to Open Journal Systems 3: Recommendations for a (mostly) painless upgrade. Code4lib, 43. https://journal.code4lib.org/articles/14260\nMatysek, A. (2017). Cytowania dokumentów elektronicznych w wydawnictwach naukowych. Nowa\nBiblioteka. Usługi, Technologie Informacyjne i Media, 4(27), 53–68.\nMolls, E. (2019). Assessing the Success of Library Published Journals, Against the Grain, 31(4), Article 13.\nhttps://doi.org/10.7771/2380-176X.8414\nNarodowe Centrum Nauki. (2021). Instrukcja. Polityka NCN dotycząca otwartego dostępu do publikacji. https://www.ncn.gov.pl/aktualnosci/2021-10-28-instrukcja-open-access (dostęp: 30.08.2023).\nOpen Journal Systems Demos. https://demo.publicknowledgeproject.org/ojs3/demo/ (dostęp:\n30.08.2023).\nPKP Docs – Documentation for OJS, OMP and all of the Public Knowledge Project’s software. (n.d.). PKP\nDocs. https://docs.pkp.sfu.ca/#appojs3\n\nPamuła-Cieślak, N. (2019). Wybrane elementy architektury informacji platform wydawniczych czasopism otwartych a standardy publikowania naukowego na przykładzie Akademickiej Platformy\nCzasopism. Nowa Biblioteka. Usługi, Technologie Informacyjne i Media, 3(34), 7–24. http://repozytorium.umk.pl/handle/item/6233\nRozporządzenie Ministra Nauki i Szkolnictwa Wyższego z dnia 7 listopada 2018 r. w sprawie sporządzania wykazów wydawnictw monografii naukowych oraz czasopism naukowych i recenzowanych materiałów z konferencji międzynarodowych, Dz.U. 2018 poz. 2152, https://isap.sejm.gov.pl/isap.\nnsf/DocDetails.xsp?id=WDU20180002152\nSidyk, D., Gloc, R. (2020). Wydawnicza nowoczesność: czyli wdrożenie Open Journal System w czasopiśmie naukowym “Com.press”. Com.press, 3(2), 102–106. https://compress.edu.pl/e-wydania/ item/wydawnicza-nowoczesnosc-czyli-wdrozenie-open-journal-system-w-czasopismie-naukowym-com-press\nScience Journals (2023). Editorial Policies. https://www.science.org/content/page/science-journals-editorial-policies?adobe_mc=MCMID%3D13352884285281144871374795544394021688|MCOR-\nGID%3D242B6472541199F70A4C98A6@AdobeOrg|TS%3D1686421753#authorship (dostęp:\n30.08.2023).\nSchilhan, L., Kaier, C., Lackner, K. (2021). Increasing visibility and discoverability of scholarly publications with academic search engine optimization. Insights: The UKSG Journal, 34(1), 6. https:// doi.org/10.1629/uksg.534\nSondervan, J., Stigter, F. (2017). Sustainable open access for scholarly journals in 6 years – the incubator model at Utrecht University Library open access journals. Learned Publishing, 31(3), 230–234.\nhttps://doi.org/10.1002/leap.1151.\nSprawozdanie z działalności Biblioteki Uniwersyteckiej za rok 2014. (b.d.) https://lib.amu.edu.pl/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/spr_bu_2014.pdf (dostęp: 30.08.2023).\nSprawozdanie z działalności Biblioteki Uniwersyteckiej. (2015) https://lib.amu.edu.pl/wp-content/ uploads/2018/05/spr_bu_2015.pdf (dostęp: 30.08.2023).\nStokel-Walker, C. (2023). ChatGPT listed as author on research papers: many scientists disapprove.\nNature, 613, 620–621. https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-023-00107-z (dostęp: 30.08.2023).\nStrategia Uniwersytetu im. Adama Mickiewicza w Poznaniu na lata 2020–2030. (2021). https://bip.amu.\nedu.pl/__data/assets/pdf_file/0032/219974/US-93-2020-2021-Zal..pdf (dostęp: 30.08.2023).\nTools such as ChatGPT threaten transparent science; here are our ground rules for their use. (2023).\nNature 613(7945), 612. https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-023-00191-1\nUNESCO Recommendation on Open Science. (2021). https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/ pf0000379949.locale=en (dostęp: 30.08.2023).\nWhy “Nature” will not allow the use of generative AI in images and video. (2023). Nature, 618(7964), 214.\nhttps://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-023-01546-4\nWiley. Search Engine Optimization: For Authors. https://www.wiley.com/legacy/wileyblackwell/pdf/\nSEOforAuthorsLINKSrev.pdf (dostęp: 30.08.2023).\nZarządzenie Dyrektora BUP nr 7/2022 dotyczące wprowadzenia Regulaminu elektronicznej Platformy\nOtwartych Czasopism Naukowych UAM – PRESSto. (2022). https://pressto.amu.edu.pl/ojs_3/pliki/ info/Regulamin%20PRESSTO_Zarz%C4%85dzenie%20dyrektora%20BUP%20nr%207_2022.pdf\n(dostęp: 30.08.2023).\nZarządzenie nr 238/2021/2022 Rektora Uniwersytetu im. Adama Mickiewicza w Poznaniu z dnia\n24 czerwca 2022 roku w sprawie czasopism naukowych UAM oraz Platformy Otwartych Czasopism\nNaukowych UAM – PRESSto. (2022). https://bip.amu.edu.pl/__data/assets/pdf_file/0020/381260/\nZR-238-2021-2022.pdf (dostęp: 30.08.2023).\n\nAnna Zatora\nORCID: 0000-0003-4597-5568\nKatedra Teorii Literatury\nInstytut Kultury Współczesnej\nWydział Filologiczny\nUniwersytet Łódzki\nROR: https://ror.org/05cq64r17\nWyjść cało z tradycji.\nZagadnienia Rodzajów Literackich jako nowoczesne czasopismo naukowe\nAbstrakt: W artykule analizuję czasopismo naukowe Zagadnienia Rodzajów Literackich / The Problems of Literary Genres (ISSN 0084-4446, e-ISSN 2451-0335) pod kątem przekształcenia modelu wydawania periodyku z modelu tradycyjnego w model open access. Konieczność dostosowania się do zmieniającego się rynku wydawniczego w Polsce i na świecie, wynikająca również z rozwoju otwartej nauki, wymusza na wydawcach i redakcjach czasopism podejmowanie działań zmierzających do zwiększenia widoczności publikowanych treści, bezpieczeństwa danych i zgodności z międzynarodowymi standardami, m.in. opracowania metadanych. W ciągu ostatnich kilku lat z inicjatywy redakcji i przy aprobacie wydawcy wprowadzono w Zagadnieniach Rodzajów Literackich wiele zmian – od przeniesienia strony czasopisma na platformę OJS, przez udostępnienie numerów archiwalnych w repozytorium instytucjonalnym i wprowadzenie otwartych licencji, po standaryzację metadanych. Artykuł przedstawia historię rozwoju czasopisma ze szczególnym uwzględnieniem współpracy redakcji z Łódzkim Towarzystwem\nNaukowym (główny wydawca), Wydawnictwem Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego (współwydawca) oraz Biblioteką Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego (administrator repozytorium). Przypadek Zagadnień Rodzajów Literackich dowodzi, że czasopismo humanistyczne istniejące od 65 lat może spełniać wymagania stawiane nowoczesnym periodykom naukowym w świecie otwartej nauki i transformacji cyfrowej.\nSłowa kluczowe: polskie czasopisma naukowe, otwarty dostęp, otwarta nauka w Polsce,\nZagadnienia Rodzajów Literackich, Stefania Skwarczyńska\n\nCzasopisma naukowe w XXI wieku – klęska urodzaju?1\nNapisanie artykułu naukowego powinno być najtrudniejszą, zaraz po przeprowadzeniu badań, częścią cyklu pracy naukowca. Komunikacja naukowa została jednak na tyle zdominowana przez jej aspekt ewaluacyjny, że tzw. mierzenie nauki (Kulczycki, 2023) stało się kluczowe i wpłynęło znacząco m.in. na rynek wydawnictw naukowych, a co za tym idzie – najtrudniejsze okazuje się dziś nie przygotowanie rozprawy naukowej, lecz znalezienie odpowiedniego dla niej miejsca.\nTrudno określić, ile jest aktywnych czasopism naukowych w Polsce. Dane są zmienne, codziennie rejestrowane są nowe numery ISSN i e-ISSN, czasopisma zawieszają i wznawiają działalność, a biorąc pod uwagę dążenie do umiędzynarodowienia nauki, należałoby postawić pytanie: ile jest aktywnych czasopism naukowych na świecie? W datowanym na 18 lipca 2023 r. wykazie czasopism punktowanych Ministerstwa Edukacji i Nauki znalazło się 34 318 periodyków (MEiN, 2023). W opublikowanym w czerwcu 2023 r.\nCiteScore Metric 2022 firmy Elsevier (badanie wpływu cytowań periodyków naukowych) jest mowa o ponad 28 100 tytułach aktywnych czasopism (Scopus, 2023), a są to przecież wyłącznie czasopisma indeksowane w bazie Scopus. Zajmuję się łódzkim czasopismem, więc warto dodać, że Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego w 2021 r. wydawało 40 periodyków naukowych (drugie miejsce w Polsce pod względem liczby wydawanych czasopism, pierwsze wśród podmiotów z sektora publicznego2). Sam Wydział Filologiczny Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego na swojej stronie internetowej informuje w tej chwili3 o 22 aktywnych tytułach czasopism naukowych z nim związanych — a to tylko jeden wydział jednej polskiej uczelni4. Łódzki literaturoznawca mógłby opublikować co najmniej kilka prac rocznie w samych instytucjonalnych periodykach5.\n1 Artykuł powstawał w 2023 r. i pozostaje osadzony w ówczesnej sytuacji społecznej i prawnej.\nZmianie uległy niektóre opisywane elementy rzeczywistości (np. ministerstwo właściwe ds. nauki czy polityka Narodowego Centrum Nauki dotycząca otwartego dostępu), ale i zmodernizowano witrynę omawianego czasopisma (układ treści) i zmieniono zasady licencjonowania (domyślna licencja: CC BY; nowy wzór umowy wydawniczej od 2025) – są to zmiany potwierdzające kierunek rozwoju periodyku przedstawiony w tekście.\n2 Pierwszą lokatę zajął DeGruyter/Sciendo, wydając 141 tytułów. Zob. Biała Księga... (2021), s. 15.\n3 Dane na dzień 14.08.2023 r., zob. https://www.filolog.uni.lodz.pl/strefa-pracownika/ publikacje-i-czasopisma-wydzialowe.\n4 W raporcie OPI za rok 2022 jest mowa o 608 instytucjach naukowych, tworzących „sferę nauki”, w tym o 369 uczelniach (Nauka w Polsce..., 2022, s. 14). Oczywiście nie wszystkie wydają czasopisma naukowe, jednak wystarczy, żeby robiła to połowa, by liczba periodyków była wysoka.\n5 Co oczywiście nie byłoby wskazane – przykład pokazuje jednak skalę problemu.\n\nZ morza tytułów naukowiec musi wyłowić taki, który spełni jego oczekiwania pod wieloma względami. Najlepiej, żeby czasopismo było punktowane przez MEiN (to istotne dla pracodawcy, czyli najczęściej uczelni / ośrodka naukowego ocenianego przez\nMEiN i istotne dla samego naukowca, który również jest przez pryzmat „punktodochodowości” oceniany), akceptowane przez grantodawcę (jeśli badanie jest finansowane dodatkowo z grantu, a często jest), indeksowane w prestiżowych bazach danych i dobrze widoczne (wskaźniki cytowań), rzetelne (zwłaszcza w obliczu rosnącego problemu tzw.\nczasopism drapieżnych6), zgodne z reprezentowaną przez badacza dyscypliną (a wciąż pojawiają się nowe dyscypliny, jak choćby niedawno wprowadzona przez MEiN polonistyka), a także – last but not least – o wysokiej wartości naukowej (z wiarygodną redakcją i procesem recenzowania). Do wymienionych aspektów należy dodać jeszcze powiązane z nimi kwestie kosztów publikacji (article processing charges i ewentualne inne koszty) i praw autorskich (dbałość o nieprzekazywanie praw majątkowych do tekstów i wskazywanie odpowiednich licencji), na które coraz częściej zwraca się uwagę, zwłaszcza w kontekście publikowania w modelach open access (Brzozowska,\nPiestrzyński i Zatora, 2021).\nWspółczesny, bardzo wymagający, model publikowania tekstów naukowych to wyzwanie nie tylko dla autorów, ale również dla wydawców i redakcji czasopism. Utrzymanie się na rynku (czy w „sferze nauki”, jeśli odejść od postrzegania publikacji naukowych w kontekście biznesowym) nie jest łatwe, a jeśli przy tym twórcom periodyku zależy na zachowaniu wysokiej jakości naukowej i dziedzictwa historycznego, w niektórych przypadkach nawet wielu pokoleń, konieczne okazuje się balansowanie między tradycją a nowoczesnością. Niniejszy tekst prezentuje sylwetkę jednego z najstarszych polskich czasopism o profilu literaturoznawczym, które od ponad sześćdziesięciu lat znacząco wpływa na rozwój badań przede wszystkim nad genologią literacką.\nZagadnienia Rodzajów Literackich. Formy kultury i teorii\nTytuł Zagadnienia Rodzajów Literackich7 (ang. The Problems of Literary Genres) dla współczesnego czytelnika, nawet dla tego, do którego czasopismo jest adresowane, czyli dla badacza/pasjonata literatury, brzmi nieco archaicznie i hermetycznie. Rodzaje i gatunki literackie, będące wciąż przedmiotem studiów, nie przestały być ważne, jednak\n6 Na temat problemów z tzw. drapieżnymi czasopismami/wydawcami – zob. Grudniewicz i in., 2019.\n7 Rok założenia: 1958. ISSN: 0084-4446, e-ISSN: 2451-0335. DOI: https://doi.org/10.26485/ZRL.\nWitryna internetowa: https://journals.ltn.lodz.pl/index.php/Zagadnienia-Rodzajow-Literackich/ index. E-mail: [REDACTED:EMAIL].\n\njuż w 1957 r., gdy rodziła się idea Zagadnień Rodzajów Literackich, w polskim środowisku naukowym wyrażano wątpliwość, czy tak wąski zakres tematyczny nie wpłynie negatywnie na zainteresowanie periodykiem i nie sprawi, że po kilku numerach zagadnienia – nomen omen – wyczerpią się (Hübner, 2019). Wątpliwości dotyczyły zarówno zakresu (genologia literacka nie przyciągnie zbyt wielu badaczy) i tytułu (jeśli spodoba się teoretykom literatury, zniechęci historyków literatury i odwrotnie), jak i samej idei zakładania kolejnego literaturoznawczego periodyku (skoro można publikować teksty o gatunkach literackich w innych czasopismach, po co tworzyć nowe?). Mimo wielu przeciwności i po niejednej zmianie koncepcji Stefania Skwarczyńska doprowadziła do otwarcia przez reaktywowane po drugiej wojnie światowej Łódzkie Towarzystwo\nNaukowe nowego czasopisma. Początki Zagadnień Rodzajów Literackich szczegółowo opisała Irena Hübner, nie będę referować tych ważnych i ciekawych ustaleń, a jedynie wspomnę o tym, co najważniejsze w kontekście zmian, jakie zaszły w periodyku w ostatnich latach.\nCzasopismo nie powstałoby, gdyby nie poprzedzający jego stworzenie zamysł opracowania Słownika rodzajów literackich – dzieła totalnego, którego twórcy podjęliby próbę nie tylko zdefiniowania (w postaci obszernych haseł) pojęć istotnych dla całej literatury światowej, ale także dla twórczości ludowej i literatury użytkowej (Hübner,\n2019, s. 139). Zamierzenie Stefanii Skwarczyńskiej w pewnym stopniu zrealizował dopiero Słownik rodzajów i gatunków literackich pod redakcją Grzegorza Gazdy i Słowini Tyneckiej-Makowskiej (2006)8, zaś w 1958 r., zamiast tworzyć zespół zajmujący się hasłami z zakresu genologii, ówczesna szefowa Katedry Teorii Literatury, wraz z Janem\nTrzynadlowskim i Witoldem Ostrowskim, powołała do życia czasopismo naukowe9.\nHistoria Zagadnień Rodzajów Literackich jest o tyle ważna, że w ciągu kilkudziesięciu lat swojego istnienia, aż do ubiegłego dziesięciolecia, czasopismo było postrzegane jako wydawnictwo międzynarodowe, ale skoncentrowane głównie na Europie Środkowo-\n-Wschodniej, głównie z uwagi na to, że to zza wschodnich i południowych granic Polski pochodziło wielu znakomitych autorów publikujących tu swoje prace. W ostatnich\n8 Jak pisze Roma Sendyka: „Pomysł, sformułowany w 1947 roku, był latami realizowany przez imponującą grupę (dorobkiem, skalą zainteresowań, polem operacji, wreszcie: liczbą) współpracowników. Rachunki z roku 2006 pozwoliły Grzegorzowi Gazdzie ustalić liczbę przygotowanych haseł na blisko 600. Zebrany materiał jest rezultatem wytężonej pracy wybitnych badaczy, w swej potencjalnej całości obejmuje nieporównywalną z żadnym podobnym leksykonem terminologicznym porcję informacji, zapewne można tu spokojnie mówić o ewenemencie w skali globu”\n(Sendyka, 2009, s. 152).\n9 Funkcję redaktora naczelnego czasopisma pełnili: Stefania Skwarczyńska (1958–1988), Jan\nTrzynadlowski (1989–1995) i Grzegorz Gazda (1996–2010). Od 2010 roku redaktorem naczelnym jest Jarosław Płuciennik.\n\nlatach więcej w Zagadnieniach Rodzajów Literackich tekstów z Zachodu, najwięcej natomiast autorstwa rodzimych badaczy literatury i kultury. Istotną zmianą jest również wyraźne rozszerzenie zakresu tematycznego: kadencja Jarosława Płuciennika10 jako redaktora naczelnego otworzyła łamy czasopisma na publikacje kulturoznawcze (dziś, jak woli MEiN, z zakresu nauk o kulturze i religii) i dotyczące sztuk. Do tytułu dodano człon „Formy kultury i teorii”, który nie tylko stanowi ornament winiety czasopisma od 2021 r., ale informuje czytelników i potencjalnych autorów o teoretycznym (tradycyjnie) i kulturowym (nowocześnie) profilu publikowanych prac.\nZagadnienia Rodzajów Literackich od początku (1958) wydaje Łódzkie Towarzystwo Naukowe, najpierw we współpracy z Zakładem Narodowym im. Ossolińskich we\nWrocławiu (1958–1982), potem zaś z Wydawnictwem UŁ (od 2016 r.). Trzon redakcji stanowią pracownicy Katedry Teorii Literatury UŁ. W kolejnych akapitach poruszę kwestie związane z prowadzeniem czasopisma i współpracą redakcji z wydawcami, koncentrując się na zmianach, jakich wprowadzenie było i jest konieczne, by Zagadnienia Rodzajów Literackich utrzymywały się w świadomości badaczy literatury i kultury jako właściwe miejsce dla ich prac.\nOpen Journal Systems – (prawie) kompleksowe rozwiązanie\nPodobnie jak wiele innych czasopism naukowych, Zagadnienia Rodzajów Literackich korzystają z platformy Open Journal Systems (OJS). Ewa Rozkosz, pisząc o tym narzędziu, zauważa, że „[...] o pełnej cyfryzacji czasopisma naukowego mówić możemy dopiero wówczas, gdy »usieciowione« zostaną zarówno zasoby (udostępnienie pełnych tekstów na stronie), jak i procesy (rejestrowanie wszystkich czynności w systemie)” (Rozkosz, 2014, s. 1). Założeniem OJS jest umożliwienie redaktorom i innym osobom biorącym udział w procesie wydawniczym – recenzentom, korektorom, grafikom – pracy we wspólnym środowisku cyfrowym bez konieczności wielokrotnego przesyłania plików poza nim. Rozwój oprogramowania OJS następuje wraz z rozwojem otwartej nauki i odpowiada na potrzeby wydawców i redakcji czasopism naukowych, a jako rozwiązanie open source pozwala zmniejszyć koszty utrzymania platformy wydawniczej11. Już w 2015 r. Wydawnictwo UŁ pracowało nad jego wdrożeniem dla wydawanych przez siebie periodyków, pozwalając redakcjom na korzystanie z wersji testowej i oferując szkolenia. W 2020 r. szkolenia z OJS prowadziło także Łódzkie Towarzystwo Naukowe, a zasoby Zagadnień Rodzajów Literackich zostały zamieszczone na\n10 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6984-7734\n11 Więcej na temat OJS: https://pkp.sfu.ca/software/ojs/, por. Rozkosz, 2014.\n\nplatformie wydawcy. Dlaczego jednak – idąc za definicją Ewy Rozkosz – nie możemy mówić o pełnej cyfryzacji?\nWitryna Zagadnień Rodzajów Literackich12, działająca w systemie OJS, rozwijana i aktualizowana (upgrade do nowszej wersji w toku), stanowi jedyną oficjalną witrynę czasopisma od 2020 r. Gromadzi podstawowe informacje i służy do publikowania i prezentowania bieżących numerów. Nie służy jednak do prowadzenia procesu zgłaszania, redakcji i korekty tekstów, co wyjaśniam w podrozdziale Dlaczego nie proces redakcyjny.\nStrona internetowa\nJako witryna czasopisma naukowego strona Zagadnień Rodzajów Literackich została opracowana tak, by służyć zarówno autorom tekstów szukającym miejsca dla swojej publikacji, jak i czytelnikom, oraz z uwzględnieniem międzynarodowych standardów prezentowanych przez największych wydawców akademickich. Strona jest dostępna w języku polskim i angielskim, w 2023 r. została zweryfikowana przez redaktorów bazy\nDirectory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ), w której czasopismo jest indeksowane.\nW podstawowej sekcji „O czasopiśmie” znajdują się zakładki:\n■ „Metryka czasopisma” (podstawowe dane dotyczące czasopisma – oficjalnie funkcjonujące nazwy, wydawca, rok założenia, ISSN, e-ISSN, DOI, format i częstotliwość wydawania),\n■ „Misja i obszary tematyczne” (zakres tematyczny, dyscypliny i struktura głównych działów czasopisma),\n■ „Historia” (zarys historii periodyku i odnośnik do obszerniejszego omówienia),\n■ „Indeksowanie, archiwizacja i widoczność” (informacje o dostępności numerów bieżących i archiwalnych oraz o bazach danych indeksujących czasopismo),\n■ „Polityka Open Access” (informacje o modelu open access realizowanym przez czasopismo, w tym o licencjach i opłatach dla autorów),\n■ „Etyka” (oświadczenie redakcji czasopisma dotyczące zasad etycznych, oparte na dobrych standardach COPE),\n■ „Zasady recenzowania” (informacje o procedurze double-blind peer review i wskazówki dla recenzentów),\n■ „Recenzenci” (listy recenzentów prezentowane całościowo dla danego roku, począwszy od 2016 r.).\n12 https://journals.ltn.lodz.pl/index.php/Zagadnienia-Rodzajow-Literackich; aktualna wersja OJS: 3.1.1.4.\n\nSekcja druga – „Zespół redakcyjny” – prezentuje:\n■ sylwetkę redaktora naczelnego z odnośnikiem do jego życiorysu naukowego i podlinkowanym identyfikatorem ORCID oraz adres e-mail,\n■ nazwiska redaktorów wraz z afiliacjami i z podlinkowanymi identyfikatorami\nORCID,\n■ nazwisko sekretarza redakcji wraz z afiliacją i podlinkowanym identyfikatorem\nORCID oraz adres e-mail,\n■ nazwiska redaktorów językowych wraz z afiliacjami,\n■ nazwiska redaktorów strony internetowej wraz z afiliacjami,\n■ nazwiska członków rady redakcyjnej wraz z afiliacjami i podlinkowanymi identyfikatorami ORCID lub odnośnikami do stron internetowych,\n■ nazwiska redaktorów-założycieli.\nSekcja „Wydania online” zawiera bieżące numery czasopisma i archiwum od roku\n2011. Więcej na temat tej sekcji piszę w części Wydania online.\nSekcja „Dla autorów” zawiera zakładki:\n■ „Ogólne informacje dla autorów” (informacje dotyczące: opłat, licencji, praw autorskich, czasu procedowania artykułów, zgłaszania prac do czasopisma, a także linki do innych ważnych dla autorów sekcji),\n■ „Wskazówki redakcyjne” (szczegółowe wymogi dotyczące przygotowania artykułów i innego typu tekstów do zgłoszenia i publikacji).\nW ostatniej sekcji – „Kontakt” – znajdują się dane teleadresowe redakcji i wydawcy czasopisma.\nInformacje, które przez redaktorów strony zostały uznane za najistotniejsze, zostały powtórzone ponadto na stronie głównej: w stopce (ISSN, e-ISSN, logotyp wydawcy, logotyp fundatora, linki do baz danych) i nagłówku aktualności (format open access, licencje, dostęp do archiwum, copyright, punktacja MEiN). W aktualnościach publikowane są nabory do czasopisma (call for papers) oraz informacje o wydarzeniach, którym czasopismo patronuje lub które organizuje. U dołu strony wyświetla się ostatni wydany numer.\nWydania online\nPlatforma OJS umożliwia stworzenie wirtualnej witryny księgarni. W przypadku Zagadnień Rodzajów Literackich zdecydowano się na prezentację poszczególnych zeszytów w porządku od najnowszego (bieżący zeszyt publikowany jest najpierw w trybie Early\nView, potem jako pełne wydanie) do najstarszego (najstarszy zeszyt zamieszczony na platformie to pierwszy zeszyt z 2011 r. – starsze dostępne są w Repozytorium UŁ, o czym piszę w części poświęconej digitalizacji i archiwizacji czasopisma). Począwszy\n\nod 2018 r., zeszyty zostały wprowadzone na platformę z podziałem na pojedyncze artykuły, natomiast zeszyty z lat 2011–2017 uzupełniono w postaci pełnych plików\nPDF przygotowanych jako wersja do druku (w 2017 r. rozpoczęto rejestrowanie DOI dla poszczególnych tekstów)13.\nObecnie każdy zeszyt Zagadnień Rodzajów Literackich prezentowany na stronie opatrzony jest metadanymi, podobnie jak poszczególne artykuły. Mamy zatem: miniaturę okładki, informacje o redaktorach tomu i źródłach finansowania, datę publikacji. Poniżej widnieje spis tekstów w układzie odpowiadającym strukturze numeru – z podziałem na działy i numeracją stron. W spisie widoczny jest tytuł, autor/autorzy oraz kafelek z plikiem PDF do pobrania. Klikając w tytuł, czytelnik uzyskuje dostęp do metadanych konkretnego artykułu. Wprowadzane są następujące metadane artykułów:\ntytuł, dane autora (imię, nazwisko, afiliacja, identyfikator ORCID), numer DOI, słowa kluczowe, abstrakt, bibliografia, data publikacji, licencja. Artykuł jest przyporządkowany do tomu i działu, z boku widnieje okładka zeszytu w miniaturze i kafelek z pełnym tekstem w wersji PDF do otwarcia w przeglądarce z możliwością pobrania pliku.\nGdy Łódzkie Towarzystwo Naukowe rozpoczynało zamieszczanie artykułów na platformie, trafiał tam tylko PDF z tytułem i nazwiskiem autora tekstu oraz okładka.\nObecnie metadane są wprowadzane na stronę w pełnej wersji i rejestrowane w serwisie nadającym DOI, a zarówno pliki, jak i wirtualny profil danego artykułu opatrzone są licencją Creative Commons.\nDlaczego nie proces redakcyjny?\nJak sygnalizowałam, platforma OJS umożliwia redaktorom i innym osobom włączonym w proces wydawniczy pracę nad tekstami w obrębie jednego środowiska cyfrowego.\n13 Warto przypomnieć diagnozę Ewy Rozkosz z 2014 roku: „Etap, na którym znajduje się obecnie większość polskich czasopism, nazwałabym przejściowym. Wiele redakcji wydaje cyfrową wersję zeszytu w postaci jednego pliku. Ta praktyka kojarzy mi się z trendami obowiązującymi w pierwszych książkach drukowanych (XV w.). Podobnie jak inkunabuły imitowały książki rękopiśmienne, tak przytoczona forma wydania cyfrowego przypomina papierowy egzemplarz numeru czasopisma. Z tego powodu o systemach informatycznych dedykowanych czasopismom\n— i co się z tym wiąże udostępnianiem każdego artykułu na odrębnej stronie wraz z metadanymi czytelnymi dla robotów indeksujących (ang. web crawler) — nie można mówić, używając epitetu powszechny. OJS i podobne systemy stanowią dziś (w Polsce) wartość dodaną periodyku”\n(Rozkosz, 2014, s. 2). Od praktyki publikowania całego numeru Zagadnienia Rodzajów Literackich odeszły dopiero przy numerach z 2018 roku, a więc stosunkowo późno, warto jednak podkreślić, że w momencie budowania witryny OJS czasopismo było wciąż w sprzedaży w wersji papierowej, mimo publikacji numerów online (dostępnych bezpłatnie, lecz na nieokreślonych jeszcze wtedy zasadach użytkowania). Ów etap przejściowy zakończył się w 2022 roku wraz z rezygnacją z regularnej sprzedaży wydań papierowych i pełnym przejściem na model open access.\n\nIstnieje jednak kilka przyczyn, dla których redakcja Zagadnień Rodzajów Literackich nie zdecydowała się na pełną cyfryzację procesu redakcyjnego. Najważniejszą z nich jest procedura recenzowania artykułów. Każdy artykuł z działów Rozprawy i Eseje podlega procesowi recenzji w trybie double-blind, tzn. recenzenci nie znają tożsamości autora i autor nie zna tożsamości recenzentów, przy tym w przypadku zgodnych opinii recenzje są dwie, w przypadku niezgodnych – najczęściej zostaje zaangażowany trzeci recenzent. W ostatnich latach czasopismo wykazuje około siedemdziesięciu recenzentów rocznie. Tematyka nadsyłanych tekstów jest różnorodna, co generuje konieczność zaangażowania kilkudziesięciu ekspertów w danym tomie. W naukach humanistycznych w Polsce recenzowanie artykułów w środowisku cyfrowym nie jest szeroko rozpowszechnioną praktyką, a biorąc pod uwagę znaczące niedocenienie pracy recenzentów14, wymaganie od nich zakładania konta w systemie OJS wydaje się niewłaściwe i może wpłynąć na zwiększenie odsetka ekspertów, którzy odmawiają wykonania recenzji. Poszukiwanie recenzentów to najbardziej niepewny etap procesu wydawania danego numeru czasopisma: znalezienie eksperta w obszarze wąskiego niekiedy zagadnienia, który nie rozpoznałby autora zanonimizowanego tekstu i znalazłby przy tym czas na przygotowanie opinii pro publico bono, to czasem kilka tygodni prowadzenia korespondencji z wieloma naukowcami. Jeśliby dodać do tego instrukcję obsługi platformy OJS, znalezienie recenzenta w terminie, który nie spowodowałby znaczących opóźnień w wydawaniu periodyku, stałoby się niemal niemożliwe, przynajmniej w literaturoznawstwie i pokrewnych dyscyplinach.\nZmiana sposobu nadsyłania zgłoszeń do czasopisma z przyjętej obecnie formy zgłoszeń za pomocą poczty elektronicznej na zgłoszenia w systemie OJS również mogłaby wpłynąć negatywnie na liczbę zgłoszeń. O ile część autorów jest zaznajomiona z formą aplikacji przez platformę czasopism, to dla innych tego rodzaju cyfryzacja stanowiłaby\n14 Niedocenienie należy rozumieć dwojako. Po pierwsze niewiele czasopism naukowych może pozwolić sobie na wypłacanie recenzentom choćby symbolicznych wynagrodzeń, zwłaszcza w perspektywie braku ciągłości finansowania. Czasopisma diamentowe, niepobierające opłat od autorów, utrzymują się albo ze środków uczelnianych, albo/i z dofinansowania z MEiN, w ramach konkursów, takich jak „Rozwój czasopism naukowych”, przy tym są to środki przydzielane cykliczne, na rok, dwa czy cztery, a umowa z MEiN nie zakłada możliwości finansowania procesu recenzji prac naukowych. Drugą istotną kwestią jest niedostateczne docenienie pracy recenzentów — pracy niezwykle przecież odpowiedzialnej i gwarantującej wysoki poziom naukowy publikowanych tekstów — przez pracodawców i decydentów. Przygotowanie rzetelnej recenzji zabiera czas, który pracownik mógłby poświęcić na własne badania, a nie generuje punktów tak ważnych w ewaluacji jednostek naukowych. Choć niekiedy docenia się recenzentów w ocenie wewnętrznej w poszczególnych uczelniach, jest to nieproporcjonalnie mały „zysk” w stosunku do brzemienia, jakie ciąży na recenzencie, i do nakładu pracy. System w tej materii zdecydowanie wymagałby zreformowania.\n\nproblem. Jeszcze kilka lat temu redakcja Zagadnień Rodzajów Literackich otrzymała zgłoszenie w formie maszynopisu, a biorąc pod uwagę, że niektórych autorów trudno skłonić do utworzenia profilu ORCID wymaganego przez redakcję, można zakładać, że z profilem w systemie OJS nie byłoby lepiej. Oczywiście rozwiązaniem mogłoby stać się rezygnowanie ze zgłoszeń niespełniających wymagań technicznych, jednak głównym celem czasopisma jest publikowanie treści o wysokiej wartości naukowej i rozwój reprezentowanych przez siebie dyscyplin, więc ograniczanie wpływu prac bez ich oceny merytorycznej nie leży ani w interesie redakcji, ani nauki. Zagadnienia Rodzajów Literackich prowadzą obecnie nabór tekstów za pośrednictwem poczty elektronicznej, jednak teksty zgłoszone przez system OJS również są przez redaktorów brane pod uwagę, mimo że nie jest to ścieżka preferowana czy uwidoczniona na stronie.\nProces redakcyjny odbywa się zatem w sposób, który można określić mianem tradycyjnego lub hybrydowego. Przeprowadzenie danego artykułu naukowego ścieżką od zgłoszenia do publikacji generuje od kilkunastu do kilkudziesięciu e-maili z udziałem sekretarza redakcji, jest to jednak – na ten moment – najkorzystniejsze dla autorów i innych osób zaangażowanych w proces wydawniczy rozwiązanie.\nDigitalizacja i archiwizacja – bezpieczeństwo i widoczność\nW 2021 r. Łódzkie Towarzystwo Naukowe, z inicjatywy redakcji Zagadnień Rodzajów\nLiterackich i za pośrednictwem redaktora naczelnego, nawiązało współpracę z Biblioteką Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego. Dyrektor Biblioteki UŁ wyraził zgodę na zdigitalizowanie zasobów znajdujących się w zbiorach bibliotecznych, obejmujących wszystkie zeszyty czasopisma od 1958 do 2010 r. Digitalizację ponad stu zeszytów Zagadnień Rodzajów\nLiterackich zakończono w 2022 r. i wówczas zespół Repozytorium UŁ (RUŁ) rozpoczął deponowanie materiałów, które są obecnie dostępne na platformie RUŁ15.\nMateriały zostały zdigitalizowane z wykorzystaniem oprogramowania OCR (optical character recognition – optyczne rozpoznawanie znaków), pozwalającego na maszynowe odczytywanie znaków. Pliki zapisano w formatach PDF oraz TIFF, zdigitalizowano także okładki (JPG, TIFF). Pełne zeszyty zostały następnie pocięte na pojedyncze artykuły i skompresowane, a każdy artykuł został opatrzony zestawem metadanych w formacie Dublin Core, wprowadzonych wraz z plikiem do repozytorium. Zdeponowane zostały ponadto numery dostępne już na stronie czasopisma w wersji PDF.\nPliki z lat 2011–2017, publikowane jako pełne numery w formacie PDF, zostały pocięte\n15 https://repozytorium.uni.lodz.pl/handle/11089/40698\n\ni zamieszczone w RUŁ również z uzupełnieniem brakujących metadanych; przeniesiono także numery z lat 2018–2022, aż do numeru bieżącego. Współpraca z Biblioteką UŁ nie została zakończona – Zagadnienia Rodzajów Literackich posiadają w Repozytorium\nUŁ otwarty zbiór, w którym zakładane będą nowe kolekcje dla bieżących numerów czasopisma. Do końca lipca 2023 r. zamieszczono w zbiorze 1773 pliki.\nTaki sposób archiwizacji materiałów zapewnia im bezpieczeństwo w środowisku cyfrowym. Materiały do 2017 r. nie miały nadawanych numerów DOI, a dzięki RUŁ zyskały trwałe identyfikatory Handle. Dodatkowe zabezpieczenie stanowią serwery UŁ i regularne tworzenie kopii zapasowych. Ponadto zdeponowanie zasobów czasopisma w Repozytorium UŁ wpływa pozytywnie na ich widoczność w sieci. Repozytorium to, oparte na oprogramowaniu DSpace, jest indeksowane w bazach danych, agregatorach\n(np. OpenAIRE, CORE, OpenDOAR) i dobrze pozycjonowane w wyszukiwarkach, w tym w Google Scholar. Poprzez połączenie z bazą ORCID umożliwia ponadto podpięcie autorom ich identyfikatorów ORCID.\nOtwartość a tradycja – czas na zmiany\nUtrzymanie się na rynku czasopism naukowych, gdy wymagania stawiane periodykom są coraz wyższe, a zasady finansowania badań i publikacji zmienne, wymaga od redakcji i wydawcy rewizji tradycyjnego podejścia do publikowania treści naukowych.\nO ile model subskrypcyjny czy Gold Open Access pozwala na samofinansowanie, to czasopisma wydawane w modelu diamentowym muszą dbać zarówno o zgodność z oczekiwaniami fundatorów, jak i z oczekiwaniami autorów, którzy mogą wybierać spośród tysięcy potencjalnych miejsc publikacji. W przypadku Zagadnień Rodzajów\nLiterackich niezbędne zmiany dotyczyły przede wszystkim polityki publikacyjnej oraz profilu i wersji czasopisma.\nPolityka open access\nOd 2019 r. teksty ukazujące się w Zagadnieniach Rodzajów Literackich oznaczane są licencjami Creative Commons. Wydania z lat 2011–2018, jak wspomniałam, wydawca udostępnił na stronie, jednak bez wskazania licencji określającej zasady użytkowania tekstów. Materiały są więc dostępne, jednak w ramach tzw. brązowego otwartego dostępu. Domyślną licencją dla numerów z lat 2019–2021 pozostawała licencja Creative Commons Uznanie autorstwa – Użycie niekomercyjne – Bez utworów zależnych\n4.0 Międzynarodowe, czyli CC BY-NC-ND. W 2022 r. redakcja, za zgodą głównego wydawcy, wprowadziła możliwość wyboru licencji spośród dwóch – dotychczasowej\nCC BY-NC-ND oraz CC BY (Uznanie Autorstwa 4.0 Międzynarodowe). Potrzeba\n\nuporządkowania kwestii związanych z prawami autorskimi i dodania drugiej, bardziej liberalnej licencji wynikała przede wszystkim z chęci realizowania modelu publikowania otwartego w pełni, z jasnymi zasadami, ale była również związana z opublikowaną przez\nNarodowe Centrum Nauki polityką otwartości (NCN, 2020). Artykuły publikowane w czasopismach będące efektem realizacji grantów finansowanych przez NCN muszą spełniać określone kryteria, wśród których znajduje się właśnie licencja CC BY – teksty z licencją ograniczającą dozwolony użytek w sposób, który uniemożliwia komercyjne wykorzystanie (non-commercial – NC), nie są akceptowane w rozliczeniach grantów.\nOd 2022 r. autor tekstu przyjętego do druku w Zagadnieniach Rodzajów Literackich dokonuje więc wyboru otwartej licencji. Ponadto na stronie internetowej pojawił się wyraźny zapis o nieoddawaniu wydawcy przez autorów praw majątkowych do tekstów.\nWyjście naprzeciw oczekiwaniom fundatorów badań było również jednym z powodów, dla których redakcja podjęła w 2022 r. decyzję o rejestracji czasopisma we wzmiankowanej już bazie Directory of Open Access Journals. Baza DOAJ i powiązane z nią narzędzie – Journal Checker Tool – także pojawiają się w polityce NCN i nierzadko to widoczność periodyku w wyszukiwarkach tych platform przesądza o tym, czy autor złoży swoją pracę u danego wydawcy. Zarówno rekomendacje Wydawnictwa UŁ dotyczące otwartych licencji i rejestracji w DOAJ, jak i szybkie podjęcie działań przez Łódzkie Towarzystwo Naukowe świadczą o tym, że stanowisko wydawcy jest kluczowe, żeby czasopismo mogło się rozwijać i zwiększać obecność wśród uznanych czasopism otwartych.\nProfil i wersja czasopisma\nRejestracja czasopisma w bazie DOAJ oraz, w tym samym roku, w międzynarodowym katalogu polityk wydawniczych Sherpa Romeo stała się punktem wyjścia do uporządkowania również kwestii merytorycznych – dotyczących profilu Zagadnień Rodzajów\nLiterackich. Czasopismo reprezentuje obecnie dyscypliny: literaturoznawstwo, nauki o kulturze i religii, nauki o sztuce oraz – dodaną przez MEiN w wykazie z lipca 2023 bez uprzedniej konsultacji z redakcją – polonistykę. Ścisły genologiczny zakres zagadnień pozostał w centrum zainteresowań redaktorów, jednak tak jak zmienia się sama genologia literacka (por. m.in. Grochowski, 2018), tak musiał się zmienić profil Zagadnień\nRodzajów Literackich. W związku z tym rada redakcyjna została powiększona o grono badaczy specjalizujących się w studiach kulturowych i w związkach literatury m.in.\nz innymi sztukami, z nowymi mediami, z grami cyfrowymi.\nRozwój Zagadnień Rodzajów Literackich jako czasopisma otwartego i publikowanego w wersji cyfrowej dał redakcji i wydawcy nowe możliwości, w tym publikowanie tekstów w trybie Early View. Od 2022 r. artykuły ukazują się na platformie wydawcy\n\nod razu po uzyskaniu pozytywnych recenzji, naniesieniu poprawek merytorycznych i redakcyjnych oraz złożeniu – tekst nie czeka na pełne wydanie numeru, do którego jest przypisany. O wprowadzeniu tego rozwiązania zadecydowała przede wszystkim konieczność sprawozdawania przez autorów swoich publikacji (wraz z linkami do wersji cyfrowej) w czasie ewaluacji. Artykuły ukazujące się w Early View mogą być czytane, cytowane i udostępnianie szybciej niż dotąd.\nOtwarta nauka to przede wszystkim dostęp online, w związku z czym nawet jeśli czasopismo ukazywało się, czy ukazuje, tak jak Zagadnienia Rodzajów Literackich, w dwóch wersjach – papierowej i cyfrowej – dla odbiorcy podstawową wersją zawsze będzie ta szeroko dostępna, a więc cyfrowa. Biorąc pod uwagę ten fakt oraz wprowadzenie Early View, podjęto decyzję o powrocie do trybu półrocznego wydawania periodyku. Publikowanie kwartalnika przestało być uzasadnione – teksty mogą ukazywać się szybciej, a przygotowanie dwóch zeszytów zamiast czterech rocznie okazuje się rozwiązaniem ekonomicznym, zmniejsza koszty wydawania czasopisma. Łódzkie\nTowarzystwo Naukowe zgodziło się także na ograniczenie druku wersji papierowej do minimum. Obecnie drukowane są tylko egzemplarze dla bibliotek i archiwów wydawcy i redakcji.\nWersja cyfrowa stała się zatem wersją pierwotną, co wymogło na redakcji także zmiany dotyczące kształtu publikowanych treści. Layout czasopisma dostosowano w 2023 r. do wersji elektronicznej, m.in. zrezygnowano z kodów QR, przydatnych w wersji papierowej, czy z efektownego, ale niefunkcjonalnego w wersji cyfrowej wyróżnienia afiliacji autorów na oddzielnej karcie. W związku z koniecznością spełnienia wymogów baz indeksujących czasopisma naukowe wprowadzono również wymóg transkrypcji zapisów niełacińskich w metadanych tekstów publikowanych w Zagadnieniach Rodzajów Literackich. W planach pozostają dalsze zmiany, m.in. wprowadzenie dodatkowych formatów plików (HTML) i metadanych.\n***\nWspółpraca redakcji Zagadnień Rodzajów Literackich z wydawcami – Łódzkim\nTowarzystwem Naukowym i Wydawnictwem UŁ – pozwala nie tylko na sprawne wpromwadzanie zmian w polityce publikacyjnej czy kształcie prezentowanych przez czasopismo treści, ale stanowi również impuls dla tych zmian. Zmiany są konieczne, jeśli dane czasopismo ma się utrzymać na rynku i pozostać w świadomości badaczy, czyli potencjalnych autorów. Sześćdziesiąt pięć lat istnienia stanowi dla Zagadnień Rodzajów\nLiterackich nie tylko wspaniałe dziedzictwo, ale i pewne obciążenie. Wizerunek czasopisma starego i tradycyjnego musiał więc zostać przełamany nowoczesną polityką redakcyjną i wydawniczą.\n\nBibliografia\nBiała Księga. Raport na temat rynku wydawnictw naukowych w Polsce w 2021 roku. (2021). Polska\nIzba Książki, Stowarzyszenie Wydawców Szkół Wyższych, Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego.\nhttp://www.pik.org.pl/konferencja-publikacje-naukowe/documents/Biala-Ksiega_Raport_PIK.pdf\n(dostęp: 14.08.2023).\nBrzozowska, A., Piestrzyński, T., Za tora, A. (2021). Publikowanie otwarte. Praktyczny przewodnik dla badaczy. Biblioteka Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego. http://hdl.handle .net/11089/47541\nDeed – Attribution 4.0 International – Creative Commons. (b.d.). Creative Commons. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/\nDeed – Attribution-Noncommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International – Creative Commons. (b.d.).\nCreative Commons. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/\nDirectory of Open Access Journals – DOAJ. (b.d.). https://doaj.org/\nGa zda, G. (1992). Stefania Skwarczyńska jako wydawca i redaktor. W: M. Bielacki i J. Trzynaldowski (red.),\nStefania Skwarczyńska. Uczony, nauczyc iel, wychowawca. Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego.\nGazda, G., Tynecka-Makowska, S. (red.). (2006). Słownik rodzajów i gatunków literackich. TAiWPN\nUniversitas.\nGrocho wski, G. (2018). Pamięć gatunków. Ponowoczesne dylematy atryb ucji gatunkowej. Instytut\nBadań Literackich PAN.\nGrudniewicz, A., Mohe r, D., Cobey, K. D., Bryson, G. L., Cukier S., Allen, K., Ardern, C., Balcom, L.,\nBarros, T., Berger, M., Ciro, J. B., Cugusi, L., Donaldson, M. R., Egger, M., Graham, I. D., Hodgkinson, M., Khan, K. M., Mabizela, M., Manca, A.,..., Lalu, M. M. (2019). Predatory journals: no definition, no defen ce. Nature, 576. https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-019-03759-y\nHü bner, I. (2019). Zagadnienia Rodzajów Litera ckich. Początki. Zagadnienia Rodzajów Literackich,\n3(131), 139–145. HANDLE: https://doi.org/10.26485/ZRL/2019/62.3/10\nJournal Checker Tool. https://journalcheckertool.org/\nKulczycki, E. (2023). The Evaluation Game. How Publication Metrics Shape Scholarly Communication.\nCambridge University Press.\nMikołajuk, L., Gosz czyńska, A. (2016). Rola biblioteki akademickiej w procesie otwierania nauki na przykładzie funkcjonowania Repozytorium Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego. W: S. Skórka i M . Rogoż\n(red.), Bibliotekarz 2.0. Nowe technologie. Nowe wyzwania, Wydawnictwo Naukowe Uniwersytetu\nPedagogicznego (s. 178–189). http://hdl.handle. net/11089/18094\nMinisterstwo Edukacji i Nauki [MEiN] (2023). Komunikat Ministra Edukacji i Nauki z dnia 17 lipca\n2023 r. w sprawie wykazu czasopism naukowych i recenzowanych materiałów z konferencji międzynarodowych. https://www.gov.pl/web/edukacja-i-nauka/komunikat-ministra-edukacji-i-nauki-z-dnia-17-lipca-2023-r-w-sprawie-wykazu-czasopism-naukowych-i-recenzowanych-materialow-z-konferencji-miedzynarodowych (dost ęp: 29.08.2023).\nNarodowe Centrum Nauki [NCN] (2020). Polityka Narodowego Centrum Nauki dotycząca otwartego dostępu do publikacji. https://www.ncn.gov.pl/sites/default/files/pliki/zarzadzenia-dyrektora/ zarzadzenieDyr-38_2020.pdf#page=2 (dostęp: 29.08.2023).\nOstro wski, W. (1992). „Słownik rodzajów literackich” w zamierzeniu Stefanii Skwarczyńskiej i w realizacji. W: M. Bielacki, J. Trzynadlowski, (red.), Stefania Skwarczyńska. Uczony, nauczyc iel, wychowawca. Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego.\nRozkosz, E. (2014). Open J ournal Systems – wartość dod ana czasopisma. Biuletyn EBIB, 4 (149).\nhttps://ebibojs.pl/index.php/ebib/article/view/374/393 (dostęp: 15.08.2023).\nScopus (2023). CiteScore 2022 update is live in Scopus!. https://blog.scopus.com/posts/citescore-2022update-is-live-in-scopus (dostęp: 29.08.2023).\n\nSen dyka, R. (2009), Słownik rodzajów i gatunków literackich. T eksty Dru gie, 3, 152–161.\nSherpa Romeo. https://www.sherpa.ac.uk/romeo/\nSkwarczy ńska, S. (1947). Projekt „Słownika rodzajów literackich”. Sprawozdania z Czynności i Posiedzeń Łódzkiego Towarzystwa Naukowego, 2(1).\n\nJesper Boserup Thestrup\nORCID: 0000-0002-7974-674X\nDuńska Biblioteka Królewska\nROR: https://ror.org/03vvy0v27\nProblemy czasopism publikujących online\nAbstrakt: Aby spełnić wymagania dotyczące otwartego dostępu, stawiane przez instytucje, podmioty finansujące i polityki krajowe, czasopisma naukowe muszą publikować artykuły – a często także wykorzystane w nich dane badawcze – w formule open access.\nPublikowanie naukowe online niesie za sobą jednak wiele korzyści. Sprawia, że redaktorzy i autorzy mogą zyskać czytelników na poziomie globalnym.\nDla wydawców publikowanie online wiąże się często z różnymi wyzwaniami. Nasze doświadczenie pokazuje, że redaktorzy mają wiele pytań dotyczących tego procesu. Obejmują one m.in. kwestie zależności między licencjami Creative Commons a duńskim prawem autorskim, formaty plików, trwałe identyfikatory, koszty produkcji wydawniczej artykułów i wiele innych zagadnień.\nPublikowanie w otwartym dostępie bywa także źródłem trudności finansowych. Wydawanie czasopisma online wiąże się z kosztami, a bez wpływów z subskrypcji, finansowania ze strony stowarzyszeń naukowych, funduszy czy instytucji i bez opłat za publikację redaktorzy nie zawsze są w stanie zapewnić wystarczające środki na jego utrzymanie.\nAby pomóc redaktorom, musimy oferować im kompleksową usługę. W niniejszej pracy opisuję, jak, w celu zwiększenia zakresu wsparcia oferowanego czasopismom, nasze usługi publikacyjne zostały rozbudowane, wykraczając poza pierwotne założenia.\nTekst powstał na podstawie prezentacji wygłoszonej na zorganizowanej przez Centrum\nInformacji Naukowo-Technicznej Politechniki Lubelskiej konferencji „Wyzwania współczesnego publikowania”, która odbyła się 25–26 maja 2023 r.\nSłowa kluczowe: publikowanie naukowe, publikowanie biblioteczne, OJS, Duńska Biblioteka Królewska\n\nKorzyści i problemy związane z publikacjami naukowymi online\nKorzyści z publikowania online czasopism\nW 2007 r. Duńska Biblioteka Królewska rozpoczęła świadczenie usług publikacyjnych.\nInicjatywa ta miała kilka celów. Duńskie czasopisma naukowe miały otrzymać możliwość publikacji na platformie, tak żeby mogły kontynuować działalność online1. Nowe czasopisma naukowe miały otrzymać przestrzeń pozwalającą rozpocząć działalność wydawniczą2 i wreszcie – platforma miała zapewnić dostęp do czasopism, które przestały się ukazywać i trudno byłoby dotrzeć do nich w inny sposób3. Publikowanie online zapewnia łatwy dostęp do czasopisma na poziomie globalnym. Nasze dane pokazują, że nawet czasopisma, których dalszego publikowania zaprzestano, nie przestają być czytane. Nasze statystyki dotyczące pobrań rosną od czasu uruchomienia serwisu (Fogtmann-Schulz i in., 2025, s. 3).\nWyzwania związane z publikowaniem online treści naukowych\nW 2022 r. Kopenhaska Szkoła Biznesu, Biblioteka Uniwersytetu Aalborg i Duńska\nBiblioteka Królewska rozpoczęły we współpracy z Directory of Open Access Journals\n(DOAJ) projekt mający na celu zwiększenie obecności duńskich czasopism w bazie\nDOAJ (Royal Danish Library, b.d., Indexing journals...). Biblioteki te pomagały redaktorom w wypełnianiu wniosków o zarejestrowanie w DOAJ.\nProjekt wykazał, że różni redaktorzy napotykali podobne problemy (zob. Rosenkrantz\nHansen i in., 2023; Stegger Gemzøe i in., 2023). Trzeba było ich przekonać, że indeksowanie w DOAJ jest dla nich korzystne. Trudność sprawiało im zrozumienie konsekwencji stosowania licencji Creative Commons w kontekście duńskich uregulowań prawa autorskiego. Baza DOAJ wymaga informacji o formatach plików, trwałych identyfikatorach, recenzjach naukowych i opłatach za publikowanie artykułów w otwartym dostępie.\nDostarczenie tych danych okazywało się dla niektórych redaktorów problematyczne.\nOprócz umieszczania artykułów w otwartym dostępie (open access – OA) często wymogiem jest też udostępnianie w sposób otwarty danych badawczych, na podstawie których powstały artykuły. Dane muszą być wyszukiwalne, dostępne, intero peracyjne, możliwe do ponownego wykorzystania (findable, accessible, interoperable, reusable\n1 Zob. Temp: https://tidsskrift.dk/temp (dostęp: 7.12.2023). Czasopismo zaczęło się ukazywać w 2010 r. w wersji drukowanej. Nadal ukazuje się drukiem i funkcjonuje w nim roczne embargo, podczas którego tylko subskrybenci mają dostęp do wersji online.\n2 Zob. Social Interaction: https://tidsskrift.dk/socialinteraction (dostęp: 7.12.2023). Czasopismo zaczęło się ukazywać w 2018 r. na naszej platformie.\n3 Zob. Massekultur & Medier: https://tidsskrift.dk/masmed (dostęp: 7.12.2023). Czasopismo było wydawane w latach 1981–1984.\n\n– FAIR) – na tyle, na ile to możliwe (GO FAIR, b.d.). To generuje nowe trudności dla redaktorów. Redaktorzy potrzebują dostępu do platform, na których można udostępniać dane. Muszą oni zdawać sobie sprawę z efektów dzielenia się różnymi formatami danych, z uwzględnieniem dostępności, interoperacyjności i możliwości ponownego wykorzystania. Udostępnianie danych może powodować problemy ze zgodnością z ogólnym rozporządzeniem o ochronie danych osobowych (RODO; General Data\nProtection Regulation – GDPR), z regulacjami patentowymi, z przepisami prawa autorskiego itd. Ma to wpływ na pojawienie się nowych obszarów, w których platformy takie jak tidsskrift.dk będą pomagać redaktorom.\nLista wymagań, którym musi sprostać czasopismo, wydłuża się. Na przykład Dyrektywa UE 2016/2102 o dostępności stron internetowych i mobilnych aplikacji organów sektora publicznego wymaga, aby ze stron internetowych mogły korzystać osoby z niepełnosprawnościami, np. niewidome. To sprawia, że zarówna strona internetowa, jak i artykuły powinny być dostępne. Według Public Knowledge Project – PKP\n(Public Knowledge Project, 2023), organizacji rozwijającej Open Journal Systems – OJS\n(Public Knowledge Project, 2024), oprogramowanie to powinno zapewniać dostępność stron internetowych, ale redaktorzy nadal są odpowiedzialni za zgodność artykułów z tymi wymaganiami (Public Knowledge Project Docs, b.d.). Aby pomóc czasopismom w tym obszarze, musimy rozwinąć nową usługę. Nasze doświadczenie pokazuje, że wielu wydawców nie ma wsparcia ze strony swoich macierzystych instytucji.\nOtwarty dostęp, jak już wspomniano, często przyczynia się do problemów finansowych w redakcjach czasopism. Wynika to z tego, że polityki otwartego dostępu ograniczają możliwości finansowania czasopism. Nasze doświadczenie pokazuje, że polityki\nOA w odniesieniu do publikacji online zamykają drogę do stosowania subskrypcji.\nCzęsto czasopisma nie chcą wprowadzać opłat za publikację artykułów (APC), a jednocześnie instytucje zaprzestają finansowania działalności wydawniczej. Dlatego też redaktorzy nierzadko potrzebują platform takich jak tidsskrift.dk, gdzie publikacja artykułów nie wiąże sie z opłatami.\nTidsskrift.dk: historia, zawartość i usługi\nTidsskrift.dk to duńska ogólnokrajowa platforma otwartego dostępu. W tłumaczeniu na angielski “tidsskrift.dk” oznaczałoby “journal.dk” [w tłumaczeniu na polski: „czasopismo.dk” – przyp. tłum.]. Duńska Biblioteka Królewska tylko administruje platformą, nie ma statusu wydawcy. Wydawcami są różne rady redakcyjne i stowarzyszenia naukowe.\nPlatforma została utworzona, aby zapewnić duńskim czasopismom naukowym miejsce do publikowania – zarówno online, jak i w postaci drukowanej, a także aby\n\nułatwić digitalizację i deponowanie online starych periodyków oraz tworzenie nowych czasopism. Z naszego doświadczenia wynika, że wiele duńskich czasopism ma zbyt mało subskrybentów, by mogły się one okazać interesujące dla komercyjnych wydawców, więc platforma stwarza dla nich możliwość zaprezentowania się.\nPlatforma działa na oprogramowaniu otwartym, Open Journals Systems – OJS\n(Public Knowledge Project, 2024). OJS daje obecnie dostęp do ponad 52 000 czasopism\n(Public Knowledge Project, 2025). Wybraliśmy oprogramowanie, które zostało zarekomendowane po zrealizowaniu projektu badawczego w 2006 r. (Boserup Thestrup i Frederiksen, 2012, s. 14; Boserup Thestrup, 2016, s. 6).\nPlatforma tidsskrift.dk powstała w wyniku połączenia dwóch serwisów OJS w 2017 r.\nJej adres URL został zarejestrowany w 1999 r. na potrzeby projektu digitalizacji w Duńskiej Bibliotece Królewskiej. W 2007 r. Duńska Biblioteka Królewska oraz Biblioteka\nNarodowa i Uniwersytecka (Statsbiblioteket) rozpoczęły korzystanie z OJS. Te dwie biblioteki narodowe połączyły się w jedną w 2017 r. (Fogtmann-Schulz i in., 2022, s. 3;\nRoyal Danish Library, n.d., Timeline...).\nW 2017 r. na platformie udostępniano 133 czasopisma (Fogtmann-Schulz i in., 2022, s. 3). W grudniu 2024 r. dostępnych było tam już 214 tytułów czasopism. Od 2020 do\n2024 liczba publikowanych artykułów wzrosła z 93 024 do 112 620 (Fogtmann -Schulz i in., 2024, s. 3).\nAby zapewnić utrzymanie wysokich standardów publikacyjnych na platformie tidsskrift.dk, każde czasopismo musi spełnić wiele szczegółowych wymagań. Jednakże przyjmujemy czasopisma na podstawie ogólnej oceny, więc do tego, aby zostać przyjętym nie jest konieczne spełnianie każdego kryterium. Na przykład przyjmujemy czasopisma studenckie, które posługują się wewnętrznymi recenzjami naukowymi, jeżeli czasopismo jest afiliowane do instytucji naukowej.\nAby czasopismo mogło dołączyć do platformy, jego redakcja musi przyjmować cele i podejście zgodne ze standardami naukowymi. Wymagane jest, aby jeden z redaktorów miał afiliację któregoś z duńskich uniwersytetów, duńskich programów badawczych lub instytucji podlegającej duńskiemu Ministerstwu Kultury, duńskiemu stowarzyszeniu naukowemu lub afiliację kolegium uniwersyteckiego. Jako platforma ogólnokrajowa przyjmujemy także czasopisma afiliowane przy podobnych instytucjach z Grenlandii lub Wysp Owczych. Od czasopism publikujących na naszej platformie nie pobieramy opłat (For redaktører, b.d.).\nCzasopisma muszą publikować w otwartym dostępie zgodnie z polityką otwartego dostępu przyjętą przez Niezależny Duński Fundusz Badawczy (Independent Research\nFund Denmark). Artykuły muszą zostać udostępnione online po 6–12 miesiącach,\n\nw zależności od tematu naukowego czasopisma. Czasopisma muszą akceptować politykę zielonej drogi otwartego dostępu4.\nObecnie platforma oferuje dostęp do czasopism ze wszystkich obszarów nauki.\nArtykuły zazwyczaj publikowane są w języku duńskim lub angielskim. Niektóre czasopisma publikują też po szwedzku, norwesku, hiszpańsku, niemiecku lub portugalsku.\nWiększość czasopism od razu udostępnia swoje numery w modelu diamentowym\nOA. Niewiele ma subskrypcje, niewiele stosuje opłaty za publikacje (APC). Na stronie głównej platformy można znaleźć czasopisma, które mają dłuższe embargo, jak np.\nMathematica Scandinavica. Te czasopisma były publikowane, zanim zaczęliśmy realizować politykę otwartego dostępu Niezależnego Duńskiego Funduszu Badawczego i nie chcieliśmy przysparzać tym przyjętym wcześniej tytułom problemów finansowych.\nW swojej prezentacji Beata Jankowiak-Konik przedstawiła model porównawczy współpracy między czasopismami naukowymi a wydawcami. W modelu znajdują się trzy poziomy – pierwszy to poziom pełnej kooperacji, na drugim współpraca jest podzielona w różnych obszarach i wreszcie – na trzecim poziomie jest model, w którym zespół redakcyjny zarządza wszystkimi etapami procesu publikacji. Proces publikacyjny jest podzielony na siedem etapów, począwszy od selekcji tekstu, po promocję i dystrybucję (Jankowiak-Konik, 2025, tab. 1).\nNasza platforma sytuuje się pomiędzy poziomem drugim a trzecim według modelu\nJankowiak-Konik. Udzielamy niewiążących prawnie porad, odpowiadając na wiele pytań związanych z publikowaniem, angażujemy się w wiele funkcji, które Jankowiak-\n-Konik opisuje jako funkcje wydawcy.\nNasza platforma może być opisywana zgodnie z ustaleniami Kalikman Lippincott.\nDostarczamy niezbędną technologię i know-how, ale nie jesteśmy właścicielami publikowanego materiału (Gardner, 2025, s. 126). Biblioteka staje się tym, co Jankowiak-Konik określa jako „źródło wiedzy”, czyli miejsce, w którym redaktor może znaleźć informację dotyczącą publikowania naukowego, począwszy od zgłoszenia, przez recenzję, po dystrybucję (Jankowiak-Konik, 2025, s. 19).\n4 Czasopisma z zakresu nauk o zdrowiu, przyrodniczych, inżynieryjnych, rolniczych i weterynaryjnych muszą być dostępne w formule otwartej po 6 miesiącach, a czasopisma z zakresu nauk społecznych i humanistycznych po 12 miesiącach.\n\nZ jakimi problemami się borykamy\nNasze usługi na wczesnym etapie\nPrzed połączeniem każda z platform miała własną politykę dotyczącą umieszczania na niej czasopism. Biblioteka Królewska skupiała się na różnych projektach digitalizacyjnych, czasopismach z Uniwersytetu Kopenhaskiego i oferowała usługę przyjmowania czasopism na swoją platformę za opłatą. Biblioteka Narodowa i Uniwersytecka skupiała się na czasopismach z Uniwersytetu w Aarhus i przyjmowała niektóre czasopisma z Uniwersytetu w Aalborg, aby pomóc tej uczelni w utworzeniu jej własnej platformy\nOJS. Obie biblioteki przyjmowały czasopisma z muzeów, w związku z tym, że zarówno\nBiblioteka Królewska, jak i Biblioteka Narodowa i Uniwersytecka były finansowane przez Ministerstwo Kultury, któremu podlegały także muzea. Jeżeli czasopismo było publikowane przez stowarzyszenie naukowe, zostałoby ono zazwyczaj przyjęte, jednak musiało wykazać afiliację przy konkretnej instytucji.\nObie platformy oferowały te same usługi. Biblioteki zarządzały oprogramowaniem, tłumaczyły je, testowały i aktualizowały. Wydawcy musieli kierować swoimi wewnętrznymi procesami publikacyjnymi (workflows). Aby ułatwić redakcjom zajmowanie się czasopismami, udostępniliśmy im różne kursy i pomoc online. Zaczęliśmy oferować\nDOI i zdaliśmy sobie sprawę, że musimy wyjaśnić korzyści ze stosowania trwałych identyfikatorów wielu wydawcom, a także musimy pomóc czasopismu w indeksowaniu. Myśleliśmy, że nasza pomoc będzie polegać na poinstruowaniu, jak opublikować czasopismo i jak używać oprogramowania. Jednakże zadawano nam wiele pytań dotyczących tego, jak określić procesy pracy redakcyjnej czy recenzji naukowej, jak aplikować o finansowanie, a także pytania dotyczące prawa autorskiego. Ponadto zdaliśmy sobie sprawę, że nasze usługi nie mogą skupiać się wyłącznie na platformie.\nNasze usługi obecnie\nPocząwszy od uruchomienia usługi w 2007 r. i fuzji w 2017 r. nasza platforma mocno ewoluowała w kierunku zapewnienia redaktorom pomocy w radzeniu sobie z opisanymi wyżej wyzwaniami – musieliśmy dodać do naszej oferty nowe obszary. Staliśmy się „źródłem informacji”, wedle koncepcji opisanej w pracy Jankowiak-Konik.\nObecnie odpowiadamy na następujące pytania:\n■ Jak opisać proces recenzji naukowej tak, żeby odpowiadał kodeksowi postępowania sformułowanemu przez Komitet ds. Etyki Publikacyjnej (Committee on Publica-b tion Ethics – COPE) i wymogom DOAJ (Directory of Open Access Journals) oraz innych baz indeksujących?\n\n■ Jak różne uwarunkowania związane z otwartym dostępem przekładają się na wypełnianie założeń Planu S (Coalition S).\n■ Co należy zrobić, aby znaleźć się w takich bazach indeksacyjnych, jak DOAJ, Web of Science, Scopus czy Bibliotek.dk, i jak zapewnić poprawność metadanych?\n■ Jak wykorzystywać informację o czasopiśmie w procesach aplikowania o finansowanie?\n■ Jak rozumieć prawa autorskie i licencje? Czasami trudno jest zapewnić zgodność czasopism z duńskim prawem autorskim i ze stosowaniem licencji CC (Creative\nCommons), zwłaszcza gdy czasopisma mają długą historię publikacyjną.\n■ Jak redaktorzy mogą udostępniać dane badawcze? Grantodawcy, uniwersytety, Unia\nEuropejska i czasopisma często wymagają dostępu do danych badawczych, więc redaktorzy często proszą nas o pomoc. Odsyłamy ich do odpowiednich partnerów w duńskich instytucjach badawczych lub samodzielnie odpowiedzieć na te pytania.\n■ Jak redaktorzy mogą zapewnić zgodność z wymogami RODO?\nW przyszłości będziemy także musieli rozwinąć naszą usługę w zakresie dostępności stron internetowych. Ponadto musimy pomagać czasopismom w publikowaniu w XML, HTML i w innych formatach.\nTrudno byłoby rozwinąć naszą usługę bez sieci innych platform i usług współpracujących w obszarze publikowania naukowego. Szczęśliwie jesteśmy w stałym kontakcie z serwerami OJS w Danii, Szwecji, Finlandii i w innych krajach, podobnie jak z PKP i DOAJ w celu rozwijania usługi.\nWnioski\nPlatforma Tidsskrift.dk pokazuje, że istnieje możliwość tworzenia z sukcesem nowych czasopism, czasopisma istniejące mogą przechodzić od wersji drukowanych do elektronicznych, a periodyki w językach lokalnych/narodowych – przetrwać online.\nNasze usługi stały się o wiele bardziej rozbudowane niż oczekiwaliśmy. Musieliśmy przejść od skupienia na wsparciu technicznym oprogramowania do działań obejmujących liczne dodatkowe obszary. Aby to uczynić, musieliśmy odpowiedzieć na wiele pytań bezpośrednio lub pomóc redaktorom w nawiązaniu kontaktu z właściwymi osobami w ich instytucjach. To sprawiło, że nasz kontakt z radami redakcyjnymi stał się częstszy i bardziej kompleksowy.\n\nBibliografia\nBibliotek.dk. https://bibliotek.dk/en (dostęp: 7.12.2023).\nBoserup Thestrup, J., Frederiksen, N. E. (2012). Online publiceringsservice efterspørges blandt tidsskrifterne. REVY, 35(3). https://rauli.cbs.dk/index.php/revy/article/view/3538 (dostęp: 7.12.2023).\nBoserup Thestrup, J. (2016). Open Journal Systems servers in the Nordic Countries in 2015. OJS På\nDansk, 7(7). https://doi.org/10.7146/ojssb.v7i7.23196\nBibliotek.dk. (b.d.). https://bibliotek.dk/eng (dostęp: 7.12.2023).\nCoalition S. Plan S. (b.d.). https://www.coalition-s.org/ (dostęp: 7.12.2023).\nCommittee on Publication Ethics. (n.d.). https://www.publicationethics.org (dostęp: 7.12.2023).\nCreative Commons. (b.d). https://creativecommons.org/ (dostęp: 7.12.2023).\nDyrektywa UE 2016/2102. Dyrektywa UE 2016/2102 o dostępności stron internetowych i mobilnych aplikacji organów sektora publicznego. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ALL/?uri=CE-\nLEX%3A32016L2102 (dostęp: 7.12.2023).\nDirectory of Open Access Journals. Guide to applying – DOAJ. (b.d.). https://doaj.org/apply/guide/\n(dostęp: 7.12.2023).\nGO FAIR. FAIR Principles. https://www.go-fair.org/fair-principles/ (dostęp: 7.12.2023).\nFogtmann-Schulz, A., Boserup Thestrup, J., Iversen, R. K. M. (2022). Beretning om Tidsskrift.dk og ebooks.au.dk in 2021. OJS På Dansk, 13(12). https://doi.org/10.7146/ojssb.v13i12.131914\nFogtmann-Schulz, A., Jepsen, C. J., Thestrup, J. B., Engberg, K. S., Iversen, R. K. M. (2025). Beretning om tidsskrift.dk og e-bogsplatform i 2024. OJS På Dansk, 16(19). https://doi.org/10.7146/ ojssb.v16i19.153335\nFor redaktører. (b.d.). https://tidsskrift.dk/index/for_redaktoerer#Udkomme (dostęp: 7.12.2023).\nGardner, S. A. (2025). Comparison of Library Publishing Workflows by Open Access Model as Practiced in the University of Nebraska–Lincoln Libraries. W: K. Weinper (red.), Wyzwania współczesnego publikowania. Challenges of Contemporary Publishing (s. 123–135). Wydawnictwo Politechniki Lubelskiej.\nIndexing journals in Directory of Open Access Journals. https://pro.kb.dk/en/indexing-journals-directory-open-access-journals/ (dostęp: 7.12.2023).\nJankowiak-Konik, B. (2025), Role of a University Publisher in the Process of Creating and Publishing the Scientific Journals. W: K. Weinper (red.), Wyzwania współczesnego publikowania. Challenges of Contemporary Publishing (s. 15–22). Wydawnictwo Politechniki Lubelskiej.\nMathematica Scandinavica. (b.d.). https://www.mscand.dk/ (dostęp: 7.12.2023).\nPublic Knowledge Project. (2023, January 12). About – Public Knowledge Project. https://pkp.sfu.ca/ about (dostęp: 7.12.2023).\nPublic Knowledge Project. (2024, September 27). Open Journal Systems (OJS) – Software – Public\nKnowledge Project. https://pkp.sfu.ca/software/ojs/ (dostęp: 7.12.2023).\nPublic Knowledge Project. (2025, January 29). Global Usage of OJS – Public Knowledge Project. https:// pkp.sfu.ca/software/ojs/usage-data/ (dostęp: 7.12.2023).\nPublic Knowledge Project Docs. (b.d.). Accessible and inclusive publishing – Creating Accessible Content\nGuide. https://docs.pkp.sfu.ca/accessible-content/en/introduction. (dostęp: 7.12.2023).\nRosenkrantz Hansen, C., Boserup Thestrup, J., Rindom Riise, R., Iversen, R. K. M., Johnsen, S. S.\n(2023). An offer the journal couldn’t refuse: How a Danish collaborative project paves the way for\nDOAJ inclusion. Nordic Perspectives on Open Science, 8. https://doi.org/10.7557/11.7001\nRoyal Danish Library. (b.d.). Indexing journals in Directory of Open Access Journals. https://pro.kb.dk/ en/indexing-journals-directory-open-access-journals (dostęp: 7.12.2023).\nRoyal Danish Library. (b.d.). Timeline for Royal Danish Library. kb.dk. https://www.kb.dk/en/about-\n-us/timeline (dostęp: 7.12.2023).\n\nStegger Gemzøe, A., Fogtmann-Schulz, A., Sandal Johnsen, S., Boserup Thestrup, J., Rosenkrantz\nHansen, C., Rindom Riise, R., Iversen, R. K. M. (2023). Danish OA journals and Directory of\nOpen Access Journals (DOAJ). OJS På Dansk, 14(14). https://doi.org/10.7146/ojssb.v14i14.136013\nTidsskrift.dk. (n.d.). https://tidsskrift.dk/ (dostęp: 7.12.2023).\n\nAneta Drabek\nORCID: 0000-0003-1269-9309\nBiblioteka Uniwersytetu Śląskiego\nUniwersytet Śląski w Katowicach\nROR: https://ror.org/0104rcc94\nOpłaty w polskich czasopismach open access\nAbstrakt: Celem artykułu jest analiza polskich otwartych czasopism pod kątem ich modelu finansowania. Do badania wykorzystano dane z bazy Arianta, Directory of Open\nAccess Journals oraz stron czasopism. Większość polskich czasopism ukazuje się w diamentowym modelu open access, a jedynie ok. 15% periodyków pobiera opłaty. Najwięcej płatnych czasopism przynależy do obszarów nauk ścisłych, medycznych, przyrodniczych i rolniczych. Przeprowadzone badanie pozwoliło na przygotowanie rekomendacji dla czasopism.\nSłowa kluczowe: czasopisma naukowe, open access, opłaty w czasopismach\nWstęp\nWraz upowszechnianiem idei otwartego dostępu coraz częściej zaczyna się analizować problematykę związaną z opłatami za publikowanie. Wdrożenie Planu S, który ma na celu udostępnienie w sposób otwarty recenzowanych publikacji naukowych, będących rezultatem badań finansowanych ze środków publicznych i niepublicznych, spowodowało, że zarówno naukowcy, jak i jednostki ich zatrudniające, zaczęli się bacznie przyglądać czasopismom i ich modelom finansowania. Do tej pory autorzy wśród kryteriów stosowanych przy wyborze właściwego kanału komunikowania brali pod uwagę dopasowanie tematyczne, wskaźniki bibliometryczne, szybkość publikowania czy prestiż. Obecnie muszą także rozważyć, czy czasopismo jest wydawane w modelu otwartym, subskrypcyjnym czy hybrydowym oraz kto ponosi koszty publikacji. Jednostki zaczęły planować budżety, uwzględniając koszty open access. Koalicja instytucji finansujących (cOAlition S), które zobowiązały się do wdrożenia Planu S, ma na celu\n\njak najszybsze przejście do systemu publikowania naukowego, który charakteryzuje się natychmiastowym, bezpłatnym dostępem online do publikacji naukowych oraz brakiem ograniczeń ich ponownego wykorzystania (pełny otwarty dostęp).\nJeszcze do niedawna autorzy mieli wybór, czy chcą opublikować w otwartym dostępie\n(w jednym z tysięcy czasopism hybrydowych lub otwartych), czy też przekazują prawa wydawcy, który decyduje się sprzedawać dostęp do treści. Obecnie uzyskanie środków finansowych z którejkolwiek agencji, które przystąpiły do Planu S, zobowiązuje autorów do rozliczenia grantu artykułami1 udostępnionymi w sposób otwarty. W Polsce uczestnikiem Planu jest Narodowe Centrum Nauki2, które w umowach podpisanych po 1 stycznia 2021 r. nałożyło ten obowiązek na swoich grantobiorców. Kosztorys projektu może uwzględniać opłaty publikacyjne, ale jest to zaledwie 2% całości uzyskanej kwoty. Biorąc pod uwagę wciąż rosnące koszty publikacji, to nawet realizacja dużego grantu nie wystarcza na opłacenie wszystkich artykułów. Poza tym artykuły wskazane w rozliczeniu projektu muszą zostać opublikowane w czasopismach, które spełniają wiele formalnych i merytorycznych wymogów związanych ze standardami otwartości, polityką archiwizowania, jakości metadanych itp. (Korytkowski, 2023). Pewnym wsparciem dla autorów są programy publikowania otwartego finansowane przez Ministerstwo Nauki i Szkolnictwa\nWyższego lub instytucje naukowe, ale i te – jak się okazało na początku 2023 r. – zostały ograniczone. Te wszystkie bariery powodują, że sprawna realizacja i rozliczenie projektu stają się dużo trudniejsze. Jeśli nie znajdą się środki na opłaty publikacyjne, autorzy mają do dyspozycji ograniczoną pulę czasopism, a kryterium opłat może stać się jednym z ważniejszych podczas wyboru czasopism. Problem ten jest też sygnalizowany w literaturze.\nNa przykład Alicia L. Kowaltowski i Marcus F. Oliviera (2019) w liście do Science pisali o nierealnych założeniach Planu S, a Shaun Yon-Seng Khoo (2021) zwracał uwagę na problemy prawne, których rozwiązaniem obarcza się często autorów. Optymistyczny wydaje się fakt, że wiele otwartych czasopism ukazuje się w diamentowym modelu open access, czyli autorzy nie ponoszą opłat, jednak – jak zbadali koreańscy edytorzy – wiele z nich nie spełnia rygorystycznych wymagań planu S (Korean Council of Science Editors, 2023).\nW Polsce kwestia opłat ponoszonych przez instytucje naukowe ma jeszcze jeden wymiar. Zgodnie z R ozporządzeniem Ministra Edukacji i Nauki z dnia 17 grudnia 2021 r.\ninstytucje naukowe w Polsce zostały zobowiązane do uzupełnienia w Zintegrowanym\n1 Założenia Planu S nie dotyczą monografii i rozdziałów.\n2 16 grudnia 2024 r. Rada Narodowego Centrum Nauki uchwałami nr 116/2024 oraz 130/2024 przyjęła stanowisko ws. Polityki NCN dotyczącej otwartego dostępu do publikacji, rekomendując\nDyrektorowi NCN nieprzedłużenie udziału Narodowego Centrum Nauki w konsorcjum cOAlition\nS, jednocześnie podtrzymując rekomendację publikowania w otwartym dostępie, z uwzględnieniem specyfiki danej dziedziny.\n\nSystemie Informacji o Szkolnictwie Wyższym i Nauce POL-on danych dotyczących opłat za opublikowanie artykułu lub monografii oraz podanie źródła finansowania. Ten dodatkowy obowiązek wywołał sporo pytań i kontrowersji. W przypadku wielu uczelni dane były rozproszone. Nie zawsze też było wiadomo, jakie składowe ponoszonych opłat należy wpisywać do systemu POL-on. Zgłoszonych wątpliwości było na tyle dużo, że Minister\nEdukacji i Nauki postanowił odstąpić od obowiązku podania szczegółowych opłat za poszczególne artykuły i monografie z lat 2020–2021 i zastąpić je ankietą zbierającą dane dotyczące opłat na rzecz konkretnych czasopism i wydawnictw ( Komunikat..., 2022).\nDane te miały zostać uzupełnione do 31 stycznia 2023 r. i służyć jedynie do „analiz rynku wydawniczego (w szczególności w celu identyfikacji wydawnictw stosujących praktyki nieetyczne)” (Komunikat..., 2022).\nBiorąc pod uwagę zwiększone zainteresowanie autorów oraz instytucji kwestiami opłat w czasopismach open access, interesujące stało się przebadanie polskich czasopism pod kątem finansowania, a przede wszystkim sprawdzenia, czy ukazują się one w modelu diamentowym OA, czy też pobierają opłaty. W szczególności celem było znalezienie odpowiedzi na następujące pytania:\n■ Na jakich otwartych licencjach wydawane są płatne czasopisma?\n■ W których dyscyplinach wydawanych jest najwięcej płatnych czasopism?\n■ Jakie to są koszty?\n■ Za co pobierane są opłaty od autorów?\n■ Gdzie można znaleźć informacje o opłatach?\n■ Kto może zostać zwolniony z opłat za publikowanie w polskich czasopismach?\nDodatkowo wykonane badanie pozwoliło na przygotowanie rekomendacji dla wydawców czasopism i redakcji odnośnie do informacji o opłatach na stronach WWW.\nMateriał i metody\nAnalizie poddano polskie czasopisma naukowe ukazujące się w modelu open access.\nŹródłem danych o czasopismach były strony WWW czasopism, baza danych Arianta\n– Naukowe i branżowe polskie czasopisma elektroniczne oraz baza danych Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ). Dane zostały pobrane w dniach 20–23 kwietnia\n2023 r. Arianta to baza zbierająca informacje o polskich czasopismach elektronicznych.\nOprócz podstawowych metadanych, takich jak tytuł, wydawca, ISSN, dyscyplina czy daty ukazywania się czasopisma, zawiera także informacje o otwartej licencji. DOAJ to największa światowa baza indeksująca blisko 20 tysięcy naukowych czasopism open access. Czasopisma, które zgłaszają się do bazy DOAJ, muszą wypełnić szczegółową\n\nankietę dotyczącą polityki open access, stosowanej licencji, kwestii prawnoautorskich, a także pobieranych opłat lub informacji o ich braku.\nStrony czasopism przeszukiwane były pod kątem wszelkich informacji o pobieranych opłatach. Opłaty publikacyjne, znane również jako opłaty za otwarty dostęp\n(ang. article processing charges – APC) lub opłaty za publikację (ang. publication fees), są czasami pobierane przez wydawców naukowych od autorów i często ich poniesienie stanowi konieczny warunek dalszego procedowania przesłanego manuskryptu. Informacje te znaleźć można było najczęściej w instrukcji dla autorów, na stronie głównej, w sekcji „O czasopiśmie”, a także w specjalnie przygotowanej zakładce. W odniesieniu do czasopism indeksowanych w bazie DOAJ, informacja o opłatach sprawdzana była w tej bazie i dodatkowo weryfikowana na stronie czasopisma. W przypadku kilku platform czasopism informacje o opłatach pochodziły od administratorów takiej platformy.\nW badaniu wzięto pod uwagę polskie czasopisma naukowe, które ukazują się na bieżąco, tzn. w czasie badania miały opublikowane wszystkie numery (zeszyty, tomy) z rocznika 20213. Warunkiem koniecznym było ukazywanie się czasopisma na otwartej licencji\nCreative Commons lub innej, która dokładnie opisuje warunki korzystania. Pominięte zostały czasopisma ukazujące się w tzw. brązowym otwartym dostępie, czyli takie, które co prawda umieszczają na swych stronach pełne teksty publikacji, ale nie definiują licencji wyszczególniającej możliwości korzystania (Rychlik i Theus, 2018, s. 159). Wśród wszystkich czasopism naukowych odnotowanych w bazie Arianta, 2231 tytuły to periodyki, które w czasie przeprowadzania badania miały zamknięty rocznik 2021. W tej liczbie znalazło się 1421 (63,7%) periodyków otwartych, które ostatecznie poddano analizie. Większa część polskich czasopism (889 pozycji – 62,6%) to wydawnictwa publikujące w modelu diamentowym. Może mieć na to wpływ fakt, że wiele z nich wydawanych jest przez uczelnie, stowarzyszenia czy inne instytucje naukowe, które sponsorują publikowane przez siebie periodyki. Dodatkowo wdrożone ministerialne progr amy („Wsparcie czasopism naukowych”4 w 2019 r. oraz „Rozwój czasopism naukowych”5 w 2021 r.) dofinansowały wiele czasopism, co mogło skutkować rezygnacją z pobierania APC.\nW przypadku 313 czasopism (22%) nie udało się odnaleźć informacji o opłatach.\nPrawdopodobnie większość z nich nie wymaga ich od swoich autorów, ale redakcja nie informuje o tym za pośrednictwem strony WWW. Dodać należy, że periodyków bez\n3 Ze względu na to, że wiele polskich czasopism ukazuje się z opóźnieniem, wzięcie pod uwagę czasopism, które zamknęły rocznik 2022, spowodowałoby znaczne zmniejszenie grupy analizowanych periodyków.\n4 Dofinansowanie otrzymało 500 czasopism.\n5 Dofinansowanie otrzymało 565 czasopism.\n\nwyraźnie wyartykułowanej deklaracji dotyczącej płatności jest więcej, ale w odniesieniu do części z nich udało się te informacje znaleźć albo w bazie DOAJ, albo uzyskać je bezpośrednio od redakcji czy też administratorów platform. W przypadku 219 (15,4%) czasopism na ich stronach podano konieczność wniesienia opłaty jako warunek publikacji.\nWyniki\nOtwarte licencje\nWśród 1421 otwartych czasopism największa część (ponad 1/3) to periodyki wydawane na licencji CC BY-NC-ND (Uznanie autorstwa – Użycie niekomercyjne – Bez utworów zależnych). Druga grupa to czasopisma dostępne na otwartej licencji CC BY (Uznanie autorstwa). Stanowią one blisko 30%. Pozostałe licencje występują dużo rzadziej i łącznie jest ich ok. 37%. Warto zwrócić uwagę, że jedynie 585 czasopism (41,2%) spełnia warunek\nPlanu S, czyli ukazuje się na licencji CC BY (Uznanie autorstwa) lub CC BY-SA (Uznanie\nAutorstwa – Na tych samych warunkach). Szczegółowe dane przedstawiono na rycinie 1.\n200 174\n103 97\nCC-BY CC-BY-SA CC-BY-ND CC-BY-NC CC-BY-NC-SA CC-BY-NC-ND INNA\nRycina 1. Liczba otwartych czasopism w podziale na rodzaj licencji. Jaśniejszym kolorem zaznaczono czasopisma wydawane na wolnych licencjach.\nŹródło: opracowanie własne na podstawie bazy Arianta.\nJeśli chodzi o czasopisma płatne, to proporcje poszczególnych licencji układają się podobnie jak w przypadku wszystkich periodyków otwartych. Pobieranie opłat przez\n\nwydawnictwa nie wpływa na rodzaj stosowanej licencji. Wśród 219 czasopism, które pobierają opłaty, także najwięcej jest periodyków ukazujących się na licencji CC BY-NC-ND.\nStanowią one 36%. Nieco mniej jest czasopism na otwartej licencji CC BY (ok. 31%).\nPozostałe licencje to ok. 1/3. Szczegółowe dane przedstawiono na rycinie 2.\n70 67\n30 27\nCC-BY CC-BY-SA CC-BY-ND CC-BY-NC CC-BY-NC-SA CC-BY-NC-ND INNA\nRycina 2. Liczba otwartych czasopism pobierających opłaty.\nŹródło: opracowanie własne.\nDziedziny i dyscypliny\nWszystkie badane czasopisma zostały przyporządkowane do siedmiu dziedzin i 44 dyscyplin na podstawie Rozporządzenia Ministra Nauki i Szkolnictwa Wyższego z dnia\n20 września 2018 r. w sprawie dziedzin nauki i dyscyplin naukowych oraz dyscyplin artystycznych (Rozporządzenie..., 2018). Pominięto dziedzinę sztuki i trzy dyscypliny artystyczne. W odniesieniu do 1246 czasopism, które znalazły się w Wykazie czasopism punktowanych z 21 grudnia 2021 r. (Komunikat..., 2021), wykorzystano dyscypliny wskazane w Wykazie, natomiast w przypadku pozostałych 175 periodyków dyscypliny zostały przyporządkowane ręcznie na podstawie zakresu tematycznego opisanego na stronie czasopisma. Najwięcej otwartych czasopism mają nauki społeczne (629 tytułów) i humanistyczne (518 tytułów). Nauki inżynieryjno-techniczne reprezentuje 345 periodyków, nauki medyczne i nauki o zdrowiu – 263 tytuły, nauki ścisłe i przyrodnicze – 228 oraz rolnicze – 137. Najmniej czasopism otwartych ma dziedzina nauk teologicznych (69), która jest jednocześnie jedną dyscypliną.\n\nNajwiększy odsetek czasopism bezpłatnych mają nauki humanistyczne (76,6%) oraz teologiczne (69,6%) i społeczne (67,6%). Pozostałe dziedziny mają podobny odsetek czasopism niepobierających opłat i wynosi on ok. 43–47%. Nauki teologiczne nie mają ani jednego periodyku z opłatami, ale też i największy odsetek czasopism, co do których brak danych o opłatach (ok. 30%). Niewielki odsetek płatnych czasopism mają nauki humanistyczne (8 pozycji – 1,5%), nieco większy nauk społeczne (12,9%). Najwięcej periodyków pobierających opłaty pojawia się w naukach rolniczych (44,5%), inżynieryjno-technicznych (39%) oraz naukach medycznych i naukach o zdrowiu, a także ścisłych i przyrodniczych (po ok. 35%). Więcej danych przedstawiono na rycinie 3.\n100%\n90% 113 53 57 16 123 41\n80%\n70% 0\n135 61 80\n60% 92\n50%\n40% 397\n425 48\n30%\n20% 157 114 60 107\n10%\n0%\nN. hu manistyc\nN zn\n.\ne inżynieryjno-technic\nN z\n.\nn m e edyczne i n.\no zdro wiu\nN.\nrolnicze\nN.\nspołeczne\nN.\nścisłe i przyrodnicze\nN.\nteologiczne bez opłat płatne brak danych\nRycina 3. Liczba czasopism z poszczególnych dziedzin w podziale na czasopisma bez opłat, płatne i bez informacji.\nŹródło: opracowanie własne.\n\nJeśli chodzi o dyscypliny z największym odsetkiem płatnych otwartych czasopism, to wymienić należy przede wszystkim zootechnikę i rybactwo (78,1%), technologię żywności i żywienia (77,2%) oraz weterynarię (75,6%). Na rycinie 4 przedstawiono dyscypliny, w których co najmniej 50% czasopism wymaga opłat.\n90,0\n80,0 78,1 77,2 75,6\n70,0\n58,2\n60,0 54,9\n52,0 51,9 51,3 50,0\n50,0\n40,0\n30,0\n20,0\n10,0\n0,0 zootec t h e n ch ik n a o i l o ry g b ia a c ż t y w w o ności i ży wienia weterynar n ia auki ch i e n m ży ic n z ie n r e ia mater n i a a u ło k w i f a ar maceut in yc ż z y n n e ieria ch in e ż m y i n c i z e n r a ia bio medyczna nauki fizyczne\nRycina 4. Dyscypliny z największym odsetkiem płatnych czasopism.\nŹródło: opracowanie własne.\n\nTrzy dyscypliny (historia, literaturoznawstwo i nauki teologiczne) nie mają żadnych płatnych periodyków. W przypadku czterech dyscyplin humanistycznych opłaty pobierają nieliczne pojedyncze czasopisma. W grupie tej znajdują się jeszcze nauki o komunikacji społecznej i mediach, które mają 2,6% czasopism pobierających opłaty. Szczegółowe dane przedstawiono na rycinie 5.\n3,0 2,6\n2,4\n2,5\n2,0\n1,5\n1,5 1,1\n1,0\n0,6\n0,5\n0,0 0,0 0,0\n0,0\n...\nm u nikacji s p oł ecz n ej n i a uki o szt uc e fil oz ofia arc h e ol o j g ę ia zyk oz na wst w o hi l s it t e o r r a ia t ur oz na wst n w a u o ki t e ol ogicz n e o o k uki na\nRycina 5. Dyscypliny z najmniejszym odsetkiem płatnych czasopism.\nŹródło: opracowanie własne.\nReputacja a opłaty\nOliver Budzinski, Thomas Grebel, Jens Wolling i Xijie Zhang badali czynniki, które mogą mieć wpływ na podnoszenie lub wprowadzenie opłat za publikowanie (Budzinski i in., 2020). Jednym z czynników, który okazał się mieć znaczenie, była reputacja czasopisma, na którą wpływały m.in. indeksowanie w bazach Web of Science oraz posiadanie wskaźnika impact factor. Wśród 219 czasopism pobierających opłaty spora większość (149 tytułów) to periodyki indeksowane albo w bazie Scopus, albo w Web of\nScience, albo w obu tych źródłach. Fakt przyjęcia czasopisma do rejestrowania w jednej z dwóch największych baz może skłonić redakcję (lub wydawcę) do pobierania opłat, które zostaną przeznaczone np. na dodatkowe narzędzia lub usługi wpływające na profesjonalizację działań edytorskich.\nW przypadku niniejszego badania wykorzystano także punktację czasopism na podstawie wykazu z 2021 r. (Komunikat..., 2021), aby sprawdzić, czy wyższa liczba\n\npunktów, jaką otrzymało czasopismo, może przełożyć się na decyzję dotyczącą pobierania opłat. Okazało się, że liczba punktów może mieć wpływ na ich wprowadzenie.\nWśród czasopism wysoko punktowanych (100 pkt) jest dwa razy więcej czasopism płatnych (22,5%) niż w przypadku czasopism nisko punktowanych (11,5%). Największy odsetek czasopism pobierających opłaty odnosi się do periodyków, które mają 140 punktów, ale jest ich tylko dziewięć, więc z powodu niewielkiej reprezentacji, trudno pokusić się o jakieś uogólniające stwierdzenia. Szczegółowe dane zawiera tabela 1.\nTabela 1. L iczba i odsetek czasopism płatnych z określoną liczbą punktów\nLiczba punktów Liczba wszystkich Liczba płatnych Odsetek płatnych czasopism czasopism czasopism\n20 305 35 11,5\n40 391 51 13,0\n70 352 69 19,6\n100 178 40 22,5\n140 13 9 69,2\nNiepunktowane 183 15 8,2\nŹródło: opracowanie własne.\nOpłaty\nNiektóre redakcje szczegółowo wymieniają, na co zostanie przeznaczona opłata publikacyjna. Czasem jest ona uzależniona od zaistnienia szczególnych przyczyn, np. przekroczenia ustalonego limitu stron (znaków) lub włączenia do tekstu kolorowych ilustracji albo konieczności wykonania (lub poprawienia) tłumaczenia. Generalnie wśród wyszczególnionych kategorii wydatków ponoszonych z opłat publikacyjnych znaleźć można poniższe:\n■ pełne opracowanie tekstu,\n■ wstępne rozpatrzenie tekstu,\n■ dodatkowe strony/znaki (powyżej ustalonego limitu),\n■ wydrukowana wersja,\n■ tłumaczenie,\n■ proofreading, czyli profesjonalna korekta redakcyjna,\n■ ilustracje (kolorowe ilustracje),\n■ szybka ścieżka publikacyjna,\n■ wycofanie tekstu.\n\nJeśli chodzi o kwoty opłat, to trudno je przenalizować, ponieważ redakcje podają je często w rozbiciu na poszczególne usługi czy procesy, albo wyceniają pojedyncze strony. Kwoty podane są też w różnych walutach. Najczęściej jest to złoty, dolar, euro lub funt. W niektórych przypadkach do podanej kwoty należy doliczyć podatek VAT, w innych informacja o podatku nie jest podana. Rozpiętość kwot jest bardzo duża i waha się od 100 do 10 000 zł za jeden artykuł lub od 50 do 500 zł za stronę. Zdarzają się też czasopisma, gdzie sugerowana jest wpłata dobrowolna. Kwoty te zmieniają się z czasem i oznacza to zwykle zwiększenie kosztów. Widać to choćby, gdy analizuje się dane w bazie DOAJ i na stronie czasopisma. Chodzi tu o sytuacje, gdy koszt opłat zwiększył się (co podano na stronie), ale informacja w DOAJ nie została zaktualizowana. Zdarza się również, choć to rzadsze przypadki, że czasopismo pobierało opłaty, a potem udaje się znaleźć fundatora i wydawca odstępuje od ich pobierania. Czasem zmiana wydawcy powoduje też zmianę modelu finansowania.\nZwolnienia z opłat\nW niektórych przypadkach redakcje informują o możliwości zwolnienia z części lub całości opłat za publikowanie. Wśród osób, które mogą zostać z opłat zwolnione, pojawiają się:\n■ członkowie stowarzyszenia, które wydaje czasopismo,\n■ autorzy afiliowani do uczelni, która wydaje czasopismo,\n■ doktoranci afiliowani do uczelni, która wydaje czasopismo,\n■ autorzy z zagranicy,\n■ autorzy artykułów z co najmniej 50% udziałem autorów spoza Polski,\n■ autorzy, którzy przygotowali poprawnie tekst,\n■ autorzy tekstów w języku angielskim,\n■ autorzy zaproszeni,\n■ autorzy tekstów wysokiej jakości.\nJak widać z powyższego zestawienia, różne motywacje stają za decyzjami o zmniejszeniu lub rezygnacji z pobierania APC. Czasem jest to bonus dla członków własnej organizacji, a czasem zachęta dla określonej grupy potencjalnych autorów.\nRekomendacje dla wydawców czasopism\nPrzejrzenie stron 1421 czasopism pozwoliło na sformułowanie kilku rekomendacji, które mogą być praktyczną wskazówką dla redakcji, wydawców i administratorów stron WWW. W ostatnich latach strony czasopism przeszły dużo zmian. Stosowane są systemy zarządzania czasopismem, które profesjonalizują proces redagowania periodyku. Jednakże informacji o opłatach często trudno się na tych stronach doszukać.\n\nStąd najważniejszą rekomendacją jest umieszczenie na stronie czasopisma tej informacji, niezależnie od tego, czy wydawca pobiera opłaty, czy też nie. Informacja wskazująca, że opublikowanie w czasopiśmie jest całkowicie bezpłatne, może być dodatkową zachętą dla potencjalnych autorów. Dobrą praktyką przygotowanie odpowiedniej zakładki (opłaty/fees) lub sekcji o opłatach w instrukcji dla autorów, tak aby korzystający ze strony nie mieli problemów z jej odnalezieniem. Inną ważną kwestią jest dbałość o aktualizacje danych o opłatach nie tylko na stronie czasopisma, ale też w innych serwisach i bazach danych (np. w bazie DOAJ). W przypadku gdy czasopismo pobiera opłaty, warto szczegółowo opisać, jakie to są kwoty, czy zawierają one podatek VAT, na co wykorzystywane są opłaty, a także kiedy i gdzie można ich dokonać. Istotna jest też informacja, czy są to pełne koszty, czy też autor może się spodziewać jeszcze jakichś dodatkowych płatności, np. za dłuższe artykuły czy tłumaczenie. Jeśli redakcja w pobieranej opłacie uwzględnia wszelkie koszty, to można dodać informację o ewentualnej możliwości zwrócenia opłaty (całej lub części) w przypadku nieprzyjęcia artykułu. Ostatnia rekomendacja to wskazanie, czy można się ubiegać o zwolnienie z opłat, a jeśli tak, to jakie warunki należy spełnić. Potencjalnemu autorowi należy się rzetelna informacja o kosztach, tak żeby swoją decyzję dotyczącą publikowania w danym periodyku podejmował świadomie i nie został zaskoczony na którymkolwiek etapie procesu redakcyjnego.\nPodsumowanie\nPrzeprowadzona analiza wskazała, że większość polskich naukowych czasopism open access publikowana jest w modelu diamentowym, bez opłat ze strony autorów, czy też afiliujących instytucji. Jedynie ok. 15% czasopism obecnie deklaruje pobieranie opłat.\nSą to przede wszystkim periodyki z nauk medycznych, rolniczych, ścisłych i przyrodniczych. Instytucje zatrudniające autorów z tych dyscyplin muszą przewidzieć w budżecie opłaty za te publikacje. Tego problemu nie mają autorzy z nauk teologicznych, humanistycznych i w dużej mierze także i społecznych. Koszty publikacji są bardzo zróżnicowane i ze względu na ich rozpiętość kwotową (od 100 do 10 000 zł) oraz sposób rozliczania (czasem za całość, czasem od strony) nie sposób podać wartości średnich czy przybliżonych. Niektóre redakcje szczegółowo wyliczają, na co zostaną przeznaczone pobierane od autorów finanse. Czasem jest to podział na wstępne działania redakcyjne i drugi etap, prowadzący do ostatecznie przygotowanej publikacji. Najczęściej jest mowa o dodatkowych opłatach za ponadlimitowane strony, kolorowe ilustracje, tłumaczenia czy wydruk. Informacje o opłatach nie mają swojego stałego miejsca na stronie WWW.\nIch znalezienie czasem jest proste (specjalna zakładka), a często wymaga przejrzenia\n\nwielu podstron i sekcji. Informacja trudna do znalezienia może zniechęcić potencjalnego autora. Niekiedy redakcje stosują zwolnienia z opłat, traktując ten przywilej jako zachętę do publikowania dla określonych grup odbiorców. Przeprowadzone badanie oraz przejrzenie stron czasopism pozwoliło na przygotowanie najważniejszych rekomendacji dotyczących umieszczania tych informacji na stronach czasopism.\nBibliografia\nArianta – Naukowe i branżowe polskie czasopisma elektroniczne. https://arianta.pl/\nBudzinski, O., Grebel, T., Wolling J., Zhang H. (2020). Drivers of article processing charges in open access. Scientometrics, 124, 2185–2206. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11192-020-03578-3\nDOAJ – Directory of Open Access Journals. https://doaj.org/\nKhoo, SY-S. (2021). The Plan S Rights Retention Strategy is an administrative and legal burden, not a sustainable open access solution. Insights: The UKSG Journal, 34(1). https://doi.org/10.1629/ uksg.556\nKomunikat Ministra Edukacji i Nauki z dnia 2 listopada 2022 r. dotyczący obowiązku sprawozdawczego w zakresie kosztów opłat za artykuły naukowe i monografie. (2022). https://www.gov.pl/ web/edukacja-i-nauka/komunikat-w-sprawie-ankiety-dotyczacej-kosztow-oplat-za-artykuly-\n-naukowe-i-monografie-z-lat-2020-2021\nKomunikat Ministra Edukacji i Nauki z dnia 21 grudnia 2021 r. o zmianie i sprostowaniu komunikatu w sprawie wykazu czasopism naukowych i recenzowanych materiałów z konferencji międzynarodowych. (2021). https://www.gov.pl/web/edukacja-i-nauka/komunikat-ministra-edukacji-i-nauki-z-dnia-21-grudnia-2021-r-o-zmianie-i-sprostowaniu-komunikatu-w-sprawie-wykazu-czasopism-naukowych-i-recenzowanych-materialow-z-konferencji-miedzynarodowych\nKorean Council of Science Editors. (2023). How open access diamond journals comply with industry standards exemplified by Plan S technical requirements. Science Editing, 10(1), 35–44. https:// doi.org/10.6087/kcse.295\nKorytkowski, P. (2023, 18–19 kwietnia). Plan S – rewolucja w akademickim publikowaniu. [Prezentacja]. Bibliometryczne analizy otwartej nauki, Poznań.\nKowaltowski, A. J., Oliveira, M. F. (2019). Plan S: Unrealistic capped fee structure. Science, 363(6426), 461.\nhttps://doi.org/10.1126/science.aaw5815\nRozporządzenie Ministra Edukacji i Nauki z dni a 17 grudnia 2021 zmieniające rozporządzenie w sprawie danych przetwarzanych w Zintegrowanym Systemie Informacji o Szkolnictwie Wyższym i Nauce POL-on. (2022). Dz.U. 2021 poz. 2364. https://isap.sejm.gov.pl/isap.nsf/DocDetails.\nxsp?id=WDU20210002364\nRozporządzenie Ministra Nauki i Szkolnictwa Wyższego z dnia 20 września 2018 r. w sprawie dziedzin nauki i dyscyplin naukowych oraz dyscyplin artystycznych. (2018). Dz.U. 2018, poz. 1818.\nhttps://isap.sejm.gov.pl/isap.nsf/DocDetails.xsp?id=WDU20180001818\nRychlik, M. Theus, M. (2018). Otwarty dostęp do piśmiennictwa naukowego. Przegląd funkcjonujących form – legalnych i nielegalnych. Biblioteka, 22(31), 157–173. https://doi.org/10.14746/b.2018.22.9\n\nAnna Zatora\nORCID: 0000-0003-4597-5568\nBiblioteka Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego\nUniwersytet Łódzki\nROR: https://ror.org/05cq64r17\nCzy bibliotece naukowej przeszkadza brak polityki otwartości?\nPrzypadek Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego\nAbstrakt: W artykule analizuję działalność biblioteki naukowej w obliczu wyzwań związanych z rozwojem otwartych modeli publikowania naukowego i udostępnianiem danych badawczych w instytucji nieposiadającej formalnej polityki otwartości. Przykład\nUniwersytetu Łódzkiego pokazuje, w jaki sposób inicjatywy oddolne – w tym przypadku przede wszystkim Biblioteki Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego, ale także innych jednostek uczelni — mogą kształtować postawy i inicjować działania z zakresu otwartej nauki. Artykuł prezentuje perspektywę bibliotekarzy oraz ich rolę w promowaniu publikowania otwartego i rozpowszechnianiu wiedzy o nim wśród pracowników naukowych, doktorantów i studentów, a także udział w aktywnościach uczelni związanych z wprowadzeniem dobrych praktyk otwartościowych do badań i dydaktyki (programy publikowania otwartego, read&publish, analiza czasopism pod kątem drapieżnych praktyk wydawniczych, wspieranie naukowców w doborze ścieżek publikacyjnych, licencji i miejsca archiwizowania prac w tzw. zielonej drodze otwartego dostępu, administrowanie repozytorium instytucjonalnym, zajęcia dla szkół doktorskich, wydarzenia promujące open access).\nZ ustaleń wynika, że w polskiej nauce funkcjonują dwa modele postępowania: przyjęcie przez uczelnię polityki otwartości oraz niewprowadzanie polityki otwartości przy jednoczesnym podejmowaniu działań prootwartościowych zgodnych z odgórnymi rekomendacjami. Model drugi, realizowany przez Uniwersytet Łódzki, okazuje się równie funkcjonalny jak model pierwszy.\nSłowa kluczowe: polityka otwartości, otwarta nauka, biblioteka naukowa, open access, dane badawcze, Uniwersytet Łódzki\n\nWstęp\n„Pierwszym krokiem w kierunku określenia zasad otwartego dostępu powinno być przyjęcie przez każdą jednostkę naukową i uczelnię własnej instytucjonalnej polityki otwartego dostępu” (Kierunki rozwoju otwartego dostępu do publikacji i wyników badań naukowych w Polsce, 2015)1 – to zdanie z komunikatu opublikowanego na stronie ministerstwa odpowiadającego w Polsce za szkolnictwo wyższe stało się dla wielu jednostek naukowych drogowskazem. Otwieranie nauki, choć było światowym trendem od lat, wzbudzało i wzbudza wiele wątpliwości, zarówno wśród samych (wy)twórców nauki, czyli badaczy, jak i wśród jej adresatów/odbiorców, w tym decydentów2. Kiedy w 2015 r. Ministerstwo\nNauki i Szkolnictwa Wyższego – opublikowało dokument Kierunki rozwoju otwartego dostępu do publikacji i wyników badań naukowych w Polsce, władze polskich uczelni stanęły przed ważnym wyborem: pójść za ministerialnym zaleceniem czy zaczekać na rozwój wydarzeń i przygotować politykę otwartości zgodną ze swoim doświadczeniem i strategią? Argumentacja przywoływana w dokumencie MNiSW wydawała się o tyle przekonująca, że po pierwsze powtarzała rekomendacje takich instytucji, jak Komisja\nEuropejska czy Europejska Rada ds. Badań Naukowych (ERC), po drugie zaś wskazywała na liczne korzyści płynące z udostępniania wyników badań naukowych. Dość miękkie sformułowanie zaleceń sprawiało ponadto, że włodarze jednostek naukowych mieli czas na podjęcie działań. A właściwie wciąż mają, bowiem w Kierunkach rozwoju... czytamy, że polityki otwartości powinny być „[...] zbieżne w szczególności z politykami otwartego dostępu, które zostaną przyjęte przez krajowe podmioty finansujące badania naukowe ze środków publicznych (NCN, NCBR, MNiSW)” (Kierunki rozwoju..., 2018), a jak dotąd jedynie Narodowe Centrum Nauki taki dokument opracowało (2020)3. Obecnie w polskiej\n1 Dokument opracowano w październiku 2015, dostępny jest jednak tylko plik z 2018 roku.\nNiniejszy artykuł powstawał w 2023 roku i uwzględnia ówczesny stan prawny, stąd mogą pojawiać się różnice w nazwach instytucji lub przepisach w stosunku do dnia ukazania się publikacji.\nW 2025 roku Uniwersytet Łódzki nadal nie przyjął polityki otwartości i funkcjonuje w oparciu o prezentowany w artykule model.\n2 Na temat otwartej nauki — zapisywanej na różnej sposoby i różnie rozumianej — powstało już bardzo wiele tekstów, zarówno naukowych, jak i popularyzatorskich czy edukacyjnych. Do niektórych z nich będę wracać w niniejszym artykule, ale żeby nie powtarzać tych samych ustaleń i nie definiować po raz kolejny podstawowych pojęć (open access, zielona droga, repozytorium,\nFAIR data, drapieżne czasopisma itd.), odsyłam do ujętych w bibliografii prac. Przyjmuję zapis\n„otwarta nauka” małymi literami, rozumiejąc pod tym pojęciem szereg zagadnień, powszechnie uznawanych za jego główne składniki, tzn. open access (w tym publikowanie otwarte), otwarte zasoby edukacyjne, otwarte dane badawcze oraz otwartą komunikację naukową.\n3 W 2022 roku ukazał się dokument o nazwie Polityka Naukowa Państwa (MEiN, 2022), w którym jest mowa o „Open Science” i udostępnianiu wyników badań czy danych badawczych, jednak to tylko\n\nnauce funkcjonują więc dwa modele postępowania: 1) przyjęcie przez uczelnię polityki otwartości zawierającej zalecenia zgodne z Kierunkami rozwoju...4; 2) niewprowadzanie instytucjonalnej polityki otwartości, najczęściej przy jednoczesnym podejmowaniu działań wynikających z rekomendacji ministerstwa i Unii Europejskiej – na zasadzie miękkich zaleceń. Model drugi realizuje Uniwersytet Łódzki.\nOtwarta nauka w Uniwersytecie Łódzkim — regulacje wewnętrzne\nNajważniejszym dokumentem związanym z regulacjami dotyczącymi otwierania nauki w Uniwersytecie Łódzkim pozostaje Komunikat Rektora Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego z dnia\n28.04.2020 roku na temat wdrażania polityki otwartego dostępu na Uniwersytecie Łódzkim (2020). Porusza on przede wszystkim kwestię zapewnienia otwartego dostępu do wyników badań naukowych poprzez umożliwienie pracownikom, doktorantom i studentom UŁ deponowania prac w repozytorium instytucjonalnym zgodnie z zaleceniami ministerialnymi. Repozytorium Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego, działające od 2012 r., niewielka część obszernego dokumentu. Drugim dokumentem, o którym należy wspomnieć, choć również nie stanowi on polityki otwartości, jest Ustawa z dnia 11 sierpnia 2021 r. o otwartych danych i ponownym wykorzystywaniu informacji sektora publicznego. Ustawa ta weszła w życie 8 grudnia\n2021 r. Najważniejszą zmianą w stosunku do poprzedniej ustawy dotyczącej tych zagadnień (2016) jest uwzględnienie dyrektywy Parlamentu Europejskiego i Rady (UE) 2019/1024 z dnia 20 czerwca\n2019 r. w sprawie otwartych danych i ponownego wykorzystywania informacji sektora publicznego.\nUstawa wprowadza w zakres ponownego wykorzystania dwie nowe kategorie informacji sektora publicznego: dane o wysokiej wartości oraz dane dynamiczne. W zakres Ustawy... weszły również dane badawcze — wprowadzono wytyczne związane z ich otwieraniem/udostępnianiem. Ważnym punktem dokumentu jest stworzenie stanowiska pełnomocnika ds. otwartości danych i zapowiedź\nProgramu otwierania danych koordynowanego przez ministra właściwego ds. informatyzacji, a także zapowiedź szczegółowych regulacji/zaleceń, które znajdą się w Polityce otwartego dostępu. Polityka ta miała zostać opracowana przez ministra właściwego ds. szkolnictwa wyższego i nauki w drugiej połowie 2022 roku, jednak do tej chwili [lipiec 2023] wciąż nie została opublikowana [Polityka otwartego dostępu do danych badawczych finansowanych ze środków publicznych ukazała się ostatecznie w lipcu\n2025 roku, jednak nie wprowadza twardych zaleceń dla uczelni. Należy również dodać, że Narodowe\nCentrum Nauki złagodziło politykę otwartości w czerwcu 2025 roku, odchodząc od obowiązkowego otwartego dostępu w kierunku miękkich zaleceń i rekomendacji – przyp. A.Z., 2025].\n4 Instytucjonalne polityki otwartości wprowadziły m.in.: Uniwersytet Jagielloński, Uniwersytet\nMikołaja Kopernika w Toruniu, Politechnika Krakowska czy Uniwersytet Śląski. Wiele jednostek ograniczyło się do zasygnalizowania, że swoje działania w kwestii otwartości opierają na zaleceniach ministerstwa (np. Politechnika Warszawska, Politechnika Śląska, Uniwersytet Opolski).\nInne, jak Uniwersytet Warszawski, zapowiadają wprowadzenie takiego dokumentu. Dane pochodzą z oficjalnych stron internetowych poszczególnych jednostek. Por. Platforma Otwartej Nauki\n[PON], b.r.: http://pon.edu.pl/politykiotwartosci/polityki-otwartosci-w-polsce/.\n\noferuje pełen dostęp5 do publikacji naukowych i innych materiałów archiwizowanych na platformie, w tym do rozpraw doktorskich. W przywołanym komunikacie Rektor\nUŁ wystosował do społeczności akademickiej prośbę o zwrócenie uwagi na to, jakie umowy zawierają z wydawcami i na jakich licencjach publikują swoje prace (rekomendując licencje niewyłączne), a także o umieszczanie prac w repozytorium instytucjonalnym w sposób umożliwiający otwarty dostęp do nich. Autorzy wciąż mają jednak wybór ścieżki publikowania i licencji, sami decydują również o tym, czy dostęp do ich pracy, np. habilitacyjnej czy doktorskiej, będzie otwarty czy ograniczony. UŁ nie wprowadził dotąd twardych regulacji w tych kwestiach.\nRównież w 2020 r. powołany został Pełnomocnik Rektora Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego do spraw otwartego dostępu do publikacji i wyników badań naukowych. Funkcję tę od dnia 2 listopada 2020 r. sprawuje dyrektor Biblioteki UŁ Tomasz Piestrzyński. Mianowanie pełnomocnika odpowiedzialnego za kwestie związane w otwartą nauką stanowiło, podobnie jak w innych jednostkach, odpowiedź na apel ministerstwa. O ile nazewnictwo w uczelniach bywa różne6, to zadania pełnomocników są te same: przede wszystkim czuwanie nad takim zarządzaniem dorobkiem naukowym (a niekiedy i edukacyjnym) jednostki, by był możliwie otwarty, a jednocześnie bezpieczny (bezpieczeństwo danych badawczych, prawa autorskie, patenty, tzw. drapieżne praktyki publikacyjne), koordynowanie prac związanych z wprowadzaniem lub realizowaniem polityki otwartości, przygotowywanie aktów wewnętrznych i odpowiadanie na pytania związane z otwartą nauką, analizowanie działań prootwartościowych jednostki, funkcja doradcza wobec władz uczelni.\nW przypadku gdy funkcję pełnomocnika do spraw otwartej nauki i funkcję dyrektora biblioteki naukowej pełni ta sama osoba, biblioteka tym bardziej włącza się w budowanie polityki otwartości uczelni – czy to rozumianej jako dokument, czy jako nieformalna strategia. W kolejnej części artykułu skoncentruję się na przedstawieniu udziału\nBiblioteki UŁ w tworzeniu takiej właśnie strategii oraz na zadaniach, które realizują jej pracownicy w ramach szeroko rozumianej otwartej nauki.\n5 Nieograniczony dostęp do danego dokumentu warunkowany jest zgodą autora i/lub określoną licencją. Repozytorium UŁ oferuje autorom także możliwość ograniczenia dostępu, np. tylko w sieci UŁ, lub zamknięcia dostępu dla użytkowników nieuprawnionych – w takim przypadku użytkownik musi wystąpić z prośbą o dostęp za pomocą specjalnego formularza.\n6 W panelu dyskusyjnym Otwarta nauka — standardy i dobre praktyki | Wdrażanie polityk otwartej nauki w uczelniach, który z inicjatywy Konferencji Rektorów Akademickich Szkół Polskich odbył się 12 maja 2021 r., wzięli udział — poza reprezentantem UŁ — pełnomocnicy: „ds. otwartego dostępu”, „ds. otwartego dostępu do publikacji naukowych i wyników badań”, „ds. otwartego dostępu do publikacji naukowych i danych badawczych”, „ds. otwartej nauki”. Zob. KRASP, 2021.\n\nBiblioteka Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego – inicjatywy i zadania\nSymptomatyczne okazało się zdanie, które w swoich wytycznych dotyczących wypełniania\nPlanu Zarządzania Danymi w grantach finansowanych ze środków publicznych zamieściło Narodowe Centrum Nauki, mianowicie: „W wypełnieniu poniższej części formularza pomogą Państwu pracownicy biblioteki / odpowiedniego repozytorium / działu IT\nPaństwa instytutu lub uniwersytetu” (NCN, 2019). Ten jasny komunikat adresowany do naukowców sprawił, że biblioteka naukowa, przeważnie administrująca również repozytorium instytucjonalnym, z dnia na dzień musiała stać się centrum kompetencji, a jej pracownicy – ekspertami od takich zagadnień, jak otwarte repozytoria, formaty danych czy prawa autorskie i licencje Creative Commons. Dane badawcze to przy tym tylko jedno z wielu pól aktywności naukowo-badawczej uczelni związanych z otwartą nauką, na których biblioteki działają.\nBiblioteka UŁ o wiele wcześniej podejmowała inicjatywy związane z rozpowszechnianiem wiedzy na temat otwartości w nauce (choćby prowadzenie repozytorium instytucjonalnego czy seminarium organizowane w ramach Open Access Week od 2010 roku), a mimo to dostosowanie pracy jednostki do zmieniających się oczekiwań pracowników, władz uczelni czy, ogólnie mówiąc, całej społeczności akademickiej, wymagało restrukturyzacji, szkolenia kadry i nawiązania współpracy zarówno z innymi jednostkami UŁ, jak i z instytucjami i partnerami zewnętrznymi, m.in. właśnie z Narodowym Centrum Nauki.\nPrzedstawiając w tej część artykułu rozwiązania i propozycje, z jakimi Biblioteka\nUŁ wystąpiła do swojej społeczności akademickiej, rozpatruję je także z perspektywy pracowników uczelni, która nie zdecydowała się na przyjęcie formalnej polityki otwartości i do dziś realizuje model rekomendacji i dobrych praktyk.\nRepozytorium Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego\nRepozytorium instytucjonalne UŁ7 administrowane jest przez pracowników Biblioteki\nUŁ i funkcjonuje od ponad dziesięciu lat8. Powstało w oparciu o otwarte oprogramowanie DSpace, a zbiory są indeksowane m.in. w takich bazach i agregatorach, jak: OpenAire, CORE (agregator publikacji w otwartym dostępie), DartEurope E-theses Portal\n7 Dostępne pod adresem: https://repozytorium.uni.lodz.pl/.\n8 Nie będę opisywać prac nad wdrożeniem i początków funkcjonowania repozytorium jako formy komunikacji naukowej w Uniwersytecie Łódzkim – wyczerpująco opisała to już Lidia Mikołajuk\n(2014).\n\n(repozytorium rozpraw doktorskich), Agregator CEON, a także widoczne w Google\nScholar i OpenDOAR.\nJak wspomniałam w sekcji poświęconej regulacjom wewnętrznym w UŁ, Rektor\nUŁ w komunikacie zarekomendował pracownikom i doktorantom zamieszczanie swoich publikacji i rozpraw doktorskich i habilitacyjnych w repozytorium instytucjonalnym, a Biblioteka UŁ prowadziła kampanię informacyjną9 i do dziś oferuje szkolenia w tym zakresie. Repozytorium UŁ stale powiększa przy tym liczbę otwartych zasobów:\nw 2022 r. liczba publikacji w Repozytorium UŁ wyniosła 38 991, co stanowi wzrost o ponad 2500 dokumentów w stosunku do roku poprzedniego. Odsetek prac zamkniętych czy danych z ograniczonym dostępem jest niewielki – składają się na niego niektóre rozprawy doktorskie (doktoraty archiwalne, niedeponowane przez autorów osobiście, a złożone w repozytorium w celu ochrony zbiorów bibliotecznych i dorobku naukowego uczelni) oraz pojedyncze zbiory danych i materiały z projektów badawczych, do których dostęp wymagał wprowadzenia embarga (dane osobowe, dane wrażliwe, prawa autorskie). Największy zasób stanowią natomiast kolekcje czasopism naukowych związanych z UŁ – to aż 27 105 dokumentów (stan na 24.07.2023 r.).\nWskazanie przez NCN biblioteki/repozytorium jako miejsca, w którym można uzyskać pomoc w wypełnieniu formatki Planu Zarządzania Danymi, w konsekwencji doprowadziło także do rozbudowania drzewa zbiorów i kolekcji Repozytorium UŁ o przestrzeń na wyniki realizowanych przez pracowników UŁ projektów badawczych, w tym na dane badawcze. Administratorzy RUŁ umożliwili autorom zamieszczanie zbiorów danych (ang. dataset) o ograniczonej infrastrukturą wielkości – do 5 GB. W tej chwili w zasobach RUŁ znajduje się już ponad dwadzieścia takich zbiorów danych. Rozwiązanie to, niemające umocowania w żadnych formalnych zaleceniach władz uczelni, podyktowane było koniecznością zapewnienia wsparcia naukowcom i realizowane jest w oparciu o międzynarodowe dobre praktyki10 i z dbałością o zgodność z zasadami\nFAIR (zob. Wilkinson i in., 2016; por. FORCE11, 2014).\n9 Na temat kilku pierwszych lat funkcjonowania Repozytorium UŁ w kontekście otwierania nauki\n– zob. Mikołajuk, Goszczyńska 2016.\n10 Istotną rolę w samokształceniu administratorów Repozytorium UŁ odgrywa pierwsza krajowa\nGrupa Robocza Data Stewardship Competence Centers PL, w której regularnych spotkaniach zespół\nBiblioteki UŁ bierze udział od 2021 r. Za organizację spotkań i koordynację działań w ramach DSCC\nPL odpowiada przede wszystkim Centrum Kompetencji Politechniki Gdańskiej. Zob. https://pg.edu.\npl/openscience/polska-grupa-robocza. [Po przekształceniach: Sieć Kompetencji Otwartej Nauki –\nData Steward PL, zob. https://datasteward.edu.pl/ – przyp. A.Z., 2025].\n\nZarządzanie danymi badawczymi\nWażną rolą pracowników Biblioteki UŁ, o której należy wspomnieć w kontekście otwartych danych badawczych, stało się konsultowanie Planów Zarządzania Danymi (PZD), przede wszystkim w grantach Narodowego Centrum Nauki, ale także w ramach innych projektów, m.in. European Research Council. W 2022 r. trzyosobowy zespół skonsultował ponad 60 PZD.\nWiodącą rolę w konsultowaniu i redagowaniu wniosków grantowych w Uniwersytecie Łódzkim odgrywa Centrum Nauki11, które kieruje wnioskodawców do pracowników Biblioteki UŁ na etapie wypełnienia formatki PZD. Dzięki prowadzonej za pośrednictwem wewnętrznych kanałów komunikacji kampanii informacyjnej wielu naukowców trafia do zespołu konsultującego PZD również bezpośrednio. Praca nad częścią wniosku poświęconą zarządzaniu danymi badawczymi polega najczęściej na indywidualnych spotkaniach, także online, oraz na redagowaniu wypełnionych pól, czy to bezpośrednio w systemie OSF, czy podczas pracy na plikach roboczych. Doradztwo obejmuje nie tylko zalecenia dotyczące sposobu wypełnienia formatki, ale także pomoc w doborze odpowiedniego repozytorium dla typu danych. Pracownicy Biblioteki UŁ, we współpracy z Centrum Nauki, prowadzą ponadto szkolenia dotyczące otwartych danych badawczych, o czym piszę szerzej w części poświęconej dydaktyce.\nBiorąc pod uwagę, że UŁ nie posiada w tej chwili wyspecjalizowanego repozytorium danych badawczych ani nie zatrudnia profesjonalnych data stewardów, biblioteka naukowa stanowi jedyne miejsce, gdzie pracownicy mogą skonsultować się w przedmiocie zarządzania danymi. O ile jednak w początkowej fazie konsultowania PZD, czyli w latach 2019–2021, zauważalny był chaos informacyjny, to dziś można dostrzec zmianę, przede wszystkim we współpracy Biblioteki UŁ z pracownikami administracji opiekującymi się wnioskami grantowymi na różnych etapach: zarówno pracownicy\nCentrum Nauki, jak i osoby zatrudnione na poszczególnych wydziałach coraz lepiej znają zagadnienie danych badawczych i kierują naukowców do właściwych specjalistów, a także wskazują im przygotowane przez Bibliotekę UŁ materiały informacyjne (zob.\nZatora, 2021). Współpraca ta nie jest wynikiem zaleceń władz czy regulacji, lecz wynika ze względów praktycznych i zmienia się wraz ze zdobywanym przez pracowników doświadczeniem. Stanowi odpowiedź na zapotrzebowanie ze strony społeczności UŁ.\nWarto dodać, że materiały na temat danych badawczych przygotowane przez zespół\nBiblioteki UŁ zostały wielokrotnie przywołane w publikacji Obecność problematyki\n11 Dziś Centrum Wsparcia Projektów UŁ – przyp. A.Z., 2025.\n\nzarządzania danymi badawczymi na stronach web polskich bibliotek naukowych (2022) – jako jedne z najbardziej wyczerpujących i obszernych, zob. m.in. wykres „Proporcje występowania terminów oraz definicji w analizowanych bibliotekach” (Nahotko, 2022, s. 51).\nPublikowanie w modelach otwartych\nPublikowanie w modelach otwartych to kolejne złożone zagadnienie należące do obszaru otwartej nauki. Kilka ostatnich lat pokazało, że naukowcy publikujący wyniki swoich badań w czasopismach i wydawnictwach naukowych oczekują od pracowników administracji, w tym bardzo często od bibliotekarzy, wsparcia na co najmniej czterech głównych, powiązanych ze sobą polach: 1) ocena czasopism i wydawców pod kątem jakości, wskaźników bibliometrycznych i potencjalnych nierzetelnych praktyk wydawniczych, 2) prawa autorskie i otwarte licencje, 3) finansowanie publikacji w modelach open access, 4) widoczność i promocja dorobku publikacyjnego.\nKwestie związane z publikowaniem otwartym – głównie wątpliwości i problemy pracowników naukowych – pozostają w UŁ w gestii przede wszystkich dwóch jednostek uczelnianych: Wydawnictwa UŁ i Biblioteki UŁ. W następnych akapitach skupiam się na zadaniach realizowanych przez zespół Biblioteki, pomijając znaczący wkład\nWydawnictwa z uwagi na ograniczenie objętości artykułu.\nUniwersytet Łódzki nie wprowadził regulacji dotyczących publikowania w modelach otwartych, lecz związanych z nim zagadnień dotyczą dwa komunikaty Rektora:\nwspomniany już Komunikat Rektora Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego... (2020) oraz Komunikat Rektora Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego z dnia 24.04.2023 r. w sprawie: zagrożeń płynących z publikacji w tzw. czasopismach i wydawnictwach drapieżnych (2023). Zarówno pierwszy, jak i drugi dokument odsyłają do Biblioteki UŁ jako do miejsca, w którym można uzyskać wsparcie informacyjne. W 2022 r. Oddział Informacji Naukowej i Analiz Bibliometrycznych rozszerzył zakres przygotowywanych przez pracowników analiz bibliometrycznych o analizy czasopism naukowych pod kątem potencjalnego stosowania przez wydawcę nierzetelnych praktyk wydawniczych/publikacyjnych. Bezradność nauki i naukowców wobec tzw. drapieżnych praktyk wydawniczych (Grudniewicz i in.,\n2019) sprawia, że instytucje i sami badacze poszukują sposobów, by bronić się przed firmami wyłudzającymi dane, wykorzystującymi dorobek naukowy czy manipulującymi procesem recenzji i publikacji prac. W przypadku Biblioteki UŁ usługa adresowana do pracowników i doktorantów uczelni obejmuje zebranie i przedstawienie podstawowych informacji na temat praktyk publikacyjnych i statystyk prezentowanych przez dane czasopismo. Informacje te mogą pomóc w zorientowaniu się w polityce wydawcy\n(format open access, opłaty, dostęp do treści), widoczności czasopisma (indeksacja\n\nw bazach danych, wskaźniki bibliometryczne, udostępnianie plików, identyfikatory danych), przejrzystości strony internetowej czasopisma i jego polityki publikacyjnej\n(statystyki dotyczące czasu oczekiwania na recenzję i liczby artykułów/numerów, informacje o zespole redakcyjnym i recenzentach). Komunikat Rektora UŁ z 2023 r. ukazał się już po podjęciu przez Bibliotekę UŁ działań związanych z informowaniem i wspieraniem pracowników i doktorantów w kwestii tzw. drapieżnych czasopism i wydawców – regulacja (rekomendacja) pojawiła się zatem później niż inicjatywa oddolna.\nWprowadzenie przez NCN polityki otwartości (2020) i wskazanie trzech ścieżek publikacyjnych pozwalających rozliczyć otrzymany grant wywołało wiele wątpliwości związanych ze stosowaniem otwartych licencji. Do nowej rzeczywistości musieli dostosować się zarówno polscy redaktorzy i wydawcy, w tym akademiccy, jak i sami autorzy prac naukowych. Modele open access (wciąż ewoluujące i mutujące), polityki wydawnicze i często nieprzystające do siebie oczekiwania pracodawcy i fundatora zewnętrznego stanowią gąszcz, w którym niełatwo się poruszać. Uniwersytet Łódzki stworzył dla swoich pracowników środowisko cyfrowe zawierające również Bazę Wiedzy Pracownika – to w niej przede wszystkim zamieszczane są materiały mające pomóc w szybkim i łatwym odnalezieniu informacji na dany temat. Wśród przewodników zamieszczanych tam przez Bibliotekę UŁ znajduje się również jeden, najbardziej obszerny, dotyczący publikowania otwartego (zob. Brzozowska, Piestrzyński i Zatora, 2021).\nWydaje się, że złożoność modeli open access powinna być wystarczającym utrudnieniem dla autorów prac, jednak kwestią przysparzającą dodatkowych wątpliwości okazuje się finansowanie publikacji. Podstawową opłatą związaną z publikowaniem w wielu modelach open access jest opłata za publikację – procedowanie artykułu w danym czasopiśmie – czyli APC (ang. article processing charge)12. Wysokość i zróżnicowanie opłat (od ich braku w modelach diamentowych, przez opłaty rzędu kilkuset złotych, po opłaty sięgające kilku, a nawet kilkunastu tysięcy euro), niedostateczne finansowanie ze środków publicznych, zmieniające się zasady finansowania ze strony samych jednostek i chaos informacyjny to problemy, z jakimi mierzą się badacze i, co za tym idzie, pracownicy bibliotek naukowych mający stanowić dla nich merytoryczne wsparcie.\nBiblioteka UŁ nie tylko odpowiada więc za zawieranie umów z wydawcami i dostawcami baz danych czy właścicielami platform publikacyjnych, ale prowadzi też sprawy\n12 Świadomie koncentruję się na czasopismach, ponieważ na polskim rynku wydawniczym publikowanie innych niż artykuły rodzajów prac naukowych w modelach open access nie jest tak dobrze rozpoznane, choć coraz więcej mówi się o BPC, czyli opłatach dotyczących monografii w modelach open access. Jest to oczywiście materiał na odrębną rozprawę, stanowi tylko tło dla moich rozważań.\nNa temat modeli biznesowych w kontekście otwartego publikowania zob. m.in. Speicher i in., 2018.\n\nzwiązane z udziałem uczelni w tzw. programach read&publish. Lista komunikatów13 na stronie Wirtualnej Biblioteki Nauki, czyli w polskiej oficjalnej bazie dotyczącej umów konsorcyjnych zawieranych przez instytucje naukowe z wydawcami i ministerstwem, jest wymowna: zmienne kwoty dofinansowania, zmienne listy czasopism objętych programami, zmienne terminy podpisywania umów. W tak niesprzyjających warunkach konieczne okazuje się wsparcie bibliotekarzy, stale monitorujących rynek wydawniczy i sprawujących opiekę nad umowami ze strony uczelni.\nCzwarty, ważny aspekt, o którym warto wspomnieć w kontekście publikowania otwartego, to widoczność dorobku naukowego. Związanym z tym pośrednio dokumentem jest w Uniwersytecie Łódzkim Zarządzenie nr 36 Rektora Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego z dnia 15.12.2021 r. w sprawie: obowiązku uzyskania identyfikatora ORCID i stosowania go w systemach gromadzenia informacji o dorobku naukowym przez osoby prowadzące działalność naukową w Uniwersytecie Łódzkim (2021). Znalazł się w nim zapis:\n„Profil utworzony na platformie ORCID powinien być publicznie dostępny”, a także – po raz kolejny – jako organ wspierający naukowców w wypełnianiu obowiązku płynącego z zarządzenia wskazano Bibliotekę UŁ. Promocja dorobku naukowego wiąże się z prowadzeniem i uzupełnianiem profili naukowca, których jest coraz więcej14, nie tylko w takich portalach, jak ResearchGate czy Academia.edu, ale i połączonych bezpośrednio z dorobkiem indeksowanym w bazach, w tym Scopus czy Web of Science. W ten sposób buduje się kolejne pole, na którym działają pracownicy bibliotek naukowych.\n13 Dostępna pod adresem: https://wbn.icm.edu.pl/komunikaty/. W komunikacie z 19 stycznia 2023 r.\nczytamy np.: „[...] Ponadto ICM będzie musiał rozwiązać dotychczasowe umowy na licencje Science,\nNature i CUP, które były zawarte na okres 2022–2024, ale uwzględniały ewentualność, że dofinansowanie na 2023 r. nie zostanie przyznane. Instytucje zainteresowane dalszym dostępem do zasobów z licencji nie objętych dofinansowaniem w 2023 r. powinny uzgadniać warunki bezpośrednio z wydawcami lub agentami wydawców oraz samodzielnie zabezpieczyć środki i zawierać umowy”.\nJak można zauważyć, kwestie finansowania są rozstrzygane na bieżąco, a niekiedy nawet z opóźnieniem, niemal niemożliwe jest planowanie publikowania w czasopismach objętych programami read&publish z wyprzedzeniem — do samego końca badacz nie może być pewien, czy wybrane czasopismo będzie objęte programem za rok czy dwa, a nawet czy program będzie wówczas działał.\n14 Trend związany z alternatywnymi wskaźnikami bibliometrycznymi (ang. altmetrics) zwiększył zainteresowanie profilami naukowców w portalach czy mediach społecznościowych (zob.\nBrzozowska, Piestrzyński, Zatora 2021). Coraz więcej mówi się w środowisku naukowym o odejściu od klasycznej, wypaczonej przez system ewaluacyjny, parametryzacji nauki, o czym m.in.\npisze Emanuel Kulczycki w swojej najnowszej publikacji The Evaluation Game. How Publication\nMetrics Shape Scholarly Communication (2023).\n\nDydaktyka i promocja\nW Bibliotece UŁ w zakres obowiązków pracowników Oddziału Informacji Naukowej i Analiz Bibliometrycznych wchodzą szkolenia dla pracowników naukowych i zajęcia dla doktorantów. W przypadku Szkół Doktorskich do najistotniejszych tematów spośród tych dotyczących otwartej nauki należą kwestie związane z publikowaniem w modelach otwartych, w tym tzw. drapieżne czasopisma i wydawcy oraz licencje Creative\nCommons, a także – od drugiej strony – otwarte zasoby, czyli bazy danych, z których społeczność akademicka UŁ może korzystać, zarówno w ramach wykupionych przez uczelnię licencji, jak i w ramach otwartego dostępu.\nWe współpracy z Centrum Nauki organizowane są cyklicznie szkolenia dotyczące programów publikowania otwartego oraz otwartych danych badawczych w grantach\nNarodowego Centrum Nauki. Kolejne edycje konkursów przyciągają na szkolenia zwłaszcza tych badaczy, którzy potrzebują wsparcia w wyborze miejsca publikacji (objaśnienie ścieżek publikowania wyróżnionych przez NCN w polityce otwartości, wskazanie możliwości sfinansowania publikacji w formacie open access, ustalenie odpowiedniej licencji), i tych, którzy po raz pierwszy zetknęli się z formatką Planu Zarządzania Danymi.\nPoza otwartymi dla pracowników i doktorantów okresowymi szkoleniami na te tematy\nBiblioteka UŁ oferuje indywidualne konsultacje dla badaczy – dotyczące konkretnych projektów badawczych, finansowania publikacji czy dostępu do zasobów cyfrowych.\nW ramach współpracy zewnętrznej organizowane są ponadto spotkania, szkolenia i warsztaty. Do najstarszej z tego typu inicjatyw Biblioteki UŁ należy coroczne Seminarium\nOpen Access Week, do niedawna adresowane tylko do społeczności akademickiej UŁ, ale w 2022 r. otwarte również dla uczestników z zewnątrz: uczniów szkół średnich, pracowników i studentów innych uczelni, instytucji zainteresowanych poruszanymi podczas spotkań tematami15. W tym roku odbyła się również druga edycja Seminarium „Badaj, promuj, bądź”, organizowanego we współpracy z Centrum Komunikacji i PR UŁ, podczas którego poruszane są kwestie związane w otwartą nauką głównie w kontekście promocji dorobku naukowego16. Otwarta nauka jest ponadto przedmiotem rozważań podczas współtworzonych przez Bibliotekę UŁ wydarzeń, takich jak konferencje naukowe i warsztaty, m.in. we współpracy z Narodowym Centrum Nauki (zob. Galica, 2023a i b) czy innymi łódzkimi uczelniami i wydawcami (zob. ONPP, 2023).\n15 Sprawozdanie z ostatniego seminarium ukazało się drukiem (zob. Zatora, 2022), natomiast materiały ze wszystkich dotychczasowych edycji dostępne są w Repozytorium UŁ: https://repozytorium.uni.lodz.pl/handle/11089/47605.\n16 Nagrania dostępne są w Repozytorium UŁ dla użytkowników korzystających z Internetu w sieci UŁ.\n\nW stronę (centrum) kompetencji?\nUdzielając odpowiedzi na postawione w tytule artykułu pytanie, warto podkreślić, że UŁ nie wyklucza wprowadzenia polityki otwartości. Przyjęty przez władze uczelni model miękkich zaleceń i korzystania z dobrych praktyk okazał się funkcjonalny. Z perspektywy Biblioteki UŁ nie bez znaczenia pozostaje oczywiście fakt pełnienia przez jej dyrektora funkcji pełnomocnika rektora ds. otwartego dostępu do publikacji i wyników badań naukowych – w kontekście decyzyjności i angażowania bibliotekarzy w nowe zadania – jednak w przypadku współpracy poszczególnych jednostek, wewnętrznej i zewnętrznej, zarządzenie wprowadzające formalną politykę nie zmieniłoby wiele, mogłoby co najwyżej uporządkować kwestie zakresu obowiązków pracowników czy ułatwić komunikację z badaczami. Stanowiłoby też okazję i impuls do weryfikacji i aktualizacji istniejących już dokumentów, takich jak te dotyczące Repozytorium UŁ, oraz podstawę formalną do finansowego czy programowego wspierania rozwoju kompetencji bibliotekarzy i innych osób zaangażowanych w proces otwierania nauki. Dla samych badaczy mogłoby zaowocować ustaleniami dotyczącymi premiowania otwartych publikacji czy nagradzania za zaangażowanie w zwiększanie otwartości uczelni\n(choć nie musiałoby — analiza ogólnodostępnych polityk otwartości polskich uczelni wykazuje, że, przynajmniej dzisiaj, takie gratyfikacje nie są w nich ujęte, realizuje się je poprzez konkursy i środki dodatkowe, np. granty wewnętrzne17).\nNie sposób wyczerpująco przedstawić na przestrzeni tak krótkiego tekstu zadań wszystkich osób włączonych w proces otwierania nauki w Uniwersytecie Łódzkim.\nW samej Bibliotece UŁ realizuje się wiele zadań związanych z otwartą nauką pośrednio,\n17 Model finansowania publikacji open access ze środków uczelni przyjęło wiele ośrodków, które otrzymały zwiększoną subwencję w ramach konkursu „Inicjatywa Doskonałości – Uczelnia Badawcza”\n(IDUB), m.in. Akademia Górniczo-Hutnicza im. S. Staszica w Krakowie czy Politechnika\nGdańska, która stworzyła program „Oxygenium Supporting Open Access Publications”;\nzob. https://pg.edu.pl/badawcza/programy/oxygenium-supporting-open-acess-publications.\nPolityki otwartości poszczególnych uczelni, choć opierają się na tych samych wytycznych i mają podobny cel, są mocno zróżnicowane — mają różny stopień restrykcyjności (od łagodnych zaleceń po — rzadziej — wyznaczoną ścieżkę postępowania), różne zakresy (niektóre polityki dotyczą tylko publikacji, inne również przechowywania danych badawczych) i różny stopień ogólności\n(wskazanie osób, funkcji lub jednostek odpowiedzialnych za konkretne zadania). Rozwiązaniem niektórych kwestii problematycznych mogłoby okazać się opracowanie wzorcowego dokumentu dla uczelni. Dokument zakładający rozwiązania systemowe, takie jak konkretne gratyfikacje dla badaczy publikujących w modelach otwartych i korzyści dla uczelni wykazującej wzrost takich publikacji, sposób finansowania kosztów APC i BPC, procedury dotyczące bezpiecznego przechowywania danych badawczych czy określenie roli poszczególnych jednostek uczelni w procesie otwierania danych i publikacji, wydaje się pożądany, tym bardziej, że jego opracowanie wymogłoby na decydentach pochylenie się nad zagadnieniami, które od dawna tego wymagają.\n\nm.in. prace w Uczelnianym Systemie Informacji o Osiągnięciach ScienceON, wciąż rozwijanym, oraz organizacja konferencji i wydarzeń, takich jak coroczne Seminarium Open\nAccess Week czy Seminarium „Otwieranie Nauki: Praktyka i Perspektywy”. Otwieranie nauki we wszystkich jej aspektach sprawiło, że praca w bibliotece naukowej stała się wyzwaniem. Oddział Informacji Naukowej i Analiz Bibliometrycznych Biblioteki UŁ de facto składa się z kilku zespołów, z których każdy realizuje nowe zadania związane z otwartą nauką — zarówno pracownicy odpowiedzialni za administrowanie repozytorium, analizy bibliometryczne, gromadzenie informacji o dorobku i dane badawcze, jak i zespół dydaktyczny czy zespół do spraw promocji muszą rozwijać swoje kompetencje, by sprostać oczekiwaniom nie jednego, lecz wielu ogniw łańcucha składającego się na polską i światową naukę. Jeśliby dodać do tego aspekt (g)rywalizacji, konkurowania ze sobą – o fundusze, zasoby ludzkie, infrastrukturę – o czym pisze Emanuel Kulczycki (2023, s. 59), oczekiwania rosną. Naukowcy mają tworzyć naukę coraz szybciej i lepiej, ale żeby mogli to robić, powinny stać za nimi zespoły kompetentnych osób. Zwrot w kierunku otwartej nauki, który przyśpieszył w Polsce po podpisaniu Planu S, pokazał, jak ważne jest zaangażowanie jednostek pozornie niewłączonych bezpośrednio w badania naukowe:\nadministracji, bibliotek, wydawnictw, zespołów IT... Przypadek UŁ nie jest wyjątkowy\n– z tymi samymi problemami i zadaniami mierzą się i te uczelnie, które opracowały formalną politykę otwartości, i te, które do dziś jej nie mają – jednak stanowi dowód, że regulacje nie zastąpią oddolnych inicjatyw i że model wypracowania pewnych rozwiązań w oparciu o doświadczenie pracowników, często niskiego szczebla, może być funkcjonalny. Kiedy/jeśli władze UŁ zdecydują, że należy przygotować i wprowadzić politykę otwartości, istnieje duże prawdopodobieństwo, iż nie będzie to tekst powtarzający zdania wyjęte z Kierunków rozwoju otwartego dostępu... czy innego ministerialnego dokumentu, lecz odpowiadający na rzeczywiste potrzeby społeczności uczelni.\nBibliografia\nBednarek-Michalska, B. (2017). Otwarta nauka w Polsce – rys historyczny. W: E. Kulczycki, (red.), Komunikacja naukowa w humanistyce. Wydawnictwo Naukowe Instytutu Filozofii UAM. http://repozytorium.umk.pl/handle/item/4710\nBrzozowska, A., Piestrzyński, T., Zatora, A. (2021). Publikowanie otwarte. Praktyczny przewodnik dla badaczy. Biblioteka Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego. http://hdl.handle.net/11089/47541 cOAlition S (2018). Plan S. Accelerating the transition to full and immediate Open Access to scientific publications. https://www.coalition-s.org/addendum-to-the-coalition-s-guidance-on-the-implementation-of-plan-s/principles-and-implementation/ (dostęp: 23.08.2023).\nThe Future of Research Communications and e-Scholarship (FORCE11) (2014). Guiding Principles for Findable, Accessible, Interoperable and Re-usable Data Publishing version b1.0. https://force11.\norg/info/guiding-principles-for-findable-accessible-interoperable-and-re-usable-data-publishing-version-b1-0/ (dostęp: 23.08.2023).\n\nGalica, N. (2023a). Narodowe Centrum Nauki. Polityka otwartego dostępu do publikacji. https:// pp.uni.lodz.pl/index.php/intranet/scms/portal/page?portalId=37&pageId=607 (intranet, dostęp:\n23.08.2023).\nGalica, N. (2023b). Otwarte dane badawcze w polityce i praktyce Narodowego Centrum Nauki. https:// pp.uni.lodz.pl/index.php/intranet/scms/portal/page?portalId=37&pageId=607 (intranet, dostęp:\n23.08.2023).\nGrudniewicz, A., Moher, D., Cobey, K. D., Bryson, G. L., Cukier S., Allen, K., Ardern, C., Balcom, L.,\nBarros, T., Berger, M., Ciro, J. B., Cugusi, L., Donaldson, M. R., Egger, M., Graham, I. D., Hodgkinson, M., Khan, K. M., Mabizela, M., Manca, A.,..., Lalu, M. M. (2019). Predatory journals:\nno definition, no defence. Nature, 576. https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-019-03759-y Kępski, P.\n(2017). Polityka otwartego dostępu w Polsce. Rekomendacje MNiSW. https://www.ifj.edu.pl/library/open-access/materials/Kepski.pdf\nKierunki rozwoju otwartego dostępu do publikacji i wyników badań naukowych w Polsce (2018) https:// www.gov.pl/web/edukacja-i-nauka/dokumenty-na-temat-otwartego-dostepu (dostęp: 23.08.2023).\nKoalicja Otwartej Edukacji [KOED] (2019). Polityki otwartości w Polsce. Oprac. I. Sójkowska, N. Gruenpeter. https://otwartanauka.pl/blog/1205-polityki-otwartosci-w-polsce\nKomunikat Rektora Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego z dnia 28.04.2020 r. w sprawie: wdrażania polityki otwartego dostępu na Uniwersytecie Łódzkim (2020). Uniwersytet Łódzki. https://pp.uni.lodz.\npl/index.php/intranet/scms/portal/page?portalId=37&pageId=245 [intranet, dostęp: 23.08.2023]\nKomunikat Rektora Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego z dnia 24.04.2023 r. w sprawie: zagrożeń płynących z publikacji w tzw. czasopismach i wydawnictwach drapieżnych (2023). Uniwersytet Łódzki,\nBaza Aktów Wewnętrznych. https://baw.uni.lodz.pl/d/55607/5/\nKRASP (2021). Otwarta nauka — standardy i dobre praktyki | Wdrażanie polityk otwartej nauki w uczelniach [panel dyskusyjny]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QY5rj_1XWCk (dostęp:\n23.08.2023).\nKulczycki, E. (2023). The Evaluation Game. How Publication Metrics Shape Scholarly Communication.\nCambridge University Press.\nMikołajuk, L. (2014). Repozytorium instytucjonalne jako nowa forma komunikacji naukowej. Podkarpackie Studia Biblioteczne, 3. http://hdl.handle.net/11089/5071\nMikołajuk, L., Goszczyńska, A. (2016). Rola biblioteki akademickiej w procesie otwierania nauki na przykładzie funkcjonowania Repozytorium Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego. W: S. Skórka, M. Rogoż, (red.),\nBibliotekarz 2.0. Nowe technologie. Nowe wyzwania, Wydawnictwo Naukowe Uniwersytetu Pedagogicznego. http://hdl.handle.net/11089/18094\nMinisterstwo Edukacji i Nauki [MEiN] (2022). Polityka Naukowa Państwa. https://www.gov.pl/web/ edukacja-i-nauka/polityka-naukowa-panstwa-przyjeta-przez-rade-ministrow (dostęp: 23.08.2023).\nNahotko, M. (red.) (2022). Obecność problematyki zarządzania danymi badawczymi na stronach web polskich bibliotek naukowych. Uniwersytet Jagielloński, Biblioteka Jagiellońska. https://ruj.uj.edu.\npl/xmlui/handle/item/291146\nNarodowe Centrum Nauki [NCN] (2019). Wytyczne dla wnioskodawców do uzupełnienia PLANU\nZARZĄDZANIA DANYMI w projekcie badawczym. https://www.ncn.gov.pl/sites/default/files/ pliki/regulaminy/wytyczne_zarzadzanie_danymi.pdf\nNarodowe Centrum Nauki [NCN] (2020). Polityka Narodowego Centrum Nauki dotycząca otwartego dostępu do publikacji. https://www.ncn.gov.pl/sites/default/files/pliki/zarzadzenia-dyrektora/ zarzadzenieDyr-38_2020.pdf (dostęp: 23.08.2023).\n\nOtwieranie Nauki: Praktyka i Perspektywy [ONPP] (2023). Edycja 7: Wartość Open Science, 10–11 października 2023, Łódź. Biblioteka Politechniki Łódzkiej. https://onpp.p.lodz.pl/ (dostęp:\n23.08.2023).\nPlatforma Otwartej Nauki [PON]. Polityki otwartości. http://pon.edu.pl/politykiotwartosci/polityki-otwartosci-w-polsce/ (dostęp: 23.08.2023).\nUstawa z dnia 11 sierpnia 2021 r. o otwartych danych i ponownym wykorzystywaniu informacji sektora publicznego (2021). Dz.U. 2021 poz. 1641. https://sip.lex.pl/akty-prawne/dzu-dziennik-ustaw/ otwarte-dane-i-ponowne-wykorzystywanie-informacji-sektora-publicznego-19144047\nSan Francisco Declaration on Research Assessment [DORA], https://sfdora.org/read/ (dostęp:\n23.08.2023).\nSeminarium Open Access Week (2010–2022). Biblioteka Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego, Repozytorium\nUniwersytetu Łódzkiego. https://repozytorium.uni.lodz.pl/handle/11089/47605\nSibiga, G., Sybilski, D. (red.) (2022). Ustawa o otwartych danych i ponownym wykorzystywaniu informacji sektora publicznego. Komentarz. Wydawnictwo C.H.Beck.\nSPARC Europe’s strategic plan 2021–2024 (2021). https://sparceurope.org/who-we-are/about-us/ our-strategy/ (dostęp: 23.08.2023)\nSpeicher, L., Armando, L., Bargheer, M., Eve, M. P., Fund, S., Leão, D., Mosterd, M., Pinter, F., Souyioultzoglou, I. (2018). OPERAS Open Access Business Models White Paper. Zenodo. https://doi.org/10.5281/ zenodo.1323708\nSwan, A. (2012). Policy guidelines for the development and promotion of open access. United Nations\nEducational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/ pf0000215863 (dostęp: 23.08.2023).\nSzprot, J. (red.) (2014). Otwarta nauka w Polsce 2014. Diagnoza. Wydawnictwa ICM. http://pon.edu.\npl/nasze-publikacje?pubid=13 (dostęp: 23.08.2023).\nSzprot, J. (2019). Instytucjonalne polityki otwartości. https://konferencje.buw.uw.edu.pl/elsevier2019/ pdf/ONPPIV2019/13112019/2_Instytucjonalne_polityki_otwartossci_Szprot.pdf (dostęp:\n23.08.2023).\nWilkinson, M., Dumontier, M., Aalbersberg, I., Appleton, G., Axton, M., Baak, A., Blomberg, N.,\nBoiten, J. W., da Silva Santos, L. B., Bourne, P. E., Bouwman, J., Brookes, A. J., Clark, T., Crosas,\nM., Dillo, I., Dumon, O., Edmunds, S., Evelo, C. T., Finkers, R., ..., Mons, B. (2016). The FAIR\nGuiding Principles for scientific data management and stewardship. Scientific Data, 3, 160018.\nhttps://doi.org/10.1038/sdata.2016.18.\nZarządzenie nr 36 Rektora Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego z dnia 15.12.2021 r. w sprawie: obowiązku uzyskania identyfikatora ORCID i stosowania go w systemach gromadzenia informacji o dorobku naukowym przez osoby prowadzące działalność naukową w Uniwersytecie Łódzkim (2021).\nUniwersytet Łódzki, Baza Aktów Wewnętrznych. https://baw.uni.lodz.pl/d/53644/5/\nZatora, A. (red.) (2021). Dane badawcze. Przewodnik Biblioteki Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego. Biblioteka\nUniwersytetu Łódzkiego. http://hdl.handle.net/11089/47542\nZatora, A. (2022). 13. Seminarium Open Access w Bibliotece Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego 24–30 października 2022 r. Zagadnienia Rodzajów Literackich, 3(143), 65. https://doi.org/10.26485/\nZRL/2022/65.3/10\n\nMonika Szarama\nORCID: 0000-0002-9544-8144\nŁukasz Tomczak\nORCID: 0000-0001-9465-4854\nCentrum Informacji Naukowo-Technicznej\nPolitechniki Lubelskiej\nROR: https://ror.org/024zjzd49\nDroga do zmiany poziomu otwartości dorobku naukowego Politechniki Lubelskiej – obraz ostatnich sześciu lat\nAbstrakt: Artykuł przedstawia analizę sześciu lat (2017–2022), obejmującą okres przed i po wdrożeniu polityki otwartego dostępu (OA Mandate) w 2020 roku na Politechnice Lubelskiej. Badanie dotyczyło udziału procentowego publikacji w otwartym dostępie (OA) w całkowitej liczbie publikacji uczelni. Dodatkowo, w celu umieszczenia wyników Politechniki\nLubelskiej w szerszym kontekście, przeprowadzono obliczenia dla Polski, Europy oraz całego świata. Analiza została oparta na danych pochodzących z bazy „Publikacje Pracowników\nPolitechniki Lubelskiej”, a także z narzędzi analitycznych SciVal i InCites. Uwzględniono wyłącznie publikacje naukowe posiadające status OA, takie jak artykuły naukowe, rozdziały w monografiach, książki oraz materiały konferencyjne. Przeprowadzona analiza wykazała, że udział publikacji w otwartym dostępie w dorobku Politechniki Lubelskiej utrzymuje się na zadowalającym poziomie i jest zgodny z trendami krajowymi, regionalnymi oraz globalnymi.\nSłowa kluczowe: bazy danych, Politechnika Lubelska, otwarty dostęp, otwarta nauka, udział procentowy publikacji w otwartym dostępie\nWprowadzenie\nAspekt otwartości dorobku naukowego analizowany był w wielu badaniach, których celem było dostarczenie informacji na temat otwartości publikacji naukowych na różnych poziomach. Na poziomie światowym próbą takich obliczeń było badanie w oparciu\n\no dane pochodzące z Web of Science, Unpaywall i Leiden Ranking, obejmujące 963 instytucje (Robinson-Garcia i in., 2020). Na poziomie krajowym obliczenia uwzgledniające otwarty dostęp do publikacji naukowych we Francji zostały przygotowane w oparciu o otwarte i subskrypcyjne bazy danych oraz otwarte archiwum krajowe (Chaignon i Egret, 2022), podczas gdy na poziomie instytucji takie wyliczenia zaprezentowano m.in.\ndla działów księgowości trzech uczelni wyższych (Torres i Manjarrez-Dominguez, 2021).\nJak dotąd nie podjęto się próby takich wyliczeń dla Politechniki Lubelskiej. Obchodzona w tym roku 70. rocznica powstania uczelni stała się okazją do świętowania jubileuszu także poprzez przegląd różnych aspektów dotychczasowej działalności PL. Jubileusz był okazją do określenia zaangażowania uczelni w szeroką komunikację naukową.\nZmiany w modelu komunikacji naukowej są jednym z klastrów, jakie wyłaniają się z badań nad produkcją naukową na temat open access w 2016 r. (Migiel i in., 2016).\nUdostępnianie publikacji naukowych wszystkim zainteresowanym ma niewątpliwy wpływ na to, jak szybko te nowe informacje stają się dostępne dla innych.\nTak jak model open access oferuje ogromne korzyści różnym uczestnikom ekosystemu badawczego, prowadząc do zachowania, ochrony i dystrybucji publikacji akademickich i naukowych (Jaiwant i Gowda, 2022), ciągła ewolucja środowiska otwartej nauki stale wnosi do debaty nowe narzędzia, definicje i kryteria, dostarczając przykładów na to, co i w jaki sposób można lub należy analizować, aby uzyskać informacje na temat zasięgu otwartego dostępu do dorobku naukowego badaczy.\nKierunek, w jakim od dłuższego czasu Centrum Informacji Naukowo-Technicznej\nPL (CINT PL) stara się wspierać społeczność akademicką PL poprzez rozwój własnych usług, dąży do włączenia otwartej nauki na szerszą skalę w procesy dydaktyczne i naukowe realizowane na uczelni. Podjęta analiza stanowiła okazję do wglądu w ostatnie lata tego procesu, którego ważnym elementem zostało przyjęcie Polityki otwartego dostępu w PL zarządzeniem Rektora z 6 listopada 2020 r. (Zarządzenie Nr R-92/2020,\n2020). Zaowocowało to intensyfikacją wysiłków ze strony CINT w promocję otwartej nauki wśród naukowców PL, a także rozbudowaniem oferty Centrum w tym zakresie\n(Weinper i Tomczak, 2021). Lata objęte niniejszą analizą uwzględniają okres przed oraz po wprowadzeniu Polityki i pozwalają na uzyskanie być może ogólnego, ale nadal istotnego, obrazu wpływu tego dokumentu na dorobek naukowy pracowników PL.\nMetody\nDane do analizy zostały zebrane w oparciu o trzy źródła w dniu 28.02.2023 r. na potrzeby sesji posterowej konferencji „Wyzwania współczesnego publikowania” oraz w dniu 30.06.2023 r.\nna potrzeby tego tekstu, po aktualizacji danych z 2022 r. w Scopus i Web of Science (WoS).\n\nJako źródła danych zostały wybrane dwie bazy o ogólnym charakterze obejmujące szerokie spektrum dyscyplin naukowych – Scopus i WoS (z uwzględnieniem Emerging\nSources Citation Index). Dane pozyskano w oparciu o narzędzia analityczne towarzyszące tym zasobom: SciVal oraz InCites. Trzecim źródłem uwzględnionym w tym porównaniu była baza „Publikacje Pracowników PL” (BPPPL) – narzędzie wykorzystywane do wewnętrznej oceny pracowników PL.\nInCites jest aktualizowany z miesięczną częstotliwością na podstawie danych pobranych z Web of Science na koniec poprzedniego miesiąca, podczas gdy SciVal otrzymuje cotygodniowe aktualizacje w oparciu o informacje pochodzące z bazy Scopus. Aktualizacje bazy „Publikacje Pracowników PL” nie są planowane z wyprzedzeniem, nowe dokumenty włączane są do niej po przesłaniu zgłoszenia przez autora i ostatecznej weryfikacji przez bibliotekarza.\nBaza „Publikacje Pracowników Politechniki Lubelskiej” rejestruje cały dorobek publikacyjny pracowników PL, w tym prace popularnonaukowe. Aby publikacja została włączona do bazy „Publikacje Pracowników PL”, afiliacja co najmniej jednego autora musi wskazywać na PL.\nW przypadku InCites i SciVal dokumenty do analizy zostały wyselekcjonowane na podstawie nazwy instytucji: Politechnika Lubelska (WoS) i identyfikatora organizacji\n60011739 (Scopus).\nAby umożliwić porównanie danych dla każdej z baz, typy publikacji uwzględnionych w analizie zostały ograniczone do: artykułu naukowego, materiałów konferencyjnych, rozdziału w książce i książki. Wybrane typy dokumentów zapewniły najwyższy poziom pod względem kompletności informacji na ich temat w bazie „Publikacje Pracowników PL”, ponieważ jednocześnie stanowiły one typy dokumentów sprawozdawane w ocenie parametrycznej działalności naukowej / w ewaluacji działalności naukowej. Analiza koncentruje się na okresie 2017–2022, uwzględniając lata przed i po wdrożeniu już wspomnianej Polityki otwartego dostępu w PL. Otwarty dostęp (OA) na potrzeby tej analizy został zdefiniowany przez bezpłatny i pełnotekstowy dostęp do treści publikacji w wersji elektronicznej.\nObecnie baza „Publikacje Pracowników PL” rejestruje publikacje jako otwarte w oparciu o jedno główne kryterium: bezpłatny i nieograniczony dostęp do pełnego tekstu online, uwzględniając wszystkie rodzaje OA. Chociaż obecność licencji Creative Commons jest odnotowywana w rekordzie publikacji (jeśli występuje), nie jest ona decydująca przy określaniu dostępności dokumentu. Status każdego dokumentu jest weryfikowany przez bibliotekarza, w trakcie uzupełniania metadanych publikacji podczas wprowadzania do bazy „Publikacje Pracowników PL”.\nW przypadku narzędzia InCites status OA określany jest zgodnie z klasyfikacją WoS:\nGold i Gold Hybrid, Free to Read: Green Published, Green Accepted, Green Submitted\n\n(Clarivate, b.d.). Dla narzędzia SciVal zastosowanie ma terminologia obecna w bazie Scopus, uwzględniająca modele: Gold, Hybrid Gold, Bronze i Green (McCullough, 2022).\nBazy Scopus oraz WoS dają możliwość oznaczenia dokumentów więcej niż jednym statusem OA, ponieważ mogą być one dostępne w różnych wersjach OA w tym samym czasie.\nOznacza to, że jedna publikacja może być zliczana równocześnie do wielu modeli OA obecnych w bazie. W związku z tym zarówno w SciVal, jak i InCites zastosowano ogólny filtr\nOA: „All Open Access” uwzględniający dokumenty we wszystkich modelach otwartości.\nAby umieścić wyniki PL w szerszym kontekście, zestawiono je z obliczeniami dla\nPolski, Europy i świata przy użyciu tych narzędzi analitycznych. Zarówno w SciVal, jak i InCites Polska występuje jako podmiot, co daje możliwość bezpośredniej analizy. Wskaźniki dla Europy zostały oparte na kategorii UE28, aby uwzględnić publikacje pochodzące z Wielkiej Brytanii, gdyż analizowany okres obejmuje lata przed i po\nBrexicie. Obliczenia dla świata zostały przygotowane w oparciu o parametry global baseline dla InCites i World overview dla SciVal. Każda z analiz została ograniczona do wskazanych wcześniej lat i typów dokumentów.\nPodczas konferencji zwrócono uwagę, że dla lepszego porównania powinniśmy skupić się na uniwersytetach technicznych, jednak pomimo tego, że filtr „academic” jest obecny w obu narzędziach, nie ma to wpływu na wskaźnik global baseline w InCites. Ponieważ zapewnienie wystarczającego poziomu dokładności w skali światowej nie byłoby możliwe poprzez ręczną selekcję podmiotów, które powinny zostać uwzględnione w analizie, zdecydowano się przyjąć ogólne ograniczenia dla zapytania w postaci lat i typów dokumentów.\nDane na potrzeby tej analizy zostały zebrane po ogłoszeniu aktualizacji danych z 2022 r. w bazach WoS i Scopus, co pozwala założyć, że wszystkie istotne dane z 2022 r.\npowinny być już uwzględnione w obu źródłach. Aczkolwiek należy mieć na uwadze, że dla poszczególnych lat nadal mogą istnieć publikacje, które choć powinny, z różnych względów jeszcze nie zostały zaindeksowane w tych bazach. Jest to problem braku pojedynczych artykułów lub niekiedy całych numerów czasopism budujących indeksy tychże baz, którego trudno uniknąć, biorąc pod uwagę ilość źródeł, z jakich czerpane są informacje.\nWyniki\nZebrane wyniki prezentują trend wzrostowy w publikacjach OA dla PL do 2020 r. oraz lekki spadek w latach 2021–2022. Średni udział procentowy OA z poszczególnych lat w publikacjach PL wynosi 65,1%, a wartość procentowa udziału publikacji OA w całym okresie 2017–\n2022 uwzględnionym w analizie w bazie „Publikacje Pracowników PL” wyniosła 64,4%.\nLiczba publikacji OA zarejestrowanych w bazie „Publikacje Pracowników PL” była najwyższa w 2021 r. (921 dokumentów), a najniższa w 2022 r. (699 dokumentów).\n\nUdział procentowy otwartych publikacji w całkowitej ich liczbie uwzględnionej w analizie był najwyższy w 2020 r. – 73,4%, a najniższy w 2017 – 56% (ryc. 1).\nRycina 1. U dział procentowy publikacji open access w BPPPL.\nŹródło: opracowanie własne na podstawie danych z BPPPL (dostęp: 30.06.2023).\nDane PL pochodzące z InCites przedstawiono na rycinie 2, a SciVal na rycinie 3.\nRycina 2. Udział procentowy publikacji PL w otwartym dostępie indeksowanych w bazie WoS.\nŹródło: opracowanie własne na podstawie InCites (dostęp: 30.06.2023).\nRycina 3. U dział procentowy publikacji PL w otwartym dostępie indeksowanych w bazie Scopus.\nŹródło: opracowanie własne na podstawie Scival (dostęp: 30.06.2023).\n\nWedług SciVal liczba publikacji OA w przypadku PL była najwyższa w 2021 r. (514), podobnie InCites – zarejestrował najwięcej dokumentów afiliowanych do PL w tym modelu w 2021 r. (441). Tak jak miało to miejsce w przypadku bazy „Publikacje Pracowników PL”, w 2017 r. obie bazy odnotowały najniższą liczbę publikacji OA spośród wskazanych wcześniej typów dokumentów: SciVal – 178, InCites – 249, a także najniższy stosunek dokumentów OA do całkowitej liczby publikacji: 31,12% w SciVal i 40,03% w InCites.\nWskaźniki dla Polski otrzymane z InCites zaprezentowano na rycinie 4, a SciVal na rycinie 5.\nRycina 4. Udział procentowy polskich publikacji w otwartym dostępie indeksowanych w bazie Web of Science.\nŹródło: opracowanie własne na podstawie InCites (dostęp: 30.06.2023).\nRycina 5. Udział procentowy polskich publikacji w otwartym dostępie indeksowanych w bazie Scopus.\nŹródło: opracowanie własne na podstawie Scival (dostęp: 30.06.2023).\n\nWyliczenia dla Europy oparte na założeniach tej analizy zostały zaprezentowane na rycinie 6 (InCites) i rycinie 7 (SciVal).\nRycina 6. Udział procentowy otwartych publikacji indeksowanych w bazie Web of Science – zestawienie dla UE.\nŹródło: opracowanie własne na podstawie InCites (dostęp: 30.06.2023).\nRycina 7. Udział procentowy otwartych publikacji indeksowanych w bazie Scopus – zestawienie dla UE.\nŹródło: opracowanie własne na podstawie Scival (dostęp: 30.06.2023).\n\nDane dotyczące wskaźników w perspektywie globalnej dla InCites przedstawiono na rycinie 8, a SciVal na rycinie 9.\nRycina 8. Udział procentowy otwartych publikacji indeksowanych w bazie Web of Science na poziomie globalnym.\nŹródło: opracowanie własne na podstawie InCites (dostęp: 30.06.2023).\nRycina 9. Udział procentowy otwartych publikacji indeksowanych w bazie Scopus w perspektywie globalnej.\nŹródło: opracowanie własne na podstawie Scival (dostęp: 30.06.2023).\n\nSumaryczne zestawienie wskaźników procentowych z uwzględnionych w analizie źródeł przedstawiono w tabeli.\nTabela 1. Z estawienie sumaryczne – procentowy udział OA w analizowanych dokumentach.\nŹródło danych Zasięg 2017 r. 2018 r. 2019 r. 2020 r. 2021 r. 2022 r.\nBPPPL PL 56% 58,40% 61,20% 73,40% 72% 69,80%\nPL 40% 40,10% 50% 60,70% 67,50% 69,50%\nPolska 47,70% 46,80% 53,60% 62,80% 70,70% 70,70%\nInCites\nUE 48,50% 50,90% 55,20% 61,80% 66,80% 71,40%\nŚwiat 38,40% 40,20% 42,80% 46,90% 50,20% 51,50%\nPL 31,10% 39,60% 41,90% 56,70% 64,90% 67,20%\nPolska 45,50% 46,50% 52,80% 62% 67,80% 67%\nSciVal\nUE 46,70% 49,20% 53% 59,20% 62% 61,50%\nŚwiat 36,20% 38,20% 40,60% 44,60% 46,70% 45,50%\nŹródło: opracowanie własne na podstawie bazy „Publikacje Pracowników PL”, SciVal, InCites\n(dostęp: 30.06.2023).\nZestawiając wyniki PL z wartościami uzyskanymi dla Polski, można zauważyć, że jedynie w przypadku 2022 r. udział otwartych dokumentów nieznacznie (0,2%) przekroczył wskaźnik dla kraju. Niemniej jednak od 2019 r. wraz ze wzrostem liczby otwartych dokumentów różnica między wartościami osiąganymi przez PL a wyliczeniami na poziomie krajowym w bazie SciVal sukcesywnie malała.\nProcent liczby otwartych dokumentów na PL przekroczył wyniki dla EU w 2021 r.\ni 2022 r. – zgodnie z danymi pochodzącymi ze SciVal, co więcej począwszy od 2018 r.\nudział OA dla PL utrzymywał się powyżej średniej światowej, a w 2022 r. osiągnął najwyższy wskaźnik – 67,2%.\nBadanie z 2020 r. w oparciu o bazę WoS dla prac opublikowanych latach 2014–2017 wykazało, że ponad 50% dorobku europejskich uniwersytetów jest udostępniane w OA, co plasuje Europę na pierwszym miejscu wśród kontynentów (Robinson-Garcia i in., 2020).\nW przypadku niniejszego zestawienia dane pochodzące z InCites plasują PL poniżej krajowej i europejskiej średniej w badanym okresie, z wyjątkiem 2021 r., kiedy to wskaźnik dla PL przewyższył nieznacznie wyniki dla Europy (o mniej niż 1%). Najmniejsza różnica między wartościami dla Polski a PL zaobserwowana została w 2022 r. (1,2%), natomiast największa w 2017 r. – wyniosła ona 7,7%. Dodatkowo, w przypadku samej\nEuropy możemy zaobserwować także około 5-procentowy wzrost liczby otwartych publikacji w analizowanej grupie dokumentów w kolejnych latach, począwszy od 2019 r.\n\nWskaźniki PL w zestawieniu z trendem dla świata w SciVal i InCites do 2019 r.\nsą zbliżone swoimi wartościami. W tym okresie występują dwa większe odchylenia na korzyść PL – w SciVal w 2017 r., gdzie różnica wynosi ponad 5% oraz w InCites w 2019 r. ponad 7%.\nPocząwszy od 2018 r. można zauważyć znaczny wzrost w liczbie otwartych publikacji PL zaindeksowanych przez WoS, wynoszący około 10% w każdym roku w okresie\n2018–2020. Jednakże w tym trendzie następuje nagły spadek w między 2021 a 2022 r., w których wartość przyrostu spadła do 7%, a następnie do 2%. Przy czym to właśnie w 2022 r. odnotowano najwyższy procentowy udział dokumentów OA w zaindeksowanym przez InCites dorobku, wynoszący 69,5%.\nSciVal także prezentuje zauważalny wzrost udziału procentowego politechnicznych publikacji w otwartym dostępie w latach 2018–2021, mimo że wartość przyrostu wyniosła jedynie 2,5% między 2018 a 2019 r., to zyskiwała w kolejnych latach, osiągając szczytową wartość ok. 14% w 2020 r. Ale podobnie jak w przypadku InCites, w 2022 r.\nspadła ona do 2,2%. Dane pochodzące ze Scopus również wskazują na najwyższy udział procentowy publikacji OA PL w 2022 – 67,2%.\nBez względu na rozpatrywane źródło danych w przypadku PL widoczny jest trend wzrostowy w liczbie publikacji OA, począwszy od 2017 r. (osiągający swój szczyt według\nInCites i SciVal w 2022 r., a w przypadku bazy publikacji w 2020 r.) i powolny jego spadek od 2021 r. zarówno w ogólnej liczbie publikacji, jak i tych opublikowanych w otwartym dostępie.\nWnioski\nNajpełniejsze dane dotyczące publikacji z afiliacją PL znajdują się w bazie „Publikacje\nPracowników PL”, gromadzącej cały dorobek naukowy pracowników, w tym dokumenty spełniające kryteria tej analizy, zarówno indeksowane, jak i nieindeksowane przez bazy WoS lub Scopus. Zapewniając najbardziej kompleksowy obraz dorobku naukowego PL (także dzięki weryfikacji wprowadzanych danych przez pracowników\nCINT PL), służy również jako wiarygodne narzędzie do wewnętrznej oceny pracowników i doktorantów uczelni.\nJak wspomniano wcześniej, status publikacji w bazie „Publikacje Pracowników PL” jest ustalany podczas rejestracji dokumentu w bazie. W trakcie tego badania nasunęła się refleksja, że ponowna ocena tego statusu byłaby wysoce pożądana, szczególnie w przypadku publikacji sprzed 2020 r. W przypadku części z nich status od momentu zarejestrowania w bazie mógł ulec zmianie z zamkniętego dostępu na otwarty. Archiwa wydawców w tym przedziale czasu mogły stać się ogólnodostępne. Ma to miejsce na przykład\n\nw przypadku 140 czasopism wydawanych przez Elsevier, których okres embarga wynosi od 6 do 60 miesięcy (Elsevier, n.d.). Z kolei sami autorzy mogli niezależnie skorzystać z repozytoriów do samoarchiwizacji prac i zdeponowania wersji AAM, co jest powszechną praktyką międzynarodowego środowiska naukowego. Śledzenie tych zmian z poziomu bazy publikacji jest wyzwaniem, ale z pewnością przyczyniłoby się do uzyskania jeszcze pełniejszego, najbardziej aktualnego obrazu dorobku naukowego PL.\nW przypadku pozostałych analizowanych baz zarówno WoS (Clarivate, n.d.), jak i Scopus (McCullough, 2022) wykorzystują do cotygodniowych aktualizacji statusu\nOA projekt organizacji non-profit OurResearch – Unpaywall. Wpływa to na dokładność liczby publikacji OA, która niezależnie od źródła jest powiązana z określonymi ramami czasowymi. Liczba ta wraz z upływem czasu będzie ulegać zmianie – nie tylko przy założeniu potencjalnego wzrostu liczby dokumentów oryginalnie publikowanych w jednym z otwartych modeli w przyszłości, ale i w przypadku już zamkniętych lat wydawniczych. Co staje się szczególnie widoczne w perspektywie przyrostu publikacji\nOA na poziomie regionalnym i globalnym.\nBez wątpienia ograniczenia nałożone na tę analizę w postaci typu dokumentu i wybranych lat pozwalają uzyskać tylko cząstkowy obraz dotyczący poziomu otwartości dorobku naukowego. Niemniej jednak pozwala on na sformułowanie kilku wniosków, a także zidentyfikowanie obszarów i działań, które pozwolą zapewnić jak najlepsze wsparcie naukowcom z PL oraz warunki dalszego rozwoju idei otwartości na PL.\nPierwszym wnioskiem jest potrzeba kontynuacji pracy nad podnoszeniem świadomości na temat otwartego dostępu wśród doktorantów i naukowców PL poprzez warsztaty i spotkania prowadzone przez pracowników CINT PL. Są to:\n1. grupowe cykliczne szkolenia dla naukowców wspierające przygotowanie planów zarządzania danymi (DMP);\n2. promowanie idei otwartego dostępu poprzez stronę WWW i media społecznościowe CINT PL oraz podczas organizowanych wydarzeń, takich jak Tydzień\nOtwartego Dostępu;\n3. indywidulane konsultacje (oferujące propozycje rozwiązań, które będą w stanie sprostać oczekiwaniom pracowników i doktorantów, pozostając w zgodzie z wytycznymi instytucji finansujących czy też ograniczeniami stawianymi przez wydawców). CINT\nPL pracowało dotychczas nad realizacją tych zadań poprzez wielopoziomowe działania podejmowane na przestrzeni lat, także we współpracy z innymi jednostkami, takimi jak Uczelniane Biuro Projektów (Weinper i Tomczak, 2021).\nKolejnym działaniem podejmowanym przez pracowników CINT PL jest dostarczanie naukowcom zróżnicowanej oferty tytułów czasopism dla publikacji ich badań.\nPracownicy są zachęcani do wyboru miejsca do publikowania zgodnie z wybraną\n\ndyscypliną, tak aby uwzględniać nie tylko wysokość wskaźników Journal Impact Fac-y tor (JIF) lub CiteScore, ale też by poszukiwać wartościowych czasopism diamento-n wych. I choć ciężko przekonać do tego stwierdzenia kogokolwiek: wysoka punktacja czasopisma w liście ministerialnej nie powinna być jedynym kryterium, jakim kierują się naukowcy przy wyborze źródła do publikowania.\nZ wyżej wymienionym działaniem związane jest kolejne, polegające na dalszym informowaniu środowiska akademickiego o istniejących programach publikowania otwartego. Zarówno tych na poziomie instytucjonalnym, jak i krajowym, a także zachęcanie do korzystania z dostępnych w ich ramach limitów. Przynosi to podwójną korzyść, zapewniając relewantne platformy do publikowania wyników, przy jednoczesnym udostępnianiu ich szerokiemu gronu odbiorców bez ponoszenia bezpośrednich kosztów finansowych przez autorów (koszty są pokrywane przez uczelnię lub ministerstwo).\nKontynuowanie obecnej strategii i dalsze otwieranie Wydawnictwa PL to kolejny ważny wniosek płynący z przeprowadzonej analizy. Sam proces rozpoczął się w październiku 2010 r. wraz ze zmianami organizacyjnymi w strukturze uczelni i przekazaniem całości działań związanych z publikowaniem monografii naukowych i podręczników Bibliotece PL. Ośrodek do spraw Wydawnictw i Biblioteki Cyfrowej PL, będący owocem tej zmiany, przekształcony następnie w Wydawnictwo PL, stał się jedną z pierwszych w polskim szkolnictwie wyższym, ulokowaną w strukturze biblioteki, jednostką, która skupiła tradycyjne wydawanie książek i udostępnianie publikacji w bibliotece cyfrowej (Gajda i Pełka-Smętek, 2022)1. Obecnie wersje elektroniczne dokumentów udostępniane są w Bibliotece Cyfrowej PL na licencji CC-BY-SA 4.02.\nKolejnym zadaniem Wydawnictwa PL było stworzenie platformy skupiającej wydawnictwa periodyczne wydawane lub współwydawane przez uczelnię. „Wydawnictwo\nPolitechniki Lubelskiej postawiło na publikowanie w otwartym dostępie na otwartych licencjach i na popularną platformę publikacyjną utworzoną w aplikacji typu open source o nazwie Open Journal Systems” (Gajda i Pełka-Smętek, 2022). Zgodnie z zapisami Polityki otwartego dostępu w PL, artykułom wydawanym w czasopismach\nWydawnictwa PL domyślnie przypisana jest licencja CC BY-SA. Część z czasopism zaadaptowała szerszą licencję CC BY jeszcze przed przejściem na platformę LUT PH.\nAktualnie trwają konsultacje z redakcjami pozostałych tytułów, aby zachęcić ich do\n1 W momencie utworzenia w 2019 r. Centrum Informacji Naukowo-Technicznej Wydawnictwo\nPolitechniki Lubelskiej przestało działać w strukturze biblioteki, choć pozostało z nią w ścisłym związku.\n2 Od lutego 2025 r. wersje elektroniczne udostępniane są w repozytorium instytucjonalnym ROCK, które zastąpiło Bibliotekę Cyfrową PL.\n\numożliwienia autorom wyboru szerszej licencji: CC BY (zgodnej z wymogami większości grantodawców)3.\nJak wspomniano wcześniej, Polityka otwartego dostępu została wprowadzona na\nPL w listopadzie 2020 r. Sam dokument został oparty na ogólnych wytycznych Narodowego Centrum Nauki oraz wzorze polityki otwartości udostępnionym na stronie\nMinisterstwa Edukacji i Nauki (MEiN). Jednym z ważniejszych działań, na którym planujemy się skupić w najbliższym czasie, jest praca nad jego aktualizacją. W ciągu lat, jakie upłynęły od momentu przyjęcia dokumentu na uczelni, zmieniły się bądź doprecyzowane zostały nie tylko wytyczne grantodawców i wymogi wydawców, ale także wiedza i świadomość samych naukowców, a przede wszystkim pracowników CINT PL odpowiedzialnych za ich wsparcie w obszarach związanych z tematyką open science.\nNabyte w ostatnich latach doświadczenie obu grup powinno zostać teraz wykorzystane w procesie tworzenia dokumentu, który w jak najlepszy sposób będzie odpowiadać potrzebom środowiska akademickiego PL.\nW nowej wersji polityki znajdzie się również zapis regulujący istnienie i funkcjonowanie zespołu ds. otwartej nauki w CINT PL (aktualnie działającego w niesformalizowany sposób pod przewodnictwem Pełnomocnika Rektora ds. Otwartego dostępu w PL). Kolejnym z możliwych sposobów usprawnienia prac nad aktualizacją Polityki otwartego dostępu w PL byłoby poszukiwanie i powołanie Ambasadorów Otwartej Nauki – pracowników naukowych pełniących funkcję łączników między CINT a poszczególnymi wydziałami PL, stanowiącymi pierwszą linię kontaktu i biorących czynny udział w pracach zespołu do spraw otwartej nauki. Nie tylko pośredniczyliby oni w przekazywaniu informacji i aktualnych zmian zachodzących w obszarze open science. Dzięki nim potrzeby i wyzwania obecne w środowisku naukowców mogłyby szybciej trafiać do pracowników CINT PL, a oni sami w szybszym czasie mogliby uzyskiwać wsparcie nie tylko dla indywidualnego przypadku. Rozmowy z władzami uczelni na temat powołania takiej grupy oraz realnych korzyści wynikających z uczestnictwa w niej już trwają.\nPodsumowując powyższe rozważania, wzrost liczby dokumentów OA afiliowanych do PL jest w pewnym stopniu związany ze wzrostem poziomu świadomości naukowców na temat korzyści oferowanych przez ten model publikacyjny. Powinniśmy również uwzględnić w tym procesie rolę, jaką odegrały, przywoływane już wcześniej, wymogi stawiane przez grantodawców (jasno określające sposób, w jaki wyniki badań powinny być upowszechniane). Ponadto należy również wziąć pod uwagę zasady ewaluacji\n3 Od stycznia 2024 r. wszystkie tytułu czasopism obecne na platformie czasopism Politechniki\nLubelskiej (LUT PH) przyjęły licencję CC BY 4.0.\n\ndziałalności naukowej w okresie 2017–2021, które choć nie uwzględniały otwartości publikacji jako aspektu samej oceny, to w wielu przypadkach poprzez liczbę punktów przypisaną do określonych wydawnictw, zachęcały do publikowania właśnie w nich.\nNie bez znaczenia był też okres pandemii, podczas którego zaobserwowano większą potrzebę szybkiego dzielenia się wynikami badań naukowych, co przełożyło się na zwiększenie liczby publikacji w modelu OA. Zjawisko widoczne jest we wszystkich dziedzinach nauk, a szczególnie w dziedzinach nauk medycznych i nauk o zdrowiu, w których wskaźnik otwartego dostępu publikacji dotyczących COVID-19 z pierwszych sześciu miesięcy 2020 r. sięgnął 89,5% (Capocasa i in., 2022). Czy osiągnięta liczba prac w przypadku PL była efektem świadomych decyzji naukowców, kryteriów ustanowionych przez fundatorów badań, zewnętrznych okoliczności, czy też otwartość stanowiła produkt uboczny wyboru wysoko punktowanych czasopism z listy ministerialnej? Odpowiedź na to pytanie nie jest łatwa i mogłaby się stać przedmiotem kolejnych badań. Jednak w kontekście dorobku naukowego zebrane wyniki ilustrują pozytywny wpływ wszystkich tych czynników na wzrost liczby otwartych prac publikowanych przez środowisko naukowe PL, a także na zadowalające wskaźniki w zestawieniu z trendami zaobserwowanymi na poziomie krajowym, regionalnym i światowym.\nBibliografia\nCapocasa, M., Anagnostou, P., Destro Bisol, G. (2022). A light in the dark: Open access to medical lite-2 rature and the COVID-19 pandemic. Information Research, 27(2), 929. https://doi.org/10.47989/ irpaper929\nChaignon, L., Egret, D. (2022). Identifying scientific publications countrywide and measuring their open access: The case of the French Open Science Barometer (BSO). Quantitative Science Studies,\n3(1), 18–36. https://doi.org/10.1162/qss_a_00179\nClarivate. (b.d.) Open Access. https://clarivate.com/webofsciencegroup/solutions/open-access/\n(dostęp: 30.06.2023)\nElsevier. (b.d.) Open Archive. https://www.elsevier.com/en-in/open-access/open-archive (dostęp:\n30.06.2023)\nGajda, J., Pełka-Smętek, K. (2022). Wydawnictwo w bibliotece – przypadek Politechniki Lubelskiej.\nBiuletyn EBIB, 202.\nInCites. Clarivate, http://incites.clarivate.com (dostęp: 30.06.2025)\nJaiwant, S. V., Gowda, K. R. (2022). Open Access: A New Ecosystem of Research Publications. W: D.\nAlemneh (red.), Handbook of Research on the Global View of Open Access and Scholarly Communications (s. 165–177). IGI Global. https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-7998-9805-4.ch009\nBaza Publikacje Pracowników Politechniki Lubelskiej (v1.538). Łukasz Litwiniuk. https://pub.pollub.pl/\n(dostęp: 30.06.2025).\nMcCullough R. (2022). Scopus Open Access filters and new Green OA full-text access. Elsevier. https:// blog.scopus.com/posts/scopus-filters-for-open-access-type-and-green-oa-full-text-access-option\n(dostęp: 30.06.2025).\n\nMiguel, S., Tannuri de Oliveira, E., Cabrini Grácio, M. (2016). Scientific Production on Open Access:\nA Worldwide Bibliometric Analysis in the Academic and Scientific Context. Publications, 4(1), 1.\nhttps://doi.org/10.3390/publications4010001\nRobinson-Garcia, N., Costas, R., van Leeuwen, T. N. (2020). Open Access uptake by universities worldwide. PeerJ, 8, e9410. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.9410\nSciVal. Elsevier, https://www.scival.com (dostęp: 30.06.2025)\nTorres, J. M., Manjarrez-Dominguez, A. (2021). Toward an understanding of open access trends in business schools: A bibliometric analysis of the open access faculty publications of accounting departments at three universities. Journal of Business & Finance Librarianship, 26(3–4), 179–199.\nhttps://doi.org/10.1080/08963568.2021.1919822\nWeinper, K., Tomczak, Ł. (2021). How to be fair? Open publications and research data at the Lublin\nUniversity of Technology. TASK Quarterly. Scientific Bulletin of Academic Computer Centre in\nGdansk, 25(4), 491–498. https://doi.org/10.34808/tq2021/25.4/r\nZarządzenie Nr R-92/2020 Rektora Politechniki Lubelskiej z dnia 6 listopada 2020 r. w sprawie wprowadzenia Polityki otwartego dostępu w Politechnice Lubelskiej. (2020). https://pollub.bip.gov.pl/ zarzadzenia-rektora/zarzadzenie-nr-r-92-2020.html\n\nSue Ann Gardner\nORCID: 0000-0003-2927-0365\nBiblioteki Uniwersytetu Nebraski w Lincoln\nROR: https://ror.org/043mer456\nPorównanie schematów działania w procesach publikowania bibliotecznego w różnych modelach otwartego dostępu – praktyki\nBibliotek Uniwersytetu Nebraski w Lincoln\nStreszczenie: Schematy działania w modelach zielonego i diamentowego otwartego dostępu mogą być bardzo podobne (model zielony – powtórne publikowanie, model diamentowy – publikowanie oryginalne). W procedurze opracowanej w Bibliotekach Uniwersytetu\nNebraski w Lincoln przedstawiono szczegółowe opisy tych modeli działania, porównano je wzajemnie oraz ze sposobem interakcji z autorami zaangażowanymi w realizację modelu złotego otwartego dostępu (który oznacza outsourcing publikacyjny). W pracy przedstawiono krótkie charakterystyki wszystkich modeli publikowania, aby pokazać, jakie rozmowy prowadzimy z autorami w zakresie otwartego dostępu oraz jak duże zainteresowanie wzbudzają teksty po ich opublikowaniu.\nSłowa kluczowe: publikowanie biblioteczne, modele otwartego dostępu, zielony model otwartego dostępu, złoty model otwartego dostępu, diamentowy model otwartego dostępu\nWprowadzenie\nWedług opisu przygotowanego przez Grupę Szczególnych Zainteresowań w zakresie\nPublikowania Bibliotecznego (Special Interest Group on Library Publishing) działającą w ramach Międzynarodowej Federacji Stowarzyszeń i Instytucji Bibliotekarskich\n(International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions – IFLA) (Buggle,\n2023), publikowanie biblioteczne (library publishing) to:\n\nCzęść większego obszaru działań z zakresu komunikacji naukowej, prowadzonych i zarządzanych przez bibliotekarzy we wszystkich rodzajach bibliotek, w tym bibliotek narodowych, bibliotek państwowych, akademickich, jak też prowadzonych przez stowarzyszenia naukowe. Publikowanie biblioteczne przyczynia się do postępu otwartej nauki w skali globalnej poprzez wydawanie czasopism, monografii i innych publikacji, głównie na zasadach otwartego dostępu. Programy publikowania bibliotecznego mają znaczącą misję polegającą na działaniu na rzecz równości, różnorodności i inkluzywności; wzmacniają biblioróżnorodność w międzynarodowym pejzażu komunikacji naukowej.\nPublikowanie biblioteczne obejmuje szeroki zakres działań, nie tylko publikowanie oryginalne, ale też ponowne publikowanie (republishing). Ponowne publikowanie oznacza umieszczanie w repozytorium instytucjonalnym prowadzonym przez bibliotekę legalnej wersji pracy naukowej, która pierwotnie była opublikowana poza biblioteką. W ten sposób prowadzenie repozytorium instytucjonalnego staje się formą działalności wydawniczej.\nPoniżej znajduje się krótki przegląd modeli otwartego dostępu i podstawowe informacje dotyczące praw autorskich i licencji, które ułatwiają zrozumienie schematów pracy wydawniczej ustalonych w dziale komunikacji naukowej Bibliotek Uniwersytetu\nNebraski w Lincoln (University of Nebraska–Lincoln – UNL). Same schematy pracy zostały następnie opisane i porównane w oparciu o modele otwartego dostępu. Krótkie charakterystyki każdego z modeli OA umieszczono na końcu rozdziału, z nadzieją, że mogą być pomocne we wprowadzaniu schematów działania w życie i przyczynić się do rozpowszechnienia wiedzy na temat omawianych kwestii.\nModele otwartego dostępu, definicje robocze\nCo istotne dla prac prowadzonych w ramach publikowania bibliotecznego powstało wiele modeli otwartego dostępu, a kryteria służące do ich rozróżnienia częściowo mieszczą się w obszarze prawa autorskiego i licencji, na których udostępniane są publikacje.\nNiektóre pojęcia odnoszą się do otwartego dostępu, ale nie są precyzyjnie zdefiniowane, a nawet mogą być stosowane w sprzecznych znaczeniach w zależności od kontekstu i od perspektywy przyjmowanej przez osobę powołującą się na te pojęcia. Dlatego też poniższe rozróżnienia nie są standardowymi definicjami, ale bywają wykorzystywane w Bibliotekach UNL w celu ułatwienia rozmów na temat otwartego dostępu z autorami lub czytelnikami.\n\n■ Model złoty (gold) – odnosi się do outsourcingu publikacyjnego prac na otwartych licencjach, które są zazwyczaj w pełni dostępne natychmiast po opublikowaniu;\nwiąże się to z opłatami za publikację (article processing charge – APC).\n■ Model zielony (green) – odnosi się do ponownej publikacji pracy, która zazwyczaj początkowo jest dostępna w innym miejscu (czasami w miejscu pierwotnej publikacji wymagana jest opłata za dostęp, ale nie zawsze), a później umieszczana jest w naszym repozytorium instytucjonalnym w formie zgodnej z wymogami prawa autorskiego.\n■ Model diamentowy (diamond), czasami określany też jako platynowy (platinum)\n– odnosi się zazwyczaj do publikacji wydanej oryginalnie przez UNL Libraries bez obciążania kosztami autorów i czytelników.\nKrótki przegląd podstawowych rozwiązań prawnoautorskich i licencji\nPonieważ prawa autorskie są uprzednie względem otwartego dostępu, a późniejsze licencjonowanie treści pozwala na udostępnianie ich w sposób otwarty, warto prześledzić podstawowe elementy tych dwóch typów uregulowań prawnych, aby nadać ramy omawianym dalej schematom działań wydawniczych.\nPrawo autorskie to prawo ogólnokrajowe – w Stanach Zjednoczonych ma swoje źródło w Konstytucji. I podobnie jak w wielu innych krajach nie jest wymagane dopełnienie żadnych formalności, aby prawa autorskie zostały przyznane, tzn. nie jest konieczne oznaczenie czy zarejestrowanie praw autorskich, aby zaczęły one obowiązywać. Oznacza to, że prawo autorskie przypisywane jest autorowi automatycznie w momencie stworzenia oryginalnej treści wyrażonej w utrwalonej postaci. Po wystąpieniu tego faktu autor może albo zatrzymać prawa autorskie, albo je przekazać. W środowisku akademickim autorzy z reguły publikują swoje prace, a w procesie publikacyjnym często wymagane jest przez wydawców, aby autorzy przekazali im majątkowe prawa autorskie.\nWłaściciel praw autorskich ma wiele uprawnień, które może albo zatrzymać, albo przekazywać dalej, często poprzez licencję, która jest efektywnym mechanizmem nadawania uprawnień ogólnych. W przypadku publikacji open access na płaszczyznę automatycznych lub przekazywanych praw autorskich nakładana jest niejako warstwa licencyjna. Większość licencji otwartych to prawnie wiążące umowy, które przyznają formalnie szczególne typy uprawnień wykraczające poza dozwolony użytek. Licencje\nCreative Commons (CC) są już szeroko rozpowszechnione i obejmują rozmaite formy, począwszy od CC0 (skutecznie umieszczającej materiał w domenie publicznej) do tych, które zakładają pewne ograniczenia. Licencja CC BY (oznaczająca, że użycie wymaga\n\nuznania autorstwa) może występować w tej podstawowej postaci lub zawierać pewne ograniczenia użycia, w tym wymogi użytkowania zgodnie z warunkami określonymi jako: niekomercyjne (NonCommercial), na tych samych warunkach (ShareAlike) lub bez dzieł pochodnych (NoDerivatives). Czasami są także stosowane niestandardowe otwarte licencje (inne niż CC).\nSchematy działania w publikowaniu bibliotecznym\nPublikowanie biblioteczne różni się od innych form publikowania naukowego w kilku aspektach, np. właściwie nieodmiennie jednostki w nie zaangażowane dysponują mniejszymi zespołami pracowników. To z kolei prowadzi do konieczności ograniczenia zakresu działań publikacyjnych w porównaniu ze stosowanymi w komercyjnych wydawnictwach.\nKalikman Lippincott (2017) zauważa, że w rzeczywistości:\nWiele bibliotecznych działań publikacyjnych może być najcelniej określone jako usługi wydawnicze, przez co mniejszy nacisk kładzie się na pozyskiwanie, zarządzanie i posiadanie spójnego portfolio pracy, a większy na zapewnienie koniecznych technologii i wsparcia dla ułatwienia tworzenia i rozpowszechniania różnego rodzaju treści.\nW Bibliotekach UNL ten nacisk na publikowanie naukowe jako usługę (serwis) stanowi podstawową zasadę działania. To podejście do publikowania jako do usługi sprawia, że nie myślimy o pracy publikacyjnej jako o budowaniu kolekcji materiałów. Zasób naukowy, który gromadzimy dzięki naszym wysiłkom w dziale komunikacji naukowej w bibliotece, w dużej mierze odzwierciedla działalność naukową wydziałów uczelni, a także treści, które mogą nie być tworzone bezpośrednio przez pracowników wydziałów, ale wspierają prace prowadzone ogólnie w akademii. Przyjmując taką postawę, nie próbujemy kształtować repozytorium instytucjonalnego jako takiego; wydziały uniwersyteckie są pierwotnymi twórcami programu publikowania oraz repozytorium instytucjonalnego.\nPodobnie jak jest w przypadku wielu wydawnictw bibliotecznych, Biblioteki UNL dysponują niewielkim zespołem w dziale komunikacji naukowej. Trzy osoby są zatrudnione na pełny etat, ponadto współpracuje z nami jeden lub dwoje studentów. Obecnie\nPaul Royster pełni obowiązki wydawcy i koordynatora repozytorium instytucjonalnego\n(institutional repository – IR), Linnea Fredrickson jest specjalistą ds. produkcji wydawniczej i redaktorem, a Sue Ann Gardner jest zatrudniona jako bibliotekarz – specjalista komunikacji naukowej (scholarly communications librarian). Nazwy naszych stanowisk częściowo odzwierciedlają także wykonywaną przez nas pracę o charakterze innym\n\nniż publikacyjny. Jeśli chodzi o działalność wydawniczą, wszyscy troje współdziałamy regularnie we wszystkich aspektach schematów pracy, bez wyraźnego rozróżniania wkładu poszczególnych osób.\nDla każdego z nas działalność publikacyjna stanowi znaczącą część naszej pracy.\nW związku z tym, że rozmiary naszego zespołu są tak niewielkie w porównaniu z tym, co mają do dyspozycji większe koncerny wydawnicze, ustaliliśmy schematy działania prowadzące do tego, że praca, która jest publikowana jako publikacja oryginalna czy republikacja, ostatecznie staje się obiektem w repozytorium instytucjonalnym. Poniżej przedstawiono podstawowe przepływy pracy (schematy działania) związane z publikowaniem w Bibliotekach UNL, pomijając wiele aspektów działalności publikacyjnej\n(takich jak relacje z autorami, zewnętrzny system recenzyjny, radzenie sobie z pojawiającymi się od czasu do czasu problemami technicznymi z platformą itd.). Przyjmowanie określonej licencji następuje na różnych etapach; w procesie publikowania nadanie odpowiedniej licencji musi wystąpić wcześniej niż w opisywanym tu procesie republikacji. Etapy zostały przedstawione także na rycinie 1.\nEtapy działań publikacyjnych\n1. Pozyskanie – tworzenie i rozwijanie treści:\na. autor dostarcza manuskrypt (w postaci zaakceptowanej przez innego wydawcę lub oryginalny), b. w przypadku zgłaszania prac do publikacji oryginalnej czasami pomagamy w dopracowaniu treści, jeśli jest taka potrzeba lub oczekiwanie ze strony autora.\n2. Produkcja a. skład, b. grafiki, c. redakcja, d. korekty.\n3. Dystrybucja: dostęp i wyszukiwalność a. ustalenie, którą licencję należy zastosować (w przypadku ponownego publikowania) lub wybór licencji (w przypadku oryginalnego publikowania), b. identyfikatory, c. metadane i deponowanie.\n\nMaszynopis\nWłasność intelektualna\nRedagowanie Produkcja\nRedakcja językowa Składanie tekstu\nPrzegląd zawartości Dodanie grafik\nKorekta rewizyjna Indentyfikatory/Metadane\nOpublikowana praca\nRycina 1. Etapy działań publikacyjnych.\nOpracowanie własne.\nPorównanie schematów działania dla różnych modeli publikacyjnych OA\nPrzyjmowany przez nas schemat procesów wydawniczych zależy od modelu otwartego dostępu przyporządkowanego do danej publikacji. Jak wskazano wcześniej, określenie, na jakich zasadach w ujęciu prawa autorskiego i na jakich licencjach powinny być wydawane poszczególne prace, wymaga fachowej wiedzy.\nCzasami praca, która została opublikowana w innym miejscu i jest tam dostępna za opłatą, może zostać umieszczona w naszym repozytorium instytucjonalnym w ostatecznej wersji opublikowanej. Zasadniczo taka publikacja reprezentuje typ hybrydowy – zielono-\n-złoty. Taki model znacząco ułatwia procesy publikacyjne, pozwala nam np. na rezygnację ze składu tekstu i z korekty. Napotykamy też przykłady innych hybrydowych modeli.\nKażdy z nich traktujemy zgodnie z przepisami prawa autorskiego i zasadami licencjonowania, którym dana praca podlega. Mimo różnorodności rozwiązań prawnoautorskich i zróżnicowania licencji stosowanych do poszczególnych prac naukowych można wskazać standardowy schemat prac wydawniczych. Poniżej znajdują się opisy podstawowych kroków w schematach prac z rozróżnieniem na poszczególne modele otwartego dostępu.\nW tabeli 1 pokazano zestawienie tych schematów dla wszystkich modeli.\n\nZłoty OA: schemat publikowania w drodze outsourcingu\nPonieważ publikowanie jest usługą zewnętrzną, nie przyjęto u nas schematu produkcji wydawniczej powiązanego ze złotym modelem. Nasze zaangażowanie w złoty model publikowania OA obejmuje doradzanie autorowi i wspieranie go w przechodzeniu przez proces publikowania w innym miejscu. Potem, po opublikowaniu pracy, umieszczamy kopię opublikowanej wersji w repozytorium instytucjonalnym.\nZielony OA: schemat republikowania\nKiedy przygotowujemy się do republikacji pracy (zielony OA), schemat działań przewiduje najpierw pozyskanie zaakceptowanego manuskryptu i określenie licencji oraz pozwoleń. Jak opisano powyżej, na podstawie dołączonych pozwoleń lub statusu prawnoautorskiego pracy możemy mieć prawo do umieszczenia w repozytorium wersji kanonicznej (co oznacza ostateczną wersję opublikowaną). Jeżeli nie możemy umieścić w repozytorium ostatecznej wersji opublikowanej, zaczynamy pracować na zaakceptowanym manuskrypcie. Czasami deponujemy surowy zaakceptowany manuskrypt bez zmian, ale często wykonujemy pewne czynności, aby poprawić formatowanie, co sprawi, że będzie on bardziej przystępny. Te czynności określamy mianem ponownego publikowania.\nKiedy dokonujemy republikacji pracy, wykonujemy skład zaakceptowanego manuskryptu, co polega na zaprojektowaniu układu tekstu i dodaniu materiałów graficznych.\nPonieważ praca z reguły była poddana adjustacji w procesie tworzenia zaakceptowanego manuskryptu, wykonujemy tylko drobne korekty (przeważnie korekty błędów literowych lub formatowania, które nie zostały wychwycone we wcześniejszym procesie edytorskim). Następnie deponujemy wersję po ponownym składzie, dostosowanym do wyświetlania w repozytorium.\nDiamentowy OA: schemat publikowania oryginalnego\nKiedy przygotowujemy się do oryginalnej publikacji (w diamentowym otwartym dostępie), na początku pozyskujemy nieopublikowany manuskrypt. Ten etap jest czasami bardzo wymagający i obejmuje wiele czynności, których opis wykracza poza zakres niniejszego rozdziału. Na przykład, jak wspomniano powyżej, może wystąpić potrzeba znaczącego dopracowania treści, w co angażujemy się wspólnie z autorem po zaakceptowaniu manuskryptu. Czasami zaś otrzymujemy manuskrypt, który Paul Royster określa jako gotowy do użycia, co znaczy, że został już wcześniej zredagowany i recenzowany, i można go przekazać do produkcji bez większego wkładu pracy z naszej strony.\nTak czy inaczej, działając w ramach procesu publikowania oryginalnego, umieszczamy maszynopis w produkcji, kiedy treść jest już kompletna. Na tym etapie,\n\nw porozumieniu z autorem, wybierany jest typ licencji. Później pracujemy nad składem, opracowaniem graficznym, adjustacją i korektą. Generujemy i przypisujemy identyfikatory (np. DOI), a następnie umieszczamy prace w repozytorium instytucjonalnym.\nTabela 1. Porównanie schematów działań wydawniczych w różnych modelach OA\nModel złoty: Model zielony: Model diamentowy/platynowy:\npublikowanie ponowne publikowanie oryginalne publikowanie outsourcingowe (przez w bibliotece w bibliotece podmioty zewnętrzne)\nDoradzanie autorowi Pozyskanie zaakceptowanego Pozyskanie i rozbudowanie manuskryptu oryginalnego manuskryptu\nOkreślenie pozwoleń Wybór licencji\nRedakcja\n(Recenzja zewnętrzna lub wykonana przez redaktora naukowego)\nSkład tekstu Skład tekstu\nWybór/wykonanie materiałów graficznych\nOpracowanie układu Opracowanie układu i dodanie grafik i dodanie grafik\nDrobne poprawki Dokładna korekta na złożonym tekście\nWytworzenie i przypisanie identyfikatorów\nZdeponowanie wersji Zdeponowanie pracy Zdeponowanie oryginalnej publikacji kanonicznej wcześniej opublikowanej\nŹródło: opracowanie własne.\nDodatkowe etapy w przypadku publikowania oryginalnego zostały w tabeli pogrubione i uwzględniają dopracowywanie treści (z oryginalnego manuskryptu), wybór licencji, redagowanie, recenzowanie zawartości (np. zewnętrzną recenzję naukową, recenzję wykonaną przez redaktora naukowego, sprawdzanie faktów), wybór i tworzenie grafik, dokładne sprawdzenie tekstu po składzie i naniesienie poprawek. Mimo że można to czasami bezpośrednio uprościć, recenzja naukowa i recenzja ze strony redaktora naukowego to etapy, które zawsze są realizowane na zewnątrz naszego działu wydawniczego i dlatego te elementy pojawiają się w tabeli w nawiasie.\nTabela ma przede wszystkim za zadanie pokazać podobieństwo schematów działań publikacyjnych między zielonym a diamentowym otwartym dostępem. Procesy ponownego publikowania i publikowania prac oryginalnych (oryginalnego/pierwotnego publikowania) obejmują skład, opracowanie wizualne, opracowanie graficzne,\n\ngłównie chodzi o edytowanie grafik (ale czasami o ich tworzenie). Ma to także pokazywać, że złoty model otwartego dostępu nie wymaga od nas działań publikacyjnych, a jedynie pozostawia nam rolę doradczą względem autorów i następnie zadanie umieszczenia tych treści w repozytorium instytucjonalnym po tym, jak praca zostanie opublikowana w innym miejscu.\nKrótkie charakterystyki modeli otwartego dostępu\nW Bibliotekach UNL każdego dnia dążymy, aby otwarta nauka się rozwijała, niezależenie od tego, czy angażowane są w to modele złoty, zielony, diamentowy/platynowy, czy inne powiązane ścieżki. Poniżej zaprezentowano krótkie charakterystyki modeli, aby zademonstrować, jak wspieramy naukowców w staraniach na rzecz udostępnienia ich dorobku naukowego bez ograniczeń.\nPrzykład złotego OA\nWiadomość elektroniczna przesłana przez autora z jednego z wydziałów UNL do trojga kolegów:\nCześć wszystkim. W związku z tym, że nasz artykuł został przyjęty do druku, pojawiła się kwestia opłat za otwarty dostęp. Wydaje mi się, że Conservation Physiology to czasopismo w pełni otwarte, więc aby opublikować w nim artykuł, musimy uiścić opłatę za otwarty dostęp (nie ma innych opcji publikacji z tego, co wiem).\nOpłata wynosi 2175 dolarów, więc zastanawiam się, czy moglibyście się wszyscy na nią złożyć.\n[Uwaga: W przypadku czworga autorów oznacza to opłatę wysokości 550 dolarów za osobę! – przyp. S. A. G.]\nOdpowiedź od jednego ze współautorów do pozostałych członków grupy:\nNie mam w tym momencie żadnych funduszy. Jednakże Biblioteka Uniwersytetu\nKalifornijskiego (UC) pokrywa koszty publikacji, JEŻELI autor korespondencyjny jest powiązany z UC ORAZ chodzi o artykuł w czasopiśmie publikującym w złotym modelu (nie w modelu hybrydowym). Czy macie podobne rozwiązanie?\nE-mail do mnie od kolegi z UNL:\nPublikujemy artykuł w czasopiśmie otwartym Conservation Physiology, wydawanym przez Oxford University Press.\n\nNie byłem pewien, czy UNL miał umowę z OUP lub czy koszt publikacji w tym czasopiśmie byłby pokryty na podstawie którejkolwiek z umów UNL. Kwota $2,175 jest bardzo wysoka, więc szukam sposobu, by obniżyć cenę za otwarty dostęp.\nPrzekazałem Ci wiadomości, które wymienialiśmy w gronie współautorów tego artykułu, żebyś wiedziała, na jakim etapie są nasze ustalenia.\nMoja odpowiedź do autora:\nGdybyś chciał opublikować artykuł w Conservation Physiology, tak, Ty i współautorzy musicie dysponować funduszami na tę publikację, chyba że jeden lub więcej autorów należy do kategorii, która podlega zwolnieniu z opłat w Oxfordzie. Poza tym, jeśli biblioteki należące do Big Ten Academic Alliance (BTAA) miałyby uiścić opłatę za otwarty dostęp, można rozważyć zgłoszenie artykułu do czasopisma, dla którego dysponujemy pewnymi środkami na otwarty dostęp.\nTytuły, które mogłyby być odpowiednie:\nBiology Open (wydawane przez Company of Biologists)\nPLoS Biology (wydawane przez Public Library of Science) lub jakiekolwiek inne czasopismo wydawane przez Cambridge University Press lub Wiley.\nDwaj inni współautorzy z UNL zrobili tak ostatnio. Zamierzali opublikować artykuł w czasopiśmie i znaleźć fundusze na to, aby znalazł się on w otwartym dostępie, ale okazało się to zbyt kosztowne, więc znaleźli porównywalne czasopismo z Cambridge i tam przesłali swoją pracę. Martwili się, że redaktorom nie spodoba się temat lub sposób jego ujęcia, ale praca została przyjęta i opublikowana.\nDaj znać, jeśli potrzebujesz dalszych informacji na ten temat.\nOdpowiedź od kolegi z UNL:\nDzięki za sugestie!\nTo numer specjalny poświęcony konferencji, na której byłem głównym mówcą, więc nie miałem zbytniego wyboru, jeśli chodzi o czasopismo. Jednak będę to miał zdecydowanie na uwadze.\nZłoty OA: wpływ\nPrzedstawiona wymiana myśli ma główny bezpośredni wpływ na grupę autorów. Dzięki tej interakcji z pracownikami bibliotek są oni lepiej poinformowani, jeśli chodzi o opcje\n\npłatności za złoty otwarty dostęp. Poza tym pomaga nam to poznać przynajmniej w części specyfikę sytuacji, z którą mają do czynienia autorzy, więc jesteśmy w stanie lepiej i skuteczniej kierować naszą pomoc. Ważnym niebezpośrednim wpływem tej wymiany będzie wpływ na czytelników, którzy ostatecznie zyskają dostęp do wysokiej jakości prac naukowych na licencjach CC BY. Ta wymiana korespondencji pokazuje, że jest realna potrzeba opłat za publikację (APCs) ze strony podmiotów wspierających autorów – jak biblioteki, uniwersytety, konsorcja oraz rządowe i prywatne fundacje. We współpracy z jednym z naszych bibliotecznych konsorcjów (BTAA) możemy czasami wspierać wydziały w rozpowszechnianiu rezultatów ich prac naukowych, ale jest potrzeba zwiększenia funduszy tego typu i zwiększenia liczby umów negocjowanych z wydawcami.\nPrzykład zielonego OA\nWiadomość do Paula Royestera od kolegi z jednego z wydziałów UNL:\nCześć Paul. Chciałbym zwiększyć swoją obecność w Digital Commons. Czy mógłbyś mi powiedzieć, jak to zrobić? Załączam kopię mojego CV w nadziei, że możesz mi doradzić, co mógłbym dodać.\nOdpowiedź od Roystera:\nWspaniale! To jest dokładnie to, czego nam trzeba, aby zacząć nad tym pracować bardziej systematycznie. Gratulacje z powodu rozpoczęcia pracy i z powodu wszystkich tych licznych publikacji, witaj w Lincoln. Wielu komercyjnych wydawców zabrania nam używania ich PDF-ów, więc artykuły wydawnictw takich jak Elsevier, Wiley,\nSage, Springer i inne mogą się pojawiać w postaci, którą określamy jako nasze wersje „Husker”. Zaczynamy generalnie od najnowszych artykułów i pracujemy wstecz.\nZaczynamy od twoich zaakceptowanych manuksryptów.\nZielony OA: wpływ\nPo wspólnej pracy z autorem nad pozyskaniem manuskryptów, zostało nam przekazanych\n35 prac w ciągu około dwóch tygodni po tym pojedynczym zapytaniu. Efekt: to zapytanie doprowadziło do przekazania do otwartego dostępu 35 prac, które zostały pobrane blisko\n1200 razy w ciągu kilku pierwszych tygodni po ich udostępnieniu w otwartym dostępie.\nTo typowa prośba dla zielonej drogi otwartego dostępu. Niektóre z tych prac były pierwotnie opublikowane w złotym OA, więc mogliśmy umieścić na naszej platformie ich kanoniczne wersje. Ale nawet jeśli oryginalne publikacje nie były wydane na\n\notwartych licencjach, poprzez ponowne opublikowanie zgodnie z systemem zielonej drugi stały się dostępne dla każdego, kto ma połączenie internetowe.\nDwa przykłady diamentowego otwartego dostępu\nNaukowiec z Panamy wysłał mi wiadomość mailową z informacją, że właśnie otrzymał stopień doktora i że kiedyś pracował z jednym z naszych kolegów (Brettem Ratcliffem), badając żuki z rodzaju Chrysina. Zastanawiał się, czy mógłby podjąć współpracę z tym kolegą w celu przygotowania monografii naukowej na podstawie swojej dysertacji. Po konsultacji przeprowadzonej przez Paula Roystera z dr. Ratcliffem na temat tego projektu, dr Ratcliff zgodził się przyjąć propozycję. Współpracował z nami jako redaktor wykonawczy, koordynował proces recenzyjny, pomagał w weryfikacji faktów i w redakcji technicznej. My robiliśmy skład, opracowanie graficzne, w pewnym zakresie redakcję techniczną i korektę. Opublikowaliśmy książkę w ciągu około czterech tygodni od otrzymania ostatecznej wersji manuskryptu.\nInny przykład diamentowego otwartego dostępu: trafia do nas rocznie trzech do ośmiu zgłoszeń publikacji do czasopisma Transactions of the Nebraska Academy of\nScience and Affiliated Societies, po rzetelnych zewnętrznych recenzjach. Otrzymujemy pliki MS Word oraz JPG i inne rodzaje plików od redaktora. Paul Royster następnie wykonuje skład i oprawę graficzną, dba o archiwizację i publikuje artykuły. Nasza rola w schematach działań publikacyjnych w systemie Bibliotek UNL dla tego konkretnego czasopisma koncentruje się więc wokół produkcji, dystrybucji wyłącznie elektronicznej i przechowywania, bez zaangażowania w pozyskiwanie tekstów, recenzje czy redagowanie.\nDiamentowy OA: wpływ\nPraca pod tytułem Chrysina (Barria, 2023) zawiera ważny przegląd taksonomiczny 28 gatunków przynależnych do tego rodzaju i przedstawia pierwsze opisy trzech gatunków z Panamy. Nasza współpraca z dr. Ratcliffem zagwarantowała przestrzeganie wszystkich zasad nazewnictwa taksonomicznego, co oznacza, że nazwy stosowane w tej pracy są naukowo poprawne. Książka jest dostępna w pełnym kolorze i można ją czytać za darmo online oraz zakupić egzemplarz w twardej oprawie (bez marży) przez stronę lulu.com.\nKsiążka została pobrana ponad 1500 razy w ciągu pierwszych sześciu miesięcy od publikacji.\nWspółpraca z redaktorami publikacji Transactions przyniosła wysokiej jakości, wydawane lokalnie i recenzowane czasopismo naukowe z długą historią w Nebrasce, publikowane w ramach działalności wydawniczej naszej biblioteki, przy relatywnie minimalnym wkładzie pracy z naszej strony. Efekt: to partnerstwo przyniosło skutek w postaci publikacji ponad 500 prac, mających łącznie 300 000 pobrań na całym świecie.\n\nWnioski\nSchematy działań publikacyjnych dla zielonego i diamentowego OA są bardzo podobne.\nW przypadku diamentowego modelu zostało jedynie dodanych kilka kroków. Działalność publikacyjna prowadzona w dziale komunikacji naukowej Bibliotek Uniwersytetu Lincoln w Nebrasce przynosi efekty w postaci tworzenia i rozpowszechniania prac, które każdy, kto ma dostęp do Internetu, może czytać i przekazywać dalej. Rezultatem jest globalna widoczność badań naukowych prowadzonych w naszej instytucji, z pracami naszych autorów zebranymi w jednym miejscu. W ten sposób wzmacniamy rozwijane lokalnie zasoby naukowe i udostępniamy je społeczności badaczy na całym świecie (Royster, 2012).\nBibliografia\nBarria, M. D. (2023). A monographic revision of the jewel scarabs genus Chrysina from Panama,\nColombia, and Ecuador (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae: Rutelinae: Rutelini). Zea Books. https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/zeabook/141/\nBuggle, J. (2023, February 17). Partners in library publishing. International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions. IFLA news. https://www.ifla.org/news/partners-in-library-publishing/\nKalikman Lippincott, S. (2017). Library as publisher: New models of scholarly communication for a new era. ATG media. http://dx.doi.org/10.3998/mpub.9944345\nRoyster, P. (2012). Building the UNL digital repository [presentation]. TSRT 2012 Spring Meeting,\nBellevue University, Bellevue, Nebraska, United States. https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/ library_talks/79/\n\nJoanna Błasiok\nORCID: 0009-0006-6080-5400\nKamila Kokot-Kanikuła\nORCID: 0000-0002-3355-5198\nBiblioteka Politechniki Gdańskiej\nROR: https://ror.org/006x4sc24\nJak pomóc sobie i autorom – zestaw dobrych praktyk eliminujących nieświadome łamanie prawa\nAbstrakt: W artykule zaprezentowano zestaw dobrych praktyk związanych z otwartością w nauce, który powinien znaleźć się na stronach internetowych czasopism naukowych.\nPrzede wszystkim uwzględniono kwestie związane z realizacją przez autorów zielonej drogi otwartego dostępu, tj. samoarchiwizacji. W trakcie analizy piśmiennictwa najpierw zidentyfikowano elementy witryn internetowych rekomendowane przez międzynarodowe instytucje promujące przejrzystość w nauce, a następnie wychwycono trudności pojawiające się przy ponownym wykorzystaniu publikacji z powodu braku kluczowych informacji.\nDobre praktyki omówione w artykule to: wzór umowy, informacja o właścicielu praw autorskich, stosowanie i rodzaj licencji Creative Commons, wytyczne dotyczące samoarchiwizacji, udostępniania danych badawczych i spełniania wymogów Planu S. Każde zagadnienie uzupełniono o przykłady pochodzące ze stron polskich czasopism naukowych. Na końcu sformułowano ogólne rekomendacje mające na celu ułatwienie redakcjom zawarcie na stronie kompletnych informacji związanych z tematyką prawa autorskiego.\nSłowa kluczowe: czasopismo naukowe, zielona droga otwartego dostępu, prawo autorskie, samoarchiwizacja, strona internetowa\nWstęp\nRosnąca popularność instytucjonalnych repozytoriów prac naukowych oraz zasady wprowadzone przez członków cOAlition S, w tym Narodowe Centrum Nauki (2020, 2021),\n\nprzyczyniają się do coraz bardziej powszechnego korzystania przez naukowców z zielonej drogi otwartego dostępu (ang. green open access, green OA) w odniesieniu do ich artykułów. Niestety brak wyczerpujących informacji na temat obowiązujących praktyk wydawniczych na stronach internetowych polskich czasopism naukowych może prowadzić do rezygnacji z przesłania manuskryptu przez autora lub nieumyślnego łamania prawa po opublikowaniu pracy.\nW celu ustalenia najlepszych praktyk publikacyjnych pozwalających na realizację green OA przeanalizowano zapisy zawarte w dokumencie Principles of Transparency and Best Practice in Scholarly Publishing (COPE i in., 2022) oraz zalecenia cOAlition\nS wyrażone w Planie S (cOAlition S, b.d., The Plan S Principles..., Guidelines on the\nImplementation...). Następnie, na podstawie wybranej literatury oraz treści dostępnych na stronach internetowych odwiedzanych w trakcie uzupełniania danych w bazie polityk wydawniczych polskich czasopism naukowych (Błasiok i Szymik, 2021), zidentyfikowano kluczowe elementy pozwalające autorom podążać zieloną drogą otwartego dostępu. Są to dostępne bezpośrednio na stronie WWW: wzory umów, informacje o właścicielu autorskich praw majątkowych, stosowanej licencji Creative Commons, możliwości dalszego rozpowszechniania artykułów (tzw. samoarchiwizacji, ang. self-archiving) oraz rekomendacje dotyczące danych badawczych. Każdy element omówiono osobno, powołując się na konkretne przykłady z polskich czasopism zgodnie z dobrymi praktykami zawartymi w wyżej wspominanych Principles of Transparency... oraz wymogami Planu S. Dodatkowo w artykule przedstawiono ogólne rekomendacje dla redakcji dotyczące kompleksowego wykorzystania treści znajdujących się na stronie czasopisma, przede wszystkim odnoszące się do sposobu, w jaki te treści są przekazywane.\nPrzegląd literatury\nPrzeprowadzono przegląd literatury pozwalający na identyfikację elementów związanych z publikowaniem otwartym, przede wszystkim skupiono się na możliwościach dokonania samoarchiwizacji przez autorów. W tym zakresie podstawą analizy były\nPrinciples of Transparency and Best Practice in Scholarly Publishing i dokumenty związane z wdrożeniem Planu S na polskim gruncie. Ponadto dzięki dostępnej literaturze udało się zidentyfikować pojawiające się trudności wynikające z niestosowania się do wytycznych ogłoszonych we wspomnianych dokumentach.\nPrinciples of Transparency and Best Practice in Scholarly Publishing są rekomendowane przez cztery międzynarodowe organizacje: Committee on Publication Ethics\n(COPE), Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ), Open Access Scholarly Publishing\nAssociation (OASPA) i World Association of Medical Editors (WAME). W 16 punktach\n\nwymieniono najistotniejsze aspekty związane z działalnością czasopism, które obejmują takie kwestie jak: zawartość stron internetowych, organizacja i zarządzanie periodykiem, praktyki wydawnicze oraz działalność komercyjna. Na potrzeby artykułu zostały wybrane dwie kategorie związane z dostępnością treści na stronie: własność autorskich praw majątkowych i licencjonowanie. Zgodnie z wymogami zasada własności praw powinna być wyraźnie zaznaczona zarówno na stronie artykułu, jak i w samym pliku\nPDF oraz oddzielona od ogólnych zasad obowiązujących na platformie, na której czasopismo się znajduje. Nazwa właściciela praw powinna być podana w pełnym brzmieniu, a jeśli reguła własności praw jest opisana w osobnym miejscu na stronie, musi być ona łatwa do zlokalizowania przez potencjalnych użytkowników.\nPodobnie dzieje się w przypadku licencjonowania treści dostępnych na stronie. W dokumencie znalazł się zapis, że treść deklarowana jako dostępna w modelu open access musi być objęta jedną z otwartych licencji, a przy korzystaniu z konkretnej licencji Creative Commons zalecane jest dołączenie do niej odpowiedniego linku. Ponadto, podobnie jak w przypadku informacji o własności praw, wymagane jest, żeby informacja o licencji była łatwo dostępna dla użytkowników, znajdowała się zarówno na stronie internetowej, jak i w każdym pełnym tekście możliwym do pobrania przez użytkowników. Autorzy dokumentu odnoszą się także do praktyk związanych z ponownym udostępnianiem treści przez autorów i według nich takie zasady muszą być jasno określone i opisane. Zgodnie z wyżej przedstawionymi zapisami twórcy zasad o przejrzystości i najlepszych praktykach w publikowaniu naukowym postulują przemyślaną organizację informacji na stronie, która pozwoli na szybkie zlokalizowanie niezbędnych treści oraz dostarczenie informacji na temat: właściciela praw, licencjonowania i ponownego wykorzystania tekstów.\nNastępnie analizie poddano zalecenia opracowane przez międzynarodową inicjatywę instytucji finansujących badania cOAlition S, mające za cel upowszechnienie otwartego dostępu dla wyników badań finansowanych z publicznych środków, zwane\nPlanem S (cOAlition S, b.d., The Plan S Principles...), wraz z dokumentem Polityka\nNarodowego Centrum Nauki dotycząca otwartego dostępu do publikacji (NCN, 2020).\nPlan S opiera się na 10 podstawowych zasadach, z których ze względu na tematykę artykułu najbardziej istotna jest pierwsza, mówiąca o tym, że autorzy lub ich instytucje powinni zachować prawa autorskie do publikacji oraz udostępniać je na otwartej licencji, najlepiej Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0). W szczegółowych informacjach dotyczących implementacji Planu S (cOAlition S, n.d., Guidance of the Implementation...) oraz dokumentach NCN przedstawiono wytyczne, w jaki sposób autorzy mają realizować publikowanie bezpośrednio w otwartym dostępie lub samoarchiwizację publikacji. Zgodnie z nimi powinien być zapewniony natychmiastowy otwarty dostęp do tekstów na stronie wydawcy lub w otwartym repozytorium w wersji wydawniczej\n\n(version of record) albo zaakceptowanego manuskryptu (author’s accepted manuscript) na licencji CC BY (w szczególnych wypadkach dopuszczalna jest licencja CC BY-SA lub za zgodą grantodawcy CC BY-ND). Polityka publikacyjna niektórych czasopism od razu spełnia warunki stawiane grantobiorcom, w pozostałych przypadkach muszą oni skorzystać z zielonej drogi OA dopuszczalnej przez wydawcę, o ile jest ona zgodna z wymogami instytucji zapewniającej grant lub zastosować strategię zachowania praw autorskich (Rights Retention Strategy – RRS) (cOAlition S, b.d., Rights Retention Strategy). W celu weryfikacji wymogów formalnych stawianych przez Plan S cOAlition S stworzyła Journal Checker Tool (cOAlition S, b.d, Journal Checker Tool), narzędzie, które korzysta z zasobów różnych baz danych, np. Directory of Open Access Journals\n(DOAJ). Z tego powodu dla redakcji powinno być ważne, aby w bazach były zamieszczane aktualne informacje opisujące politykę wydawniczą czasopism. Niestety Bojo-\n-Canales i Melero (2023) zauważyli rozbieżności między zasadami przedstawionymi na stronach internetowych czasopism a tymi znajdującymi się w bazach. Przyjmując, że informacje zamieszczone na stronie internetowej czasopisma są bardziej wiążące niż te z baz, błędne zapisy w bazach mogą przysparzać problemów naukowcom, któłrzy z obawy przed niespełnianiem wymogów grantodawcy zrezygnują ze zgłoszenia artykułu do konkretnego czasopisma, aby nie mieć później trudności z rozliczeniem publikacji. W związku z wyżej przedstawionymi zasadami wynikającymi z Planu S ważne jest, aby czasopisma dostarczały kompleksowej informacji o stosowanych przez siebie zasadach otwartego dostępu (typ licencji) oraz deponowania prac przez autorów w otwartych repozytoriach czy polityki względem strategii zachowania praw autorskich.\nPonadto w wybranej literaturze poruszone zostały kwestie dostępności do zrozumiałej, wiarygodnej i spójnej informacji. Jak zauważyli Danielewicz i Tarkowski (2013):\n„znaczący jest ogólnie niski poziom wiedzy na temat tego, co dopuszczalne i zakazane przez prawo autorskie. [...] Nie wyróżniają się też swoją wiedzą ludzie deklarujący siebie jako twórców, którzy zgodnie z powszechnie powtarzaną hipotezą winni być bardziej świadomi funkcjonowania prawa”.\nW związku z tym redakcje czasopism nie powinny z góry zakładać, że użytkownicy oraz autorzy doskonale orientują się w zawiłościach prawa autorskiego, stąd też zalecane jest zamieszczenie prostej w odbiorze informacji o zasadach funkcjonowania w tym obszarze. Z kolei Fleming i Cook (2022) przedstawili skutki braku odpowiednich informacji, dostępnych jeszcze przed zgłoszeniem manuskryptu do czasopisma.\nZauważyli oni, że brak opublikowanych i jasnych zasad dla analizowanych przez nich czasopism może skutkować problemami dla czasopism, jak i autorów, którzy błędnie zrozumieli istniejące zapisy lub z powodu ich braku dokonali własnej interpretacji. Co więcej, zwrócili też uwagę, że przeszukiwanie strony internetowej czasopisma zabiera\n\nautorom niepotrzebny czas i może stać się przyczyną rezygnacji z przesłania do redakcji zgłoszenia. Z kolei Laakso i Polonioli (2018) zaznaczyli, że brak wyraźnych zasad wydawcy, jakie działania są dozwolone i zabronione w związku z samoarchiwizacją, często skutkował nieświadomym łamaniem prawa, objawiającym się deponowaniem nieodpowiednich wersji artykułów. Również obserwacje prowadzone przez Choi, Choi i Kim (2019) wykazały, że zapisy dotyczące licencjonowania treści były obecne na badanych przez nich stronach internetowych czasopism, natomiast często brakowało informacji na temat samoarchiwizacji i udostępniania tekstów przez użytkowników.\nZauważalny jest również problem z rozproszeniem informacji, zamieszczanie ich wśród treści o innej tematyce lub brak specjalnych, przeznaczonych do tego podstron.\nProwadzi to do chaosu i grozi tym, że autor do nich nie dotrze (Klebel i in., 2020; Laakso,\n2014). W odniesieniu do polskich czasopism naukowych tematykę dobrych praktyk związanych z otwartym publikowaniem w przeszłości analizowała Pamuła-Cieślak\n(2019), która zaobserwowała podobne zjawiska charakteryzujące się niejednolitymi zapisami oraz brakiem pełnego i zrozumiałego opisu. W obrębie jednej z analizowanych przez nią platform wydawniczych opisanie zasad związanych z prawem autorskim nie zostało ustandaryzowane, „co spowodowało, że ponad 50% czasopism z tej platformy nie zamieszcza tej informacji wcale, a pozostałe robią to według własnego uznania, co [...] kazało autorce pieczołowicie przeglądać każdy fragment witryny internetowej w poszukiwaniu takiej wzmianki”.\nNa podstawie powyżej opisanych kwestii wyróżniono cztery elementy, które warto zamieszczać na stronie internetowej czasopisma lub wydawcy. Są to: wzór umowy, informacja o właścicielu praw autorskich, stosowanie i rodzaj licencji Creative\nCommons, wytyczne dotyczące samoarchiwizacji. Aby szerzej naświetlić problematykę związaną z otwartością w nauce, zdecydowano się także uwzględnić zagadnienie udostępniania danych badawczych oraz spełniania wymogów Planu S. Dostęp do wyżej wymienionych informacji pomoże autorom w świadomym podjęciu decyzji o dalszym użytkowaniu tekstu zarówno przed przesłaniem manuskryptu, jak i po opublikowaniu wersji wydawniczej.\nDobre praktyki krok po kroku\nPrzedstawione w artykule dobre praktyki mają na celu ułatwienie redakcjom dostarczenia konkretnych wytycznych dla użytkowników, co więcej, pozwolą przejrzyście zaprezentować aktualną politykę wydawniczą czasopisma w Internecie. Każdy omówiony aspekt został zobrazowany przykładami zaczerpniętymi ze stron WWW polskich czasopism naukowych.\n\nDostęp do wzoru umowy\nZamieszczenie na stronie internetowej wzoru umowy pozwoli autorom zapoznać się z polityką wydawniczą czasopisma i już na początku określić, czy periodyk spełnia wszystkie kryteria, np. grantodawców. Ze względu na różne rodzaje zobowiązań, którym podlegają naukowcy, mogą oni być zainteresowani formą podpisywanych umów autorskich. Zobowiązania te mogą dotyczyć zakazu przekazywania praw majątkowych do utworu i wynikać z przyjętej na danej uczelni polityki otwartego dostępu lub wytycznych instytucji finansujących badania. Najczęściej spotykane są dwa typy umów: o przeniesienie autorskich praw majątkowych na wydawcę oraz o korzystanie z utworu (licencja). W związku z tym, że obie umowy w odmienny sposób definiują właściciela praw majątkowych, który może rozporządzać dalszym wykorzystaniem utworu, niezwykle ważne jest, aby informacje dostępne na stronie nie budziły wątpliwości, były dostępne dla osób zainteresowanych przed przesłaniem manuskryptu oraz nie różniły się od wersji, którą autorzy ostatecznie podpisują z redakcją. Należy również zwrócić uwagę na język dostępnej umowy. W przypadku, w którym odbiorcami treści są osoby na co dzień nieposługujące się językiem polskim, warto zamieścić wzór chociażby w języku angielskim, ewentualnie w języku, z którym związana jest duża część aktualnie publikujących autorów, co równie istotne, wszystkie wersje językowe powinny zwierać identyczną treść.\nWzór umowy autorskiej może być udostępniony w zakładce lub na podstronie zawierającej wytyczne dla autorów, gdyż jest to miejsce, gdzie autorzy zazwyczaj poszukują kompletnych informacji przed zgłoszeniem. Możliwe jest także utworzenie osobnego miejsca, z którego użytkownicy będą mogli pobrać zarówno wzór umowy, jak i oświadczenia o autorstwie i rzetelności prac. Poniższe przykłady z czasopism przedstawiają sposób zamieszczenia umów wydawniczych w oddzielnej zakładce (ryc. 1 i 2).\nRycina 1. Studia Ecologiae et Bioethicae; zakładka: For authors → Declaration Forms.\nŹródło: https://czasopisma.uksw.edu.pl/index.php/seb/oswiadczenia (dostęp: 3.08.2023).\n\nRycina 2. Konteksty Kultury; zakładka: About the journal → Contracts, forms.\nŹródło: https://ejournals.eu/czasopismo/konteksty-kultury/strona/umowy-i-formularze\n(dostęp: 3.08.2023).\nWłaściciel praw majątkowych\nJuż w umowie powinien zostać określony właściciel praw majątkowych, ponadto taką informację warto również zamieścić na stronie internetowej oraz oznaczyć nią poszczególne artykuły, które po pobraniu przez użytkownika funkcjonują niezależnie od strony internetowej. W tej sytuacji osoby chcące wykorzystać artykuł w sposób wykraczający poza dozwolony użytek będą wiedziały do kogo zwrócić się z pytaniem o udzielenie zgody. Co więcej, w przypadku braku dostępu do wzorów umów, informacja o posiadaczu praw może sugerować, czy do przejęcia praw doszło, czy też pozostały one przy autorze. Dodatkowo na rycinie 3 można zauważyć, że redakcja przekazuje autorom informacje, w jaki sposób będą mogli korzystać z utworu po ukazaniu się artykułu na stronie internetowej. Jest to dobry sposób, aby przeciwdziałać nieświadomemu łamaniu prawa, ponieważ autorzy nie zawsze orientują się, jakie konsekwencje niesie ze sobą umowa o przeniesienie praw majątkowych.\nRycina 3. Polish Annals of Medicine; zakładka: Instructions → User License.\nŹródło: http://www.paom.pl/User-License,2028.html (dostęp: 3.08.2023).\n\nInformacja o właścicielu praw autorskich mogłaby zostać zamieszczona we wzorze umowy, w pliku PDF tekstu (ryc. 4, 7), w zakładce ze wskazówkami dla autorów (ryc. 5), w zakładce „o czasopiśmie” lub w specjalnej podstronie dostępnej dla wszystkich użytkowników, którzy niekoniecznie chcieliby opublikować swój tekst (ryc. 3).\nRycina 4. Artykuł w czasopiśmie Oeconomia Copernicana, opis z pliku PDF.\nŹródło: https://oeconomia.pl/ (dostęp: 3.08.2023).\nRycina 5. Polish Maritime Research; zakładka Submission → Copyrights.\nŹródło: https://journal.mostwiedzy.pl/pmr/copyrights (dostęp: 3.08.2023).\nLicencje Creative Commons\nZauważalne jest, że coraz więcej czasopism korzysta z ujednoliconych licencji opracowanych przez Fundację Creative Commons, więc jeśli dany tytuł używa jednej z sześciu licencji, powinien jasno poinformować o tym swoich odbiorców. Wzór umowy może być właściwym miejscem, aby autorzy, którzy zdecydują się na przesłanie tekstu, z góry wiedzieli, w jaki sposób ich publikacja będzie dostępna dla szerszego grona użytkowników. Pełne teksty licencji wraz z przystępnym streszczeniem, zarówno w języku polskim, jak i angielskim, są dostępne na stronie Fundacji (Creative Commons, b.d.). Redakcje i autorzy nie muszą obawiać się, że przy wykorzystaniu licencji Creative Commons może dojść do nadużyć, bowiem zgodnie z zasadami użytkowania każdy egzemplarz utworu musi zawierać informację o autorze i jego prawach autorskich, jak również wymagane jest dołączenie linku do tekstu wybranej licencji. Co ważne, Fundacja dostarcza na\n\nstronie niezbędne materiały, na które składają się: grafika charakterystyczna dla każdego typu licencji, jej pełna nazwa oraz link do jej treści lub skróconego opisu. Wszystkie materiały są dostępne za darmo, dlatego warto korzystać z oficjalnego i jednocześnie sprawdzonego źródła.\nTyp licencji należy również umieścić w widocznym miejscu na stronie czasopisma. Pozwoli to, zarówno autorom, jak i czytelnikom, zorientować się, jakie zasady rozpowszechniania obowiązują w danym periodyku. W związku z tym, że licencje zapewniają większe możliwości korzystania z utworu, warto dokładnie opisać, jakie prawa przysługują użytkownikom, chociażby wykorzystując gotowe treści dostępne na stronie Creative Commons. Zapisy jednoznacznie określają zasady ponownego użytkowania, w tym: wykorzystanie komercyjne, możliwość tworzenia utworów zależnych\n(np. tłumaczenie utworu) oraz zabezpieczają autorskie prawa osobiste. Dostarczone na stronie informacje zwalniają redakcje z konieczności samodzielnego opracowania zasad i zapewniają spójność przekazu. Bardzo istotne jest, żeby informacje na stronie i w plikach pełnych tekstów były jednakowe, w tym celu redakcje powinny bacznie zwracać uwagę na treści, jakie przekazują. Często zdarza się, że typ licencji pojawia się w kilku miejscach na stronie czasopisma, co może prowadzić do różnic w obrębie jednej witryny. Nierzadko dzieje się tak, gdy zmieniany jest typ licencji i redakcja nie aktualizuje wszystkich zakładek.\nRedakcje, które zaczynają korzystać z licencji lub też przechodzą na jej inny typ, powinny określić, od jakiego numeru ona obowiązuje oraz jaką stosowano wcześniej.\nPozostawienie tylko informacji o aktualnych zasadach prowadzi do założenia, że obowiązują one dla wszystkich materiałów, co z kolei skutkować może nieświadomym łamaniem prawa przez użytkowników. Przykład z czasopisma Problems of Forensic\nSciences (ryc. 6) przedstawia wszystkie niezbędne elementy w zakresie daty początkowej stosowania licencji Creative Commons i zasad obowiązujących dla wcześniej wydanych artykułów.\nKażda z sześciu licencji dotyczy różnych zasad ponownego wykorzystania, dlatego redakcje mogą wybrać taką, która spełnia ich wymagania i dostosowana jest do przyjętej polityki wydawniczej czasopism. W efekcie uważny wybór i konsekwencja jej stosowania wyeliminują wątpliwości wśród czytelników i autorów. Wszystkie elementy opisu wybranej licencji, zarówno tekstowe, jak i graficzne, zamieszczone na stronie czasopisma powinny być zgodne z określonym typem, dokładnie tak, jak jest to zamieszczone na stronie Fundacji Creative Commons.\n\nInformacje o licencji mogą być dostępne: na stronie startowej czasopisma; w informacjach dla autorów; w podstronach dotyczących: prawa autorskiego (ryc. 5, 6), otwartego dostępu lub samoarchiwizacji; oraz na stronach poszczególnych artykułów. Natomiast wymagane jest, aby zawierał je każdy plik z pełną treścią publikacji (ryc. 7, 8).\nRycina 6. P roblems of Forensic Sciences; zakładka: About the journal → Copyrights and sharing.\nŹródło: https://ejournals.eu/czasopismo/problems-of-forensic-sciences/strona/prawa-autorskiei-udostepnianie (dostęp: 3.08.2023).\nRycina 7. Bulletin of the Polish Academy of Sciences Technical Sciences; artykuł w czasopiśmie, opis z pliku PDF.\nŹródło: https://journals.pan.pl/dlibra/journal/119067 (dostęp: 3.08.2023).\nRycina 8. Studia Ecologiae et Bioethicae; artykuł w czasopiśmie, opis z pliku PDF.\nŹródło: https://czasopisma.uksw.edu.pl/index.php/seb/ (dostęp: 3.08.2023).\n\nSamoarchiwizacja\nSamoarchiwizacja, czyli samodzielne zamieszczanie przez autorów własnych artykułów w serwisach internetowych, jest jedną z możliwości otwartego publikowania, którą nazywamy zieloną drogą otwartego dostępu (green open access). Samoarchiwizacja jest też jedną z trzech opcji, jakie może wykorzystać autor w przypadku publikowania wyników badań otrzymanych dzięki grantom Narodowego Centrum Nauki (NCN, 2020).\nDane, które powinny być dostępne na stronie internetowej czasopisma, aby naukowiec nie miał wątpliwości, w jaki sposób może przeprowadzić proces samoarchiwizacji, to:\nwersje artykułu, miejsca udostępniania plików oraz okres embargo.\nW procesie redakcyjnym wyróżnia się trzy podstawowe wersje artykułu: manuskrypt przesłany do redakcji (preprint, submitted version, author’s original manuscript), artykuł po wprowadzonych zmianach w wyniku recenzji (postprint, accepted version, author’s accepted manuscript) oraz ostateczna wersja opublikowana w czasopiśmie\n(wersja wydawnicza, version of record, published version, final version). Każda z nich może podlegać różnym zasadom samoarchiwizacji. Jak zwracają uwagę Fleming i Cook\n(2022), czasopisma i wydawcy mogą mieć różne zasady dotyczące publikowania preprintów jeszcze przed ich zgłoszeniem, niestety wielu z nich nie zamieszcza jasnych wytycznych na swoich stronach internetowych. Co więcej, autorzy podkreślają, że brak konkretnych zasad może zniechęcać niektórych badaczy, zarówno do publikacji w repozytoriach dedykowanych preprintom, jak i do zgłoszenia się z tekstem do danego periodyku. Podobna sytuacja może mieć miejsce w przypadku udostępniania postprintu przed ukazaniem się wersji wydawniczej artykułu. Jeżeli redakcja rozróżnia zasady samoarchiwizacji ze względu na wersję artykułu, ważne jest, aby sprecyzowała, co rozumie jako: preprint, postprint i wersję wydawniczą; oraz jakie reguły samoarchiwizacji odnoszą się do poszczególnych typów artykułu. Kompleksowy zestaw informacji można znaleźć na stronie czasopisma „Acta Agrobotanica” (ryc. 9), gdzie szczegółowo opisane są wszystkie wersje artykułów wraz z możliwymi miejscami ich zdeponowania. Co więcej, redakcja wymaga, aby poszczególne pliki w zależności od typu zostały oznaczone jako preprint lub postprint wraz z odesłaniem do wersji wydawniczej i jej identyfikatora DOI.\nKolejnym elementem nieodzownie łączącym się z samoarchiwizacją są miejsca udostępniania plików. Można wyróżnić dwa typy ‒ związane z możliwością komercyjnego udostępniania treści lub jej braku. W praktyce określa ona, czy autor może umieszczać swoje artykuły w niekomercyjnych serwisach, np. uczelnianych platformach rejestrujących dorobek naukowy pracowników oraz spełniających te same funkcje repozytoriach instytucjonalnych, czy na platformach czerpiących korzyści majątkowe z tego tytułu. Ze względu na różnorodność miejsc, w których autor ma możliwość\n\nzdeponowania pliku z pełną treścią artykułu, ważne jest, aby redakcja sprecyzowała, gdzie autor może je zamieścić. Nie ma potrzeby podawania konkretnych nazw platform i serwisów internetowych, jednakże warto wymienić je ogólnie ze względu na spełniane funkcje, np. strona domowa autora, repozytorium instytucjonalne lub dziedzinowe\n(ryc. 10). W podobny sposób można określić, gdzie nie należy udostępniać tekstów.\nRycina 9. Acta Agrobotanica; zakładka: Instructions for Authors → Copyright Notice.\nŹródło: https://www.journalssystem.com/agb/Copyright-Notice,3732.html (dostęp: 3.08.2023).\nRycina 10. A gronomy Science; zakładka: For authors → Self-archiving policy.\nŹródło: https://czasopisma.up.lublin.pl/index.php/as/samoarchiwizacja (dostęp: 3.08.2023).\n\nOstatnią kwestią, o której warto pamiętać, jest embargo. W tym wypadku rozróżnić można dwa rodzaje embarga: związane z czasowym wstrzymaniem dostępu do pełnej treści za pośrednictwem strony internetowej oraz łączące się z samoarchiwizacją dokonywaną przez autora, np. w instytucjonalnym repozytorium. W odniesieniu do samoarchiwizacji redakcja powinna poinformować autorów, po jakim czasie od ukazania się tekstu w wersji wydawniczej mogą oni udostępnić artykuł, korzystając z zielonej drogi OA. Okres embargo, tak samo jak rodzaj licencji Creative Commons, mają niebagatelne znaczenie przy wypełnianiu wymogów grantodawców. Do dobrych praktyk warto również zaliczyć zamieszczenie na stronie zapisu, że embargo nie obowiązuje (ryc. 11).\nRycina 11. Studia Ecologiae et Bioethicae; zakładka: About → Open Access Policy.\nŹródło: https://czasopisma.uksw.edu.pl/index.php/seb/open_access (dostęp: 3.08.2023).\nPodsumowując powyższe rozważania, w przypadku, w którym redakcja zezwala na samoarchiwizację, istotne jest, aby szczegółowo określić jej zasady, ponieważ składa się z kilku istotnych elementów i pominięcie któregoś z nich może skutkować naruszaniem prawa autorskiego przez naukowców.\nNa stronie internetowej czasopisma zagadnienia związane z samoarchiwizacją mogą zostać opisane w miejscach, gdzie przedstawione są kwestie prawa autorskiego, np.\npodstrony ze wskazówkami dla autorów, dotyczące otwartego dostępu. Często spotykane są osobne zakładki, gdzie zebrane są niezbędne zapisy, co dla autora jest najwygodniejsze i najbardziej intuicyjne.\nDane badawcze\nW związku z rzetelnością naukową, replikacją oraz wydatkowaniem środków publicznych dane badawcze wytworzone w toku badań, zarówno surowe, jak i przetworzone, są coraz istotniejsze w procesie publikacyjnym. Obecnie coraz więcej mówi się zarówno o udostępnianiu danych badawczych, jak i ich ponownym wykorzystaniu. Niektóre instytucje finansujące badania naukowe przekazują dokładne wytyczne, w jaki sposób naukowcy powinni przechowywać i zapewniać dostęp do wytworzonych danych.\nRedakcje czasopism także zauważają, jak istotne jest powiązanie wyników badań przedstawionych w postaci artykułu z danymi, z których wynikają.\nPraktyką najczęściej stosowaną przez redakcje w przypadku danych badawczych jest poinformowanie naukowców o wymogu udzielenia dostępu do danych na wyraźną\n\nprośbę recenzentów. Dostęp taki może być istotny w przypadku potrzeby weryfikacji opisu wyników badań przedstawionych w artykule (ryc. 12).\nRycina 12. Konteksty Kultury; zakładka: About the journal → Publication ethics and publication malpractice statement.\nŹródło: https://ejournals.eu/czasopismo/konteksty-kultury/strona/zasady-etyczne-obowiazujacew-czasopismie (dostęp: 3.08.2023).\nInną formą wsparcia dla naukowców w zakresie udostępniania danych badawczych jest zamieszczenie nazw rekomendowanych otwartych repozytoriów danych badawczych, odpowiednich dla danej dyscypliny naukowej. Warto mieć na uwadze, że zarządzanie danymi badawczymi jest zjawiskiem dość nowym w polskiej nauce i naukowcy mogą jeszcze nie znać repozytoriów właściwych dla swoich badań, stąd też jasna informacja na stronie czasopisma może w znaczący sposób ułatwić proces deponowania danych (ryc. 13).\nRycina 13. K onteksty Kultury; zakładka: About the journal → Research Data Management Policy;\nŹródło: https://ejournals.eu/czasopismo/konteksty-kultury/strona/prawa-autorskie-udostepnianiearchiwizacja (dostęp: 3.08.2023).\nW przypadku, w którym redakcja posiada wiedzę, że dane badawcze zostały udo-a stępnione w Internecie, warto rozważyć zamieszczenie informacji o tym wraz z linkiem, zarówno na stronie danego artykułu, jak i w pliku PDF.\nW zależności od tego, czy redakcja wymaga od autorów gotowości do udostępnienia danych badawczych recenzentom, czy stosuje rekomendacje odnośnie do miejsc deponowania, informacja może być dostępna w zakładce przedstawiającej proces recenzowania lub etykę wydawniczą, albo na specjalnej podstronie o danych badawczych.\n\nPlan S\nDo powyższego zestawu dobrych praktyk warto dodać te związane z najnowszymi wymogami grantodawców. W konkursach Narodowego Centrum Nauki od 2020 r. wprowadzono wytyczne zobowiązujące naukowców do publikowania wyników badań przeprowadzanych w ramach projektów finansowanych przez NCN w otwartym dostępie. Nie wszystkie czasopisma spełniają wymogi grantodawcy, np. stosowana licencja jest inna niż rekomendowana w Planie S, brak rejestracji tytułu w bazie Directory of Open Access\nJournals (DOAJ) albo zamknięty lub hybrydowy model publikacyjny. Jednakże elastyczne podejście redakcji do własnych zasad wydawniczych pozwala na wprowadzenie wyjątków zapewniających autorom możliwość wypełnienia wymogów. Możliwe są dwa rozwiązania: w pierwszym redakcja mimo stosowania określonych zasad, na wyraźną prośbę autora, zgadza się na zastosowanie licencji zgodnej z wymogami instytucji finansującej badania i opublikowanie pełnej treści na licencji innej niż przyjęta dla całego czasopisma\n(ryc. 14). W drugim natomiast redakcja wyraża zgodę na nadanie licencji CC BY 4.0 dla wersji artykułu po recenzjach (author’s accepted manuscript, postprint) i natychmiastowe udostępnienie w otwartym repozytorium prac naukowych (ryc. 15).\nRycina 14. Collectanea Philologica; zakładka: About → About the Journal;\nŹródło: https://czasopisma.uni.lodz.pl/collectanea/about (dostęp: 3.08.2023).\nRycina 15. Polish Annals of Medicine; zakładka: Instructions → User License http://www.paom.pl/\nUser-License,2028.html (dostęp: 3.08.2023).\nW przypadku braku dostępnych informacji autor może spróbować skorzystać ze strategii zachowania praw autorskich (RRS), jednakże, jak zauważa Khoo (2021), wykorzystanie tej opcji, której podstawa prawna jest niejasna, powoduje obciążenia administracyjne dla naukowców, na których przeniesione są negocjacje z wydawcami w zakresie praw autorskich. Więc aby ułatwić drogę autorom, a sobie zaoszczędzić pracy, warto zamieścić informację, jakie jest stanowisko redakcji w tym zakresie.\n\nMając na uwadze dobro zarówno potencjalnych autorów, jak i redakcji, istotne jest, aby w widocznym miejscu znalazła się informacja o możliwości dopasowania polityki wydawniczej do wymogów nałożonych przez grantodawców. Taki zapis może zostać zamieszczony w wytycznych dla autorów lub w zakładce dotyczącej praw autorskich.\nRekomendacje\nNa co redakcje powinny zwrócić uwagę, tworząc treści na stronach internetowych czasopism? Poniżej przedstawione zostaną zarówno kwestie merytoryczne dotyczące zasad wydawniczych, jak i bardziej użytkowe – związane z porządkowaniem informacji na stronie.\nPrzede wszystkim istotne są jasny przekaz i spójność informacji. Treści dostępne na stronie nie powinny budzić wątpliwości, zarówno wśród autorów, jak i czytelników. Jeśli czasopismo posiada określoną politykę wydawniczą względem artykułu na każdym etapie procesu wydawniczego ‒ od zgłoszenia, przez jego publikację, po dalsze wykorzystanie; to powinno ją wymienić na stronie. Po pierwsze należy zadbać o udostępnienie wzorów dokumentów, które autorzy muszą podpisać, mogą to być:\nwzór umowy, oświadczenia odnoszące się do zasad etycznych, danych osobowych lub wkładu autorów w powstanie artykułu. Następnie warto zamieścić informacje związane z umieszczeniem publikacji na stronie internetowej czasopisma, tu dobrze byłoby uwzględnić takie informacje jak: model publikacyjny, typ licencji Creative Commons, jeśli jest ona stosowana, oraz informacja o właścicielu praw autorskich. Ostatnia kwestia dotycząca dalszego rozpowszechniania tekstu powinna zawierać zarówno rekomendacje dla autorów (zasady samoarchiwizacji), jak i dla czytelników.\nOd strony użytkowej przede wszystkim powinno się zadbać o wspomnianą powyżej spójność treści na stronach internetowych. Ważne jest, żeby informacja, która powtarza się w różnych miejscach witryny, była identyczna, a podczas wprowadzania zmian i aktualizacji dobrą praktyką jest przejrzenie całej strony internetowej w poszukiwaniu ewentualnych różnic. Ułatwieniem w uporządkowaniu treści na stronie może być utworzenie przeznaczonej do prezentacji tego zagadnienia zakładki, zamiast powtarzania informacji na kilku podstronach. Warto pamiętać, że zasada spójności odnosi się także do różnych wersji językowych stron, wszystkie najważniejsze kwestie powinny mieć swój odpowiednik w innych językach dostępnych na stronie. Dodatkowo w przypadku zmiany platformy, przy jednoczesnym pozostawieniu w sieci poprzedniej strony internetowej, zalecane jest zamieszczenie odnośnika do nowej witryny wraz z widoczną informacją, że dana strona jest archiwalna (ryc. 16).\n\nRycina 16. Acta Agrobotanica; https://pbsociety.org.pl/journals/index.php/aa/index\n(dostęp: 3.08.2023).\nZakończenie\nStrona internetowa niesie za sobą więcej treści niż czasopismo w formie papierowej.\nOprócz spełniania roli prezentacji zawartości periodyku, jest także platformą przekazującą informacje dotyczące przesyłania, jak i późniejszego wykorzystania artykułów. Warto zatem, aby wszystkie trzy komponenty były obecne na stronie. Kiedy buduje się stronę czasopisma zasadne jest wykorzystanie wszystkich 16 reguł opisanych w dokumencie\nPrinciples of Transparency..., ponieważ stanowią one podstawę do stworzenia przejrzy-e stej i kompletnej witryny, a ponadto są tożsame z kryteriami wymaganymi podczas aplikowania do międzynarodowych baz (np. DOAJ, Scopus, Web of Science). Szczególnie ważne jest uwzględnienie tematyki prawa autorskiego, ponieważ ona sprawia największe trudności, a ze względu na zachodzące zmiany w komunikacji naukowej odgrywa coraz większą rolę. Na podstawie przeprowadzonych obserwacji zidentyfikowano kilka kluczowych elementów, które powinna zawierać strona internetowa czasopisma. Wśród nich znalazły się: wzór umowy, informacja o właścicielu praw autorskich, stosowanie i rodzaj licencji Creative Commons, wytyczne dotyczące samoarchiwizacji oraz zagadnienia udostępniania danych badawczych i spełniania wymogów Planu S. Dodatkowo zwrócono uwagę na sposób przedstawienia treści tak, aby dostarczały niezbędnych informacji i nie wprowadzały potencjalnych autorów i użytkowników w błąd. W zakresie przekazywania spójnych informacji redakcje powinny zwrócić uwagę na jednolite zapisy w obrębie całej strony i jej wariantów językowych, a w trakcie aktualizacji treści sprawdzić wszystkie podstrony, jak również bazy, w których dany tytuł jest indeksowany.\nPrzedstawiony w artykule zestaw dobrych praktyk może być wskazówką dla redakcji dążących do zmian, mających na celu zwiększenie widoczności i podniesienie renomy czasopisma.\nPreprint w języku polskim jest dostępny na platformie MOST Wiedzy na licencji CC BY 4.0 pod adresem: https://mostwiedzy.pl/pl/publication/jak-pomoc-sobie-i-autorom-zestaw-dobrych-praktyk-eliminujacych-nieswiadome-lamanie-prawa,202308290900337199651-0\n\nBibliografia\nBłasiok, J., Szymik, A. (2021). Baza polityk wydawniczych i repozytorium Open Access – uzupełniające się elementy. W: P. Korycińska (red.), Horyzonty informacji (s. 69–77). Uniwersytet Jagielloński,\nBiblioteka Jagiellońska. https://mostwiedzy.pl/pl/publication/baza-polityk-wydawniczych-i-repozytorium-open-access-uzupelniajace-sie-elementy,156776-1 Bojo-Canales, C., Melero, R. (2023).\nOpen access editorial policies of SciELO health sciences journals. Journal of Information Science,\n49(3), 685–698. https://doi.org/10.1177/01655515211015135\nChoi, H. W., Choi, Y. J., Kim, S. (2019). Compliance of “Principles of transparency and best practice in scholarly publishing” in academic society published journals. Science Editing, 6(2), 112–121.\nhttps://doi.org/10.6087/kcse.171 cOAlition S (b.d.). The Plan S Principles. https://www.coalition-s.org/plan_s_principles/ (dostęp:\n9.08.2023).\ncOAlition S (b.d.). Guidance on the Implementation of Plan S. https://www.coalition-s.org/guidance-on-the-implementation-of-plan-s/ (dostęp: 9.08.2023).\ncOAlition S (b.d.). Rights Retention Strategy. https://www.coalition-s.org/rights-retention-strategy/\n(dostęp: 9.08.2023).\ncOAlition S (b.d.). Journal Checker Tool. https://journalcheckertool.org/ (dostęp: 9.08.2023).\nCOPE, DOAJ, OASPA, WAME (2022). Principles of Transparency and Best Practice in Scholarly Publishing. https://doi.org/10.24318/cope.2019.1.12\nCreative Commons (b.d.). About CC Licenses https://creativecommons.org/share-your-work/cclicenses/ (dostęp: 17.11.2025).\nDanielewicz, M., Tarkowski, A. (2013). Prawo autorskie w czasach zmiany: o normach społecznych korzystania z treści. Centrum Cyfrowe. https://centrumcyfrowe.pl/wp-content/uploads/ sites/16/2022/11/prawo-autorskie-w-czasach-zmiany_raport.pdf\nFleming, J. I., Cook, B. G. (2022). Open Access in Special Education: A Review of Journal and Publisher\nPolicies. Remedial and Special Education, 43(1), 3–14. https://doi.org/10.1177/0741932521996461\nKhoo, SY-S. (2021). The Plan S Rights Retention Strategy is an administrative and legal burden, not a sustainable open access solution. Insights, 2021, 34, 22. https://doi.org/10.1629/uksg.556\nKlebel, T., Reichmann, S., Polka, J., McDowell, G., Penfold, N., Hindle, S., Ross-Hellauer, T. (2020).\nPeer review and preprint policies are unclear at most major journals. PLoS ONE, 15(10), e0239518.\nhttps://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0239518\nLaakso, M. (2014). Green open access policies of scholarly journal publishers: a study of what, when, and where self-archiving is allowed. Scientometrics, 99, 475–494. https://link.springer.com/ article/10.1007/s11192-013-1205-3\nLaakso, M., Polonioli, A. (2018). Open access in ethics research: an analysis of open access availability and author self-archiving behaviour in light of journal copyright restrictions. Scientometrics,\n116, 291–317. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11192-018-2751-5\nNarodowe Centrum Nauki (2020). Polityka Narodowego Centrum Nauki dotyczącą otwartego dostępu do publikacji. https://www.ncn.gov.pl/sites/default/files/pliki/zarzadzenia-dyrektora/zarzadzenieDyr-38_2020.pdf#page=2\nNarodowe Centrum Nauki (2021). Instrukcja: Polityka NCN dotycząca otwartego dostępu do publikacji.\nhttps://www.ncn.gov.pl/sites/default/files/pliki/2021_10_instrukcja_open_access_NCN.pdf\nPamuła-Cieślak, N. (2019). Otwarty model publikowania naukowego – przegląd dobrych praktyk.\ne-mentor, 4(81), 6–13. https://doi.org/10.15219/em81.1429\n\nStrony z czasopism, z których zaczerpnięto przykłady\nActa Agrobotanica. https://www.journalssystem.com/agb/ (dostęp: 3.08.2023).\nActa Agrobotanica. https://pbsociety.org.pl/journals/index.php/aa/index (dostęp: 3.08.2023).\nAgronomy Science. https://czasopisma.up.lublin.pl/index.php/as/ (dostęp: 3.08.2023).\nBulletin of the Polish Academy of Sciences Technical Sciences. https://journals.pan.pl/dlibra/journal/119067\n(dostęp: 3.08.2023).\nCollectanea Philologica. https://czasopisma.uni.lodz.pl/collectanea/ (dostęp: 3.08.2023).\nKonteksty Kultury. https://www.ejournals.eu/Konteksty_Kultury/ (dostęp: 3.08.2023).\nOeconomia Copernicana. https://oeconomia.pl/ (dostęp: 3.08.2023).\nPolish Annals of Medicine. http://www.paom.pl/ (dostęp: 3.08.2023).\nPolish Maritime Research. https://journal.mostwiedzy.pl/pmr/ (dostęp: 3.08.2023).\nProblems of Forensic Sciences. https://www.ejournals.eu/PFS/ (dostęp: 3.08.2023).\nStudia Ecologiae et Bioethicae. https://czasopisma.uksw.edu.pl/index.php/seb/ (dostęp: 3.08.2023).\n\nMarta Świetlik\nORCID: 0000-0003-3218-4599\nMagdalena Wnuk\nORCID: 0000-0003-4129-6664\nInstytut Badań Literackich Polskiej Akademii Nauk\nROR: https://ror.org/02q0p6x28\nMonografie w otwartym dostępie: jakich modeli i narzędzi publikowania potrzebujemy?\nAbstrakt: Artykuł podejmuje temat współczesnych wyzwań związanych z publikowaniem monografii naukowych w otwartym dostępie, ze szczególnym uwzględnieniem specyfiki humanistyki. Autorki przedstawiają wyniki badania przeprowadzonego w ramach polskiego oddziału konsorcjum OPERAS, które obejmowało analizę ankiet, wywiadów oraz warsztatów metodą design thinking z przedstawicielami wydawnictw naukowych.\nW artykule omówiono dominujące modele finansowania otwartych monografii, główne przeszkody we wdrażaniu otwartego dostępu oraz propozycje rozwiązań systemowych, w tym standaryzację metadanych i budowę wspólnych platform wsparcia. Wyniki pokazują rosnącą świadomość i zainteresowanie modelem OA wśród wydawców, mimo wciąż istniejących barier technologicznych, finansowych i kulturowych.\nSłowa kluczowe: otwarty dostęp, monografie naukowe, modele biznesowe OA, design thinking, publikowanie cyfrowe\nWstęp\nCelem naszego artykułu jest przybliżenie czytelnikowi tematyki publikowania naukowego w humanistyce ze szczególnym uwzględnieniem zmian, jakie na rynku wydawniczym sprowokował rozwój otwartego dostępu (Błaszczyńska i Stone, 2023; Eve, 2014;\nMorka i Gatti, 2021; Speicher i in., 2018; Stone i in., 2021). W tekście skupimy się na wyzwaniach, jakie wiążą się z transformacją tradycyjnego publikowania papierowego do modelu cyfrowego, przede wszystkim w wersji otwartej. W ostatnich latach publikowanie w otwartym dostępie stało się częstszą praktyką również w międzynarodowym\n\nsystemie komunikacji naukowej, zdominowanym przez korporacje wydawnicze.\nZa sprawą m.in. Komisji Europejskiej, która wymusza na grantobiorcach publikowanie wyników badań w otwartym dostępie, coraz większa część rezultatów badań jest dostępna w sieci bez żadnych opłat (patrz: strona Komisji Europejskiej o otwartej nauce: https://research-and-innovation.ec.europa.eu/strategy/strategy-2020-2024/ our-digital-future/open-science_en). O ile jednak w przypadku czasopism mamy do czynienia z dynamicznym rozwojem infrastruktury badawczej sprzyjającej otwartości w nauce, o tyle w przypadku wydawnictw książkowych nadal dominuje tradycyjny model dostosowany do obiegu papierowego. Monografie naukowe, rozumiane jako szczególny rodzaj autorskiej recenzowanej pracy, analizującej wybrane zagadnienie, są przekazywane przede wszystkim do druku, a ich elektroniczne wersje stanowią przeważnie jedynie uzupełnienie dla sprzedaży papierowych egzemplarzy. Oczywiście, choć to nadal model dominujący, nie jest jedyny. W świecie wydawnictw naukowych obecne są też serie wydawnicze, publikowane w całości i wyłącznie w otwartym dostępie (przykładowo IMISCOE Research Series: https://www.springer.com/series/13502 wydawnictwa Springer). Przy analizie tematu nie należy zapominać o różnicach wynikających z odmiennych tradycji poszczególnych dziedzin i dyscyplin. Dyscypliny humanistyczne znacząco różnią się pod względem tradycji publikacyjnych od nauk ścisłych czy przyrodniczych, ale ta specyfika nie powoduje, że nie można na ich przykładzie pokazać uniwersalnych problemów, z jakimi boryka się rynek wydawniczy w dobie zdominowanej przez technologie informacyjne. Humanistyka pozostaje dziedziną, w której publikowanie monografii oraz w mniejszym stopniu innych typów książek (np. edycji źródeł) odgrywa bardzo ważną rolę w karierze naukowej badaczy, dlatego też jest to jeden z tych obszarów, w których analiza modeli wydawniczych okazuje się szczególnie potrzebna. Biorąc pod uwagę wszystkie wymienione wyżej kwestie, na przykładzie badania przeprowadzonego wśród polskich wydawnictw naukowych, przedstawimy największe wyzwania, przed którymi stoi współczesna komunikacja naukowa, oparta dotychczas na obiegu papierowym. Nie zajmiemy się otwartym dostępem do książek w ogóle, ale skupimy się na monografiach humanistycznych.\nPrzeprowadzone badanie stanowiło część projektu realizowanego w latach 2022-\n2024 przez krajowy oddział konsorcjum OPERAS – europejskiej infrastruktury dla otwartej komunikacji naukowej w humanistyce i naukach społecznych. Działania te miały służyć rozwojowi współpracy na rzecz otwartego dostępu do monografii humanistycznych, a także wzmocnieniu kompetencji polskiego środowiska akademickiego w zakresie cyfrowej komunikacji naukowej. OPERAS to względnie nowa inicjatywa – jako konsorcjum funkcjonuje od 2017 r. Od tego czasu zespół partnerów w konsorcjum zrealizował kilkanaście projektów europejskich i krajowych, mających na celu rozwój\n\nsamej organizacji oraz usług i narzędzi technologicznych dla różnych grup odbiorców:\nbadaczy, bibliotek, wydawnictw czy dostawców technologii. OPERAS został stworzony z myślą o dziedzinach naukowych, których specyfika zakłada wielojęzyczność i lokalność projektów badawczych. Twórcy inicjatywy rozumieją tę specyfikę i dzięki temu tworzone przez nich rozwiązania i narzędzia mają szansę przyczynić się do skutecznej transformacji cyfrowej w tych dziedzinach. Polskim członkiem OPERAS jest Instytut\nBadań Literackich PAN, a koordynatorem działań w ramach struktury – Centrum\nHumanistyki Cyfrowej przy IBL PAN. OPERAS-PL nie jest jeszcze formalnie zawiązaną organizacją, ale znajduje się na drodze ku utworzeniu krajowego konsorcjum.\nBadanie składało się z dwóch etapów: 1) rozpoznania sytuacji wydawnictw za pośrednictwem ankiety oraz wywiadów, 2) przeprowadzenia warsztatu metodą design thinking. Punktem wyjścia było dla nas wstępne rozpoznanie polskiego rynku wydawnictw naukowych, które przeprowadziliśmy latem 2022 r. wraz z zespołem działającym w projekcie Dariah.lab (https://operas.pl/2022/04/22/pytamy-redakcje-czasopism-i-wydawnictw-naukowych-o-technologie/). Dotarliśmy do informacji na temat praktyk i technologii stosowanych w 34 wydawnictwach. Otrzymaliśmy odpowiedzi od 25 wydawnictw naukowych, działających w obszarze humanistyki, które w 2021 r.\nwydały przynajmniej jedną monografię w otwartym dostępie. Z tej grupy wyłoniliśmy\n4 uczestników wywiadów, które przeprowadziliśmy od listopada do stycznia 2023 r. Dla rozszerzenia kontekstu przeprowadziliśmy również dwie rozmowy z grupą wydawniczą z Wielkiej Brytanii oraz organizacją pozarządową z Polski. W marcu 2023 r., aby pogłębić ustalenia z ankiety i wywiadów, a także wyłonić możliwe rozwiązania, zaprosiliśmy wybrane wydawnictwa naukowe na spotkanie warsztatowe z wykorzystaniem metody design thinking.\nArtykuł składa z dwóch części: 1) w pierwszej przedstawiamy polski rynek humanistycznych wydawnictw naukowych i stan otwartego dostępu do książek naukowych,\n2) w drugiej – metodologię design thinking workshop, przebieg warsztatów i jego rezultaty. Najważniejsze wnioski zostały zawarte w podsumowaniu.\nWydawnictwa humanistyczne a otwarty dostęp\nHumanistyka jest dziedziną, w której kluczową rolę w komunikacji naukowej odgrywają długie opracowania, zawierające wiele odniesień i odwołań do poprzedników.\nSiła tekstu tkwi w stosowanych sposobach interpretacji i argumentacji, a rewolucje czy odkrycia, choć niekiedy się zdarzają, mają zupełnie inny charakter niż w przypadku badań nauk ścisłych, przyrodniczych czy nawet społecznych. Ta szczególna wieloaspektowość twórczości badaczek i badaczy humanistycznych sprawia, że formą,\n\nktóra mimo zmian w sposobach komunikowania naukowego niezmiennie cieszy się ich uznaniem w tej dziedzinie, jest monografia (Avanço i in. 2021; Eve, 2014, s. 115).\nTa natomiast wymaga od autorów, redaktorów i czytelników więcej cierpliwości i czasu, zarówno na etapie przygotowania, jak i przyswojenia dzieła przez środowisko naukowe.\nDla monografii badacze-autorzy rezerwują najwięcej swoich dokonań badawczych, w artykułach dzieląc się jedynie częściowymi ustaleniami. Dlatego też w przypadku monografii okres recepcji liczy się w latach, nie w miesiącach, a jej wpływ na dziedzinę można ocenić po co najmniej 5 latach od jej wydania. Kolejnym aspektem monografii, istotnym z punktu widzenia tej analizy, jest ugruntowana tradycja wydawania książek humanistycznych w druku. Choć ta tradycyjna formuła komunikacji w dobie społeczeństwa informatycznego powoli ulega zmianie, to nadal jednak drukowana monografia postrzegana jest jako ukoronowanie procesu badawczego (Avanço i in., 2021).\nBiorąc to pod uwagę, nie zaskakuje niedostateczny nacisk położony na jej wydawanie w formatach elektronicznych i w otwartym dostępie, a także indeksowanie w rozmaitych, wpływowych bazach danych.\nTa niekorzystna dla dziedziny sytuacja od bez mała dziesięciu lat jest przedmiotem rozważań przedstawicieli środowiska, o czym świadczą nowe inicjatywy, takie jak\nOpen Access Books Network (https://hcommons.org/groups/open-access-books-network/), stowarzyszenia, takie jak OASPA (Open Access Scholarly Publishers Association: https://oaspa.org/), czy projekty finansowane w ramach Horyzontu Europa, których przykładem jest PALOMERA (https://operas-eu.org/projects/palomera/). Wydaje się jednak, że przed zwolennikami „otwartych monografii” jeszcze długa droga do stworzenia skutecznych modeli wydawania książek, które zastąpiłyby tradycyjny model wydawnictw drukowanych (Adema i Stone, 2017; Eve, 2014; Morka i Gatti, 2021).\nSytuacja w Polsce nie odbiega znacząco od tej w innych krajach UE: o ile czasopisma są coraz szerzej dostępne w otwartym dostępie, o tyle wydawnictwa książkowe nadal są przeznaczone głównie do druku i dystrybucji w księgarniach i bibliotekach. Tymczasem otwarta nauka, a w szczególności publikowanie w otwartym dostępie, stanowi jeden ze sposobów umiędzynarodowienia dorobku polskich nauk humanistycznych i społecznych, który nazbyt często dociera wyłącznie do polskojęzycznego odbiorcy, najczęściej spośród grona polskich specjalistów w danej dziedzinie (Kulczycki, 2017).\nW 2015 r. w MNiSW powstał dokument dotyczący kierunków rozwoju otwartego dostępu do publikacji (Kierunki rozwoju otwartego dostępu do publikacji i wyników badań naukowych w Polsce, 2015). Dokument ten miał bardzo „miękki” charakter, co oznacza, że jego oddziaływanie było dość ograniczone i nie obligowało instytucji do wprowadzenia trwałych zmian w obszarze polityk otwartości. Przyjęcie dokumentu wyznaczyło jednak pewien kierunek w tej sprawie i od tego czasu można uznać, że\n\nprzynajmniej w sferze deklaracji Polska sprzyja rozwojowi otwartego dostępu do zasobów naukowych. Podejście to jednak jest inne w przypadku artykułów, dość powszechnie już wydawanych w OA, niż w przypadku książek, a monografii w szczególności.\nWprawdzie w 2020 r. Narodowe Centrum Nauki przyjęło politykę otwartego dostępu do publikacji naukowych, opartą na założeniach Planu S (czyli dążeniu do pełnego i natychmiastowego dostępu do publikacji, które zawierają wyniki badań będących efektem realizacji projektów badawczych finansowanych lub współfinansowanych ze środków publicznych) („Plan S” and „cOAlition S” – Accelerating the transition to full and immediate Open Access to scientific publications). O ile jednak sygnatariusze Planu\nS dość szczegółowo uregulowali swój stosunek do czasopism, o tyle monografie praktycznie pominęli. W efekcie grantobiorcy NCN są zobligowani do jak najszybszego udostępnienia publikacji powstałych w ramach grantów NCN w sposób otwarty i bez żadnych opłat, ale zalecenie to jest wiążące tylko dla artykułów w czasopismach. Autorzy mają na publikację w OA zagwarantowane finansowe wsparcie NCN (NCN, 2021).\nPolityka ta w dłuższej perspektywie zapewne przyczyni się do zwiększenia dostępności najnowszych badań w dziedzinach humanistycznych czy społecznych, ale nie jest rozwiązaniem wystarczającym. Nie tylko na udostępnienie, ale także na zdigitalizowanie czeka jeszcze bardzo wiele prac.\nDla niektórych instytucji wydanie książki w wersji otwartej jest korzystne z punktu widzenia systemu ewaluacji nauki. Lepsza widoczność książki zapewnia jej większą cytowalność, dlatego wydawnictwa, zwłaszcza te uniwersyteckie, coraz bardziej dbają o poprawne indeksowanie metadanych swoich publikacji (choć nastręcza to też niemało problemów, o czym powiemy w kolejnej części artykułu). Te zmiany widać również w wynikach ankiety, którą przeprowadziliśmy we współpracy z Dariah.lab. W naszym badaniu wzięły udział 34 wydawnictwa, z których 25 opublikowało w 2021 r. co najmniej jedną książkę w OA (natomiast 22 specjalizowały się w naukach humanistycznych).\nUczelnie zdecydowanie przodują pod względem liczby opublikowanych książek: Uniwersytet Warszawski wydał w 2021 r. 266 książek, a Uniwersytet Łódzki – 252. Trzeci w „rankingu” był Uniwersytet Jagielloński, który w 2021 r. wydał 200 książek. Jeśli chodzi o ankietowane wydawnictwa komercyjne, dwa, które opublikowały najwięcej, wydały odpowiednio 140 i 105 książek. Jeżeli chodzi o książki w otwartym dostępie, były to zarówno nowe monografie opublikowane po okresie embarga, jak i o świeżo zdigitalizowane książki, które były wcześniej rozpowszechniane w druku. Uniwersytet\nŁódzki, dzięki uzyskanemu specjalnemu dofinansowaniu, w 2021 r. wydał 400 książek w OA. Przeciętna liczba książek w otwartym dostępie była znacznie mniejsza – na\nUniwersytecie Warszawskim wyniosła 49, podczas gdy w mniejszych wydawnictwach, publicznych i komercyjnych, najczęściej mieściła się w przedziale od 2 do 10.\n\nWiększa niż w wydawnictwach komercyjnych liczba książek publikowanych w otwartym dostępie na uczelniach wynika nie tylko z rozmiarów ich działalności, ale także z obowiązku deponowania ich w instytucjonalnym repozytorium po okresie embarga. W niektórych wydawnictwach uniwersyteckich książki publikowane są w ramach 12-miesięcznego embarga na otwarty dostęp w związku z otwartym mandatem uczelni (co jest zgodne z zaleceniem wspomnianego dokumentu ministerialnego z 2015 r.) (Kierunki rozwoju otwartego dostępu do publikacji i wyników badań naukowych w Polsce, 2015), ale jak zauważył jeden z uczestników, w niektórych placówkach panuje tendencja do skracania tego okresu do 6 miesięcy. W takich przypadkach otwarty dostęp jest naturalnym etapem życia monografii, ale nie stanowi rdzenia strategii wydawcy. Jest to egzekwowane na mocy odgórnych przepisów i niekoniecznie prowadzi do poszukiwania modelu zrównoważonego rozwoju w zakresie publikacji w otwartym dostępie. Jednak niektóre wydawnictwa uniwersyteckie zaczynają publikować w otwartym dostępie bez embarga, ponieważ zależy im na jak najszybszym indeksowaniu w bazach oraz cytowaniach. Jedno z wydawnictw uniwersyteckich mówi wprost: „Myślę, że około 50% jeszcze ma takie embargo półroczne na sprzedaż wersji papierowej bądź wersji elektronicznej. Natomiast bardzo dużo książek ostatnio rzeczywiście już jest przekazywana bezpośrednio do otwartego dostępu”.\nCo ciekawe, za skracaniem embarga stoją także twarde analizy wydawnictw, szczególnie tych instytucjonalnych, z których wynika, że sprzedaż egzemplarzy nie jest na tyle wysoka, aby rekompensowała niską widoczność i poczytność publikacji, które tradycyjnymi kanałami nie są w stanie dotrzeć do szerokiej publiczności. Nawet eksperymentowanie z elektronicznymi formatami tylko dla niektórych podmiotów okazało się opłacalne.\nNa drodze do publikowania w OA stoi niewydolność wydawniczych modeli biznesowych, które nie są jeszcze w stanie sprostać rosnącej potrzebie publikowania w otwartym dostępie (Eve, 2014; Morka i Gatti, 2021; Speicher i in., 2018). Eve w swojej pracy z 2014 r.\nna temat otwartego dostępu w humanistyce wyróżnił 4 wiodące modele finansowania otwartych monografii: 1) na podstawie books processing charges, czyli BPC (analogiczne do article processing charges dla artykułów w czasopismach), 2) ze środków instytucji, 3) model freemium oraz 4) wspólne finansowanie. Pierwszy z nich w dużej mierze polega na wyprodukowaniu monografii ze środków grantowych autorów bądź instytucji. Każde wydawnictwo dyktuje wysokość opłaty, a kwota obejmuje z reguły koszty procesu redakcyjnego, produkcyjnego oraz wolnej licencji. Finansowanie ze środków instytucji opiera się na interesie własnym uczelni czy instytutów badawczych, aby publikować w OA i jest typowe dla wydawnictw niekomercyjnych. Model freemium zakłada, że monografia może się ukazać w otwartym dostępie tylko w wybranych formatach, pozostałe zaś są płatne.\n\nW ten sposób finansowany jest koszt wyprodukowania książki specjalnie dla otwartego dostępu (model ten jest też często łączony z innymi modelami, np. finansowaniem instytucjonalnym). Współfinansowanie to eksperymentalny model, który polega na tym, że biblioteki lub inni interesariusze „składają się” na wyprodukowanie publikacji. W polskich wydawnictwach najbardziej rozpowszechnione są modele BPC oraz instytucjonalny. Spośród ankietowanych finansowanie książek w otwartym dostępie ze środków grantowych autorów zadeklarowało 17 z 25 instytucji, które w 2021 r. wydały książkę w OA. W przypadku tego modelu wydawcy wprost mówią o tym, że muszą konkurować z zagranicznymi instytucjami i wydawnictwami, które zarówno na ministerialnej liście, jak i w świetle wskaźników wpływu mają więcej „punktów” i pozwalają instytucjom badawczym osiągać wyższe notowania w ewaluacji i rankingach. Jak mówi jedna z naszych rozmówczyń, przedstawicielka prywatnego wydawnictwa:\nTa forma punktacji wydawców i czasopism trochę tutaj przeszkadza, ponieważ widać odpływ autorów, mimo że mamy 80 punktów, jak większość wydawców polskich, ale jednak na uczelniach pojawiają się pieniądze na publikowanie za\n200 punktów, choć tam muszą jeszcze drożej płacić za open access, to pieniądze idą tam, a nie na open access w Polsce.\nIch zdaniem polityka polskiego rządu zachęca badaczy i uczelnie do publikowania za granicą. Choć na pewno „opłaca się” to badaczom w rozwoju ich kariery naukowej, jest też bardzo kosztowne i wymaga niemałych nakładów z pieniędzy publicznych.\nOtwarty dostęp jest więc coraz powszechniej praktykowany za sprawą indywidualnych grantów badawczych, ale rzadziej jest częścią strategii wydawniczej. Z naszej analizy rynku oraz trendów obserwowanych w Europie wynika, że zwrot ku częstszemu publikowaniu książek w otwartym dostępie nie jest przypadkowy, a wynika z interesów instytucji, które wywierają nacisk na wydawnictwa, aby zmieniały dotychczasowy model. To, co jest najbardziej problematyczne, to jego skuteczne zaprojektowanie i wdrożenie w taki sposób, aby odpowiadał na potrzeby zarówno danej instytucji, jak i całej społeczności badaczy w ramach danego kraju czy dyscypliny. Rozpoznaniem indywidualnych potrzeb polskiego środowiska humanistycznego w tym zakresie zajmowaliśmy się w drugiej części naszego badania, czyli na warsztatach design thinking.\n\nDesign thinking workshop: opis metodologii i przebieg warsztatów oraz jego rezultaty\nDesign thinking to interdyscyplinarna metoda rozwiązywania problemów, która skupia się na potrzebach użytkowników i kładzie nacisk na kreatywność oraz empatię. Metodologia ta polega na iteracyjnym (powtarzanym w cyklach) procesie, który obejmuje pięć głównych etapów: zrozumienie problemu, określenie potrzeb użytkowników, generowanie pomysłów, prototypowanie i testowanie (Meinel i in., 2011). W pierwszej fazie projektanci starają się zgłębić kontekst i potrzeby użytkowników, korzystając z technik badawczych. Następnie generują szeroki wachlarz koncepcji i pomysłów na rozwiązanie problemu, by potem przejść do prototypowania, czyli tworzenia wizualizacji pomysłów. Na koniec testują te prototypy na użytkownikach, aby uzyskać informację zwrotną i dostosować rozwiązanie. Design thinking stawia na współpracę i otwartość na eksperymenty, co pozwala na tworzenie innowacyjnych i skutecznych rozwiązań.\nProces w design thinking można podzielić na pięć głównych etapów, choć niektóre iteracje mogą zawierać dodatkowe kroki lub elastycznie podchodzić do kolejności poszczególnych etapów (Meinel i in., 2011). Najczęściej stosowane modele design thinking skupiają się na czterech głównych fazach, ale istnieją również rozszerzone wersje zawierające piątą fazę.\nFazy design thinking:\n1. Odkrywanie (Empathize): W tej fazie projektanci starają się zrozumieć potrzeby i perspektywy użytkowników poprzez empatyczne obserwacje i wywiady. Celem jest zidentyfikowanie problemów i wyzwań.\n2. Definiowanie (Define): Na tym etapie określa się konkretne problemy i potrzeby, które należy rozwiązać. Tworzy się tzw. punkty widzenia jako punkt wyjścia dla rozważań projektowych.\n3. Rozwijanie (Ideate): W fazie tej generowane są pomysły na rozwiązania problemów. Projektanci korzystają z różnych technik generowania koncepcji, takich jak burza mózgów.\n4. Prototypowanie (Prototype): To etap tworzenia prototypów i eksperymentowania z pomysłami w celu znalezienia najlepszego rozwiązania. Prototypy pomagają w zrozumieniu, jak rozwiązanie może działać w praktyce.\n5. Testowanie (Test): Dodatkowa, piąta faza polega na testowaniu prototypów w środowisku użytkowników w celu uzyskania realnej informacji zwrotnej. Wybór między czterema a pięcioma fazami zależy od konkretnych potrzeb projektu i podejścia do całego procesu.\n\nW metodologii design thinking istotne miejsce zajmuje narzędzie nazywane modelem podwójnego diamentu (Double Diamond). Jest on powszechnie stosowany w dziedzinie projektowania i rozwiązywania problemów, zwłaszcza w kontekście projektów, które wymagają innowacji, kreatywności i zrozumienia potrzeb użytkowników. W swojej obecnej formie jest najbardziej związany z pracą Design Council, brytyjskiej organizacji promującej innowacje w projektowaniu (Eleven lessons: managing design in eleven global companies, 2007). „Podwójny diament” to graficzne narzędzie i model procesu stosowany w design thinking, który podzielony jest na dwa romboidalne kształty, reprezentujące dwie kluczowe pary faz w procesie kreatywnym (ryc. 1).\nRycina 1. Model Double Diamond, opracowany przez Design Council i udostępniony na licencji CC BY 4.0\nŹródło: https://www.designcouncil.org.uk/our-resources/the-double-diamond/.\nPierwsza część diamentu reprezentuje fazy odkrywania (discover) i rozwijania\n(develop), czyli „rozmyślania szeroko” (dywergencja). To etap badania, zrozumienia i identyfikowania problemu lub wyzwania. W tym stadium projektanci zbierają informacje, analizują dane, przeprowadzają badania i starają się zrozumieć kontekst problemu. W drugiej części (definiowania – define, dostosowania – deliver) diament reprezentuje fazę „skupienia” (konwergencja). To etap generowania rozwiązań, prototypowania i testowania pomysłów. W tej fazie projektanci starają się dostosować i skonkretyzować swoje koncepcje, aby stworzyć praktyczne i skuteczne rozwiązania.\nMyślenie dywergencyjne i konwergencyjne to pojęcia wprowadzone przez amerykańskiego psychologa J. P. Guilforda, które odnoszą się do różnych aspektów procesu kreatywnego myślenia i rozwiązywania problemów (Guilford, 1967). W procesie design thinking oba te rodzaje myślenia są istotne i wzajemnie się uzupełniają. Najpierw\n\nmyślenie dywergencyjne pomaga zbierać wiele inspirujących pomysłów, a następnie myślenie konwergencyjne pozwala wybrać te najbardziej obiecujące i pracować nad nimi. Jest to iteracyjny proces, który może prowadzić do bardziej efektywnych i innowacyjnych rozwiązań projektowych.\nPrzebieg warsztatów design thinking\nDesign thinking promuje współpracę i aktywną partycypację wszystkich członków zespołu, aby osiągnąć innowacyjne i efektywne rozwiązania, które lepiej odpowiadają na potrzeby użytkowników. W ramach realizowanego przez nas projektu związanego z rozwojem polskiego oddziału europejskiej sieci współpracy OPERAS postanowiliśmy zrealizować spotkanie warsztatowe metodą design thinking dla redaktorów(-rek), kierowników(-\n-czek) i pracowników(-czek) wydawnictw, zainteresowanych innowacyjnymi praktykami wydawniczymi. Warsztaty w metodologii design thinking stanowią skuteczne narzędzie w rozwiązywaniu problemu utrzymania publikowania książek w otwartym dostępie z kilku istotnych powodów. Przede wszystkim, warsztat projektowy to praktyka, a nie przekazywanie wiedzy teoretycznej, co oznacza, że skupiamy się na praktycznych rozwiązaniach, które można wdrożyć. Trenerzy pełnią rolę organizatorów, nadając strukturę spotkaniu i umożliwiając nam skupienie się na zespołowym rozwiązywaniu wspólnych problemów. Działając razem jako koalicja wydawców, można zyskać większą siłę oddziaływania, co jest kluczowe zwłaszcza w starciu z kompleksowymi problemami systemowymi.\nSpotkanie przedstawicieli różnych środowisk, od mniejszych wydawnictw po większe, dostawców usług i wdrożeniowców, daje unikalną możliwość spojrzenia na problem z różnych perspektyw. Co więcej, chcieliśmy dać wydawnictwom możliwość realnego wpływu na finalnie wypracowany model biznesowy lub narzędzie wspierające publikowanie książek naukowych w otwartym dostępie. Uczestnicy warsztatu mieli okazję przedstawić swoje własne wyzwania i wskazać, jakie rozwiązania byłyby dla nich korzystne. Inwestycja czasu w projektowanie narzędzia dostosowanego do ich potrzeb długofalowo jest o wiele bardziej opłacalna niż próby dostosowania niedopasowanych rozwiązań.\nPierwsza faza procesu design thinking (odkrywanie) odbyła się w dużej mierze przed realizacją samych warsztatów, w formie rozległego badania potrzeb za pomocą ankiet i wywiadów, które badacze i badaczki CHC przeprowadzili latem 2022 r. W związku z tym punktem wyjścia do dalszych dyskusji i doprecyzowania problemów (definiowanie) stały się wyniki tych badań, przedstawione przede wszystkim w formie modelowego procesu publikowania monografii w otwartym dostępie.\nJak wskazuje model Double Diamond, zarówno rozumienie problemu, jak i generowanie rozwiązań są kluczowymi elementami procesu projektowego. Dlatego podczas\n\nwarsztatów z udziałem przedstawicieli i przedstawicielek wydawnictw naukowych szczegółowo omawialiśmy w mniejszych grupach największe wyzwania, które wpływają na proces publikacji w otwartym dostępie. Zebrane odpowiedzi łączą różne obszary tematyczne, z których każdy zasługuje na odrębny namysł i zaadresowanie rozwiązań.\nPo pierwsze, pomiędzy preferencjami autorów a wydawnictwami istnieje dylemat dotyczący formatu publikacji – papierowego czy elektronicznego. Papierowe wersje książek są wciąż uważane za prestiżowe, co wpływa na decyzje autorów. Są także dla nich domyślną formą pracy:\n■ Zdarzało się, że autor się wycofał, bo poproszono go o przeformułowanie tekstu.\n■ Jak nie możemy się z autorem dogadać, to dostajemy wszystkie poprawki mailem z poprawkami.\nPo drugie, istnieje problem niechęci autorów do otwartego dostępu oraz braku odpowiednich szkoleń w tym zakresie:\n■ Autorzy, szczególnie starszej daty, nie ogarniają systemów informatycznych, nie rozumieją idei otwartego dostępu.\n■ Jest mała świadomość tego, czym są metadane lub słowa kluczowe, jak opisywać pliki i do czego to służy.\nBrakuje także ujednoliconych standardów i rozwiązań formalno-prawnych, co komplikuje proces publikacji:\n■ Kwestie prawnoautorskie są blokerem przejścia na OA dla archiwalnych numerów.\n■ Mnogość różnych baz z różnymi formatami, powoduje, że mnóstwo roboczogodzin zajmuje wpisywanie do różnych systemów.\nDodatkowo finansowanie publikacji OA jest kosztowne, a wprowadzenie tego modelu wiąże się z utratą przychodów ze sprzedaży:\n■ Dla wielu autorów OA jest tańszy, a to nie do końca tak jest, bo kwestie techniczne są drogie.\n■ Będąc komercyjnym wydawnictwem, miałabym problem z bilansowaniem na zero.\nWreszcie, istnieją również problemy techniczne związane z utrzymaniem systemów i brakiem wykwalifikowanych pracowników:\n■ Na razie pracujemy ze starymi narzędziami – mamy stare strony, każda działa trochę inaczej, a powoduje to tyle, że ciężko jest wrzucać nowe publikacje i informacje tam.\n■ Jest zatrudniony jeden informatyk na wszystkie systemy: WP, OJS, wszystko – jak utrzymywać te systemy.\nTe kwestie, poruszone przez uczestników warsztatów, rzucają światło na wyzwania i trudności związane z publikowaniem książek naukowych w otwartym dostępie i stanowią ważne punkty wyjścia do dalszych działań i rozważań nad usprawnieniem procesu publikacji w tej dz iedzinie.\n\nJakie były rezultaty badania?\nNajważniejszym rezultatem pierwszego dnia warsztatów i wyjścia od fazy odkrywania\n(discover) z modelu Double Diamond, było dokładne określenie i precyzyjne zdefiniowanie kluczowych obszarów problemowych. Zaangażowanie przedstawicieli i przedstawicielek wydawnictw mniejszych i większych, redaktorów i redaktorek oraz dostawców usług umożliwiło zrozumienie problemów i wyzwań z różnych perspektyw. Podczas warsztatu uczestnicy i uczestniczki sformułowali swoje najważniejsze wyzwania, rozpoczynając zdania od frazy „Jak moglibyśmy...”. Te wyzwania obejmują następujące aspekty:\n■ Wprowadzenie jednego standardu opisu metadanych.\n■ Zautomatyzowanie procesu wprowadzania metadanych i ich przekazywania do innych serwisów.\n■ Uzgodnienie wspólnego formatu metadanych oraz plików pełnych tekstów, odpowiedniego do maszynowego przetwarzania.\n■ Realne zwiększenie widoczności monografii oraz poszerzenie grona odbiorców.\n■ Przekonanie tych, którzy nie są przekonani, do publikowania w otwartym dostępie\n(OA).\nPodczas drugiego dnia warsztatów – w fazie dostarczania rozwiazań(deliver) – uczestnicy pracowali także nad generowaniem pomysłów i koncepcji rozwiązań. Doprowadziło to do stworzenia ośmiu „kart projektowych” zawierających opisy konkretnych sposobów rozwiązania zdefiniowanych uprzednio problemów.\nZaproponowane rozwiązania można podzielić na pięć kategorii. Pierwsza z nich zakłada stworzenie przestrzeni lub platformy, która umożliwi trwałą współpracę między wydawnictwami. Głównymi elementami tej platformy miałyby być kolejno: zbadanie potrzeb związanych z metadanymi i ujednolicenie standardu opisu publikacji dla wszystkich uczestników. Następna kategoria obejmuje przygotowanie serwisu internetowego, który pełniłby rolę przewodnika lub vademecum, gromadzącego przydatne wskazówki, rozwiązania prawno-formalne, dobre praktyki i wytyczne związane z otwartym dostępem oraz standardem opisu metadanych. Dodatkowo, istotnym elementem proponowanych działań są szeroko zakrojone akcje promocyjne, takie jak „Otwarty\nTydzień z Książką Naukową”, które mają na celu rozpowszechnienie wiedzy o otwartych książkach naukowych także poza środowiskiem akademickim. Kolejnym ważnym punktem jest nawiązanie porozumienia z podmiotami zaangażowanymi w promowanie i wdrażanie otwartego dostępu nie tylko w Polsce, ale i w krajach słowiańskich i regionach, gdzie używane są niszowe języki. Celem tego porozumienia byłoby opracowanie i wdrożenie modelu zapisu metadanych w językach słowiańskich, które są często pomijane w najbardziej prestiżowych bazach. Wreszcie, ostatnia kategoria obejmuje rozwiązania techniczne, które mają na celu ułatwienie eksportu metadanych do różnych\n\nformatów. Ten cel można osiągnąć poprzez modyfikacje istniejącej już platformy open source do zarządzania procesem wydawniczym, jaką jest Open Monograph Press.\nUczestnicy warsztatów opisywali swoje pomysły na kartach projektowych, adresując konkretne, zdefiniowane wcześniej potrzeby i wskazując na najważniejsze cechy proponowanego rozwiązania, przykładowo w taki sposób:\nW środowisku wydawniczym istnieje potrzeba stworzenia standardów i wskazówek (przewodnika) dotyczących wytwarzania metadanych. Przewodnik taki zawierałby informacje dotyczące: zestawu narzędzi do pracy z metadanymi, podziału ról i odpowiedzialności, wytycznych z konkretnych baz, zestaw kontaktów do instytucji zajmujących się jakością metadanych. Zbierałby już istniejące wytyczne (dobre praktyki sugerowane np. przez FAIR, 5-star Open Data) i odniósłby je do lokalnego rynku.\nWarsztaty stworzyły także unikalną okazję do integracji różnych podmiotów z branży wydawniczej. Wspólna praca nad rozwiązywaniem problemów i generowaniem pomysłów buduje więzi i zrozumienie między uczestnikami i uczestniczkami.\nWydawcy mogli zrozumieć, że ich wyzwania są często podobne, niezależnie od wielkości firmy, co wzbudza potrzebę wspólnego działania. To może prowadzić do powstania koalicji wydawców, którzy będą działać razem na rzecz rozwiązywania problemów, takich jak utrzymywanie publikacji naukowych w otwartym dostępie. Organizacja warsztatów design thinking z przedstawicielami wydawnictw naukowych przyniosła liczne korzyści, mogące stanowić solidny fundament do rozwoju innowacyjnych rozwiązań, które wpłyną na przyszłość branży publikacji naukowych.\nStosując warsztaty design thinking do rozwiązania problemu, jakim jest utrzymywanie publikacji naukowych w wolnym dostępie, można stworzyć bardziej dostępne, skuteczne i innowacyjne rozwiązania, uwzględniając różne perspektywy społeczności naukowej oraz zachowując otwartość na zmiany i doskonalenie projektu w trakcie jego rea lizacji.\nPodsumowanie\nOtwarty dostęp do książek, choć przez lata zaniedbywany, staje się przedmiotem dyskusji, których zwieńczeniem będą, mamy nadzieję, konkretne działania, wspierające ten model wydawniczy. W szczególności w humanistyce monografie odgrywają ważną rolę w karierze zawodowej i ewaluacji badaczek i badaczy, ale dobre praktyki związane z otwieraniem książek powstają nie tylko w tej dyscyplinie.\n\nBadanie OPERAS-PL miało na celu rozpoznanie potrzeb polskich wydawców i ich celów strategicznych związanych z otwieraniem dostępu do publikacji książkowych.\nPokazało ono, że problem ten staje się coraz bardziej palący, a zwolenników otwartego dostępu przybywa. Jest on argumentowany przede wszystkim koniecznością zwiększania widoczności publikacji i potrzebą umiędzynarodowienia polskiego dorobku, które przełożą się na wyższe wskaźniki wpływu odnotowywane przez polskich wydawców.\nNa jego przeszkodzie stoi jednak duże rozproszenie infrastruktury badawczej, niezbędnej do skutecznego wdrożenia modelu otwartego dostępu oraz indeksowania metadanych publikacji w międzynarodowych bazach danych. Brak finansowego wsparcia ze strony grantodawców, zarówno Komisji Europejskiej, jak i rządu nie sprzyja zmianie tej sytuacji. Dlatego OPERAS-PL wspólnie z uczestnikami badania i warsztatu design thinking zapoczątkowało komunikację między wydawcami zainteresowanymi otwartym dostępem i razem z redaktorami będzie dążyć do rozwoju nowych narzędzi w oparciu istniejące usługi i infrastrukturę europejską lub zupełnie nowe rozwiązania, stworzone specjalnie dla polskich w ydawców.\nBibliografia\nAdema, J., Stone, G. (2017). The surge in New University Presses and Academic-Led Publishing:\nAn overview of a changing publishing ecology in the UK. LIBER Quarterly: The Journal of the\nAssociation of European Research Libraries, 27(1), Article 1. https://doi.org/10.18352/lq.10210\nAvanço, K., Balula, A., Błaszczyńska, M., Buchner, A., Caliman, L., Clivaz, C., Costa, C., Franczak, M.,\nGatti, R., Giglia, E., Gingold, A., Jarmelo, S., Padez, M. J., Leão, D., Maryl, M., Melinščak Zlodi,\nI., Mojsak, K., Morka, A., Mosterd, T., ... Wieneke, L. (2021). Future of Scholarly Communication.\nForging an inclusive and innovative research infrastructure for scholarly communication in Social\nSciences and Humanities. Zenodo. https://doi.org/10.5281/ZENODO.5017705\nBłaszczyńska, M., Stone, G. (2023, czerwiec 2). The growing world of open access books. Innovation\nLab. https://lab.operas-eu.org/2023/06/02/the-growing-world-of-open-access-books/\nEleven lessons: Managing design in eleven global companies. (2007). https://api.semanticscholar.org/\nCorpusID:201044924\nEve, M. P. (2014). Open Access and the Humanities: Contexts, Controversies and the Future. Cambridge\nUniversity Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781316161012\nGuilford, J. P. (1967). The nature of human intelligence. McGraw-Hill.\nNarodowe Centrum Nauki [NCN] (2021). Instrukcja: Polityka NCN dotycząca otwartego dostępu do publikacji. https://www.ncn.gov.pl/sites/default/files/pliki/2021_10_instrukcja_open_access_NCN.pdf\nInstrukcja. Polityka NCN dotycząca otwartego dostępu do publikacji. (2021). Narodowe Centrum Nauki.\nKierunki rozwoju otwartego dostępu do publikacji i wyników badań naukowych w Polsce. (2015).\nwww.gov.pl/documents/1068557/1069061/20180413_Kierunki_rozwoju_OD_wersja_ostateczna.pdf\nKulczycki, E. (red.) (2017). Komunikacja naukowa w humanistyce. IF UAM. https://repozytorium.\namu.edu.pl/bitstream/10593/17589/6/Komunikacja_naukowa_w_humanistyce.pdf\nMeinel, C., Leifer, L., Plattner, H. (red.) (2011). Design Thinking. Springer Berlin Heidelberg.\nhttps://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-13757-0\n\nMorka, A., Gatti, R. (2021). Academic Libraries and Open Access Books in Europe: A Landscape Study.\nPubPub. https://doi.org/10.21428/785a6451.f710a335\nOpen access. (b.d.). https://research-and-innovation.ec.europa.eu/strategy/strategy-2020-2024/ our-digital-future/open-science/open-access_en (dostęp: 24.06.2023).\n„Plan S” and „cOAlition S” – Accelerating the transition to full and immediate Open Access to scientific publications. (b.d.). https://www.coalition-s.org/ (dostęp: 13.04.2023).\nSpeicher, L., Bargheer, M., Maryl, M., Fund, S., Mosterd, M. (2018). OPERAS White Paper: Open\nAccess Business Models. University of Nebraska.\nStone, G., Błaszczyńska, M., Lebon, C., Morka, A., Mosterd, T., Mounier, P., Proudman, V., Speicher, L., Melinščak Zlodi, I. (2021). Collaborative models for OA book publishers (1.0). Zenodo.\nhttps://doi.org/10.5281/ZENODO.5494731\n\nChallenges of Contemporary\nPublishing\n\nIntroduction\nThe conference, entitled “Challenges of Contemporary Publishing,” convened by the Scientific and Technical Information Center of Lublin University of Technology, took place in Lublin on May 25–26, 2023. This gathering facilitated discourse among members of the academic community with a vested interest in the pertinent issues surrounding scientific publishing. Attendees included publishers, journal editors, librarians, and authors of scientific papers. The event provided a platform for representatives from diverse fields and publishing domains to engage in discussions about both traditional and open publishing models, utilizing contemporary tools such as Open Journal\nSystems, Open Monograph Press, and various authoring solutions.\nThe imperative to address topics concerning the application of publishing platforms, best practices, collaborative endeavours between editors, publishers, and libraries, and the exploration of novel publishing paradigms predated the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic. During that time, the Ministry of Science and Higher Education announced a program aimed to bolster national journals to elevate publishing and editorial standards. This program envisioned the implementation of effective publishing practices to enhance standards and establish a robust presence in international scientific circulation. At that time, the editors of scientific journals undertook measures to augment the visibility of their articles by submitting them to national and subsequently global indexing databases.\nFor many editors, this period was marked by an intensified effort to identify tools that would facilitate the electronic publication of articles, frequently under open licenses, as well as streamline communication with reviewers and the overall review process through publishing platforms. In the context of university-affiliated scholarly journals, it was common for academic libraries to participate in publishing activities, leveraging their familiarity with the dynamic technological advancements in their environment to enhance the visibility of researchers and their scholarly output.\nThe articles compiled within this volume represent the results of conference presentations, discussions, and poster sessions conducted during the conference. It is important to note that the texts herein do not directly reflect the content of conference speeches; consequently, their titles and arrangement may not correspond precisely with the conference program. The intended structure of the texts is designed to familiarize the reader with a broad spectrum of issues, ranging from macro-level systemic perspectives on publishing to micro-level explorations of the experiences of individual scientific journals.\n\nThe publication was meticulously prepared in both Polish and English to ensure accessibility to a broader audience beyond the Polish readership. This bilingual approach is intended to significantly contribute to expanding the discourse on university publishing within Poland, thereby fostering cooperation and the development of systematic solutions.\nAmong the distinguished international guests were librarians possessing extensive expertise in journal management, long-term archiving, and the utilization of publishing platforms and digital repositories. Their contributions, based on the papers presented, are incorporated into this volume to outline a more comprehensive understanding of the issues addressed in the monograph.\nThe volume commences with an article entitled Role of a University Publisher in the Process of Creating and Publishing the Scientific Journals by Beata Jankowiak-Konik, which elucidates the role of academic publishing houses within the Polish educational system and their position within the university structure. The author primarily focuses on delineating various models of collaboration between publishers and the editorial boards of university journals. Her observations lead to the identification of three fundamental models of cooperation. The first involves executing the complete publication process in close coordination with the editorial board, which is responsible for content and the review process. The second model entails the publishing house providing technical support for publishing, whereas the third model entails the editorial office operating independently of the university publishing house and managing the publication process autonomously. The example of the University of Warsaw Publishing\nHouse illustrates the potential for university publishers to enhance the effectiveness of scientific journals through professionalization.\nFurther discussion is provided in Library – Publisher or Coordinator? Summary of\nFive Years of the University of Opole Journals Platform Activity, by Dorota Wierzbicka-\nPróchniak and Danuta Szewczyk-Kłos, which examines the synergistic relationship between publishing and library activities. The University of Opole Library has undertake the management of the university’s journal platform, effectively functioning as a publisher. This model is not unique. The management of publishing platforms by libraries in collaboration with journal editors has gained traction, particularly since editors have received support from the Ministry. This model has proven to be highly effective, primarily due to the librarians’ ability to ensure the consistency of metadata for each article, thereby enhancing the overall quality of published material.\nQuality assurance measures in journal development strategies are discussed in the subsequent article. The team overseeing the PRESSto platform at Adam Mickiewicz\nUniversity in Poznan elucidates not only the factors influencing the placement of the journal platform within the academic library but also the journal’s overarching development\n\nstrategy. The good practices, presented in the text, are based on conclusions derived from audits and other analyses, even at the individual article level. The PRESSto team demonstrates an acute awareness of the dynamics of change occurring in the technological, legal, social, and economic domains. The experiences shared in this article offer a possible blueprint for advancing academic journals of academic journals.\nThe next text, Evolving from Tradition: “The Problems of Literary Genres” as a Contemporary Scholarly Journal by Anna Zatora, presents the evolution of the journal from the perspective of the editors in a complete model of cooperation with publishers and the library. The author gives an engaging account of the 65-year journey of the journal, which has been able to adapt to the changing conditions of the world of science, moving from the traditional model of publishing a printed version to the digital form of a document bearing individual identifiers. In this way, it meets the standards of open science while maintaining its original character.\nThe topic continues with Jesper Boserup Thestrup’s text Problems That Journals\nHave When They Publish Online. It presents a broader view of the problems of managing journals on the platform. The author has been co-developing a platform for publishing and archiving journals for several years under the auspices of the Danish\nRoyal Library. Tidsskrift.dk has a long history, and the scale of the project is unique and can serve as a model for those who do not yet have comprehensive solutions. What draws attention is the care taken to ensure sustainability for journals that have already closed, in addition to those that are still being published. The article takes a closer look at the multitude of issues – especially legal and technical – faced by editors, publishers, and platform administrators.\nThe situation of the Polish open access journals is analyzed in the article Fees in\nPolish Open Access Journals by Aneta Drabek. The author has conducted an in-depth study of journals, taking into account the types of licences used, the assignment to the field and discipline, as well as financial conditions. The picture of the situation of\nPolish open access journals, which emerges from the text, indicates the well-established and strong position of open access publications on the domestic publishing market.\nThe second article in this volume by Anna Zatora is entitled Is the Academic Library\nHampered by a Lack of an Openness Policy? The Case of the University of Lodz. The text presents the extent of the scientific library’s support given to the academic community of the University of Lodz in terms of promoting and increasing the visibility of scientific output, as well as monitoring the publishing market – including taking care of author agreements, and, above all, helping to raise funds to finance open access. The example of the Library of the University of Lodz proves that the lack of an institutional open access policy does not necessarily mean abandoning its principles.\n\nThe article by Łukasz Tomczak and Monika Szarama, The Journey of Changing\nLUT’s Scholarly Output Openness – Image of the Last Six Years, continues the topic of open access publishing strategies at the university. It shows that awareness of the role of open access is clearly increasing in the scientific community, as demonstrated by the figures given in the article. The analysis was carried out using the SciVal and InCite tools. In conclusion, the authors made recommendations for further action in the field of popularising open publishing.\nSue Ann Gardner’s experience at the University of Nebraska–Lincoln offers an additional perspective on how the academic library acts as a publisher. The processes involved in publishing activities are understood more broadly – placing texts in institutional repositories and pursuing the ‘green way’ of access is a common form of library publishing activity. In this article, the author analyzes forms of open access, gives examples from her own practice, and highlights the role of librarians in supporting the choice of publishing venue and appropriate licences.\nThis topic is also addressed by Joanna Błasiok and Kamila Kokot-Kanikuła, who present good practices for publishing in ‘green access’. The text offers valuable tips for authors, editors, and librarians involved in publishing processes. The article completes the picture outlined by Sue Ann Gardner, who also understands the importance and relevance of institutional repositories.\nA less discussed but equally important issue is the provision of open access to scholarly monographs. While open access is accepted among publishers of scientific journals, it is still a rarity among university publishers of books, especially in the humanities. Authors Marta\nŚwietlik and Magdalena Wnuk, in their article Open Access Monographs: An Exploration of\nPublishing Models and Necessary Tools, present the situation of the publishing market for monographs in the humanities on the basis of their research. They point to the still strong position of the printed book, which is not conducive to building an infrastructure for open access in the humanities. In doing so, they draw attention to the fact that these publications are absent from foreign indexing databases and thus from international scholarly circulation.\nThe perspective outlined in the publication is only a thematic snapshot of the challenges facing the scholarly publishing community. Undoubtedly, many editors, publishers, and librarians will find guidance here to help improve their day-to-day work and to help pave the way for the further development of the publishing house or editorial office.\nIt is hoped that the post-conference monograph will bring the current perspective of scholarly publishing into focus and help to set a strategy for open publishing with infrastructural, legal, and financial solutions. It is important to remember that open publishing is only part of open science, but without it, open communication and education will not happen.\nKatarzyna Weinper\n\nBeata Jankowiak-Konik\nORCID: 0009-0002-6362-8631\nUniversity of Warsaw\nROR: https://ror.org/039bjqg32\nRole of a University Publisher in the Process of Creating and Publishing the Scientific Journals\nAbstract: University publishing houses have a special position in the Polish higher education system. Being organizational units of the universities fixed in their structures, they are established primarily to publish scientific works from their respective universities. Although their activity is mission-oriented in nature, they are often expected to produce commercial results as well. What is more, at different universities the legal and financial basis for the functioning of academic publishing houses may vary greatly, which influences their operational capabilities. Using the example of the relationship between the University of Warsaw\nPress and the editorial boards of the University journals, the text presents a cooperation model in which the publisher is a kind of tutor or a guide for the journal editors, not only in terms of the publishing process itself, but also in administrative and legal aspects, technological innovations, and promotional subjects. Some problems faced by an academic publisher while working with the journal editors are also discussed.\nKeywords: scientific journals, university publishers, scientific publications, publishing process\nA University Publisher – Conditions of Functioning\nAmong the publishing houses, including those specializing in the academic publications, the university publishers form a specific group. Their location in the national publishing net significantly affects their overall functioning. Therefore, they need to be characterized in more detail.\nFirst of all, a university publisher acts as a unit within the structure of an institution of higher education, with all the consequences of this fact. Usually, it is established\n\nprimarily to publish scientific works of the researchers employed at its home university, which puts some limitations on the publication policy of a university publisher.\nAnother interesting issue is the approach of the university authorities towards their publishing house. On the one hand, they consider academic publishing as a kind of mission, on the other hand, they often expect also commercial results from the publisher. It is rather difficult to reconcile these conflicting expectations in everyday publishing practice.\nWhat is more, official state policy towards science also has an impact on the activities of scientific journals, and thus on the publication process and the activities of their publishers. A good example is the new Law on Higher Education and Science (Act of\n20th July 2018). It introduced a scoring system that had a great impact on the functioning of academic publishing (Drabek & Bemke-Świtilnik, 2020; Żukowski, 2021).\nIn fact, there is no single model of a university publisher; there is no place here to develop this topic, but at different universities, the legal and financial basis for the functioning of publishing units may vary greatly, which influences their operational possibilities.\nAll the above-mentioned conditions affect the publishing process, including that of scientific journals.\nCooperation Between a Scientific Journal and a Publisher\nEnsuring the highest level of content and editing is a joint task of the journal’s publisher and its editorial team. The nature of the cooperation between the two parties has a crucial impact on the quality of the journal.\nThe Most Common Models of Cooperation\nThere are three basic models of cooperation between a university publisher and an editorial board of a scientific journal (see Table 1). They can be modified in detail, but in general, they are similar for different university publishers.\nTable 1. Models of cooperation between a publisher and a scientific journal\nStages of a Journal Model 1: Model 2: Model 3:\nPublication Process Full Publishing Technical Support Only Lack of Cooperation\nProcess\nSelection of Texts Editorial Board Editorial Board Editorial Board\nReviews Editorial Board Editorial Board Editorial Board\nLegal Assistance Publisher Editorial Board Editorial Board\n\nStages of a Journal Model 1: Model 2: Model 3:\nPublication Process Full Publishing Technical Support Only Lack of Cooperation\nProcess\nEditing, Corrections Publisher Editorial Board Editorial Board\nGraphic Design, Publisher Publisher Editorial Board\nDTP\nPrinting Publisher Publisher Editorial Board\nPromotion & Publisher Editorial Publisher Editorial Board\nDistribution Board\nSource: own compilation.\nScientific Journals at the University of Warsaw Press\nAt some universities, all scientific journals are published by the university press, at others there is no such obligation. At the University of Warsaw there are about one hundred registered journals, however, not all of them appear regularly, so the real number is lower. For various reasons, including their historical background or personal connections, some journals are published by external publishers or by the faculties themselves.\nAt the University of Warsaw Press, as a rule, we only accept journals that we can take through the entire publishing process.\nTable 2. Distribution of journals vs. scientific disciplines at the University of Warsaw Press\nUniversity of Warsaw Faculty/Other Unit Journal\nFaculty of Polish Studies Przegląd Humanistyczny\nWiek Oświecenia\nPrace Filologiczne\nPrace Filologiczne. Literaturoznawstwo\nFaculty of Applied Linguistics Studia Polsko-Ukraińskie\nStudia Ucrainica Varsoviensia\nStudia Interkulturowe\nEuropy Środkowo-Wschodniej\nActa Albaruthenica\nJęzyk Białoruski jako Obcy\nFaculty of Oriental Studies Studies in African Languages and Cultures\n\nUniversity of Warsaw Faculty/Other Unit Journal\nFaculty of Law Studia Iuridica\nYearbook of Agricultural and Food Law\nFaculty of Archaeology Światowit\nFaculty of Culture and Arts Ikonotheka\nFaculty of History Przegląd Historyczny\nFaculty of Political Science and International Przegląd Europejski\nStudies\nFaculty of Education Kwartalnik Pedagogiczny\nPolish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology Polish Archaeology in the Mediterranean\nFaculty “Artes Liberales” Anuario Histórico Ibérico\nSource: own compilation.\nWe currently publish journals within humanities and social sciences, in different languages: Polish, English, German, Ukrainian, Russian, Spanish, and Portuguese.\nWe have 19 journals under our care, among them, those edited by the scientists from linguistic faculties predominate (see Table 2). However, this number is steadily growing.\nRecently, we have observed growing interest in cooperation with us from the editorial boards of journals. There are two main reasons for this influx. First, already existing journals that have been published by their editorial boards independently (see Model 3,\nTable 1) want to professionalize their publishing process. Thus, journals’ editors want to use the publisher’s know-how, not only as to the publishing process itself, but also, e.g., to the legal regulations and ministerial requirements, anti-plagiarism practices, or conditions of application to international databases. Second, if any University of Warsaw scientific unit comes up with an idea to create a new journal, its future editors look for professional help, starting from the formal registration issues, through the selection of the scientific board, towards the practical organization of the whole editing process.\nThe Multiple Roles of a University Publisher\nThe publisher is not only a guardian of the publishing process, who cares for its efficient and timely course, and provides support in the editing, typesetting and printing.\nRole of the publisher should be seen much more broadly, also as:\n■ a source of knowledge,\n■ an authority and educator,\n■ a guide and innovator.\n\nSource of Knowledge\nUniversity publishers have broad experience in all aspects of the publishing process.\nThe editorial boards usually do not have such knowledge. In fact, their main role is to care for the scientific content of a journal. In other issues they rely on the publisher, for example, in administrative and legal aspects, including journal registration rules, application of the copyright in the journal’s everyday activities, and requirements of current state legislation. The publisher can also give practical advice regarding issues such as the journal’s proper structure, the role of elements such as abstract, keywords, and attached bibliography, organization of the journal’s work, the reviewing process, construction of the scientific board, etc. The publisher is usually responsible also for assigning DOI identifiers and using the anti-plagiarism systems, as well as instructs the editorial boards about the requirements and conditions of application to bibliometric databases (Kulczycki & Korytkowski, 2020).\nAuthority and Educator\nThe publisher, based on its own knowledge and experience, as well as being a kind of an outside observer, can better than the editorial board assess the strengths and weaknesses of a journal and identify elements that require changes. Let us take a look at this in the example below.\nPublishing in ranked journals is very important for the process of ministerial evaluation of scientific disciplines in Poland. That is why the faculty authorities often put pressure on the editors of the journal to apply as soon as possible to the well-known and valued bibliometric databases, such as Scopus or Web of Science. They hope the admission to these databases can bring measurable benefits i.e. more ministerial points for the journal. Role of the publisher in this case is to make rational assessment of the journal chances and to explain that if the basic application criteria are not met, applying may bring more harm than good. As we know, the opinion of the Warsaw University Press was used by some of our journals’ editors as an argument in the discussion with the faculty authorities, and was taken into consideration. Currently, four journals published by the University of Warsaw Press are indexed in the Scopus database and one – in Web of\nScience; as a publisher, we contributed significantly to preparing them for the application.\nGuide and innovator\nIn general, researchers involved in the publishing process of a scientific journal do not have time or are not willing to follow either new technological and organizational solutions, or the market trends in publishing. It is the publisher who stands at the forefront of change, observes the market, learns, and suggests the changes to the journal editors.\n\nLet’s take an example: even 10 years ago, all journals published by the University of\nWarsaw Press were sold in the printed version. Because of the changes in approach to sharing research results, today all our journals are in OA. However, at the request of the editorial board, we still produce quite a lot of free paper copies. The editors usually distribute them to their collaborators, other researchers, and various scientific institutions.\nHowever, changes in the market situation (rapid increase of the print prices, changes in the reading habits towards e-books, sustainable development requirements) make the production of paper copies more and more unprofitable. It is our role as a publisher to suggest the change of approach to the editors, in this case – to reduce the number of paper copies or even to give up on them altogether.\nCreating the Image of a Scientific Journal – Promotional\nActivities\nPromotional issues towards the scientific publications, including journals, are the subject of lively discussion. There is a widespread belief among researchers that scientific publications cannot or even should not be promoted (Siuda, 2016). This is surprising, especially since scientists themselves are often very active in social media.\nThe University of Warsaw Press as a publisher carries out the following promotional activities:\n■ all journals are available on our website www.wuw.pl, in the OA tab;\n■ we regularly inform in our social media about the subsequent issues;\n■ we help to produce the promotional films posted on our YouTube channel;\n■ we co-organise promotional meetings;\n■ we are intermediary in contacts with foreign publishers that are interested in cooperation with the journals.\nIn addition to our own activities, we also encourage the editors to get involved in the promotion. For example, we advise on setting up and running journal websites, as well as we suggest the editors to be more active in social media. Several our journals have their profiles on Facebook or X. However, such activities depend on individual possibilities of a particular editorial board. If there are people in the editorial staff who know how to run profiles in social media and want to get involved, then the journal will be more visible on the web.\n\nThe Most Common Difficulties and How to Deal with Them.\nConclusions\nAs it was stated above, at different universities, the frameworks for the functioning of publishing houses may vary. We should take into account that the academic publishers do not always have sufficient autonomy within the university to impose certain ethical and editorial standards on the journal editors. On the other hand, the editorial boards are autonomous in relation to the publishing house, and the publishers have no influence on certain issues.\nFirst of all, the reviewing process is entirely the responsibility of the editorial board, the publisher has no control over it, so they cannot react to the potential irregularities.\nSecondly, the editors are often not willing to get engaged in any additional activities apart from preparing the subsequent issues (e.g. in acquiring formal and legal knowledge, promotional actions). Many editors do not have even basic knowledge about the rules of the journal’s functioning (e.g. the license under which it is published).\nAnother group of problems concerns the relationships between the authors and the editorial board. Sometimes, the editors are not able to enforce the rules they set for their journals on the authors. It is not uncommon for the authors to submit low -quality materials, and the editorial board does not always react to that. In consequence the texts received by a publisher are poorly prepared, disordered, with serious deficiencies, needing much more editorial work than usual.\nA different issue is the workflow within the editorial board itself. Long delays in issuing subsequent preparing, piling up several issues in a short time, and a lack of understanding of the publishing process are also the causes of tensions in the relations between the editorial boards and the publishers (Kulczycki, 2018). Many editorial boards are not willing to introduce changes, e.g. they do not want to use editorial panels or use them in a very limited way.\nThe most efficient way to improve the cooperation and to streamline the publishing process seems to be systematic discussion of the problems with the editorial boards.\nEducation is also a key factor. Representatives of the University of Warsaw Press organize regular training sessions and seminars for the University employees about various aspects of the publishing process, also involving external specialists. The publisher should also be demanding of the journal editors by clearly defining the terms of cooperation and enforcing compliance with them.\nThe ethical and editorial principles must be taken seriously, and a journal’s high editorial standards should be reflected in its position among other journals in the field.\nCertainly, we are talking here about an ideal, which should be pursued but probably\n\nwill not be achieved soon. Nevertheless, conducting the publishing process at a high level and in accordance with the highest international standards should be the goal of any reliable scientific journal. This is a common interest of the university publisher and the journal’s editorial board (Szanse i wyzwania, 2019).\nReferences\nDrabek, A., & Bemke-Świtilnik, M. (2020). O wykazach, punktozie i polskich czasopismach human-h istycznych. Forum Akademickie, 27(11), 24–27.\nKulczycki, E. (2018). Stan praktyk publikacyjnych polskich czasopism naukowych w 2017 roku, 100–108.\nhttps://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.5683813\nKulczycki, E., & Korytkowski, P. (2020). Standardy wydawnicze polskich czasopism naukowych w latach\n2017–2019. https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.11734350\nSiuda, P., & Stachura, K. (2016). Niedostatki działań promocyjnych polskich czasopism naukowych z zakresu nauk humanistycznych i społecznych. In P. Siuda (Ed.), (Nie)obecna nauka: strategie promocyjne polskich czasopism naukowych z zakresu nauk humanistycznych i społecznych (pp. 55–68).\nWydawnictwo Naukowe IF UAM.\nSzanse i wyzwania dla polskich wydawnictw i czasopism naukowych. (2019). Oficyna Wydawnicza\nPolitechniki Warszawskiej, 75.\nŻukowski M. (2021) Aktualne problemy czasopism naukowych w Polsce. Ruch Prawniczy, Ekonomiczny i Socjologiczny, 83(2), 29–31. https://doi.org/10.14746/rpeis.2021.83.2.3\n\nDorota Wierzbicka-Próchniak\nORCID: 0000-0002-6248-4851\nDanuta Szewczyk-Kłos\nORCID: 0000-0001-7635-6255\nLibrary of University of Opole\nUniversity of Opole\nROR: https://ror.org/04gbpnx96\nLibrary – publisher or coordinator?\nSummary of five years of the University of Opole Journals Platform activity\nAbstract: The University of Opole Library has been managing the Platform of electronic journals since 2018. This project was launched as an extension of the university’s publishing activity to publish in open access and thus expand the number of recipients of academic work. The article answers the questions: what is the scope of the Library’s participation in the publishing activity of the university, and what does the cooperation between the Library and the editorial offices and publishing houses of the University of Opole in this project look like?\nIt also presents further stages of the Platform’s development and outlines plans for the future.\nKeywords: University of Opole Library, electronic journals platform, open scholarly resources, open access publishing, academic publishing\nIntroduction\nThe University of Opole (UO) Library initiated publishing activities in 2018, proposing the establishment of a Journals Platform to the UO Science Committee. A primary impetus for this endeavour was the directive outlined in the document “Directions for the development of open access to publications and scientific research results in Poland.”\nThis document advocated for the “digital dissemination of research via the Internet, including repositories and journals, to maximize the reach of publicly funded research”\n(Kierunki rozwoju otwartego dostępu do publikacji i wyników badań naukowych w Polsce,\n\n2015). A secondary, significant motivation was the application by journal editors affiliated with the University of Opole for de minimis aid under the “Support for scientific journals” program. One stipulation of this project was that “all articles submitted should be disseminated in an open-access format online, without any charges or restrictions, utilising Digital Object Identifiers (DOIs)” (Regulation of the Minister of Science and Higher\nEducation of September 20, 2018, regarding de minimis aid under the program “Support for Scientific Journals,” 2018). Additional rationale for creating the Platform included the promotion of UO’s scholarly periodicals and its research potential. Consolidating these periodicals on a single platform aimed to streamline access to articles and enhance their indexing in scholarly databases, catalogs, and search engines.\nThe University Library was designated as the coordinator of this project. This role encompasses the implementation and management of the Open Journal Systems (OJS), ensuring the functional integrity of the Platform, supporting quality initiatives, and formulating development plans.1 The initial implementation of journals was completed by November 2018. Since then, the Platform has continued to evolve, expanding both its system capabilities and the range of titles available.\nThis article attempts to determine whether the Library’s actions align with the responsibilities of a publisher, and if so, to what degree it participates in the university’s publishing operations.\nDevelopment of the Platform over Five Years\nIn 2019, the Platform was launched as a fully operational portal. It facilitated user access to the complete content of articles and enabled the automation of editorial workflows.\nThe Platform initially hosted thirteen journals:2\n1. Economic and Environmental Studies,\n2. Family Forum (140 points),\n3. Liturgia Sacra: Liturgia – Musica – Ars: a semi-annual of the Institute of Liturgy,\nMusic Sacred Music and Sacred Art of the Faculty of Theology of the University of\nOpole (70 points),\n4. Nomos & Dike,\n1 In a broader context, this is in line with the increasing integration of academic libraries by their parent centers into core tasks carried out by, for example, science, cooperation or just publishing departments – see Szczypa, Błaszczak (2020).\n2 Scoring according to the list of scientific journals and peer-reviewed proceedings of international conferences published in the Communication of the Minister of Education and Science of 17 July 2023.\n\n5. Opolskie Studia Administracyjno-Prawne [Opole Administrative and Legal Studies]\n(140 points),\n6. Pogranicze: Polish Borderlands Studies [Borderlands: Polish Borderlands Studies]\n(40 points),\n7. Scriptura Sacra: studia biblijne Wydziału Teologicznego Uniwersytetu Opolskiego\n[Scriptura Sacra: biblical studies of the Faculty of Theology of the University of Opole],\n8. Studia et Documenta Slavica,\n9. Studia Krytyczne / Critical Studies,\n10. Studia Miejskie [Urban Studies] (40 points),\n11. Studia Oecumenica (100 points),\n12. Studia Teologiczno-Historyczne Śląska Opolskiego [Studies in Theology and History of Opole Silesia] (70 points),\n13. Stylistyka [Stylistics] (100 points).\nOver the past five years, the collection has been refined. Nomos & Dike was removed due to inactivity. Studia et Documenta Slavica was suspended but remains available for archival purposes. At the request of the editorial board, new titles were added: Prace\nGermanistyczne / Germanistische Werkstatt [German Studies] (20 points) in 2021 and\nLiteraport (20 points) in 2023. The editors of two additional titles have shown interest in implementation on the Platform. Pogranicze: Polish Borderlands Studies has been renamed Border and Regional Studies.\nThe UO Journals Platform was developed with the following objectives:\n■ To provide a professional publishing platform for university journals, aligning with ministerial project requirements.\n■ To ensure articles are published under an open access model.\n■ To streamline the work of the editorial teams.\n■ To serve as a cohesive archive of journals.\n■ To enhance the visibility and dissemination of university publications.\n■ To improve indexing in scholarly search engines.\nFive years post-implementation, these objectives have been realized. The Platform facilitates the automation of publishing workflows, from submission through review and revision, to final PDF publication, enabling seamless communication among editors, authors, and reviewers. All content is accessible without charge under the Creative\nCommons Attribution – Non-commercial – Share Alike 4.0 license. The Platform’s compliance with ministerial standards is demonstrated by the inclusion of several titles in the government’s “Support for scientific journals” program, later renamed\n“Development of scientific journals.” Funding was initially granted to: Opolskie Studia\nAdministracyjno-Prawne [Administrative and Legal Studies in Opole], Pogranicze: Polish\n\nBorderlands Studies [Borderlands], Studia Miejskie [Urban Studies], Studia Oecumenica, and Stylistics. In subsequent funding rounds, support was renewed for Opolskie Studia\nAdministracyjno-Prawne, Pogranicze: Polish Borderlands Studies [Borderland] and\nStylistyka [Stylistics], and additionally awarded to Family Forum, Studia Oecumenica, and Studia Teologiczno-Historyczne Śląska Opolskiego [Studies in Theology and History of Opole Silesia]. Studia Miejskie did not receive renewed funding.\nStatistics available through the OJS Platform, along with data aggregated from\nGoogle Analytics, confirm the increased visibility of the articles. Table 1 presents the number of articles published and their downloads.\nTable 1. Number of articles published by journal in 2020–2022 (by daily publication date of article from OJS)\nJournal title 2020 2021 2022*\nStudia et Documenta Slavica 27 - -\nStudia Miejskie [Urban Studies] 408 12 6\nEconomic and Environmental Studies 496 50 -\nFamily Forum 157 22 24\nLiturgia Sacra 109 25 31\nOpolskie Studia Administracyjno-Prawne 311 41 23\n[Administrative and Legal Studies in Opole]\nStudia Oecumenica 276 30 2\nScriptura Sacra 138 17 16\nStudia Teologiczno-Historyczne Śląska Opolskiego 186 31 16\n[Studies in Theology and History of Opole Silesia]\nBorder and Regional Studies 128 11 10\nStudia Krytyczne [Critical Studies] 93 12 9\nStylistyka [Stylistics] 408 783 -\nPrace Germanistyczne / Germanistische Werkstatt – - 18\n[German Studies]\nSource: own compilation based on data provided by LIBCOM.\nIn 2020, a strong emphasis was placed on replenishing the archives of selected journals, hence the lower number of articles published in subsequent years.\n\nDownload statistics for full texts uploaded to the Platform are shown in Figures 1–3.\n90000\n80000\n70000\n60000\n50000\n40000\n30000\n20000\n10000\nI II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII\n2019 1187 1164 1734 2056 4820 3446 2868 2020 2909 2088 2620 4148\n2020 7934 10277 10188 9136 10879 9720 11196 11246 11914 12235 14458 18107\n2021 23644 24090 30074 35473 67926 34105 42180 89445 28659 50997 50693 34873\n2022 33053 28045 32468 38463 27484 5289 3921 9299 11736 7956 11189 10710\nFigure 1. Monthly number of downloads of all articles from the UO Journals Platform between 2019 and 2022.\nSource: own compilation based on data provided by LIBCOM.\nThe decrease in statistical values from May 2022 onwards is due to the implementation of OJS version 3.3, in which the software producers have optimized the statistics, modernizing the way data is collected, processed, and analyzed.\n\n12000\nBorder and Regional Studies\nEconomic and Environmental Studies\nFamily Forum\n10000\nLiturgia Sacra\nOpole Administrative and Legal Studies\nGermanic works/Germanistische Werkstatt\nScriptura Sacra\nStudia et Documenta Slavica\nCritical Studies\nUrban Studies\nStudia Oecumenica\nStudies in Theology and History of Opole\n4000 Silesia\nStyling\nI II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII\nFigure 2. N umber of article downloads by journal by month 2022.\nSource: own compilation based on Google Analytics data.\nThe spike in statistics in some months is caused by the download of the PDF files by external databases for indexation purposes. This increases the download statistics once or twice a year.\n\nBorder and Regional Studies 2947\nEconomic and Environmental Studies 2554\n19689\nFamily Forum 9649\nLiturgia Sacra 2306\n18004\nOpole Administrative and Legal Studies 5887\nGermanic works/Germanistische Werkstatt 384\nScriptura Sacra 2476\nStudia et Documenta Slavica 328\nCritical Studies 3632\n17892\nUrban Studies 7966\nStudia Oecumenica 5562\n13489\nStudies in Theology and History of Opole Silesia 6453\n20415\nStyling 7744\n0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000\nNumber of page views Number of sessions Number of users\nFigure 3. Usage statistics for the UO Journals Platform in 2022.\nCompiled by Marcin Podolan on the basis of Google Analytics data.\nIndexing in academic databases and search engines is done through the Library’s activities. It is the Library that coordinates the signing of agreements for the dissemination of the Platform’s content – in January 2021, an agreement was signed for the indexation of the journal Urban Studies in EBSCO databases, while in 2019, an agreement was signed with the Interdisciplinary Center for Mathematical and Computer Modelling at the University of Warsaw (ICM) for the inclusion of article content in The Central\nEuropean Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities (CEJSH) database.\n\nLibrary as publisher?\nA publishing house, as defined in Encyklopedia książki [Encyclopaedia of the Book], is:\na business entity, or part thereof, engaged in financing and organizing the process of production, distribution, and sale of books, magazines, and other types of publications in printed or digital form. [...] Not all publishing houses initiate and finance the book production processes themselves. [In such cases, the role of the publisher is limited to the organization and supervision of the publishing process [...] In addition, there are publishing houses on the market that are divisions of institutions with a different (non-publishing) scope of activity [...]. These types of publishing departments are found in the structures of universities [...] (Wolański, 2017).\nThe scope of the publisher’s activities includes not only financial supervision or the turnover of author’s economic rights, but also, inter alia, determining the needs of the audience, supervising the publication editing process or advertising and promotion.\nThe UO Library has taken over all administrative issues related to ensuring the continuation of technical support for the Platform and overseeing the contractor’s implementation of the contract provisions, as well as formal legal issues, such as the aforementioned agreements concerning the dissemination of publication content in databases and repositories. It provides substantive support to editors when applying for additional funding opportunities for publishing processes. The Library’s tasks also include taking care of its promotion and all kinds of pro-quality activities. It also provides support to editors in crisis situations related to the timely upload of articles to the\nPlatform. In addition, its staff digitises and uploads the content of articles in the archives of individual journals. The library also organizes workshops and training for editors.\nThe additional funding was provided by the ministerial program “Support for\nScientific Journals”: five titles were among the distinguished journals. In 2021, the editors of the periodicals reapplied for funding from the Minister of Education and\nScience (MEiN) program. The ministerial project “Development of scientific journals” is a continuation of the completed “Support for scientific journals”. This time, six titles on the Platform received funding. All applications were consulted on their content by the Library. This included, among other things, preparing a part of the cost estimate for the expenses related to the Platform operation and Crossref services, analysing the descriptions of individual activities or the timetable for their implementation. Reports required by the project agreement with the Ministry are also subject to a similar consultation.\n\nIn terms of administrative and legal functions, it is still important to mention that it is the Library’s responsibility to cooperate with Crossref. The contract for use of the\nDOI services and the Crossref Similarity Check anti-plagiarism system is renewed annually. This task has been taken over from the UO Publishing House. In 2022, a total of 252 DOI identifiers were registered, including nine for the journal Explorations, which is not on the Platform. The launch of Crossref Similarity Check, iThenticate anti-plagiarism system, provides the ability to compare texts received by editors with millions of other published scientific content.\nOrganizing DOI services is also one of the forms of cooperation between the Library and the university publishers, namely the UO Publishing House and the Editorial Board of the Faculty of Theology. In addition, they support the functioning of the Platform in terms of editorial work. To this end, they participate in all training courses or lectures organized by the Library for journal editors. These are not only training sessions on the use of the functionalities offered by the Platform, which are carried out by its contractor, but also expert meetings. For example, in 2022, a training course on effective publishing in scientific journals was held, during which Dr. Aneta Drabek from the\nLibrary of the University of Silesia gave a presentation entitled “Indexing journals in databases,” and Jolanta Szczepaniak, team leader of the Łódź University of Technology\nPublishing House, discussed “Citation problems – working on the list of source materials in a publication.”\nCrossref services, efforts for indexing in databases or editorial staff participation in training are not the only pro-quality measures undertaken. In 2022, an upgrade of Open\nJournal Systems to the latest stable version 3.x. was carried out, which was completed with training for journal editors on how to use the new version. Journal reconfiguration and programming changes were made to adapt the current Platform template to the new software version. The Library also takes care to promote the service, both within and outside the UO, through speeches and publications. During various meetings with university staff, the Platform is presented as one of the tools for implementing the open access policy. The access link can be found on the Library’s website. The UO belongs to the alliance of nine European universities FORTHEM, where the Library promotes the potential of the Platform for scientific exchange between partner universities as a source of access to publications and research results and as a tool for open science.\nFuture plans for the development of the Platform are related to the requirements of the current ministerial project. In accordance with § 6 of the MEiN Regulation of 3\nAugust 2021 on the program “Rozwój czasopism naukowych” [“Development of scientific journals”] and § 16 of the grant agreement for journals under this project – the beneficiaries undertake:\n\nto transfer the journal to the digital repository of the National Library free of charge within the deadline specified in point a) and to grant the National Library a non-exclusive licence free of charge in order to make scientific articles published in the journal available to the public in such a way so that everyone can have access to them at a time and place of their own choosing, without any restrictions (including without technical limitations or safeguards) within the Digital National Library\nPolona and the Academica Digital Lending Library of Scientific Publications.\nIn this regard, it is planned, in agreement with university publishers, for the Library to take over the transfer of articles published on the Platform to the digital repository of the National Library, which involves signing an appropriate agreement and obtaining a publisher account.\nSummary\nWhat is the UO Library’s involvement in the university’s publishing activities? Does its activity in relation to the Platform make it only a project coordinator or perhaps a publisher? By definition, it is a non-publishing institution that operates within the structure of the university. It would not be an overstatement to say that the administration of the Platform corresponds to the supervision of the publishing process. In addition, work related to its promotion, organization of funding or formal and legal care is part of the publisher’s tasks. Answering the title question, it can therefore be considered that in relation to the UO Journals Platform the Library is more than just the coordinator of the university project.\nReferences\nKierunki rozwoju otwartego dostępu do publikacji i wyników badań naukowych w Polsce (2015), https:// www.gov.pl/documents/1068557/1069061/20180413_Kierunki_rozwoju_OD_wersja_ostateczna.pdf\nRozporządzenie Ministra Nauki i Szkolnictwa Wyższego z dnia 20 września 2018 r. w sprawie pomocy de minimis w ramach programu „Wsparcie dla czasopism naukowych. (2018).\nRozporządzenie Ministra Edukacji i Nauki z dnia 3 sierpnia 2021 r. w sprawie programu „Rozwój czasopism naukowych”. Dz.U. 2021, poz. 1514.\nRozporządzenie Ministra Nauki i Szkolnictwa Wyższego z dnia 20 września 2018 r. w sprawie pomocy de minimis w ramach programu „Wsparcie dla czasopism naukowych”. Dz.U., poz. 1832.\nSprawozdanie z działalności Biblioteki Głównej i bibliotek specjalistycznych Uniwersytetu Opolskiego za rok 2022. (2023). https://bg.uni.opole.pl/wp-content/uploads/Sprawozdanie-Biblioteki-UO-\n-za-2022.pdf\nSzczypa, G., & Błaszczak, P. (2020). Wsparcie bibliotek akademickich w działaniach uczelni na rzecz ewaluacji – rekonesans. Folia Bibliologica, V. 62, 71–86. https://journals.umcs.pl/fb/article/ view/11965/8833\n\nWierzbicka-Próchniak, D., Szewczyk-Kłos, D. (2020). Platforma czasopism Uniwersytetu Opolskiego przykładem synergii w budowaniu otwartego dostępu do publikacji uczelnianych. Acta Universitatis Lodziensis. Folia Librorum, 1(30), 47–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.18778/0860-7435.30.03.\nWolanski, A. (2017). Wydawnictwo. Instytucja. In A. Żbikowska-Migoń, M. Skalska-Zlat (eds.). Encyklopedia książki. T. 2 (pp. 629–631). University of Wrocław Publishing House.\n\nAleksandra Szulc\nORCID: 0000-0001-8812-9498\nMałgorzata Adamczak\nORCID: 0000-0001-5489-6787\nAgnieszka Wiktor-Sass\nORCID: 0009-0004-7378-5483\nBlanka Mrowicka\nORCID: 0000-0002-9400-455X\nUniversity Library in Poznań\nAdam Mickiewicz University in Poznań\nROR: https://ror.org/04g6bbq64\nQuality-focused activities and tasks in the strategy for the development of AMU journals published on the PRESSto\nAbstract: Adam Mickiewicz University Open Journals Platform – PRESSto, was launched at the University Library in Poznań in 2015. The platform is a tool designed to support all editors of Adam Mickiewicz University (AMU) journals and is based on Open Journal\nSystems (OJS), an open-source software for the management of academic journals.\nThe platform supports the editorial and managerial process and provides the possibility of professional dissemination of the contents of journals aligned with the current standards for electronic scientific publications. From its onset, the administrative control and coordination over the functioning of the portal, as well as over the accuracy of introduced metadata, has been carried out by the PRESSto Team. The resources of the PRESSto Platform, initially scarce, currently include 93 titles of journals, and the same number of separate websites of listed journals is maintained in the service, while all introduced data undergo rigorous accuracy control.\nFollowing a number of important legal changes (Ustawa 2.0 [Act 2.0], Plan S, AMU Open\nAccess Policy, among others), it has become necessary to adjust the regulations regarding the functioning of the portal and journals to the internal laws and regulations of the University, and to accommodate the existing model for journals to the new and binding digital publishing standards.\n\nIn its intention, the PRESSto Platform as a quality-focused tool is designed to accelerate the development of the journals and will facilitate their search engine and database discoverability and visibility, thus increasing their impact factors and the range of recipients and prospective authors from other countries.\nKeywords: q uality-focused activities, AMU journals, PRESSto Platform, academic journals,\nOpen Journal Systems\nIntroduction\nScience communication is an indispensable element in the transmission of knowledge between the scientific community and the broader social context. The evolving landscape of communication channels, influenced by the ascendancy of modern technologies, prompts the development of initiatives geared toward augmenting knowledge transmission in support of this process. The escalating costs associated with publishing traditional paper-based scientific journals, the challenges inherent in accessing their scientific content, and the dual funding of research and access to research results collectively engender a shift in attitude within the scientific community toward the prevailing communication model.\nVarious declarations, including the Budapest Declaration, Bethesda Declaration, and Berlin Declaration, dating back to the early 2000s, alongside subsequent recommendations from international bodies such as UNESCO (UNESCO Recommendation on Open Science, 2021) and the European Commission, have converged in designating open science as the preferred paradigm for science communication. The official documents encompass salient facets of open science, with open access to publications identified as a cornerstone.\nIT tools designed to facilitate online journal publishing processes are commonly known as journal management systems. Open Journal Systems, an open-source initiative developed by the Public Knowledge Project (PKP), stands out as one of the most globally prevalent systems. More than 30,000 journals currently operate on this platform, facilitating the publication of over 6 million articles since 2010 (Khanna et al.,\n2022). Journals disseminated through the OJS system gain the following of advantages:\nan individual multilingual website, activation of DOI identifiers, and the implementation of internationally consistent journal operating policies aligned with ministerial guidelines, including CC licenses and COPE-compliant publication ethics. The system offers supplementary functionalities, such as tracking article citations, generating\n\nstatistics on article hits and downloads, providing altmetrics and the capacity to publish articles in diverse formats. An important feature is the ability to export descriptions to bibliographic programs, databases and aggregators, using the open OAI-PMH protocol, so that information about articles in scientific social networks is sent immediately.\nThere are also commercial online content management systems on the publishing market (Sidyk & Zdunek, 2020) that enable an efficient and effective publishing process for books, journals, and conference materials, e.g., Editorial Manager offered by Elsevier.\nThe publishing role of the academic library is important in supporting scholarly communication. The Library Publishing Coalition (LPC) distinguishes three main streams of library involvement in university publishing: library management of publishing, library-publishing partnerships, and special library services to support publishing (Derfert-Wolf, 2022).\nIn Poland, most of the electronic journal platforms in higher education institutions are operated by the academic publishers of the universities, e.g., Akademicka\nPlatforma Czasopism (Academic Journals Platform) in Toruń or the journal platform of the Jagiellonian University Press. Currently, this type of system is also directly managed by the libraries themselves, as is the case at the University of Gdańsk Library, the Library of the University of Opole, or the University Library in Poznań (Derfert-Wolf, 2022).\nThis is because academic libraries are responsible for the processes of knowledge dissemination and preservation, are involved in the creation of open repositories and digital libraries, and the development of services related to the online publication of scientific content has led them to contribute to the management of publishing platforms for electronic journals and monographs (Hahn, 2008; Karwasińska, 2017).\nAdam Mickiewicz University Open Journals Platform – PRESSto managed by the University Library in Poznań is one of the first of its kind in Poland (Derfert-Wolf,\n2022). The article presents the beginning, as well as the development of the platform, activities related to the creation of new ordinances, fundraising, updating the OJS system, training and promotion, and the first audit of journals.\nThe Origins of the PRESSto Platform\nThe development of open science and the open access campaigns that began with the movement’s defining Budapest OA Initiative of 2002 (Chan et al., 2002) have resulted in a paradigm shift in the dissemination of scientific content promoting the concept of free access to it without licensing barriers. Similar requirements have been promulgated by the European Research Council (ERC) on the basis of the ERC Scientific Council\nGuidelines for Open Access, published on 17 December 2007, and the European\n\nCommission Recommendation of 17 July 2012 (2012/417/EU) (Kierunki rozwoju otwartego dostępu do publikacji i wyników badań naukowych w Polsce, 2015, pp. 5–6).\nThe changes in scholarly publishing that were initiated around the world at this time had a significant impact on the functioning of libraries. New library services were being developed, including dynamic development of tools for the free presentation of scientific content. In the University Library in Poznań, the rate of electronic access was also increasing, while the number of visits and access to traditional collections was in decline.\nTherefore, with its users in mind, the library adopted a new strategy – increasing the number of organized accesses to commercial electronic resources and expanding its own electronic resources. Digital Library of Wielkopolska (Wielkopolska Biblioteka Cyfrowa), the Adam Mickiewicz University Repository (AMUR), and the WieKI (Wielkopolska\nKolekcja Ikonograficzna – Wielkopolska Iconographic Collection) databases were created\n(Sprawozdanie z działalności Biblioteki Uniwersyteckiej za rok 2014, 2014, p. 2).\nIn 2014, the creation of a new product was proposed, and the concept of launching a platform for open access electronic scientific journals at AMU PRESSto was presented (Sprawozdanie..., 2014, p. 18). The main objective of creating the PRESSto\nPlatform was to showcase the publishing potential of peer-reviewed journals and to widely disseminate the scientific content published in them, as well as to increase the impact rates of journals and their indexing in scientific search engines. The plan to build a comprehensive service was based on Open Journal Systems software. This open source tool, which enables the presentation of information about journals and their content and the end-to-end management of the publication process, met all the requirements needed for a scientific journal platform. From the very beginning, the journals implemented on the PRESSto Platform were to be published in an open access model, meaning that articles are available free of charge to all interested Internet users under a Creative Commons license. In 2015, the webpages of 40 university journals were created (Sprawozdanie Biblioteki Uniwersyteckiej w Poznaniu, 2015, p. 19). Systematically, the database expanded with the addition of more journals.\nThe concept of creating an in-house platform was in line with the directions for the development of openness in Poland as set out in the document Kierunki rozwoju otwartego dostępu do publikacji i wyników badań naukowych w Polsce [‘Directions for the development of open access to publications and research results in Poland’] adopted by the Minister of Science and Higher Education (2015) presenting principles of open access policy and recommendations for the introduction of open access to publications and research results by research funding bodies (National Science Centre, National\nCentre for Research and Development, Ministry of Science and Higher Education), scientific units, universities and publishers.\n\nThus, on the basis of Ordinance No. 445/2015/2016 of the Rector of Adam\nMickiewicz University in Poznań of 1 October 2015, the University Journal Platform was established. According to its contents, the Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań became the owner of the PRESSto Platform, and the University Library was responsible for establishing the policy of the platform’s operation, its administration and development, as well as supporting the journal editors in handling the electronic version published in the system. Ultimately, all journals published or co-published by the university should be hosted on it, so that the way they are edited and made available always meets the highest standards (Sprawozdanie..., 2015, p. 5). After three years from the date of entry into force of the ordinance, all journals whose publisher is Adam Mickiewicz\nUniversity in Poznań or its organizational units, which were uploaded to the platform, were to adopt the electronic version as the original one (§ 13 of this ordinance). Time has shown that this has not happened.\nThe entry into force of Ustawa 2.0 [Act 2.0] in 2018, carrying many new provisions for the operation of higher education institutions, overlapped with a reorganization in the library. The staff in charge of running the platform changed at the time.\nOver time, the need to update the functioning of the system and the need to expand the team looking after the database and journal editorial support were recognized.\nWork on the development of the platform was initiated in 2021 with the collaboration of the AMU Office of Science Support (the Research and Rankings Support Office). At that time, it also became apparent that there was a need to organize and collect information on all scientific journals published by the University. At the time, 76 journals had their own pages on the platform, so it was natural to liaise with the above-mentioned office to collect information on the remaining University journals.\nWork was undertaken on the previously intended development plan for the platform. The idea behind the development was to implement new and improve the quality of the services already offered to journals and to continuously develop technology in order to remain competitive with commercial platforms. It was important to extend the support to journal editors for the day-to-day operation of the platform and formal and organizational measures to raise the level of publishing and ethical practices. In this way, it was intended to achieve a real improvement in the quality of published journals so that they meet all formal conditions necessary to apply to international bibliographic databases such as Scopus, Web of Science Core Collection, ERIH PLUS, as indicated in the Regulation of the Minister of Science and Higher Education on the compilation of lists of publications of scientific monographs and scientific journals and peer-reviewed materials from international conferences (Rozporządzenie Ministra Nauki i Szkolnictwa\nWyższego w sprawie sporządzania wykazów wydawnictw monografii naukowych oraz\n\nczasopism naukowych i recenzowanych materiałów z konferencji międzynarodowych;\nMNiSW, 2018). This was to translate into an increase in the visibility and prestige of the journals and, at the same time, increase the University’s identification on the international stage.\nA timetable was prepared, which involved carrying out development work at the level of platform management, journal management, and optimizing article presentation. Activities were planned and divided into phases, and the costs of performing individual tasks and implementing new services were dissected. The measures taken were in line with the direction of change according to the adopted AMU Strategy for\n2020–2030 (Strategia Uniwersytetu im. Adama Mickiewicza w Poznaniu na lata 2020–\n2030 [AMU Strategy], 2021). Raising the prestige of the journals published by AMU\n(sub-goal 1.4.3) includes a point concerning the integration of the university publishing system, which is provided for journals through the development of the PRESSto\nPlatform. The Platform’s activities also correspond to the 2012 and 2018 recommendations of the European Commission on open publishing, and are also part of Plan S, which was developed by the signatories of cOAlition S and took effect from 2021. On a local scale, PRESSto implements the provisions of the AMU Strategy and the AMU\nOpen Access Policy (Zarządzenie Rektora [Rector’s Ordinance] nr 47/2020/2021) by publishing journals in the so-called diamond open access (diamond OA) formula, attaching the relevant Creative Commons licenses to each article. Currently, 93 journals of the Adam Mickiewicz University have their pages on the platform (of which 4 are published in co-edition). In the case of 10 journals, PRESSto plays a purely archiving role, so that their content is still available in academic circulation. This is also in line with the University’s policy on its own journals.\nDevelopment of PRESSto and support of good publishing practices through pro-quality elements in the new regulations and ID-UB grant\nDue to the legal changes described earlier and the continuing digital transformation, in order to implement improvements on the PRESSto Platform, it has become necessary to adapt the regulations and publishing practices to the current needs of effective scientific communication, as well as to monitor emerging new recommendations for editors and scientific publishers. Standards for the quality of the scientific- publishing process and the openness of the journal (Kulczycki, 2013), standards for bibliographic descriptions of different types of electronic documents (Matysek, 2017), as well as\n\nrecommendations for the positioning of scientific content, the so-called academic search engine optimization (hereafter: ASEO; Schilhan et al., 2021; Google Scholar;\nWiley), and the principles of uniform information architecture and simple navigation across entire publishing platforms (Pamuła-Cieślak, 2019) are important in the activities of contemporary open access journals.\nAll these elements are important from the point of view of readers, potential authors, as well as experts evaluating journals, which is why the internal regulations for university journals were amended in 2022 and two documents were adopted: Zarządzenie nr\n238/2021/2022 Rektora Uniwersytetu im. Adama Mickiewicza w Poznaniu z dnia 24 czerwca 2022 roku w sprawie czasopism naukowych UAM oraz Platformy Otwartych\nCzasopism Naukowych UAM – PRESSto [Ordinance No. 238/2021/2022 of the Rector of Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań of 24 June 2022 concerning AMU scientific journals and the AMU Open Scientific Journals Platform – PRESSto] (further: ZR\n238/2021/2022) and Zarządzenie Dyrektora BUP nr 7/2022 dotyczące wprowadze-d nia Regulaminu elektronicznej Platformy Otwartych Czasopism Naukowych UAM\n– PRESSto [Ordinance No. 7/2022 of the Director of the BUP concerning the introtduction of the Regulations of the electronic AMU Open Scientific Journals Platform\n– PRESSto] (further: ZD 7/2022).\nThe regulations redefined the rules for the functioning of AMU journals and the university journal platform PRESSto, and clearly assigned the responsibilities and rights of the parties: the University as publisher or co-publisher, the journal editors, and the PRESSto Team. The new rules were necessary in order to start the next stage of development of the journals, as well as to increase the quality of service and management of such a large platform as PRESSto is now.\nOrdinance ZR 238/2021/2022 regulates the publishing activities of all AMU journals in legal and administrative terms and specifies the resulting responsibilities of the editor-in-chief. Ordinance ZD 7/2022 details the responsibilities of the journal and PRESSto Team, the necessary changes that all editors using the university platform are obliged to implement, and the optimal workflow between the journal and\nPRESSto Team. In this way, the PRESSto Rules, which are under the direct control of the library, include elements that are subject to more frequent changes resulting from the current needs of the journals or the digital scholarly publishing market, such as publishing standards for electronic publications, database requirements, or ASEO – which facilitates smooth implementation of revisions.\nIn the context of conducting pro-quality activities through the PRESSto Platform, it was important to clarify the procedure for the establishing and co-publishing of AMU journals, as well as the regulations for publishing the electronic version of journals\n\non the PRESSto Platform, in Ordinance ZR 238/2021/2022. This simplified some of the work of the AMU units involved in university journals.\nEqually important was the redefinition and development of the key responsibilities of the editor-in-chief, which opens up possibilities for new directions in the development of the journal and the effective implementation of good practice. Another change to the regulation is the provision concerning the unit responsible for maintaining and updating the internal Register of Journals of the Adam Mickiewicz University (ReCZ) and this is now the University Library in Poznań (BUP), where the PRESSto Platform project is implemented. Due to the nature of PRESSto’s activities and constant contact with all journal editors, this is the right unit to maintain such a register and to ensure that all records are up to date.\nA completely new quality-related element in the Ordinance is the provision establishing a cyclical audit of AMU journals. The audit is a tool that makes it possible to assess the actual development of the journal and is intended to indicate necessary changes, especially with regard to: the timeliness of issues, the impact on the discipline represented by the journal, internationalization and the level of indexation and presence in databases and repositories, the share of articles by AMU staff in individual issues, the development activities undertaken and the acquisition of funding. The audit with the use of the PRESSto\nPlatform enables the realization of the AMU Strategy, with regard to the improvement of the quality of the University’s journals quality by supporting editorial staff actively striving to meet quality criteria, efforts to include AMU journals in internationally recognized journal lists, and the discontinuation of titles that are insignificant for the discipline.\nThe PRESSto Platform Regulations (ZD 7/2022) contain a clear division and description of the tasks in the OJS system performed by the PRESSto Team and journal editors (broken down into the roles of the various users of the scholarly communication process, including administrator, editor, author, reviewer, etc.), as well as the system functionalities available to editors and the rules for preparing and making material available on the platform.\nUltimately, to meet standards of scientific integrity and to bring journals as close as possible to the current requirements of open scientific publishing, the regulations contain the information that obliges or encourages editors, inter alia to publish journals in open-volume mode; to use persistent identifiers (PID) such as DOI (Digital\nObject Identifier; mandatory, which is in line with the 2021 guidelines of the National\nScience Center), ORCID (Open Researcher and Contributor ID) or ROR (Research\nOrganization Registry); the adoption of COPE (The Committee on Publication Ethics) guidelines and the inclusion of the journal in the DOAJ (Directory of Open Access\nJournals) catalogue; the expansion of the article to include Author Contributions and\n\nConflict of Interest sections (while recommendations are also currently being prepared for the article section on the use of generative AI).1 There is also a limit on the number of papers authored by AMU staff in a journal and the highest permissible publication delay for different periodical frequencies, beyond which access to OJS accounts is blocked and the journal is archived.\nThe Regulations also include useful ASEO guidelines for editors on article presentation, taking into account the profile of the journals published on PRESSto (these are mainly humanities and social science journal sites). These are complemented and developed by training courses prepared for editors of AMU journals.\nThe new rules were presented in detail to editors at a meeting jointly organized by the PRESSto Team and the Research and Rankings Support Office.\nThe two units have also jointly submitted a grant application at the end of 2021 to the Excellence Initiative – Research University (ID-UB) program to raise funds for the implementation of development activities. The adopted project entitled “Rozbudowa funkcjonalności i rozwój elektronicznej Platformy Otwartych Czasopism Naukowych\nUAM – PRESSto” [Extension of the functionality and development of the electronic\nPlatform of Open Scientific Journals of the AMU – PRESSto] was foreseen for 61 months (1.12.2021–31.12.2026) and divided into five phases.\nThe additional budget was used to fund costs related to the hiring of a new staff member, the transfer of AMU journal archives from commercial platforms to the PRESSto Platform, outsourcing legal and IT services, and membership agreements in international services.\nWithout the additional funding provided by the ID-UB grant, it would not have been possible to undertake such extensive activities and improve the quality of the services offered.\nUpdate of the system, Completion of the journal archives, and measures supporting their visibility\nA contract with an external IT company was already signed in March 2022. The team was provided with daily technical support, and and a stage of preparations lasting several months was initiated, to carry out an upgrade of the system to the latest functional\n1 Currently, the PRESSto editorial team uses guidelines developed by Stowarzyszenie Wydawców\nSzkół Wyższych [‘the Association of University Publishers’] (Grejner, Adamczak & Jankowiak-\nKonik, 2024).\n\nversion. According to the new ordinance (ZR 238/2021/2022), the archives of the journals previously published in open access model on commercial platforms were to be hosted on PRESSto, thus ensuring their perpetual archiving on PKP PN. Consequently, it was necessary to migrate the content of journals hosted on the Sciendo platform.\nA special plug-in allowing semi-automatic import of records was commissioned.\nThe work had to be completed before the upgrade could begin due to the plugin’s incompatibility with the new version of the system.\nUnfortunately, the differences in the operation of the two platforms and in the way the metadata was stored in the database, as well as in the use of different tags in the XML transcript, caused considerable work for the entire PRESSto Editorial Team. The metadata of the 1646 imported articles had to be compared with the information in the PDF file, and the necessary corrections had to be made manually.\nAt the same time, the library IT specialist and the IT company were preparing the OJS database and the university servers for the upgrade, while securing the database archive and customizing it, and the PRESSto Team was testing a trial version of the platform. It was necessary to get to know the system, to test all its functionalities, including trials of the full publishing process (PKP Docs – Documentation for OJS, OMP, and all of the Public Knowledge Project’s Software, n.d.), and to select a new layout each of the 93 journals. This involved analyzing the current trends of the open publishing model on the portals of the world’s largest scientific publishers. The market scoping process concluded that it would not be necessary to purchase paid themes, as PKP provides a wide range of layouts ready to use. After checking and comparing a number of\nOJS installations around the world, the Health Sciences Theme (Open Journal Systems\nDemos, n.d.) was finally selected. This layout is characterized by minimalism and simplicity of form, while providing an elegant presentation of all necessary information and article statistics. Other OJS-based platforms have also faced similar challenges, as can be found in the literature (Maistrovskaya & Newson, 2019).\nThe decision was taken to close the PRESSto Platform for two weeks in October\n2022. The journals’ editors were informed of the interruption of the system operation, including the suspension of the ability to handle the full editorial process, which was a matter of great concern for editorial work. Such a long time was necessary not only for the upgrade, but also for the visual update of the journal pages, the creation of new banner graphics, the configuration of templates and the individual menu of each journal page. The upgrade managed to finish ahead of schedule, which was welcomed by the editors. Thus began the training phase.\nTraining was an important step due to the changes introduced in 2022 and the increase in the number of journal pages administered by the PRESSto Team to 93.\n\nIt was therefore important to prepare the editorial team to work according to the new regulations and to handle the new interface of the administrative panel. In addition, permanent training sessions for system users were also introduced.\nThe workshop’s topics included:\n■ functioning and operation of the new version of OJS – the interface of the administrative panel was significantly different from the previous version, so the training was very popular,\n■ use of an anti-plagiarism tool – according to the new rules, editors are given direct access to the iThenticate (Crossref Similarity Check) system, paid for by the university, after clarification of the rules for analysis of the reports obtained (IThenticate User Guide, n.d.),\n■ conducting the complete publication process during which the editors’ doubts about transferring the entire publication process to the platform were clarified; many editors were concerned about the reaction of reviewers and authors who had not previously used tools of this type; a detailed discussion about the functionalities and customization of the system’s elements to meet the individual needs of the journal often changed the editors’ stance.\nThe PRESSto Team supports the editorial team’s efforts to increase the visibility and reach of journals. To this end, training is provided on how to prepare submissions to international indexing databases such as Scopus, Web of Science, ERIH PLUS, or\nDOAJ; how to present ASEO-sensitive elements; and on promotion in international science and information services.\nBeing in constant contact with the representatives of the databases, the PRESSto\nEditorial Board update their knowledge of the latest guidelines for journals, conducts training sessions with editors and carries out an initial assessment of the sites, taking into account the following elements: purpose and scope of the journal, description of the review process, publication ethics in accordance with the COPE guidelines, applicable anti-plagiarism and open access (OA) policies, copyright provisions. The Editorial\nBoard also organizes meetings with representatives of the bases.\nIn addition, in order to ensure better positioning, the PRESSto Team analyses the layout of the articles themselves and the way they are presented in the PDF file in terms of the requirements of ASEO, e.g. the selection of appropriate keywords and the way they are used in the title, the abstract, and the main text of the article, the consistent use of proper names, the use of text division with regard to mid-headings (sections), the use of vector graphics (Beel et al., 2010). Attention is also paid to the appropriate presentation of DOI identifiers, the English-language title and abstract, and the relevant license on the first page of the text.\n\nAs part of the ID-UB grant, the University Library in Poznań purchased access to the AlphaGalileo platform, which is a kind of online bridge connecting science and technology practitioners with the media and thus with the public, enabling a new culture of science communication in Europe. Moderated and run by the independent organization AlphaGalileo Ltd, the service accepts press releases on research developments from more than 2,000 institutions and authors and distributes them to more than 7,000 journalists in 85 countries (AlphaGalileo > AlphaGalileo > About Us, n.d.).\nWithin 10 months of using the service, information on 58 articles on the PRESSto\nPlatform was posted, resulting in nearly 200,000 alerts sent out (email information about a new article on a given topic), 12,000 hits on posts, and nearly 200 redirects to the page of a selected article on the PRESSto Platform.\nAfter working with the AlphaGalileo service for almost a year, the editors of PRESSto have noticed the usefulness of the tool for promoting not only Adam Mickiewicz\nUniversity journals, but also university events. To this end, access to the service has also been granted to those responsible for promoting the university and some departments.\nIn the near future, it is planned to test another worldwide service, EurekAlert, for the purchase of which funding has been provided by an ID-UB grant implemented by PRESSto.\nSuch initiatives provide journal editors with additional space to promote content published in AMU journals.\nAudit of journals\nThe journal audit was an essential element of the implementation plan for pro-quality change, through which an overall assessment of the state of journal development, its strengths and weaknesses, and an estimation of support options was made. A realistic development period for a journal, after which a change in the quality of the journal’s publishing practices and impact can be meaningfully assessed, is approximately five to six years (Sondervana & Stigter, 2017; Molls, 2019). However, it can be divided into two-year phases in order to make partial assessments of changes in individual elements of a journal’s publication policy, so a cyclical journal audit was ordered, with the first one taking place in June 2023.\nThe extensive audit of university journals using data from the PRESSto Platform is the first of its kind in our country. Comprehensive reports summarizing the state of journal development in Poland have been published (Kulczycki & Korytkowski, 2020a & b) or analyses of selected characteristics of groups of journals (Drabek & Bemke-Świtilnik,\n2020; 2021) or even selected characteristics of all journals within the OJS platform were\n\nconducted (Pamuła-Cieślak, 2019). However, the use of quantitative data in the current study provided results for the entire set of journals of the platform, also at the level of individual article analysis, and such information is so far lacking in the literature.\nThe audit was carried out on the basis of material prepared and analyzed by the PRESSto\nTeam and the Scholarly Communication Research Group. It should be noted that the work was the first task to be carried out by The Scientometrics Center, established in mid-2022 on the initiative of Dr. Emanuel Kulczycki, Professor of the Adam Mickiewicz University in\nPoznań, Head of the Laboratory of Scholarly Communication (PKN) and the management of the University Library in Poznań (BUP), Dr. Małgorzata Dąbrowicz and Małgorzata\nRychlik, MA. The Scientometric Center consists of the staff of the Research Information and Knowledge Transfer Department of the BUP and the PKN, and its aim is to support its own university and the entire community of librarians in Poznań and nationally in the field of scientometric analysis, as well as the didactics of scientometrics.\nThe analyses were based on quantitative and qualitative data obtained from the OJS database and journal editors. The indicator features assessed as most useful for the purposes of the first audit were selected, and a methodology was developed to collect data over a three-year period (2020–2022). Based on these, the selected publication years were analyzed at the level of whole journals and individual articles.\nThe result of these activities is a report presenting the characteristics of journals operating at AMU in bibliometric terms and in terms of the implementation of good publishing practices and standards. In addition, in order to increase the readability of the results in the context of the departmental policy pursued, the information was also presented at the level of the organizational units of the Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań.\nThe journals were divided into three groups in terms of publishing activity and evaluated in particular: timeliness of publication, legal ordinance, publishing standards, including the number of pages on the journal’s website, editorial standards, participation in the Program for the Advancement of Scientific Journals, indexing in the ERIH PLUS,\nScopus, and Web of Science Core Collection databases, and the citability of the journals according to Crossref data at the relation of the number of citations to the number of articles, foreign authors, the year the journal was founded, and visits to the website. Analyses at the article level looked at the number of articles, authors originating from the home university and foreign authors, the use of the English version of the title, abstract and keywords (which is a requirement for indexing into Scopus and WoS databases), the use of DOI identifiers and an appendix bibliography entered at least on the platform.\nThe report is summarized in a tabular summary of key indicators for journals and recommendations for editors. Based on the report, the review team prepared a summary and recommendations for the journals.\n\nEffects of change and new Challenges\nThe pro-quality activities implemented by the PRESSto Platform required tracing global trends in the development of similar platforms and the direction of development of journals, and the presentation of their content. At the same time, it was necessary to identify the biggest problems faced by the editors of the home university in order to plan development activities, taking into account the current situation of the journals.\nAlready after the first stage of the development project, the benefits of the changes can be seen. The basic task was to collect information on all journals published at\nAMU, but the most important one, which had a real impact on further activities and functioning, was the journal audit. It allowed to assess compliance with current standards for the operation of a modern scientific journal and initiated the development of a comprehensive plan, which contributed to filling in missing elements and developing further actions.\nIn the long term, PRESSto ensures the maintenance and development of a technologically advanced level of journal management while reducing IT infrastructure costs, providing a venue for the joint presentation of AMU journals, their content and promotion. It is important to protect the output of journals from possible loss and to continuously improve journal publishing practices.\nContinuous changes in the publishing market and developments in information technology are affecting the presentation of scientific content and the need for constant attention to the quality of publishing standards. The best example of the pace of change is the arrival in 2022 of an advanced generative AI tool such as ChatGPT, which within two months resulted in changes to the publication policies of major international scientific publishers such as Nature (Tools such as ChatGPT..., 2023; Why Nature will not allow..., 2023; Stokel-Walker, 2023), Science (Holden Thorp, 2023; Science Journals,\n2023), The Lancet (2023) and others. This is one of the current challenges that must be taken into account and that the PRESSto Team will also have to face in the near future.\nReferences\nAlphaGalileo > AlphaGalileo > About us. 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Biuletyn EBIB. https://ebibojs.pl/index.php/ebib/article/view/795 (accessed on August 30, 2023).\nDrabek, A., Bemke-Świtilnik, M. (2020). Polskie czasopisma naukowe w świetle wybranych elementów oceny stosowanych w międzynarodowych bazach danych. W: Biblioteki uczelniane wobec środowiska akademickiego. Nowe obszary działania. Materiały Jubileuszowej Konferencji Biblioteki Głównej\nAGH z okazji obchodów 100-lecia Akademii Górniczo-Hutniczej im. Stanisława Staszica, Kraków\n12–13 września 2019 r. Podrazik, A., Stanek-Kapcia, J., Urbaniec, M. (red.). Wydawnictwo AGH, pp. 107–132.\nDrabek, A., Bemke-Świtilnik, M. (2021). Międzynarodowe czy krajowe? Analiza bibliometryczna pols-z kich czasopism pedagogicznych. Forum Pedagogiczne, 1, 29–49. https://doi.org/10.21697/fp.2021.1.03\nFlanagin, A., Bibbins-Domingo, K., Berkwits M., Christiansen, S. L. (2023). Nonhuman “Authors” and\nImplications for the Integrity of Scientific Publication and Medical Knowledge. JAMA, 329(8), 637–\n639. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2023.1344\nGoogle Scholar. Inclusion. https://scholar.google.co.uk/intl/en/scholar/inclusion.html#overview (accessed on August 30, 2023).\nGrejner A., Adamczak, M., Jankowiak-Konik, B. (2024) Stanowisko i rekomendacje Stowarzyszenia Wydawców Szkół Wyższych w kwestii stosowania narzędzi generatywnej sztucznej inteligencji (GAI) w pisaniu prac naukowych. Biuletyn EBIB, 2(213). https://ebibojs.pl/index.php/ebib/article/view/911 (accessed on May 22, 2024).\nHahn, K. L. (2008). Research Library Publishing Services New Options for University Publishing.\nhttp://www.arl.org/bm~doc/research-library-publishing-services.pdf\nHolden Thorp, H. (2023). ChatGPT is fun, but not an author. Science, 379, 313–313. https://doi.org/10.1126/ science.adg7879\nIThenticate User Guide. (n.d.). https://help.turnitin.com/ithenticate/ithenticate-user/ithenticate-user.\nhtm#Documents\nKhanna, S., Raoni, J., Smecher, A., Alperin, J. P.; Ball, J., Willinsky, J. (2022), “Details of publications using software by the Public Knowledge Project,” Harvard Dataverse, V3; Location of known journals using PKP’s Open Journal Systems.pdf. (n.d.). Harvard Dataverse, V3. https://doi.org/10.7910/DVN/\nOCZNVY (accessed on August 30, 2023).\nKarwasińska, E. (2017). Biblioteczne usługi wydawnicze – nowa rola biblioteki naukowej, In E. Kulczyński, (ed.) Komunikacja naukowa w humanistyce (pp. 237–263). Wydawnictwo Naukowe Instytutu\nFilozofii UAM.\nKierunki rozwoju otwartego dostępu do publikacji i wyników badań naukowych w Polsce (2015), https:// www.gov.pl/documents/1068557/1069061/20180413_Kierunki_rozwoju_OD_wersja_ostateczna.pdf\nKulczycki, E. (2013). Otwarte czasopisma, zakładanie czasopism naukowych oraz transformacja czasopism zamkniętych. Stowarzyszenie EBIB.\nKulczycki, E., Korytkowski, P. (2020a). Analiza gotowości polskich czasopism na Plan S. https://doi.\norg/10.6084/m9.figshare.12005475\nKulczycki, E., Korytkowski, P. (2020b). Standardy wydawnicze polskich czasopism naukowych w latach\n2017–2019. https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.11734350\nMaistrovskaya, M., Newson, K. (2019). Making the Move to Open Journal Systems 3: Recommendations for a (mostly) painless upgrade. Code4lib, 43. https://journal.code4lib.org/articles/14260\nMatysek, A. (2017). Cytowania dokumentów elektronicznych w wydawnictwach naukowych. Nowa Biblioteka. Usługi, Technologie Informacyjne i Media, 4(27), 53–68.\n\nMolls, E. (2019). Assessing the Success of Library Published Journals, Against the Grain, 31(4), Article 13.\nhttps://doi.org/10.7771/2380-176X.8414\nNarodowe Centrum Nauki. (2021). Instrukcja. Polityka NCN dotycząca otwartego dostępu do publikacji.\nhttps://www.ncn.gov.pl/aktualnosci/2024-12-17-nowa-instrukcja-open-access\nOpen Journal Systems Demos. https://demo.publicknowledgeproject.org/ojs3/demo/ (accessed on\nAugust 30, 2023).\nPKP Docs – Documentation for OJS, OMP, and all of the Public Knowledge Project’s software. (n.d.). PKP\nDocs. https://docs.pkp.sfu.ca/#appojs3\nPamuła-Cieślak, N. (2019). Wybrane elementy architektury informacji platform wydawniczych czasopism otwartych a standardy publikowania naukowego na przykładzie Akademickiej Platformy Czasopism.\nNowa Biblioteka. Usługi, Technologie Informacyjne i Media, 3(34), 7–24. http://repozytorium.umk.\npl/handle/item/6233\nRozporządzenie Ministra Nauki i Szkolnictwa Wyższego z dnia 7 listopada 2018 r. w sprawie sporządzania wykazów wydawnictw monografii naukowych oraz czasopism naukowych i recenzowanych materiałów z konferencji międzynarodowych, Dz.U. 2018 poz. 2152, https://isap.sejm.gov.pl/isap.nsf/\nDocDetails.xsp?id=WDU20180002152\nSidyk, D., Gloc, R. (2020). Wydawnicza nowoczesność: czyli wdrożenie Open Journal System w czasopiśmie naukowym “Com.press”. Com.press, 3(2), 102–106. https://compress.edu.pl/e-wydania/item/wydawnicza-nowoczesnosc-czyli-wdrozenie-open-journal-system-w-czasopismie-naukowym-com-press\nScience Journals. 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Learned Publishing, 31(3), 230–234. https:// doi.org/10.1002/leap.1151.\nSprawozdanie z działalności Biblioteki Uniwersyteckiej za rok 2014, https://lib.amu.edu.pl/wp-content/ uploads/2018/05/spr_bu_2014.pdf (accessed on August 30, 2023).\nSprawozdanie z działalności Biblioteki Uniwersyteckiej (2015) https://lib.amu.edu.pl/wp-content/ uploads/2018/05/spr_bu_2015.pdf (accessed on August 30, 2023).\nStokel-Walker, C. (2023). ChatGPT listed as author on research papers: many scientists disapprove. Nature,\n613, 620–621. https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-023-00107-z (accessed on August 30, 2023).\nStrategia Uniwersytetu im. Adama Mickiewicza w Poznaniu na lata 2020–2030. (2021). https://bip.amu.\nedu.pl/__data/assets/pdf_file/0032/219974/US-93-2020-2021-Zal..pdf (accessed on August 30, 2023).\nThe Lancet. For authors. https://www.thelancet.com/publishing-excellence (accessed on August 30, 2023).\nTools such as ChatGPT threaten transparent science; here are our ground rules for their use. (2023a).\nNature 613, 612. https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-023-00191-1\nUNESCO Recommendation on Open Science. (2021). https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/ pf0000379949.locale=en (accessed on August 30, 2023).\nWhy “Nature” will not allow the use of generative AI in images and video. (2023). Nature 618, 214. https:// doi.org/10.1038/d41586-023-01546-4.\nWiley. Search Engine Optimization: For Authors. https://www.wiley.com/legacy/wileyblackwell/pdf/SEOforAuthorsLINKSrev.pdf (accessed on August 30, 2023).\n\nZarządzenie Dyrektora BUP nr 7/2022 dotyczące wprowadzenia Regulaminu elektronicznej Platformy\nOtwartych Czasopism Naukowych UAM – PRESSto. https://pressto.amu.edu.pl/ojs_3/pliki/info/Regulamin%20PRESSTO_Zarz%C4%85dzenie%20dyrektora%20BUP%20nr%207_2022.pdf (accessed on August 30, 2023).\nZarządzenie nr 238/2021/2022 Rektora Uniwersytetu im. Adama Mickiewicza w Poznaniu z dnia 24 czerwca 2022 roku w sprawie czasopism naukowych UAM oraz Platformy Otwartych Czasopism\nNaukowych UAM – PRESSto. https://bip.amu.edu.pl/__data/assets/pdf_file/0020/381260/ZR-238-\n2021-2022.pdf (accessed on August 30, 2023).\n\nAnna Zatora\nORCID: 0000-0003-4597-5568\nUniversity of Lodz\nFaculty of Philology\nInstitute of Contemporary Culture\nDepartment of Theory of Literature\nROR: https://ror.org/05cq64r17\nEvolving from Tradition: The Problems of Literary Genres as a Contemporary\nScholarly Journal\nAbstract: This article analyzes the scientific journal Zagadnienia Rodzajów Literackich /\nThe Problems of Literary Genres (ISSN 0084-4446, e-ISSN 2451-0335) with respect to the transformation of its publishing model from a traditional framework to an open access paradigm. The necessity of adapting to the evolving publishing landscape in Poland and globally, coupled with the advancements in open science, compels journal publishers and editors to implement measures aimed at enhancing the visibility of published content, ensuring data security, and adhering to international standards, including metadata enrichment. Over the past several years, driven by the initiative of the editorial board and with the approval of the publisher, a series of modifications have been implemented in Zagadnienia\nRodzajów Literackich / The Problems of Literary Genres – encompassing the migration of the journal’s website to the Open Journal Systems (OJS) platform, the provision of archival issues within an institutional repository, the adoption of open licenses, and the standardization of metadata. The analysis presented herein elucidates the developmental trajectory of the journal, with a particular focus on the collaborative efforts among the editors, the Łódź Scientific Society (primary publisher), the University of Lodz Publishing House\n(co-publisher), and the University of Lodz Library (repository administrator). The case of\nZagadnienia Rodzajów Literackich / The Problems of Literary Genres demonstrates the capacity of a humanities journal, sustained for 65 years, to fulfill the exigencies of contemporary scientific periodicals within the context of open science and digital transformation.\nKeywords: Polish scientific journals, open access, open science in Poland, Zagadnienia\nRodzajów Literackich, Stefania Skwarczyńska\n\nScientific Journals in the 21st Century – a curse of abundance?1\nWriting a scientific article is often considered the most challenging aspect of a scientist’s work cycle, after the completion of research. However, science communication is now heavily influenced by evaluative metrics, such that the measurement of science\n(Kulczycki, 2023) has become critical, significantly impacting the market for scientific publishing. Consequently, the foremost difficulty today is not the preparation of a scientific dissertation, but rather the identification of an appropriate journal for publication.\nDetermining the precise number of active scientific journals in Poland is challenging. Data are volatile, with new ISSNs and e-ISSNs registered daily, journals undergoing suspension and relaunch, and internationalization necessitating a broader question:\nhow many active scientific journals exist worldwide? Ministry of Education and Science registry dated July 18, 2023, lists 34,318 periodicals (MEiN, 2023). The 2023 CiteScore, published in June 2023, Elsevier’s CiteScore Metric 2022 (a measure of the citation impact of scientific periodicals), identifies over 28,100 active journal titles (Scopus,\n2023), representing solely those journals indexed in the Scopus database. Relevant to the context of a Lodz-based journal, the University of Lodz Publishing House issued\n40 scientific periodicals in 2021, ranking second in Poland among all entities and first among public sector entities.2 The Faculty of Philology at the University of Lodz currently lists approximately 22 affiliated active scientific journals on its website,3 constituting solely one faculty within a single Polish university.4 A literary scholar from\nLodz could potentially publish several papers annually within these institutional periodicals alone.5\nThe researcher must select from a surfeit of titles those that align with their expectations across multiple dimensions. Ideally, the selected journal should be scored by the Ministry of Science and Higher Education, a salient factor for employers (i.e.,\n1 The article was written in 2023 and refers to the social and legal situation prevailing at that time.\nSome elements of reality described in the article have changed (e.g., the ministry responsible for science and the National Science Center’s open access policy), but the journal’s website has also been modernized (content layout) and the licensing rules have been changed (default license:\nCC BY; new publishing agreement template from 2025) – these changes confirm the direction of the journal’s development presented in the text.\n2 The first place went to DeGruyter/Sciendo, publishing 141 titles. See Biała księga (2021), 15.\n3 Data as at 14.08.2023, see https://www.filolog.uni.lodz.pl/strefa-pracownika/czasopisma-wydzialowe.\n4 The OPI report for 2022 mentions 608 scientific institutions making up the “sphere of science,” including 369 universities (Science in Poland... 2022: 14). Of course, not all of them publish scientific journals, but it is enough for half to do so for the number of periodicals to be high.\n5 Which, of course, would not be advisable – but the example shows the scale of the problem.\n\nuniversities/research centers assessed by the Ministry of Science and Higher Education) and scientists evaluated via scoring. Moreover, the journal should be recognized by funding agencies (if the research is externally supported) and indexed in reputable and visible databases (citation rates), especially in light of the increasing prevalence of so-called predatory journals,6 in addition to being aligned with the researcher’s discipline and maintaining high scientific rigor (credible editorial board and review process). Further considerations include publication costs (article processing charges and other potential costs) and copyright (ensuring the preservation of intellectual property rights and appropriate licensing), increasingly salient factors within open access models (Brzozowska, Piestrzyński & Zatora, 2021).\nToday’s demanding paradigm for publishing scientific texts presents challenges not solely for authors, but also for publishers and journal editors. Maintaining market presence (or presence within the “sphere of science,” when refraining from purely economic considerations) is difficult, and balancing the preservation of high scientific quality and historical legacy with contemporary exigencies necessitates judicious consideration. This article profiles one of Poland’s oldest periodicals in literary studies, one that has exerted a considerable influence upon research within literary genealogy for over sixty years.\nThe Problems of Literary Genres: Forms of Culture and Theory\nThe title Zagadnienia Rodzajów Literackich7 (The Problems of Literary Genres) may appear somewhat archaic and hermetic to contemporary readers, including the journal’s intended audience – literary researchers/passionate readers. Literary genres remain an ongoing area of inquiry; however, in 1957, doubts were already circulating within Polish scholarly circles regarding the narrow thematic focus of The Problems of Literary Genres and its potential negative impact on interest in the periodical, causing the problems to\n– nomen omen – exhaust themselves after a limited number of publications (Hübner,\n2019). Concerns were expressed with relation to both the limited scope (literary genology failing to attract sufficient researchers) and the title (potentially deterring literary historians or theorists), as well as the foundational rationale for establishing another literary periodical (given the existing avenues for publishing texts on literary genres).\n6 On the problems with so-called predatory journals/publishers (see Grudniewicz et al., 2019).\n7 Year of foundation: 1958. ISSN: 0084-4446, e-ISSN: 2451-0335. DOI: https://doi.org/10.26485/\nZRL. Website: https://journals.ltn.lodz.pl/index.php/Zagadnienia-Rodzajow-Literackich/index.\nE-mail: [REDACTED:EMAIL].\n\nDespite these adversities and conceptual changes, Stefania Skwarczyńska spearheaded the establishment of a new periodical through the Łódzkie Towarzystwo Naukowe\n(Łódź Scientific Society), reactivated subsequent to the Second World War. The origins of The Problems of Literary Genres have been detailed by Irena Hübner; rather than reiterating those important findings, the focus here will be on the changes observed in the periodical in recent years.\nThe journal would not have originated were it not for the preceding concept of compiling a Dictionary of Literary Genres, a comprehensive endeavor whose authors intended to define (in extensive entries) concepts pertinent to global literature, in addition to popular works and literature (Hübner, 2019, p. 139). To some degree, Stefania Skwarczyńska’s intention was realized by the Dictionary of Literary Genres and Genres edited by Grzegorz\nGazda and Słowinia Tynecka-Makowska (2006),8 but in 1958, instead of forming a team responsible for entries within the realm of genology, the then-head of the Department of\nLiterary Theory, alongside Jan Trzynadlowski and Witold Ostrowski, established a scientific journal.9 The history of The Problems of Literary Genres is pertinent, given that throughout its history, until recently, the journal functioned as an international publication, but one principally focused on Central and Eastern Europe, given the prominence of authors publishing from those regions. In recent years, there has been an increase in contributions from Western scholars in The Problems of Literary Genres, while most publications stem from Polish scholars in literature and culture. An important evolution has been the expansion of the thematic scope: The tenure of Jarosław Płuciennik10 as editor-in-chief has broadened the journal’s scope to include cultural studies (now encompassing cultural and religious studies, as per MEiN guidelines) and publications in the arts. A new segment, “Forms of Culture and Theory,” has been added to the title, providing both an aesthetic embellishment to the journal’s vignette from 2021 onward and informing readers and authors regarding the theoretical (traditional) and cultural\n(modern) orientation of the published works.\n8 As Roma Sendyka writes: “The idea, formulated in 1947, was implemented over the years by an impressive group (in terms of output, scale of interests, field of operations, and finally: number of collaborators). Accounts from 2006 enabled Grzegorz Gazda to determine the number of entries prepared at nearly 600. The collected material is the result of the hard work of outstanding researchers, and in its potential entirety encompasses a portion of information incomparable to any similar terminological lexicon; one can probably safely speak of a rarity here on a global scale” (Sendyka, 2009, 152).\n9 The position of editor-in-chief of the journal was held by Stefania Skwarczyńska (1958–1988),\nJan Trzynadlowski (1989–1995), and Grzegorz Gazda (1996–2010). Since 2010, the editor-inchief has been Jarosław Płuciennik.\n10 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6984-7734.\n\nThe Problems of Literary Genres has been published by the Łódź Scientific Society since its inception (1958), initially in collaboration with the Ossoliński National Institute in Wrocław (1958-1982) and subsequently with the University of Lodz Publishing House\n(since 2016). The core of the editorial board comprises staff from the Department of\nLiterary Theory at the University of Lodz. The subsequent paragraphs will address aspects pertaining to the journal’s management and the collaborative efforts between the editorial board and the publishers, focusing on modifications that have been and are necessary for The Problems of Literary Genres to maintain its standing among scholars of literature and culture as a viable publication venue.\nOpen Journal Systems – An (Almost) End-to-End Solution\nLike numerous scholarly journals, The Problems of Literary Genres utilizes the Open\nJournal Systems (OJS) platform. Discussing this tool, Ewa Rozkosz posits that: “[...] a comprehensive digitization of a scholarly journal can be predicated solely upon the ‘networking’ of both resources (making full texts accessible on the website) and processes\n(recording all activities within the system)” (Rozkosz, 2014, p. 1). The premise of OJS is to enable editors and other contributors – reviewers, proofreaders, graphic designers – to operate within a shared digital environment, thereby eliminating the need for multiple off-site file transfers. The development of OJS software mirrors the development of open science and addresses the needs of publishers and editors of scientific journals, while also reducing the costs of maintaining a publishing platform as an open-source solution.11\nOJS Publishing initiated the implementation of OJS for the journals it publishes as early as 2015, providing editors with a test version and training. In 2020, the Łódź Scientific\nSociety also provided OJS training, and the resources of The Problems of Literary Genres were uploaded to the publisher’s platform. Why then, following Ewa Rozkosz’s definition, can a full digitization not be claimed?\nThe OJS-based The Problems of Literary Genres website,12 developed and updated\n(an upgrade to a newer version is in progress), is the journal’s sole official website as of 2020. It aggregates basic information and functions to publish and present current issues. However, it is not utilized for the submission, editing, and proofreading process, which will be discussed in subsection Why Not an Editorial Process?\n11 For more on OJS: https://pkp.sfu.ca/software/ojs/, cf. Rozkosz 2014.\n12 https://journals.ltn.lodz.pl/index.php/Zagadnienia-Rodzajow-Literackich; current version of\nOJS: 3.1.1.4.\n\nWebsite\nAs a scholarly journal site, The Problems of Literary Genres website is designed to cater to both authors seeking publication venues and readers, while also adhering to the international standards promulgated by leading academic publishers. The website, available in both Polish and English, was assessed by the editors of the Directory of\nOpen Access Journals (DOAJ) database, within which the journal is indexed as of 2023.\nThe core “About the journal” section features the following tabs:\n■ “Journal metrics” (basic journal information – official names, publisher, foundation year, ISSN, e-ISSN, DOI, format, and frequency of publication),\n■ “Mission and thematic areas” (thematic scope, disciplines, and structure of the primary sections of the journal),\n■ “History” (outline of the periodical’s history and a link to more extensive commentary),\n■ “Indexing, archiving, and visibility” (information pertaining to the availability of current and archived issues and the databases indexing the journal),\n■ “Open Access policy” (information regarding the open access model adopted by the journal, including licenses and fees for authors),\n■ “Ethics” (a statement from the journal’s editors on ethical principles in accordance with COPE standards),\n■ “Review rules” (information on the double-blind peer review process and guidelines for reviewers),\n■ “Reviewers” (lists of reviewers provided annually, starting in 2016).\nSection two, “The editorial team,” presents:\n■ A profile of the editor-in-chief with a link to their scientific curriculum vitae, a linked ORCID identifier, and an email address,\n■ The names of the editors with their affiliations and linked ORCID identifiers,\n■ The name of the editorial secretary with affiliation and a sub-linked ORCID and email address,\n■ The names of the language editors with their affiliations,\n■ The names of the website editors with affiliations,\n■ The names of the editorial board members with affiliations and ORCID or website links,\n■ The names of the founding editors.\nThe “Online issues” section features current issues of the magazine and archives from 2011 forward, the section further described below in the part Online Editions.\nThe “For authors” section contains tabs:\n\n■ “General information for authors” (information regarding fees, licenses, copyright, article processing times, submission procedures, as well as links to other pertinent sections),\n■ “Editorial guidelines” (detailed requirements for the preparation of articles and other text types for submission and publication).\nThe final section – “Contact” – presents contact details for the editors and publisher.\nThe information deemed particularly relevant by the editors is reiterated on the homepage: in the footer (ISSN, e-ISSN, publisher’s logo, funder’s logo, links to databases) and in the news header (open access format, licenses, access to the archive, copyright, MEiN score). The news section features calls for papers, as well as information regarding events sponsored or organized by the journal. The most recently published issue is featured at the bottom of the page.\nOnline Editions\nThe OJS platform facilitates the creation of a virtual bookshop website. In the case of The Problems of Literary Genres, it was determined to present individual issues in order from newest (the current issue is published first in Early View mode, then in full) to oldest (the oldest issue on the platform is the first issue of 2011 – older issues are accessible within the Repository of the University of Lodz (RUŁ), described in the section on digitization and archiving). From 2018 onward, journals have been uploaded by individual articles, while those from 2011–2017 have been completed as full PDF files prepared as a print version (DOI registration for individual texts began in 2017).13\nEach issue of The Problems of Literary Genres featured on the website, including each individual article, is now provided with metadata. This includes a thumbnail of the cover, information regarding volume editors and funding sources, and the date of\n13 It is worth recalling Ewa Rozkosz’s diagnosis from 2014: “I would call the stage that most Polish magazines are currently at transitional. Many editors are publishing a digital version of the notebook as a single file. I associate this practice with the trends of the first printed books (15th century). Just as incunabula imitated manuscript books, the cited form of the digital edition resembles a paper copy of a journal issue. For this reason, information systems dedicated to journals – and what this entails in making each article available on a separate page with metadata readable by indexing robots (web crawlers) – cannot be spoken of using the epithet common. OJS and similar systems are nowadays (in Poland) an added value of a periodical” (Rozkosz, 2014, p. 2). The practice of publishing the entire issue of Zagadnienia Rodzajów Literackich (The Problems of Literary\nGenres) was abandoned only with the 2018 issues, so relatively late, but it is worth noting that at the time of the OJS website’s construction, the journal was still on sale in hard copy, despite the publication of online issues (available free of charge, but with the terms of use still undefined at the time). This transitional phase ended in 2022 with the abandonment of regular sales of paper editions and the full transition to the open access model.\n\npublication. A table of texts following the issue’s structure (sections and page numbering) is displayed underneath. The index shows the title, author(s), and a tile linking to a downloadable PDF file. Clicking on the title grants the reader access to the metadata for that specific article. The following metadata are entered: title, author details (first name, last name, affiliation, ORCID identifier), DOI identifier, keywords, abstract, bibliography, publication date, license. The article is assigned to a volume and section, with a thumbnail image of the journal cover and a tile linking to a full-text PDF version that can be opened in a browser and downloaded.\nInitially, the Lodz Scientific Society posted articles on the platform as a single PDF including the title, author’s name, and cover page. Currently, metadata is uploaded in full and registered in the DOI, and both the files and virtual profiles of the articles feature a Creative Commons license.\nWhy Not an Editorial Process?\nAs mentioned above, the OJS platform enables editors and other contributors to collaborate on texts within a shared digital environment. However, there are several reasons why the editors of The Problems of Literary Genres have elected not to fully digitize the editorial workflow, foremost among these being the procedure for reviewing articles.\nEach article within the Dissertations (and Essays) section undergoes a double-blind review process, wherein reviewers remain unaware of the author’s identity and authors remain unaware of the reviewers’ identities, with two reviews conducted when opinions are concordant and a third reviewer consulted when opinions diverge. In recent years, the journal has averaged approximately seventy reviewers annually. The subject matter of submitted texts varies greatly, necessitating the engagement of multiple experts within a given volume. Within the humanities in Poland, digitally reviewing articles is not a widespread practice, and the significant underappreciation of reviewers’ efforts14 renders the OJS system’s requirement for account creation inappropriate\n14 Undervaluing should be understood in two ways. Firstly, few scientific journals can afford to pay reviewers even token salaries, especially in view of the discontinuity of funding. Diamond journals, which do not charge authors’ fees, subsist either on university funds or/and on funding from the Ministry of Science and Higher Education through competitions such as the “Rozwój czasopism naukowych” [“Development of Scientific Journals”]; however, these funds are allocated on a cyclical basis, for one, two or four years, and the contract with the Ministry of Science and Higher Education does not provide for the possibility of funding the process of reviewing scientific papers. The second important issue is the insufficient appreciation of the work of reviewers – work that is, after all, extremely responsible and guarantees a high scientific level of published texts – by employers and decision-makers. Preparing a thorough review takes time that an employee could devote to his or her own research and does not generate the points that\n\nand may increase reviewer refusal rates. The most challenging stage in the publishing process is the search for reviewers: identifying an expert on an often narrow topic, one who will not recognize the author of an anonymized text and who can prepare a pro bono opinion within a reasonable timeframe, often necessitates weeks of correspondence with multiple scholars. Requiring the manual instruction for the OJS platform would make reviewer identification almost impossible within a timeframe that would not significantly delay publication, at least within literary studies and related disciplines.\nChanging the method of journal submissions from the current email-based system to\nOJS could also negatively impact submission rates. While some authors are conversant with the application format of the journal platform, for others this digitization could be problematic. Until recently, the editors of The Problems of Literary Genres received submissions in typescript format, and given the difficulty encountered in prompting authors to create ORCID profiles, implementing an OJS system profile requirement would likely not improve the situation. While rejecting submissions failing to meet the technical requirements could be considered, the journal’s principal objective is to publish high-quality content and advance the disciplines it represents; therefore, limiting the impact of papers without assessing their merit would contravene both the interests of the editorial board and those of science. Currently, The Problems of Literary Genres recruits texts via email, though texts submitted via OJS are also considered, despite not being the preferred or prominently advertised method on the website.\nThe editorial process, therefore, is conducted in a largely traditional manner.\nConducting a given scientific article from submission to publication entails between a dozen and a few dozen emails with the editorial secretary, a strategy that, for the moment, represents the most effective solution for authors and others involved in the publishing process.\nDigitization and Archiving – Security and Visibility\nIn 2021, the Łódz Scientific Society, via the initiative of the editorial board of The Problems of Literary Genres and the editor-in-chief, partnered with the Library of the University of\nLodz. The Director of the Library of the University of Lodz agreed to digitize resources held in the library’s collection, encompassing all issues of the journal from 1958 to 2010.\nare so important in the evaluation of scientific units. While there is sometimes an appreciation of reviewers in internal evaluation in individual universities, this is a disproportionately small\n“gain” in relation to the burden on the reviewer and the workload. The system in this matter would definitely need to be reformed.\n\nThe digitization of over one hundred issues of The Problems of Literary Genres was completed in 2022, and the Repository team at the University of Lodz initiated the deposition of materials, now available on the RUŁ platform.15\nThe materials were digitized using OCR (Optical Character Recognition) software, enabling machine-readable characters. Files were saved in PDF and TIFF formats, and covers were also digitized (JPG, TIFF). The full issues were then divided into individual articles, compressed, and annotated with a Dublin Core metadata set, entered alongside the file into the repository. In addition, issues already accessible as PDFs on the journal’s website were deposited. Files from 2011–2017, published as full issues in\nPDF format, have been divided and uploaded to RUŁ, with missing metadata completed; issues from 2018–2022 have also been transferred. This collaboration with the\nUŁ Library is ongoing – The Problems of Literary Genres maintains an open collection in the UŁ Repository, within which new collections will be created for current issues of the journal. By the end of July 2023, 1773 files had been placed in the collection.\nThis archiving strategy ensures the security of materials in the digital environment.\nMaterials were not assigned DOI identifiers until 2017; due to the RUŁ, they have since acquired permanent Handle identifiers. Additional security is provided by the\nUŁ servers and regular backups. Furthermore, depositing journal resources in the UŁ\nRepository positively impacts their visibility. This repository, based on DSpace software, is indexed in databases and aggregators (e.g., OpenAIRE, CORE, OpenDOAR) and well-positioned in search engines, including Google Scholar. Linking to the ORCID database also allows authors to link to their ORCID identifiers.\nOpenness Versus Tradition – Time for Change\nMaintaining a competitive position within the scientific journal market, amidst increasing demands and evolving research and regulations regarding publications funding, necessitates the revision of traditional approaches to scientific content publishing.\nWhereas subscription or gold open access models enable self-funding, journals published within the diamond model must ensure both compliance with funder expectations and the accommodation of authors, who can select from numerous potential publication venues. In the case of The Problems of Literary Genres the necessary changes principally concerned the publication policy and journal profile.\n15 https://repozytorium.uni.lodz.pl/handle/11089/40698\n\nOpen Access Policy\nAs of 2019, texts appearing in The Problems of Literary Genres are licensed under Creative\nCommons. Editions from 2011–2018 have been made accessible by the publisher on the website, but without explicit licenses specifying usage parameters. These materials are, therefore, available under the so-called brown open access. The default license for issues from\n2019–2021 remained the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-No Derivative\nWorks 4.0 International license, or CC BY-NC-ND. In 2022, the editors, in collaboration with the primary publisher, enabled authors to select between two licenses – the existing CC BY-NC-ND and CC BY (Attribution 4.0 International). The desire to resolve copyright matters and include a second, more liberal license was driven by the pursuit of a fully open publishing model with clear rules, and was also linked to the National Science\nCenter’s published openness policy (NCN, 2020). Articles resulting from NCN-funded grants must meet certain criteria, with CC BY license being mandatory; texts licensed to restrict commercial exploitation (non-commercial, NC) are ineligible for grant settlements. Therefore, from 2022 onward, authors accepted for publication in The Problems of Literary Genres select their open access license. In addition, there is a provision on the website that authors do not cede economic rights to the publisher.\nMeeting the expectations of research funders constituted another reason for the editors’ decision in 2022 to register the journal in the Directory of Open Access Journals.\nThe DOAJ database and its associated Journal Checker Tool feature in NCN’s policy, and visibility within these platforms’ search engines can influence authors’ decision to submit to a particular publisher. Both the recommendations of the Publishers’ Office of the University of Lodz regarding open licenses and registration within DOAJ and the Łódz Scientific Society’s prompt action illustrate the publisher’s crucial role in the journal’s development and increased visibility among recognized open access journals.\nProfile and Version of the Journal\nThe registration of the journal in the DOAJ database, alongside its inclusion in the Sherpa Romeo international catalogue of publishing policies in the same year, prompted the substantive assessment of The Problems of Literary Genres. The journal now encompasses literary studies, cultural and religious studies, art sciences, and, added by the MEiN in the July 2023 list without prior consultation with the editorial board,\nPolish studies. The strict genological focus remains central; however, just as literary genology evolves (Grochowski, 2018), so the profile of The Problems of Literary Genres has shifted. As such, the editorial board has expanded to encompass researchers specializing in cultural studies and in the relationship between literature and other arts, new media, and digital games.\n\nThe evolution of The Problems of Literary Genres into an open-access and digitally published journal has provided the editors and publisher with new opportunities, including the publication of texts in Early View. From 2022, articles appear on the publisher’s platform immediately following positive reviews, factual and editorial corrections, and submission – the text is not delayed for publication within a full issue.\nThis strategy arose primarily from the need for authors to report their publications\n(with links to the digital version) for evaluation purposes. Articles appearing in Early\nView are readable, citable, and accessible more quickly than previously.\nOpen science is centrally predicated upon online access; consequently, even if a journal has been or is being published, as The Problems of Literary Genres has been, in dual format – paper and digital – the primary version for recipients is the digitally accessible one. Acknowledging this and the introduction of Early View, the decision was made to return to the semi-annual publication schedule. The publication of a quarterly journal is no longer justified – texts can be published more rapidly, and publishing two issues yearly represents an economic solution, reducing publication costs. The Łódz Scientific\nSociety also agreed to reduce the printing of the paper version. Currently, copies are solely produced for the publisher’s and editorial office’s libraries and archives.\nThus, the digital version has become the primary format, necessitating editorial team changes regarding content presentation. The journal layout was adapted for the electronic version in 2023, eliminating QR codes useful in the paper version and highlighting authors’ affiliations on a separate tab. In order to comply with indexing database requirements, a requirement for the transcription of non-Latin notations in metadata has been instituted. Further changes are planned, including the introduction of additional file formats (HTML) and metadata.\n***\nThe collaboration between the editorial board of The Problems of Literary Genres and its publishers – the Łódź Scientific Society and the University of Lodz Publishing\nHouse – not only enables the efficient implementation of changes in publication policy and content presentation but also provides the impetus for these changes. Changes are essential for a journal to maintain market relevance and researchers’ awareness.\nSixty-five years of existence represent not solely a legacy for The Problems of Literary\nGenres but also a responsibility. A traditional image needed to be replaced by a modern editorial and publishing policy.\n\nReferences\nBiała Księga. Raport na temat rynku wydawnictw naukowych w Polsce w 2021 roku. (2021). Polska\nIzba Książki, Stowarzyszenie Wydawców Szkół Wyższych, Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego.\nhttp://www.pik.org.pl/konferencja-publikacje-naukowe/documents/Biala-Ksiega_Raport_PIK.pdf\n(accessed on August 14, 2023).\nBrzozowska, A., Piestrzynski, T., Zatora, A. (2021). Publikowanie otwarte. Praktyczny przewodnik dla badaczy. Biblioteka Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego. http://hdl.handle.net/11089/47541\nDeed – Attribution 4.0 International – Creative Commons. (b.d.). Creative Commons. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/\nDeed – Attribution-Noncommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International – Creative Commons. (b.d.).\nCreative Commons. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/\nDirectory of Open Access Journals – DOAJ. (b.d.). https://doaj.org/\nGazda, G. (1992). Stefania Skwarczyńska jako wydawca i redaktor. In M. Bielacki & J. Trzynaldowski\n(eds.), Stefania Skwarczyńska. Uczony, Nauczyciel, Wychowawca. Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu\nŁódzkiego.\nGazda, G., Tynecka-Makowska, S. (eds.) (2006). Słownik rodzajów i gatunków literackich. TAiWPN\nUniversitas.\nGrochowski, G. (2018). Pamięć gatunków. Ponowoczesne dylematy atrybucji gatunkowej. Instytut\nBadań Literackich PAN.\nGrudniewicz, A., Moher, D., Cobey, K. D., Bryson, G. L., Cukier S., Allen, K., Ardern, C., Balcom, L.,\nBarros, T., Berger, M., Ciro, J. B., Cugusi, L., Donaldson, M. R., Egger, M., Graham, I. D., Hodgkinson, M., Khan, K. M., Mabizela, M., Manca, A.,..., Lalu, M. M. et al. (2019). Predatory journals:\nno definition, no defence. Nature, 576, 210–212. https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-019-03759-y\nHübner, I. (2019). Zagadnienia Rodzajów Literackich. Początki. Zagadnienia Rodzajów Lite rackich, 3(131), 139–145. HANDLE: 11089/44337\nKulczycki, E. (2023). The Evaluation Game. How Publication Metrics Shape Scholarly Communication.\nCambridge University Press.\nMikołajuk, L., Goszczyńska, A. (2016). Rola biblioteki akademickiej w procesie otwierania nauki na przykładzie funkcjonowania Repozytorium Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego. In: S. Skórka & M. Rogoź\n(eds.), Bibliotekarz 2.0. Nowe technologie. Nowe wyzwania. Wydawnictwo Naukowe Uniwersytetu\nPedagogicznego (pp. 178–189). http://hdl.handle.net/11089/18094\nMinisterstwo Edukacji i Nauki [MEiN] (2023). Komunikat Ministra Edukacji i Nauki z dnia 17 lipca\n2023 r. w sprawie wykazu czasopism naukowych i recenzowanych materiałów z konferencji międzynarodowych. https://www.gov.pl/web/edukacja-i-nauka/komunikat-ministra-edukacji-i-nauki-z-dnia-17-lipca-2023-r-w-sprawie-wykazu-czasopism-naukowych-i-recenzowanych-materialow-z-konferencji-miedzynarodowych (accessed on August 29, 2023).\nNarodowe Centrum Nauki [NCN] (2020). Polityka Narodowego Centrum Nauki dotycząca otwartego dostępu do publikacji. https://www.ncn.gov.pl/sites/default/files/pliki/zarzadzenia-dyrektora/ zarzadzenieDyr-38_2020.pdf (accessed on August 29, 2023).\nOstrowski, W. (1992). „Słownik rodzajów literackich” w zamierzeniu Stefanii Skwarczyńskiej i w realizacji. In M. Bielacki, J. Trzynaldowski (eds.), Stefania Skwarczyńska. Uczony, Nauczyciel, Wychowawca. Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego.\nRozkosz, E. (2014). Open Journal Systems – wartość dodana czasopisma. Biuletyn EBIB, 4(149). https:// ebibojs.pl/index.php/ebib/article/view/374/393 (accessed on August 15, 2023).\nScopus (2023). CiteScore 2022 update is live in Scopus!. https://blog.scopus.com/posts/citescore-2022update-is-live-in-scopus (accessed on August 29, 2023).\n\nSendyka, R. (2009), Słownik rodzajów i gatunków literackich. Teksty Drugie, 3, 152–161.\nSherpa Romeo. https://www.sherpa.ac.uk/romeo/\nSkwarczyńska, S. (1947). Projekt „Słownika rodzajów literackich”. Sprawozdania z Czynności i Posiedzeń\nŁódzkiego Towarzystwa Naukowego, 2(1).\n\nJesper Boserup Thestrup\nORCID: 0000-0002-7974-674X\nRoyal Danish Library\nROR: https://ror.org/03vvy0v27\nProblems that journals have when they publish online\nAbstract: In order to fulfil open access (OA) requirements from institutions, funders, and national policies, scientific journals have to ensure open access to their articles and often the research data used in the article. However, publishing scientific articles online gives many benefits. The editors and the authors can reach readers on a global level.\nPublishers often encounter difficulties when publishing online. Our experience is that editors therefore have many questions when they publish online. For example, questions about the relationship between Creative Commons Licenses and Danish copyright law, file formats, persistent identifiers, article-processing costs, and many other topics.\nOA publishing often creates financial problems for the editors. Producing and publishing a journal online is not without cost. Without subscriptions, funding from scientific societies, funds, or institutions, and fees covering article-processing costs, it is not always possible for editors to ensure enough funding.\nIn order to help the editors, we have to provide a comprehensive service. In this paper, I will describe how our publication service has become more extensive than expected in order to solve some of the problems that our journals have.\nThis paper is based on my presentation at the conference “The Challenges of Contemporary\nPublishing”, held May 25–26, 2023, and organized by the Center of Scientific and Technical\nInformation of Lublin University of Technology.\nKeywords: scholarly publishing, library publishers, OJS, Royal Danish Library\n\nBenefits and problems of online scholarly publication\nThe benefit of online publication of journals\nIn 2007, the Royal Danish Library started a publication service. The service had several goals. Danish scientific journals should be able to publish on the server, so that they could continue online.1 New scientific journals should be able to use the platform to start publishing,2 and finally, the platform should give access to journals that have stopped publishing and would be difficult to access.3 Publishing online ensures that journal is accessed easily on a global level. Our data show that even journals that do not publish anymore are read. Our download figures have been increasing since the service was started (Fogtmann-Schulz et al., 2025, p. 3 ).\nThe challenges related to online scholarly publication\nIn 2022 the Copenhagen Business School, Aalborg University Library, and Royal Danish\nLibrary started a project with the Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ) to have more Danish journals registered in DOAJ (Royal Danish Library, n.d., Indexing journals...). The involved libraries assisted the editors in completing the application form, enabling the journals to be included in DOAJ.\nThe project showed (see Rosenkrantz Hansen et al., 2023; Stegger Gemzøe et al.,\n2023) that different editors faced similar problems. They had to be convinced that indexing in DOAJ is beneficial. The editors had issues understanding the consequences of using the Creative Commons licenses in relation to Danish copyright law. DOAJ requires information on file formats, persistent identifiers, peer review, and article processing costs. Information that proved problematic for some of the editors to provide.\nLike OA to articles, it is now often a requirement that the journals share research data on which the articles are based. The data must be shared as Findable, Accessible,\nInteroperable, and Reusable (FAIR) as possible (GO FAIR, n.d.). This will create new problems for the editors. The editors will need access to platforms where they can share the data. They need to understand the consequences of sharing different data formats\n1 See Temp: https://tidsskrift.dk/temp. The journal started in 2010 in print. It does still publish in print and has an embargo of one year where subscriber also have online access. Accessed on\nSeptember 29, 2025.\n2 See Social Interaction: https://tidsskrift.dk/socialinteraction. The journal started in 2018 on our platform. Accessed on September 29, 2025.\n3 See Massekultur & Medier: https://tidsskrift.dk/masmed. The journal was published from 1981 to 1984. Accessed on September 29, 2025.\n\nregarding accessibility, interoperability, and reuse. Sharing data can create problems with the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR), patent regulations, copyright regulations, etc. That will result in new areas where platforms like tidsskrift.dk will need to help the editors.\nIn general, the list of requirements a journal has to comply with is growing. For example, the EU Directive (Directive EU 2016/2102) on the accessibility of the websites of public sector bodies requires that homepages must be usable for persons with disabilities, such as blindness. This requires that the homepage is accessible and that the articles are accessible. According to Public Knowledge Project (PKP) (Public Knowledge Project, 2023), the organization that develops Open Journal Systems (OJS) (Public Knowledge Project,\n2024), the software should ensure accessibility, but the editors still need to ensure that their articles fulfill the requirements (Public Knowledge Project Docs, n.d.). In order to help the journals in this area, we have to develop a new service for them. Our experience is that many of the editors do not have any support from their institutions.\nOA, as mentioned, often creates financial problems for the editors. OA policies minimize funding available to the journals. Our experience is that OA policies, combined with online publication, make it impossible to use a subscription. Often, the journals do not want to use APCs, and at the same time, institutions stop funding publication activity. Therefore, the editors often need a platform like tidsskrift.dk, where they do not need to pay to be published in order to survive.\nTidsskrift.dk: History, content and service\nTidsskrift.dk is the Danish National Open Access Platform. Translated into English\n“tidsskrift.dk” would be “journal.dk”. The Royal Danish Library only operates the platform and is not a publisher. The various editorial boards and scientific societies are the publishers.\nThe platform was established to provide Danish scientific journals with a platform to publish online as well as in print, to facilitate the digitization and publication of existing journals, and to enable the creation of new journals. Our experience is that many Danish journals would have too few subscribers to be financially interesting for a commercial publisher, so the platform offers the journals a chance to be published.\nThe platform operates on the open source software, Open Journal Systems (OJS)\n(Public Knowledge Project, 2024). OJS is now giving access to more than 52.000+ journals (Public Knowledge Project, 2025). We chose to use the software after a research project in 2006 where OJS was recommended (Boserup Thestrup & Frederiksen, 2012, p. 14; Boserup Thestrup, 2016, p. 6).\n\nThe server is the result of a merger between two OJS servers in 2017. The url.\nwas registered in 1999 for a journal digitization project at the Royal Danish Library.\nIn 2007, the Royal Danish Library and the State and University Library (Statsbiblioteket) began using OJS. The two national libraries merged into one national library in 2017\n(Fogtmann-Schulz et al., 2022, p. 3; Royal Danish Library, n.d., Timeline...).\nIn 2017, the server published 133 journals (Fogtmann-Schulz et al., 2022, p. 3).\nIn December 2024, the server made 214 journals available. From 2020 to 2024, the number of published articles rose from 93.024 to 112.620 (Fogtmann-Schulz et al., 2024, p. 3).\nTo ensure high standards among the journals published at tidsskrift.dk, the individual journal must meet a number of specific requirements. However, we include journals based on an overall assessment, so a given journal may not have to meet all the criteria to be included. For example, we accept student journals with an internal peer review if the journal is affiliated with a research institution.\nThe editorial team of the journal must have a scientific objective and approach to be included, and the published articles must be peer-reviewed. One of the editors must be affiliated with a Danish university, a Danish research program, an institution under the Danish Ministry of Culture, a Danish scientific society, or a University college. In order to be a national platform, we accept journals affiliated with institutions similar to those mentioned above from Greenland or the Faroe Islands. We do not charge the journals anything when they publish on our platform (F or redaktører, n.d.).\nThe journals must be OA according to the OA policy of the Independent Research\nFund Denmark. The articles must be online after six to twelve months, depending on the scientific topic of the journal. The journals must accept a green OA policy.4\nAt present, the server offers access to journals from all scientific areas. Articles are usually published in Danish or English. Some journals also publish in Swedish,\nNorwegian, Spanish, German, and Portuguese.\nMost of the journals are immediately OA and are Diamond OA journals. Few have subscriptions, and few use APCs. On the homepage, you can find journals with longer embargoes, like Mathematica Scandinavica. These journals were published before we started to follow the OA policy of the Independent Research Fund Denmark, and we did not want to give these journals financial problems.\nIn her presentation Beata Jankowiak-Konik presented a model to compare the relationship between scientific journals and a publisher. The model uses three levels. One\n4 Journals in health science, natural science, engineering science, agricultural and veterinarian science must be OA after 6 months. Journals in social sciences and the humanities must be OA after 12 months.\n\nlevel involves full cooperation, the second level requires cooperation divided between the editorial board in specific spheres, and finally, there is a model where the editorial board manages all stages of the publication process. The publication process is divided into seven stages, going from selection of text to promotion and distribution\n(Jankowiak-Konik, 2025, Table 1).\nOur server is something at levels two and three in Jankowiak-Konik’s model. We give non-legal binding advice and answer many questions regarding publishing. We get involved in many functions that Jankowiak-Konik describes as those handled by a publisher.\nIn general, our service can be described as Kalikman Lippincott does. Our service provides the necessary technology and know-how, but we do not own the published material (Gardner, 2025, p. 283). The library becomes what Jankowiak-Konik defines\n“Source of Knowledge” where the editor can find information regarding scholarly publication from submission, over review to distribution (Jankowiak-Konik, 2025, p. 234).\nHow the problems affected our service\nOur service in the early phase\nBefore the merger, the two servers had different policies regarding the journals stored on them. The Royal Library focused on different internal digitization projects, journals from Copenhagen University, and offered a service where a scientific journal could be accepted on their platform if they could pay a fee. The State and University Library focused on journals from Aarhus University and actually accepted some journals from\nAalborg University in order to help Aalborg University Library to establish their own\nOJS server. Both libraries accepted journals from museums since both The Royal Library and The State and University Library were funded by the Ministry of Culture and the\nMuseums are financed by that ministry as well. If a journal was published by a scientific society the journal normally would be accepted, but had to prove some kind of affiliation to a specific institution.\nThe services offered by both servers were the same. The libraries operated, translated, tested, and updated the software. The editors had to manage their internal workflow. To ensure the journals could operate, we did give the editors different courses and online help. We started to offer DOIs and realized that we had to explain the benefit of permanent identifiers to many editors, and finally, we needed to help the editors get the journal indexed. We thought that the service would focus on how to publish a journal and use the software. However, we were asked many questions on how to describe the editorial workflow, the peer review process, how to apply for funding, and copyright.\nIn addition, we realized that our service could not focus on the platform itself.\n\nOur service today\nSince the start in 2007 and the merger in 2017, our service has evolved quite a lot in order to ensure that we could help the editors with the challenges described above, we had to add new areas to our service. We became the “Source of Knowledge,” as defined by Jankowiak-Konik.\nNow we answer questions regarding:\n■ How to describe the peer review process so that it fulfills the Code of Conduct defined by the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) and requirements of DOAJ and other indexes?\n■ How do different OA requirements fulfill the requirements of Plan S?\n■ How to be indexed in indexes like DOAJ, Web of Science, Scopus, and Bibliotek.\ndk and ensure that the metadata is correct?\n■ How to use information about the journal in funding applications?\n■ How to understand copyright and licenses. It is sometimes difficult to ensure that the journals comply with Danish copyright law and use CC (Creative Commons) licenses, especially if the journals have a long publishing history?\n■ How the editors can give access to research data. Funders, universities, the EU, and journals often require access to the research data, so the editors ask us for help. We try to send them to relevant partners at various Danish research institutions or answer the questions ourselves.\n■ How the editors ensure that they are compliant with GDPR?\nIn the future, we will also need to develop our service regarding Web Accessibility.\nIn addition, we need to be able to help the journals so that they can publish in XML,\nHTML, and other formats.\nIt would have been difficult to develop a service without a network of other servers and services working with scholarly publication. Fortunately, we have been able to be in an ongoing dialogue with OJS servers in Denmark, Sweden, Finland, and other countries, as well as PKP and DOAJ, to develop the service.\nConclusions\nTidsskrift.dk shows that new journals can be created successfully, existing journals can be transferred from printed publication to online publication, and journals publishing in local/native languages can survive online.\nOur service has become much more complex than we expected. We had to go from a service with a focus on technical support and introduction to the software to a service covering many other topics. To do this, we have to be able to answer many questions\n\ndirectly or be able to help the editors get in contact with the correct people working at their institutions. This has made our contact with the editorial boards much more frequent and comprehensive than expected.\nReferences\nBibliotek.dk. https://bibliotek.dk/en. Accessed on December 7, 2023.\nBoserup Thestrup, J., & Frederiksen, N. E. (2012). Online publiceringsservice efterspørges blandt tidsskrifterne. REVY, 35(3). https://rauli.cbs.dk/index.php/revy/article/view/3538\nBoserup Thestrup, J. (2016). Open Journal Systems servers in the Nordic Countries in 2015. OJS På\nDansk, 7(7). https://doi.org/10.7146/ojssb.v7i7.23196\nBibliotek.dk. (b.d.) https://bibliotek.dk/en (accessed on December 7, 2023).\nCoalition S. Home. (n.d.). https://www.coalition-s.org/ (accessed on December 7, 2023).\nCommittee on Publication Ethics. (n.d.). https://www.publicationethics.org (accessed on December 7,\n2023).\nCreative Commons. (b.d). https://creativecommons.org/ (accessed on December 7, 2023).\nDirective 2016/2102. Directive (EU) 2016/2102 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 26\nOctober 2016 on the accessibility of the websites and mobile applications of public sector bodies.\nhttps://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ALL/?uri=CELEX%3A32016L2102 (accessed on\nDecember 7, 2023).\nDirectory of Open Access Journals. Guide to applying – DOAJ. (n.d.). https://doaj.org/apply/guide/\n(accessed on December 7, 2023).\nGO FAIR. FAIR Principles. https://www.go-fair.org/fair-principles/ (accessed on December 7, 2023).\nFogtmann-Schulz, A., Boserup Thestrup, J., & Iversen, R. K. M. (2022). Beretning om Tidsskrift.\ndk og ebooks.au.dk in 2021. OJS På Dansk, 13(12). https://doi.org/10.7146/ojssb.v13i12.131914\nFogtmann-Schulz, A., Jepsen, C. J., Thestrup, J. B., Engberg, K. S., & Iversen, R. K. M. (2025). Beretning om tidsskrift.dk og e-bogsplatform i 2024. OJS På Dansk, 16(19). https://doi.org/10.7146/ojssb.\nv16i19.153335\nFor redaktører. (n.d.). https://tidsskrift.dk/index/for_redaktoerer#Udkomme (accessed on December 7, 2023).\nGardner, S. A. (2025). Comparison of Library Publishing Workflows by Open Access Model as Practiced in the University of Nebraska–Lincoln Libraries. In K. Weinper (Ed.), Wyzwania współczesnego publikowania. Challenges of Contemporary Publishing (pp. 281–291). Wydawnictwo Politechniki Lubelskiej.\nIndexing journals in Directory of Open Access Journals. https://pro.kb.dk/en/indexing-journals-directory-open-access-journals/ (accessed on December 7, 2023).\nJankowiak-Konik, B. (2025), Role of a University Publisher in the Process of Creating and\nPublishing the Scientific Journals. In K. Weinper (Ed.), Wyzwania współczesnego publikowania. Challenges of Contemporary Publishing (pp. 177–184). Wydawnictwo Politechniki Lubelskiej.\nMathematica Scandinavica. (n.d.). https://www.mscand.dk/. Accessed on December 7, 2023\nPublic Knowledge Project. (2023, January 12). About – Public Knowledge Project. https://pkp.sfu.ca/ about (accessed on December 7, 2023).\nPublic Knowledge Project. (2024, September 27). Open Journal Systems (OJS) – Software – Public\nKnowledge Project. https://pkp.sfu.ca/software/ojs/ (accessed on December 7, 2023).\nPublic Knowledge Project. (2025, January 29). Global Usage of OJS – Public Knowledge Project. https:// pkp.sfu.ca/software/ojs/usage-data/\n\nPublic Knowledge Project Docs. (n.d.). Accessible and inclusive publishing – Creating Accessible Content\nGuide. https://docs.pkp.sfu.ca/accessible-content/en/introduction (accessed on December 7, 2023).\nRosenkrantz Hansen, C., Boserup Thestrup, J., Rindom Riise, R., Iversen, R.K.M., Johnsen, S. S. (2023).\nAn offer the journal couldn’t refuse: How a Danish collaborative project paves the way for DOAJ inclusion. Nordic Perspectives on Open Science, 8. https://doi.org/10.7557/11.7001\nRoyal Danish Library (n.d.). Indexing journals in Directory of Open Access Journals. https://pro.kb.dk/ en/indexing-journals-directory-open-access-journals (accessed on December 7, 2023).\nRoyal Danish Library (n.d.). Timeline for Royal Danish Library. kb.dk. https://www.kb.dk/en/about-us/ timeline (accessed on December 7, 2023).\nStegger Gemzøe, A., Fogtmann-Schulz, A., Sandal Johnsen, S., Boserup Thestrup, J., Rosenkrantz\nHansen, C., Rindom Riise, R., Iversen, R.K.M. (2023). Danish OA journals and Directory of Open\nAccess Journals (DOAJ). OJS På Dansk, 14(14). DOI: https://doi.org/10.7146/ojssb.v14i14.136013.\nTidsskrift.dk. (n.d.). https://tidsskrift.dk/ (accessed on December 7, 2023).\n\nAneta Drabek\nORCID: 0000-0003-1269-9309\nLibrary of the University of Silesia\nUniversity of Silesia in Katowice\nROR: https://ror.org/0104rcc94\nFees in Polish Open Access Journals\nAbstract: This study aimed to analyze the funding models of Polish open access journals, utilizing data extracted from the Arianta database, the Directory of Open Access Journals\n(DOAJ), and individual journal websites. The findings indicate that the majority of Polish journals adhere to the diamond model of open access, with approximately 15% of periodicals imposing publication fees. The prevalence of fee-charging journals is most pronounced in the scientific, medical, life science, and agricultural disciplines. Based on these results, recommendations are formulated for journals regarding their fee structures and transparency.\nKeywords: scientific journals, open access, article processing charge\nIntroduction\nAs open access publishing gains prominence, the issue of publication fees is receiving increasing scholarly attention. The implementation of Plan S, an initiative designed to ensure that peer-reviewed scientific publications resulting from publicly and privately funded research are openly accessible, has prompted both researchers and their affiliated institutions to scrutinize journals and their funding mechanisms. Historically, authors have prioritized thematic relevance, bibliometric indices, publication speed, and prestige when selecting a publication outlet. However, they must now also consider whether a journal operates under an open access, subscription, or hybrid model and ascertain who bears the costs associated with publication. Consequently, institutions have begun incorporating open access expenses into their budgetary planning.\nThe cOAlition S, a consortium of funding organizations committed to Plan S implementation, strives to expedite the transition to a scientific publishing ecosystem characterized by immediate, free online access to scientific publications and unrestricted reuse (full open access).\n\nUntil recently, authors could choose to publish in open access journals (including hybrid or open access journals) or transfer copyright to publishers that restrict access to content. Currently, receiving funding from Plan S signatories obligates authors to account for the grant with articles made openly available1. In Poland, the National\nScience Center (NCN), a Plan S participant, has incorporated this requirement into grant agreements signed after January 1, 2021.2 Project cost estimates may encompass publication fees, although these are capped at 2% of the total award. Given the escalating costs of publication, even substantial grants may not suffice to cover all publication expenses. Furthermore, articles designated for project settlement must meet stringent formal and substantive criteria related to openness standards, archiving protocols, metadata quality, and other factors. (Korytkowski, 2023). While some support is offered through open publication programs funded by the Ministry of Education and Science or scientific institutions, these initiatives have experienced curtailments, as noted in early 2023, hindering smooth project implementation and settlement. If publication fee funding is unavailable, authors face a limited pool of viable journals, potentially elevating fee considerations to a primary journal selection criterion. This challenge is documented in the literature (e.g., Kowaltowski & Oliviera, 2019), who, in a letter to\nScience, challenged the unrealistic assumptions of Plan S, and Shaun Yon-Seng Khoo\n(2021) noted the legal issues of the plan S. While it is commonly believed that most open access journals are published under the diamond model, meaning that author fees are not required, some Korean editors find that many do not meet the strict standards of the Plan S (Korean Council of Science Editors, 2023).\nIn Poland, academic institutions’ payment of fees presents a different dimension.\nPursuant to the Ordinance of the Minister of Education and Science of December 17,\n2021 (Rozporządzenie... [Ordinance], 2021), Polish scientific institutions are required to populate the Integrated Information System for Higher Education and Science\n(POL-on) with data regarding publication fees and funding sources. This added requirement has triggered numerous queries and controversies. For many universities, the necessary data were decentralized. Furthermore, uncertainty existed regarding which fee components should be included in the POL-on system. The Minister of Education and Science addressed these concerns by waiving the requirement to provide detailed\n1 Plan S principles do not apply to monographs and chapters.\n2 On December 16, 2024, the Council of the National Science Centre, by resolutions No. 116/2024 and 130/2024, adopted a position on the National Science Centre’s Policy on the provision of access to publications recommending the NCN director not extended by the National Science\nCentre in the cOAlition S consortium, while maintaining the recommendation to publish in access, with adapted specifications defined for a given field.\n\nfee data for individual articles and monographs from 2020–2021, opting instead for a survey collecting aggregate fee data for specific journals and publishers (Komunikat...\n[Communication of the Minister of Education and Science of November 2, 2022, concerning the reporting obligation regarding the costs of fees for scientific articles and monographs], 2022). These survey data, collected by January 31, 2023, would be used exclusively for “analyses of the publishing market (particularly to identify publishers with unethical practices)” (Komunikat... [Communication], 2022).\nGiven the increased interest of authors and institutions in the issue of fees in open access journals, it became interesting to examine Polish journals from the point of view of funding and, above all, to see whether they publish in the OA diamond model or charge fees. In particular, the aim was to find answers to the following questions:\n■ Under which open licenses are paid journals published?\n■ Which disciplines have the most paid journals?\n■ What are the costs?\n■ What are authors charged for?\n■ Where can information on fees be found?\n■ Who can be exempted from fees for publishing in Polish journals?\nIn addition, the study made it possible to prepare recommendations for journal publishers and editors regarding fee information on websites.\nMaterials and Methods\nThis study analyzed Polish scientific journals published under an open access model.\nData sources included journal websites, the Arianta database, and the Directory of\nOpen Access Journals (DOAJ) database. Data extraction was conducted between April\n20–23, 2023. Arianta is a database containing information on Polish electronic journals, including basic metadata such as title, publisher, ISSN, discipline, and publication dates, as well as open license information. DOAJ is a comprehensive global database indexing approximately 20,000 scientific open access journals. To be included in\nDOAJ, journals must complete a detailed questionnaire regarding their open access policy, including license type, copyright details, fee structures, and information on whether fees are waived.\nJournal pages were systematically searched for fee-related information. Publishing costs, also known as article processing charges (APCs) or publication fees, are often levied by scientific publishers and may be a prerequisite for manuscript processing. These details can be located within author instructions, the homepage, the “About the journal” section, or a dedicated fees tab. Journals indexed in DOAJ were cross-referenced\n\nto verify fee information, which was further confirmed on the journal’s website. For journals hosted on multi-journal platforms, fee information was obtained from platform administrators.\nThe study scope was limited to current Polish scientific journals, considering all issues (volumes) published from the year 2021.3 A prerequisite for inclusion was the presence of a Creative Commons open access license or another license that clearly delineates usage terms. Journals exhibiting “brown open access,” defined as providing full-text access without a specified license outlining usage permissions, were excluded\n(Rychlik & Theus, 2018, p. 159). Among all scientific journals recorded in the Arianta database, 2231 titles were periodicals that had a closed 2021 volume at the time of the survey. This number included 1421 (63.7%) open-access periodicals that were finally analyzed. The majority of Polish journals (889 items – 62.6%) were publishing in the diamond model. This may be influenced by the fact that many of them are published by universities, associations, or other scientific institutions that sponsor their publications. In addition, implemented ministerial programs (“Wsparcie czasopism naukowych” [Support for scientific journals]4 in 2019 and “Rozwój czasopism naukowych”\n[Development of scientific journals]5 in 2021) have subsidized many journals, which may have resulted in the abandonment of APCs.\nFor 313 journals (22%), information on fees could not be found. Likely, most of them do not require them from their authors, but the editors do not communicate this via the website. It should be added that there are more periodicals without a clearly articulated payment declaration, but for some of them it was possible to find this information either in the DOAJ database or directly from the editors or platform administrators. For 219 (15.4%) journals, the need to pay a fee as a condition of publication was stated on their pages.\nResults\nOpen Licenses\nAmong the 1,421 open access journals, the largest part (more than 1/3) are periodicals published under a CC BY-NC-ND (Attribution-Noncommercial-No Derivative Works) license. The second group is journals available under the CC BY (Attribution) open\n3 Due to the fact that many Polish journals are published late, taking into account journals that have closed the 2022 vintage would result in a significant reduction in the group of periodicals analyzed.\n4 500 journals received funding.\n5 565 journals received funding.\n\nlicense. These account for nearly 30%. The remaining licenses are much less frequent and total about 37%. It is worth noting that only 585 journals (41.2%) meet the Plan S condition, i.e., they are published under a CC BY (Attribution) or CC BY-SA\n(Attribution-ShareAlike) license. The details are shown in Figure 1.\n200 174\n103 97\nCC-BY CC-BY-SA CC-BY-ND CC-BY-NC CC-BY-NC-SA CC-BY-NC-ND OTHER\nFigure 1. Number of open access journals by type of license. The lighter color indicates journals published under free licenses.\nSource: author’s compilation based on the Arianta database.\nAs far as paid journals are concerned, the proportions of individual licenses are similar to those for all open access periodicals. The charging of fees by publishers does not affect the type of license used. Among the 219 journals that charge fees, periodicals published under the CC BY-NC-ND license are also the most numerous. They account for 36%. There are slightly fewer journals under the CC BY open license\n(approximately 31%). The remaining licenses account for about one-third. The details are shown in Figure 2.\n\n70 67\n30 27\nCC-BY CC-BY-SA CC-BY-ND CC-BY-NC CC-BY-NC-SA CC-BY-NC-ND OTHER\nFigure 2. N umber of open access journals charging fees.\nSource: own elaboration.\nAreas and Disciplines\nAll journals examined were assigned to seven fields and 44 disciplines based on the\nOrdinance of the Minister of Science and Higher Education of 20 September 2018 on scientific fields and disciplines and artistic disciplines (Rozporządzenie... [Ordinance],\n2018). The field of arts and three artistic disciplines were omitted. For the 1246 journals included in the 21 December 2021 List of Scored Journals (Komunikat...\n[Communication of the Minister of Education and Science of December 21, 2021, on the amendment and correction of the announcement on the list of scientific journals and peer-reviewed materials from international conferences], 2021), the disciplines indicated in the List were used, while for the remaining 175 periodicals, the disciplines were assigned manually based on the subject area described on the journal page. Social sciences (629 titles) and humanities (518 titles) have the largest number of open journals. Engineering sciences are represented by 345 periodicals, medical and health sciences by 263 titles, sciences and life sciences by 228, and agricultural sciences by 137.\nThe field of theological sciences (69), which is also one discipline, has the fewest number of open access journals.\nThe humanities (76.6%), theological (69.6%) and social sciences (67.6%) have the highest percentage of free journals. The other disciplines have a similar percentage of non-fee-paying journals and this is around 43–47%. The theological sciences do not have a single periodical with fees, but also have the highest proportion of journals for which\n\nno data on fees is available (about 30%). The humanities have a small percentage of paid journals (8 items – 1.5%), and the social sciences have a slightly higher percentage (12.9%).\nThe highest number of fee-paying periodicals appears in the agricultural sciences (44.5%), engineering and technical sciences (39%), and medical and health sciences, as well as science and life sciences (about 35% each). More data is presented in Figure 3.\n113 81\n400 8\n200 397 135 57 425 41\n92 80\n100 157 61\n114 107 201\n60 48 humanities engineering and medical and health agriculturral social sciences natural sciences theology technology sciences sciences free of charge paid no data available\nFigure 3. N umber of journals in each field, divided into unpaid, paid, and uninformed journals.\nSource: own elaboration.\nAs for the disciplines with the highest percentage of paid open access journals, zootechnics and fisheries (78.1%), food and nutrition technology (77.2%), and veterinary science (75.6%) are the most prominent. Figure 4 shows the disciplines with at least 50% of paid journals.\n\n90,0\n80,0 78,1 77,2 75,6\n70,0\n58,2\n60,0 54,9\n50,0 52,0 51,9 51,3 50,0 48,0 46,2\n40,0\n30,0\n20,0\n10,0\n0,0 ani mal scienc n e u t a r n it d io f n is h an er d i e fo s od technolo ve g t y erinary scien c c h e e mical sc m ie a n t c e e ri s a p ls h e ar n m gi a n c e o e l r o i g n y g and phar c m h a e c m y ical en b in io e m er e in d g ical engineerin p g hysical p s h c y ie s n ic c a e l s culture m s e c c i h en an ce ical engineering\nFigure 4. D isciplines with the highest proportion of paid journals.\nSource: own elaboration.\nThree disciplines (history, literary studies, and theological sciences) have no paid periodicals. For four humanities disciplines, few individual journals charge fees.\nThe group still includes social communication and media sciences, which have 2.6% of journals charging fees. The details are shown in Figure 5.\n3,0\n2,6\n2,4\n2,5\n2,0\n1,5\n1,5 1,1\n1,0\n0,6\n0,5\n0,0 0,0 0,0\n0,0\n...\nnicati o n a n d m e dia arts st u di es p hil os o p hy arc ha e ol ogy li ng uistics hist ory lit erary st u di es t h e ol ogy u m m o c\nFigure 5. D isciplines with the lowest percentage of paid journals.\nSource: own elaboration.\n\nReputation and Fees\nIn their study, Budzinski et al., (2020) investigated factors that may influence the raising or introduction of publication fees. One of the factors found to be relevant was the reputation of the journal, which was influenced by, among other things, indexing in Web of Science databases and having an impact factor. Out of the 219 fee-charging journals, a large majority (149 titles) were periodicals indexed in either the Scopus database, Web of Science, or both. The fact that a journal has been accepted for registration in one of the two largest databases may induce the editor (or publisher) to charge fees, which will be used, for example, to provide additional tools or services to professionalize editorial activities.\nFor this study, the scoring of journals based on the 2021 List was also used.\n(Komunikat... [Communication], 2021) to see if the higher number of points a journal received could translate into a decision on charging fees. It turned out that the number of points could influence their introduction. Among high-scoring journals (100 points), there are twice as many journals charging fees (22.5%) as there are low-scoring journals\n(11.5%). The highest percentage of fee-paying journals refers to those with 140 points, but there are only nine of them, so due to their small representation, it is difficult to make any generalizing statements. Detailed data are provided in Table 1.\nTable 1. N umber and percentage of fee-charging journals with a given number of points\nNumber of points Number of all Number of fee-charging Percentage of fee-charging journals journals journals\n20 305 35 11,5\n40 391 51 13,0\n70 352 69 19,6\n100 178 40 22,5\n140 13 9 69,2\nUnscored 183 15 8,2\nSource: own elaboration.\nFees\nSome editors list in detail what the publication fee will be used for. Sometimes it is subject to special reasons, e.g. exceeding the set page (characters) limit or including color illustrations in the text, or the need to carry out (or correct) a translation. Generally, the following are among the specified categories of expenses incurred from publication fees:\n\n■ full text development,\n■ preliminary examination of the text,\n■ additional pages/characters (above the set limit),\n■ printed version,\n■ translation,\n■ proofreading, i.e. professional editorial correction,\n■ illustrations (color illustrations),\n■ fast-track publication,\n■ withdrawal of text.\nAs far as fee amounts are concerned, they are difficult to transpose, as editors often give them by individual services or processes, or price individual pages. The amounts are also given in different currencies. The most common are the zloty, the dollar, the euro, and the pound. In some cases, VAT must be added to the quoted amount; in others, no tax information is given. The range of amounts is very large and varies from\nPLN 100 to PLN 10,000 per article or PLN 50 to 500 per page. There are also journals where a voluntary contribution is suggested. These amounts change over time, and this usually means an increase in costs. This can be seen, for example, when analyzing the data in the DOAJ database and on the journal’s website. This refers to situations where the cost of fees has increased (as stated on the website), but the information in the DOAJ has not been updated. It also happens, although these are rarer cases, that a journal has charged fees and then manages to find a funder, and the publisher waives the fees. Sometimes a change of publisher also results in a change of funding model.\nFee Exemptions\nIn some cases, editors report that they can waive part or all of their publication fees.\nAmong those who may be exempted from fees are:\n■ members of the association that publishes the journal,\n■ authors affiliated with the university that publishes the journal,\n■ PhD students affiliated with the university that publishes the journal,\n■ authors from abroad,\n■ authors of articles with at least 50% participation from outside Poland,\n■ authors who have prepared the text correctly,\n■ authors of texts in English,\n■ invited authors,\n■ quality writers.\n\nAs can be seen from the above summary, different motivations are behind decisions to reduce or abandon APCs. Sometimes it is a bonus for members of one’s own organization, and sometimes it is an incentive for a particular group of potential authors.\nRecommendations for Journal Publishers\nAnalysis of 1,421 journals yielded recommendations for editors, publishers, and webmasters. Journal websites have undergone a lot of changes in recent years. Journal management systems are being used that professionalize the editorial process of a periodical. However, information about fees is often difficult to find on these pages. Hence, the most important recommendation is to include this information on the journal’s website, regardless of whether the publisher charges for it or not. Information indicating that publication in the journal is completely free of charge can be an additional incentive for potential authors. It is good practice to prepare an appropriate tab (fees/\nAPCs) or section on fees in the instructions for authors, so that those using the website do not have problems finding it. Another important issue is to ensure that the fees data is updated not only on the journal’s website, but also in other services and databases (e.g., the DOAJ database). If the journal charges fees, it is worth describing in detail what these amounts are, whether they include VAT, what the fees are used for, and when and where they can be paid. It is also important to state whether these are full costs or whether the author can expect some additional payments, e.g., for longer articles or translation. If the editors include all costs in the fee charged, information can be added about the possibility of refunding the fee (all or part of it) if the article is not accepted. A final recommendation is to indicate whether a fee waiver can be applied for and, if so, what conditions must be met. The potential author should be provided with reliable information on costs so that he/she can make his/her decision to publish in a given journal in an informed manner and not be surprised at any stage of the editorial process.\nConclusions\nThe analysis indicated that the majority of Polish scientific open access journals publish in the diamond model without expecting fees from authors or affiliating institutions.\nOnly about 15% of journals currently declare that they charge fees. These are primarily periodicals in the medical, agricultural, and life sciences. Institutions with authors from these disciplines have to budget the fees for these publications. Authors from the theological sciences, humanities, and, to a large extent, social sciences do not have this\n\nproblem. Publication costs vary widely and, due to their range in amount (from 100 to 10,000 PLN) and the way they are billed (sometimes for the whole, sometimes per page), it is impossible to give average or approximate values. Some editors calculate in detail what the money they collect from authors will be used for. Sometimes there is a breakdown between the initial editorial activities and the second stage, leading to the final publication. Most often, there is mention of additional charges for oversized pages, color illustrations, translations, or printing. Information on fees does not have its permanent place on the website. Finding it is sometimes easy (special tab), but often requires browsing through many subpages and sections. Information that is difficult to find may discourage a potential author. Sometimes editors apply fee waivers, treating this privilege as an incentive to publish for specific audiences. The survey carried out and the review of journal pages allowed us to make key recommendations for the inclusion of this information on journal pages.\nReferences\nArianta – Naukowe i branżowe polskie czasopisma elektroniczne. https://arianta.pl/\nBudzinski, O., Grebel, T., Wolling J., Zhang H. (2020). Drivers of article processing charges in open access. Scientometrics, 124, 2185–2206. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11192-020-03578-3\nDOAJ – Directory of Open Access Journals. https://doaj.org/\nKhoo, SY-S. (2021). The Plan S Rights Retention Strategy is an administrative and legal burden, not a sustainable open access solution. Insights: The UKSG Journal, 34(1). https://doi.org/10.1629/ uksg.556\nKomunikat Ministra Edukacji i Nauki z dnia 2 listopada 2022 r. dotyczący obowiązku sprawozdawczego w zakresie kosztów opłat za artykuły naukowe i monografie. (2022). https://www.gov.pl/ web/edukacja-i-nauka/komunikat-w-sprawie-ankiety-dotyczacej-kosztow-oplat-za-artykulynaukowe-i-monografie-z-lat-2020-2021\nKomunikat Ministra Edukacji i Nauki z dnia 21 grudnia 2021 r. o zmianie i sprostowaniu komunikatu w sprawie wykazu czasopism naukowych i recenzowanych materiałów z konferencji międzynarodowych. (2021). https://www.gov.pl/web/edukacja-i-nauka/komunikat-ministra-edukacji-i-nauki-z-dnia-21-grudnia-2021-r-o-zmianie-i-sprostowaniu-komunikatu-w-sprawie-wykazu-czasopism-naukowych-i-recenzowanych-materialow-z-konferencji-miedzynarodowych\nKorean Council of Science Editors. (2023). How open access diamond journals comply with industry standards exemplified by Plan S technical requirements. Science Editing, 10(1), 35–44. https:// doi.org/10.6087/kcse.295\nKorytkowski, P. (2023, 18–19 April). Plan S – rewolucja w akademickim publikowaniu. [Presentation].\nBibliometryczne analizy otwartej nauki, Poznań.\nKowaltowski, A. J., Oliveira, M. F. (2019). Plan S: Unrealistic capped fee structure. Science, 363(6426), 461.\nhttps://doi.org/10.1126/science.aaw5815\nRozporządzenie Ministra Edukacji i Nauki z dnia 17 grudnia 2021 zmieniające rozporządzenie w sprawie danych przetwarzanych w Zintegrowanym Systemie Informacji o Szkolnictwie Wyższym i Nauce POL-on. (2022). Dz.U. 2021 poz. 2364. https://isap.sejm.gov.pl/isap.nsf/DocDetails.\nxsp?id=WDU20210002364\n\nRozporządzenie Ministra Nauki i Szkolnictwa Wyższego z dnia 20 września 2018 r. w sprawie dziedzin nauki i dyscyplin naukowych oraz dyscyplin artystycznych. (2018). Dz.U. 2018 poz. 1818.\nhttps://isap.sejm.gov.pl/isap.nsf/DocDetails.xsp?id=WDU20180001818\nRychlik, M., Theus, M. (2018). Otwarty dostęp do piśmiennictwa naukowego. Przegląd funkcjonujących form – legalnych i nielegalnych. Biblioteka, 22(31), 157–173. https://doi.org/10.14746/b.2018.22.9\n\nAnna Zatora\nORCID: 0000-0003-4597-5568\nUniversity of Lodz Library\nUniversity of Lodz\nROR: https://ror.org/05cq64r17\nDoes a Lack of an Openness Policy hamper the Academic Library?\nThe Case of the University of Lodz\nAbstract: This study examines the activities of a scientific library in addressing challenges related to the development of open models for scientific publishing and research data sharing within an institution that lacks a formal openness policy. The case of the University of Lodz\n(UŁ) demonstrates how bottom-up initiatives, primarily those of the University Library, can shape attitudes and catalyze open science activities. This paper presents the perspective of librarians and their role in promoting open publishing and disseminating knowledge to academics, doctoral candidates, and students. Their participation in university activities is examined in relation to the introduction of good openness practices into research and teaching, including open access publishing programs, read&publish agreements, analysis of journals for predatory publishing practices, researcher support in selecting publication venues, licenses, archiving works via the green way of open access, administering open access journals, and promoting open access through institutional repositories, doctoral courses, and events.\nThe findings reveal two distinct behavioral models in Polish science: adopting a university openness policy versus forgoing such a policy while implementing pro-openness measures aligned with top-down recommendations. The latter model, exemplified by the University of\nLodz, demonstrates comparable functionality to the former.\nKeywords: openness policy, open science, scientific library, open access, research data, University of Lodz\n\nIntroduction\n“The initial step toward defining open access principles should be the adoption of an institutional open access policy by each scientific unit and university” (Kierunki rozwoju otwartego dostępu do publikacji i wyników badań naukowych w Polsce, 2018).1\nThis statement, derived from a communication published by the ministry responsible for higher education in Poland, has become a guiding principle for numerous scientific units. While the promotion of open science has been a global trend for years, it has engendered considerable debate among both the creators of science, i.e., researchers, and its recipients, including policymakers.2 Following the publication of Kierunki rozwoju otwartego dostępu do publikacji i wyników badań naukowych w Polsce [‘Directions for the\nDevelopment of Open Access to Publications and Research Results in Poland’] in 2015 by the Ministry of Science and Higher Education, authorities of Polish Higher Education\nInstitutions (HEIs) faced a pivotal decision: adhere to the ministerial recommendation or await further developments and formulate an openness policy tailored to their unique experiences and strategies. The rationale articulated in the Ministry of Science and Higher Education document appeared compelling, as it reiterated the recommendations of institutions such as the European Commission and the European Research\nCouncil (ERC) and underscored the numerous benefits of making research results openly available. The relatively flexible wording of the recommendations provided managers of scientific entities with time for action. Indeed, they continue to do so, as\nKierunki rozwoju... [‘Directions for the Development...’] stipulates that openness policies should be “[...] convergent in particular with open access policies to be adopted by national entities funding scientific research from public funds (NCN, NCBR, MNiSW)”\n(Kierunki rozwoju..., 2015). To date, only the National Science Center has developed\n1 The document was drafted in October 2015, but only the 2018 file is available. This article was written in 2023 and reflects the legal situation at that time, so there may be differences in the names of institutions or regulations compared to the date of publication. In 2025, the University of Lodz still has not adopted an openness policy and continues to operate based on the model presented in the article.\n2 A great many texts have already been written on the subject of open science – written in different ways and understood in different ways – whether scientific, popularizing or educational.\nI will return to some of them in this article, but in order to avoid repeating the same findings and defining the basic concepts once again (open access, green way, repository, FAIR data, predatory journals, etc.), I refer to the works included in the bibliography. I am adopting the notation ‘open science’ in lowercase, understanding the term to include a number of issues, widely recognized as its main components, i.e. open access (including open publishing), open educational resources, open research data and open science communication.\n\nsuch a document (2020).3 Consequently, two behavioral models are evident in Polish science: 1) adoption of an openness policy by the university incorporating recommendations aligned with the as Kierunki rozwoju... [‘Directions for the Development...’],4 and 2) non-implementation of an institutional openness policy, often accompanied by measures derived from Ministry and European Union recommendations based on less-binding guidelines. The latter model is implemented by the University of Lodz.\nOpen Science at the University of Lodz: Internal Regulations\nThe most pertinent document regarding regulations concerning the opening of science at the University of Lodz is the Communication of the Rector of the University of\nLodz, dated April 28, 2020, regarding the implementation of the open access policy at the University of Lodz (2020). It primarily addresses the issue of ensuring open access to scientific research results by enabling University of Lodz employees, doctoral students, and students to deposit their work in an institutional repository in accordance with MNiSW recommendations. The University of Lodz Repository, operational since\n3 A document called Polityka Naukowa Państwa [‘the National Science Policy’] (MEiN, 2022) mentions ‘Open Science’ and the sharing of research results or research data, but this is only a small part of a comprehensive document. The second document that should be mentioned, although it too does not constitute an openness policy, is Ustawa z dnia 11 sierpnia 2021 r. o otwartych danych i ponownym wykorzystywaniu informacji sektora publicznego [‘Act of 11 August 2021 on Open\nData and Re-use of Public Sector Information’]. This law entered into force on 8 December 2021.\nThe most important change from the previous law on these issues (2016) is the inclusion of Directive\n(EU) 2019/1024 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 20 June 2019 on open data and re-use of public sector information. The Act introduces two new categories of public sector information into the scope of re-use: high-value data and dynamic data. Research data has also come within the scope of the Act... – guidelines related to its opening/sharing have been introduced. An important point of the document is the creation of the position of the Plenipotentiary for Data\nOpenness and the announcement of Program otwierania danych [‘the Data Openness Program’] coordinated by the Minister in charge of Information Technology, as well as the announcement of detailed regulations/recommendations that will be included in the Open Access Policy. This policy was supposed to be developed by the minister responsible for higher education and science in the second half of 2022, but as of now [July 2023] it has still not been published.\n4 Institutional openness policies have been introduced by, among others: Jagiellonian University,\nNicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń, Cracow University of Technology and the University of Silesia in Katowice. Many entities limited themselves to signaling that they base their openness activities on the Ministry’s recommendations (e.g., the Warsaw University of Technology, the Silesian University of Technology, the University of Opole). Others, such as the University of Warsaw, are announcing the introduction of such a document. Data is taken from the official websites of the respective units. Cf. Platforma Otwartej Nauki [PON], n.d.: http://pon.edu.pl/ politykiotwartosci/polityki-otwartosci-w-polsce/.\n\n2012, offers unrestricted access5 to scientific publications and other materials archived on the platform, including dissertations. In the aforementioned communication, the Rector of the University of Lodz requested that the academic community consider the agreements they enter into with publishers and the licenses under which they publish their works (recommending non-exclusive licenses) and to deposit works in the institutional repository in a manner that permits open access. However, authors retain the autonomy to select their publishing path and licenses and determine whether access to their work, such as a habilitation or doctoral thesis, will be open or restricted. The UŁ has not yet established stringent regulations regarding these matters.\nIn 2020, a Plenipotentiary of the Rector of the University of Lodz for open access to publications and research results was appointed. This function is held by Tomasz\nPiestrzyński, Director of the University of Lodz Library, from November 2, 2020, until\nAugust 31, 2024. The appointment of a plenipotentiary responsible for open science matters was, as in other units, a response to an appeal from the Ministry. While the nomenclature in HEIs varies,6 the tasks of the plenipotentiaries are the same: first and foremost ensuring that the scientific (and sometimes educational) output of the unit is managed in such a way that it is as open as possible and at the same time safe (security of research data, copyright, patents, the risk posed by so-called predatory publishing practices), coordinating work related to the introduction or implementation of the openness policy, preparing internal acts and answering questions related to open science, analyzing the unit’s pro-openness activities, advisory function towards the university authorities.\nWhen the function of the plenipotentiary for open science and the function of the director of the scientific library are held by the same person, the library becomes all the more involved in building the university’s openness policy – whether understood as a document or as an informal strategy. In the next part of this article, I will focus on presenting the participation of the Library of the University of Lodz in the creation of such a strategy and on the tasks that its staff perform within the framework of open science in its broadest sense.\n5 Unrestricted access to a document is subject to the author’s consent and/or a specific license.\nThe UŁ Repository also offers authors the possibility to restrict access, e.g. only within the UŁ network, or to close access for unauthorized users, in which case the user must request access using a special form.\n6 The panel discussion Open science – standards and good practices | Implementation of open science policies in HEIs, which, on the initiative of the Conference of Rectors of Academic Schools in\nPoland, took place on 12 May 2021, was attended – apart from the representative of the University of Lodz – by plenipotentiaries: “for open access,” “for open access to scientific publications and research results,” “for open access to scientific publications and research data,” “for open science.”\nSee KRASP, 2021.\n\nUniversity of Lodz Library: Initiatives and Tasks\nA statement included by the National Science Center in its guidelines for completing the Data Management Plan in publicly funded grants was symptomatic, namely: “You will be assisted in completing the following section of the form by staff from the library/ relevant repository/IT department of your institute or university” (NCN, 2019). This clear message addressed to researchers meant that the scientific library, usually also administering an institutional repository, had to become a center of instantly available competence and its staff experts on issues such as open repositories, data formats, or copyright and\nCreative Commons licenses. Research data, by the way, is only one of the many fields of university research activity related to open science in which libraries are active.\nThe Library at the University of Lodz had been taking initiatives related to the dissemination of knowledge on openness in science much earlier (for example, the running of an institutional repository or a seminar organized as part of Open Access Week since 2010), and yet the adaptation of the unit’s work to the changing expectations of employees, university authorities or, generally speaking, the whole academic community, required restructuring, staff training and establishing cooperation both with other units at the University of Lodz and with external institutions and partners, such as the National Science Center.\nPresenting the solutions and proposals that the Library of the University of Lodz has put forward to its academic community, I also consider them from the perspective of the staff of the university, which did not choose to adopt a formal openness policy and still follows a model of recommendations and good practices.\nUniversity of Lodz Repository\nThe institutional repository7 of the University of Lodz is administered by the staff of the Library of the University of Lodz and has been in operation for more than ten years.8\nIt is based on the open source software DSpace, and the collections are indexed in such databases and aggregators as OpenAire, CORE (an aggregator of open access publications), DartEurope E-theses Portal (a repository of doctoral dissertations), CEON aggregator, and also visible in Google Scholar and OpenDOAR.\n7 Available at: https://repozytorium.uni.lodz.pl/\n8 I will not describe the work on implementation and the beginnings of the repository as a form of scholarly communication at the University of Lodz – this has already been exhaustively described by Lidia Mikolajuk (2014).\n\nAs I mentioned in the section on internal regulations at the UŁ, the Rector of the UŁ, in a communication, recommended that staff and doctoral students post their publications and dissertations in the institutional repository, and the UŁ Library led an information campaign9 and still offers training in this area. At the same time, the UŁ Repository is steadily increasing the number of open resources: in 2022, the number of publications in the UŁ Repository reached 38,991, an increase of more than 2,500 documents compared to the previous year. The percentage of closed works or data with restricted access is small it consists of some doctoral dissertations (archival dissertations, not deposited by the authors personally, but deposited in the repository in order to protect the library collections and the scientific output of the university) and individual data collections and materials from research projects, access to which required an embargo (personal data, sensitive data, copyright). On the other hand, the largest resource is the collections of scientific journals associated with the University of Lodz – this is as many as 27,105 documents (as on July 24, 2023).\nThe identification by the NCN of libraries/repositories as the place to get help in filling in the Data Management Plan form, consequently, also led to the expansion of the tree of collections and collections of the UŁ Repository to include space for the results of research projects carried out by UŁ employees, including research data.\nThe administrators of the RUŁ allowed authors to upload datasets of an infrastructure-limited size – up to 5 GB. At the moment, there are more than twenty such datasets in the resources of the RUŁ. This solution, which is not anchored in any formal recommendations from university authorities, was dictated by the need to provide support to researchers and is implemented based on international good practice10 and with attention to FAIR compliance (see Wilkinson et al., 2016; cf. FORCE11, 2014).\nResearch Data Management\nAn important role for the staff of the Library of the University of Lodz, which should be mentioned in the context of open research data, has become the consultation of\nData Management Plans (DMPs), primarily in National Science Center grants, but also\n9 On the first few years of operation of the UŁ Repository in the context of opening up science, see Mikolajuk, Goszczyńska, 2016.\n10 An important role in the self-study of the administrators of the UŁ Repository is played by the first national Data Stewardship Competence Centers PL Working Group, in whose regular meetings the UŁ Library team has participated since 2021. The Competence Center of the Gdansk\nUniversity of Technology is primarily responsible for organizing meetings and coordinating activities within the DSCC PL. See https://pg.edu.pl/openscience/polska-grupa-robocza.\n\nin other projects, including the European Research Council. In 2022, a team of three people consulted more than sixty DMPs .\nThe leading role in the consultation and editing of grant applications at the University of Lodz is played by the Science Center,11 which refers applicants to the staff of the UŁ\nLibrary at the stage of filling in the DMP form. Thanks to the information campaign conducted through internal communication channels, many researchers also reach the DMP consultation team directly. The work on the research data management part of the application usually consists of individual meetings, both online and offline, and editing the completed fields, either directly in the OSF system or while working on the working files.\nCounselling includes not only recommendations on how to fill in the forms, but also assistance in selecting the right repository for the type of data. In addition, the staff of the Library of the University of Lodz, in cooperation with the Science Center, provides training on open research data, which I write about in more detail in the didactics section.\nGiven that the UŁ does not currently have a specialized research data repository or employ professional data stewards, the academic library is the only place where staff can consult on the subject of data management. However, whereas in the initial phase of the DMP consultation, i.e. 2019–2021, information chaos was noticeable, today a change can be seen, above all in the collaboration between the UŁ Library and the administrative staff looking after grant applications at various stages: both the Science Center and the staff of the individual faculties are increasingly familiar with the issue of research data and direct researchers to the right people and point them to the information materials prepared by the UŁ Library (see\nZatora, 2021). This collaboration is not the result of recommendations from authorities or regulations, but is driven by practical considerations and changes as staff gain experience. It responds to a demand from the UŁ community.\nIt is worth adding that the materials on research data prepared by the UŁ Library team have been repeatedly cited in the publication The Presence of Research Data Management\nIssues on the Websites of Polish Scientific Libraries (2022) as one of the most comprehensive and extensive, see, among others, the chart “Proportion of occurrence of terms and definitions in the analyzed libraries” (Nahotko, 2022, p. 51).\nPublishing in Open Models\nPublishing in open models is another complex issue belonging to the field of open science.\nThe last few years have shown that scientists publishing their research results in scientific\n11 Currently (2025), it is the Project Support Center (Centrum Wsparcia Projektów).\n\njournals and publishers expect support from administrative staff, including very often librarians, in at least four main interrelated fields: 1) evaluation of journals and publishers in terms of quality, bibliometric indicators and potential unreliable publishing practices,\n2) copyright and open licensing, 3) funding of publications in open access models, 4) visibility and promotion of publication output.\nOpen publishing issues – mainly concerns and problems of academics are primarily the responsibility of two university units at the UŁ: UŁ Publishing and the UŁ\nLibrary. In the following paragraphs, I focus on the tasks carried out by the Library team, omitting the significant contribution of the Publishing House due to the limitation of the article’s volume.\nThe University of Lodz has not introduced regulations on publishing in open access models, however, related issues are addressed in two communications of the Rector:\nthe already mentioned Communication of the Rector of the University of Lodz... (2020) and the Communication of the Rector of the University of Lodz of 24.04.2023 on:\nthe dangers of publishing in so-called predatory journals and publishing (2023). Both the first and the second document refer to the Library of the University of Lodz as the place where information support can be obtained. In 2022, the Division of Scientific\nInformation and Bibliometric Analysis extended the bibliometric analyses prepared by the staff to include analyses of scientific journals for potential use of unreliable publishing/publication practices by the publisher. The helplessness of science and scientists in the face of so-called predatory publishing practices (Grudniewicz et al., 2019) has led institutions and researchers themselves to seek ways to defend themselves against companies phishing for data, exploiting scientific output, or manipulating the process of reviewing and publishing papers. In the case of the Library of the University of Lodz, the service aimed at the university’s staff and doctoral students includes the collection and presentation of basic information on the publication practices and statistics presented by a given journal. This information can help to get an idea of the publisher’s policy (open access format, fees, access to content), the visibility of the journal (indexing in databases, bibliometric indicators, file sharing, data identifiers), the transparency of the journal’s website and its publication policy (statistics on review waiting time and number of articles/issues, information about the editorial team and reviewers).\nThe communication of the Rector of the UŁ 2023 came after the UŁ Library had already taken action to inform and support staff and PhD students on the issue of so-called predatory journals and publishers – the regulation (recommendation) therefore came later than the bottom-up initiative.\nThe NCN’s introduction of the openness policy (2020) and the indication of three publication paths to account for the grant received raised many questions about the use\n\nof open licenses. Polish editors and publishers, including academic ones, as well as the authors of scientific works themselves, had to adapt to the new reality. Open access models (still evolving and mutating), publishing policies, and the often incompatible expectations of employer and external funder constitute a thicket, in which it is not easy to navigate. The UŁ has created a digital environment for its employees that also includes an Employee Knowledge Base – it is primarily where materials are posted to help find information on a particular topic quickly and easily. Among the guides posted there by the UŁ Library, there is also one, the most comprehensive, on open access publishing (see Brzozowska, Piestrzyński & Zatora, 2021).\nIt seems that the complexity of open access models should be enough of a hurdle for authors of papers, but an issue that raises additional questions is publication funding.\nThe basic fee associated with publishing in many open access models is the publication – article processing charge (APC).12 The amount and diversity of fees (ranging from none in diamond models, through fees of several hundred zlotys to fees amounting to several thousand or even several thousand euros), insufficient public funding, changing funding rules from the entities themselves, and information chaos are problems faced by researchers and, consequently, scientific library staff who are supposed to provide them with substantive support. The library at the University of Lodz is therefore not only responsible for concluding agreements with publishers and database providers or owners of publishing platforms, but also manages matters related to the university’s participation in so-called read&publish programs. The list of announcements13 on the website of the Virtual Library of Science, i.e. the Polish official database on consortium agreements concluded by scientific institutions with publishers and the Ministry, is telling: variable amounts of funding, variable lists of journals covered by programs, variable deadlines for signing agreements. In such unfavorable conditions, the support\n12 I deliberately focus on journals, because on the Polish publishing market publishing other types of scientific papers in open access models than articles is not so well recognized, although there is more and more talk about BPC, i.e. fees for monographs in open access models. This is, of course, material for a separate dissertation and only provides the background for my reflections. On the topic of business models in the context of open publishing, see, among others, Speicher et al., 2018.\n13 Available at: https://wbn.icm.edu.pl/komunikaty/. The 19 January 2023 announcement reads, for example: “[...] In addition, ICM will need to terminate existing contracts for Science, Nature and CUP licenses that were in place for the period 2022–2024 but took into account the eventuality that funding for 2023 would not be granted. Institutions interested in continuing to access resources from nonfunded licenses in 2023 should agree terms directly with publishers or publishers’ agents and secure funding and contracts themselves.” As can be seen, funding issues are decided on an ongoing and sometimes delayed basis, it is almost impossible to plan to publish in journals covered by read&publish schemes in advance – until the very end, a researcher cannot be sure whether the chosen journal will be covered in a year or two, or even whether the scheme will be operational at that time.\n\nof librarians, constantly monitoring the publishing market and taking care of the contracts on the part of the universities, proves necessary.\nA fourth important aspect worth mentioning in the context of open publishing is the visibility of scientific output. A document indirectly related to this is, at the University of Lodz, Zarządzenie nr 36 Rektora Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego z dnia\n15.12.2021 r. w sprawie: obowiązku uzyskania identyfikatora ORCID i stosowania go w systemach gromadzenia informacji o dorobku naukowym przez osoby prowadzące działalność naukową w Uniwersytecie Łódzkim [‘the Order No. 36 of the Rector of the University of Lodz of 15.12.2021 on: the obligation to obtain an ORCID identifier and use it in systems for collecting information on scientific output by persons conducting scientific activity at the University of Lodz’] (2021). It states: “The profile created on the ORCID platform should be publicly available,” and once again, the University of\nLodz Library was identified as the body supporting researchers in fulfilling the obligation flowing from the Order. The promotion of scientific output is connected with maintaining and supplementing the researcher’s profiles, which are increasingly numerous14, not only on portals such as ResearchGate or Academia.edu, but also linked directly to the output indexed in databases, including Scopus or Web of Science. This builds up another field in which academic library staff are active.\nDidactics and Promotion\nAt the Library of the University of Lodz, the responsibilities of the staff of the Scientific\nInformation and Bibliometric Analysis Branch include training for academics and classes for PhD students. In the case of Doctoral Schools, the most relevant topics among those related to open science include issues related to publishing in open models, including the so-called predatory journals and publishers and Creative Commons licenses, and – from the other side – open resources, i.e. databases that the academic community of the University of Lodz can use, both under licenses purchased by the university and under open access.\nIn cooperation with the Science Center, training courses on open publishing programs and open research data in National Science Center grants are organized periodically.\n14 The trend towards alternative bibliometric indicators (altmetrics) has increased interest in the profiles of scientists in portals or social media (see Brzozowska, Piestrzyński & Zatora 2021). There is more and more talk in the scientific community about moving away from the classical parameterization of science, distorted by the evaluation system, as, among others, Emanuel Kulczycki writes about in his recent publication The Evaluation Game. How Publication Metrics Shape Scholarly\nCommunication (2023).\n\nSubsequent editions of the competitions attract to the trainings especially those researchers who need support in the choice of publication venue (explanation of the publishing paths highlighted by NCN in the openness policy, indication of the possibility of funding the publication in open access format, determination of an appropriate license), and those who have encountered the Data Management Plan format for the first time. In addition to periodic training sessions on these topics, which are open to staff and doctoral students, the Library of the University of Lodz offers individual consultations for researchers on specific research projects, publication funding, or access to digital resources.\nIn addition, meetings, training sessions, and workshops are organized as part of external cooperation. One of the oldest of such initiatives of the UŁ Library is the annual\nOpen Access Week Seminar, until recently addressed only to the academic community of the UŁ, but in 2022 also open to external participants: secondary school students, staff and students of other universities, institutions interested in the topics discussed during the meetings.15 The same year also saw the second edition of the ‘Research,\nPromote, Be’ Seminar, organized in collaboration with the Center for Communication and PR of the UŁ, during which issues related to open science are discussed mainly in the context of promoting scientific achievements.16 Open science is also discussed during events co-created by the UŁ Library, such as scientific conferences and workshops, e.g., in cooperation with the National Science Center (see Galica, 2023a and b) or other Łódź universities and publishers (see ONPP, 2023).\nTowards a (Center of) Competence?\nIn answering the question posed in the title of this article, it is worth emphasising that the UŁ does not exclude the introduction of an openness policy. The model of soft recommendations and the use of good practices adopted by the university authorities have proved functional. From the perspective of the UŁ Library, the fact that its director is the Rector’s Plenipotentiary for Open Access to Publications and Research Results is not without significance – In the context of decision-making and involving librarians in new tasks – but in the case of cooperation between individual units, internal and external, an ordinance introducing a formal policy would not change much, it could at\n15 The report of the last seminar has appeared in print (see Zatora, 2022), while materials from all editions to date are available in the Repository of the UŁ: https://repozytorium.uni.lodz.pl/ handle/11089/47605.\n16 The recordings are available in the UŁ Repository for users accessing the Internet on the UŁ network.\n\nmost tidy up the issues of the scope of employees’ duties or facilitate communication with researchers. It would also provide an opportunity and an impulse to review and update existing documents, such as those concerning the Repository at the University of Lodz, and a formal basis for financial or programmatic support for the development of the competences of librarians and others involved in the process of opening up science. For researchers themselves, it could result in arrangements for rewarding open publications or rewards for involvement in increasing openness of universities\n(although it would not have to be – an analysis of openness policies of Polish universities, which shows that, at least today, such gratifications are not included in them, they are realized through competitions and additional funds, e.g., internal grants17).\nIt is impossible to exhaustively present in such a short text the tasks of all those involved in the process of opening up science at the University of Lodz. In the University of Lodz Library itself, many tasks related to open science are carried out indirectly, such as work in the University’s Achievement Information System ScienceON, which is still being developed, and the organization of conferences and events, such as the annual Open Access Week Seminar or the Seminar “Opening Science: Practice and Perspectives.” Opening up science in all its aspects has made working in an academic library a challenge. The Department of Scientific Information and Bibliometric\nAnalysis of the UŁ Library de facto consists of several teams, each of which performs new tasks related to open science – both the staff responsible for the administration of the repository, bibliometric analyses, collection of output information and research data, as well as the teaching team or the team for the promotion have to develop their competences in order to meet the expectations of not just one, but many links in the chain that makes up Polish and global science. If we add to this the aspect of gamification,\n17 The model of funding open access publications from university funds has been adopted by a number of centers that received an increased subvention under the “Excellence Initiative – Research University”\n(IDUB) competition, such as the AGH University of Krakow or the Gdansk University of Technology, which created the “Oxygenium Supporting Open Access Publications” program; see https://pg.edu.\npl/badawcza/programy/oxygenium-supporting-open-acess-publications. The openness policies of individual HEIs, although based on the same guidelines and with a similar purpose, vary widely – with varying degrees of strictness (from mild recommendations to, more rarely, a set pathway), varying scopes (some policies apply only to publications, others also to the storage of research data) and varying degrees of generality (identifying individuals, functions or units responsible for specific tasks).\nThe development of a model document for universities could be a solution to some of the problematic issues. A document with systemic solutions, such as specific gratifications for researchers publishing in open models and benefits for a university showing an increase in such publications, how to fund\nAPC and BPC costs, procedures for secure storage of research data or defining the role of individual university units in the process of opening up data and publications, seems desirable, especially as its development would require decision-makers to lean into issues that have long required it.\n\ncompeting with each other for funds, human resources, and infrastructure, as Emanuel\nKulczycki writes about (2023, p. 59), expectations grow. Scientists are expected to produce science faster and better, but to be able to do so, teams of competent people should stand behind them. The turn towards open science, which accelerated in Poland after the signing of Plan S, has shown how important it is to involve entities seemingly not directly involved in research: administration, libraries, publishing, IT teams... The case of UŁ is not unique – the same problems and tasks are faced by both those universities that have developed a formal openness policy and those that still do not have one. However, it proves that regulations cannot replace bottom-up initiatives and that the model of developing certain solutions based on the experience of employees, often at a low level, can be functional. When/if the UŁ authorities decide that an openness policy should be prepared and introduced, it is highly likely that it will not be a text repeating sentences taken out of Directions for the Development... or other ministerial document, but a useful tool that addresses the needs of the university community.\nReferences\nBednarek-Michalska, B. (2017). Otwarta nauka w Polsce – rys historyczny. W: E. Kulczycki, (red.).\nKomunikacja naukowa w humanistyce. Wydawnictwo Naukowe Instytutu Filozofii UAM. http:// repozytorium.umk.pl/handle/item/4710\nBrzozowska, A., Piestrzyński, T., Zatora, A. (2021). Publikowanie otwarte. Praktyczny przewodnik dla badaczy. Biblioteka Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego. http://hdl.handle.net/11089/47541 cOAlition S (2018). Plan S. Accelerating the transition to full and immediate Open Access to scientific publications. https://www.coalition-s.org/addendum-to-the-coalition-s-guidance-on-the-implementation-of-plan-s/principles-and-implementation/ (accessed on August 23, 2023).\nThe Future of Research Communications and e-Scholarship (FORCE11) (2014). Guiding Principles for Findable, Accessible, Interoperable and Re-usable Data Publishing version b1.0. https://force11.\norg/info/guiding-principles-for-findable-accessible-interoperable-and-re-usable-data-publishing-version-b1-0/ (accessed on August 23, 2023).\nGalica, N. (2023a). Narodowe Centrum Nauki. Polityka otwartego dostępu do publikacji. https:// pp.uni.lodz.pl/index.php/intranet/scms/portal/page?portalId=37&pageId=607 (intranet, accessed on August 23, 2023)\nGalica, N. (2023b). Otwarte dane badawcze w polityce i praktyce Narodowego Centrum Nauki.\nhttps://pp.uni.lodz.pl/index.php/intranet/scms/portal/page?portalId=37&pageId=607 (intranet, accessed on August 23, 2023)\nGrudniewicz, A., Moher, D., Cobey, K. D., Bryson, G. L., Cukier S., Allen, K., Ardern, C., Balcom,\nL., Barros, T., Berger, M., Ciro, J. B., Cugusi, L., Donaldson, M. R., Egger, M., Graham, I. D.,\nHodgkinson, M., Khan, K. M., Mabizela, M., Manca, A.,..., Lalu, M. M. (2019). Predatory journals: no definition, no defence. Nature, 576. https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-019-03759-y\nKępski, P. (2017). Polityka otwartego dostępu w Polsce. 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Polityka Naukowa Państwa. https://www.gov.pl/web/ edukacja-i-nauka/polityka-naukowa-panstwa-przyjeta-przez-rade-ministrow (accessed on August\n23, 2023).\nKierunki rozwoju otwartego dostępu do publikacji i wyników badań naukowych w Polsce (2015), https:// www.gov.pl/documents/1068557/1069061/20180413_Kierunki_rozwoju_OD_wersja_ostateczna.pdf\nNahotko, M. (red.) (2022). Obecność problematyki zarządzania danymi badawczymi na stronach web polskich bibliotek naukowych. Uniwersytet Jagielloński, Biblioteka Jagiellońska. https://ruj.uj.edu.\npl/xmlui/handle/item/291146\nNarodowe Centrum Nauki [NCN] (2019). Wytyczne dla wnioskodawców do uzupełnienia PLANU\nZARZĄDZANIA DANYMI w projekcie badawczym. https://www.ncn.gov.pl/sites/default/files/ pliki/regulaminy/wytyczne_zarzadzanie_danymi.pdf\nNarodowe Centrum Nauki [NCN] (2020). Polityka Narodowego Centrum Nauki dotycząca otwartego dostępu do publikacji. https://www.ncn.gov.pl/sites/default/files/pliki/zarzadzenia-dyrektora/ zarzadzenieDyr-38_2020.pdf\nOtwieranie Nauki: Praktyka i Perspektywy [ONPP] (2023). Edycja 7: Wartość Open Science, 10–11 października 2023, Łódź. Biblioteka Politechniki Łódzkiej. https://onpp.p.lodz.pl/ (accessed on\nAugust 23, 2023).\nPlatforma Otwartej Nauki [PON]. Polityki otwartości. http://pon.edu.pl/politykiotwartosci/polityki-otwartosci-w-polsce/ (accessed on August 23, 2023).\nUstawa z dnia 11 sierpnia 2021 r. o otwartych danych i ponownym wykorzystywaniu informacji sektora publicznego (2021). Dz.U. 2021 poz. 1641. https://sip.lex.pl/akty-prawne/dzu-dziennik-ustaw/ otwarte-dane-i-ponowne-wykorzystywanie-informacji-sektora-publicznego-19144047\nSan Francisco Declaration on Research Assessment [DORA], https://sfdora.org/read/ (accessed on\nAugust 23, 2023).\nSeminarium Open Access Week (2010–2022). Biblioteka Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego, Repozytorium\nUniwersytetu Łódzkiego. https://repozytorium.uni.lodz.pl/handle/11089/47605\n\nSibiga, G., Sybilski, D. (red.) (2022). Ustawa o otwartych danych i ponownym wykorzystywaniu informacji sektora publicznego. Komentarz. Wydawnictwo C.H.Beck.\nSPARC Europe’s strategic plan 2021–2024 (2021). https://sparceurope.org/who-we-are/about-us/ our-strategy/ (accessed on August 23, 2023).\nSpeicher, L., Armando, L., Bargheer, M., Eve, M. P., Fund S., Leão D., Mosterd, M., Pinter, F., Souyioultzoglou, I. (2018). OPERAS Open Access Business Models White Paper. Zenodo. https://doi.\norg/10.5281/zenodo.1323708\nSwan, A. (2012). Policy guidelines for the development and promotion of open access. United Nations\nEducational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/ pf0000215863 (accessed on August 23, 2023).\nSzprot, J. (red.) (2014). Otwarta nauka w Polsce 2014. Diagnoza. Wydawnictwa ICM. http://pon.edu.\npl/nasze-publikacje?pubid=13 (accessed on August 23, 2023).\nSzprot, J. (2019). Instytucjonalne polityki otwartości. https://konferencje.buw.uw.edu.pl/elsevier2019/ pdf/ONPPIV2019/13112019/2_Instytucjonalne_polityki_otwartossci_Szprot.pdf (accessed on\nAugust 23, 2023).\nWilkinson, M., Dumontier, M., Aalbersberg, I., Appleton, G., Axton, M., Baak, A., Blomberg, N.,\nBoiten, J. W., da Silva Santos, L. B., Bourne, P. E., Bouwman, J., Brookes, A. J., Clark, T., Crosas,\nM., Dillo, I., Dumon, O., Edmunds, S., Evelo, C. T., Finkers, R., ..., Mons, B. (2016). The FAIR\nGuiding Principles for scientific data management and stewardship. Scientific Data, 3, 160018.\nhttps://doi.org/10.1038/sdata.2016.18.\nZarządzenie nr 36 Rektora Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego z dnia 15.12.2021 r. w sprawie: obowiązku uzyskania identyfikatora ORCID i stosowania go w systemach gromadzenia informacji o dorobku naukowym przez osoby prowadzące działalność naukową w Uniwersytecie Łódzkim [Regulation\nNo. 36 of the UL Rector of 15 December 2021 on: obligation to obtain ORCID identifier and use it in the systems of collecting information on scientific achievements by persons conducting scientific activity at the University of Lodz] (2021). Uniwersytet Łódzki, Baza Aktów Wewnętrznych.\nhttps://baw.uni.lodz.pl/d/53644/5/\nZatora, A. (red.) (2021). Dane badawcze. Przewodnik Biblioteki Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego. Biblioteka\nUniwersytetu Łódzkiego. http://hdl.handle.net/11089/47542\nZatora, A. (2022). 13. Seminarium Open Access w Bibliotece Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego 24–30 października 2022 r. Zagadnienia Rodzajów Literackich, 3(143), 65. https://doi.org/10.26485/\nZRL/2022/65.3/10\n\nMonika Szarama\nORCID: 0000-0002-9544-8144\nŁukasz Tomczak\nORCID: 0000-0001-9465-4854\nCenter of Scientific and Technical Information\nLublin University of Technology\nROR: https://ror.org/024zjzd49\nThe journey of changing LUT’s scholarly output openness – an image of the last six years\nAbstract: The article presents the analysis of the 6-year period: 2017–2022 (including the years pre- and post-implementation of the 2020 OA Mandate at LUT) of OA publication percentage share at Lublin University of Technology. Additionally, calculations for Poland,\nEurope, and the entire world were made to put LUT’s results in a larger perspective. An analysis was based on data from the LUT Employees’ Publication Database, SciVal, and\nInCites (research analytics tools). Types of documents taken into consideration were limited to research articles, book chapters, books, and proceedings papers with OA status. In the course of the analysis, it was concluded that the percentage share of OA publications of\nLUT in relation to the total number of publications is at a satisfactory level and in line with national, regional, and global trends.\nKeywords: databases, Lublin University of Technology, open access, open science, OA publication percentage share\nIntroduction\nThe phenomenon of openness in scientific output has been the subject of numerous studies aiming to provide quantitative assessments of open access trends at various levels of aggregation. At the global level, Robinson-Garcia et al. (2020) conducted a study based on data from the Web of Science, Unpaywall, and Leiden Ranking, encompassing\n963 institutions. Chaignon and Egret (2022) prepared national-level calculations for\nFrance, taking into account open access to scientific publications through open and\n\nsubscription databases and the open national archive. Torres and Manjarrez-Dominguez\n(2021) presented similar calculations at the institutional level for the accounting departments of three universities.\nTo date, no comparable analysis has been performed specifically for Lublin University of Technology (LUT). The university’s 70th anniversary provided an opportunity to review its activities to date, defining the university’s commitment to broad scientific communication.\nChanges in the model of scholarly communication are one of the clusters that emerge from the 2016 study of scholarly production on open access (Migiel et al., 2016). Making scientific publications accessible to all has an undeniable impact on how quickly this new information becomes available to others.\nJust as “the model of open access offers tremendous benefits to the different stakeholders of research ecosystem, leading to the preservation, protection and distribution of academic and research publications” (Jaiwant & Gowda, 2022), the continuous evolution of the open science environment is constantly bringing new tools, definitions and criteria to the debate, providing examples of what and how one can or should analyse to obtain information on the reach of open access to researchers’ scientific output.\nThe direction in which the LUT Center of Scientific and Technical Information\n(LUT CSTI) has been trying to support the LUT academic community through the development of its own services for quite some time has been striving to integrate open science on a wider scale into the teaching and research processes carried out at the university. The analysis undertaken provided an opportunity to gain insight into the last years of this process, an important element of which was the adoption of the Open Access Policy at LUT by the Rector’s Order dated November 6, 2020 (Order\nNo. R-92/2020, 2020). This resulted in an intensification of efforts on the part of LUT\nCSTI to promote open science among LUT researchers, as well as an expansion of the\nCenter’s offerings in this area (Weinper & Tomczak, 2021). The years covered in this analysis take into account the period before and after the introduction of the Policy, and provide a possibly general, yet relevant, picture of the document’s impact on the scientific output of LUT employees.\nMethods\nThe data for the analysis were collected based on three sources on 28.02.23 for the poster session of the conference “Challenges of Contemporary Publishing” and on 30.06.2023 for this text, after updating the 2022 data in Scopus and Web of Science (WoS).\n\nTwo general databases with a broad spectrum of scientific disciplines, Scopus and the\nWeb of Science (WoS), including the Emerging Sources Citation Index, were selected as data sources. Data extraction was performed using the analytical tools SciVal and InCites that accompany these resources. The third source, the LUT Employees’ Publication\nDatabase (LUT EPD), serves as a tool for internal evaluation of LUT employees.\nInCites undergoes monthly updates based on data downloaded from the Web of\nScience at the end of the preceding month. SciVal is updated weekly using information from the Scopus database. Updates to the LUT EPD are not scheduled; new publications are included following author submission and final verification by a librarian.\nThe LUT EPD registers all publication outputs of LUT employees, including popular scientific works. Inclusion in this database requires that at least one author lists\nLUT as their affiliation.\nFor InCites and SciVal, document selection was based on the name of the institution\n(Lublin University of Technology in WoS) and the organization identifier 60011739\n(Scopus).\nTo facilitate data comparison across databases, the types of publications included in the analysis were limited to scientific articles, conference materials, book chapters, and books. The selected document types provided the highest level of completeness of information about them in LUT EPD and corresponded to the document types reported in parametric evaluations of scientific activity. The analysis focuses on the period 2017–2022, taking into account the years both preceding and following the implementation of the Open Access Policy at LUT. For the purposes of this analysis, open access (OA) was defined as free and full-text access to the content of electronic publications.\nThe LUT EPD designates publications as open based on the primary criterion of free and unrestricted online access to the full text, including all types of OA. Although the presence of a Creative Commons license is noted in the publication record (if present), it is not decisive in determining the document’s availability. The status of each document is verified manually by the librarian during completion of the publication metadata when entering the LUT EPD.\nFor the InCites tool, OA status is determined according to the WoS classification: Gold and Gold Hybrid, Free to Read: Green Published, Green Accepted, Green\nSubmitted (Clarivate, n.d.). For the SciVal tool, the terminology present in the Scopus database includes the following models: Gold, Hybrid Gold, Bronze, and Green\n(McCullough, 2022). The Scopus and WoS databases provide the opportunity to label documents with more than one OA status, as they can be available in different OA versions at the same time. This means that one publication can be counted simultaneously\n\nfor multiple OA models present in the database. Therefore, in both SciVal and InCites a general OA filter can be used: “All Open Access” that takes into account documents in all openness models.\nIn order to put LUT’s results into a broader context, they were compared with calculations for Poland, Europe, and the world using these analytical tools. Both SciVal and InCites list Poland as an entity enabling direct analysis. The indicators for Europe were based on the EU28 category to include publications from the UK, as the period analysed includes years before and after Brexit. Calculations for the world were based on a global baseline for InCites and a world overview for SciVal. Each analysis was\nFigure 1. O A percentage share in LUT publications.\nlimited to previously selected years and document types.\nSource: own elaboration based on LUT EPD (accessed on June 30, 2023).\nIt was brought to our attention during the conference that we should focus on technical universities for a better comparison. Still, although the “academic” filter is present in both tools, it does not affect the global baseline indicator in InCites. Since it would not be possible to ensure a sufficient level of accuracy globally by manual selection of entities for the analysis, it was decided to adopt general restrictions for the query in terms of years and document types.\nThe data for this analysis were collected after the announcement of the 2022 data update in the WoS and Scopus databases, which allows us to assume that all relevant\n2022 data should already be included in both sources. However, it should be noted that for particular years, there may still be publications that, although they should, for various reasons, have not yet been indexed in these databases. This predicament arises due to the absence of individual articles or sometimes whole issues of journals building the indexes of these databases, which is difficult to avoid, given the number of sources from which information is drawn.\nResults\nThe collected results present an upward trend in OA publications for LUT until 2020 and a slight decrease in 2021–2022. The average percentage of OA from each year in\nLUT publications is 65.1%, and the percentage of OA publications for the entire 2017–\n2022 period included in the analysis in the LUT EPD was 64.4%.\nThe number of OA publications registered in the LUT EPD was the highest in 2021\n(921 documents) and the lowest in 2022 (699 documents). The percentage of open publications in the total number of publications included in the analysis was the highest in 2020 – 73.4% and the lowest in 2017 – 56% (Fig. 1).\n\nfor multiple OA models present in the database. Therefore, in both SciVal and InCites a general OA filter can be used: “All Open Access” that takes into account documents in all openness models.\nIn order to put LUT’s results into a broader context, they were compared with calculations for Poland, Europe, and the world using these analytical tools. Both SciVal and InCites list Poland as an entity enabling direct analysis. The indicators for Europe were based on the EU28 category to include publications from the UK, as the period analysed includes years before and after Brexit. Calculations for the world were based on a global baseline for InCites and a world overview for SciVal. Each analysis was\nFigure 1. OA percentage share in LUT publications.\nlimited to previously selected years and document types.\nSource: own elaboration based on LUT EPD (accessed on June 30, 2023).\nIt was brought to our attention during the conference that we should focus on technical universities for a better comparison. Still, although the “academic” filter is present in both tools, it does not affect the global baseline indicator in InCites. Since it would LUT data from InCites is shown in Figure 2, and SciVal is shown in Figure 3.\nnot be possible to ensure a sufficient level of accuracy globally by manual selection of entities for the analysis, it was decided to adopt general restrictions for the query in terms of years and document types.\nThe data for this analysis were collected after the announcement of the 2022 data update in the WoS and Scopus databases, which allows us to assume that all relevant\n2022 data should already be included in both sources. However, it should be noted that for particular years, there may still be publications that, although they should, for various reasons, have not yet been indexed in these databases. This predicament arises due to the absence of individual articles or sometimes whole issues of journals building the indexes of these databases, which is difficult to avoid, given the number of sources from which information is drawn. Figure 2. OA percentage share in LUT publications indexed by Web of Science.\nSource: own elaboration based on InCites (accessed on June 30, 2023).\nResults\nThe collected results present an upward trend in OA publications for LUT until 2020 and a slight decrease in 2021–2022. The average percentage of OA from each year in\nLUT publications is 65.1%, and the percentage of OA publications for the entire 2017–\n2022 period included in the analysis in the LUT EPD was 64.4%.\nThe number of OA publications registered in the LUT EPD was the highest in 2021\n(921 documents) and the lowest in 2022 (699 documents). The percentage of open publications in the total number of publications included in the analysis was the highest in 2020 – 73.4% and the lowest in 2017 – 56% (Fig. 1).\nFigure 3. OA percentage share in LUT publications indexed by Scopus.\nSource: own elaboration based on SciVal (accessed on June 30, 2023).\n\nAccording to SciVal, the number of OA publications for LUT was highest in 2021\n(514), similarly, InCites – registered the highest number of LUT affiliate documents in this model in 2021 (441). As was the case with the LUT EPD, in 2017, both databases recorded the lowest number of OA publications among the previously selected document types: SciVal – 178, InCites – 249, as well as the lowest ratio of OA documents to the total number of publications: 31.12% in SciVal and 40.03% in InCites.\nThe indicators for Poland obtained from InCites are presented in Figure 4, and\nSciVal in Figure 5.\nFigure 4. O A percentage share in Polish publications indexed by Web of Science.\nSource: own elaboration based on InCites (accessed on June 30, 2023).\nFigure 5. O A percentage share in Polish publications indexed by Scopus.\nSource: Own elaboration based on SciVal (accessed on June 30, 2023).\n\nCalculations for Europe based on the assumptions of this analysis are presented in\nFigure 6 (InCites) and Figure 7 (SciVal).\nFigure 6. OA percentage share in EU publications indexed by Web of Science.\nSource: own elaboration based on InCites (accessed on June 30, 2023).\nFigure 7. OA percentage share in EU publications indexed by Scopus.\nSource: own elaboration based on SciVal (accessed on June 30, 2023).\n\nGlobal-level indicator data for InCites is shown in Figure 8, and SciVal in Figure 9.\nA summary of the percentages from the sources included in the analysis is presented in Table 1.\nFigure 8. O A percentage share in World publications indexed by Web of Science.\nSource: own elaboration based on InCites (accessed on June 30, 2023).\nFigure 9. O A percentage share in World publications indexed by Scopus.\nSource: own elaboration based on SciVal (accessed on June 30, 2023).\n\nTable 1. S ummary overview: OA percentage share in analyzed documents.\nData Entity 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 source\nLUT EPD LUT 56% 58,40% 61,20% 73,40% 72% 69,80%\nLUT 40% 40,10% 50% 60,70% 67,50% 69,50%\nPL 47,70% 46,80% 53,60% 62,80% 70,70% 70,70%\nInCites\nEU 48,50% 50,90% 55,20% 61,80% 66,80% 71,40%\nWorld 38,40% 40,20% 42,80% 46,90% 50,20% 51,50%\nLUT 31,10% 39,60% 41,90% 56,70% 64,90% 67,20%\nPL 45,50% 46,50% 52,80% 62% 67,80% 67%\nSciVal\nEU 46,70% 49,20% 53% 59,20% 62% 61,50%\nWorld 36,20% 38,20% 40,60% 44,60% 46,70% 45,50%\nSource: Own elaboration based on LUT EPD, SciVal, InCites (accessed on June 30, 2023).\nComparing LUT’s results with the values obtained for Poland, only in the case of\n2022 did the share of open documents slightly (0.2%) exceed the rate for the country.\nNevertheless, from 2019 onward, as the number of open documents increased, the difference between the values achieved by LUT and the national-level calculations in the SciVal database successively decreased.\nThe percentage of open documents on the LUT exceeded the results for the EU in\n2021 and 2022 – according to data from SciVal, moreover, starting in 2018, the share of AOs for the LUT remained above the global average, and peaked at 67.2% in 2022.\nA 2020 study based on papers published between 2014 and 2017 in the WoS database found that more than 50% of the output of European universities is made available in OA, ranking Europe first among continents (Robinson-Garcia et al., 2020). In this overview, the data from InCites place LUT below the national and European average for the period under review, with the exception of 2021, when LUT’s indicator slightly exceeded the results for Europe (by less than 1%). The smallest difference between values for LUT and Poland was observed in 2022 (1.2%), while the largest difference was observed in 2017 and it amounted to 7.7%. In addition, in the case of Europe alone, we can also observe an approximately 5% increase in the number of open publications in the analyzed group of documents in the following years, starting from 2019.\nThe LUT ratios versus the trend for the world in SciVal and InCites through 2019 are similar in their values. There are two larger deviations in favor of LUT during this period – in SciVal in 2017, where the difference is more than 5%, and in InCites in\n2019, more than 7%.\n\nStarting in 2018, a significant increase in the number of open LUT publications indexed by WoS can be observed, amounting to about 10% in each year between 2018 and 2020. However, this trend is followed by a sudden decline between 2021 and 2022, in which the value of the increase dropped to 7% and then to 2%. It was in 2022 that the highest percentage of OA documents in InCites-indexed output was recorded, amounting to 69.5%.\nSciVal also presents a noticeable increase in the percentage of LUT publications in open access between 2018 and 2021. Although the value of the increase was only 2.5% between 2018 and 2019, it continued to rise in the following years, peaking at around\n14% in 2020. But like InCites, it dropped to 2.2% in 2022. Data from Scopus also shows the highest percentage of OA LUT publications in 2022 – 67.2%.\nRegardless of the data source considered, in the case of LUT there is an upward trend in the number of OA publications starting in 2017 (reaching its peak according to\nInCites and SciVal in 2022, and in the case of the LUT EPD in 2020) and a slow decline from 2021 in both the total number of publications and those published in open access.\nConclusions\nThe most comprehensive data on publications with LUT affiliation are in the LUT EPD, which collects the entire scientific output of employees, including documents meeting the criteria of this analysis, both indexed and not indexed by WoS or Scopus databases.\nProviding the most comprehensive picture of LUT’s scientific output (also thanks to manual verification of entered data by LUT CSTI staff), it serves also as a reliable tool for internal evaluation of the university’s employees and doctoral students.\nAs mentioned earlier, the status of a publication in the LUT EPD is determined when a document is registered in the database. During the course of this study, it occurred to us that a reassessment of this status would be highly desirable, especially for publications prior to 2020. For some of them, the status may have changed from closed access to open access since registration in the database. Publishers’ archives in this interval may have become freely available. This is the case, for example, with 140 journals published by Elsevier, with embargo periods ranging from 6 to 60 months\n(Elsevier, n.d.). Authors themselves, on the other hand, have been able to independently use repositories to self-archive papers and deposit AAM versions, a common practice in the international scientific community. Tracking these changes from the publication database is challenging, but would certainly contribute to an even more complete, up-to-date image of LUT’s scientific output.\n\nFor the other databases analyzed, both WoS (Clarivate, n.d.) and Scopus (McCullough,\n2022) use the nonprofit organization OurResearch – Unpaywall project for weekly OA status updates. This affects the accuracy of the number of OA publications, which, regardless of the source, is tied to a specific time frame. This number will change over time, not only assuming a potential increase in the number of documents originally published in one of the open models in the future, but also for already completed publishing years. This becomes especially apparent in the perspective of OA publication growth at the regional and global level.\nUndoubtedly, the limitations imposed on this analysis in the form of the type of document and the selected years allow us to obtain only a partial picture regarding the level of openness of scientific output. Nevertheless, it allows us to formulate several conclusions, as well as to identify areas and actions that will allow us to provide the best possible support to LUT scientists and conditions for further development of the idea of openness at LUT.\nThe first conclusion is the need to continue working on raising awareness of open access among LUT doctoral students and researchers through workshops and meetings conducted by LUT CSTI staff. These include: 1) group periodic training sessions for researchers to support the preparation of the DMP; 2) promotion of the idea of open access through the website and social media of LUT CSTI and during organized events such as the Open Access Week; 3) individual consultations (offering suggestions for solutions that will be able to meet the expectations of employees and doctoral students, while remaining in compliance with the guidelines of funding institutions or restrictions set by publishers). LUT CSTI has so far worked to accomplish these tasks through multi-level efforts over the years, including cooperation with other units, such as the University Project Office (Weinper & Tomczak, 2021).\nAnother activity undertaken by LUT CSTI staff is to provide researchers with a diverse range of journal titles for the publication of their research. Efforts are being made to encourage scientists to choose where to publish according to their chosen discipline, taking into account not only the Journal Impact Factor (JIF) or CiteScore, but also the search for valuable diamond journals. And although it’s hard to convince anyone of this statement: a journal’s high score in the ministerial list should not be the only criterion scientists use when choosing a source for publishing.\nThe above-mentioned activity is related to another one, which involves continuing to inform the academic community about available open publishing programs, both at the institutional and national levels, and encouraging the use of the available limits within these programs. This has the dual benefit of providing relevant platforms\n\nfor publishing results, while making them available to a wide audience without direct financial costs to the authors (the costs are covered by the university or the ministry).\nContinuing the current strategy and further opening the LUT Publishing House is another important conclusion of the analysis. The process itself began in October 2010 with organizational changes in the university’s structure and the transfer of all activities related to the publication of scientific monographs and textbooks to the LUT Library.\nThe Center for Publishing and the LUT Digital Library, the fruit of this change, later transformed into the LUT Publishing House, became one of the first units in Polish higher education, located in the structure of the library, to bring together traditional book publishing and making publications available in the digital library (Gajda & Pełka-Smętek, 2022).1\nCurrently, electronic versions of documents are made available in the LUT Digital Library2 under the CC-BY-SA 4.0 LUT license. Another task of the LUT Publishing House was to create a platform that brings together periodical publications published or co-published by the university. “The Lublin University of Technology Publishing House relied on open access publishing under open licenses and on a popular publishing platform created in an open source application called Open Journal Systems.” (Gajda & Pełka-Smętek, 2022).\nAccording to the provisions of the LUT Open Access Policy, articles published in journals available on LUT Publishing House journal platform are assigned a CC BY-SA license by default. Some of the journals have adapted the broader CC license even before moving to the LUT PH platform. The editors of the remaining titles are currently being consulted to encourage them to allow authors to choose the broader license: CC BY (consistent with the requirements of most research funders)3.\nAs mentioned earlier, the Open Access Policy was introduced at LUT in November\n2020. The document itself was based on the general guidelines of the National Science\nCentre and the open access policy template provided on the Ministry of Education and\nScience (MEIN) website. One of the major activities we plan to focus on in the near future is updating it. Over the years that have passed since the document was adopted at the university, not only the guidelines of research funders and the requirements of publishers have changed or been clarified, but also the knowledge and awareness of scientists themselves and, above all, the LUT CSTI staff responsible for supporting\n1 When the Center of Scientific and Technical Information was established in 2019, the Lublin\nUniversity of Technology Publishing House ceased to operate within the library structure, although it remained closely associated with it.\n2 Since February 2025, electronic versions have been available in the ROCK (Repository of Open\nCollections and Knowledge), institutional repository, which replaced the LUT Digital Library.\n3 Since January 2024, all journal titles available on the Lublin University of Technology Publishing\nHouse journal platform have adopted the CC BY 4.0 license.\n\nthem in areas related to open science topics. The experience acquired in recent years by both groups should now be used in the process of creating a document that will best meet the needs of the LUT academic community.\nThe new version of the policy will also include a provision regulating the existence and functioning of the open science team at LUT CSTI (currently operating in an informal way under the chairmanship of the Rector’s Plenipotentiary for Open Access at\nLUT). Another possible way to improve the work on updating the Open Access Policy at\nLUT would be to seek out and appoint Open Science Ambassadors – academics acting as liaisons between LUT CSTI and individual LUT departments, acting as the first line of contact and taking an active part in the work of the open science team. They would not only mediate information and current developments taking place in the field of open science, but also, thanks to them, the needs and challenges present in the scientific community could reach the LUT CSTI staff more quickly, and they would be able to get support more quickly, not just for an individual case. Talks with the university authorities about the establishment of such a group and the real benefits of participating in it are already underway.\nTo summarize the above considerations, the increase in the number of OA papers affiliated with LUT is, to some extent, related to the increase in the level of awareness among researchers of the benefits offered by this publishing model. We should also take into account in this process the role played by the requirements of research funders, already cited above (which clearly define how research results should be disseminated). In addition, we should also take into account the rules for the evaluation of scientific activity in the 2017–2021 period, which, although they did not take into account the openness of publications as an aspect of the evaluation itself, in many cases, through the number of points assigned to specific publications, encouraged publishing precisely in them. The pandemic period was also not an insignificant factor, during which a greater need was observed to share scientific results quickly, which translated into an increase in the number of publications in the OA model. The phenomenon is evident in all sciences, but especially in the fields of medical and health sciences, where the open access rate of publications on COVID-19 from the first six months of 2020 reached 89.5% (Capocasa et al., 2022). Was the achieved number of papers in the case of LUT the result of conscious decisions by researchers, criteria established by research funders, external circumstances, or was the openness a byproduct of the selection of high-scoring journals from the ministerial list? The answer to this question is not easy and could become the subject of further research. However, in the context of scientific output, the collected results illustrate the positive impact of all these factors on the increase in the number of open papers published by the LUT\n\nscientific community, as well as satisfactory rates when compared with trends observed at the national, regional, and global levels.\nReferences\nCapocasa, M., Anagnostou, P., Destro Bisol, G. (2022). A light in the dark: Open access to medical literature and the COVID-19 pandemic. Information Research, 27(2), paper 929. https://doi.\norg/10.47989/irpaper929\nChaignon, L., Egret, D. (2022). Identifying scientific publications countrywide and measuring their open access: The case of the French Open Science Barometer (BSO). Quantitative Science Studies,\n3(1), 18-36. https://doi.org/10.1162/qss_a_00179\nClarivate. (n.d.). Open Access. https://clarivate.com/webofsciencegroup/solutions/open-access/\nElsevier. (n.d.). Open Archive. https://www.elsevier.com/en-in/open-access/open-archive\nGajda, J., Pełka-Smętek, K. (2022). Wydawnictwo w bibliotece – przypadek Politechniki Lubelskiej.\nBiuletyn EBIB, 202(1), 1–6.\nInCites. Clarivate, http://incites.clarivate.com (accessed on June 30, 2023).\nJaiwant, S. V., Gowda, K. R. (2022). Open Access: A New Ecosystem of Research Publications. In:\nD. Alemneh (ed.), Handbook of Research on the Global View of Open Access and Scholarly Communications (s. 165–177). IGI Global. https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-7998-9805-4.ch009\nLUT Employees’ Publication Database (v1.538). Łukasz Litwiniuk, https://pub.pollub.pl/ (accessed on June 30, 2023).\nMcCullough R. (2022). Scopus Open Access filters and new Green OA full-text access. Elsevier. https:// blog.scopus.com/posts/scopus-filters-for-open-access-type-and-green-oa-full-text-access-option\nMiguel, S., Tannuri de Oliveira, E., Cabrini Grácio, M. (2016). Scientific Production on Open Access:\nA Worldwide Bibliometric Analysis in the Academic and Scientific Context. Publications, 4(1),\n1–15. https://doi.org/10.3390/publications4010001\nRobinson-Garcia, N., Costas, R., van Leeuwen, T. N. (2020). Open Access uptake by universities worldwide. PeerJ, 8, e9410. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.9410\nSciVal. Elsevier, https://www.scival.com (accessed on June 30, 2023).\nTorres, J. M., Manjarrez-Dominguez, A. (2021). Toward an understanding of open access trends in business schools: A bibliometric analysis of the open access faculty publications of accounting departments at three universities. Journal of Business & Finance Librarianship, 26(3–4), 179–199.\nhttps://doi.org/10.1080/08963568.2021.1919822\nWeinper, K., Tomczak, Ł. (2021). How to be fair? Open publications and research data at the Lublin\nUniversity of Technology. TASK Quarterly. Scientific Bulletin of Academic Computer Centre in\nGdansk, 25(4), 491–498. https://doi.org/10.34808/tq2021/25.4/r\nZarządzenie Nr R-92/2020 Rektora Politechniki Lubelskiej z dnia 6 listopada 2020 r. w sprawie wprowadzenia Polityki otwartego dostępu w Politechnice Lubelskiej. (2020). https://pollub.bip.gov.pl/ zarzadzenia-rektora/zarzadzenie-nr-r-92-2020.html\n\nSue Ann Gardner\nORCID: 0000-0003-2927-0365\nUniversity of Nebraska–Lincoln Libraries\nROR: https://ror.org/043mer456\nComparison of Library Publishing Workflows by Open Access Model as Practiced in the University of Nebraska–Lincoln Libraries\nAbstract: Workflows for green and diamond open access (OA) models in a library publishing program may be very similar to one another (green = republishing; diamond = original publishing). As administered in the University of Nebraska–Lincoln Libraries, the details of each of these workflows are outlined and compared with each other and compared also with the interaction with authors that stems from gold OA (= outsourcing publishing).\nVignettes related to each type of publishing model are included to demonstrate the types of conversations we tend to have with authors about the various OA types and give an indication of how much uptake of the content is often generated after publication.\nKeywords: library publishing, open access models, green open access, gold open access, diamond open access\nIntroduction\nAs described by the International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions\n(IFLA) Special Interest Group on Library Publishing (Buggle, 2023), library publishing is part of a broader range of scholarly communication activities driven and managed by librarians in all types of libraries, including national, state, academic, and public, as well as learned societies. Library publishing advances the open scholarship agenda globally via the production of journals, monographs, and other publication outputs on a predominantly open access basis. Library publishing programs have strong equity, diversity, and inclusion missions while\n\nstrengthening bibliodiversity in the international scholarly communication landscape.\nLibrary publishing encompasses a range of activities, not just original publishing, but also republishing. Republishing refers to posting a legal version of a work of scholarship that was previously published outside the library into the library’s institutional repository\n(IR). In this way, population of an institutional repository is itself a form of publishing.\nFollowing is a cursory overview of open access models and very basic copyright and licensing bases that help guide the publishing workflows established within the University of Nebraska–Lincoln (UNL) Libraries scholarly communications unit\n(located in the United States of America). The workflows themselves then are described and compared based on OA model. Vignettes related to each of the OA model-types are included at the end, hopefully to bring the workflows to life and, thus, to shed better understanding of the relevant issues.\nOpen Access Models, Working Definitions\nSalient to the work conducted in library publishing, numerous OA models have emerged over the years, distinguishable in part by the copyright and licensing status of the published works in question. Some terms are used with regard to OA which are not precisely defined and even may be used in somewhat contradictory ways depending on the context and the perspective of the person invoking the parameters. Therefore, what follows are not standard definitions, but are used at times at the UNL Libraries as a way to facilitate conversation about OA with constituent authors and readers.\n■ Gold. Refers to outsourcing the publishing of an OA-licensed work that is usually made available immediately after publication; it involves paying an article processing charge (APC).\n■ Green. Refers to republishing work that is initially available elsewhere (often behind a paywall, but not always) and then put into our IR in a copyright-legal form.\n■ Diamond (also sometimes referred to as platinum). Refers to originally publishing work in the UNL Libraries with no costs levied to either authors or readers.\nQuick Overview of Very Basic Copyright and Licensing\nSince copyright is antecedent to open access and subsequent licensing of content results in open accessibility, an overview of the most basic elements of both copyright and licensing can help frame the discussion of workflows that follows.\n\nCopyright is a federal law that, in the United States, has its origins in the U.S. Constitution.\nIn the United States – and as is true in many other countries – no formalities are required for copyright to be conferred, meaning no mark of copyright nor registration is required.\nTherefore, copyright is automatic for the author upon creation of original content in a fixed medium of expression. After that, the author either retains or transfers their copyrights.\nIn an academic setting, authors often publish their works, and in that process transfer of copyright from the author to the publisher is often compelled by the publishers.\nThe copyright holder has a bundle of rights that they can either reserve or give permissions around, often through a license, which effectively is a mechanism for blanket permissions. Open Access publications add this licensing layer on top of automatic or transferred copyright. Most OA licenses are legally binding contracts that confer permissions formally that allow particular types of uses beyond legally fair uses. Creative\nCommons (CC) licenses have come into widespread use and range from CC0 (effectively placing the material into the public domain) to those that impose some restrictions. The basic CC BY license (meaning, use requires attribution) may stand alone or may include the imposition of certain limitations on use, including requiring users to conform to the conditions labeled NonCommercial, ShareAlike, and/or NoDerivatives.\nCustomized (that is, non-CC) open licenses are also used at times.\nLibrary Publishing Workflows\nLibrary publishing differs from other scholarly publishing ventures in several ways, including probably invariably having much smaller staffs. Small staff size leads to necessarily truncated workflows compared to those at commercial publishing houses.\nKalikman Lippincott (2017) notes that, in fact:\nMany library publishing initiatives may best be described as publishing services in that they put less emphasis on acquiring, managing, and owning a coherent portfolio of work and more on providing the necessary technologies and support to facilitate content creation and dissemination of all kinds.\nIn the UNL Libraries, this emphasis on library publishing as a service is the driving ethos. This service approach comes into play such that we do not think of our publishing work in the sense of building a collection of materials. The body of scholarship that accumulates thanks to our efforts in the scholarly communications unit in the library primarily reflects the scholarly activity of the university’s faculty, as well as content that may not be created by them directly but advances the work being done in academia\n\nManuscript generally. With this position guiding us, we do not attempt to shape the IR, as such; the university’s faculty are the primary builders of the publishing program and of the IR.\nIntellectual property\nAs is true in many library publishing outfits, there are only very few staff working in the UNL Libraries’ scholarly communications unit: We have three full-time staff members plus one or two student workers. Currently, Paul Royster serves as Publisher and IR Coordinator, Linnea Fredrickson serves as Production Specialist and Editor, and Editing Production\nSue Ann Gardner serves as Scholarly Communications Librarian. Our titles, in part,\nCopyedit Typeset text reflect the non-publishing work that we do. For the publishing part of our positions,\nReview content Add graphics all three of us work collaboratively and continuously on all aspects of the publication workflows without a strong demarcation for each of our contributions. Correct proofs Identifiers/Metadata\nFor each of us, publishing production constitutes the bulk of our work. Due to our\nPublished work very small size, compared to what may be done in a larger publishing concern, we have\nFigure 1. P ublishing Workflow Steps.\nstreamlined the workflows that lead to an item being originally published or repub-\nSource: own elaboration.\nlished, which then ultimately appears as an item posted in the IR.\nLeaving out many aspects that come along with the publishing itself (such as those related to author relations, outside peer review, handling occasional technical issues with the platform, etc.), following are the basic workflow steps involved in publishing within the UNL Libraries. The licensing activity takes place at various times; necessarily earlier in the process than depicted here for a republished item. The steps are also depicted graphically in Figure 1.\nPublishing Workflow Steps\n1. Acquisition: Content creation and development a. Author submits a manuscript (as accepted by another publisher or an original one), b. For original submissions, when needed or desired, we sometimes help develop the content.\n2. Production a. Typesetting, b. Graphics, c. Copyediting, d. Proof corrections,\n3. Distribution: Access and discovery a. Determine which license applies (republishing), or choose a license (original publishing), b. Identifiers, c. Metadata and uploading.\n\nManuscript generally. With this position guiding us, we do not attempt to shape the IR, as such; the university’s faculty are the primary builders of the publishing program and of the IR.\nIntellectual property\nAs is true in many library publishing outfits, there are only very few staff working in the UNL Libraries’ scholarly communications unit: We have three full-time staff members plus one or two student workers. Currently, Paul Royster serves as Publisher and IR Coordinator, Linnea Fredrickson serves as Production Specialist and Editor, and Editing Production\nSue Ann Gardner serves as Scholarly Communications Librarian. Our titles, in part,\nCopyedit Typeset text reflect the non-publishing work that we do. For the publishing part of our positions,\nReview content Add graphics all three of us work collaboratively and continuously on all aspects of the publication workflows without a strong demarcation for each of our contributions. Correct proofs Identifiers/Metadata\nFor each of us, publishing production constitutes the bulk of our work. Due to our\nPublished work very small size, compared to what may be done in a larger publishing concern, we have\nFigure 1. Publishing Workflow Steps.\nstreamlined the workflows that lead to an item being originally published or repub-\nSource: own elaboration.\nlished, which then ultimately appears as an item posted in the IR.\nLeaving out many aspects that come along with the publishing itself (such as those\nComparison of Workflows by OA Publishing Model related to author relations, outside peer review, handling occasional technical issues with the platform, etc.), following are the basic workflow steps involved in publishing within the UNL Libraries. The licensing activity takes place at various times; necessar- The publishing workflow that we employ depends on which OA model a work falls ily earlier in the process than depicted here for a republished item. The steps are also under. As outlined briefly in the section above on these issues, determining how to depicted graphically in Figure 1. publish an item calls our knowledge of copyright and licensing into play.\nSometimes an item that has been published elsewhere that is otherwise behind a pay-\nPublishing Workflow Steps wall may be posted in our IR in the final published form. This is essentially a green-gold hybrid-type item. This streamlines the workflow considerably, allowing us to cut out\n1. Acquisition: Content creation and development typesetting and proof corrections, for example. There are other OA hybrid examples a. Author submits a manuscript (as accepted by another publisher or an original one), that we encounter. We treat each item accordingly, based on the copyright and licensb. For original submissions, when needed or desired, we sometimes help develop ing regime that it falls under.\nthe content. Despite the variety of copyright and licensing variations binding published scholarly\n2. Production works, there is a standard workflow that can be outlined. The following are descripa. Typesetting, tions of the basic workflow steps we take to publish under the different OA models.\nb. Graphics, Figure 2 shows these workflow steps side-by-side.\nc. Copyediting,\nGold OA: Outsourced Publishing Workflow d. Proof corrections,\n3. Distribution: Access and discovery Since the publishing is outsourced, there is no publishing production workflow for us a. Determine which license applies (republishing), or choose a license (original associated with gold OA. Our involvement with gold OA publishing includes advising publishing), and guiding the author through the process of getting their work published elsewhere.\nb. Identifiers, Then, after the work has been published, we upload a copy of the published version c. Metadata and uploading. into our IR.\n\nGreen OA: Republishing Workflow\nWhen preparing to republish a work (green OA), the workflow generally involves first acquiring an accepted manuscript and determining the license and permissions. As described above, based on what permissions are attached or what the copyright status of an item is, we may be able to post the canonical version (meaning, the final published version). If we cannot post the final published version, we work from the accepted manuscript. Sometimes we post the raw accepted manuscript as is, but we often do a few things to reformat it that make it nicer to read; this is what we refer to as republishing.\nWhen we republish an item, we typeset text from the accepted manuscript, which includes laying out the text and adding graphics. Because the work has usually been copyedited in the process of creating the accepted manuscript version, we then make only light proof corrections (meaning, mainly correcting typos or formatting errors that didn’t get caught in the earlier editing process). Then we upload the version that we have re-typeset to the IR.\nDiamond OA: Original Publishing Workflow\nWhen preparing to originally publish a work (diamond OA), we first acquire an unpublished manuscript. This step is sometimes quite involved and may encompass many activities that are outside the scope of this paper. For example, as mentioned above, there may be a lot of development of the content that we engage in with the author after accepting a manuscript. Or sometimes we get a manuscript that Paul Royster calls “shovel-ready,” meaning that it has been edited and reviewed ahead of time and is ready to put into production without much input from our team on those matters.\nEither way, when originally publishing a work, after development of the content is complete, we put the manuscript into production. With guidance from the author, this will involve choosing a license. Then we work on typesetting, graphics, copyediting, and proof correction. We generate and affix identifiers (such as DOIs), and then we upload the content to the IR.\n\nTable 1. Comparison of Workflows by OA Publishing Model\nGOLD GREEN DIAMOND/PLATINUM\nOutsourced publishing Republishing in the library Original publishing in the library\nAdvise and guide author Acquire an accepted Acquire and develop an original manuscript manuscript\nDetermine permissions Choose a license\nCopyedit\n(Peer- or Editor-review)\nTypeset text Typeset text\nSelect/create graphics\nLayout and add graphics Layout and add graphics\nLight proof corrections Thorough proof corrections\nGenerate and affix identifiers\nPost canonical version Post republished item Post originally published item\nSource: Own elaboration.\nThe extra steps for original publishing appear in bold in the table and include developing the content (from an original manuscript), choosing a license, copyediting, reviewing the content (for example, peer reviewing, colleague-editor reviewing, fact checking), selecting and/or creating graphics, and thoroughly reviewing the proof pages and making corrections. Although we may facilitate it directly at times, the peer-review or editor-review function always takes place outside our publishing unit; that’s why this item appears in parentheses in the table.\nMore than anything, the table is meant to illustrate the similarity of the workflows between green and diamond OA. Republishing and original publishing involve typesetting, layout, and graphics, primarily with editing functions (and sometimes graphics creation) added to the original publishing workflow. It’s also meant to show that gold\nOA takes the publishing function away from our unit and we are just left to advise authors and then post their content into the IR after it’s been published elsewhere.\nOpen Access Vignettes\nIn the UNL Libraries, we strive every day to advance open scholarship, whether it’s gold, green, or diamond/platinum OA, or related avenues. The following are some vignettes to demonstrate some ways that we assist colleagues to try to make their scholarship available to others without barriers.\n\nGold OA Example\nEmail message written by an author in an academic department at UNL to three of their colleagues:\nHi, everyone. Now that our article has been accepted, there are open access charges.\nI guess Conservation Physiology is entirely open access, so in order to publish in it, we have to pay the open access fee (there are no other options for publishing without open access, as far as I can tell). The fee is $2,175, so I am wondering whether you all can help contribute to this fee.\n[NOTE: Four authors equals a payment of about US $550 EACH!]\nResponse to the group from one of the other co-authors:\nI don’t have any funds at the moment. However, the UC [University of California]\nLibrary covers publication charges IF the corresponding author is affiliated with\nUC AND the publication is in a gold open access journal (not hybrid). Do you have something similar?\nEmail message from the UNL colleague to me:\nWe are publishing a paper in the open access journal, Conservation Physiology, which is an Oxford University Press (OUP) journal.\nI was not sure if UNL had an open access agreement with OUP or if this journal would be covered under any of UNL’s agreements.\n$2,175 is a lot, so I am seeking ways to bring down the open access price.\nI have forwarded you the messages between me and my co-authors so you can see where we are with this.\nMy response to the author:\nIf you would like to publish in Conservation Physiology, then, yes, you and your co-authors will have to come up with the funds to publish there, unless one or more of the authors fits into a category that triggers a waiver from Oxford.\nAside from that, for the Big Ten Academic Alliance (BTAA) of libraries to pay an open access fee, you could look at submitting to a journal that we do have some\nOA funds for. Ones that might be applicable include:\nBiology Open (published by Company of Biologists)\nPLoS Biology (published by Public Library of Science) or any journal published by Cambridge University Press or Wiley.\n\nTwo other UNL co-authors did this recently. They were going to submit a paper to a journal and try to find the funds to go OA, but that proved to be cost-prohibitive, so instead they found a fairly comparable Cambridge journal and submitted their manuscript there instead. They were worried that the editors would not like their topic nor their approach to it, but the paper was accepted and is now published.\nLet me know if you’d like further information about any of this.\nResponse from our UNL colleague:\nThanks for these suggestions!\nIt’s a special issue associated with a conference at which I was a keynote speaker, so I don’t have much leeway with the journal choice. However, I will definitely keep these in mind!\nGold OA: Impact\nThe primary direct impact of this exchange is on this particular group of authors.\nThanks to this interaction with us in the libraries, they are better informed about their options for payments for gold OA. Beyond that, it helps us know at least some of the specifics that authors deal with so that we are able to focus our outreach efforts in increasingly effective ways. An important indirect impact of this exchange will be on the readers who will likely eventually have ready access to a high-quality work of scholarship available to them that will be licensed CC BY.\nThis exchange shows that there is a real need for payment of APCs by entities that support authors’ work, such as libraries, universities, consortia, and government and private funders. In partnership with one of our library consortia (the BTAA), we can sometimes support the faculty in disseminating the results of their research, but there is a need for more funds of this type and more agreements negotiated with publishers.\nGreen OA Example\nMessage to Paul Royster from a colleague in an academic department at UNL:\nHi, Paul. I would love to increase my presence in the Digital Commons. Can you please tell me how to go about it? I have included a copy of my CV in the hopes that you can advise me on what I can include.\nResponse from Royster:\nExcellent! This is exactly what we need to get started in a more systematic way.\nCongratulations on your appointment and on all these many publications, and welcome to Lincoln!\n\nMany commercial publishers forbid our using their PDFs, so Elsevier, Wiley, Sage,\nSpringer, etc., articles may appear in what we have termed our “Husker” versions.\nWe generally start with the most recent articles and work backwards. We will work from your accepted manuscripts.\nGreen OA: Impact\nAfter working with the author to acquire manuscripts, we got 35 items uploaded from this single inquiry over the course of a couple of weeks or so. The impact: This one inquiry led to the open accessibility of 35 items that were downloaded nearly 1,200 times in the first few weeks of their posting.\nThis is a typical green OA-type request. Some of the items this author had published are licensed as gold OA, so we were able to upload the canonical versions of those. But even when they were not originally openly-licensed, due to the republishing that takes place through the green OA workflow, they then were made free to read for anyone with an internet connection.\nTwo Diamond OA Examples\nA scholar from Panama sent me an email message explaining that he had just received his PhD and had at one time worked with one of our UNL colleagues (Brett Ratcliffe) on beetles of the genus Chrysina. He was wondering if we could work with him to develop his dissertation into a scientific monograph. After consulting with Dr. Ratcliffe about this potential project, Paul Royster, Dr. Ratcliffe, and I agreed to accept it. To collaborate with us, Dr. Ratcliffe served as the executive editor, administered peer review, and helped us with the fact-checking and technical editing. We did the typesetting, layout, some of the technical editing, and the proofreading. We got the book published and posted about four weeks after the final manuscript was submitted.\nAnother diamond OA example: Three to eight submissions for the Transactions of the Nebraska Academy of Science and Affiliated Societies come to us per year after substantial external peer review. We receive Microsoft Word files plus JPGs and other file types from the editor.\nPaul Royster then typesets the manuscripts and does page layout, maintains the archive, and publishes the papers. So, our role in the publishing workflow within the\nUNL Libraries for this particular journal is purely toward its production and its electronic-only distribution and storage, with no part in the content acquisition, review, or editing.\n\nDiamond OA: Impact\nThe Chrysina work (Barria, 2023) contains an important taxonomic revision of the twenty-eight species of the genus and represents the first descriptions for three species from Panama. Our collaboration with Dr. Ratcliffe ensured that all of the rules of taxonomic nomenclature were followed, meaning that the names in this work are scientifically valid. The book is available in full color and is available free to read online, and available for purchase in hard copy (at-cost) from lulu.com. It was downloaded over 1,500 times within the first six months of publication.\nThe collaboration with the editors of the Transactions publication has resulted in a high-quality, locally-edited, peer-reviewed scientific journal with a long history in\nNebraska being published out of our library publishing unit with relatively minimal labor on our part. The impact: This partnership has resulted in the publication of over\n500 papers with nearly 300,000 downloads going to all countries in the world.\nConclusion\nThe workflows for green and diamond OA are very similar to one another, with a few steps added in the case of diamond OA publishing. The publishing work done in the\nUniversity of Nebraska–Lincoln Libraries scholarly communication unit results in the creation and dissemination of works that anyone with the Internet connection can read and share. This creates global visibility for our institution’s scholarly research, with authors’ content collated in a single location. In this way, we amplify locally-developed resources and deliver them to a worldwide community of scholars (Royster, 2012).\nReferences\nBarria, M. D. (2023). A monographic revision of the jewel scarabs genus Chrysina from Panama,\nColombia, and Ecuador (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae: Rutelinae: Rutelini). Zea Books. https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/zeabook/141/\nBuggle, J. (2023, February 17). Partners in library publishing. International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions. IFLA news. https://www.ifla.org/news/partners-in-library-publishing/\nKalikman Lippincott, S. (2017). Library as publisher: New models of scholarly communication for a new era. ATG media. http://dx.doi.org/10.3998/mpub.9944345\nRoyster, P. (2012). Building the UNL digital repository [presentation]. TSRT 2012 Spring Meeting, Bellevue University, Bellevue, Nebraska, United States. https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/ library_talks/79/\n\nJoanna Błasiok\nORCID: 0009-0006-6080-5400\nKamila Kokot-Kanikuła\nORCID: 0000-0002-3355-5198\nGdańsk University of Technology Library\nROR: https://ror.org/006x4sc24\nHow to Help Yourself and Authors – a Set of Good Practices to Eliminate\nUnconscious Infringement\nAbstract: This article presents a set of evidence-based best practices designed to promote transparency and facilitate green open access on scientific journal websites. The study specifically addresses issues related to author implementation of green open access, i.e., self-archiving. A comprehensive literature review identified website elements recommended by international organizations to promote transparency in scholarly publishing and the challenges arising from the omission of key information relevant to reuse. Best practices discussed include model agreements, explicit copyright ownership information, specification and implementation of Creative Commons licenses, self-archiving guidelines, and resources for research data sharing consistent with Plan S requirements.\nEach element is exemplified using current practices from Polish scientific journals.\nGeneral recommendations are formulated to assist journal editors in providing comprehensive and accessible copyright-related information on their websites.\nKeywords: scholarly journal, green open access, copyright, self-archiving, website\nIntroduction\nThe growing prevalence of institutional repositories for scientific papers and the policies implemented by cOAlition S members, including the National Science Center (2020,\n2021), contribute to the increasing adoption of green open access (green OA) by scientists for their articles. However, the absence of comprehensive guidance regarding applicable\n\npublishing practices on Polish scientific journal websites can deter authors from submitting manuscripts or inadvertently lead to copyright infringement post-publication.\nTo determine optimal practices facilitating green OA, this study examines the provisions of Principles of Transparency and Best Practice in Scholarly Publishing (COPE et al., 2022) and the recommendations of cOAlition S expressed in Plan S (cOAlition S, n.d., The Plan S Principles..., Guidelines on the Implementation...). Based on a review of the selected literature and content available on websites documented in the database of publishing policies of Polish scientific journals (Błasiok & Szymik, 2021), key elements enabling authors to utilize the green path to open access were identified. These elements, readily accessible on the journal website, include model agreements, information regarding copyright ownership, the Creative Commons license used, the permissibility of further dissemination of articles (i.e., self-archiving), and recommendations for research data. Each element is discussed in detail, with specific examples from Polish journals, adhering to Principles of Transparency and Best Practice... and the requirements of Plan S.\nIn addition, the article provides general recommendations for editors regarding the comprehensive provision and communication of this information on the journal website.\nLiterature Review\nA systematic literature review was conducted to identify elements relevant to open publishing, primarily focusing on the possibility of author self-archiving. The analysis was based on Principles of Transparency and Best Practice in Scholarly Publishing and documents pertaining to the implementation of Plan S within the Polish context.\nFurthermore, the available literature enabled the identification of recurring challenges arising from non-compliance with the guidelines promulgated in these documents.\nPrinciples of Transparency and Best Practice in Scholarly Publishing are endorsed by four international organizations: Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE), Directory of\nOpen Access Journals (DOAJ), Open Access Scholarly Publishing Association (OASPA), and World Association of Medical Editors (WAME). This 16-point list delineates the most pertinent aspects of journal operations, encompassing web content, organization and management of the publication, publishing practices, and commercial activities. For the purposes of this article, two categories relevant to content availability on the site were selected: copyright ownership and licensing. It is essential, as required, that rights ownership be clearly stated both on the article page and in the PDF file itself, distinct from the general platform rules upon which the journal is hosted. The rights owner should be explicitly identified, and if the rights ownership rule is described in a separate location, it must be easily accessible.\n\nThe same considerations apply to the licensing of content available on the site.\nThe document includes a provision that content declared as available under the open access model must be covered by one of the open licenses, and when using a specific\nCreative Commons license, it is recommended to include a link to it. In addition, as with rights ownership information, it is required that the license information be readily available to users, to be found both on the website and in any full-text downloadable by users. The authors of the document also refer to practices related to the re-sharing of content by authors, and according to them, such rules must be clearly defined and described. In line with the provisions outlined above, the creators of Principles on transparency and best practices in scientific publishing call for a thoughtful organization of information on the site, which will allow users to quickly locate the necessary content and provide information on: rights holder, licensing, and reuse of texts.\nNext, the recommendations developed by the international initiative of cOAlition S research funding institutions to promote open access for publicly funded research results, called Plan S ( cOAlition S, n.d., The Plan S Principles...), along with the document Polityka Narodowego Centrum Nauki dotycząca otwartego dostępu do publikacji\n[‘National Science Center’s Policy on Open Access to Publications’] (NCN, 2020), were analyzed. Plan S is based on 10 basic principles, of which, given the subject matter of the article, the most relevant is the first, which states that authors or their institutions should retain copyright to publications and make them available under an open license, preferably Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0). Plan S implementation details\n(cOAlition S, n.d., Guidance of the Implementation...) and NCN documents provide guidelines on how authors are to implement direct open access publishing or self-archiving of publications. According to these, there should be immediate open access to texts on the publisher’s website or in an open access repository in either the publisher’s version of record or the author’s accepted manuscript under a CC BY license\n(in special cases, a CC BY-SA license or, with the funder’s permission, a CC BY-ND license is acceptable). The publication policy of some journals meets the conditions for grantees right away; in other cases, they must use the green OA route allowed by the publisher, as long as it complies with the requirements of the grantor institution, or follow Rights Retention Strategy (RRS; cOAlition S, n.d., Rights Retention Strategy). To verify the formal requirements of Plan S, cOAlition S created the Journal Checker Tool\n(cOAlition S, n.d., Journal Checker Tool), a tool that draws on the resources of various databases, such as the Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ). For this reason, it should be important for editors to have up-to-date information in the databases that describe the journals’ publishing policies. Unfortunately, Bojo-Canales and Melero\n(2023) noted discrepancies between the policies presented on journal websites and\n\nthose found in the databases. Assuming that the information provided on a journal’s website is more binding than that in the databases, erroneous entries in the databases can cause problems for researchers who, out of concern for not meeting the grantor’s requirements, will forgo submitting an article to a particular journal in order to avoid later difficulties in clearing the publication. In view of the principles outlined above under Plan S, it is important for journals to provide comprehensive information about the open access policies they apply (type of license) and the deposition of papers by authors in open repositories or policies with respect to copyright retention strategies.\nIn addition, the selected literature addresses issues of accessibility to understandable, reliable, and consistent information. As Danielewicz and Tarkowski (2013) noted:\n“the generally low level of knowledge about what is permitted and prohibited by copyright law is significant. [...] Nor does their knowledge stand out for people declaring themselves creators, who, according to the commonly repeated hypothesis, should be more aware of how the law works.”\nAccordingly, journal editors should not assume in advance that users and authors are perfectly familiar with the intricacies of copyright law; hence, it is advisable to include simple-to-read information about the rules in this area. Fleming and Cook (2022), on the other hand, outlined the consequences of the lack of adequate information available even before a manuscript is submitted to a journal; they noted that the lack of published and clear rules for the journals they analyzed could result in problems for journals as well as authors who misunderstood existing provisions or made their own interpretation from because of their lack of information. Moreover, they also pointed out that searching a journal’s website takes up unnecessary time for authors and can become a reason for not submitting to the editorial board. Laakso and Polonioli (2018), on the other hand, pointed out that the lack of clear rules from the publisher on what actions are allowed and forbidden in connection with self-archiving often resulted in unknowing violations of the law manifested in the deposition of inappropriate versions of articles. Also, observations by Choi, Choi, and Kim (2019) showed that content licensing provisions were present on the journal websites they studied, while information on self-archiving and user sharing of texts was often missing.\nThere is also a noticeable problem with the dispersion of information, placing it among content on other topics, or a lack of dedicated subpages, which leads to chaos and risks the author not reaching it (Klebel et al., 2020; Laakso, 2014). With regard to\nPolish scientific journals, the topic of good practices related to open publishing has been analyzed in the past by Pamuła-Cieślak (2019), who observed similar phenomena characterized by inconsistent records and a lack of complete and understandable description. Within one of the publishing platforms she analyzed, the description of\n\npolicies related to copyright was not standardized: “resulting in more than 50% of the journals on this platform not including this information at all, and the others doing so at their own discretion, which [...] had the author painstakingly reviewing every section of the website in search of such a mention.”\nOn the basis of the above-described issues, 4 elements were highlighted that would be worthwhile to be included on a journal’s or publisher’s website: a model contract, information about the copyright holder, the use and type of Creative Commons license, and self-archiving guidelines. In order to illuminate the issue of openness in science more broadly, it was also decided to include the issue of sharing research data and meeting the requirements of Plan S. Access to the above-mentioned information will help authors to make informed decisions about the further use of the text both before submitting the manuscript and after the publication.\nBest Practices: a Step-by-Step Guide\nThe best practices presented in the article are intended to help editors provide specific guidelines for users; moreover, they will make it possible to transparently present the journal’s current publishing policy on the Internet. Each aspect discussed is illustrated with examples taken from the websites of Polish scientific journals.\nAccess to Model Contracts\nProviding a model contract on the website allows authors to familiarize themselves with the journal’s publishing policy and determine whether the periodical meets all the criteria of, for example, grantors. Due to the different types of obligations to which researchers are subject, they may be interested in the form of signed rights-author agreements. These commitments may relate to the prohibition of transfer of economic rights to the work and result from the open access policy adopted at the university or the guidelines of research funding institutions. The most common are two types of agreements: transfer of the author’s economic rights to the publisher and use of the work (license). Since the two agreements define the owner of the economic rights differently, which can dispose of further use of the work differently, it is extremely important that the information available on the website is not questionable, is available to interested parties before submitting the manuscript, and does not differ from the version that authors ultimately sign with the editor. Attention should also be paid to the language of the available contract. In the case in which the recipients of the content are people who do not speak Polish on a daily basis, it is worth posting the template at least in English, possibly in a language with which a large part of the currently publishing authors are associated. It is equally important that all language versions\n\nshould contain identical content. A template for the copyright agreement can be made available in a tab or subpage containing guidelines for authors, as this is where authors usually look for complete information before submitting. It is also possible to create a separate site from which users can download both the model agreement and the statement of authorship and integrity of works. The following examples from journals show how publishing agreements are posted in a separate tab (Fig. 1, 2).\nFigure 1. S tudia Ecologiae et Bioethicae; tab: For authors → Declaration Forms.\nSource: https://czasopisma.uksw.edu.pl/index.php/seb/oswiadczenia (accessed on August 3, 2023).\nFigure 2. Cultural Contexts; tab: About the journal → Contracts, forms.\nSource: https://ejournals.eu/en/journal/konteksty-kultury/page/contracts-and-forms\n(accessed on August 3, 2023).\nOwner of Property Rights\nThe owner of the property rights should be specified in the contract; moreover, such information is also worth posting on the website and indicated in individual articles that, once downloaded by the user, function independently of the website. In this situation, those who\n\nwant to use the article in a way that goes beyond fair use will know to whom to ask for permission. Moreover, in the absence of access to model contracts, information about the rights holder can suggest whether a transfer of rights has occurred or whether they have remained with the author. In addition, in Figure 3, it can be seen that editors provide authors with information on how they will be able to use the work after the article appears on the website. This is a good way to counteract unknowingly breaking the law, since authors do not always know what the consequences of a transfer of rights agreement are.\nFigure 3. Polish Annals of Medicine; tab: Instructions → User License.\nSource: http://www.paom.pl/User-License,2028.html (accessed on August 3, 2023).\nInformation about the copyright holder could be included in the contract template, in the PDF file of the text (Fig. 4, 7), in the tab with tips for authors (Fig. 5), in the “about the journal” tab, or in a special subpage available to all users who would not necessarily want to publish their text (Fig. 3).\nFigure 4. Journal article Oeconomia Copernicana, description from the PDF file.\nSource: https://oeconomia.pl/ (accessed on August 3, 2023).\nFigure 5. Polish Maritime Research; Submission tab → Copyrights.\nSource: https://journal.mostwiedzy.pl/pmr/copyrights (accessed on August 3, 2023).\n\nCreative Commons Licenses\nIt is noticeable that more and more journals are using the unified licenses developed by the Creative Commons Foundation, so if a title is using one of the six licenses, it should make this clear to its audience. A model agreement may be the right place for authors who choose to submit a text to know in advance how their publication will be available to a wider range of users. The full texts of the license, along with an accessible summary, in both Polish and English, are available on the Foundation’s website (Creative Commons, n.d.). Editors and authors do not need to fear that abuse may occur with the use of Creative\nCommons licenses, as the terms of use require that each copy of the work contain information about the author and his or her copyrights, as well as the requirement to include a link to the text of the chosen license. Importantly, the Foundation provides the necessary materials on the site, which consist of a graphic specific to each type of license, its full name, and a link to its content or summary description. All materials are available for free, so it is worth using an official and at the same time verified source.\nThe type of license should also be prominently displayed on the journal’s website, allowing both authors and readers to see what distribution rules apply to the periodical.\nSince licenses provide greater opportunities for use of the work, it is worth describing exactly what rights users have, if only by using ready-made content available on the Creative Commons website. The provisions clearly define the rules of reuse, including commercial use, the possibility of creating derivative works (such as translation of the work), and protecting the author’s moral rights. The information provided on the site relieves editors of the need to develop the rules themselves and ensures consistency of the message. It is very important that the information on the site and in the fulltext files be the same; to this end, editors should pay close attention to the content they provide. It often happens that the type of license appears in several places on the magazine’s website, which can lead to differences within a single site. It is not uncommon for this to happen when a license type is changed and editors do not update all the tabs.\nEditors who start using a license, or who switch to another type of license, should specify from what number it applies and what type of license was used before. Leaving only information about the current rules leads to the assumption that they apply to all materials, which in turn may result in users unknowingly breaking the law. An example from the journal Problems of Forensic Sciences (Fig. 6) shows all the necessary elements in terms of the starting date of the Creative Commons license and the rules in effect for previously published articles.\nEach of the six licenses applies to different reuse policies, so editors can choose one that meets their requirements and aligns with the journals’ adopted publishing policies.\nAs a result, careful selection and consistency in its application will eliminate doubts\n\namong readers and authors. All elements of the description of the selected license, both textual and graphical, posted on the journal’s website should comply with the specified type, exactly as it is posted on the Creative Commons Foundation website.\nThe license information can be available: on the journal’s homepage; in the information for authors; in the subpages for: copyright (Fig. 5, 6), open access or self-archiving; and on the pages of individual articles. On the other hand, it is required to be included in every file with the full content of the publication (Fig. 7, 8).\nFigure 6. Problems of Forensic Sciences; tab: About the journal → Copyrights and sharing.\nSource: https://ejournals.eu/en/journal/problems-of-forensic-sciences/page/copyrights-andsharing (accessed on August 3, 2023).\nFigure 7. Bulletin of the Polish Academy of Sciences Technical Sciences; Journal article, description from the PDF file.\nSource: https://journals.pan.pl/dlibra/journal/119067 (accessed on August 3, 2023).\nFigure 8. Studia Ecologiae et Bioethicae; journal article, description from the PDF file.\nSource: https://czasopisma.uksw.edu.pl/index.php/seb/ (accessed on August 3, 2023).\n\nSelf-Archiving\nSelf-archiving, i.e., authors self-posting their own articles to online services, is one of the options for open publishing, which is called the green OA route. Self-archiving is also one of the three options an author can use when publishing research results received through grants from the National Science Center (NCN, 2020). The data that should be available on the journal’s website so that the researcher has no doubts about how to carry out the self-archiving process are: the versions of the article, the places where the files are made available, and the embargo period.\nThe editorial process distinguishes between three basic versions of an article:\nthe manuscript sent to the editor (preprint, submitted version, author’s original manuscript), the article after changes following review (postprint, accepted version, author’s accepted manuscript), and the final version published in the journal (editorial version, version of record, published version, final version). Each of these may be subject to different self-archiving rules. As Fleming and Cook (2022) point out, journals and publishers may have different policies for publishing preprints even before they are submitted; unfortunately, many do not post clear guidelines on their websites. Moreover, the authors point out that the lack of specific rules may discourage some researchers, both from publishing in repositories dedicated to preprints and from submitting a text to a particular periodical. A similar situation may arise in the case of making a postprint available before the publication version of the article appears. If editors distinguish self-archiving rules by article version, it is important that they specify what they mean by preprint, postprint, and publication version, and what self-archiving rules apply to each type of article. A comprehensive set of information can be found on the website of the journal Acta Agrobotanica (Fig. 9), where all versions of articles are described in detail, along with possible places to deposit them. Moreover, the editors require that individual files, depending on their type, be marked as preprint or postprint with a reference to the publishing version and its DOI identifier.\nAnother element inevitably linked to self-archiving is file-sharing sites. Two types can be distinguished – related to the possibility of commercial content sharing or lack thereof. In practice, it determines whether the author can place their articles in non-commercial services, such as university platforms that record the scientific achievements of employees and institutional repositories that fulfill the same function, or on platforms that derive financial benefits from it. Given the variety of places where an author can deposit a file with the full content of an article, it is important for editors to specify where an author can post it. There is no need to give specific names of platforms and websites; however, it is useful to list them in general terms because of the functions they fulfill, such as an author’s homepage, institutional or\n\ndomain repository (Fig. 10). In a similar way, it is possible to specify where texts should not be shared.\nFigure 9. Acta Agrobotanica; tab: Instructions for Authors → Copyright Notice.\nSource: https://www.journalssystem.com/agb/Copyright-Notice,3732.html\n(accessed on August 3, 2023).\nFigure 10. Agronomy Science; tab: For authors → Self-archiving policy.\nSource: https://czasopisma.up.lublin.pl/index.php/as/samoarchiwizacja\n(accessed on August 3, 2023).\nThe last issue worth keeping in mind is embargoes. In this case, we can distinguish between two types of embargoes: those related to the temporary withholding of access to the full content via the website, and those connected with self-archiving by the author, such as in an institutional repository. With regard to self-archiving, editors should inform authors after what period of time from the appearance of the text in the published version, they can make the article available using the green OA. The embargo period, as well as the type of Creative Commons license, are of considerable importance\n\nin fulfilling the funders’ requirements. It is also good practice to include a notation on the site that the embargo does not apply (Fig. 11).\nFigure 11. Studia Ecologiae et Bioethicae; tab: About → Open Access Policy.\nSource: https://czasopisma.uksw.edu.pl/index.php/seb/open_access (accessed on August 3, 2023).\nTo summarize the above considerations in a case where the editors allow self-archiving it is important to specify in detail its rules, since it consists of several important elements and omitting any of them may result in copyright infringement by researchers.\nOn the journal’s website, self-archiving issues can be described in places where copyright issues are presented, e.g., subpages with tips for authors on open access. It is common to find separate tabs where the necessary records are collected, which is most convenient and intuitive for the author.\nResearch Data\nIn relation to scientific integrity, replication and the expenditure of public funds, research data produced in the course of research, both raw and processed, are increasingly important in the publication process. Nowadays, there is increasing talk of both sharing and reusing research data. Some research funding bodies are providing precise guidelines on how researchers should store and provide access to the data produced.\nJournal editors are also noting how important it is to link the research results presented in the form of an article with the data from which they are derived.\nThe practice most often followed by editors for research data is to inform researchers of the requirement to grant access to the data upon the explicit request of reviewers.\nSuch access can be important when there is a need to verify the description of research results presented in an article (Fig. 12).\nFigure 12. Cultural Contexts; tab: About the journal → Publication ethics and publication malpractice statement.\nSource: https://ejournals.eu/en/journal/konteksty-kultury/page/publication-ethics-andpublication-malpractice-statement (accessed on August 3, 2023).\n\nAnother form of support for researchers in sharing research data is to post the names of recommended open research data repositories appropriate to the scientific discipline. It is worth bearing in mind that research data management is a fairly new phenomenon in Polish science and scientists may not yet be familiar with repositories relevant to their research, hence clear information on a journal’s website can significantly facilitate the process of depositing data (Fig. 13).\nFigure 13. C ultural Contexts; tab: About the journal → Research Data Management Policy.\nSource: https://ejournals.eu/en/journal/konteksty-kultury/page/licensing-copyright-and-archiving\n(accessed on August 3, 2023).\nIn cases where the editors have knowledge that research data have been made available online, consider posting information about this with a link, both on the page of the article in question and in the PDF file.\nDepending on whether the editors require authors to be willing to share research data with reviewers or use recommendations for deposition sites, the information may be available in a tab outlining the review process or publishing ethics, or in a dedicated subpage about research data.\nPlan S Compliance\nTo the above set of good practices, it is worth adding those related to the latest requirements of grantors. The National Science Center’s calls from 2020 have introduced guidelines requiring researchers to publish the results of research carried out under NCNfunded projects in open access. Not all journals meet the grantor’s requirements, e.g., the license used is different from that recommended in Plan S, lack of registration of the title in the Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ) database, or a closed or hybrid publishing model. However, the editors’ flexible approach to their own publishing policies allows for exceptions to ensure that authors can fulfill the requirements. Two solutions are possible: in the first, despite the application of certain rules, the editors agree,\n\nat the author’s explicit request, to use a license in accordance with the requirements of the research funding institution and to publish the full content under a license different from that adopted for the entire journal (Fig. 14). In the second, the editors agree to assign a CC BY 4.0 license to the post-review version of the article (author’s accepted manuscript, postprint) and make it immediately available in an open repository of scientific papers (Fig. 15).\nFigure 14. Collectanea Philologica; tab: About → About the Journal.\nSource: https://czasopisma.uni.lodz.pl/collectanea/about (accessed on August 3, 2023).\nFigure 15. Polish Annals of Medicine; tab: Instructions → User License.\nSource: http://www.paom.pl/User-License,2028.html (accessed on August 3, 2023).\nIn the absence of available information, the author can try to use the Copyright\nRetention Strategy, however, as Khoo (2021) notes, the use of this option, the legal basis for which is unclear, creates an administrative burden for researchers on whom copyright negotiations with publishers are transferred. So, in order to ease the way for authors and save ourselves the work, it is worth posting what the editorial board’s position is in this regard.\nWith the best interests of both potential authors and editors in mind, it is important that there be a prominent notice of the possibility of adjusting the publishing policy to meet the requirements imposed by funding bodies. Such a provision could be included in the guidelines for authors or in the copyright tab.\nRecommendations\nWhat should editors pay attention to when creating content for magazine websites?\nThe following will address both substantive issues of editorial principles and more utilitarian issues of organizing information on the site.\nAbove all, clear communication and consistency of information are important.\nThe content available on the site should not be questionable, both for authors and\n\nreaders. If a journal has a specific publishing policy for an article at every stage of the publishing process, from submission to publication to further use, then it should list it on the site. First, make sure to provide sample documents that authors must sign, which could be a model contract, statements relating to ethical principles, personal data, or authors’ contribution to the article. Next, it is worth including information related to posting the publication on the journal’s website. Here, it would be good to include such information as the publication model, the type of Creative Commons license, if applicable, and information about the copyright holder. The last point about further dissemination of the text should include both recommendations for authors (self-archiving rules) and for readers.\nOn the usability side, first and foremost, one should take care of the aforementioned consistency of content on websites. It is important that information that recur in different places on the site be identical, and when making changes and updates, it is good practice to review the entire website for any differences. It may be easier to organize content on the site by creating a dedicated tab, rather than repeating information on several subpages. It is worth remembering that the principle of consistency also applies to different language versions of the pages, all the most important issues should have an equivalent in other languages available on the site. In addition, in the event of a migration to another platform, while leaving the previous website online, it is advisable to include a link to the new site with a prominent notice that the page is archived (Fig. 16).\nFigure 16. Acta Agrobotanica.\nSource: https://pbsociety.org.pl/journals/index.php/aa/index (accessed on August 3, 2023).\nConclusions\nA website carries more content than a paper magazine. In addition to fulfilling the role of presenting the contents of the periodical, it is also a platform for providing information on the submission and subsequent use of articles. It is therefore worthwhile for all three components to be present on the site. When building a journal site, it is reasonable to use all 16 rules described in the document Principles of Transparency..., as they are the basis for creating a transparent and complete site, and are the same as\n\nthe criteria required when applying to international databases (e.g., DOAJ, Scopus, Web of Science). Particularly worthy of consideration is the topic of copyright law, since it poses the greatest difficulties, and due to the ongoing changes in science communication, it plays an increasingly important role. Based on the observations made, several key elements that a journal website should contain were identified. Among them were a model contract, information about the copyright holder, the use and type of Creative\nCommons license, guidelines for self-archiving, and issues of sharing research data and meeting Plan S requirements. In addition, attention was paid to the way content is presented so that it provides necessary information and does not mislead potential authors and users. In terms of communicating consistent information, editors should pay attention to consistent notations throughout the site and its language variants, and when updating content, verify information on all subpages as well as the databases in which the title is indexed.\nThe set of best practices presented in the article can guide editors seeking changes to increase the visibility and reputation of the journal.\nThe preprint in Polish is available on the MOST Knowledge platform under a CC BY 4.0 license at: https://mostwiedzy.pl/pl/publication/jak-pomoc-sobie-i-autorom-zestaw-dobrych-praktyk-eliminujacych-nieswiadome-lamanie-pr awa,202308290900337199651-0\nReferences\nBłasiok, J., Szymik, A. (2021). Baza polityk wydawniczych i repozytorium Open Access – uzupełniające się elementy. In P. Korycińska (Ed.), Horyzonty informacji (pp. 69–77). Uniwersytet Jagielloński, Biblioteka Jagiellońska. https://mostwiedzy.pl/pl/publication/ baza-polityk-wydawniczych-i-repozytorium-open-access-uzupelniajace-sie-elementy,156776-1\nBojo-Canales, C., Melero, R. (2023). Open access editorial policies of SciELO health sciences journals. Journal of Information Science, 49(3), 685–698. https://doi.org/10.1177/01655515211015135\nChoi, H. W., Choi, Y. J., Kim, S. (2019). Compliance of “Principles of transparency and best practice in scholarly publishing” in academic society published journals. Science Editing, 6(2), 112–121.\nhttps://doi.org/10.6087/kcse.171 c OAlition S (n.d.). The Plan S Principles. https://www.coalition-s.org/plan_s_principles/ (accessed on August 9, 2023).\ncOAlition S (n.d.). Guidance on the Implementation of Plan S. https://www.coalition-s.org/guidance-on-the-implementation-of-plan-s/ (accessed on August 9, 2023).\ncOAlition S (n.d.). Rights Retention Strategy. https://www.coalition-s.org/resources/rights-retention-strategy/ (accessed on August 9, 2023).\ncOAlition S (n.d.). Journal Checker Tool. https://journalcheckertool.org/ (accessed on August 9, 2023).\nCOPE, DOAJ, OASPA, WAME (2022). Principles of Transparency and Best Practice in Scholarly Publishing. https://doi.org/10.24318/cope.2019.1.12\n\nCreative Commons (n.d.). About CC Licenses. https://creativecommons.org/share-your-work/cclicenses/ (accessed on November 17, 2025)\nDanielewicz, M., Tarkowski, A. (2013). Prawo autorskie w czasach zmiany: o normach społecznych korzystania z treści. Centrum Cyfrowe. https://centrumcyfrowe.pl/wp-content/uploads/ sites/16/2022/11/prawo-autorskie-w-czasach-zmiany_raport.pdf\nFleming, J. I., Cook, B. G. (2022). Open Access in Special Education: A Review of Journal and Publisher\nPolicies. Remedial and Special Education, 43(1), 3–14. https://doi.org/10.1177/0741932521996461\nKhoo, SY-S. (2021). The Plan S Rights Retention Strategy is an administrative and legal burden, not a sustainable open access solution. Insights, 2021, 34, 22. https://doi.org/10.1629/uksg.556\nKlebel, T., Reichmann, S., Polka, J., McDowell, G., Penfold, N., Hindle, S., Ross-Hellauer, T. (2020).\nPeer review and preprint policies are unclear at most major journals. PLoS ONE, 15(10), e0239518.\nhttps://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0239518\nLaakso, M. (2014). Green open access policies of scholarly journal publishers: a study of what, when, and where self-archiving is allowed. Scientometrics, 99, 475–494. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s11192-013-1205-3\nLaakso, M., Polonioli, A. (2018). Open access in ethics research: an analysis of open access availability and author self-archiving behaviour in light of journal copyright restrictions. Scientometrics,\n116, 291–317. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11192-018-2751-5\nNarodowe Centrum Nauki [NCN] (2020). Polityka Narodowego Centrum Nauki dotycząca otwartego dostępu do publikacji. Załącznik nr 1 do Zarządzenia nr 38/2020 Dyrektora Narodowego\nCentrum Nauki w sprawie ustalenia Polityki Narodowego Centrum Nauki dotyczącej otwartego dostępu do publikacji z dnia 27.05.2020. https://www.ncn.gov.pl/sites/default/files/pliki/zarzadzenia-dyrektora/zarzadzenieDyr-38_2020.pdf (accessed on August 9, 2023).\nNarodowe Centrum Nauki [NCN] (2021). Instrukcja: Polityka NCN dotycząca otwartego dostępu do publikacji. https://www.ncn.gov.pl/sites/default/files/pliki/2021_10_instrukcja_open_access_\nNCN.pdf (accessed on August 9, 2023).\nPamuła-Cieślak, N. (2019). Otwarty model publikowania naukowego – przegląd dobrych praktyk.\ne-mentor, 4(81), 6–13. https://doi.org/10.15219/em81.1429\nPages from magazines from which examples were taken\nActa Agrobotanica (n.d.). https://www.journalssystem.com/agb/ (accessed on August 3, 2023).\nActa Agrobotanica (n.d.). https://pbsociety.org.pl/journals/index.php/aa/index (accessed on August\n3, 2023).\nAgronomy Science (n.d.). https://czasopisma.up.lublin.pl/index.php/as/ (accessed on August 3, 2023).\nBulletin of the Polish Academy of Sciences Technical Sciences (n.d.). https://journals.pan.pl/dlibra/ journal/119067 (accessed on August 3, 2023).\nCollectanea Philologica (n.d.). https://czasopisma.uni.lodz.pl/collectanea/ (accessed on August 3, 2023).\nKonteksty Kultury (n.d.). https://www.ejournals.eu/Konteksty_Kultury/ (accessed on August 3, 2023).\nOeconomia Copernicana (n.d.). https://oeconomia.pl/ (accessed on August 3, 2023).\nPolish Annals of Medicine (n.d.). http://www.paom.pl/ (accessed on August 3, 2023).\nPolish Maritime Research (n.d.). https://journal.mostwiedzy.pl/pmr/ (accessed on August 3, 2023).\nProblems of Forensic Sciences (n.d.). https://www.ejournals.eu/PFS/ (accessed on August 3, 2023).\nStudia Ecologiae et Bioethicae (n.d.). https://czasopisma.uksw.edu.pl/index.php/seb/ (accessed on\nAugust 3, 2023).\n\nMarta Świetlik\nORCID: 0000-0003-3218-4599\nMagdalena Wnuk\nORCID: 0000-0003-4129-6664\nInstitute of Literary Research of the Polish Academy of Sciences\nROR: https://ror.org/02q0p6x28\nOpen Access Monographs: An Exploration of Publishing Models and Necessary Tools\nAbstract: The article discusses current challenges in open access (OA) publishing of scholarly monographs, with a focus on the humanities. The authors present the results of a study conducted within the Polish branch of the OPERAS consortium, involving surveys, interviews, and a design thinking workshop with academic publishers. The article outlines dominant OA funding models, key obstacles to implementing open access for books, and systemic solutions such as metadata standardization and collaborative support platforms.\nThe findings reveal increasing awareness and interest in OA models among publishers, despite ongoing technological, financial, and cultural barriers.\nKeywords: open access, scholarly monographs, OA business models, OPERAS, design thinking, digital publishing\nIntroduction\nThe purpose of our article is to introduce the reader to the topic of scholarly publishing in the humanities with a particular focus on the changes that the development of open access has provoked in the publishing market (Błaszczyńska & Stone, 2023; Eve,\n2014; Morka & Gatti, 2021; Speicher et al., 2018; Stone et al., 2021). In the text, we will focus on the challenges of transforming traditional paper publishing to a digital model, primarily open access. In recent years, open-access publishing has also become a more common practice in the international scholarly communication system, which is dominated by publishing corporations. Due to, among other things, the European\nCommission, which is compelling grantees to publish research results in open access,\n\nan increasing proportion of research results are available online at no charge (see the\nEuropean Commission’s open science website: https://research-and-innovation.ec.europa.eu/strategy/strategy-2020-2024/our-digital-future/open-science_en). However, while in the case of journals there is a dynamic development of research infrastructure conducive to openness in science, in the case of book publishing the traditional model adapted to paper circulation still prevails. Scientific monographs, understood as a special type of authoritative peer-reviewed work dissecting a selected issue, are primarily submitted for print, and their electronic versions are mostly just a supplement to the sales of paper copies. Of course, while this is still the dominant model, it is not the only one. In the world of scientific publishing, publishing series are also present, published entirely and exclusively in open access (for example, IMISCOE Research\nSeries: https://www.springer.com/series/13502 Springer). When analyzing the topic, it is important not to forget the differences arising from the different traditions of the various fields and disciplines. The humanities disciplines differ significantly in terms of publishing traditions from the sciences or natural sciences, but this peculiarity does not make it impossible to show on their example the universal problems facing the publishing market in an era dominated by information technology. Humanities is a field in which the publication of monographs and, to a lesser extent, other types of books (e.g., source editions) plays a very important role in the careers of researchers, so this is one of those areas in which the analysis of publishing models is particularly necessary. Taking into account all of the above-mentioned issues, using the example of a survey conducted among Polish scientific publishers, we will present the biggest challenges facing modern scientific communication, which has so far been based on paper circulation. We will not address open access to books in general, but will focus on humanities monographs.\nThe survey is part of a project that is being implemented by the national branch of the OPERAS consortium – a European infrastructure for open scientific communication in the humanities and social sciences. The aim of the activities is to develop cooperation for open access to humanities monographs, as well as to strengthen the competence of the Polish academic community in digital scholarly communication.\nOPERAS is a relatively new initiative that has been operating as a consortium since\n2017. Since then, the team of partners in the consortium has implemented more than a dozen European and national projects aimed at developing the organization itself, as well as technology services and tools for different audiences: researchers, libraries, publishers, or technology providers. OPERAS was created with scientific fields in mind, the specificity of which implies multilingualism and localization of research projects.\nThe initiative’s creators understand these specifics, and as a result, the solutions and\n\ntools they create are likely to contribute to the successful digital transformation in these fields. The Polish member of OPERAS is the Institute of Literary Research of the Polish Academy of Sciences, and the coordinator of activities within the structure is the Center for Digital Humanities at IBL PAN. OPERAS-PL is not yet a formally established organization, but it is on its way to forming a national consortium.\nThe study consisted of two stages: 1) recognizing the situation of publishing houses through a survey and interviews, 2) conducting a workshop using the design thinking method. Our starting point was a preliminary reconnaissance of the Polish scientific publishing market, which we conducted in the summer of 2022 together with the team working in the Dariah.lab project (https://operas.pl/2022/04/22/pytamy-redakcje-czasopism-i-wydawnictw-naukowych-o-technologie/). We reached out for information on practices and technologies used in 34 publishing houses. We received responses from 25 scholarly publishers, active in the humanities, that published at least one monograph in open access in 2021. From this group, we selected 4 participants for interviews, which we conducted from November to January 2023. To expand the context, we also conducted two interviews with a publishing group from the UK and an NGO from Poland. In March 2023, in order to deepen the findings from the survey and interviews and to identify possible solutions, we invited selected scientific publishers to a workshop meeting conducted using the design thinking method.\nThe article consists of two parts: 1) in the first, we present the Polish market for humanistic scientific publishing and the state of open access to scientific books, 2) in the second, we present the methodologies of the design thinking workshop, the course of the workshop, and its results. Finally, we present the most important conclusions.\nHumanities Publishing and Open Access\nThe humanities is a field in which lengthy studies with many references and cross-references to predecessors play a key role in scientific communication. The strength of the text lies in the methods of interpretation and argumentation used, and revolutions or discoveries, while they sometimes occur, are of a completely different nature than in the case of research in the sciences, natural sciences or even social sciences. This particular multifaceted nature of the work of humanities researchers means that the form that, despite changes in the ways of communicating science, invariably holds them in high esteem in the field is the monograph (Avanço et al., 2021; Eve, 2014, p. 115). This, on the other hand, requires more patience and time from authors, editors, and readers, both in the preparation stage and in the assimilation of the work by the scientific community. For monographs, researcher-authors reserve most of their\n\nresearch achievements, sharing only partial findings in articles. Therefore, in the case of a monograph, reception period is counted in years, not months, and its impact on the field can be assessed at least 5 years after its publication.\nAnother aspect of the monograph relevant to this analysis is the well-established tradition of publishing humanities books in print. Although this traditional communication formula is slowly changing in the age of the information society, the printed monograph is still seen as the culmination of the research process (Avanço et al., 2021).\nGiven this, the insufficient emphasis placed on its publication in electronic formats and open access, as well as indexing in various influential databases, is not surprising.\nThis unfavorable situation for the field has been on the minds of the community for almost a decade, as evidenced by new initiatives such as the Open Access Books Network, associations such as OASPA (Open Access Scholarly Publishers Association), or projects funded under Horizon Europe, an example of which is PALOMERA (https://operas-eu.\norg/projects/palomera/). However, it seems that proponents of “open monographs” still have a long way to go to create effective book publishing models that would replace the traditional model of print publishing (Adema & Stone, 2017; Eve, 2014; Morka & Gatti,\n2021). The situation in Poland is not significantly different from that in other EU countries: while journals are increasingly widely available in open access, book publishing is still mainly for print and distribution in bookstores and libraries. Meanwhile, open science, and open access publishing in particular, is one of the ways of internationalizing the output of the Polish humanities and social sciences, which all too often reaches only a Polish-speaking audience, most often among Polish specialists in a given field\n(Kulczycki, 2017).\nIn 2015, the Ministry of Science and Higher Education created a document on the directions for the development of open access to publications (Kierunki rozwoju otwartego dostępu do publikacji i wyników badań naukowych w Polsce [‘Directions for the Development of Open Access to Publications and Research Results in Poland’],\n2015). The document was very “soft” in nature, meaning that its impact was quite limited and did not oblige institutions to make lasting changes in the area of openness policies. However, the adoption of the document set a certain direction on the matter, and since then it can be considered that, at least in the sphere of declarations, Poland favors the development of open access to scientific resources. The approach, however, is different for articles, which are often already published in OA, than for books, and monographs in particular.\nAdmittedly, in 2020 National Science Center adopted a policy on open access to scientific publications, based on the assumptions of Plan S (i.e., aiming for full and immediate access to publications that contain the results of research resulting from publicly\n\nfunded or co-funded research projects) (“Plan S” and “cOAlition S” – Accelerating the transition to full and immediate Open Access to scientific publications). However, while the signatories of Plan S regulated their relationship to journals in quite some detail, monographs were virtually ignored. As a result, NCN grantees are obliged to make publications produced under NCN grants open and free of charge as soon as possible, but this recommendation is only binding for journal articles. Authors are guaranteed financial support from NCN for publication in OA (Instruction. NCN Policy on Open\nAccess to Publications, 2021). This policy, in the long run, will probably contribute to making the latest research in the humanities or social sciences more accessible, but it is not a sufficient solution. Not only is there still a great deal of work waiting to be made available, but it also needs to be digitized.\nFor some institutions, publishing a book in an open-access version is beneficial from the point of view of the scientific evaluation system. Better visibility of a book ensures that it is more citable, which is why publishers, especially university ones, are taking more and more care to correctly index the metadata of their publications (although this also poses quite a few problems, as we will tell you in the next part of the article).\nThese changes can also be seen in the results of a survey we conducted in cooperation with Dariah.lab. Our survey included 34 publishers, 25 of which published at least one book in OA in 2021 (while 22 specialized in the humanities). Universities are definitely leaders in terms of the number of published books: Warsaw University published 266 books in 2021, and the University of Lodz published 252. Third in the “ranking” was\nJagiellonian University, which published 200 books in 2021. As for commercial publishers, the two that published the most books were those that released 140 and 105 books, respectively. As for open-access books, these included new monographs published after the embargo period, as well as newly digitized books that were previously distributed in print. The University of Lodz, thanks to special funding obtained, published 400 books in OA in 2021. The average number of books in open access was much lower, at the University of Warsaw it was 49, while in smaller publishing houses, public and commercial, it was most often in the range of 2 to 10.\nThe higher number of books published in open access at universities than in commercial publishing houses is due not only to the size of their operations, but also to the obligation to deposit them in an institutional repository after the embargo period. In some university publishing houses, books are published under a 12-month open access embargo due to the university’s open access mandate (which is in line with the recommendation of the aforementioned 2015 ministerial document), but as one participant noted, there is a tendency in some institutions to shorten this period to 6 months. In such cases, open access is a natural stage in the life of a monograph, but it is not at the\n\ncore of the publisher’s strategy. It is enforced by top-down regulations and does not necessarily lead to a search for a sustainable model for open access publishing. However, some university publishers are beginning to publish in open access without embargoes because they are keen to get indexed in databases and cited as quickly as possible. One university publisher puts it bluntly: “I think about 50% still have such an embargo of six months to sell either the paper version or the electronic version. On the other hand, a very large number of books have recently been transferred directly to open access.”\nInterestingly, there is also hard analysis behind the shortening of embargoes by publishers, especially institutional ones, which shows that copy sales are not high enough to compensate for the low visibility and readership of publications that are unable to reach a wide audience through traditional channels. Even experimenting with electronic formats has proved profitable only for some entities.\nStanding in the way of OA publishing is the inefficiency of publishing business models that are not yet able to meet the growing need for open access publishing (Eve,\n2014; Morka & Gatti, 2021; Speicher et al., 2018). Eve, in his 2014 paper on open access in the humanities, distinguished 4 leading models for funding open monographs: 1) on the basis of books processing charges, or BPC (analogous to authors’ processing charges for journal articles), 2) with institutional funds, 3) a freemium model, and\n4) joint funding. The first largely involves producing monographs with grant funds from authors or institutions. Each publisher dictates the amount of the fee, and the amount generally includes the costs of the editorial process, production, and free license.\nFunding from institutional funds is based on the self-interest of universities or research institutes to publish in OA and is typical of non-commercial publishing. The freemium model assumes that a monograph can appear in open access only in selected formats, while the rest are paid for. This finances the cost of producing a book specifically for open access (this model is also often combined with other models, such as institutional funding). Co-funding is an experimental model that involves libraries or other stakeholders “contributing” to the production of a publication.\nIn Polish publishing houses, the BPC and institutional models are the most common. Among our survey respondents, funding of open-access books from authors’ grants was declared by 17 of the 25 institutions that published a book in OA in 2021.\nIn the case of this model, publishers explicitly say that they must compete with foreign institutions and publishers, which are both on the ministerial list and, in light of impact indicators, have more “points” and allow research institutions to achieve higher ratings in evaluations and rankings. In the words of one of our interviewees, a representative of a private publishing house:\n\nThis form of scoring of publishers and journals is a bit disturbing here, because you can see the outflow of authors, even though we have 80 points, as most\nPolish publishers do, but nevertheless there is money in universities to publish for 200 points, although there they have to pay even more expensive for open access, the money goes there, not to open access in Poland.\nIn their view, Polish government policy encourages researchers and universities to publish abroad. While this certainly “pays off” for researchers in advancing their scientific careers, it is also very expensive and requires a not inconsiderable amount of public money.\nOpen access is thus becoming more widely practiced through individual research grants, but is less often part of a publishing strategy. Our analysis of the market and the trends observed in Europe shows that the turn toward more frequent open access book publishing is not accidental, but results from the interests of institutions that put pressure on publishers to change the current model. What is most problematic is its effective design and implementation in such a way that it meets the needs of both the institution and the entire community of researchers within a country or discipline.\nIdentifying the individual needs of the Polish humanities community in this regard was addressed in the second part of our study, i.e. the design thinking workshop.\nDesign Thinking Workshop: Methodology, Proceedings, and Results\nDesign thinking is an interdisciplinary problem-solving methodology that emphasizes user needs, creativity, and empathy. The methodology employs an iterative process comprising five main phases: problem understanding, user needs identification, idea generation, prototyping, and testing (Meinel et al., 2011). The initial phase involves exploring the context and user needs through research techniques. This is followed by generating a wide array of concepts and ideas for problem-solving, then prototyping or visualizing these ideas. The final phase involves testing prototypes with users to gather feedback and refine the solution. The methodology relies on collaboration and openness to experimentation to generate innovative and effective solutions.\nThe design thinking process can be structured into five primary phases, although iterations may involve additional steps or variations in the order of stages (Meinel et al., 2011). While common models emphasize four main phases, extended versions incorporate a fifth phase.\n\nPhases of Design Thinking\n1. Empathize: This phase focuses on understanding user needs and perspectives through empathic observations and interviews, aiming to identify problems and challenges.\n2. Define: This stage involves specifying the problems and needs to be addressed, formulating viewpoints as a starting point for design considerations.\n3. Ideate: This phase is dedicated to generating potential solutions through various techniques, such as brainstorming.\n4. Prototype: This stage involves creating prototypes and experimenting with ideas to identify the optimal solution, aiding understanding of practical implementation.\n5. Test: This additional phase involves testing prototypes within a user environment to obtain authentic feedback. The choice between four and five phases depends on the project’s specific needs and the overall approach.\nThe Double Diamond model is a valuable tool within the design thinking methodology, widely employed in design and problem-solving contexts requiring innovation, creativity, and an understanding of user requirements. Closely associated with the work of the Design Council, a British organization promoting design innovation\n(Eleven Lessons: Managing Design in Eleven Global Companies, 2007), the model is a graphic representation of the design process, divided into two rhomboid shapes representing key pairs of phases in the creative process:\nFigure 1. D ouble Diamond model developed by the Design Council and licensed under\nCC BY 4.0\nSource: https://www.designcouncil.org.uk/our-resources/the-double-diamond/.\n\nThe first part of the diamond represents the phases of discovery (discover) and development (develop), representing divergent thinking or “thinking broadly.” This phase encompasses researching, understanding, and identifying a problem or challenge, gathering information, analyzing data, and striving to understand the context of the problem. The second part, comprising define and deliver, represents convergent thinking, or the “focus” phase, which entails generating solutions, prototyping, and testing ideas. The design process involves adapting and concretizing concepts to create practical and effective solutions.\nDivergent and convergent thinking, terms introduced by American psychologist J.\nP. Guilford, refer to distinct aspects of the creative thinking and problem-solving process (Guilford, 1967). In design thinking, both types of thinking are crucial and complementary. Divergent thinking assists in gathering numerous inspiring ideas, while convergent thinking aids in selecting the most promising ideas for further development, resulting in more effective and innovative design solutions.\nCourse of the Design Thinking Workshop\nDesign thinking fosters cooperation and active participation among team members to achieve innovative and effective solutions tailored to user needs. As part of our project to develop the Polish branch of the European cooperation network OPERAS, a workshop was implemented using the design thinking methodology, targeting editors/writers, managers, and staff of publishing houses with an interest in innovative publishing practices. A design thinking workshop is an effective approach for addressing challenges in maintaining open access for published books, due to several key reasons: It emphasizes practice over theory, focusing on practical and implementable solutions; trainers act as facilitators, structuring the meeting and enabling focused problem-solving; and collaboration amongst publishers offers increased leverage in addressing complex systemic problems.\nBringing together representatives from diverse backgrounds, from smaller to larger publishers, service providers, and implementers, allows for a unique perspective on the problem. Furthermore, the intent was to empower publishers with a tangible impact on the final business model or tool developed to support open-access scientific book publishing. Participants were given the opportunity to present their challenges and indicate beneficial solutions. Investing time in designing tools tailored to their specific needs is more cost-effective than adapting mismatched solutions.\nThe discovery phase of the design thinking process largely occurred prior to the workshop through an extensive needs survey conducted by CHC researchers, involving questionnaires and interviews conducted during the summer of 2022. The results,\n\npresented as a model process for open access monograph publishing, served as the starting point for further discussion and clarification of problems during the defining phase.\nAs the Double Diamond model indicates, both understanding the problem and generating solutions are key elements of the design process. Therefore, during a workshop with representatives of scientific publishers, we discussed in detail in smaller groups the biggest challenges that affect the open access publishing process. The responses we gathered bring together a variety of subject areas, each of which deserves separate thought and addressed solutions.\nFirst, there is a dilemma between authors’ preferences and publishers regarding the publication format – paper or electronic. Paper versions of books are still considered prestigious, which influences authors’ decisions. They are also the default form of work for them:\n■ It happened that the author withdrew because he was asked to rephrase the text.\n■ If we can’t get along with the author, we get all the corrections by email.\nSecondly, there is the problem of authors’ reluctance to open access and the lack of adequate training in this area:\n■ Authors, especially older ones, do not embrace information systems, and do not understand the concept of open access.\n■ There is little awareness of what metadata or keywords are, how to describe files, and what it is used for.\nThere is also a lack of unified standards and formal and legal solutions, which complicates the publication process:\n■ Copyright issues are a blocker to the transition to OA for archived issues.\n■ The multitude of different databases with different formats results in a lot of manhours of typing into different systems.\nIn addition, funding OA publications is expensive, and the introduction of this model is associated with a loss of sales revenue:\n■ For many authors, OA is cheaper, which is not quite the case, because technical issues are expensive.\n■ Being a commercial publisher, I would have trouble balancing at zero.\nFinally, there are also technical problems related to maintaining the systems and the lack of skilled staff:\n■ For now, we are working with old tools – we have old sites, each of which works a little differently, and because of that it is difficult to upload new publications and information there.\n■ There is one IT specialist hired for all systems: WP, OJS, everything – how to maintain these systems.\n\nThese issues, raised by workshop participants, shed light on the challenges and difficulties of publishing scholarly books in open access and provide important starting points for further activities and considerations for improving the publication process in this field.\nWhat were the results of the study?\nThe most important outcome of the first day of the workshop and starting from the discovery phase (discover) from the Double Diamond model, was the accurate identification and precise definition of key problem areas. The involvement of representatives of smaller and larger publishers, editors, and service providers made it possible to understand the problems and challenges from different perspectives. During the workshop, participants and attendees formulated their most important challenges by starting sentences with the phrase “How could we...” These challenges include the following aspects:\n■ Introduce a single standard for describing metadata.\n■ Automate the process of entering metadata and transferring it to other services.\n■ Agree on a common format for metadata and full-text files suitable for machine processing.\n■ Realistically increase the visibility of the monograph and expand the audience.\n■ Convincing those who are not convinced to publish in open access (OA).\nDuring the second day of the workshop, during the adaptation (deliver) phase, participants also worked on generating ideas and solution concepts. This led to the creation of eight “project cards” containing descriptions of specific ways to solve previously defined problems.\nThe proposed solutions can be divided into five categories. The first of these involves the creation of a space or platform that will enable sustained cooperation between publishers. The main elements of this platform would be, in turn, to study metadata needs and standardize the standard of publication description for all participants. The next category includes the preparation of a website that would act as a guide or vademecum, collecting useful tips, legal and formal solutions, good practices, and guidelines related to open access and the metadata description standard. In addition, an important element of the proposed activities is wide-ranging promotional campaigns, such as\n“Open Week with Science Book,” which aim to spread awareness of open science books beyond academia as well. Another important point is to establish an agreement with entities involved in promoting and implementing open access not only in Poland, but also in Slavic countries and regions where niche languages are spoken. The purpose of this agreement would be to develop and implement a model for recording metadata in\n\nSlavic languages, which are often overlooked in the most prestigious databases. Finally, the last category includes technical solutions to facilitate the export of metadata into different formats. This goal can be achieved through modifications to an existing open source platform for managing the publishing process, such as Open Monograph Press.\nWorkshop participants described their ideas on project cards, addressing specific, predefined needs and indicating the most important features of the proposed solution, for example, like this:\nIn the publishing community, there is a need for standards and guidelines\n(a guide) for metadata production. Such a guide would include information on:\na set of tools for working with metadata, division of roles and responsibilities, guidelines from specific databases, a set of contacts to institutions dealing with metadata quality. It would collect already existing guidelines (good practices suggested, e.g., by FAIR, 5-star Open Data) and relate them to the local market.\nThe workshop also provided a unique opportunity to integrate various stakeholders from the publishing industry. Working together to solve problems and generate ideas builds bonds and understanding between participants. Publishers were able to understand that their challenges are often similar, regardless of the size of the company, which sparks the need for joint action. This could lead to a coalition of publishers working together to solve problems, such as keeping scientific publications open access. The organization of a design thinking workshop with representatives of scientific publishers has yielded numerous benefits that can provide a solid foundation for the development of innovative solutions that will affect the future of the scientific publishing industry.\nBy using design thinking workshops to solve the problem of keeping scientific publications open access, it is possible to create more accessible, effective and innovative solutions, taking into account the different perspectives of the scientific community and keeping the project open to change and improvement during implementation.\nConclusions\nOpen access to books, though neglected for years, is becoming a subject of discussion, culminating, we hope, in concrete actions that support this publishing model. In the humanities in particular, monographs play an important role in the careers and evaluations of researchers, but good practices related to opening books are emerging not only in this discipline.\n\nThe OPERAS-PL survey was designed to identify the needs of Polish publishers and their strategic goals related to opening access to book publications. It showed that the issue is becoming more pressing and that supporters of open access are increasing. It is argued primarily by the need to increase the visibility of publications and the need to internationalize Polish output, which will translate into higher impact rates recorded by Polish publishers. However, it is hindered by the large dispersion of research infrastructure necessary for the effective implementation of the open access model and the indexing of publication metadata in international databases. The lack of financial support from grantors, both from the European Commission and the government, is not conducive to changing this situation. That’s why OPERAS-PL, together with the participants of the survey and design thinking workshop, has initiated communication among publishers interested in open access, and together with the editors will strive to develop new tools based on existing European services and infrastructure or completely new solutions, created specifically for Polish publishers.\nReferences\nAdema, J., Stone, G. (2017). The surge in New University Presses and Academic-Led Publishing:\nAn overview of a changing publishing ecology in the UK. LIBER Quarterly: The Journal of the\nAssociation of European Research Libraries, 27(1), Article 1. https://doi.org/10.18352/lq.10210\nAvanço, K., Balula, A., Błaszczyńska, M., Buchner, A., Caliman, L., Clivaz, C., Costa, C., Franczak, M.,\nGatti, R., Giglia, E., Gingold, A., Jarmelo, S., Padez, M. J., Leão, D., Maryl, M., Melinščak Zlodi,\nI., Mojsak, K., Morka, A., Mosterd, T., ... Wieneke, L. (2021). Future of Scholarly Communication.\nForging an inclusive and innovative research infrastructure for scholarly communication in Social\nSciences and Humanities. Zenodo. https://doi.org/10.5281/ZENODO.5017705\nBłaszczyńska, M., Stone, G. (2023, June 2). The growing world of open access books. Innovation Lab.\nhttps://lab.operas-eu.org/2023/06/02/the-growing-world-of-open-access-books/\nEleven lessons: Managing design in eleven global companies. (2007). https://api.semanticscholar.org/\nCorpusID:201044924\nEve, M. P. (2014). Open Access and the Humanities: Contexts, Controversies and the Future. Cambridge\nUniversity Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781316161012\nGuilford, J. P. (1967). The nature of human intelligence. McGraw-Hill.\nNarodowe Centrum Nauki [NCN] (2021). Instrukcja: Polityka NCN dotycząca otwartego dostępu do publikacji. https://www.ncn.gov.pl/sites/default/files/pliki/2021_10_instrukcja_open_access_\nNCN.pdf\nKierunki rozwoju otwartego dostępu do publikacji i wyników badań naukowych w Polsce. (2015). www.\ngov.pl/documents/1068557/1069061/20180413_Kierunki_rozwoju_OD_wersja_ostateczna.pdf\nKulczycki, E. (ed.) (2017). Komunikacja naukowa w humanistyce. IF UAM. https://repozytorium.amu.\nedu.pl/bitstream/10593/17589/6/Komunikacja_naukowa_w_humanistyce.pdf\nMeinel, C., Leifer, L., Plattner, H. (ed.) (2011). Design Thinking. Springer Berlin Heidelberg. https:// doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-13757-0\nMorka, A., Gatti, R. (2021). Academic Libraries and Open Access Books in Europe: A Landscape Study.\nPubPub. https://doi.org/10.21428/785a6451.f710a335\n\nOpen access. (b.d.). https://research-and-innovation.ec.europa.eu/strategy/strategy-2020-2024/our-digital-future/open-science/open-access_en (accessed on June 24, 2023).\n„Plan S” and „cOAlition S” – Accelerating the transition to full and immediate Open Access to scientific publications. (b.d.). Pobrano 13 kwiecień 2023, z https://www.coalition-s.org/ (accessed on April 13, 2023).\nSpeicher, L., Bargheer, M., Maryl, M., Fund, S., Mosterd, M. (2018). OPERAS White Paper: Open\nAccess Business Models. University of Nebraska.\nStone, G., Błaszczyńska, M., Lebon, C., Morka, A., Mosterd, T., Mounier, P., Proudman, V., Speicher, L.,\nMelinščak Zlodi, I. (2021). Collaborative models for OA book publishers (1.0). Zenodo. https://doi.\norg/10.5281/ZENODO.5494731", "token_count": 205233} -{"added": "2026-09-08", "author": "Kulisz, Monika", "created": "2025", "id": "rock_pollub_pl_a6c38c5d-ba8f-47ac-a3e6-b50df14a595b", "license": "CC-BY-SA-4.0", "source": "rock_pollub_pl", "text": "Dobór architektury i parametrów procesu uczenia sieci neuronowych w doskonaleniu procesów produkcyjnych\n\nM O N O G R A F I E\nRada Naukowa Wydawnictwa Politechniki Lubelskiej\nPrzewodnicząca:\nAgnieszka Rzepka\nDyrektor CINT:\nKatarzyna Weinper\nPrzedstawiciele dyscyplin naukowych Politechniki Lubelskiej:\nMarzenna Dudzińska\nMałgorzata Franus\nArkadiusz Gola\nBeata Kowalska\nGrzegorz Komarzyniec\nJarosław Latalski\nTomasz Lipecki\nZbigniew Łagodowski\nLucjan Pawłowski\nNatalia Przesmycka\nHalina Rarot\nMagdalena Rzemieniak\nArkadiusz Syta\nWydawnictwo Politechniki Lubelskiej:\nMagdalena Chołojczyk\nKarolina Famulska-Ciesielska\nKatarzyna Pełka-Smętek\nP O L I T E C H N I K I L U B E L S K I E J\n\nDobór architektury i parametrów procesu uczenia sieci neuronowych w doskonaleniu procesów produkcyjnych\nMonika Kulisz\nLublin 2025\n\nR E C E N Z E N C I :\nprof. dr hab. Anna Burduk (Politechnika Wrocławska) dr hab. inż. Radosław Wajman, prof. PŁ (Politechnika Łódzka)\nA U T O R :\ndr inż. Monika Kulisz, ORCID: 0000-0002-8111-2316\nPolitechnika Lubelska – ROR: https://ror.org/024zjzd49\nRedaktor prowadzący: Karolina Famulska-Ciesielska\nKorekta językowa: zespół redakcyjny\nSkład i łamanie: Łukasz Maj\nProjekt graficzny serii: Łukasz Maj\nZdjęcie na okładce i stronie przedtytułowej pochodzi ze strony internetowej www.freepik.com.\nJeśli nie wskazano źródła ilustracji, stanowi ona opracowanie własne autorki.\nPublikacja wydana za zgodą Rektora Politechniki Lubelskiej\nISBN: 978-83-7947-635-0 (wersja drukowana)\nISBN: 978-83-7947-636-7 (wersja elektroniczna)\nDOI: 10.35784/9788379476367\nWydawca: Wydawnictwo Politechniki Lubelskiej www.wpl.pollub.pl ul. Nadbystrzycka 36C, 20-618 Lublin tel. (81) 538-46-59\nKsiążka udostępniona jest na licencji Creative Commons Uznanie autorstwa – na tych samych warunkach\n4.0 Międzynarodowe (CC BY-SA 4.0)\nNakład: 50 egz.\n\nSpis treści\nWykaz ważniejszych skrótów i symboli 9\n1. Wstęp 11\n2. Cel i zakres pracy 17\n3. Sztuczne sieci neuronowe 21\n3.1. Sieci neuronowe – inspiracja ludzkim mózgiem 24\n3.2. Perceptron wielowarstwowy 28\n3.3. Rekurencyjne sieci neuronowe LSTM 31\n3.4. Konwolucyjne sieci neuronowe 34\n3.5. Transfer learning 39\n3.6. Dobór odpowiedniej architektury sieci neuronowej 41\n3.7. Kluczowe aspekty podczas uczenia sieci neuronowych 46\n3.7.1. Metody optymalizacyjne w sieciach neuronowych 49\n3.7.2. Techniki regularyzacji w sieciach neuronowych 53\n3.8. Wskaźniki oceny jakości sieci neuronowych 54\n3.8.2. Wskaźniki oceny jakości sieci neuronowych dla problemów klasyfikacyjnych 58\n4. Optymalizacja parametrów obróbki skrawaniem 63\n4.1. Proces frezowania stopów magnezu 65\n4.2. Identyfikacja procesu na podstawie modelu doświadczalnego 67\n4.3. Metodyka prowadzonych badań eksperymentalnych 69\n4.4. Optymalizacja parametrów obróbki frezowaniem w celu uzyskania zadanych wartości chropowatości powierzchni 72\n4.4.1. Metodyka modelowania parametrów chropowatości 73\n4.4.2. Wyniki modelowania wybranych parametrów chropowatości 2D 77\n4.4.3. Optymalizacja parametrów obróbki 89\n4.5. Optymalizacja parametrów obróbki przy ograniczeniach siłowych 98\n4.5.1. Metodyka modelowania siły skrawania 99\n4.5.2. Wyniki modelowania siły skrawania 100\n4.5.3. Optymalizacja parametrów obróbki 104\n5. Ocena jakości wyrobów gotowych 115\n5.1. Wykrywanie wad w odlewanych wyrobach gotowych – problem klasyfikacyjny 117\n5.1.1. Metodyka prowadzonych badań 118\n5.1.2. Wyniki działania klasyfikatorów 130\n5.1.3. Ocena jakości wyrobów gotowych na podstawie wykrywania wad w odlewach 133\n5.1.4. Koncepcja implementacji modelu do wykrywania wad w odlewach w kontroli jakości 136\n\n5.2. Wykrywanie błędów kształtu na linii produkcyjnej – problem klasyfikacyjny 142\n5.2.1. Metodyka prowadzonych badań oraz przygotowanie danych do modelowania 143\n5.2.2. Wyniki modelowania klasyfikatora 149\n5.2.3. Implementacja aplikacji do wykrywania błędów 151\n5.3. Określenie twardości po odpuszczaniu wyrobów gotowych – problem regresyjny 159\n5.3.1. Metodyka prowadzonych badań 160\n5.3.2. Wyniki modelowania twardości po procesie odpuszczania 162\n5.3.3. Ocena jakości wyrobów gotowych na podstawie twardości po procesie odpuszczania 173\n6. Predykcja awarii maszyn 177\n6.1. Metodyka modelowania predykcji awarii 179\n6.2. Wyniki modelowania klasyfikatora dotyczącego wystąpienia awarii 182\n6.3. Wyniki modelowania klasyfikatora dotyczącego określania typu awarii 192\n6.4. Wyniki modelowania klasyfikatora dotyczącego określania typu awarii na ograniczonym zbiorze danych 199\n6.5. Predykcja awarii maszyn z wykorzystaniem odpowiedniego interfejsu 207\n7. Metodyka doboru architektury i parametrów procesu uczenia sieci neuronowych w doskonaleniu procesów produkcyjnych 217\n8. Zakończenie 235\n8.1. Uwagi końcowe i wnioski 236\n8.2. Kierunki dalszych badań 240\nLiteratura 243\n\nS T R E S Z C Z E N I E / A B S T R A C T\nDobór architektury i parametrów procesu uczenia sieci neuronowych w doskonaleniu procesów produkcyjnych\nCelem pracy jest zaproponowanie sposobu doboru architektury oraz parametrów procesu uczenia sztucznych sieci neuronowych, które mogą być skutecznie zastosowane w doskonaleniu procesów produkcyjnych. Praca koncentruje się na wykorzystaniu modeli neuronowych w następujących trzech obszarach: optymalizacji parametrów obróbki skrawaniem, ocenie jakości wyrobów gotowych oraz predykcji awarii maszyn. W ramach pracy poddano analizie wybrane architektury sieci neuronowych, takie jak perceptrony wielowarstwowe, rekurencyjne sieci LSTM oraz konwolucyjne sieci neuronowe. Opracowano szczegółową metodykę doboru odpowiednich architektur oraz parametrów ich uczenia, która obejmowała kompleksowy proces przygotowania danych, selekcji odpowiednich modeli oraz ich dostosowania do specyficznych wymagań poszczególnych zastosowań przemysłowych. Kluczowym aspektem tej metodyki było uwzględnienie charakterystyki dostępnych danych oraz specyfiki zadań, co pozwoliło na optymalny dobór architektury sieci neuronowej dla każdego z analizowanych obszarów.\nSłowa kluczowe: s ztuczne sieci neuronowe, architektura sieci neuronowej, proces uczenia sieci neuronowej, doskonalenie procesów produkcyjnych\nSelection of neural network architecture and training parameters for manufacturing process improvement\nThe objective of this study is to propose a methodology for selecting the architecture and training parameters of artificial neural networks that can be effectively applied to the enhancement of manufacturing processes. The research focuses on the utilization of neural network models in three key areas: optimization of machining parameters, quality assessment of finished products, and prediction of machine failures. The study examines selected neural network architectures, including multilayer perceptrons, recurrent LSTM networks, and convolutional neural networks.\nA detailed methodology was developed to determine suitable architectures and training parameters, encompassing a comprehensive process of data preparation, model selection, and adaptation to the specific requirements of individual industrial applications. A key part of this method was taking into account the types of data that were available and the specifics of the tasks. This let the best neural network architectures be chosen for each of the domains that were being studied.\nKeywords: a rtificial neural networks, neural network architecture, neural network training process, manufacturing process improvement\n\nWykaz ważniejszych skrótów i symboli\nANN – sztuczna sieć neuronowa (ang. artificial neural networks)\nAUC – krzywa AUC (ang. area under the curve)\nCNN – konwolucyjna sieć neuronowa (ang. convolutional neural network)\nBR – algorytm uczenia – regularyzacja Bayesowska\nDNN – głęboka sieć neuronowa (ang. deep neural networks)\nFFNN – sieć jednokierunkowa (ang. feedforward neural networks)\nFPR – wskaźnik fałszywie pozytywnych wyników (ang. false positive rate)\nGPU – jednostka przetwarzania grafiki (ang. graphics processing unit)\nLM – algorytm uczenia Levenberga–Marquardta\nLSTM – sieć LSTM (ang. long short-term memory)\nMAE – średni błąd bezwzględny (ang. mean absolute arror)\nMAPE – średni bezwzględny błąd procentowy (ang. mean absolute percentage error)\nMLP – perceptron wielowarstwowy (ang. multi layer perceptron)\nMSE – błąd średniokwadratowy (ang. mean squared error)\nR – współczynnik korelacji\nRIE – względny błąd informacji (ang. relative information error)\nRMSE – pierwiastek błędu średniokwadratowego (ang. root mean squared error)\nRNN – rekurencyjne sieci neuronowe (ang. recurrent neural network)\nROC – krzywa ROC (ang. receiver operating characteristic)\nSCG – algorytm uczenia – gradient skalowany sprzężony (ang. scaled conjugate gradient)\nSVM – maszyna wektorów nośnych (ang. support vector machine)\nTPR – wskaźnik prawdziwie pozytywnych wyników (ang. true positive rate)\nTPU – jednostka przetwarzania tensora (ang. tensor processing unit) a – głębokość skrawania p a – szerokość skrawania e f – posuw na ostrze\nF x – składowa siły skrawania wzdłuż osi X\nF y – składowa siły skrawania wzdłuż osi Y\nF z – składowa siły skrawania wzdłuż osi Z n – prędkość obrotowa\nRa – średnia arytmetyczna bezwzględnych rzędnych profilu chropowatości\nRz – największa wysokość profilu chropowatości\nRSm – średnia szerokość rowków elementów profilu chropowatości v – prędkość skrawania c\n\n1. Wstęp\nDoskonalenie procesów produkcyjnych stanowi jedno z najważniejszych wyzwań, przed którymi stoi współczesny przemysł. W obliczu rosnącej konkurencji na globalnym rynku oraz dynamicznie zmieniających się potrzeb konsumentów przedsiębiorstwa produkcyjne muszą nieustannie dążyć do zwiększania efektywności, redukcji kosztów oraz podnoszenia jakości oferowanych produktów. W literaturze przedmiotu podkreśla się, że doskonalenie procesów produkcyjnych polega na systematycznym usprawnianiu wszystkich aspektów produkcji: od planowania i projektowania, przez zarządzanie zasobami, aż po kontrolę jakości i logistykę [1].\nIstotnym elementem doskonalenia procesów produkcyjnych jest optymalizacja zarządzania zasobami, która obejmuje nie tylko zarządzanie surowcami i materiałami, ale także efektywne wykorzystanie maszyn, narzędzi oraz pracy ludzkiej. W tym kontekście wdrażanie nowoczesnych metod zarządzania produkcją, takich jak Lean Manufacturing czy Six Sigma, umożliwia znaczną redukcję marnotrawstwa oraz zwiększenie wydajności produkcji [2,3]. Dzięki tym podejściom przedsiębiorstwa mogą osiągnąć wyższą jakość produktów przy jednoczesnym obniżeniu kosztów produkcji, co jest kluczowe w kontekście utrzymania konkurencyjności na rynku globalnym [4].\nKontrola jakości stanowi kolejny istotny obszar doskonalenia procesów produkcyjnych. Współczesne podejście do zarządzania jakością zakłada integrację narzędzi informatycznych z procesami produkcyjnymi, co umożliwia\n\nbieżącą analizę i monitorowanie jakości produktów na różnych etapach produkcji. Zastosowanie zaawansowanych technik, takich jak statystyczne sterowanie procesem (SPC) oraz systemy wczesnego ostrzegania o odchyleniach od norm pozwala na szybkie reagowanie na wszelkie nieprawidłowości, co przekłada się na zmniejszenie liczby wadliwych produktów i zwiększenie satysfakcji klienta [5]. Równie ważnym aspektem doskonalenia procesów produkcyjnych jest elastyczność systemów produkcyjnych, która pozwala na szybkie dostosowanie się do zmieniających się warunków rynkowych. Elastyczność ta staje się szczególnie istotna w kontekście globalizacji i wzrostu złożoności łańcuchów dostaw, które wymagają szybkiego reagowania na zmiany w popycie, różnorodność produktów oraz skracanie cykli życia produktów [6].\nW kontekście doskonalenia procesów produkcyjnych kluczowe jest zrozumienie, że każdy element procesu może zostać zoptymalizowany, co w konsekwencji prowadzi do poprawy całego systemu [7]. Obejmuje to zarówno techniczne aspekty związane z maszynami i narzędziami, jak i organizacyjne, dotyczące zarządzania ludźmi, czasem i zasobami [8,9]. Właściwie przeprowadzona optymalizacja procesów produkcyjnych prowadzi do zwiększenia produktywności, obniżenia kosztów operacyjnych oraz poprawy jakości produktów, co jest ważne dla utrzymania konkurencyjności na rynku [10].\nW ramach doskonalenia procesów produkcyjnych wyróżnia się wiele istotnych obszarów, w tej monografii jednak uwaga zostanie skierowana na trzy z nich: optymalizację parametrów obróbki skrawaniem, ocenę jakości wyrobów oraz predykcję awarii maszyn.\nOptymalizacja parametrów obróbki jest niezbędna do zapewnienia, że proces produkcyjny przebiega w sposób jak najbardziej efektywny. Dobre zarządzanie parametrami, takimi jak prędkość skrawania, posuw, głębokość obróbki czy temperatura w strefie skrawania pozwala na osiągnięcie optymalnych wyników produkcji zarówno pod względem jakości wyrobów, jak i efektywności energetycznej. Precyzyjne dostosowanie tych parametrów prowadzi do zmniejszenia zużycia narzędzi, redukcji ilości odpadów, a także minimalizacji czasu produkcji, co przekłada się na niższe koszty i wyższą rentowność produkcji [7].\nOcena jakości wyrobów to istotny element w procesie produkcyjnym, który bezpośrednio wpływa na satysfakcję klientów i reputację marki. Współczesne standardy jakości wymagają, aby każdy produkt opuszczający linię produkcyjną spełniał określone normy i specyfikacje. Skuteczna kontrola jakości nie tylko zapobiega wprowadzeniu na rynek wadliwych produktów, ale także pozwala na szybkie zidentyfikowanie i eliminowanie problemów w procesie produkcyjnym,\n\nco zapobiega powielaniu błędów. Regularne monitorowanie i ocena jakości wyrobów są zatem niezbędne dla utrzymania wysokiego poziomu zadowolenia klientów oraz uniknięcia kosztownych reklamacji [11,12].\nZapobieganie awariom maszyn jest kluczowe dla zapewnienia ciągłości produkcji i minimalizacji kosztów związanych z przestojami. Awarie maszyn mogą prowadzić do nieplanowanych przestojów, które generują wysokie koszty oraz mogą opóźniać realizację zamówień, co negatywnie wpływa na relacje z klientami. Wprowadzenie skutecznych strategii utrzymania ruchu, które pozwalają na wczesne wykrywanie problemów i prewencyjne usuwanie usterek, jest nieodzowne dla zachowania ciągłości produkcji [13]. Przewidywanie i zapobieganie awariom pozwala na lepsze planowanie działań serwisowych, optymalne zarządzanie zasobami oraz wydłużenie żywotności maszyn, co przekłada się na zmniejszenie kosztów operacyjnych i zwiększenie efektywności produkcji [14].\nWspółczesne przedsiębiorstwa produkcyjne muszą nieustannie poszukiwać innowacyjnych rozwiązań, które pozwolą na doskonalenie procesów produkcyjnych. Zastosowanie technologii informatycznych, takich jak systemy\nERP, sztuczna inteligencja (AI) oraz internet rzeczy (IoT), umożliwia automatyzację i integrację procesów produkcyjnych, co przyczynia się do zwiększenia efektywności oraz redukcji kosztów. W kontekście dynamicznego rozwoju technologii cyfrowych istotną rolę odgrywają sztuczne sieci neuronowe (ANN), które w ostatnich latach zyskały ogromne znaczenie. Stały się jednym z narzędzi stosowanych w przemyśle wytwórczym, oferują bowiem znaczny potencjał optymalizacji procesów, zwiększania wydajności, obniżenia kosztów i poprawy jakości produktów. Integracja ANN z produkcją jest częścią szerszego trendu w kierunku cyfryzacji i przyjęcia zaawansowanych technologii, takich jak AI,\nIoT i systemy cyber-fizyczne. Te elementy wspólnie napędzają transformację w kierunku inteligentnej produkcji i Przemysłu 4.0 [15,16].\nSztuczne sieci neuronowe nie tylko odgrywają kluczową rolę w optymalizacji obecnych procesów produkcyjnych, ale także mają potencjał, aby zrewolucjonizować przyszłość przemysłu. W miarę jak technologie oparte na ANN rozwijają się, mogą stać się fundamentem nowych, inteligentnych systemów zarządzania produkcją, które autonomicznie monitorują, zarządzają i optymalizują wszystkie aspekty procesu produkcyjnego. Takie systemy, dzięki zdolności do uczenia się na podstawie dużych ilości danych oraz adaptacji do zmieniających się warunków, mogą znacznie przewyższyć efektywność i precyzję tradycyjnych metod zarządzania. W konsekwencji integracja\nANN z procesami wytwórczymi nie tylko umożliwia osiąganie lepszej jakości\n\nproduktów i większej wydajności, ale również przyczynia się do powstania w pełni zautomatyzowanych, inteligentnych fabryk przyszłości [17].\nPotencjał sztucznych sieci neuronowych w doskonaleniu procesów produkcyjnych wynika z ich zdolności do przetwarzania i analizy dużych ilości danych w czasie rzeczywistym. Dzięki możliwości uczenia się na podstawie danych historycznych oraz bieżących sieci neuronowe są w stanie identyfikować wzorce, przewidywać zachowania systemów produkcyjnych oraz podejmować decyzje optymalizacyjne, które są trudne do osiągnięcia za pomocą tradycyjnych metod [18,19]. W kontekście współczesnych technologii wytwarzania takie zdolności są niezwykle cenne, gdyż umożliwiają dynamiczne dostosowywanie parametrów procesów produkcyjnych do zmieniających się warunków i wymagań.\nANN znajdują szerokie zastosowanie w przemyśle, znacząco wpływając na różne aspekty produkcji i utrzymania ruchu. Stosowane są do monitorowania wydajności przekładni turbin wiatrowych, wspierając strategię predykcyjnego utrzymania ruchu poprzez analizę danych SCADA (systemów informatycznych nadzorujących przebieg procesów produkcyjnych) [20]. W przemyśle motoryzacyjnym ANN optymalizują predykcyjne utrzymanie generatorów Diesla, zwiększając ich niezawodność i efektywność [21]. W sektorze chłodniczym przyczyniają się do oszczędności energii oraz poprawy efektywności systemów chłodniczych [22]. W przemyśle meblarskim ANN odgrywają istotną rolę w monitorowaniu defektów i poprawie kontroli jakości, co pozwala na szybkie identyfikowanie i eliminowanie wad produkcyjnych, a tym samym zwiększenie efektywności całego procesu produkcji [23]. W branży obróbki materiałowej sieci neuronowe są wykorzystywane do przewidywania chropowatości powierzchni oraz tempa usuwania materiału podczas obróbki strumieniowo-\n-ściernej nanokompozytów, co prowadzi do optymalizacji procesów i zwiększenia precyzji wytwarzania [24]. W kontekście optymalizacji projektowania\nANN znajdują zastosowanie w poprawie wydajności wymienników ciepła oraz redukcji kosztów produkcji, co przekłada się na bardziej efektywne i ekonomiczne rozwiązania w przemyśle [25].\nWażnym aspektem stosowania sztucznych sieci neuronowych w przemyśle jest umiejętność doboru odpowiedniej architektury oraz parametrów procesu uczenia sieci, co ma kluczowe znaczenie dla uzyskania ich wysokiej jakości.\nDobór architektury sieci neuronowej musi być precyzyjnie dostosowany do specyfiki danego problemu, ponieważ różne zadania – takie jak klasyfikacja czy predykcja – wymagają odmiennych podejść. Równie istotnym czynnikiem wpływającym na wybór architektury i parametrów sieci jest wielkość zestawu\n\ndanych, na których model będzie trenowany. W przypadku dużych zestawów danych bardziej złożone architektury, takie jak głębokie sieci neuronowe, mogą okazać się bardziej efektywne. Większy zasób danych pozwala na skuteczne trenowanie modeli o dużej liczbie warstw i parametrów, co z kolei może prowadzić do lepszego uchwycenia skomplikowanych zależności i wzorców w danych. Z kolei w sytuacjach, gdy dostępne są jedynie małe zestawy danych, należy zastosować inne podejście. Zdarza się, że w takich przypadkach złożone modele prowadzą do nadmiernego dopasowania, co skutkuje słabą generalizacją na danych testowych. Dlatego w przypadku małych zbiorów danych preferowane mogą być prostsze modele.\nWielkość zestawu danych wpływa także na dobór parametrów procesu uczenia, takich jak: liczba neuronów w warstwie ukrytej, liczba epok, metod optymalizacji czy technik regularyzacji. Wszystkie te czynniki podkreślają znaczenie świadomego i precyzyjnego doboru architektury oraz parametrów procesu uczenia sieci neuronowych w zależności od charakterystyki problemu oraz dostępnych danych. Umiejętne zarządzanie tymi aspektami pozwala na tworzenie modeli, które nie tylko osiągają wysoką dokładność, ale także są zdolne do efektywnej generalizacji w rzeczywistych warunkach produkcyjnych.\n\n2. Cel i zakres pracy\nCelem pracy jest zaproponowanie sposobu doboru architektury oraz parametrów procesu uczenia sztucznych sieci neuronowych, które mogą być skutecznie zastosowane w doskonaleniu procesów produkcyjnych. Autorka pracy koncentruje się na wykorzystaniu modeli neuronowych w następujących trzech obszarach:\noptymalizacji parametrów obróbki skrawaniem, ocenie jakości wyrobów gotowych oraz predykcji awarii maszyn. W ramach pracy poddano analizie wybrane architektury sieci neuronowych, takie jak: perceptrony wielowarstwowe (MLP), rekurencyjne sieci LSTM oraz konwolucyjne sieci neuronowe (CNN).\nProblem badawczy podejmowany w niniejszej pracy dotyczy opracowania metodyki doboru odpowiednich architektur sieci neuronowych oraz parametrów ich uczenia, które najlepiej wspierają poprawę efektywności i jakości procesów produkcyjnych. Badania koncentrują się na trzech konkretnych przypadkach zastosowania: optymalizacji parametrów obróbki frezowaniem, ocenie jakości wyrobów gotowych w kontekście problemów klasyfikacyjnych oraz regresyjnych, a także predykcji awarii maszyn, w tym identyfikacji rodzaju awarii. Istotnym zagadnieniem jest ustalenie, które typy sieci neuronowych oraz jakie parametry procesu uczenia są najskuteczniejsze w odniesieniu do specyficznych wyzwań związanych z tymi obszarami produkcyjnymi.\nNowość pracy polega na oryginalnym podejściu do doboru architektur i parametrów uczenia sieci neuronowych w różnych kontekstach produkcyjnych, co pozwala na elastyczne i wszechstronne ich zastosowanie w zależności\n\nod specyfiki problemu, uwarunkowań organizacyjnych oraz dostępnych danych.\nW pracy przedstawiono konkretne przykłady zastosowania sieci neuronowych, takie jak: optymalizacja parametrów obróbki frezowaniem, ocena jakości wyrobów gotowych w problemach klasyfikacyjnych oraz regresyjnych, a także predykcja awarii maszyn. Przykłady te służyły jako tło dla opracowania metodyki doboru architektury i parametrów sieci, a nie były celem samym w sobie. Praca podkreśla, że w zależności od charakterystyki zadania – czy to klasyfikacji, predykcji czy też dostępności danych – różne architektury sieci neuronowych mogą okazać się bardziej odpowiednie, co świadczy o ich zdolności do adaptacji w zróżnicowanych warunkach produkcyjnych. Przedstawione rozwiązania mają na celu nie tylko teoretyczne rozwinięcie wiedzy, ale również dostarczają praktycznych narzędzi, które mogą zostać bezpośrednio zaimplementowane w przemyśle, co stanowi istotny wkład w rozwój nowoczesnych technologii wytwarzania i obszar inżynierii produkcji.\nZakres pracy obejmuje szczegółowe omówienie zagadnień związanych z zastosowaniem sztucznych sieci neuronowych w doskonaleniu procesów produkcyjnych. Praca została podzielona na kilka rozdziałów, z których każdy koncentruje się na odrębnym aspekcie omawianej tematyki. Wstęp wprowadza w tematykę pracy. Omówiono w nim znaczenie doskonalenia procesów produkcyjnych wobec współczesnych wyzwań przemysłowych oraz roli zaawansowanych technologii, takich jak sztuczne sieci neuronowe, w optymalizacji i transformacji produkcji. Przedstawiono również cel i zakres pracy.\nRozdział trzeci poświęcony jest szczegółowemu omówieniu teorii sztucznych sieci neuronowych. Rozpoczyna się od historycznego zarysu rozwoju tej technologii, a następnie przedstawia różne typy architektur sieci neuronowych, w tym MLP, rekurencyjne sieci LSTM oraz CNN. W rozdziale omówiono również koncepcję transfer learning, czyli wykorzystania wcześniej wytrenowanych modeli w nowych zadaniach, co znacząco zwiększa efektywność i skraca czas trenowania modeli. Rozdział obejmuje także analizę kluczowych kwestii związanych z doborem odpowiedniej architektury sieci neuronowej, a także szczegółowe omówienie aspektów dotyczących procesu uczenia, takich jak wybór funkcji aktywacji, zastosowanie algorytmów optymalizacji oraz metod oceny jakości opracowanych modeli.\nW czwartym rozdziale podjęto zagadnienie optymalizacji parametrów obróbki skrawaniem z wykorzystaniem sztucznych sieci neuronowych. Omówiono proces frezowania stopów magnezu, metodykę badań eksperymentalnych procesu frezowania oraz wyniki modelowania parametrów chropowatości powierzchni.\nRozdział zawiera również szczegółową analizę optymalizacji parametrów obróbki\n\npod kątem uzyskania odpowiedniej chropowatości powierzchni. Dodatkowo zaprezentowano wyniki modelowania składowej F siły skrawania oraz optymalizację x parametrów obróbki z uwzględnieniem ograniczeń siłowych wpływających na jakość procesu obróbki.\nPiąty rozdział koncentruje się na ocenie jakości wyrobów gotowych z wykorzystaniem zaawansowanych metod sztucznych sieci neuronowych, obejmując szczegółową analizę zarówno problemów klasyfikacyjnych, jak i regresyjnych.\nRozdział ten w szczególności dogłębnie analizuje problematykę klasyfikacji wyrobów, zwracając szczególną uwagę na wykrywanie wad w odlewach, co stanowi istotny element w zapewnieniu wysokiej jakości produktów. Zaprezentowano metodę wykrywania wad z zastosowaniem CNN. Ponadto w rozdziale przedstawiono analizę problemów związanych z klasyfikacją błędów kształtu na liniach produkcyjnych, co jest istotne dla utrzymania dokładności i powtarzalności wytwarzanych elementów. W rozdziale zawarto również omówienie zastosowania sieci neuronowych w problemach regresyjnych, z naciskiem na przewidywanie twardości wyrobów po procesie odpuszczania. Przedstawiono metodykę tworzenia modeli regresyjnych oraz ich zastosowanie w precyzyjnym przewidywaniu właściwości mechanicznych wyrobów. Dodatkowo rozdział prezentuje koncepcję implementacji modeli opartych na sieciach neuronowych do wykrywania wad w ramach systemów kontroli jakości.\nRozdział szósty pracy poświęcony jest predykcji awarii maszyn przy wykorzystaniu zaawansowanych technik sztucznych sieci neuronowych. Rozdział rozpoczyna się od omówienia metodyki modelowania predykcji awarii, następnie zaprezentowano różne architektury sieci neuronowych, w tym MLP oraz rekurencyjne sieci neuronowe LSTM. Rozdział ten zawiera również omówienie praktycznych aspektów implementacji aplikacji do predykcji awarii maszyn poprzez zaprojektowanie odpowiedniego interfejsu użytkownika.\nW rozdziale siódmym skoncentrowano się na opracowaniu szczegółowej metodyki, która pozwala na skuteczny dobór zarówno architektury sieci neuronowych, jak i parametrów procesu ich uczenia. Metodyka ta jest zaprojektowana z myślą o zastosowaniu w różnych procesach produkcyjnych w celu ich doskonalenia, z uwzględnieniem specyfiki analizowanych problemów czy dostępnych danych.\nW zakończeniu zawarto podsumowanie wyników przeprowadzonych badań oraz wnioski z analizy zastosowania sztucznych sieci neuronowych w procesach produkcyjnych. Przedstawiono również propozycje dalszych kierunków badań, które mogą przyczynić się do efektywniejszego wykorzystania sztucznych sieci neuronowych w przemyśle.\n\n3. Sztuczne sieci neuronowe\nSztuczne sieci neuronowe (ang. artificial neural networks, ANN) stanowią fundament współczesnych technologii związanych z uczeniem maszynowym i sztuczną inteligencją. Ich inspiracja sięga biologicznych układów nerwowych, w szczególności ludzkiego mózgu, co nadaje im unikalne właściwości pozwalające na przetwarzanie informacji w sposób zbliżony do działania ludzkiego umysłu. Aby zrozumieć pełnię ich możliwości i zastosowań, warto przyjrzeć się historii ich rozwoju oraz podstawowym zasadom funkcjonowania.\nPoczątki idei sztucznych sieci neuronowych sięgają lat 40. XX wieku, kiedy to Warren McCulloch i Walter Pitts opublikowali przełomowy artykuł na temat logicznego rachunku idei immanentnych w układach nerwowych. Ich model, znany jako neuron McCullougha–Pittsa, był pierwszym matematycznym modelem neuronu, który pozwalał na realizację funkcji logicznych [26].\nTo otworzyło drogę do dalszych badań nad sztucznymi systemami przypominającymi biologiczne mózgi. Również w tym okresie, w 1949 roku, Donald\nHebb wprowadził ważną koncepcję w dziedzinie neuropsychologii, która miała ogromny wpływ na rozwój sztucznych sieci neuronowych. Przedstawił zasadę, która jest obecnie znana jako reguła Hebba. Stwierdza ona, że „neurony, które wspólnie działają, łączą się”. Innymi słowy, jeśli dwa neurony są aktywowane jednocześnie, połączenie między nimi jest wzmacniane. Ta zasada Hebba stała się podstawą dla stworzenia teorii uczenia się w sieciach neuronowych, która sugeruje, że synaptyczne połączenia między neuronami mogą się wzmacniać\n\npoprzez powtarzane współdziałanie [27]. Integracja modelu McCullougha–\nPittsa i reguły Hebba stanowiła fundament, na którym zbudowano wczesne modele sztucznych sieci neuronowych.\nW latach 50. i 60. XX wieku nastąpił dalszy rozwój tej dziedziny, zwłaszcza dzięki pracom Franka Rosenblatta, który stworzył perceptron – podstawowy model sieci neuronowej zdolny do uczenia się na podstawie dostarczonych danych [28]. Perceptron był w stanie klasyfikować dane liniowo separowalne, co jednak stanowiło jego ograniczenie. W tym okresie także Bernard Widrow i Marcian Hoff opracowali model ADALINE (ang. adaptive linear neuron), który wykorzystywał algorytm delta do dostosowywania wag w sieci neuronowej [29]. Był to kolejny krok w kierunku bardziej zaawansowanych modeli sieci neuronowych.\nPrawdziwy przełom nastąpił w latach 80. XX wieku wraz z wprowadzeniem algorytmu propagacji wstecznej przez Geoffreya Hintona, Davida Rumelharta i Ronalda Williamsa. Algorytm ten umożliwił trenowanie wielowarstwowych sieci neuronowych, co z kolei pozwoliło na rozwiązywanie znacznie bardziej złożonych problemów [30]. Dzięki temu sztuczne sieci neuronowe zyskały na popularności i stały się jednym z głównych narzędzi w obszarze uczenia maszynowego.\nW latach 90. rozwój sieci neuronowych był częściowo ograniczony przez problemy związane z mocą obliczeniową komputerów oraz z trudnościami w trenowaniu głębszych sieci. Niemniej jednak prace nad nowymi architekturami i technikami trenowania były kontynuowane. W 1998 roku Yann LeCun i jego współpracownicy zaprezentowali CNN, które zrewolucjonizowały analizę obrazów [31].\nNa początku XXI wieku nastąpił kolejny znaczący przełom, głównie dzięki rozwojowi mocy obliczeniowej oraz dostępności dużych zbiorów danych. W 2006 roku Geoffrey Hinton i jego zespół stworzyli głębokie sieci neuronowe, które stały się fundamentem nowoczesnych technologii AI [32]. Ich prace były kontynuowane przez wielu innych badaczy, co przyczyniło się do dynamicznego rozwoju tej dziedziny.\nW 2012 roku Alex Krizhevsky, Ilya Sutskever i Geoffrey Hinton przedstawili sieć AlexNet, która wygrała konkurs ImageNet Large Scale Visual Recognition\nChallenge (ILSVRC) z dużą przewagą, pokazując skuteczność głębokich sieci neuronowych w rozpoznawaniu obrazów [33]. To wydarzenie zapoczątkowało nową erę w badaniach nad sieciami neuronowymi. Kolejnym ważnym osiągnięciem była praca nad rekurencyjnymi sieciami neuronowymi (RNN) i ich ulepszonymi wersjami, takimi jak long short-term memory (LSTM) oraz gated recurrent\n\nunits (GRU). Okazały się bardzo skuteczne w przetwarzaniu sekwencji danych, co znalazło zastosowanie w analizie tekstu i mowy [34,35].\nSztuczne sieci neuronowe znajdują szerokie zastosowanie w różnych dziedzinach. W medycynie na przykład są wykorzystywane do diagnozowania chorób na podstawie obrazów medycznych, takich jak zdjęcia rentgenowskie czy skany MRI, zwiększając obiektywność i dokładność diagnoz oraz umożliwiając spersonalizowane plany leczenia [36–38]. W finansach sieci neuronowe są stosowane do przewidywania trendów rynkowych i oceny ryzyka kredytowego [39]. Technologia ta ponadto jest używana w rozpoznawaniu mowy i przetwarzaniu języka naturalnego, co umożliwia tworzenie zaawansowanych asystentów głosowych, takich jak Siri czy Alexa [40,41]. Dodatkowo połączenie rozpoznawania głosu z innymi funkcjami AI, takimi jak wykrywanie i rozpoznawanie twarzy, może prowadzić do stworzenia bardziej spersonalizowanych i intuicyjnych asystentów AI. Systemy te są w stanie wykonywać zadania, takie jak ustawianie przypomnień, wysyłanie wiadomości e-mail i odtwarzanie muzyki, poprawiając w ten sposób interakcję człowiek-komputer i zmniejszając wysiłek człowieka w różnych sektorach [42]. Zastosowanie zaawansowanych modeli językowych, takich jak GPT-3, dodatkowo poprawia inteligencję i szybkość reakcji tych wirtualnych asystentów, umożliwiając im funkcjonowanie jako wydajne interfejsy czatu, które mogą rozumieć i wykonywać polecenia mówione [43].\nW produkcji sztuczne sieci neuronowe mogą odgrywać kluczową rolę w monitorowaniu procesów produkcyjnych oraz optymalizacji linii produkcyjnych. Dzięki analizie danych z czujników oraz innych źródeł sieci neuronowe mogą identyfikować anomalie i przewidywać awarie, co pozwala na przeprowadzenie prewencyjnych działań konserwacyjnych. Na przykład sieci neuronowe mogą być wykorzystywane do monitorowania stanu maszyn i wykrywania odchyleń od normy, co pozwala na wczesne rozpoznawanie potencjalnych problemów [44]. Potrafią one między innymi identyfikować wzorce, przewidywać przyszłe zdarzenia, segmentować dane oraz obrazy, klasyfikować elementy w zbiorach, wspierać procesy decyzyjne, a także tworzyć reprezentacje danych [45–47]. W monitorowaniu produkcji sieci neuronowe mogą analizować dane w czasie rzeczywistym, wykrywać nieprawidłowości i przewidywać przyszłe zdarzenia, co umożliwia bardziej efektywne zarządzanie procesami produkcyjnymi [48,49].\nW sektorze energetycznym sieci neuronowe są wykorzystywane do prognozowania zużycia energii oraz optymalizacji jej dystrybucji. Na przykład sieci neuronowe mogą analizować dane historyczne dotyczące zużycia energii\n\noraz przewidywać przyszłe potrzeby, co pozwala na bardziej efektywne zarządzanie zasobami energetycznymi [50,51]. W rolnictwie ANN są stosowane do monitorowania rozwoju roślin oraz prognozowania plonów. Dzięki analizie danych z sensorów oraz zdjęć satelitarnych sieci neuronowe mogą identyfikować choroby roślin oraz przewidywać ich rozwój, co sprzyja szybkim i skutecznym działaniom prewencyjnym [52].\nW logistyce sieci neuronowe mogą optymalizować trasy transportowe oraz zarządzanie łańcuchem dostaw. Analiza danych dotyczących ruchu drogowego, warunków pogodowych oraz innych czynników pozwala na optymalizację tras i minimalizację czasu dostaw, co przekłada się na redukcję kosztów oraz zwiększenie efektywności operacyjnej [53–55].\n3.1. Sieci neuronowe – inspiracja ludzkim mózgiem\nSztuczne sieci neuronowe czerpią inspirację z ludzkiego mózgu, który jest niezwykle złożonym i efektywnym systemem przetwarzania informacji. Mózg ludzki składa się z miliardów neuronów, które są połączone ze sobą za pomocą synaps. Neurony komunikują się poprzez przekazywanie impulsów elektrycznych i chemicznych, co pozwala na przetwarzanie ogromnych ilości informacji w czasie rzeczywistym. Poniżej przedstawiono, jak te biologiczne inspiracje przekładają się na modele sieci neuronowych, które są wykorzystywane w uczeniu maszynowym i sztucznej inteligencji (ryc. 3.1).\nRyc. 3.1. Model ludzkiego neuronu\nOpracowanie własne na podstawie pixabay.com (licencja CC0)\nNeuron, podstawowa jednostka przetwarzania w mózgu, składa się z ciała komórki, dendrytów odbierających sygnały oraz aksonu przekazującego sygnały\n\ndalej. Impulsy elektryczne, zwane potencjałami czynnościowymi, przemieszczają się wzdłuż aksonu do synaps, gdzie są przekazywane do kolejnych neuronów [56]. Ten proces komunikacji jest kluczowy dla funkcjonowania układu nerwowego, umożliwiając mózgowi wykonywanie skomplikowanych operacji poznawczych i motorycznych.\nW modelach sztucznych sieci neuronowych neurony są reprezentowane przez proste jednostki obliczeniowe, które otrzymują sygnały wejściowe, przetwarzają je i generują sygnały wyjściowe. Podstawowy model matematyczny neuronu sztucznego został zaproponowany przez McCullocha i Pittsa [26].\nWykonuje on operację ważonej sumy swoich wejść, do której dodaje wartość progową, a następnie stosuje funkcję aktywacji, aby wygenerować wyjście.\nMatematyczny model neuronu można opisać następująco (ryc. 3.2):\n1. Sygnały wejściowe (x): Każdy neuron otrzymuje sygnały wejściowe x , x , ... , x od innych neuronów lub bezpośrednio z otoczenia.\n1 2 n\n2. Wagi (w): Każdemu sygnałowi wejściowemu przypisana jest waga w , w , ..., w , która określa siłę wpływu danego sygnału na neuron.\n1 2 n\n3. Sumowanie (Σ): Neuron sumuje swoje ważone wejścia. Sumowanie to można wyrazić wzorem:\n(3.1) gdzie z jest sumą ważoną, a b jest wartością progową, pewną stałą (bias).\nBias b nie musi być indeksowany tak jak wagi w , ponieważ stanowi dodatkową stałą wartość, która przesuwa całą funkcję aktywacji w przestrzeni.\nW klasycznym modelu neuronu, który przedstawiono na ryc. 3.2, bias jest jednolity dla danego neuronu, niezależnie od liczby jego wejść. Bias pełni funkcję przesunięcia progu aktywacji, umożliwiając neuronowi lepsze dopasowanie się do danych wejściowych poprzez przesunięcie funkcji aktywacji w poziomie, co jest niezależne od wartości sygnałów wejściowych.\n4. Funkcja aktywacji (φ): Suma ważona z jest następnie przetwarzana przez funkcję aktywacji φ(z), która wprowadza nieliniowość do modelu. Popularne funkcje aktywacji to m.in. funkcja sigmoidalna, ReLU (ang. rectified linear unit) i funkcja tangens hiperboliczny (tanh).\n5. Wyjście (y): Wynik funkcji aktywacji jest sygnałem wyjściowym neuronu:\ny = φ(z).\n\nRyc. 3.2. Model sztucznego neuronu\nFunkcje aktywacji wprowadzają nieliniowość do modelu, co pozwala sieciom neuronowym na rozwiązywanie skomplikowanych problemów.\nNieliniowość jest ważna, ponieważ bez niej, niezależnie od liczby warstw, model sieci neuronowej byłby równoważny jednej warstwie liniowej. Oto kilka najczęściej używanych funkcji aktywacji:\n1. Funkcja sigmoidalna\n(3.2)\nFunkcja sigmoidalna jest jedną z najstarszych i najbardziej popularnych funkcji aktywacji, szczególnie we wczesnych modelach sieci neuronowych.\nPrzekształca dowolne wejście w wartość w przedziale (0 ÷ 1). Jest często używana w sieciach neuronowych do klasyfikacji binarnej [57]. Jednak ma tendencję do problemu zanikania gradientu, co utrudnia trenowanie głębokich sieci [58].\n2. Funkcja ReLU\n(3.3)\nFunkcja ReLU (ang. rectified linear unit) jest jedną z najczęściej używanych funkcji aktywacji w nowoczesnych sieciach neuronowych, szczególnie w głębokich sieciach konwolucyjnych. Stosuje się ją głównie w warstwach\n\nukrytych nowoczesnych sieci neuronowych ze względu na prostotę i efektywność obliczeniową, co prowadzi do szybszej konwergencji podczas trenowania [59]. Jednak ReLU może prowadzić do problemu „umierających” neuronów, gdzie neurony mogą przestać się aktywować (dawać wyjście zero) na zawsze.\n3. Funkcja tangens hiperboliczny (tanh)\n(3.4)\nFunkcja tangens hiperboliczny jest podobna do funkcji sigmoidalnej, ale przekształca wartości wejściowe w przedziale (-1, 1). Funkcja tanh jest często używana w sieciach neuronowych, gdzie wartości wyjściowe mogą być zarówno dodatnie, jak i ujemne. Jest centralnie symetryczna wokół zera, co może prowadzić do szybszej konwergencji niż funkcja sigmoidalna [58].\n4. Funkcja softmax\n(3.5)\nFunkcję softmax często używa się w warstwach wyjściowych sieci neuronowych do klasyfikacji wieloklasowej. Funkcja softmax przekształca wartości wejściowe w przedziale (0, 1) dla każdej klasy, a suma wszystkich wyjść wynosi\n1. Jest używana w klasyfikacji wieloklasowej, ponieważ zapewnia prawdopodobieństwa przypisania do poszczególnych klas [58].\n5. Funkcja Leaky ReLU ś\n(3.6) ś gdzie α jest małą stałą (np. 0,01).\nFunkcja Leaky ReLU jest wariantem funkcji ReLU, który stara się rozwiązać problem „umierających” neuronów ReLU. Leaky ReLU przekształca wartości wejściowe w przedział (– . Jest szeroko stosowana w nowoczesnych sieciach neuronowych, ponie∞w,a ∞ż p)rzez małą dodatnią wartość dla z 0, neurony mają mniejszą tendencję do „umierania” [60]. [UNREADABLE_GLYPH]\n\nKażda z tych funkcji ma unikalne właściwości, które wpływają na efektywność uczenia i działanie sieci, umożliwiając im przetwarzanie danych w sposób analogiczny do biologicznych procesów neuronalnych. Wprowadzenie tych funkcji jest kluczowe dla głębokiego uczenia, umożliwiając modelom neuronowym adaptację i generalizację w różnych zastosowaniach sztucznej inteligencji. Generalizacja oznacza zdolność modelu do skutecznego przewidywania wyników na nowych, niewidzianych wcześniej danych testowych. Jest to kluczowa właściwość modelu, która zależy od odpowiedniego doboru danych uczących, architektury modelu i technik regularyzacji.\n3.2. Perceptron wielowarstwowy\nW dziedzinie sieci neuronowych istnieje wiele różnych typów i architektur, z których każda ma swoje unikalne cechy i zastosowania. Jednym z najbardziej znanych i szeroko stosowanych typów jest perceptron wielowarstwowy (z ang. multi layer perceptron, MLP). Koncepcja ta została zapoczątkowana przez badaczy, takich jak Rumelhart i McClelland w 1986 roku i od tego czasu stanowi podstawę wielu systemów uczenia maszynowego i sztucznej inteligencji [30]. Opis tej architektury można znaleźć w licznych podręcznikach dotyczących sieci neuronowych, takich jak prace Tadeusiewicza (1993) [61] czy Bishopa (1995) [57].\nPerceptron wielowarstwowy składa się z trzech głównych typów warstw:\nwarstwy wejściowej, jednej lub więcej warstw ukrytych oraz warstwy wyjściowej. Każda z tych warstw odgrywa kluczową rolę w przetwarzaniu informacji i generowaniu wyników.\nWarstwa wejściowa składa się z neuronów, które otrzymują dane wejściowe.\nLiczba neuronów w tej warstwie jest równa liczbie cech w danych wejściowych.\nWarstwy ukryte znajdują się pomiędzy warstwą wejściową a wyjściową. Każdy neuron w warstwie ukrytej otrzymuje sygnały od neuronów z poprzedniej warstwy, przetwarza je i przesyła dalej. Neurony te obliczają ważoną sumę swoich wejść, do której dodawana jest wartość progowa (ang. bias). Wynik tej sumy jest następnie przetwarzany przez funkcję aktywacji, która wprowadza nieliniowość do modelu. Liczba neuronów i warstw ukrytych jest hiperparametrem, który można dostosowywać w zależności od złożoności problemu. Warstwa wyjściowa składa się z neuronów, które generują finalne wyniki sieci. Liczba neuronów w tej warstwie zależy od charakteru problemu – w przypadku klasyfikacji binarnej będzie to jeden neuron, zaś w klasyfikacji wieloklasowej liczba neuronów odpowiada liczbie klas [62].\n\nPerceptron wielowarstwowy jest to rodzaj sieci jednokierunkowych, w których sygnały przetwarzane są tylko w jednym kierunku – od warstwy wejściowej, przez warstwy ukryte, aż do warstwy wyjściowej. W tych sieciach brak sprzężenia zwrotnego oznacza, że sygnały nie wracają do poprzednich warstw.\nKażdy neuron w sieci jednokierunkowej przetwarza swoje wejścia za pomocą funkcji aktywacji, co pozwala na modelowanie nieliniowych zależności. Proces uczenia najczęściej opiera się na algorytmie propagacji wstecznej, który minimalizuje błąd pomiędzy przewidywaniami sieci a rzeczywistymi wynikami.\nProces uczenia perceptronu wielowarstwowego przedstawia się następująco:\n1. Inicjalizacja wag\nProces uczenia rozpoczyna się od losowej inicjalizacji wag połączeń między neuronami. Ta losowa inicjalizacja jest niezbędna, aby zapewnić różnorodność początkowych ścieżek propagacji sygnałów i uniknąć symetrii w sieci, która mogłaby utrudnić proces uczenia.\n2. Propagacja w przód\nDane wejściowe są przesyłane przez sieć neuronową, warstwa po warstwie. Każdy neuron oblicza swoją ważoną sumę wejść, dodaje wartość biasu, stosuje odpowiednią funkcję aktywacji, a następnie przekazuje wynik do neuronów w następnej warstwie. Proces ten powtarza się aż do uzyskania wyjścia w ostatniej warstwie.\n3. Obliczanie błędu\nW warstwie wyjściowej wyniki sieci są porównywane z rzeczywistymi wartościami docelowymi za pomocą funkcji kosztu (ang. loss function, funkcja strat), takich jak m.in. funkcja błędu średniokwadratowego czy entropii krzyżowej. Funkcja kosztu mierzy różnicę między przewidywaniami sieci a rzeczywistymi wartościami, co stanowi podstawę do dalszych modyfikacji wag.\n4. Propagacja wsteczna\nNa podstawie obliczonego błędu gradienty funkcji kosztu względem wag są obliczane z wykorzystaniem reguły łańcuchowej. Gradienty te wskazują, jak bardzo każda waga wpływa na całkowity błąd. Proces ten umożliwia sieci stopniowe dostosowywanie swoich wag, aby minimalizować błąd.\n5. Aktualizacja wag\nWagi są aktualizowane zgodnie z obliczonymi gradientami. Najczęściej stosowane algorytmy optymalizacji to stochastic gradient descent (SGD) oraz Adam. Aktualizacje te przesuwają wagi w kierunku zmniejszenia funkcji kosztu, co prowadzi do stopniowego ulepszania działania sieci.\nAktualizacja wag odbywa się zgodnie z regułą:\n\nwaga = waga – współczynnik uczenia × gradient (3.7)\nPerceptron wielowarstwowy jest fundamentalną architekturą w obszarze sieci neuronowych, umożliwiającą rozwiązywanie skomplikowanych problemów dzięki swojej zdolności do modelowania nieliniowych zależności.\nWprowadzenie warstw ukrytych i odpowiednich funkcji aktywacji pozwala na efektywne przetwarzanie i analizowanie danych w różnych zastosowaniach.\nDzięki swojej zdolności do modelowania nieliniowych zależności między danymi sieci MLP znalazły szerokie zastosowanie w wielu różnorodnych dziedzinach, które wymagają przetwarzania danych o złożonej strukturze. Jednym z istotnych obszarów zastosowań MLP jest analiza danych tabelarycznych oraz zadania klasyfikacji i regresji. W tych kontekstach MLP pozwala na modelowanie skomplikowanych relacji między cechami wejściowymi a wynikami, co czyni je niezwykle użytecznym narzędziem w biotechnologii, gdzie są wykorzystywane do klasyfikacji wzorców oraz regresji funkcji, czerpiąc inspirację z biologicznych sieci neuronowych. Takie zastosowania podkreślają fundamentalną rolę MLP w rozwoju sztucznej inteligencji oraz ich zdolność adaptacji do różnych dziedzin, takich jak inżynieria, finanse czy medycyna [63]. Kolejnym istotnym obszarem, w którym sieci MLP są szeroko stosowane, jest przetwarzanie danych ciągłych, szczególnie w zadaniach, takich jak prognozowanie finansowe oraz analiza szeregów czasowych. Zdolność MLP do aproksymacji nieliniowych funkcji umożliwia efektywne modelowanie zależności między zmiennymi w danych czasowych, co pozwala na skuteczne przewidywanie przyszłych wartości na podstawie historycznych obserwacji. Przykładem tego zastosowania jest prognozowanie cen akcji, gdzie wykorzystanie MLP przyniosło znaczące korzyści w zakresie dokładności przewidywań w porównaniu z tradycyjnymi metodami [64].\nW obszarze planowania produkcji MLP okazały się również niezwykle skuteczne. Wykorzystując dane historyczne dotyczące produkcji i sprzedaży, sieci MLP są zdolne do prognozowania przyszłego zapotrzebowania na surowce, co sprzyja bardziej efektywnemu planowaniu produkcji oraz optymalizacji zasobów magazynowych [65]. Zastosowanie MLP w prognozowaniu wskaźnika produkcji maszyn tnących w kamieniołomach pozwoliło na znaczne zwiększenie dokładności tych przewidywań, co z kolei umożliwiło optymalizację procesów cięcia kamienia. Efektem było bardziej precyzyjne planowanie i zwiększenie wydajności pracy maszyn, co bezpośrednio przełożyło się na poprawę efektywności całego procesu produkcyjnego [66]. MLP zostały ponadto zastosowane do przewidywania czasu cyklu na liniach produkcyjnych, co umożliwiło lepsze zarządzanie czasem i zasobami. Dokładne\n\nprognozy czasu cyklu są ważne dla utrzymania płynności produkcji oraz minimalizacji przestojów, co z kolei przekłada się na wyższe zyski oraz lepszą kontrolę nad procesami produkcyjnymi [67]. W odniesieniu do nowoczesnych rozwiązań produkcyjnych, związanych z Przemysłem 4.0, sieci MLP odegrały istotną rolę w opracowaniu hybrydowego systemu wspomagania decyzji, który integruje MLP z systemami eksperckimi w kontroli procesu produkcji gipsu.\nZastosowanie tego systemu przyczyniło się do precyzyjnej identyfikacji krytycznych punktów kontrolnych (CCP) w procesie produkcji, co jest niezbędne dla utrzymania wysokiej jakości produktów oraz zmniejszenia liczby defektów, szczególnie w zautomatyzowanych środowiskach produkcyjnych [68].\nPerceptrony wielowarstwowe mogą znaleźć szerokie zastosowanie w inżynierii produkcji dzięki swojej zdolności do modelowania złożonych i nieliniowych zależności w danych. Mogą być wykorzystywane do optymalizacji procesów produkcyjnych, gdzie analizują sygnały z czujników i dane operacyjne, aby minimalizować przestoje i zwiększać ich efektywność. Dodatkowo MLP mogą być stosowane do prognozowania popytu na produkty na podstawie analizy danych historycznych, co jest kluczowe dla efektywnego planowania produkcji i zarządzania zapasami. W obszarze zarządzania utrzymaniem ruchu sieci neuronowe mogą przewidywać awarie maszyn, umożliwiając proaktywne działania konserwacyjne i minimalizując koszty napraw. Dzięki swojej wszechstronności i zdolności do przetwarzania złożonych danych MLP stają się nieocenionym narzędziem w nowoczesnych systemach produkcyjnych.\n3.3. Rekurencyjne sieci neuronowe LSTM\nSieci long short-term memory (LSTM) stanowią jeden z najbardziej zaawansowanych i wszechstronnych typów rekurencyjnych sieci neuronowych, zaprojektowanych w celu rozwiązania problemów związanych z długoterminowymi zależnościami w danych sekwencyjnych. Tradycyjne rekurencyjne sieci neuronowe (RNN) napotykają na istotne trudności podczas próby uczenia się informacji z dłuższych sekwencji danych, co jest spowodowane zjawiskiem znanym jako problem zanikającego gradientu [35,69]. W miarę propagacji błędu wstecz przez czas w procesie uczenia gradienty mogą się zmniejszać do niemal zerowych wartości lub, w innych przypadkach, eksplodować, co znacząco utrudnia proces optymalizacji modelu. To zjawisko prowadzi do sytuacji, w której sieci RNN mają trudności z utrzymaniem i wykorzystywaniem informacji, które pojawiły się w dalszej przeszłości sekwencji.\n\nW odpowiedzi na te wyzwania Sepp Hochreiter i Jürgen Schmidhuber zaproponowali w 1997 roku architekturę LSTM, która została zaprojektowana w celu przezwyciężenia tych ograniczeń. Istotnym elementem LSTM jest jego zdolność do przechowywania informacji przez dłuższy czas bez degradacji sygnału, co czyni go idealnym narzędziem do analizy danych sekwencyjnych, takich jak teksty, serie czasowe czy sygnały. Architektura LSTM składa się z jednostek pamięci (ang. memory cells), które są odpowiedzialne za przechowywanie informacji, oraz trzech rodzajów bramek: zapominania (ang. forget gate), wejściowej (ang. input gate) i wyjściowej (ang. output gate) [35,49].\nKażda z tych bramek jest siecią neuronową, która uczy się, jak manipulować przepływem informacji, aby optymalnie przechowywać i wykorzystywać dane sekwencyjne [70]. Bramki w sieciach LSTM [49,71,72]:\n1. Bramka zapominania: Bramka decyduje, które informacje z poprzedniego stanu komórki powinny zostać zapomniane. Działa poprzez przyjęcie bieżącego stanu wejściowego oraz poprzedniego stanu ukrytego i przetworzenie ich przez funkcję sigmoidalną, która zwraca wartości między 0 a 1.\nTe wartości określają, które informacje są zachowywane (wartość bliska 1), a które zapominane (wartość bliska 0).\n2. Bramka wejściowa: Decyduje, które nowe informacje zostaną dodane do stanu komórki, steruje poziomem aktualizacji stanu komórki. Proces ten obejmuje dwa kroki. Pierwszy to zastosowanie funkcji sigmoidalnej do bieżącego wejścia i poprzedniego stanu ukrytego, co decyduje, które wartości będą aktualizowane. Drugi krok to stworzenie wektora nowych wartości kandydujących przez funkcję tanh, które są następnie dodawane do stanu komórki.\n3. Bramka wyjściowa: Określa, które informacje z aktualnego stanu komórki zostaną użyte do obliczenia wyjścia. Stan komórki jest przekształcany przez funkcję tanh i mnożony przez wynik bramki wyjściowej, co daje końcowe wyjście tej komórki LSTM.\nArchitektura warstwy LSTM przedstawiona została na ryc. 3.3. Diagram ten ilustruje przepływ danych przez warstwę LSTM z wejściem x i wyjściem y, przy T krokach czasowych. W diagramie h oznacza wyjście (znane również\nT jako stan ukryty), a c oznacza stan komórki w kroku czasowym t. Jeśli war-\nT stwa LSTM generuje pełną sekwencję wyjść, to wynikiem są wartości y , ..., y ,\n1 T które odpowiadają h , ..., h . Natomiast jeśli warstwa LSTM zwraca wyłącznie\n1 T wynik z ostatniego kroku czasowego, to wynikiem jest y , które odpowiada h .\nT T\nLiczba kanałów w wyjściu odpowiada liczbie jednostek ukrytych w warstwie\nLSTM [73].\n\nRyc. 3.3. Architektura warstwy LSTM [73]\nPierwsza operacja w sieci LSTM wykorzystuje początkowy stan RNN oraz pierwszy krok czasowy sekwencji, aby obliczyć pierwsze wyjście oraz zaktualizowany stan komórki. W kroku czasowym t operacja wykorzystuje bieżący stan\nRNN (c , h ) oraz kolejny krok czasowy sekwencji, aby obliczyć aktualne t−1 t−1 wyjście oraz zaktualizowany stan komórki c. Stan warstwy LSTM składa się t z ukrytego stanu (znanego również jako stan wyjściowy) oraz stanu komórki.\nUkryty stan w kroku czasowym t zawiera wyjście warstwy LSTM dla tego kroku czasowego. Stan komórki przechowuje informacje wyuczone z poprzednich kroków czasowych. W każdym kroku czasowym warstwa dodaje lub usuwa informacje ze stanu komórki. Te aktualizacje są kontrolowane przez odpowiednie bramki [73].\nDzięki swojej zdolności do utrzymywania długoterminowych zależności sieci LSTM znalazły szerokie zastosowanie w wielu różnorodnych dziedzinach, które wymagają analizy danych sekwencyjnych. Jednym z obszarów, w którym\nLSTM stosuje się na szeroką skalę, jest przetwarzanie języka naturalnego (NLP).\nW tej dziedzinie LSTM umożliwia modelowanie złożonych zależności między słowami i frazami w tekstach, co jest istotne dla zadań, takich jak tłumaczenie maszynowe, generowanie tekstu czy analiza sentymentu. Przykładem może być praca zespołu Sutskevera (2014), w której wykorzystano LSTM do tłumaczenia sekwencji tekstu z jednego języka na inny, co przyniosło znaczące ulepszenia w jakości tłumaczeń w porównaniu z wcześniejszymi metodami[74].\nRozpoznawanie mowy to kolejna dziedzina, w której LSTM znalazły szerokie zastosowanie. Dzięki zdolności do uchwycenia sekwencyjnej natury mowy\nLSTM są wykorzystywane w systemach takich jak Siri, Google Assistant czy\nCortana, gdzie modele te uczą się rozpoznawać wzorce w danych mowy i przekształcać je na tekst. Graves i współpracownicy (2013) pokazali, jak LSTM może być zastosowane do rozpoznawania mowy z wysoką dokładnością, dzięki zdolności do uwzględnienia długoterminowych zależności w sygnałach mowy [75].\nW dziedzinie prognozowania popytu LSTM są używane do przewidywania\n\nzapotrzebowania na produkty czy usługi na podstawie danych historycznych, co jest istotne dla optymalizacji łańcuchów dostaw i zarządzania zasobami.\nModele LSTM pozwalają na uwzględnienie sezonowych wzorców i trendów, co prowadzi do dokładniejszych prognoz.\nLSTM znalazły również szerokie zastosowanie w procesach wytwarzania i produkcji, znacznie poprawiając konserwację predykcyjną, wykrywanie anomalii, monitorowanie procesów i harmonogramowanie produkcji.\nW konserwacji predykcyjnej sieci LSTM są wykorzystywane do przewidywania i diagnozowania awarii komponentów maszyny poprzez analizę danych czujników, zmniejszając w ten sposób czas przestojów maszyny, obniżając koszty i wydłużając cykle jej życia. Na przykład hybrydowy model CNN-LSTM osiągnął wysoką dokładność w przewidywaniu awarii jednostek produkcyjnych powietrza (APU) [76]. Integracja LSTM z CNN była również skuteczna w dynamicznym łączeniu taktycznego planowania produkcji i konserwacji predykcyjnej, zmniejszając całkowite koszty produkcji i konserwacji poprzez dokładne przewidywanie pozostałej żywotności systemów [77].\nPodsumowując, sieci LSTM to zaawansowane narzędzie w dziedzinie uczenia maszynowego, które może odgrywać kluczową rolę w inżynierii produkcji. Dzięki swojej zdolności do modelowania długoterminowych zależności w danych sekwencyjnych LSTM znalazły szerokie zastosowanie w konserwacji predykcyjnej, wykrywaniu anomalii, monitorowaniu procesów oraz optymalizacji harmonogramów produkcji. Ich innowacyjna architektura, obejmująca mechanizmy bramek, pozwala na efektywne przetwarzanie informacji, co przekłada się na dokładniejsze prognozy i lepsze zarządzanie zasobami.\nWprowadzenie LSTM może znacząco poprawić efektywność i niezawodność procesów produkcyjnych, czyniąc je nieocenionym narzędziem w nowoczesnej inżynierii produkcji.\n3.4. Konwolucyjne sieci neuronowe\nKonwolucyjne sieci neuronowe (z ang. convolutional neural networks, CNN) to wyspecjalizowana klasa głębokich sieci neuronowych (DNN), które zrewolucjonizowały pole widzenia komputerowego i przetwarzania obrazu, wykorzystując operację matematyczną zwaną konwolucją zamiast ogólnego mnożenia macierzy w co najmniej jednej z ich warstw [78,79]. CNN są zaprojektowane do automatycznego i adaptacyjnego uczenia się przestrzennych hierarchii elementów z obrazów wejściowych, co czyni je wysoce skutecznymi w zadaniach,\n\ntakich jak klasyfikacja obrazów, wykrywanie obiektów i segmentacja [80,81].\nCNN znajdują również zastosowanie w analizie sygnałów czasowych, takich jak rozpoznawanie mowy czy analiza sekwencji wideo, dzięki swojej zdolności do wykrywania wzorców zarówno w danych przestrzennych, jak i czasowych [82].\nCNN są inspirowane biologicznym systemem wzrokowym, co polega na sposobie przetwarzania obrazów przez neurony w warstwach wizualnych kory mózgowej, które reagują na specyficzne cechy wizualne, takie jak krawędzie czy tekstury. Podobnie w sieciach konwolucyjnych warstwy konwolucyjne automatycznie uczą się wykrywać te cechy bez konieczności ręcznego wyodrębniania cech z danych wejściowych [83].\nPodstawowym elementem CNN jest warstwa konwolucyjna, która przekształca dane wejściowe za pomocą filtrów (jąder) przesuwających się po całym obrazie, generując mapy cech (ang. feature maps). Filtry te automatycznie uczą się wykrywać różne cechy, takie jak krawędzie, tekstury czy wzory w procesie trenowania sieci [84].\nArchitektura typowej sieci konwolucyjnej składa się z kilku warstw konwolucyjnych i poolingowych, zakończonych jedną warstwą lub kilkoma warstwami w pełni połączonymi (ang. fully connected layer). Klasyczny przykład takiej architektury to AlexNet. Typowa struktura CNN może wyglądać następująco [31,58,59,84]:\n1. Warstwa wejściowa\nWarstwa wejściowa jest pierwszą warstwą sieci, która przyjmuje surowe dane wejściowe. Dla obrazów może to być macierz pikseli o wymiarach odpowiadających wysokości, szerokości i liczbie kanałów (np. RGB). Na tym etapie dane są zwykle normalizowane, aby wartości pikseli były w odpowiednim zakresie (np. [0, 1] lub [-1, 1]), co przyspiesza proces uczenia.\n2. Pierwsza warstwa konwolucyjna\nPierwsza warstwa konwolucyjna jest kluczowym elementem CNN. Stosuje ona kilka filtrów (jąder konwolucyjnych) do danych wejściowych w celu wykrywania niskopoziomowych cech, takich jak krawędzie, tekstury, linie czy kąty.\nKażdy filtr przesuwa się po obrazie i oblicza splot, co prowadzi do utworzenia mapy cech. Każda mapa cech jest wynikiem działania jednego filtra. Filtry są zwykle mniejsze niż rozmiar obrazu (np. 3 × 3, 5 × 5), a operacja przesuwania się filtra po obrazie nazywana jest krokowaniem.\n(3.8)\n\ngdzie:\nS(i,j) – wartość w mapie cech w punkcie (i,j);\nI – macierz obrazu;\nK – macierz filtra;\nm, n – indeksy przesunięcia filtra.\n3. Warstwa poolingowa\nWarstwa poolingowa (ang. pooling layer) redukuje wymiary map cech, co zmniejsza liczbę parametrów i obliczeń w sieci oraz pomaga w zapobieganiu przeuczeniu (ang. overfitting). Przeuczenie odnosi się do sytuacji, w której model zbyt dokładnie odwzorowuje dane uczące, co prowadzi do pogorszenia wyników na danych testowych. Jest to szczególnie problematyczne w przypadku małych zbiorów danych i złożonych modeli o dużej liczbie parametrów.\nNajczęściej stosowane techniki poolingowe to max pooling i average pooling.\nMax pooling wybiera maksymalną wartość w każdym podobszarze (np. 2 × 2) mapy cech. To pozwala na zachowanie najistotniejszych cech. Average pooling oblicza średnią wartość w każdym podobszarze, co prowadzi do wygładzenia wartości. Operacja poolingowa nie zawiera parametrów do uczenia i jest stosowana głównie w celu zmniejszenia rozmiaru reprezentacji oraz wprowadzenia pewnej translacyjnej niezmienniczości.\n4. Kolejne warstwy konwolucyjne i poolingowe\nKolejne warstwy konwolucyjne i poolingowe są stosowane do wykrywania coraz bardziej złożonych i abstrakcyjnych cech na wyższych poziomach.\nPodczas gdy pierwsze warstwy mogą wykrywać proste krawędzie i tekstury, kolejne warstwy są w stanie rozpoznawać bardziej złożone struktury, takie jak kształty, wzory, jak również całe obiekty. Zazwyczaj architektura CNN składa się z kilku takich bloków konwolucyjno-poolingowych, które stopniowo redukują rozmiar przestrzenny danych i zwiększają liczbę kanałów cech.\n5. Warstwa w pełni połączona\nWarstwa w pełni połączona (ang. fully connected layer) jest końcową częścią sieci, która łączy wszystkie neurony z poprzedniej warstwy z każdym neuronem w tej warstwie. Warstwy w pełni połączone działają podobnie jak w tradycyjnych sieciach neuronowych i są odpowiedzialne za integrację cech wykrytych przez wcześniejsze warstwy konwolucyjne oraz dokonanie ostatecznej klasyfikacji lub przewidywania. Każdy neuron w warstwie w pełni połączonej oblicza sumę ważoną swoich wejść i przekazuje ją przez funkcję aktywacji. Typową funkcją aktywacji używaną w tych warstwach jest ReLU lub, w przypadku warstwy wyjściowej, softmax dla klasyfikacji wieloklasowej.\n\nJak już wspomniano wcześniej, klasyczny przykład takiej architektury to\nAlexNet (ryc. 3.4). Składa się z kilku warstw konwolucyjnych, przeplatanych warstwami poolingowymi oraz w pełni połączonymi warstwami [84]. Cała sieć została zaprojektowana tak, aby przetwarzać obrazy o rozmiarze 227 × 227 pikseli, z trzema kanałami kolorów (RGB). Pierwsza warstwa konwolucyjna zawiera 96 filtrów o rozmiarze 11 × 11, z krokiem 4 pikseli, co pozwala na wyodrębnienie podstawowych cech obrazu. Po tej warstwie następuje funkcja aktywacji ReLU, która przyspiesza proces uczenia i zmniejsza problem zanikania gradientu. Następnie wprowadzana jest warstwa max pooling, która zmniejsza rozmiar map cech poprzez wybieranie maksymalnej wartości z okna o rozmiarze 3 × 3, przesuwanego o 2 piksele.\nDruga warstwa konwolucyjna składa się z 256 filtrów o rozmiarze 5 × 5 i kroku 1, co pozwala na bardziej złożone wyodrębnienie cech z obrazów.\nPodobnie jak wcześniej, warstwa ta jest połączona z funkcją aktywacji ReLU i warstwą max pooling, która również zmniejsza rozmiar map cech. Trzecia, czwarta i piąta warstwa konwolucyjna mają odpowiednio 384, 384 i 256 filtrów o rozmiarze 3 × 3. Każda z tych warstw również korzysta z funkcji aktywacji\nReLU. Piąta warstwa konwolucyjna kończy się kolejną warstwą max pooling, która ponownie zmniejsza rozmiar cech map.\nPo warstwach konwolucyjnych następują trzy w pełni połączone warstwy. Pierwsza i druga z nich mają po 4096 neuronów, a ostatnia, trzecia warstwa, zawiera 1000 neuronów, odpowiadających liczbie klas w zbiorze danych\nImageNet. Warstwy te również korzystają z funkcji aktywacji ReLU, a na końcu trzeciej warstwy stosowana jest funkcja softmax, która przekształca wartości wyjściowe w prawdopodobieństwa przypisania do poszczególnych klas.\nAby zapobiec przetrenowaniu sieci, w AlexNet zastosowano technikę dropout w dwóch pierwszych w pełni połączonych warstwach, gdzie losowo wyłączane jest 50% neuronów podczas procesu uczenia. Dodatkowo, w celu zwiększenia ogólności modelu, stosowane są techniki augmentacji danych, takie jak losowe wycinanie fragmentów obrazów oraz odbicie lustrzane.\nCNN mają kilka zalet, w tym zdolność do automatycznego wykrywania istotnych cech z surowych danych, co eliminuje potrzebę ręcznego tworzenia cech. Są również skalowalne, co pozwala na przetwarzanie obrazów o różnych rozdzielczościach i skali. Charakteryzują się wysoką wydajnością, osiągając bardzo dobre wyniki w zadaniach związanych z rozpoznawaniem obrazów i wizją komputerową. Jednakże CNN mają także swoje ograniczenia. Trenowanie tych sieci wymaga dużych zasobów obliczeniowych, zwłaszcza w przypadku większych zbiorów danych. Ponadto, aby osiągnąć dobrą generalizację, potrzebują\n\none dużej ilości danych uczących. Sieci o dużej liczbie parametrów mogą być podatne na przeuczenie, co jest szczególnie problematyczne przy niewystarczającej ilości danych uczących [85–87].\nRyc. 3.4. Architektura sieci AlexNet\nCNN są stosowane w różnorodnych dziedzinach ze względu na ich zdolność do przetwarzania i analizy obrazów oraz sygnałów dźwiękowych. W rolnictwie CNN zostały z powodzeniem wykorzystane do identyfikacji i klasyfikacji chorób roślin, jak w przypadku badania dotyczącego chorób roślin bawełny, gdzie osiągnięto dokładność na poziomie 98,53% [88]. W innym badaniu CNN były używane do diagnostyki awarii mechanicznych na podstawie sygnałów dźwiękowych, co pozwoliło na osiągnięcie wysokiej dokładności w rozpoznawaniu usterek [89]. CNN znalazły również zastosowanie w ocenie jakości plonów, gdzie dzięki analizie obrazów roślin możliwe było precyzyjne określenie\n\njakości produktów rolnych [90]. Ponadto CNN były stosowane w produkcji opisów obrazów, łącząc techniki przetwarzania języka naturalnego i wizji komputerowej, co zwiększyło dokładność generowanych opisów w miarę wzrostu rozmiaru zbioru danych [91].\nCNN odgrywają w przemyśle istotną rolę w automatyzacji i poprawie procesów produkcyjnych. Przykładem może być wykorzystanie CNN w połączeniu z wizją maszynową do wykrywania wad w kompresorach mechanicznych, co znacznie poprawiło wydajność i dokładność w rozpoznawaniu defektów [92].\nCNN znalazły również zastosowanie w monitorowaniu jakości w produkcji urządzeń AGD, gdzie umożliwiły wykrywanie nietypowych dźwięków w pralkach z dokładnością sięgającą 99,3%, co znacznie usprawniło kontrolę jakości [93]. Ponadto CNN w połączeniu z głębokimi autoenkoderami były stosowane do przewidywania pozostałego czasu eksploatacji łożysk tocznych, co jest ważne dla efektywnego planowania konserwacji w systemach produkcji mechanicznej [94].\nZastosowanie CNN w przemyśle wykazuje ogromny potencjał, szczególnie w kontekście automatyzacji, poprawy efektywności procesów produkcyjnych oraz zwiększenia jakości i niezawodności produktów. Ich wszechstronność, pozwalająca na precyzyjną analizę obrazów i sygnałów, umożliwia ich zastosowanie w diagnostyce, monitorowaniu jakości, przewidywaniu właściwości materiałów oraz ocenie pozostałego czasu eksploatacji urządzeń. Perspektywy dalszego rozwoju i integracji CNN z innymi nowoczesnymi technologiami, takimi jak IoT i big data, sugerują, że CNN mogą stać się narzędziem w przyszłych innowacjach w przemyśle produkcyjnym, znacząco przyczyniając się do wzrostu konkurencyjności i efektywności w sektorze inżynierii produkcji.\n3.5. Transfer learning\nTransfer learning, jako zaawansowana technika w dziedzinie uczenia maszynowego, odgrywa ważną rolę w poprawie efektywności modeli głębokiego uczenia poprzez wykorzystanie wiedzy z jednego zadania lub usprawnieniu procesu uczenia w innym, powiązanym zadaniu. W tradycyjnym podejściu do uczenia maszynowego każdy model jest uczony od podstaw na nowym zbiorze danych, co wymaga dużej ilości danych i mocy obliczeniowej. Transfer learning zmienia ten paradygmat, ponieważ wykorzystuje wstępnie wytrenowane modele, aby przyspieszyć proces trenowania i poprawić uogólnienie modeli w nowych zadaniach, co skraca czas uczenia i poprawia generalizację modelu\n\nna nowych danych. Technika ta jest szczególnie korzystna w scenariuszach, w których uzyskanych danych jest mało lub ich zdobycie jest kosztowne [95].\nTransfer learning stał się szczególnie popularny w zastosowaniach związanych z przetwarzaniem obrazów, gdzie modele, takie jak ResNet, Inception czy DenseNet, wytrenowane na dużych zbiorach danych, takich jak ImageNet, mogą być łatwo dostosowane do specyficznych zadań, takich jak klasyfikacja obrazów medycznych, rozpoznawanie obiektów w obrazach przemysłowych czy analiza danych satelitarnych.\nPodstawową zasadą działania transfer learningu jest możliwość adaptacji wytrenowanego modelu do nowego zadania poprzez modyfikację jego ostatnich warstw i ponowne trenowanie, co pozwala na uwzględnienie specyfiki nowych danych. W praktyce proces ten polega na wykorzystaniu modelu uprzednio wytrenowanego na dużym zbiorze danych ogólnych (np. ImageNet, który zawiera miliony obrazów z tysięcy różnych kategorii) i dostosowaniu go do specyficznych potrzeb nowego zadania. Przykładowo model ResNet, który osiągnął wysoką dokładność w zadaniach klasyfikacji obrazów, może być użyty jako baza dla klasyfikatora w dziedzinie medycznej, gdzie dostępność danych jest ograniczona [96]. Dzięki temu możliwe staje się znaczne skrócenie czasu trenowania modelu oraz zwiększenie dokładności w porównaniu z modelami trenowanymi od podstaw na niewielkich zbiorach danych.\nW kontekście przemysłowym transfer learning znajduje zastosowanie w wielu obszarach, takich jak optymalizacja przepływów metabolicznych w zmodyfikowanych mikroorganizmach, gdzie pozwala na przewidywanie i optymalizację wyników w oparciu o uprzednio zebrane dane z podobnych systemów biologicznych [97]. Innym przykładem jest wykorzystanie transfer learningu w detekcji wad w obrazach przemysłowych, gdzie wiedza z obszaru analizy obrazów może być przeniesiona do nowych typów obrazów, co zwiększa efektywność systemów kontroli jakości [98]. Transfer learning wykazuje również potencjał w medycynie, gdzie ograniczona ilość danych do trenowania jest często wyzwaniem. Technika ta umożliwia wykorzystanie modeli wytrenowanych na dużych zbiorach danych medycznych do detekcji i klasyfikacji chorób na podstawie obrazów diagnostycznych, co poprawia jakość diagnostyki przy mniejszych zasobach danych [99].\nTaka elastyczność transfer learningu w przetwarzaniu obrazów wynika z głębokiej reprezentacji cech, których modele uczą się w procesie trenowania na ogólnych zbiorach danych. Te cechy, takie jak krawędzie, tekstury czy kształty, są na tyle uniwersalne, że mogą być skutecznie przenoszone do nowych zadań, minimalizując potrzebę gromadzenia dużych ilości danych specyficznych dla nowego zadania. Dzięki temu transfer learning zyskał szeroką\n\npopularność w rozwiązywaniu problemów, gdzie dostęp do dużych, specyficznych zbiorów danych jest ograniczony, ale istnieje potrzeba wysokiej dokładności i efektywności modeli analizy obrazów.\nWykorzystanie transfer learningu w różnych dziedzinach przemysłowych i badawczych podkreśla jego wszechstronność i potencjał do rozwiązywania złożonych problemów, z którymi tradycyjne metody uczenia maszynowego mogą sobie nie poradzić. Dzięki możliwości szybkiej adaptacji do nowych zadań i zwiększenia dokładności modeli transfer learning staje się nieodzownym narzędziem w nowoczesnej analityce danych.\n3.6. Dobór odpowiedniej architektury sieci neuronowej\nDobór odpowiedniej architektury sieci neuronowej jest kluczowym etapem w procesie budowy skutecznych modeli uczenia maszynowego. Wybór architektury musi być uzależniony od charakterystyki danych, rodzaju problemu, a także dostępnych zasobów obliczeniowych, co warunkuje ostateczną efektywność i wydajność modelu (ryc. 3.5).\nRyc. 3.5. Czynniki wpływające na dobór odpowiedniej architektury sieci neuronowej\nDane wejściowe różnią się znacznie pod względem swojej struktury i charakterystyki, co determinuje wybór specyficznych typów sieci neuronowych.\nDla danych tabelarycznych, gdzie każde wejście reprezentowane jest przez\n\nwektor cech, najlepszym wyborem są sieci jednokierunkowe (ang. feedforward neural networks, FFNN), w których informacje przepływają tylko w jednym kierunku – od wejścia do wyjścia. Jednym z najpopularniejszych rodzajów FFNN jest perceptron wielowarstwowy. MLP, jak już wspomniano w poprzednich podrozdziałach, składa się z jednej warstwy wejściowej, jednej warstwy lub kilku warstw ukrytych oraz jednej warstwy wyjściowej, gdzie każda z warstw jest w pełni połączona z kolejną. MLP stosuje się w wielu zastosowaniach, takich jak klasyfikacja i regresja, ponieważ potrafi modelować złożone nieliniowe relacje między danymi wejściowymi a wyjściowymi. Te proste sieci neuronowe, złożone z warstw w pełni połączonych, pozwalają na efektywne przetwarzanie danych strukturalnych.\nAlternatywnie, w przypadku danych tabelarycznych, warto również rozważyć zastosowanie algorytmów, takich jak gradient boosting machines (GBM), które mogą oferować lepszą wydajność niż tradycyjne sieci neuronowe. GBM to technika uczenia zespołowego, która łączy wiele słabych modeli (zazwyczaj drzew decyzyjnych) w jeden silny model. Działa on poprzez iteracyjne dodawanie nowych modeli do zespołu, gdzie każdy nowy model koryguje błędy popełnione przez poprzednie. Jest to bardzo skuteczna metoda dla danych tabelarycznych, szczególnie w przypadku problemów regresji i klasyfikacji.\nW literaturze GBM jest uznawany za jeden z najbardziej wydajnych algorytmów uczenia maszynowego [100].\nDla danych sekwencyjnych, takich jak serie czasowe czy tekst, bardziej odpowiednie są rekurencyjne sieci neuronowe (RNN). W przeciwieństwie do sieci jednokierunkowych RNN mają wewnętrzne stany (pamięć), które pozwalają im na modelowanie zależności czasowych. Klasyczne RNN mają jednak problemy z długotrwałymi zależnościami, co prowadzi do problemu zanikania gradientu. W literaturze RNN są szeroko stosowane w zadaniach przetwarzania języka naturalnego i przewidywania szeregów czasowych [101].\nZaawansowane warianty RNN to LSTM (ang. long short-term memory) i GRU\n(ang. gated recurrent units). LSTM został zaprojektowany w celu rozwiązania problemu zanikania gradientu. Wprowadza specjalne jednostki pamięci, które mogą długotrwale przechowywać informacje, co pozwala na skuteczniejsze modelowanie długotrwałych zależności w danych sekwencyjnych.\nLSTM znalazły szerokie zastosowanie w takich zadaniach, jak tłumaczenie maszynowe, rozpoznawanie mowy i generowanie tekstu. Nowoczesne badania pokazują, że modele LSTM w połączeniu z optymalizatorem Adam są bardziej dokładne w przewidywaniu zużycia energii w inteligentnych sieciach energetycznych, co potwierdzają niższe wartości błędów średniokwadratowych\n\ni średnich błędów absolutnych [35,102]. GRU jest prostszy niż LSTM, ale równie skuteczny, wprowadza mechanizmy bramek, które regulują przepływ informacji wewnątrz jednostki rekurencyjnej, co umożliwia efektywne uczenie się zależności czasowych. GRU są często wybierane ze względu na ich prostszą strukturę i porównywalną wydajność do LSTM [103]. Badania pokazują, że\nGRU osiąga najlepsze wyniki w prognozowaniu poziomów glukozy we krwi w porównaniu z modelami RNN i LSTM [104].\nW przypadku danych obrazowych najbardziej efektywnymi modelami są konwolucyjne sieci neuronowe. Architektury CNN, które szczegółowo opisano w podrozdziale 3.4, dzięki zastosowaniu warstw konwolucyjnych, są zdolne do wydobywania złożonych cech z obrazów, co jest istotne w zadaniach, takich jak klasyfikacja obrazów, detekcja obiektów czy segmentacja. Dodatkowo do generowania nowych obrazów i poprawy jakości istniejących wykorzystuje się generative adversarial networks (GAN). To rodzaj sieci neuronowych stosowanych do generowania nowych danych, takich jak obrazy, które są podobne do danych uczących. GAN składają się z dwóch sieci: generatora, który tworzy nowe dane, oraz dyskryminatora, który ocenia, czy dane są prawdziwe czy wygenerowane. Uczenie GAN polega na rywalizacji tych dwóch sieci, co prowadzi do generowania coraz bardziej realistycznych danych. GAN znalazły zastosowanie w zadaniach, takich jak tworzenie obrazów i poprawa jakości obrazów [105].\nRodzaj problemu, który model ma rozwiązać, ma również wpływ na wybór architektury sieci neuronowej. W problemach klasyfikacyjnych warstwa wyjściowa modelu często zawiera funkcję aktywacji softmax, która przekształca wyjścia sieci w prawdopodobieństwa klas. Dla prostych problemów klasyfikacyjnych można stosować FFNN, podczas gdy dla bardziej złożonych problemów z obrazami lub tekstem lepszym wyborem będą odpowiednio CNN lub RNN.\nW obszarze inżynierii mechanicznej sieci neuronowe są szeroko stosowane do różnych zadań klasyfikacyjnych. Przykładowo CNN były wykorzystywane do klasyfikacji sygnatur wibracji w maszynach wirujących, co pozwala na proaktywne monitorowanie stanu i diagnostykę awarii, a tym samym zwiększa precyzję oceny stanu technicznego [106]. Ponadto CNN zostały zastosowane do wykrywania elips w obrazach przemysłowych, co umożliwia precyzyjne pomiary części mechanicznych przypominających elipsy w produkcji przemysłowej [107].\nW problemach regresyjnych, w których celem jest przewidywanie ciągłych wartości numerycznych, warstwa wyjściowa modelu zazwyczaj nie posiada funkcji aktywacji lub używa funkcji liniowej. W takich przypadkach proste\n\nFFNN mogą być wystarczające, podczas gdy CNN lub RNN mogą być używane do bardziej skomplikowanych danych obrazowych lub sekwencyjnych. Na przykład sieci neuronowe były ważnym elementem w rozwijaniu modeli opartych na danych do przewidywania wydajności odwiertów na polu naftowym, co pozwoliło na dokładniejsze prognozowanie wydajności płynów w trudnych warunkach morskich [108]. Dodatkowo sieci neuronowe zostały zastosowane do prognozowania zużycia nanokompozytów stopów ZA-27 z dodatkiem nanocząstek Al O , co pokazało ich wyższość w przewidywaniu zużycia w porów-\n2 3 naniu z tradycyjnymi metodami [109].\nSkalowalność i złożoność modelu są kolejnymi istotnymi czynnikami w wyborze architektury. Dla małych zbiorów danych należy unikać zbyt złożonych modeli, aby zapobiec przeuczeniu. W takich przypadkach proste FFNN mogą być odpowiednie, a techniki regularyzacji i augmentacji danych mogą dodatkowo poprawić wydajność modelu. Wynika to z faktu, że prostsze modele są mniej podatne na nadmierne dopasowanie i mogą lepiej uogólniać przy mniejszej liczbie próbek na klasę [110]. Natomiast dla dużych zbiorów danych głębokie sieci neuronowe, które mogą uchwycić bardziej złożone wzorce, stają się korzystniejsze. Modele CNN o wysokiej złożoności, takie jak ResNet, LeNet i AlexNet, wykazały rewolucyjny sukces w przetwarzaniu dużych zbiorów danych obrazowych, ale mogą nie działać optymalnie na mniejszych zbiorach danych ze względu na problemy z nadmiernym dopasowaniem i niestabilnością [111]. W niektórych przypadkach warto zastosować architektury hybrydowe, takie jak połączenie CNN i RNN dla danych obrazowo-sekwencyjnych. Na przykład badania wykazały, że integracja architektur RNN i CNN w wykrywaniu ataków typu Denial of Service (DoS) w architekturze mikrousług pozwala osiągnąć wysokie wskaźniki wykrywalności, wynoszące odpowiednio 98,4% i 97,0% [112].\nDostępne zasoby obliczeniowe stanowią istotny czynnik w procesie wyboru odpowiedniej architektury modelu. W przypadku ograniczonych zasobów bardziej odpowiednie mogą okazać się lżejsze modele, takie jak mniejsze sieci CNN lub uproszczone wersje RNN, które oferują efektywność przy niższym zapotrzebowaniu na moc obliczeniową. Z kolei optymalizacja kodu oraz wykorzystanie akceleratorów sprzętowych, takich jak GPU\n(graphics processing unit, jednostka przetwarzania grafiki) czy TPU (tensor processing unit, jednostka przetwarzania tensora), może znacząco zwiększyć szybkość trenowania modeli, szczególnie w kontekście przetwarzania dużych zbiorów danych oraz bardziej złożonych architektur. W sytuacji, gdy dostępne zasoby obliczeniowe są znaczne, można zastosować bardziej\n\nskomplikowane architektury, które charakteryzują się wyższą skutecznością w realizacji złożonych zadań. Niezwykle istotne jest również rozważenie strategii zarządzania pamięcią oraz efektywnego przetwarzania danych.\nStandardowe podejścia zakładają, że cały zbiór danych uczących zostaje załadowany do pamięci operacyjnej (RAM) przed rozpoczęciem procesu trenowania. Tego rodzaju strategia jest prosta w implementacji i umożliwia szybkie przetwarzanie danych oraz optymalne dostosowanie modelu. Jednakże w warunkach ograniczonej pamięci załadowanie pełnego zbioru danych może skutkować znacznym obciążeniem systemu, a nawet prowadzić do problemów z wydajnością. W takich przypadkach ważną rolę odgrywają techniki optymalizacji pamięci oraz zarządzania danymi. Akceleratory sprzętowe, takie jak GPU i TPU, pozwalają na równoległe przetwarzanie wielu operacji matematycznych, co jest szczególnie istotne przy trenowaniu złożonych modeli na dużych zbiorach danych. Dzięki odpowiednim technikom optymalizacji i zarządzania pamięcią możliwe jest efektywne trenowanie nawet zaawansowanych architektur, mimo ograniczeń związanych z dostępnymi zasobami obliczeniowymi.\nW procesie doboru odpowiedniej architektury sieci neuronowej jedną z metod stosowanych do analizy wpływu poszczególnych komponentów na wydajność modelu jest technika ablacyjna. Polega ona na systematycznym usuwaniu lub modyfikowaniu wybranych elementów sieci, takich jak warstwy, neurony czy połączenia, a następnie ocenie, jak te zmiany wpływają na jakość wyników modelu. Dzięki temu możliwe jest zidentyfikowanie komponentów kluczowych dla skuteczności modelu oraz tych, które mogą być mniej istotne lub zbędne. Technika ablacyjna wspomaga proces optymalizacji złożonych sieci, umożliwiając projektantom identyfikację i ewentualne usunięcie niepotrzebnych elementów, co może prowadzić do uproszczenia architektury oraz poprawy efektywności obliczeniowej. Jest to metoda, która dostarcza cennych informacji na temat wpływu różnych części modelu na jego zdolność do generalizacji, co może być szczególnie przydatne przy pracy z różnorodnymi danymi i zadaniami [113].\nWybór odpowiedniej architektury sieci neuronowej zależy od specyfiki danych, rodzaju problemu oraz dostępnych zasobów. Istotnym elementem jest dobranie modelu, który najlepiej pasuje do charakterystyki zadania, co często wymaga eksperymentowania z różnymi architekturami i ich konfiguracjami.\n\n3.7. Kluczowe aspekty podczas uczenia sieci neuronowych\nPodczas uczenia sieci neuronowych ważne jest, aby zwrócić uwagę na kilka kluczowych aspektów, które mogą wpływać na skuteczność i wydajność modelu\n(ryc. 3.6).\nRyc. 3.6. Kluczowe aspekty podczas uczenia sieci neuronowych\nTe aspekty mogą się różnić w zależności od tego, czy pracujemy z danymi regresyjnymi czy klasyfikacyjnymi. Te drugie dotyczą problemów, w których celem jest przypisanie danych wejściowych do jednej z kilku dyskretnych kategorii lub klas. Dane regresyjne odnoszą się do problemów, w których celem jest przewidywanie ciągłych wartości liczbowych.\nPrzygotowanie danych wejściowych jest również ważnym etapem w procesie uczenia sieci neuronowych. Dane wejściowe powinny być odpowiednio przetworzone i znormalizowane, aby uniknąć problemów z gradientami oraz przyspieszyć proces uczenia. Normalizacja danych polega na skalowaniu wartości do określonego zakresu, co pozwala na bardziej efektywne przetwarzanie danych przez sieć neuronową. Typowe metody normalizacji obejmują skalowanie do zakresu [0, 1] lub [-1, 1]. W przypadku danych obrazowych skalowanie pikseli do zakresu [0, 1] jest standardową praktyką, która stabilizuje proces uczenia się i pomaga uniknąć problemów z gradientami, takich jak ich zanikanie lub eksplozja [114].\n\nKolejnym ważnym aspektem jest inicjalizacja wag, która jest istotna dla efektywnego uczenia sieci neuronowej. Proces ten rozpoczyna się od losowej inicjalizacji wag, co jest konieczne do przerwania symetrii między neuronami i umożliwia efektywne uczenie. Odpowiednia inicjalizacja wag jest niezwykle istotna, ponieważ zbyt małe lub zbyt duże wartości mogą prowadzić do problemów z gradientami, takich jak zanikający lub eksplodujący gradient. Wagi w sieci neuronowej pełnią rolę parametrów, które decydują o tym, jak silnie poszczególne wejścia wpływają na wyjście neuronu. Proces uczenia polega na optymalizacji tych wag, aby sieć neuronowa mogła jak najdokładniej przewidywać wyniki dla nowych danych. Początkowo wagi są zazwyczaj inicjalizowane losowo lub przy użyciu bardziej zaawansowanych metod, takich jak inicjalizacja He [115] czy Xavier[116], które pomagają w szybszym i bardziej stabilnym uczeniu sieci. Następnie wagi są modyfikowane podczas procesu trenowania, który obejmuje wiele iteracji propagacji w przód i wstecz [117].\nWybór funkcji aktywacji ma istotne znaczenie dla skuteczności sieci neuronowej, a jej rola może się różnić w zależności od tego, czy model jest stosowany do klasyfikacji czy do regresji. W modelach klasyfikacyjnych funkcje aktywacji mają na celu przekształcenie wyjść neuronów do postaci prawdopodobieństw klas. Najczęściej stosowane funkcje aktywacji w kontekście klasyfikacji to sigmoidalna, tanh oraz softmax. W modelach regresyjnych mają one na celu generowanie ciągłych wartości numerycznych. W przypadku regresji najczęściej stosowanymi funkcjami aktywacji są ReLU oraz funkcja liniowa.\nFunkcja liniowa, określona wzorem φ(z) = z, jest jedną z najprostszych funkcji aktywacji. Wartość wyjściowa równa się wartości wejściowej, co oznacza, że nie wprowadza nieliniowości do modelu. Często używa się jej w warstwach wyjściowych modeli regresji, gdzie model musi przewidzieć rzeczywiste wartości. Chociaż nie jest odpowiednia dla warstw ukrytych w głębokich sieciach neuronowych, ponieważ nie wprowadza nieliniowości, jest przydatna w określonych przypadkach, takich jak zadania regresyjne, gdzie liniowe zależności między wejściami a wyjściami są pożądane.\nFunkcja kosztu, znana również jako funkcja strat (ang. loss function), jest podstawowym elementem w procesie uczenia maszynowego, który mierzy, jak dobrze model przewiduje pożądane wyniki. Stanowi miarę różnicy między wartościami przewidywanymi przez model a rzeczywistymi etykietami (danymi wyjściowymi). Głównym celem funkcji kosztu jest dostarczenie modelowi informacji zwrotnej, którą wykorzystuje się do dostosowywania wag sieci neuronowej w celu minimalizacji tej różnicy. Proces ten, nazywany optymalizacją,\n\npozwala na stopniowe poprawianie dokładności modelu poprzez iteracyjne zmniejszanie wartości funkcji kosztu. Powinna być dobrana odpowiednio do rodzaju problemu. Dla problemów regresyjnych typową funkcją kosztu jest błąd średniokwadratowy (MSE), podczas gdy dla problemów klasyfikacyjnych używa się zazwyczaj funkcji entropii krzyżowej [118].\nOptymalizacja jest ważna w procesie uczenia sieci neuronowych, w którym algorytmy, takie jak gradient descent, Adam, AdaGrad, RMSProp, Levenberga–\nMarquardta, regularyzacja Bayesowska oraz gradient skalowany sprzężony są używane do aktualizacji wag na podstawie obliczonych gradientów, w celu minimalizacji funkcji kosztu. Wybór odpowiedniego algorytmu zależy od specyfiki problemu oraz dostępnych zasobów obliczeniowych. Proces ten jest iteracyjny i polega na zastosowaniu algorytmów optymalizacyjnych, które obliczają gradienty funkcji kosztu względem wag sieci, a następnie modyfikują te wagi w taki sposób, aby zmniejszyć wartość funkcji kosztu. Główne algorytmy optymalizacyjne różnią się tym, jak adaptują się do zmian gradientów, co bezpośrednio wpływa na szybkość i stabilność procesu uczenia [119].\nWybór odpowiedniej techniki regularyzacji jest również istotny dla uzyskania modelu o dobrej zdolności generalizacji. W praktyce często stosuje się kombinację różnych metod regularyzacji. Celem regularyzacji jest poprawa zdolności modelu do generalizacji, czyli jego umiejętności przewidywania na nowych, niewidzianych wcześniej danych. Regularyzacja pomaga zapobiegać przeuczeniu, które ma miejsce, gdy model uczy się zbyt szczegółowo wzorców ze zbioru uczącego, co prowadzi do słabej wydajności na danych testowych. Na przykład można zastosować L2 regularyzację, aby utrzymać małe wagi, oraz dropout, aby zapewnić, że model nie stanie się zbyt zależny od określonych neuronów. Gong (2009) wskazuje na istotność technik regularyzacji w poprawie wydajności modeli sieci neuronowych. Zastosowanie takich technik pomaga w tworzeniu modeli, które są bardziej odporne na szum i lepiej radzą sobie z nowymi danymi, co jest ważne w praktycznych zastosowaniach uczenia maszynowego [120].\nDobór odpowiedniej architektury sieci neuronowej, przygotowanie danych, inicjalizacja wag, wybór funkcji aktywacji, optymalizacja oraz regularyzacja to kluczowe aspekty, które łącznie wpływają na efektywność i wydajność modeli sieci neuronowych, a ich odpowiednie zastosowanie pozwala na osiągnięcie lepszych wyników w różnorodnych zadaniach.\n\n3.7.1. Metody optymalizacyjne w sieciach neuronowych\nW procesie uczenia sztucznych sieci neuronowych istotną rolę odgrywają metody optymalizacyjne, które odpowiadają za efektywną aktualizację wag modelu w celu minimalizacji funkcji kosztu. Dobór odpowiedniego algorytmu optymalizacyjnego ma znaczący wpływ na szybkość uczenia, stabilność procesu oraz ostateczną jakość wytrenowanego modelu. W literaturze można spotkać różne metody optymalizacyjne. Wśród najczęściej stosowanych w sieciach neuronowych znajdują się: gradient descent (GD), adaptive moment estimation\n(Adam), adaptive gradient algorithm (AdaGrad), root mean square propagation\n(RMSProp), Levenberga–Marquardta (LM), regularyzacja Bayesowska (BR) oraz gradient skalowany sprzężony (SCG). Każdy z tych algorytmów charakteryzuje się odmiennym podejściem do adaptacji wag, co czyni je bardziej lub mniej odpowiednimi do określonych typów problemów i danych.\nGradient descent (GD) jest jedną z najbardziej fundamentalnych metod optymalizacyjnych stosowanych w uczeniu maszynowym, w tym w trenowaniu sztucznych sieci neuronowych. Jego głównym celem jest minimalizacja funkcji kosztu, która mierzy, jak dobrze model dopasowuje się do danych uczących. W procesie optymalizacji GD iteracyjnie aktualizuje wagi modelu, przesuwając je w kierunku przeciwnym do gradientu funkcji kosztu względem tych wag. W standardowej wersji gradient descent gradienty są obliczane na podstawie całego zbioru danych uczących. Oznacza to, że przed każdą aktualizacją wag modelu algorytm przetwarza wszystkie próbki w zbiorze uczącym, co zapewnia dokładne obliczenie gradientu, ale może być bardzo kosztowne obliczeniowo, zwłaszcza przy dużych zbiorach danych. W takich przypadkach każda iteracja może być czasochłonna, co spowalnia proces uczenia [121].\nAdam jest zaawansowanym algorytmem optymalizacyjnym, który łączy zalety dwóch innych metod: AdaGrad i RMSProp. Adam śledzi średnie pierwszego momentu (średnia gradientów) oraz drugiego momentu (kwadrat gradientów) w celu dynamicznego dostosowywania współczynnika uczenia się dla każdej wagi [122]. Automatycznie dostosowuje współczynniki uczenia się na podstawie historycznych gradientów, co pozwala na szybsze i bardziej stabilne zbieżności, oraz wykorzystuje technikę momentum, która pomaga w łagodzeniu oscylacji gradientów, co prowadzi do bardziej stabilnych i szybszych aktualizacji wag.\nAdaGrad jest metodą optymalizacyjną, która dostosowuje współczynniki uczenia się dla każdej wagi na podstawie sumy kwadratów gradientów, jakie waga napotkała w czasie uczenia modelu [123]. Zmniejsza współczynniki uczenia\n\nsię dla często aktualizowanych wag i zwiększa je dla rzadziej aktualizowanych, co jest korzystne dla rzadkich danych. AdaGrad jest szczególnie efektywny dla rzadkich i gęstych danych, ale jego główną wadą jest to, że współczynniki uczenia się mogą stać się bardzo małe, co prowadzi do powolnej zbieżności.\nRMSProp, podobnie jak AdaGrad, dostosowuje współczynniki uczenia się dla każdej wagi, ale robi to w sposób, który zapobiega problemowi zbyt małych współczynników uczenia się. Wykorzystuje eksponencjalnie ważoną średnią kwadratów gradientów, co pozwala na stabilniejsze i szybsze uczenie się w porównaniu z AdaGrad. RMSProp utrzymuje współczynniki uczenia się na bardziej stałym poziomie, co zapobiega problemowi powolnej zbieżności [124].\nLevenberg–Marquardt (LM) to często najszybsza metoda optymalizacyjna dla małych i średnich problemów. Algorytm ten okazuje się szczególnie efektywny w przypadkach, gdy sieć neuronowa jest stosunkowo niewielka i nie wymaga ekstremalnie dużych zasobów pamięciowych [125]. Algorytm LM jest iteracyjną metodą optymalizacji, łączącą cechy metody gradientu prostego i metody Newtona. Często stosuje się go w trenowaniu sieci neuronowych ze względu na swoje szybkie tempo zbieżności. Algorytm LM aktualizuje parametry sieci neuronowej według wzoru:\n(3.9) gdzie:\n– wektor wag w iteracji k;\n– macierz Jacobiego funkcji błędu w iteracji k;\n– parametr regularyzacji;\n– macierz jednostkowa;\n– wektor błędów w iteracji k.\nMacierz Jacobiego J zawiera pierwsze pochodne funkcji błędu względem wag, co pozwala na przybliżenie drugich pochodnych, jak w metodzie Newtona, ale z dodatkowym parametrem regularyzacji, który kontroluje kroki aktualizacji. Algorytm ten jest znany ze swojej efektywności w zastosowaniach, takich jak inwersja kinematyczna dla robotów [126].\nRegularyzacja Bayesowska (BR) wprowadza regularyzację poprzez zastosowanie metod bayesowskich, mając na celu uniknięcie przeuczenia poprzez dodanie do funkcji celu członu regularyzacyjnego penalizującego duże wartości wag. Funkcja kosztu w regularyzacji Bayesowskiej składa się z dwóch członów:\n\n(3.10) gdzie:\n– funkcja błędu (np. suma kwadratów błędów);\n– człon regularyzacyjny (np. suma kwadratów wag);\n– współczynnik regularyzacji, który kontroluje wpływ regularyzacji na funkcję kosztu.\nCelem jest maksymalizacja a posteriori (MAP) rozkładu prawdopodobieństwa wag. MAP rozkładu prawdopodobieństwa wag to metoda wnioskowania statystycznego, która łączy informacje z danych (obserwacji) z wcześniejszą wiedzą o rozkładzie prawdopodobieństwa wag (ang. prior). Formuła Bayesa jest podstawą do obliczenia rozkładu a posteriori:\n(3.11) gdzie:\n– rozkład a posteriori, czyli rozkład prawdopodobieństwa wag w po uwzględnieniu danych D;\n– rozkład prawdopodobieństwa danych D przy zadanych wagach w;\n– a priori rozkład prawdopodobieństwa wag, czyli wcześniejsza wiedza o wagach przed uwzględnieniem danych;\n– rozkład prawdopodobieństwa danych, który jest normalizatorem\n(niezależnym od wag).\nCelem MAP jest znalezienie wartości wag w, które maksymalizują rozkład a posteriori . W praktyce oznacza to znalezienie takich wag, które są najbardziej prawdopodobne przy uwzględnieniu zarówno danych, jak i wcześniejszej wiedzy o wagach. Proces ten polega na maksymalizacji wyrażenia:\n(3.12) gdzie: oznaczenia jak powyżej.\nPonieważ jest stałą niezależną od wag, można ją pominąć w maksymalizacji. Dlatego proces MAP sprowadza się do maksymalizacji iloczynu\n. MAP uwzględnia oba te elementy: zarówno dopasowanie modelu do danych, jak i wcześniejszą wiedzę o tym, jak wagi powinny się rozkładać. Maksymalizując , MAP znajduje taki zestaw wag, który jest najbardziej prawdopodobny, jeśli uwzględni się oba te źródła informacji.\n\nRegularyzacja Bayesowska prowadzi do lepszej ogólnej wydajności oraz mniejszej podatności na przeuczenie w miarę wzrostu rozmiaru sieci, co wykazano w badaniach symulacyjnych [127].\nAlgorytm gradientu skalowanego sprzężonego (SCG) jest wariantem metody gradientu sprzężonego, zoptymalizowanym do zastosowań w sieciach neuronowych. SCG poprawia wydajność i stabilność poprzez wprowadzenie skalowania w kierunku poszukiwania. Algorytm SCG iteracyjnie aktualizuje wagi według wzoru:\n(3.13) gdzie:\n– optymalny krok w kierunku ;\n– kierunek poszukiwania w iteracji k.\nKierunek poszukiwania jest aktualizowany na podstawie gradientu funkcji celu oraz poprzednich kierunków poszukiwania:\n(3.14) gdzie:\n– gradient funkcji celu w iteracji k+1;\n– współczynnik określający, jak wiele z poprzedniego kierunku jest zachowane.\nAlgorytm SCG znany jest ze swojej skuteczności w zastosowaniach takich jak przetwarzanie sygnałów sonarowych [128].\nWybór odpowiedniej metody optymalizacyjnej jest niezbędny do skutecznego trenowania sztucznych sieci neuronowych, a każda z przedstawionych metod ma swoje unikalne zalety i ograniczenia. GD jest podstawową techniką, która mimo swojej prostoty, może być nieefektywna przy dużych zbiorach danych. Adam, łącząc cechy AdaGrad i RMSProp, oferuje dynamiczne dostosowywanie współczynników uczenia, co umożliwia szybszą i bardziej stabilną zbieżność. AdaGrad i RMSProp dostosowują współczynniki uczenia dla każdej wagi, ale różnią się podejściem do utrzymywania stabilności procesu uczenia.\nLM jest niezwykle efektywny dla małych i średnich sieci, szczególnie gdy priorytetem ma być szybkie zbieganie do minimum funkcji kosztu. BR wprowadza regularyzację, aby zapobiegać przeuczeniu, natomiast SCG optymalizuje proces uczenia przez wprowadzenie skalowania w kierunku poszukiwania. Każdy z tych algorytmów można dostosować do specyficznych warunków i potrzeb\n\ndanego projektu, co podkreśla ich wszechstronność w kontekście różnorodnych zastosowań sieci neuronowych.\n3.7.2. Techniki regularyzacji w sieciach neuronowych\nRegularyzacja jest ważnym elementem w procesie trenowania modeli uczenia maszynowego, który ma na celu poprawę zdolności modelu do generalizacji na nowych, nieznanych danych. W przypadku sieci neuronowych i innych modeli predykcyjnych regularyzacja pomaga zapobiegać przeuczeniu, które może prowadzić do nadmiernego dopasowania modelu do danych uczących, a w konsekwencji do niskiej wydajności na zbiorach testowych.\nWśród technik regularyzacji można wyróżnić m.in. następujące:\n1. Regularyzacja L2\n(3.15) gdzie:\n– oryginalna funkcja kosztu;\n– wagi modelu;\n– współczynnik regularyzacji.\nRegularyzacja L2, znana również jako Ridge Regression, wprowadza dodatkowy człon do funkcji kosztu, proporcjonalny do sumy kwadratów wag modelu. Dodanie tego członu powoduje, że model jest karany za dużą wartość wag, co prowadzi do zmniejszenia ich wartości. Regularyzacja L2 sprawdza się szczególnie w przypadku problemów z wieloma cechami, ponieważ pomaga w utrzymaniu małych wag i zmniejsza ryzyko przeuczenia modelu. W efekcie model staje się bardziej odporny na szum w danych [129].\n2. Regularyzacja L1\n(3.16)\nRegularyzacja L1, znana również jako Lasso Regression, dodaje do funkcji kosztu karę proporcjonalną do sumy wartości bezwzględnych wag modelu. W przeciwieństwie do regularyzacji L2, regularyzacja L1 ma tendencję do prowadzenia do rzadkości modelu, co oznacza, że niektóre wagi mogą stać się dokładnie zerowe. To sprawia, że L1 staje się szczególnie użyteczna, gdy celem jest selekcja cech [130].\n\n3. Dropout\nDropout jest techniką regularyzacji specyficzną dla sieci neuronowych.\nPolega na losowym „wyłączaniu” (czyli ustawianiu na zero) pewnego procentu neuronów w warstwie podczas uczenia. Przykładowo, dla danej warstwy neuronowej co epokę losowy podzbiór neuronów jest „wyłączany” i nie bierze udziału w przetwarzaniu danych. W czasie testowania wszystkie neurony są aktywne, ale ich wagi przeskalowane w celu kompensacji dropoutu podczas uczenia. Dropout zmusza sieć do bardziej niezależnej pracy neuronów i zapobiega przeuczeniu poprzez redukcję nadmiernego dopasowania się do danych uczących [131].\n4. Wczesnego zatrzymania\nTechnika wczesnego zatrzymania (ang. early stopping) polega na monitorowaniu wydajności modelu na zbiorze walidacyjnym podczas uczenia i przerwaniu uczenia, gdy wydajność na zbiorze walidacyjnym przestaje się poprawiać.\nTypowy algorytm wczesnego zatrzymania obejmuje:\nÒ rozdzielenie danych na zbiór uczący i walidacyjny;\nÒ uczenie modelu na zbiorze uczących oraz monitorowanie wydajności na zbiorze walidacyjnym;\nÒ zatrzymanie uczenia modelu, gdy wydajność na zbiorze walidacyjnym przestaje się poprawiać przez określoną liczbę epok (np. 6).\nTechnika wczesnego zatrzymania jest prostą i efektywną metodą, która zapobiega nadmiernemu dostosowywaniu modelu do danych uczących, zapewniając lepszą generalizację na nowych danych [132,133].\nKażda z powyżej omówionych technik wprowadza dodatkowe mechanizmy do procesu trenowania modelu, które pomagają w kontrolowaniu złożoności modelu oraz w poprawie jego zdolności do przewidywania na podstawie nowych danych. Ich zastosowanie w praktyce pozwala na budowanie bardziej niezawodnych modeli, które potrafią skutecznie przewidywać wyniki na podstawie nowych, nieznanych danych, co jest kluczowe dla sukcesu w zastosowaniach sieci neuronowych.\n3.8. Wskaźniki oceny jakości sieci neuronowych\nWskaźniki oceny jakości sieci neuronowych odgrywają istotną rolę w analizie i interpretacji wyników uzyskiwanych przez modele uczenia maszynowego.\nIch wybór oraz interpretacja zależą od rodzaju problemu, który jest poddawany\n\nanalizie – czy dotyczy problemu klasyfikacyjnego, czy regresyjnego. Każdy typ problemu wymaga różnych miar jakości, które pomagają w ocenie skuteczności modelu.\nDla problemów regresyjnych, w których przewidywane są wartości ciągłe, stosuje się inne wskaźniki oceny niż dla problemów klasyfikacyjnych. Jednym z podstawowych wskaźników dla problemów regresyjnych jest błąd średniokwadratowy (ang. mean squared error, MSE), który mierzy średnią wartość kwadratów różnic między wartościami przewidywanymi a rzeczywistymi. Kolejnym wskaźnikiem jest pierwiastek z błędu średniokwadratowego (ang. root mean squared error, RMSE), będący pierwiastkiem kwadratowym z MSE, który zapewnia intuicyjną interpretację błędu w tych samych jednostkach, co dane wyjściowe.\nŚredni błąd bezwzględny (ang. mean absolute error, MAE) oblicza średnią wartość bezwzględnych różnic między wartościami przewidywanymi a rzeczywistymi, co jest mniej wrażliwe na ekstremalne błędy. Wskaźnik R (współczynnik korelacji) mierzy, jaka część zmienności w danych jest wyjaśniona przez model, co pozwala na ocenę ogólnego dopasowania modelu do danych.\nDodatkowo istnieją bardziej specyficzne wskaźniki, takie jak względny błąd informacji (ang. relative information error, RIE) oraz średni bezwzględny błąd procentowy (ang. mean absolute percentage error, MAPE). RIE jest miarą względną, która ocenia jakość modelu względem prostego modelu bazowego, podczas gdy MAPE mierzy średni błąd jako procent wartości rzeczywistej, co jest szczególnie przydatne w kontekście danych, gdzie wartości mają różne skale.\nProblemy klasyfikacyjne dotyczą przypisania próbek do jednej z wielu klas. W takich przypadkach istotne jest określenie, jak dokładnie model przewiduje klasy dla nowych danych. Dokładność jest jednym z podstawowych wskaźników oceny, definiowanym jako procent poprawnych klasyfikacji spośród wszystkich prób. Jest on szczególnie użyteczny, gdy klasy są zbalansowane i nie ma jednej klasy dominującej. Macierz pomyłek to tabela, która przedstawia liczbę prawdziwie pozytywnych, fałszywie pozytywnych, prawdziwie negatywnych i fałszywie negatywnych klasyfikacji, co pomaga zrozumieć, które klasy są najczęściej mylone. Precyzja jest stosunkiem liczby prawdziwie pozytywnych klasyfikacji do liczby wszystkich pozytywnych klasyfikacji (prawdziwych i fałszywych), co jest szczególnie ważne w przypadku, gdy koszt fałszywych pozytywów jest wysoki. Czułość to stosunek liczby prawdziwie pozytywnych klasyfikacji do liczby wszystkich rzeczywistych pozytywnych przypadków, co jest istotne, gdy ważne jest wykrycie wszystkich pozytywnych przypadków.\nF1-score to harmoniczna średnia precyzji i czułości, która stanowi zbalansowaną miarę uwzględniającą zarówno fałszywe pozytywy, jak i fałszywe negatywy.\n\nWybór odpowiedniego wskaźnika oceny jakości jest istotny dla prawidłowej interpretacji wyników modelu i zależy od specyfiki analizowanego problemu. W dalszej części tego rozdziału opisano szczegółowo wymienione powyżej wskaźniki jakości oceny sieci neuronowych.\n3.8.1. Wskaźniki oceny jakości sieci neuronowych dla problemów regresyjnych\nW kontekście problemów regresyjnych ocena jakości modeli sieci neuronowych jest istotna, aby zapewnić ich skuteczność i dokładność. Istnieje kilka wskaźników jakości, które są powszechnie stosowane do oceny wyników predykcji modeli regresyjnych. W analizowanych w tej monografii badaniach szczegółowo omówione zostaną takie wskaźniki, jak: współczynnik korelacji\n(R), błąd średniokwadratowy (MSE), pierwiastek z błędu średniokwadratowego (RMSE), względny błąd informacji (RIE), średni bezwzględny błąd procentowy (MAPE) oraz średni błąd bezwzględny (MAE).\nWspółczynnik korelacji (R) mierzy siłę i kierunek liniowej zależności między dwiema zmiennymi. Jest obliczany jako:\nε (3.17) gdzie:\n– rzeczywiste wartości;\n– wartości przewidywane przez model;\n– kowariancja rzeczywistych i przewidywanych wartości;\n– odchylenie standardowe rzeczywistych wartości;\n– odchylenie standardowe wartości przewidywanych.\nWartość R w zakresie od 0 do 1 wskazuje na liniową zależność między zmiennymi. Wartość bliska 1 oznacza silną dodatnią korelację, a wartość bliska\n0 wskazuje na brak liniowej korelacji. W kontekście procesów produkcyjnych wysoki współczynnik korelacji między rzeczywistymi a przewidywanymi wartościami może wskazywać na skuteczność modelu w prognozowaniu wydajności produkcji lub jakości produktów.\nBłąd średniokwadratowy (MSE) mierzy średnią kwadratów różnic między rzeczywistymi a przewidywanymi wartościami [134]. Niższe wartości MSE wskazują na lepsze dopasowanie modelu do danych. MSE jest czuły na duże błędy, ponieważ różnice są podnoszone do kwadratu. Formuła, według której jest on obliczany, to:\n\n(3.18) gdzie: oznaczenia jak powyżej.\nPierwiastek z błędu średniokwadratowego (RMSE) to pierwiastek z MSE.\nRMSE bardziej penalizuje większe błędy w porównaniu z mniejszymi, co oznacza, że duże odchylenia od rzeczywistych wartości mają znacząco większy wpływ na końcowy wynik tego wskaźnika. Innymi słowy, im większy błąd predykcji, tym bardziej jest on akcentowany w wartości RMSE, co czyni ten wskaźnik szczególnie wrażliwym na duże błędy w predykcjach. Wylicza się go za pomocą następującej formuły [134–136]:\n(3.19) gdzie: oznaczenia jak powyżej.\nWzględny błąd informacji (RIE) mierzy względny błąd predykcji, uwzględniając różnice między rzeczywistymi a przewidywanymi wartościami w kontekście całkowitej informacji w danych. Jest szczególnie użyteczny w przypadkach, gdy ważne jest zrozumienie błędów względnych, a nie bezwzględnych.\nJest wyrażany matematycznie jako [137]:\n(3.20) gdzie: oznaczenia jak powyżej.\nŚredni bezwzględny błąd procentowy (MAPE) mierzy średni bezwzględny procentowy błąd między rzeczywistymi a przewidywanymi wartościami [134,\n138]. MAPE wyraża błąd w procentach, co czyni go łatwym do interpretacji.\nDefiniuje się go następująco [136]:\n(3.21) gdzie: oznaczenia jak powyżej.\n\nŚredni błąd bezwzględny (MAE) mierzy średnią bezwzględną różnicę między rzeczywistymi a przewidywanymi wartościami [134]. MAE jest prostą i intuicyjną miarą błędu. Ponieważ nie uwzględnia kwadratów różnic, nie jest tak czuły na duże błędy, jak MSE czy RMSE. Często stosuje się go w przypadkach, gdzie równomierne traktowanie wszystkich błędów jest pożądane.\nOblicza się go jako [135]:\n(3.22) gdzie: oznaczenia jak powyżej.\nOcena jakości modeli regresyjnych w kontekście produkcji jest kluczowa dla zapewnienia ich skuteczności i dokładności. Wskaźniki, takie jak R, MSE,\nRMSE, RIE, MAPE i MAE oferują różne perspektywy na dokładność i precyzję modeli, umożliwiając wybór najbardziej odpowiednich miar w zależności od specyfiki danego zastosowania produkcyjnego. Właściwy wybór i interpretacja tych wskaźników może znacząco poprawić procesy decyzyjne w kontekście przemysłowym.\n3.8.2. Wskaźniki oceny jakości sieci neuronowych dla problemów klasyfikacyjnych\nWskaźniki oceny modeli klasyfikacyjnych są niezbędne dla zrozumienia, jak dobrze model radzi sobie z przypisywaniem próbek do odpowiednich klas.\nIstnieje wiele miar, które można wykorzystać do oceny wydajności modelu, z których każda dostarcza unikalnych informacji na temat jego skuteczności.\nKlasyczne wskaźniki, takie jak dokładność, precyzja, czułość i F1-score, pozwalają na ocenę różnych aspektów wyników klasyfikacji. Analiza tych wskaźników wspierana przez narzędzia, takie jak macierz pomyłek czy krzywa ROC, pozwala na głębokie zrozumienie wydajności modelu i jest nieodzowna w procesie doskonalenia algorytmów klasyfikacyjnych. Wprowadzenie tych miar jest niezbędne do wyboru najlepszego modelu do konkretnego zadania oraz identyfikacji obszarów wymagających poprawy.\nMacierz pomyłek jest narzędziem wykorzystywanym do oceny wydajności algorytmów klasyfikacyjnych. Jest to tabela używana do wizualizacji wyników działania algorytmu klasyfikacji, która porównuje rzeczywiste klasy próbek z klasami przewidywanymi przez model. Pozwala ona na szczegółową analizę błędów klasyfikacji. Strukturę macierzy pomyłek przedstawia tabela 3.1.\n\nTabela 3.1. Struktura macierzy pomyłek\nPredykcja negatywna Predykcja pozytywna\nStan rzeczywisty przypadki\nFN FP negatywne\nStan rzeczywisty przypadki\nTN TP pozytywne\nW przypadku klasyfikacji binarnej macierz pomyłek składa się z czterech podstawowych elementów:\nÒ TP (True Positives) – prawdziwie pozytywne klasyfikacje, przypadki poprawnie zidentyfikowane jako pozytywne;\nÒ TN (True Negatives) – prawdziwie negatywne klasyfikacje, przypadki poprawnie zidentyfikowane jako negatywne;\nÒ FP (False Positives) – fałszywie pozytywne klasyfikacje, przypadki błędnie zidentyfikowane jako pozytywne;\nÒ FN (False Negatives) – fałszywie negatywne klasyfikacje, przypadki błędnie zidentyfikowane jako negatywne.\nMacierz pomyłek dostarcza pełnego obrazu działania modelu klasyfikacji, pokazując, ile przypadków każdej klasy zostało poprawnie i błędnie sklasyfikowanych. Pozwala to na identyfikację specyficznych problemów modelu, takich jak tendencja do fałszywie pozytywnych lub fałszywie negatywnych klasyfikacji. Analizując macierz pomyłek, można wyciągnąć wnioski na temat koniecznych usprawnień modelu [139,140]. W obszarze produkcji macierz pomyłek może pomóc zidentyfikować, które rodzaje wad są najczęściej błędnie klasyfikowane. Na przykład jeżeli system kontroli jakości w fabryce ma tendencję do błędnej klasyfikacji pewnych typów wad, macierz pomyłek pomoże zidentyfikować te problemy i skierować wysiłki na ich poprawę.\nMacierz pomyłek stanowi podstawę do obliczenia innych kluczowych wskaźników oceny, takich jak dokładność, precyzja, czułość i F1-score.\nDokładność to miara, która określa procent poprawnych klasyfikacji spośród wszystkich prób, niezależnie od klasy. Dokładność to intuicyjny i łatwy do zrozumienia wskaźnik, szczególnie użyteczny w sytuacjach, gdy klasy są zbalansowane. W przeciwnych przypadkach (np. gdy jedna klasa znacznie przewyższa liczebnie inną), dokładność może być myląca. Na przykład model, który zawsze przewiduje dominującą klasę, może mieć wysoką dokładność, mimo że nie rozpoznaje mniejszościowych klas poprawnie [139,140]. W produkcyjnych przypadkach, gdzie jedna klasa może być znacznie liczniejsza, dokładność może być myląca. Na przykład w systemie monitorującym jakość produktów\n\nna linii produkcyjnej, jeżeli większość produktów jest bez wad, model przewidujący, że wszystkie produkty są dobre, może osiągnąć wysoką dokładność, pomimo że nie wykrywa wadliwych produktów.\n(3.23) ł ść gdzie: oznaczenia jak powyżej.\nPrecyzja to miara dokładności przewidywań modelu, która określa procent prawdziwie pozytywnych klasyfikacji wśród wszystkich przypadków sklasyfikowanych jako pozytywne. Precyzja ma kluczowe znaczenie w sytuacjach, gdy koszt fałszywie pozytywnych klasyfikacji jest wysoki. Na przykład w systemach medycznych fałszywie pozytywne diagnozy mogą prowadzić do niepotrzebnych i kosztownych badań oraz leczenia. W obszarze produkcji fałszywie pozytywne klasyfikacje mogą oznaczać, że dobry produkt został błędnie oznaczony jako wadliwy, co prowadzi do niepotrzebnych kosztów związanych z jego ponowną kontrolą lub odrzuceniem. Wysoka precyzja oznacza, że model rzadko przypisuje wadę dobremu produktowi [139–141]:\n(3.24) gdzie: oznaczenia jak powyżej.\nCzułość to miara skuteczności modelu w wykrywaniu wszystkich pozytywnych przypadków. Wskaźnik ten odgrywa istotną rolę w sytuacjach, gdy priorytetem jest wykrycie wszystkich pozytywnych przypadków. W obszarze produkcji wysoka czułość oznacza, że model rzadko przeocza wadliwy produkt, co jest ważne dla utrzymania wysokiej jakości produkcji i minimalizacji ryzyka dostarczenia wadliwych produktów do klienta [139,140]:\n(3.25) ł ść gdzie: oznaczenia jak powyżej.\nF1-score to harmoniczna średnia precyzji i czułości, zapewniająca zbalansowaną miarę wydajności modelu. F1-score uwzględnia zarówno fałszywe pozytywy, jak i fałszywe negatywy, będąc wskaźnikiem przydatnym, gdy istnieje potrzeba równoważenia między precyzją a czułością. W produkcji F1-score jest szczególnie ważny, gdy zarówno fałszywie pozytywne, jak i fałszywie negatywne wyniki są kosztowne. Na przykład równoważenie między wykrywaniem wszystkich wadliwych produktów (wysoka czułość) a minimalizowaniem\n\nliczby dobrych produktów błędnie oznaczonych jako wadliwe (wysoka precyzja) jest istotne dla efektywnego systemu kontroli jakości [139,140]:\n(3.26) gdzie: oznaczenia jak powyżej.\nKrzywa ROC (ang. receiver operating characteristic) to narzędzie używane do oceny jakości modeli klasyfikacyjnych, szczególnie w kontekście problemów z niezbalansowanymi danymi. Krzywa ROC przedstawia zależność między czułością (wskaźnikiem prawdziwie pozytywnych wyników – TPR) a specyficznością (1 – wskaźnikiem fałszywie pozytywnych wyników – FPR) dla różnych progów decyzyjnych [142]. Wykres ten pozwala na ocenę, jak dobrze model radzi sobie z rozróżnianiem między klasami. Aby stworzyć krzywą ROC, dla każdego możliwego progu decyzyjnego wylicza się wskaźniki czułości i specyficzności, a następnie przedstawia się je na wykresie, gdzie:\nÒ oś x (pozioma) reprezentuje 1 – specyficzność (wskaźnik fałszywie pozytywnych wyników);\nÒ oś y (pionowa) reprezentuje czułość (wskaźnik prawdziwie pozytywnych wyników).\nKrzywą ROC można wykorzystać również jako miernik jakości klasyfikatora, wyznaczając pole powierzchni pod krzywą (AUC – ang. area under the curve). Wartość AUC mieści się w przedziale od 0 do 1, gdzie wartość 1 oznacza model doskonały, a wartość 0,5 model losowy. Im wyższa wartość AUC, tym lepsza jest zdolność modelu do rozróżniania między klasami. Krzywa\nROC może być szczególnie przydatna do oceny, jak zmieniają się wyniki klasyfikacji wraz ze zmianą progu decyzyjnego [143]. Na przykład w systemach kontroli jakości można być bardziej zainteresowanym minimalizowaniem fałszywych negatywów (przegapionych wadliwych produktów) kosztem większej liczby fałszywie pozytywnych klasyfikacji (błędne oznaczenie dobrego produktu jako wadliwy). Analiza krzywej ROC pozwala na znalezienie optymalnego punktu pracy, który najlepiej odpowiada specyficznym wymaganiom danego procesu produkcyjnego. Krzywa ROC oraz AUC stanowią narzędzie uzupełniające inne miary jakości klasyfikacji, takie jak dokładność, precyzja, czułość i F1-score [144,145].\nOcenianie jakości modeli klasyfikacyjnych jest kluczowym elementem procesu budowy i wdrażania sieci neuronowych. W kontekście problemów klasyfikacyjnych odpowiednie wskaźniki pozwalają na zrozumienie, jak dobrze model radzi sobie z przypisywaniem obserwacji do odpowiednich kategorii.\n\nDobór właściwych miar oceny jest istotny zarówno dla samego procesu trenowania modelu, jak i dla późniejszej oceny jego wydajności w środowisku produkcyjnym. Dzięki temu można nie tylko określić, który model najlepiej spełnia określone wymagania, ale także zidentyfikować potencjalne obszary do poprawy.\n\n4. Optymalizacja parametrów obróbki skrawaniem\nOptymalizacja parametrów obróbki skrawaniem z wykorzystaniem sztucznych sieci neuronowych stanowi jedno z najnowocześniejszych podejść w inżynierii produkcji, które integruje zaawansowane techniki modelowania i analizy z praktyką przemysłową. Współczesne procesy produkcyjne charakteryzujące się rosnącymi wymaganiami dotyczącymi precyzji, efektywności oraz jakości produktów, stawiają przed inżynierami wyzwania, którym tradycyjne metody optymalizacji nie zawsze są w stanie sprostać. W tym kontekście zastosowanie\nANN pozwala na znaczący postęp w dziedzinie optymalizacji procesów obróbkowych, umożliwiając nie tylko precyzyjne dostosowanie parametrów obróbki, ale również dynamiczne reagowanie na zmieniające się warunki produkcyjne.\nWprowadzenie sztucznych sieci neuronowych do optymalizacji procesów obróbki wynika z ich zdolności do modelowania nieliniowych, złożonych relacji między wieloma zmiennymi. Tradycyjne metody, oparte na analizach statystycznych lub metodach prób i błędów, często okazują się niewystarczające, zwłaszcza w przypadku obróbki materiałów o trudnych właściwościach fizykochemicznych, takich jak stopy magnezu. Stopy te, ze względu na swoją niską gęstość, wysoką wytrzymałość w stosunku do masy oraz doskonałe właściwości tłumienia drgań, znajdują szerokie zastosowanie w zaawansowanych branżach przemysłowych, takich jak lotnictwo, motoryzacja czy elektronika.\nJednak ich obróbka stawia specyficzne wyzwania technologiczne, związane z wysoką reaktywnością chemiczną i niską temperaturą zapłonu, co zwiększa\n\nryzyko wystąpienia niebezpiecznych sytuacji, takich jak samozapłon podczas procesu skrawania.\nZastosowanie ANN w optymalizacji parametrów obróbki pozwala na precyzyjne modelowanie tych ryzyk oraz na identyfikację optymalnych warunków pracy, które minimalizują możliwość wystąpienia niepożądanych zdarzeń.\nDzięki zdolności do uczenia się na podstawie danych doświadczalnych sieci neuronowe są w stanie przewidywać wpływ zmian parametrów obróbki, takich jak prędkość skrawania, posuw czy głębokość skrawania, na końcowe właściwości powierzchni, zużycie narzędzi oraz bezpieczeństwo procesu. Co więcej,\nANN mogą być wykorzystane do dynamicznej optymalizacji procesu w czasie rzeczywistym, co ma szczególnie znaczenie w produkcji seryjnej, gdzie minimalizacja odchyłek od założonych parametrów jest istotna dla utrzymania wysokiej jakości produktów.\nW niniejszym rozdziale omówione zostaną: metodyka identyfikacji procesu na podstawie modelu doświadczalnego oraz zaawansowanych technik modelowania parametrów chropowatości powierzchni, które stanowią miarę jakości wyrobu końcowego. Współczesne wymagania przemysłowe dotyczące jakości powierzchni są coraz bardziej rygorystyczne, co wymusza konieczność precyzyjnej kontroli parametrów obróbki. ANN, dzięki swojej zdolności do dokładnego modelowania relacji między parametrami procesu a właściwościami powierzchni, pozwalają na optymalizację tych parametrów w celu uzyskania pożądanej chropowatości, co bezpośrednio przekłada się na funkcjonalność i trwałość produktów.\nRozdział ten kończy szczegółowa analiza optymalizacji parametrów obróbki z uwzględnieniem ograniczeń siłowych, co stanowi kolejny istotny element efektywnego zarządzania procesami produkcyjnymi. Siły skrawania mają bezpośredni wpływ na jakość powierzchni oraz na trwałość narzędzi, a ich optymalizacja jest niezbędna do zapewnienia stabilności procesu oraz do minimalizacji kosztów produkcji. ANN, poprzez modelowanie sił skrawania, umożliwiają identyfikację takich kombinacji parametrów, które minimalizują negatywne efekty siły skrawania, jednocześnie maksymalizując wydajność procesu. Dzięki temu możliwe jest nie tylko zapewnienie wysokiej jakości produktów, ale również zwiększenie efektywności energetycznej procesów produkcyjnych, co ma istotne znaczenie w obliczu globalnych trendów zmierzających do zrównoważonego rozwoju i redukcji emisji gazów cieplarnianych.\nOptymalizacja parametrów obróbki skrawaniem z wykorzystaniem ANN to zaawansowane narzędzie, które może umożliwić inżynierom nie tylko zwiększenie efektywności procesów produkcyjnych, ale również zapewnienie\n\nnajwyższych standardów jakości i bezpieczeństwa. Rozdział ten dostarczy kompleksowego wglądu w te zagadnienia, przedstawione zostaną zarówno teoretyczne podstawy, jak i praktyczne zastosowania ANN w optymalizacji procesów obróbki materiałów, z uwzględnieniem specyficznych wyzwań związanych z obróbką trudnych materiałów, takich jak stopy magnezu.\n4.1. Proces frezowania stopów magnezu\nFrezowanie stanowi proces obróbki skrawaniem, który znajduje szerokie zastosowanie w produkcji komponentów z różnych materiałów, w tym szczególnie stopów magnezu. Stopy magnezu ze względu na swoje unikalne właściwości fizykochemiczne, takie jak niska gęstość, wysoka wytrzymałość w stosunku do masy oraz doskonała zdolność tłumienia drgań, zyskują coraz większą popularność w zaawansowanych zastosowaniach inżynieryjnych [146]. Niska gęstość stopów magnezu sprawia, że są one wyjątkowo atrakcyjne w przemyśle lotniczym, motoryzacyjnym oraz elektronicznym [147].\nDzięki wysokiej wytrzymałości mechanicznej w stosunku do masy stopy magnezu pozwalają na projektowanie lekkich, a zarazem wytrzymałych konstrukcji, co jest szczególnie istotne w aplikacjach lotniczych, gdzie każda redukcja masy przekłada się na znaczne oszczędności paliwa i zwiększenie zasięgu lotu [148].\nW motoryzacji zastosowanie stopów magnezu prowadzi do zmniejszenia masy pojazdów, co w konsekwencji redukuje zużycie paliwa oraz emisję spalin, a tym samym przyczynia się do ochrony środowiska [149]. Stopy magnezu ponadto charakteryzują się doskonałymi właściwościami tłumienia drgań, co jest szczególnie korzystne w przemyśle elektronicznym, gdzie minimalizacja wibracji jest kluczowa dla poprawy wydajności i trwałości urządzeń elektronicznych [150].\nWykorzystanie stopów magnezu w zaawansowanych aplikacjach inżynieryjnych pozwala na znaczną redukcję masy komponentów, co jest niezwykle istotne w obliczu globalnych trendów zmierzających do poprawy efektywności energetycznej oraz redukcji emisji gazów cieplarnianych [151].\nJednakże frezowanie stopów magnezu wiąże się z pewnymi istotnymi wyzwaniami technologicznymi, wynikającymi z unikalnych właściwości fizykochemicznych tych materiałów. Magnez i jego stopy charakteryzują się wysoką reaktywnością chemiczną oraz niską temperaturą zapłonu, co czyni je szczególnie podatnymi na samozapłon podczas procesów obróbki skrawaniem.\nW wyniku oddziaływania sił skrawających oraz tarcia generowane są wysokie temperatury, które mogą przekraczać próg zapłonu magnezu, prowadząc do\n\negzotermicznych reakcji spalania, trudnych do opanowania i stwarzających poważne zagrożenie dla bezpieczeństwa pracy [151].\nDrobne wióry, pył czy cienkie elementy magnezu powstające podczas frezowania są szczególnie niebezpieczne, gdyż ich stosunek powierzchni do objętości jest wysoki, co sprzyja szybkiemu nagrzewaniu i zapłonowi. W celu minimalizacji ryzyka samozapłonu istotne jest przestrzeganie ściśle określonych parametrów obróbki. Optymalna prędkość skrawania powinna być dostosowana do właściwości obrabianego stopu magnezu, aby zredukować generowanie nadmiernego ciepła. Dodatkowo skuteczne chłodzenie narzędzi skrawających oraz powierzchni obrabianych jest niezbędne, aby efektywnie odprowadzać ciepło i zapobiec osiągnięciu temperatury zapłonu [151].\nWłaściwe zarządzanie procesem frezowania stopów magnezu ma duże znaczenie nie tylko z powodów ekonomicznych, ale przede wszystkim z punktu widzenia bezpieczeństwa i efektywności produkcji. Zarządzanie tym procesem wymaga ścisłej kontroli parametrów obróbki oraz zastosowania zaawansowanych technologii, które pozwalają na optymalizację procesu pod kątem jakości otrzymanych wyrobów, kosztów oraz bezpieczeństwa. Zaawansowane strategie obróbki, takie jak frezowanie trochoidalne, mogą znacznie zwiększyć stabilność procesu poprzez zmniejszenie sił skrawania i drgań, które mają znaczenie dla zachowania dokładności i jakości wytwarzanych elementów [152,153].\nModelowanie procesu frezowania stopów magnezu stanowi istotny krok w kierunku zwiększenia efektywności i bezpieczeństwa obróbki tych materiałów. Modelowanie komputerowe pozwala na symulację różnych scenariuszy obróbki, co umożliwia identyfikację optymalnych parametrów procesu bez konieczności przeprowadzania kosztownych i czasochłonnych eksperymentów. Dzięki modelowaniu można przewidzieć zachowanie materiału w różnych warunkach obróbki, co pozwala na lepsze zrozumienie mechanizmów skrawania oraz minimalizację ryzyka zapłonu.\nKomputerowe modelowanie procesu frezowania stopów magnezu umożliwia symulację różnych kombinacji prędkości skrawania, posuwu oraz głębokości skrawania, co pozwala na określenie najbardziej efektywnych ustawień zapewniających wysoką jakość powierzchni oraz minimalne zużycie narzędzi. Na przykład badania przeprowadzone przez Ritti i Bhat (2021) wykazały, że odpowiednie modelowanie narzędzi do procesów, takich jak friction stir processing (obróbka metodą zgrzewania tarciowego), pozwala na projektowanie narzędzi o minimalnej deformacji, niskim naprężeniu oraz wysokiej trwałości zmęczeniowej, co jest istotne dla skutecznego przetwarzania stopów magnezu [154].\n\nModelowanie procesów pozwala na redukcję liczby niezbędnych prób eksperymentalnych, co przekłada się na znaczne oszczędności finansowe, gdyż pozwala na identyfikację problemów przed rozpoczęciem rzeczywistej obróbki, minimalizując straty materiałowe i czasowe. Ponadto dzięki możliwości symulacji różnych scenariuszy można lepiej przewidzieć potencjalne zagrożenia, takie jak zapłon materiału, i wdrożyć odpowiednie środki zapobiegawcze, co zwiększa bezpieczeństwo procesu. Modelowanie umożliwia również szybkie testowanie innowacyjnych rozwiązań i technologii obróbczych, co przyspiesza wdrażanie nowych metod produkcji.\nModelowanie procesu frezowania stopów magnezu jest niezwykle złożonym zadaniem, wymagającym precyzyjnej identyfikacji wszystkich kluczowych parametrów i zależności. Właściwe zrozumienie i opisanie mechanizmów zachodzących podczas frezowania jest podstawą do stworzenia wiarygodnego modelu, który może służyć do optymalizacji procesów produkcyjnych. Aby osiągnąć taki poziom precyzji i dokładności w modelowaniu, niezbędne jest przeprowadzenie dokładnej identyfikacji procesu obróbki.\n4.2. Identyfikacja procesu na podstawie modelu doświadczalnego\nIdentyfikacja procesów ma charakter iteracyjny i polega na porównywaniu modeli o różnych strukturach danych. Model jest uproszczonym przedstawieniem rzeczywistości, skonstruowanym w konkretnym celu, eliminującym szczegóły nieistotne dla jego osiągnięcia. Modele umożliwiają lepsze zrozumienie badanych zjawisk, co jest niezbędne w badaniach naukowych. Model doświadczalny odwzorowuje przebieg procesu oraz jego cechy, co jest kluczowe w rozwiązywaniu problemów praktycznych, zwłaszcza gdy matematyczne opisanie procesu bywa skomplikowane [155–157].\nProces identyfikacji rozpoczyna się od oszacowania parametrów prostych modeli strukturalnych. Jeżeli model nie spełnia wymagań dotyczących dokładności, stopniowo zwiększa się jego złożoność. Ostatecznie wybiera się najprostszy model, który najlepiej opisuje dynamikę systemu. Ważne jest, aby rozpocząć od modeli prostych, ponieważ bardziej złożone modele nie zawsze są dokładniejsze. Ponadto, przy zwiększeniu złożoności modelu wzrasta niepewność oszacowań parametrów i wymagana jest większa ilość danych [158,159].\nIdentyfikacja procesu obróbki polega na szczegółowym badaniu i analizie wszystkich czynników wpływających na przebieg frezowania, takich jak\n\nprędkość skrawania, posuw, głębokość skrawania, rodzaj narzędzia, warunki chłodzenia czy właściwości materiału. Każdy z tych parametrów ma bezpośredni wpływ na efektywność obróbki, jakość powierzchni, zużycie narzędzi oraz bezpieczeństwo procesu. Na przykład prędkość skrawania i posuw determinują ilość ciepła generowanego podczas obróbki, co jest istotne dla minimalizowania ryzyka zapłonu łatwopalnych stopów magnezu.\nRzetelna identyfikacja procesu umożliwia zrozumienie wzajemnych zależności między parametrami obróbki a wynikowymi właściwościami produktu.\nPozwala to na przewidywanie, w jaki sposób zmiany w jednym parametrze wpłyną na inne aspekty procesu, co jest niezbędne do optymalizacji parametrów obróbki w celu osiągnięcia najlepszych wyników. Bez tej wiedzy próby optymalizacji mogłyby prowadzić do nieprzewidywalnych rezultatów, zwiększając ryzyko nieefektywnej produkcji lub niebezpiecznych sytuacji.\nZnajomość dynamicznych właściwości procesu frezowania umożliwiłaby przewidywanie istotnych parametrów wyjściowych, takich jak chropowatość powierzchni czy siła skrawania. Modelowanie zjawisk zachodzących w strefie skrawania jest jednak złożone i nieliniowe. Wynika to z dynamicznych interakcji siłowych między narzędziem a przedmiotem obrabianym oraz z niestacjonarności procesu, jak w przypadku frezowania. Frez kontaktuje się z materiałem w zmieniających się warunkach, co powoduje zmiany w sztywności i warunkach skrawania. Aby przewidzieć te zmiany, należy traktować proces frezowania jako system sterowania i przeprowadzić jego identyfikację, określając wejścia i wyjścia modelu. Model „czarnej skrzynki” jest tutaj szczególnie użyteczny, ponieważ dopasowuje dane wejściowe i wyjściowe uzyskane z systemu.\nJako sterowalne i dostępne dane wejściowe do modelu należy uznać parametry obróbki (np. prędkość skrawania (v), posuw na ostrze (f) oraz głębokość c skrawania (a )), mając jednak świadomość, że powstałe siły skrawania oraz p drgania mogą zmieniać się ze względu na lokalne warunki procesu w różnych punktach toru narzędzia skrawającego. Ważnym krokiem w procesie identyfikacji jest również zbieranie danych eksperymentalnych. Pomiar sił skrawania czy analiza jakości powierzchni obrabianego materiału pozwalają na stworzenie dokładnych baz danych, które są niezbędne do kalibracji i weryfikacji opracowywanego modelu. Dane te mogą pochodzić z rzeczywistych prób frezowania lub z zaawansowanych eksperymentów laboratoryjnych.\nPo zebraniu danych i ich analizie możliwe jest stworzenie modelu, który odzwierciedla rzeczywiste zależności zachodzące podczas procesu frezowania.\nModel taki może być następnie wykorzystany do symulacji różnych scenariuszy\n\nobróbki. Właściwa identyfikacja procesu frezowania stopów magnezu jest istotnym elementem skutecznego modelowania. Pozwala na dokładne zrozumienie mechanizmów skrawania oraz zależności między parametrami procesu a wynikami obróbki. Dzięki temu możliwe jest stworzenie wiarygodnego modelu doświadczalnego, który przyczynia się do optymalizacji procesu, zwiększenia jego efektywności oraz zapewnienia bezpieczeństwa produkcji.\n4.3. Metodyka prowadzonych badań eksperymentalnych\nBadania eksperymentalne dotyczące obróbki frezowaniem przeprowadzono w Katedrze Podstaw Inżynierii Produkcji Wydziału Mechanicznego Politechniki\nLubelskiej. Badania wykonano dla stopu AZ91D. Jego skład chemiczny przedstawia tabela 4.1. Eksperyment przeprowadzono na pionowym centrum Avia\nVMC 800HS z systemem sterowania Heidenhain iTNC 530 z maksymalną prędkością obrotową wrzeciona 24 000 obr/min i maksymalną prędkością posuwu 40 m/min (ryc. 4.1).\nTabela 4.1. Skład chemiczny stopu magnezu AZ91D [160]\nSkład Al Zn Mn Cu Be Mg\nSi [%] Fe [%] Ni [%] chemiczny [%] [%] [%] [%] [%] [%]\nAZ91D 8,91 0,66 0,22 0,016 0,002 0,002 0,001 0,001 pozostałe\nRyc. 4.1. Centrum Avia VMC 800HS\n\nW badaniach dotyczących chropowatości powierzchni wykorzystano frez o średnicy Ø16 mm z wymiennymi ostrzami z polikrystalicznego diamentu\n(PCD) firmy Guhring z kątem pochylenia λ = 0°. Dla poprawy stabilności s obróbki frez zamocowano w uchwycie narzędziowym Shrinkfit SFD z adapterem HSK-A63 firmy Seco. Układ narzędzie-uchwyt został dynamicznie wyważony zgodnie z normą ISO 21940-11: 2016 [160]. W przypadku badań składowych sił skrawania wykorzystano również frez o średnicy Ø16 mm, jednak z innym kątem pochylenia – λ = 20° [161].\ns\nProces frezowania przeprowadzono przy następujących parametrach obróbki: szerokość skrawania a = 15 [mm], prędkość skrawania e v = 400÷1200 [m/min], posuw na ostrze f = 0,05÷0,3 [mm/ostrze] oraz głęboc z kość skrawania a = 0,5÷6 [mm]. Schemat obiektu badań przedstawia ryc. 4.2.\np\nRyc. 4.2. Schemat obiektu badań\nParametry chropowatości 2D zostały zmierzone za pomocą profilometru Hommel Roughness Tester T1000 od Hommel Etamic (ryc. 4.3), z wykorzystaniem cyfrowego filtra Gaussa (M1), zgodnie z międzynarodową normą\nISO 11562. Szczegółowe parametry pomiaru obejmowały: długość przejazdu lt = 4,8 [mm] oraz długość odcinka pomiarowego ln = 0,8 [mm], prędkość skanowania vt = 0,5 [mm/s], a także zakresy pomiarowe i rozdzielczość\nM = ±320 [μm]/0,04 [μm]. Każdy pomiar był wykonywany pięciokrotnie na powierzchni, aby zapewnić wystarczającą ilość danych do obliczenia wartości średnich i odchylenia standardowego wyników.\nDo pomiaru składowych siły skrawania zastosowano siłomierz piezoelektryczny Kistler 9257B (ryc. 4.4) wykonujący pomiar w zakresie -5 [kN] ÷ 5 [kN] wraz ze wzmacniaczem 5017B oraz analizator LMS SCADAS Mobile SCM05.\nWyniki badań eksperymentalnych: wybranych parametrów chropowatości (Ra, Rz, RSm) [160] oraz składowych siły skrawania (F , F, F ) [161] zostały x y z wykorzystane do przygotowania modeli wykorzystywanych do optymalizacji parametrów obróbki.\n\nRyc. 4.3. Profilometr Hommel Roughness Tester T1000\nRyc. 4.4. Siłomierz piezoelektryczny Kistler 9257B\n\n4.4. Optymalizacja parametrów obróbki frezowaniem w celu uzyskania zadanych wartości chropowatości powierzchni\nOptymalizacja parametrów obróbki frezowaniem w celu uzyskania zadanych wartości chropowatości powierzchni jest kluczowym aspektem w procesie produkcji elementów wykonanych z różnych materiałów, w tym ze stopów magnezu. Chropowatość powierzchni, będąca miarą mikrogeometrii powierzchni, odgrywa istotną rolę w określeniu jakości produktu końcowego. Właściwie zoptymalizowane parametry obróbki wpływają nie tylko na wygląd i funkcjonalność komponentów, ale również na ich trwałość i wydajność w eksploatacji.\nZ punktu widzenia jakości produkcji kontrola chropowatości powierzchni jest niezbędna do spełnienia specyfikacji technicznych oraz wymagań klientów.\nElementy o zbyt wysokiej chropowatości mogą prowadzić do zwiększonego tarcia, szybszego zużycia i obniżenia wydajności operacyjnej. Z kolei powierzchnie o zbyt niskiej chropowatości mogą być wynikiem nadmiernej obróbki, co niepotrzebnie zwiększa koszty produkcji i zużycie narzędzi. Dlatego precyzyjne ustalenie i utrzymanie optymalnej chropowatości jest ważne dla zapewnienia wysokiej jakości produktów przy minimalnych kosztach produkcji.\nZarządzanie produkcją wymaga zatem ciągłej optymalizacji parametrów obróbki, takich jak: prędkość skrawania, posuw, głębokość skrawania oraz warunki chłodzenia. Poprzez dokładne dostosowanie tych parametrów można uzyskać pożądane wartości chropowatości, co bezpośrednio przekłada się na poprawę wydajności procesów produkcyjnych. Optymalizacja parametrów obróbki prowadzi do redukcji czasu cyklu produkcyjnego, zmniejszenia zużycia narzędzi oraz ograniczenia liczby wadliwych produktów, co z kolei zwiększa ogólną efektywność produkcji [162–164].\nW kontekście stopów magnezu optymalizacja parametrów obróbki jest szczególnie istotna ze względu na specyficzne właściwości tego materiału, takie jak niska gęstość i wysoka wytrzymałość. Właściwa obróbka magnezu wymaga precyzyjnego zarządzania procesem, aby uniknąć problemów związanych z jego łatwopalnością oraz zapewnić wymagane parametry powierzchniowe. Badania pokazują, że zastosowanie odpowiednich parametrów skrawania, takich jak odpowiednia prędkość, posuw i głębokość skrawania, ma znaczenie dla osiągnięcia optymalnej chropowatości powierzchni i minimalizacji zużycia narzędzi [165].\n\n4.4.1. Metodyka modelowania parametrów chropowatości\nWspółczesna technologia produkcji charakteryzuje się coraz większymi wymaganiami dotyczącymi jakości powierzchni. Kontrola chropowatości powierzchni jest elementem, który wpływa na funkcjonalność i trwałość wytworzonych elementów. Parametry chropowatości, takie jak Ra, Rz, i RSm, są powszechnie stosowane w celu oceny jakości powierzchni w różnych gałęziach przemysłu, od automatyki po zaawansowane technologie biomedyczne. Ra (średnia arytmetyczna bezwzględnych rzędnych profilu chropowatości) [166] jest jednym z najczęściej używanych parametrów chropowatości, służącym do określania ogólnej tekstury powierzchni poprzez średnią wartość bezwzględnych odchyłek profilu od linii środkowej. Ra dostarcza podstawowych informacji o stanie powierzchni i jest uznawany za wskaźnik ogólnego stopnia wygładzenia. Jest szeroko stosowany, mimo że nie umożliwia wnioskowania o wielu istotnych cechach profilu chropowatości, dlatego zaleca się jego stosowanie do monitorowania ustabilizowanych procesów [167,168].\n(4.1) gdzie:\nl – długość odcinka elementarnego;\nz(x) – wartości rzędnych wewnątrz odcinka elementarnego.\nRz (największa wysokość profilu chropowatości) [166] jest parametrem, który daje bardziej szczegółowy obraz topografii powierzchni. Rz jest definiowany jako suma wysokości najwyższego wzniesienia profilu oraz głębokości najniższego wgłębienia profilu wewnątrz odcinka elementarnego. Rz jest użyteczny w aplikacjach, gdzie szczyty i doliny na powierzchni mają bezpośredni wpływ na działanie i żywotność produktu, np. w elementach stykowych maszyn, gdzie mogą wpływać na tarcie i zużycie.\nRSm (średnia szerokość rowków elementów profilu chropowatości) to parametr określający średnią szerokość elementów profilu wewnątrz odcinka elementarnego [166,167]. RSm jest przydatny w ocenie regularności i rozkładu cech tekstury powierzchni, co ma istotne znaczenie w przypadku materiałów, które muszą spełniać określone kryteria funkcjonalne dotyczące przyczepności, smarowania czy przepływu płynów po powierzchni [169].\n\n(4.2) gdzie:\nXs – szerokość i-tego elementu profilu;\ni m – liczba elementów profilu.\nWybór tych trzech parametrów dla modelowania chropowatości 2D jest uzasadniony ich zdolnością do zapewnienia kompleksowej charakterystyki powierzchni, co ma znaczenie w wielu zastosowaniach technicznych i przemysłowych. Ra, Rz i RSm wspólnie dostarczają pełnego obrazu różnych aspektów chropowatości, umożliwiając lepsze zrozumienie wpływu obróbki powierzchniowej na właściwości użytkowe i funkcjonalne produktów. Ponadto analiza tych parametrów pozwala na optymalizację procesów produkcyjnych i poprawę jakości końcowych produktów, co jest decydujące w utrzymaniu konkurencyjności na rynku.\nW warstwie wejściowej zdefiniowano trzy neurony wejściowe, tj. zmienne parametry obróbki v , f i a . W warstwie wyjściowej zdefiniowano jeden neuc z p ron – modelowany parametr. Zestaw danych eksperymentalnych składający się z 46 obserwacji ustalono w proporcji 75% : 25%, gdzie pierwsza wartość oznacza udział danych uczących, a druga – danych walidacyjnych. Podział ten był ustalony przed rozpoczęciem procesu trenowania i nie zmieniał się w kolejnych epokach. Ze względu na małą ilość danych pominięto dane testowe. Taki podział pozwala na efektywniejsze wykorzystanie ograniczonej ilości danych do trenowania modelu, umożliwiając jednocześnie walidację i dostosowanie hiperparametrów. Walidacja jest niezbędna do monitorowania nadmiernego dopasowania i regulacji modelu w trakcie uczenia [58].\nModelowanie przeprowadzono za pomocą sieci neuronowych MLP w oprogramowaniu Matlab 2023a. Wybór architektury sieci neuronowej MLP w niniejszym badaniu został podyktowany specyficznymi wymaganiami wynikającymi z bardzo małego zestawu danych. Mała liczba próbek (46 obserwacji) wymagała zastosowania modelu, który z jednej strony jest wystarczająco złożony, aby uchwycić istotne zależności w danych, a z drugiej na tyle prosty, aby uniknąć problemów związanych z nadmiernym dopasowaniem. Złożone architektury, takie jak głębokie sieci neuronowe, mogłyby prowadzić do przeuczenia modelu, co znacznie obniżyłoby jego zdolność do generalizacji na nowych, nieznanych danych. W związku z tym zdecydowano się na użycie MLP z jedną warstwą ukrytą, której liczba neuronów od 2 do 12 była iteracyjnie dostosowywana w celu znalezienia optymalnej konfiguracji. Dodatkowo, przy tak małej ilości danych\n\nzalecane jest, aby liczba neuronów w warstwie ukrytej nie przekraczała liczby obserwacji w zbiorze danych. Zalecenie to wynika z doświadczeń, które pokazują, że przekroczenie tej liczby może prowadzić do sytuacji, w której model zbyt dokładnie zapamiętuje dane uczące, zamiast uczyć się ogólnych wzorców – co z kolei skutkuje nadmiernym dopasowaniem. W kontekście małych zbiorów danych mniejsza liczba neuronów pomaga w zachowaniu zdolności modelu do generalizacji, co umożliwia lepsze radzenie sobie z danymi, które nie były widziane podczas treningu. Taka konfiguracja wspomaga również stabilność modelu i redukuje ryzyko wystąpienia problemów związanych z przeuczeniem, co jest kluczowe przy pracy z ograniczonymi zestawami danych.\nPodczas doboru parametrów uczenia sieci zastosowano domyślną metodę inicjalizacji wag, która zapewnia stabilne warunki początkowe dla procesu uczenia. Odpowiednia inicjalizacja wag pozwala modelowi na skuteczne rozpoczęcie procesu optymalizacji, co jest szczególnie ważne przy ograniczonej ilości danych.\nW warstwie ukrytej sieci zastosowano funkcję aktywacji typu sigmoidalnego, która jest szeroko stosowana w modelowaniu nieliniowych zależności między zmiennymi wejściowymi a wyjściowymi. Funkcja ta umożliwia modelowi uchwycenie skomplikowanych wzorców w danych wejściowych, co jest niezbędne dla osiągnięcia wysokiej dokładności predykcji. Do oceny jakości modelu zastosowano funkcję kosztu MSE, która jest powszechnie używana w problemach regresji.\nProces trenowania sieci neuronowej został przeprowadzony z wykorzystaniem kilku metod optymalizacyjnych: algorytmu Levenberga–Marquardta\n(LM), regularyzacji Bayesowskiej (BR) oraz gradientu skalowanego sprzężonego (SCG). W procesie projektowania sieci neuronowych istotne jest określenie optymalnej liczby neuronów, która pozwoli uzyskać najlepszą jakość modelu. Początkowym etapem było zatem zastosowanie algorytmu LM, szeroko stosowanego ze względu na swoje efektywne właściwości szybkiej zbieżności, szczególnie w problemach, gdzie stosunkowo mniejsza ilość danych może stanowić wyzwanie. Dzięki temu podejściu udało się wyłonić konfigurację sieci, która zapewniła najwyższą jakość przetwarzania danych. Następnie, wykorzystując ustaloną liczbę neuronów, przystąpiono do trenowania pozostałych sieci z wykorzystaniem innych algorytmów: SCG oraz BR. To podejście pozwoliło na bezpośrednie porównanie efektywności poszczególnych algorytmów optymalizacyjnych przy identycznej architekturze sieci, co umożliwiło rzetelną ocenę ich wydajności i efektywności w różnych scenariuszach.\nW celu uniknięcia przeuczenia sieci został zastosowany mechanizm wczesnego zatrzymania, który ustawiono na poziomie 6, co oznacza, że proces\n\ntrenowania modelu zostanie zatrzymany, gdy przez 6 kolejnych epok nie nastąpi poprawa wyników na zbiorze walidacyjnym.\nOcena wydajności i jakości sieci została przeprowadzona przy użyciu wskaźników jakościowych, takich jak: R, MSE, RMSE, RIE, MAPE i MAE, które zostały szczegółowo opisane we wcześniejszych podrozdziałach.\nDodatkowo, aby porównać skuteczność sieci neuronowych, wykonano modelowanie z wykorzystaniem gradient boosting machines (GBM). GBM opiera się na idei połączenia wielu słabych modeli, zazwyczaj drzew decyzyjnych, w celu stworzenia jednego, silnego predyktora. Iteracyjnie buduje on model, dodając w każdej iteracji nowy słaby model, który redukuje błędy poprzednich modeli. Każdy nowy model stara się poprawić wynik poprzez minimalizację funkcji kosztu (np. błędu kwadratowego w przypadku regresji).\nNa początku ustawia się początkową wartość predykcji F , która jest zazwyczaj średnią wartością zmiennej celu w przypadku regresji.\n(4.3) gdzie:\nL – funkcja kosztu (np. średni błąd kwadratowy);\ny – rzeczywista wartość zmiennej celu;\ni\n– wartość początkowej predykcji.\nW każdej iteracji m GBM dodaje nowy słaby model , który jest trenowany na resztach (błędach) dotychczasowego zespołu modeli.\n(4.4) gdzie:\n– predykcja zespołu modeli po m-tej iteracji;\n– współczynnik uczenia;\n– słaby model trenowany w m-tej iteracji.\nDane podczas modelowania GBM zostały podzielone na zestaw uczący oraz testowy przy użyciu walidacji krzyżowej z 25% próbą testową. Modele\nGBM trenowano przy użyciu różnej liczby drzew, od 50 do 1000 z krokiem co 50, tak aby znaleźć najlepszy model na podstawie minimalnego błędu\nMSE. Najlepszy model był wybierany i oceniany na podstawie zestawu testowego, a wyniki zostały wykorzystane do oceny jakości modelu w porównaniu z ANN.\n\n4.4.2. Wyniki modelowania wybranych parametrów chropowatości 2D\nPierwszym modelowanym parametrem chropowatości był parametr Ra.\nWykorzystując algorytm LM do uczenia, najlepsze parametry jakościowe otrzymano dla sieci MLP z warstwą ukrytą zawierającą sześć neuronów, co udało się osiągnąć w ciągu 7 epok. Następnie dla sześciu neuronów w warstwie ukrytej trenowano sieci, wykorzystując dwa pozostałe algorytmy: SCG oraz BR.\nTabela 4.2 przedstawia wskaźniki wydajności trzech modeli sieci neuronowych wytrenowanych przy użyciu różnych algorytmów: LM, SCG i BR. Wydajność każdego modelu jest oceniana na podstawie wskaźników jakości, w tym R,\nMSE, RMSE, RIE, MAPE i MAE.\nTabela 4.2. Wskaźniki jakości dla różnych algorytmów uczenia sieci MLP dla parametru Ra\nAlgorytm uczenia sieci MLP LM SCG BR\nEpoka 9 12 89\nR (cały zbiór danych) 0,9869 0,9749 0,9723\nMSE 0,00008 0,00012 0,00011\nRMSE 0,009 0,0114 0,0106\nRIE 0,0232 0,0292 0,0274\nMAPE 0,0166 0,0261 0,0199\nMAE 0,0062 0,0101 0,0085\nW wyniku przeprowadzenia analizy porównawczej można stwierdzić, że w odniesieniu do wskaźników jakości sieci, R, który odnosi się do korelacji między wartościami przewidywanymi a rzeczywistymi na całym zbiorze danych, wszystkie trzy algorytmy osiągnęły podobne wyniki, uzyskując nieco wyższą wartość z LM (0,9869) w porównaniu z SCG (0,9749) i BR (0,9723). To wskazuje, że LM może być nieco lepszy w dopasowaniu danych.\nAnaliza MSE oraz RMSE również pokazuje różnice między algorytmami.\nNajniższy MSE (0,00008) oraz RMSE (0,009) osiągnął LM, co sugeruje, że ten algorytm był najdokładniejszy. SCG i BR miały podobne, ale wyższe wartości MSE i RMSE, co może wskazywać na nieco gorszą dokładność tych metod w porównaniu z LM. Dalsze wskaźniki, takie jak RIE, MAPE, i MAE, które odnoszą się do różnych aspektów błędów przewidywania, także ukazują lepsze wyniki dla LM. SCG i BR osiągnęły podobne, ale ogólnie gorsze wartości dla tych wskaźników.\n\nRyc. 4.5 ilustruje najlepszą wydajność modeli z różnymi algorytmami optymalizacyjnymi: a) LM, b) SCG, c) BR. Wykresy te dostarczają informacji o dynamice uczenia się modeli. Każdy z algorytmów prezentuje różne charakterystyki zbieżności i wydajności, co może być użyteczne przy wyborze odpowiedniego modelu do konkretnego rodzaju danych i problemu, który ma zostać rozwiązany. Algorytm LM osiąga najlepszą wydajność walidacyjną już w 3. epoce. Wydajność na danych uczących i walidacyjnych dla algorytmu SCG wykazuje dużą stabilność po osiągnięciu minimum, co sugeruje dobre dopasowanie modelu do danych. Wykres c) ilustruje działanie algorytmu BR, który stopniowo poprawia swoją wydajność, osiągając najlepszy wynik w 54. epoce. Mimo większej liczby epok potrzebnych do osiągnięcia tego wyniku, wydaje się, że ten algorytm zapewnia bardzo stabilną poprawę wydajności modelu w czasie.\na b\n\nc\nRyc. 4.5. Najlepsza wydajność modelu Ra dla sieci MLP z algorytmem uczenia:\na) LM, b) SCG, c) BR a b c\nRyc. 4.6. Wykresy korelacji dla modelu Ra dla sieci MLP z algorytmem uczenia:\na) LM, b) SCG, c) BR\n\nNa ryc. 4.6 przedstawiono wykresy korelacji dla zestawów danych uczących, walidacyjnych i całych zestawów danych dla modeli z różnymi algorytmami uczenia: a) LM, b) SCG, c) BR.\nPodsumowując, analiza porównawcza wyników dla modelowania parametru chropowatości Ra wskazuje, że algorytm Levenberga–Marquardta wydaje się najbardziej efektywny pod względem szybkości uczenia, dokładności oraz ogólnej jakości wyników w porównaniu z SCG oraz BR.\nNa ryc. 4.7 przedstawiono dane dotyczące chropowatości powierzchni uzyskane z modelu MLP z wykorzystaniem algorytmu LM. Ze względu na fakt, że w badaniu uwzględniono trzy parametry wejściowe, zmiany wartości parametru chropowatości Ra przedstawiono dwukrotnie pod wpływem pary parametrów skrawania: v /f i f /a . Symulacje zostały uruchomione po wproc z z p wadzeniu danych wejściowych (tj. parametrów frezowania v , a , f ) do oproc p z gramowania Matlab i otrzymano wyjście z modelu w postaci parametru Ra.\na b\nRyc. 4.7. Parametr chropowatości Ra uzyskany z modelu dla sieci MLP w zależności od v/f i f/a c z z p\nW przypadku kolejnego modelowanego parametru chropowatości Rz najlepszą wydajność i jakość sieci MLP z wykorzystaniem algorytmu LM otrzymano dla dziewięciu neuronów w warstwie ukrytej. Model ten otrzymano w 22 epokach. Następnie dla takiej samej liczby neuronów w warstwie ukrytej trenowano sieci, wykorzystując dwa pozostałe algorytmy: SCG oraz BR.\nWskaźniki jakościowe najlepszych sieci otrzymanych podczas trenowania z różnymi algorytmami uczenia przedstawia tabela 4.3.\n\nTabela 4.3. Wskaźniki jakości dla różnych algorytmów uczenia sieci MLP dla parametru Rz\nAlgorytm uczenia sieci MLP LM SCG BR\nEpoka 22 13 1000\nR (cały zbiór danych) 0,9894 0,9353 0,9119\nMSE 0,0017 0,0089 0,0153\nRMSE 0,0418 0,0946 0,1237\nRIE 0,0165 0,0373 0,0487\nMAPE 0,0090 0,0324 0,0404\nMAE 0,0235 0,0792 0,0950\nW wyniku przeprowadzenia analizy porównawczej można stwierdzić, że algorytm LM potrzebował zaledwie 22 epok, aby osiągnąć wysoką wartość współczynnika korelacji na poziomie 0,9894, co sugeruje bardzo dobrą zdolność modelu do wyjaśniania zmienności danych. Dodatkowo najniższe wartości błędów MSE, RMSE, MAPE oraz MAE świadczą o wysokiej dokładności predykcji tego modelu. Wyniki te wskazują na efektywność algorytmu LM w szybkim osiąganiu wiarygodnych wyników z minimalną liczbą obliczeń. Algorytm SCG, choć potrzebował mniej epok (13), wykazuje nieco gorsze wskaźniki jakości w porównaniu z LM. Wartość R wynosi 0,9353, co jest nadal dobrym wynikiem, ale wskazuje na mniejszą zdolność do adekwatnego modelowania danych w porównaniu z LM. Wartości błędów są wyższe niż w przypadku LM, co potwierdza mniejszą precyzję tego algorytmu w modelowaniu danych. Ostatni algorytm BR wymagał znacznie więcej epok (1000), co może wskazywać na trudności w osiągnięciu optymalnej zbieżności. Jego wartość R to 0,9119, co jest najniższym wynikiem wśród omawianych modeli, a wysokie wartości błędów wskazują na znacznie gorszą dokładność predykcji w porównaniu z pozostałymi algorytmami.\n\na b c\nRyc. 4.8. Najlepsza wydajność modelu Rz dla sieci MLP z algorytmem uczenia: a) LM, b) SCG, c) BR\nNa ryc. 4.8 można zauważyć trzy wykresy, które przedstawiają proces uczenia sieci neuronowych za pomocą analizowanych algorytmów: LM,\nSCG i BR. Każdy wykres ilustruje zmiany w wartości błędu średniokwadratowego (MSE) na przestrzeni kolejnych epok dla zestawów danych uczących\n82 i walidacyjnych, a także wskazuje najlepsze wyniki uzyskane w procesie\n\nwalidacji. Dla algorytmu LM szybkie zmniejszenie wartości MSE w początkowej fazie uczenia sugeruje efektywną zbieżność algorytmu. Najlepsza wydajność modelu na danych walidacyjnych, z wartością MSE równą 0,006, została osiągnięta w 16. epoce, co pokazuje, że model szybko osiągnął optymalne dopasowanie. Algorytm SCG wykazuje bardzo dobrą wydajność, z niskim błędem MSE na poziomie 0,0026, który osiągnięty został już w 7. epoce.\nStabilność wartości MSE na niskim poziomie przez resztę procesu uczenia wskazuje na skuteczność tego algorytmu w kontekście dopasowania i generalizacji modelu. Z kolei proces uczenia przy użyciu algorytmu BR jest znacznie dłuższy, rozciąga się aż do 1000 epok, z najlepszym wynikiem\nMSE osiągniętym na poziomie 0,0064. Długi czas potrzebny do osiągnięcia optymalnej wartości MSE wskazuje na wolniejszą zbieżność tego algorytmu w porównaniu z pozostałymi.\na b c\nRyc. 4.9. Wykresy korelacji dla modelu Rz dla sieci MLP z algorytmem uczenia: a) LM, b) SCG, c) BR\n\nRyc. 4.9 ilustruje wykresy korelacyjne dla różnych zestawów danych – uczących, walidacyjnych oraz całego zestawu danych – stosowanych w modelach z użyciem różnych algorytmów uczenia: a) LM, b) SCG, c) BR.\nPodsumowując, algorytm LM okazał się najbardziej efektywny zarówno pod względem szybkości osiągania zbieżności, jak i dokładności modelowania.\nAlgorytm SCG również prezentuje dobre wyniki, lecz nie dorównuje algorytmowi LM. BR, mimo że jest w stanie osiągnąć zbieżność, wymaga znacznie większego nakładu obliczeniowego i czasowego, a jego wyniki są mniej precyzyjne.\nNa ryc. 4.10 przedstawiono wyniki dotyczące parametru chropowatości powierzchni Rz uzyskane z modelu MLP korzystającego z algorytmu\nLM. W analizie uwzględniono trzy zmienne wejściowe, a zmiany w wartościach parametru chropowatości Rz zaprezentowano w kontekście dwóch kombinacji parametrów skrawania: v /f i f /a . Symulacje przeprowadzono c z z p po wprowadzeniu danych wejściowych – parametrów frezowania v , a , f c p z\n– do oprogramowania Matlab, skąd uzyskano wyniki w postaci wartości parametru Rz.\na b\nRyc. 4.10. Parametr chropowatości Rz uzyskany z modelu dla sieci MLP w zależności od v/f i f/a c z z p\nW przypadku modelowania ostatniego z wybranych parametrów chropowatości RSm najwyższą skuteczność oraz jakość sieci MLP uzyskano przy użyciu algorytmu LM, stosując dziesięć neuronów w warstwie ukrytej. Optymalny model wygenerowano po zaledwie 10 epokach. Ustalając tę samą liczbę neuronów, kontynuowano następnie uczenie sieci za pomocą dwóch pozostałych algorytmów: SCG oraz BR.\n\nWyniki jakości najlepszych modeli, które uzyskano w wyniku tych procesów uczenia, prezentuje tabela 4.4. Porównując otrzymane wyniki, można zauważyć istotne różnice w wydajności każdego z algorytmów. Algorytm\nLM, który osiągnął optymalizację modelu już po 10 epokach, wykazuje bardzo dobre wyniki, z wartością współczynnika korelacji wynoszącą 0,911, co wskazuje na wysoką zdolność modelu do wyjaśniania zmienności danych.\nDodatkowo wartość MSE oraz pozostałych błędów jest najniższa spośród porównywanych algorytmów, co świadczy o bardzo dokładnym dopasowaniu modelu do danych. Algorytm SCG, który potrzebował 12 epok do osiągnięcia optymalizacji, wykazuje niższe wartości R na poziomie 0,752. Jest to znacznie słabsza zdolność do modelowania danych w porównaniu z LM, co sugeruje, że może nie być on tak efektywny w przypadku tego konkretnego zestawu danych. W przypadku algorytmu BR, który wymagał największej liczby epok (55), do osiągnięcia najlepszego dopasowania, wartości R są niższe niż dla LM, wynoszące 0,7743. Wskazuje to na umiarkowaną zdolność modelu do przewidywania zmienności danych.\nTabela 4.4. Wskaźniki jakości dla różnych algorytmów uczenia sieci MLP dla parametru RSm\nAlgorytm uczenia sieci MLP LM SCG BR\nEpoka 10 12 55\nR (cały zbiór danych) 0,911 0,752 0,7743\nMSE 0,000004 0,000009 0,000014\nRMSE 0,0019 0,0030 0,0038\nRIE 0,0493 0,0780 0,0971\nMAPE 0,0256 0,0673 0,0492\nMAE 0,0010 0,0025 0,0017\nNa ryc. 4.11 przedstawiono trzy wykresy zmian wartości MSE podczas procesu uczenia sieci neuronowych z wykorzystaniem trzech algorytmów:\na) LM, b) SCG, c) BR, w kontekście modelowania parametru chropowatości\nRSm. Na wykresie a) dla algorytmu LM można zaobserwować szybki spadek wartości MSE, który osiąga swoje minimum już w 10. epoce. MSE na danych uczących kontynuuje delikatne obniżanie się, co wskazuje na efektywność i stabilność tego algorytmu w szybkim osiąganiu optymalnych wyników. Wykres b) ilustrujący algorytm SCG pokazuje, że najlepszy wynik walidacji zostaje osiągnięty w 6. epoce. Wartości MSE stabilizują się na stosunkowo niskim poziomie zarówno dla danych uczących, jak i walidacyjnych, co świadczy o dobrej generalizacji modelu, chociaż nie osiąga on tak niskich wartości MSE,\n\njak algorytm LM. Na wykresie c), gdzie zastosowano algorytm BR, zaobserwować można dłuższy proces uczenia, który trwa do 55 epok. Najlepszy wynik uczenia sieci osiągnięty zostaje pod koniec tego okresu.\na b c\nRyc. 4.11. Najlepsza wydajność modelu RSm dla sieci MLP z algorytmem uczenia:\na) LM, b) SCG, c) BR\n\na b c\nRyc. 4.12. Wykresy korelacji dla modelu RSm dla sieci MLP z algorytmem uczenia:\na) LM, b) SCG, c) BR\nNa ryc. 4.12 przedstawiono wykresy korelacyjne dla modelu RSm wykorzystujące trzy różne algorytmy uczenia: a) LM, b) SCG, c) BR. Wykresy te ilustrują zależność między rzeczywistymi wartościami danych (oznaczone jako\n„Data”) a wartościami przewidzianymi przez model (oznaczone jako „Fit”), a także pokazują współczynniki korelacji R dla różnych zbiorów danych: uczących, walidacyjnych oraz całego zestawu danych. Dla algorytmu LM wartości przewidziane są bardzo zbliżone do rzeczywistych. Wysokie współczynniki korelacji dla danych uczących (0,922) i walidacyjnych (0,897), a także dla całego zbioru danych (0,911) wskazują na dobrą zdolność modelu do przewidywania i generalizacji. Algorytm SCG prezentuje się nieco inaczej. Mimo że współczynniki dla danych uczących (0,721) i walidacyjnych (0,819) są niższe niż w LM, model utrzymuje umiarkowaną zdolność do generalizacji, jak to widać w wyniku R=0,752 dla całego zbioru danych. Algorytm BR prezentuje słabsze\n\nwyniki od pozostałych modeli. Mimo że współczynnik korelacji R dla danych uczących osiąga wysoką wartość 0,9988, co wskazuje na doskonałe dopasowanie modelu do danych uczących, to jednak wartość dla danych walidacyjnych jest dużo niższa (0,8765). Może to sugerować, że model jest nieco przeuczony w stosunku do danych uczących, co wpływa na jego generalizację na danych walidacyjnych z wynikiem 0,7743 dla całego zbioru danych. Podsumowując, algorytm LM okazał się najbardziej efektywny zarówno pod względem szybkości osiągania zbieżności, jak i dokładności modelowania.\nNa ryc. 4.13 zaprezentowano wyniki dotyczące parametru chropowatości powierzchni RSm, które zostały uzyskane za pomocą modelu wykorzystującego algorytm LM. Analiza opierała się na trzech zmiennych wejściowych, a wynikowe zmiany wartości parametru chropowatości RSm zostały przedstawione w odniesieniu do dwóch kombinacji parametrów skrawania: v/f i f /a .\nc z z p a b\nRyc. 4.13. Parametr chropowatości RSm uzyskany z modelu dla sieci MLP w zależności od v/f i f/a .\nc z z p\nPodsumowując, analiza porównawcza różnych algorytmów uczenia sieci neuronowych wykazała, że algorytm LM osiąga najlepsze wyniki pod względem szybkości uczenia, dokładności przewidywań oraz ogólnej jakości modeli dla wszystkich analizowanych parametrów chropowatości Ra, Rz i RSm. Algorytmy\nSCG i BR, mimo pewnych zalet, nie dorównują efektywnością algorytmowi LM, co czyni go najskuteczniejszym narzędziem do modelowania chropowatości powierzchni w przedstawionych badaniach.\nNastępnie przeprowadzono modelowanie parametrów chropowatości Ra,\nRz i RSm z wykorzystaniem GBM. Dla każdego z parametrów przetestowano liczbę drzew od 50 do 1000. Otrzymane wyniki przedstawia tabela 4.5.\n\nTabela 4.5. W skaźniki jakości dla modelowania parametrów chropowatości Ra, Rz i RSm z wykorzystaniem GBM\nParametr chropowatości Ra Rz RSm\nLiczba drzew 500 50 500\nMSE 0,0019 0,0266 0,000031\nRMSE 0,0445 0,1633 0,0055\nRIE 0,1098 0,0648 0,1352\nMAPE 0,0497 0,0502 0,1323\nMAE 0,0231 0,125 0,0054\nW przypadku modelowania parametrów chropowatości z wykorzystaniem\nGBM najlepsze wyniki uzyskano przy liczbie drzew odpowiednio 500 dla Ra,\n50 dla Rz oraz 500 dla RSm. Modele GBM również wykazały wysoką dokładność predykcji, jednakże ich jakość jest nieco gorsza w porównaniu z najlepszymi wynikami uzyskanymi przez MLP z algorytmem LM. Wartości MSE,\nRMSE, MAPE i MAE są wyższe dla GBM niż dla LM.\nPodsumowując, algorytm LM w sieciach neuronowych MLP okazał się najskuteczniejszym narzędziem do modelowania parametrów chropowatości powierzchni 2D, oferując najlepszą kombinację szybkości uczenia, dokładności oraz ogólnej jakości modeli. GBM, choć również efektywny, nie osiągnął tak wysokiej dokładności, jak LM, co sugeruje, że MLP z algorytmem LM jest bardziej odpowiednie do modelowania tego typu danych. W związku z powyższym modele otrzymane z wykorzystaniem algorytmu LM zostaną wykorzystane w dalszej analizie optymalizacyjnej.\n4.4.3. Optymalizacja parametrów obróbki\nKolejnym etapem prowadzonych badań był proces optymalizacji parametrów obróbki v , f i a , mający na celu uzyskanie określonych wartości parametrów c z p chropowatości powierzchni: Ra, Rz oraz RSm. Optymalizacja została przeprowadzona przy użyciu najlepszych modeli sieci neuronowych opracowanych na wcześniejszym etapie badań dla każdego z tych parametrów, które zostały zaprezentowane w podrozdziale 4.4.2.\nAby zoptymalizować parametry obróbki, najpierw określono zakresy oraz kroki zmian dla trzech głównych parametrów wejściowych: prędkości skrawania (v), posuwu na ostrze (f ) oraz głębokości skrawania (a ). Zakresy te zostały c z p dobrane na podstawie praktycznych wartości stosowanych w procesie obróbki,\n\nczyli w zakresach takich jak podczas prowadzenia badań doświadczalnych\n(v = 400÷1200 [m/min], f = 0,05÷0,3 [mm/ostrze] oraz a = 0,5÷6 [mm]).\nc z p\nZałożono, że prędkość skrawania może się zmieniać co 50 [m/min], posuw na ostrze co 0,05 [mm/ostrze], zaś głębokość skrawania co 0,5 [mm].\nNastępnie zdefiniowano zakresy docelowe dla parametrów wyjściowych, które założono do uzyskania w wyniku optymalizacji. Zakresy te odpowiadają minimalnym i maksymalnym wartościom Ra, Rz oraz RSm, które są akceptowalne pod względem jakości powierzchni po obróbce.\nW procesie optymalizacji przestrzeń parametrów została przeszukana w celu znalezienia takich wartości v , f i a , które minimalizują błąd w stoc z p sunku do zadanych zakresów Ra, Rz i RSm. Dla każdego parametru chropowatości zdefiniowano funkcję błędu w stosunku do zakresu docelowego:\nż ż ż ż (4.5) ż ż gdzie:\n, , – funkcje błędu dla poszczególnych parametrów chropowatości Ra, Rz i RSm;\n, , – dolne granice zakresów docelowych parametrów chropowatości Ra, Rz i RSm;\n, , – górne granice zakresów docelowych parametrów chropowatości Ra, Rz i RSm;\n, , – wyliczona wartość parametrów chropowatości przez sieć neuronową dla zadanych wartości odpowiednio dla parametru Ra, Rz i RSm.\nŁączny błąd jest sumą poszczególnych błędów:\n(4.6)\n\nFunkcja optymalizacyjna może być zapisana jako:\n(4.7)\nOpracowany algorytm 4.1 przeszukiwał wszystkie kombinacje zadanych wartości wejściowych, a następnie obliczał wartość wyjściową przy użyciu wcześniej wytrenowanych sieci neuronowych.\nAlgorytm 4.1. Optymalizacja parametrów obróbki\n% Inicjalizacja zmiennych do przechowywania najlepszych wyników bestParams = [];\nbestError = inf;\n% Przeszukiwanie przestrzeni parametrów for vc = vcValues for fz = fzValues for ap = apValues\n% Aktualne wartości parametrów wejściowych params = [vc, fz, ap];\n% Wyznaczanie wartości wyjściowych z sieci neuronowych\nRa = netRa(params');\nRz = netRz(params');\nRSm = netRSm(params');\n% Obliczanie błędu\nRaError = calculateError(Ra, RaTarget);\nRzError = calculateError(Rz, RzTarget);\nRSmError = calculateError(RSm, RSmTarget);\ntotalError = RaError + RzError + RSmError;\n% Aktualizacja najlepszych wyników if totalError < bestError bestError = totalError;\nbestParams = params;\nbestRa = Ra;\nbestRz = Rz;\nbestRSm = RSm;\nend end end end\n\nAlgorytm 4.1. Optymalizacja parametrów obróbki, cd.\n% Tworzenie komunikatu wyników resultMessage = sprintf(‚Optymalne parametry:\\nvc = %.2f\\nfz = %.2f\\ nap = %.2f\\nOdchylenie od założonego zakresu = %.4f\\n\\nOtrzymane wartości:\\nRa = %.4f\\nRz = %.4f\\nRSm = %.4f\\n', ...\nbestParams(1), bestParams(2), bestParams(3), bestError, bestRa, bestRz, bestRSm);\n% Wyświetlanie wyników w osobnym oknie dialogowym msgbox(resultMessage, 'Wyniki optymalizacji');\n% Definicja funkcji do obliczania błędu function error = calculateError(value, targetRange) if value < targetRange(1) error = targetRange(1) - value;\nelseif value > targetRange(2) error = value - targetRange(2);\nelse error = 0; % Wartość jest w zakresie docelowym end end\nAby korzystanie z algorytmu optymalizacyjnego było bardziej przyjazne i intuicyjne dla użytkownika, stworzono interfejs graficzny, który pozwala na łatwe wprowadzanie danych wejściowych oraz szybkie uzyskiwanie wyników optymalizacji. Dzięki temu użytkownicy mogą skupić się na analizie wyników bez konieczności zagłębiania się w szczegóły kodu źródłowego.\nInterfejs graficzny został zaprojektowany tak, aby był prosty i intuicyjny w obsłudze (ryc. 4.20). W górnej części interfejsu znajduje się nagłówek „Optymalizacja parametrów chropowatości”, który jasno informuje użytkownika o celu aplikacji. Centralną część stanowią pola tekstowe, w których użytkownik może wprowadzić zakresy docelowe dla trzech parametrów chropowatości: Ra [μm], Rz [μm] oraz RSm [mm]. Każdy z tych parametrów ma osobne pole tekstowe umożliwiające wprowadzenie wartości minimalnych i maksymalnych.\nPod polami wprowadzania znajduje się przycisk „Optymalizuj”. Po jego kliknięciu uruchamiany jest algorytm optymalizacyjny, który przeszukuje przestrzeń parametrów, aby znaleźć optymalne wartości. W dolnej części interfejsu wyświetlane będą wyniki przeprowadzonej optymalizacji. W tej sekcji użytkownik może zobaczyć optymalne parametry, czyli najlepsze wartości prędkości skrawania (v ), posuwu na ostrze (f ) oraz głębokości skrawania (a ) uzyskane c z p\n\nw wyniku optymalizacji. Dodatkowo wyświetlana będzie wartość błędu, informująca o tym, jak dobrze uzyskane wyniki mieszczą się w zadanych zakresach docelowych. Ostatecznie prezentowane będą również przewidywane wartości parametrów Ra, Rz i RSm, które zostały obliczone na podstawie optymalnych parametrów wejściowych.\nRyc. 4.14. Interfejs użytkownika aplikacji do optymalizacji parametrów chropowatości\nPrzedstawiony poniżej kod ilustruje sposób implementacji opisanego interfejsu graficznego (algorytm 4.2).\nAlgorytm 4.2. Implementacja interfejsu graficznego do optymalizacji parametrów chropowatości function Optymalizacja_Chropowatosci()\n% Ładowanie wytrenowanych sieci load('netRa.mat', 'netRa'); % Sieć Ra load('netRz.mat', 'netRz'); % Sieć Rz load('netRSm.mat', 'netRSm'); % Sieć RSm\n% Tworzenie interfejsu graficznego fig = figure('Position', [100, 100, 600, 600], 'Name',\n'Optymalizacja Parametrów Chropowatości', 'Color', [1, 0.85, 0.8]);\n% Nagłówek uicontrol('Style', 'text', 'Position', [100, 550, 450, 40],\n'String', 'Optymalizacja parametrów chropowatości', 'FontSize',\n16, 'FontWeight', 'bold', 'BackgroundColor', [1, 0.85, 0.8],\n'HorizontalAlignment', 'center');\n\nAlgorytm 4.2. Implementacja interfejsu graficznego do optymalizacji parametrów chropowatości, cd.\n% Ramka wokół pól wprowadzania danych uicontrol('Style', 'frame', 'Position', [25, 320, 550, 220],\n'BackgroundColor', [0.9, 0.9, 0.9]);\n% Pola wprowadzania zakresów docelowych uicontrol('Style', 'text', 'Position', [50, 500, 200, 20],\n'String', 'Ra [μm] (min-max)', 'BackgroundColor', [0.9, 0.9, 0.9],\n'FontSize', 13, 'HorizontalAlignment', 'left');\nraMinInput = uicontrol('Style', 'edit', 'Position', [300, 500, 80,\n20], 'FontSize', 12);\nraMaxInput = uicontrol('Style', 'edit', 'Position', [400, 500, 80,\n20], 'FontSize', 12);\nuicontrol('Style', 'text', 'Position', [50, 450, 200, 20],\n'String', 'Rz [μm] (min-max)', 'BackgroundColor', [0.9, 0.9, 0.9],\n'FontSize', 13, 'HorizontalAlignment', 'left');\nrzMinInput = uicontrol('Style', 'edit', 'Position', [300, 450, 80,\n20], 'FontSize', 12);\nrzMaxInput = uicontrol('Style', 'edit', 'Position', [400, 450, 80,\n20], 'FontSize', 12);\nuicontrol('Style', 'text', 'Position', [50, 400, 200, 20],\n'String', 'RSm [mm] (min-max)', 'BackgroundColor', [0.9, 0.9, 0.9],\n'FontSize', 13, 'HorizontalAlignment', 'left');\nrsmMinInput = uicontrol('Style', 'edit', 'Position', [300, 400,\n80, 20], 'FontSize', 12);\nrsmMaxInput = uicontrol('Style', 'edit', 'Position', [400, 400,\n80, 20], 'FontSize', 12);\n% Przycisk do optymalizacji optimizeButton = uicontrol('Style', 'pushbutton', 'Position',\n[250, 330, 100, 40], 'String', 'Optymalizuj', 'BackgroundColor',\n[0.2, 0.6, 0.8], 'ForegroundColor', 'white', 'FontWeight', 'bold',\n'FontSize', 12, 'Callback', @optimizeCallback);\n% Pole do wyświetlania wyników resultText = uicontrol('Style', 'text', 'Position', [50, 50, 500,\n250], 'String', '', 'FontSize', 14, 'BackgroundColor', [1, 0.85,\n0.8], 'HorizontalAlignment', 'left');\n% Callback do przycisku optymalizacji function optimizeCallback(~, ~)\n% Pobieranie danych wejściowych\nRaTarget = [str2double(get(raMinInput, 'String')), str2double(get(raMaxInput, 'String'))];\nRzTarget = [str2double(get(rzMinInput, 'String')), str2double(get(rzMaxInput, 'String'))];\n\nAlgorytm 4.2. Implementacja interfejsu graficznego do optymalizacji parametrów chropowatości, cd.\nRSmTarget = [str2double(get(rsmMinInput, 'String')), str2double(get(rsmMaxInput, 'String'))];\n% Sprawdzenie poprawności danych wejściowych if any(isnan([RaTarget, RzTarget, RSmTarget])) set(resultText, 'String', 'Błąd: Proszę wprowadzić poprawne dane wejściowe.');\nreturn;\nend\n% Definicja zakresów przeszukiwania vcValues = 400:50:1200;\nfzValues = 0.05:0.05:0.3;\napValues = 0.5:0.5:6;\n% Inicjalizacja zmiennych do przechowywania najlepszych wyników bestParams = [];\nbestError = inf;\nbestRa = NaN;\nbestRz = NaN;\nbestRSm = NaN;\n% Przeszukiwanie przestrzeni parametrów for vc = vcValues for fz = fzValues for ap = apValues\n% Aktualne wartości parametrów wejściowych params = [vc, fz, ap];\n% Wyznaczanie wartości wyjściowych z sieci neuronowych\nRa = netRa(params');\nRz = netRz(params');\nRSm = netRSm(params');\n% Obliczanie błędu\nRaError = calculateError(Ra, RaTarget);\nRzError = calculateError(Rz, RzTarget);\nRSmError = calculateError(RSm, RSmTarget);\ntotalError = RaError + RzError + RSmError;\n% Aktualizacja najlepszych wyników if totalError < bestError bestError = totalError;\nbestParams = params;\nbestRa = Ra;\nbestRz = Rz;\nbestRSm = RSm;\n\nAlgorytm 4.2. Implementacja interfejsu graficznego do optymalizacji parametrów chropowatości, cd.\nend end end end\n% Tworzenie komunikatu wyników resultMessage = sprintf('Optymalne parametry:\\nvc = %.2f m/ min\\nfz = %.2f mm/ostrze\\nap = %.2f mm\\nOdchylenie od założonego zakresu = %.4f\\n\\nOtrzymane wartości:\\nRa = %.4f μm\\nRz = %.4f μm\\ nRSm = %.4f mm\\n', ...\nbestParams(1), bestParams(2), bestParams(3), bestError, bestRa, bestRz, bestRSm);\n% Wyświetlanie wyników w interfejsie set(resultText, 'String', resultMessage);\nend\n% Definicja funkcji do obliczania błędu function error = calculateError(value, targetRange) if value < targetRange(1) error = targetRange(1) - value;\nelseif value > targetRange(2) error = value - targetRange(2);\nelse error = 0; % Wartość jest w zakresie docelowym end end end\nInterfejs został zaprojektowany z myślą o zapewnieniu przejrzystości oraz łatwości obsługi, co umożliwia szybkie uzyskanie rezultatów i analizę ich zgodności z założonymi wymaganiami. Dzięki graficznemu przedstawieniu procesu optymalizacji użytkownik może w łatwy sposób monitorować wyniki i dokonywać potrzebnych zmian w parametrach wejściowych.\nPrzykład 1. działania algorytmu dla założonych parametrów obróbki: Ra w zakresie 0,35÷0,39 [μm], Rz w zakresie 2,3÷2,5 [μm] oraz RSm w zakresie\n0,04÷0,05 [mm] przedstawia ryc. 4.15. Po weryfikacji otrzymanych wartości parametrów chropowatości można stwierdzić, że zawierają się w założonych granicach.\n\nRyc. 4.15. Przykład 1. działania algorytmu optymalizującego\nPrzykład 2. działania algorytmu dla założonych parametrów obróbki w następujących zakresach: Ra 0,39÷0,42 [μm], Rz 2,7÷2,8 [μm] oraz RSm 0,035÷0,04 [mm] przedstawia ryc. 4.16. Po weryfikacji otrzymanych wartości parametrów chropowatości można stwierdzić, że mieszczą się w założonych granicach, podobnie jak miało to miejsce w poprzednim przypadku.\nNa podstawie przeprowadzonych badań oraz optymalizacji parametrów obróbki można stwierdzić, że zaproponowany algorytm skutecznie znajduje optymalne wartości parametrów wejściowych (v , f , a ), które prowadzą c z p do uzyskania założonych wartości parametrów chropowatości powierzchni\n(Ra, Rz, RSm). Wyniki pokazują, że zarówno w pierwszym, jak i drugim przykładzie otrzymane wartości parametrów chropowatości mieszczą się w zakładanych granicach, potwierdzając efektywność zastosowanego podejścia.\nOptymalizacja parametrów obróbki przy użyciu sieci neuronowych pozwala na precyzyjne dostosowanie procesu do wymagań jakościowych powierzchni.\n\nRyc. 4.16. Przykład 2. działania algorytmu optymalizującego\n4.5. Optymalizacja parametrów obróbki przy ograniczeniach siłowych\nModelowanie sił skrawania odgrywa ważną rolę w procesie wytwarzania elementów maszyn i urządzeń, zwłaszcza przy użyciu nowoczesnych materiałów, takich jak stopy magnezu. W przemyśle lotniczym, gdzie dąży się do zmniejszenia masy elementów konstrukcyjnych, coraz częściej obrabia się części cienkościenne technologią frezowania, w tym frezowania HSM (High-\nSpeed Machining). Siły skrawania, będące jednym z głównych wskaźników skrawalności, mają istotny wpływ na odkształcenia elementów obrabianych, a ich nadmierna wartość może prowadzić do pogorszenia jakości powierzchni oraz zwiększenia drgań w systemie OUPN (Obrabiarka-Uchwyt-Przedmiot-\nNarzędzie) [170,171].\nModelowanie tych sił jest więc istotne dla optymalizacji procesu obróbki, pozwala na określenie parametrów skrawania, które minimalizują negatywne skutki, takie jak nadmierne odkształcenia czy pogorszenie jakości powierzchni. Tradycyjne metody analityczne często zawodzą z powodu\n\nzłożoności i nieliniowości procesów obróbkowych. Stąd zastosowanie sztucznych sieci neuronowych skutkuje stworzeniem dokładniejszych modeli przyczynowo-skutkowych między parametrami skrawania a siłami skrawania.\nJednak samo zamodelowanie składowej czy składowych siły skrawania nie przekłada się na wskazanie dla technologa konkretnych parametrów obróbki, otrzymanego modelu nie można bezpośrednio wykorzystać do doboru optymalnych parametrów obróbki. Zakładając, że proces produkcji będzie przebiegał w warunkach odpowiadających tym, w których stworzono model, konieczne jest wyselekcjonowanie z wielowymiarowej przestrzeni parametrów kontrolnych takiego zestawu, który zapewni osiągnięcie wymagań zapisanych w dokumentacji technicznej produktu. Ponadto nie może to być dowolny zestaw spełniający te wymagania (nieprzekroczenie wartości siły), ale taki, który gwarantuje maksymalną wydajność procesu. W takich przypadkach wykorzystuje się tzw. inżynierię odwrotną, której celem jest znalezienie optymalnej przestrzeni parametrów wejściowych prowadzących do osiągnięcia zamierzonego parametru wyjściowego. Proces ten polega na selekcji zestawu parametrów, który spełnia określone kryteria, takie jak np.\nwydajność procesu.\nTaki model siły skrawania może jednak zostać wykorzystany do stworzenia algorytmu optymalizującego parametry obróbki, którego celem będzie wyznaczenie jednego rozwiązania spełniającego maksymalną wydajność obróbki.\n4.5.1. Metodyka modelowania siły skrawania\nW ramach badań nad modelowaniem sił skrawania, ze względu na dominujący wpływ składowej siły F na odkształcenia przedmiotu obrabianego, x przyjęto ten parametr jako wielkość wyjściową w budowanym modelu i tylko tą składową modelowano. Proces modelowania przeprowadzono za pomocą sieci neuronowych MLP w oprogramowaniu Matlab 2023a. W ramach badań nad modelowaniem sił skrawania zdecydowano się na zastosowanie sieci neuronowej MLP ze względu na specyficzne wymagania wynikające z bardzo małego zestawu danych. Liczba próbek (46 obserwacji) wymagała wyboru modelu, który jest wystarczająco złożony, aby uchwycić istotne zależności w danych, ale jednocześnie na tyle prosty, aby uniknąć problemów związanych z nadmiernym dopasowaniem. Z tego powodu zastosowano MLP z jedną warstwą ukrytą, której liczba neuronów była iteracyjnie dostosowywana w celu znalezienia optymalnej konfiguracji, w zakresie od 2 do 12 neuronów.\n\nWarstwa wejściowa modelu składała się z trzech neuronów wejściowych, reprezentujących zmienne parametry obróbki: prędkość skrawania (v), posuw c na ostrze (f ) i głębokość skrawania (a ). Warstwa wyjściowa składała się z jedz p nego neuronu, który modelował składową F siły skrawania.\nx\nW badaniu zastosowano domyślną metodę inicjalizacji wag, która zapewnia stabilne warunki początkowe dla procesu uczenia. W warstwie ukrytej sieci zastosowano funkcję aktywacji typu sigmoidalnego. W procesie oceny jakości modelu zastosowano funkcję kosztu typu MSE. W badaniu analizowano trzy algorytmy uczenia: LM, BR oraz SCG. Celem było określenie optymalnej liczby neuronów w warstwie ukrytej, która zapewni najlepszą jakość modelu. Proces rozpoczęto od zastosowania algorytmu LM ze względu na jego efektywne właściwości szybkiej zbieżności, szczególnie w problemach z ograniczoną ilością danych. Iteracyjnie testowano różne konfiguracje liczby neuronów w warstwie ukrytej (od 2 do 12), używając algorytmu LM. W wyniku tego podejścia udało się wyłonić konfigurację sieci, która zapewniła najwyższą jakość przetwarzania danych. Następnie, wykorzystując ustaloną liczbę neuronów, przystąpiono do trenowania sieci za pomocą pozostałych algorytmów: SCG oraz BR. Procedura została przeprowadzona analogicznie, jak w przypadku modelowania parametrów chropowatości. Dzięki identycznej architekturze sieci możliwe było bezpośrednie porównanie efektywności poszczególnych algorytmów.\nZestaw danych eksperymentalnych składał się z 46 obserwacji, podzielonych w proporcji 75% : 25%, gdzie pierwsza wartość oznaczała udział danych uczących, a druga – danych walidacyjnych. Ze względu na małą ilość danych pominięto dane testowe. Aby uniknąć przeuczenia sieci, zastosowano mechanizm wczesnego zatrzymania, ustawiony na poziomie 6. Wydajność i jakość sieci oceniano przy użyciu wskaźników jakościowych, takich jak: R, MSE, RMSE, RIE, MAPE i MAE.\n4.5.2. Wyniki modelowania siły skrawania\nSkładową siły skrawania, która została zamodelowana z wykorzystaniem sieci neuronowych MLP, była składowa F . W procesie uczenia, wykorzystując algox rytm LM, uzyskano najlepsze parametry jakościowe dla sieci neuronowej z siedmioma neuronami w warstwie ukrytej. Osiągnięto to po 9 epokach uczenia.\nNastępnie dla warstwy ukrytej zawierającej siedem neuronów trenowano sieci neuronowe MLP z wykorzystaniem dwóch pozostałych algorytmów: SCG oraz\nBR. Tabela 4.6 przedstawia wskaźniki jakości trzech modeli sieci neuronowych.\nAlgorytm LM wymagał 9 epok do osiągnięcia najlepszych wyników, podczas gdy\nSCG i BR wymagały odpowiednio 19 i 83 epok. Współczynnik korelacji R dla\n\nLM wyniósł 0,999, co wskazuje na najwyższą dokładność w porównaniu z SCG i BR. Pod względem MSE algorytm LM osiągnął wartość 160,59, co jest znacznie niższe niż dla SCG i BR. Podobnie przedstawiają się wartości dla wszystkich pozostałych analizowanych błędów. Na podstawie tych wskaźników można stwierdzić, że algorytm LM zapewnia najlepszą jakość modelowania składowej\nF w porównaniu z algorytmami SCG i BR.\nx\nTabela 4.6. Wskaźniki jakości dla różnych algorytmów uczenia sieci MLP dla składowej F x\nAlgorytm uczenia sieci MLP LM SCG BR\nEpoka 9 19 83\nR (cały zbiór danych) 0,999 0,989 0,993\nMSE 160,59 1657,24 1120,38\nRMSE 12,67 40,71 33,47\nRIE 0,0168 0,0542 0,0446\nMAPE 0,0193 0,0439 0,0317\nMAE 10,56 29,67 20,75 a b\n\nc\nRyc. 4.17. Najlepsza wydajność modelu F dla sieci MLP z algorytmem uczenia: a) LM, b) SCG, c) BR x\nRyc. 4.17 ilustruje wykresy z najlepszą wydajnością modelu F dla sieci x z trzema różnymi algorytmami uczenia: LM, SCG i BR. Analiza wykresów wskazuje na różnice w efektywności i zbieżności trzech algorytmów uczenia sieci neuronowych dla modelu F . Algorytm LM wykazał się najniższym x\nMSE podczas walidacji, co sugeruje jego najwyższą precyzję w modelowaniu składowej F . Zbieżność algorytmu LM jest również szybsza, osiąga najx lepsze wyniki już po 16 epokach. Algorytm SCG, choć wymagał mniej epok do osiągnięcia najlepszej wydajności walidacji w porównaniu z BR, charakteryzował się znacznie wyższym MSE, co wskazuje na jego niższą dokładność. Algorytm BR, mimo większej liczby epok, osiągnął lepsze wyniki niż\nSCG, ale nie dorównał precyzji LM. Wnioski te sugerują, że dla modelowania składowej F w analizowanym kontekście algorytm LM jest najbardziej x efektywny i precyzyjny.\nNa ryc. 4.18 przedstawiono wykresy korelacji dla zestawów danych uczących, walidacyjnych i całych zestawów danych dla modeli MLP z różnymi algorytmami uczenia: a) LM, b) SCG, c) BR.\n\na b c\nRyc. 4.18. Wykresy korelacji dla modelu F z algorytmem uczenia: a) LM, b) SCG, c) BR x\nPodsumowując, analiza porównawcza wyników dla modelowania składowej siły skrawania F wskazuje, że algorytm LM wydaje się najbardziej x efektywny pod względem szybkości uczenia, dokładności oraz ogólnej jakości wyników w porównaniu z dwoma pozostałymi.\nNa ryc. 4.19 zilustrowano wielkość składowej F siły skrawania uzyskaną x z modelu MLP z wykorzystaniem algorytmu LM. W badaniu uwzględniono trzy parametry wejściowe, dlatego zmiany wartości składowej F zostały zilux strowane w kontekście par parametrów skrawania: v/f i f /a . Symulacje przec z z p prowadzono, wprowadzając dane wejściowe (tj. parametry frezowania v, a , f ) c p z do oprogramowania Matlab, a następnie uzyskano wynik z modelu w postaci składowej F siły skrawania.\nx\n\na b\nRyc. 4.19. Składowa F siły skrawania uzyskana z modelu MLP z algorytmem uczenia LM x w zależności od v/f i f/a c z z p\n4.5.3. Optymalizacja parametrów obróbki\nW procesie optymalizacji parametrów obróbki celem jest znalezienie optymalnych wartości prędkości skrawania (v ), posuwu na ostrze (f ) oraz głębokoc z ści skrawania (a ), które minimalizują siłę skrawania F przy jednoczesnym p x zachowaniu wysokiej wydajności procesu (maksymalizowaniu wydajności objętościowej frezowania). Optymalizacja została przeprowadzona przy użyciu modelu sieci neuronowej MLP, który został wcześniej wytrenowany na danych eksperymentalnych. Model ten przewiduje wartość składowej F siły x skrawania na podstawie wartości parametrów obróbki v , f i a .\nc z p\nZakresy oraz kroki zmian dla trzech głównych parametrów wejściowych zostały określone na podstawie praktycznych wartości stosowanych w procesie obróbki frezowaniem:\nÒ prędkość skrawania (v ): 400÷1200 [m/min] (krok: 10 [m/min]);\nc\nÒ posuw na ostrze (f ): 0,05÷0,3 [mm/ostrze] (krok: 0,01 [mm/ostrze]);\nz\nÒ głębokość skrawania (a ): 0,5÷6 [mm] (krok: 0,1 [mm]).\np\nZakresy docelowe dla parametru F zostały zdefiniowane na podstawie x dopuszczalnych wartości sił skrawania, które nie powodują nadmiernych odkształceń obrabianego przedmiotu.\nFunkcja celu w optymalizacji parametrów obróbki jest zdefiniowana jako negatywna wydajność objętościowa frezowania. Negatywną wartość stosuje się, aby optymalizacja polegała na maksymalizowaniu wydajności poprzez minimalizację negatywnej wartości.\nWydajność objętościowa frezowania jest obliczana na podstawie prędkości obrotowej wrzeciona, prędkości posuwowej oraz szerokości i głębokości frezowania.\n\nÒ Prędkość obrotowa wrzeciona [172]:\n(4.8) gdzie:\nn – prędkość obrotowa wrzeciona [min-1];\nv – prędkość skrawania [m/min];\nc\nD – średnica narzędzia [mm].\nÒ Prędkość posuwowa [172]:\n(4.9) gdzie:\nv – prędkość posuwowa [mm/min];\nf f – posuw na ostrze [mm/ostrze];\nz z – liczba ostrzy frezu.\nÒ Wydajność objętościowa frezowania[173]:\n(4.10) gdzie:\nQ – wydajność objętościowa frezowania [cm3/min];\na – szerokość frezowania [mm];\ne a – głębokość skrawania [mm].\np\nMatematycznie funkcja celu jest zdefiniowana jako:\nWydajność = –Q (4.10)\nW kodzie Matlab funkcja celu jest zdefiniowana jako algorytm 4.3.\nAlgorytm 4.3. Definicja funkcji celu\n% Definicja funkcji celu (wydajność objętościowa frezowania) function Q = calculateVolumeEfficiency(vc, fz, ap) n = (vc * 1000) / (D * pi); % Prędkość obrotowa wrzeciona [min^-1] vf = fz * z * n; % Prędkość posuwowa [mm/min]\nQ = (ae * ap * vf) / 1000; % Wydajność objętościowa [cm^3/min] end\n% Definicja funkcji celu (negatywna wydajność objętościowa) objectiveFunction = @(x) -calculateVolumeEfficiency(x(1), x(2), x(3));\n\nDla składowej siły F zdefiniowano funkcję błędu w stosunku do zakresu x docelowego, aby określić, czy wyliczone wartości siły mieszczą się w zadanych granicach:\nż ż (4.12) gdzie:\nE (v , F , a ) – funkcja błędu dla składowej siły F ;\nFx c z p x\nF – maksymalna dopuszczalna wartość siły F ;\nxmax xmax\n– wyliczona wartość składowej siły F przez sieć neux ronową dla zadanych wartości .\nProcedura optymalizacji polega na przeszukiwaniu przestrzeni parametrów v , f i a w zadanych zakresach i krokach zmian, aby znaleźć kombinac z p cję parametrów, która minimalizuje funkcję celu i jednocześnie spełnia ograniczenia. Przeszukiwanie przestrzeni parametrów realizowane jest w wyniku działania kodu przedstawionego jako algorytm 4.4.\nAlgorytm 4.4. Przeszukiwanie przestrzeni parametrów\n% Przeszukiwanie przestrzeni parametrów for vc = vc_values for fz = fz_values for ap = ap_values\n% Aktualne wartości parametrów wejściowych params = [vc, fz, ap];\n% Wyznaczanie wartości wyjściowych z sieci neuronowej\nFx = net(params’);\n% Obliczanie błędu if Fx < Fx_max error = Fx_max - Fx;\nelse error = Fx - Fx_max;\nend\n% Aktualizacja najlepszych wyników if error < bestError bestError = error;\nbestParams = params;\n\nAlgorytm 4.4. Przeszukiwanie przestrzeni parametrów, cd.\nbestFx = Fx;\nend end end end\nKolejny etap to zaokrąglenie wyników otrzymanych po optymalizacji parametrów wejściowych: v do najbliższej wielokrotności 10 [m/min], f do dwóch c z miejsc po przecinku (0,01 [mm]), a a do jednego miejsca po przecinku (0,1 p\n[mm]). Dalej następuje wyliczenie wartości składowej F dla zaokrąglonych parax metrów wejściowych oraz wyświetlenie wyników. W celu łatwiejszego korzystania z przygotowanego algorytmu zaproponowano prosty interfejs użytkownika.\nZostał przedstawiony na ryc. 4.20.\nRyc. 4.20. Interfejs użytkownika aplikacji doboru optymalnych parametrów obróbki\nInterfejs graficzny składa się z trzech głównych paneli: „Wartość Graniczna”,\n„Parametry Wejściowe” oraz „Wyniki Optymalizacji”. Panel „Wartość Graniczna” zawiera pole edycyjne służące do wprowadzania wartości granicznej siły F .\nx\nUżytkownik wprowadza tutaj maksymalną dopuszczalną wartość siły skrawania.\nPole edycyjne do wprowadzenia wartości granicznej siły F ma domyślną wartość x ustawioną na 500. Panel „Parametry Wejściowe” zawiera pola edycyjne służące do\n\nwprowadzania zakresu przestrzeni parametrów wejściowych, w których poszukuje się optymalnych wartości. Użytkownik może tutaj określić minimalne i maksymalne wartości prędkości skrawania (v), posuwu na ostrze (f) oraz głębokości c z skrawania (a ). Panel „Wyniki Optymalizacji” wyświetla wyniki procesu optyp malizacji, w tym optymalne wartości parametrów obróbki oraz obliczoną maksymalną wydajność i przewidywaną wartość F . Pola tekstowe w panelu obejmują:\nx\nÒ Optymalne v : Wyświetla optymalną wartość prędkości skrawania;\nc\nÒ Optymalny f : Wyświetla optymalną wartość posuwu na ostrze;\nz\nÒ Optymalny a : Wyświetla optymalną wartość głębokości skrawania;\np\nÒ Maksymalna wydajność: Wyświetla maksymalną wydajność objętościową frezowania;\nÒ Wyliczone F : Wyświetla przewidywaną wartość siły skrawania F na x x podstawie optymalnych parametrów.\nPrzycisk „Optymalizuj” uruchamia proces optymalizacji na podstawie wprowadzonych danych. Po jego naciśnięciu funkcja callback (opisana w algorytmie 4.5) przeprowadza optymalizację parametrów skrawania (uruchamia odpowiedni fragment kodu), wyznaczając optymalne wartości v , f i a , c z p które minimalizują siłę skrawania F przy jednoczesnym maksymalizowaniu x wydajności objętościowej frezowania. Interfejs graficzny został zaprojektowany w sposób intuicyjny, umożliwiając użytkownikowi łatwe wprowadzenie niezbędnych danych wejściowych, uruchomienie procesu optymalizacji oraz przeglądanie wyników. Budowa pełnego algorytmu optymalizacyjnego łącznie z interfejsem została przedstawiona jako algorytm 4.5.\nAlgorytm 4.5. Algorytm optymalizacyjny parametrów obróbki przy ograniczeniach siłowych function skrawanie_optimalizer\n% Wczytaj lub zdefiniuj tutaj swoją sieć neuronową 'net' load('net.mat', 'net'); % Przykład wczytania sieci z pliku%\nTworzenie głównego okna GUI f = figure('Position', [300, 300, 500, 650], 'Name',\n'Optymalizacja Parametrów Skrawania', 'NumberTitle', 'off');\n% Panel do wprowadzenia wartości granicznej Fx p1 = uipanel('Title', 'Wartość Graniczna', 'FontSize', 12,\n'Position', [0.05 0.85 0.9 0.1]);\nuicontrol('Parent', p1, 'Style', 'text', 'Position', [20, 20,\n140, 20], 'String', 'Graniczna wartość Fx:', 'HorizontalAlignment',\n'left');\nfxEdit = uicontrol('Parent', p1, 'Style', 'edit', 'Position',\n[180, 20, 100, 20], 'String', '500');\n% Panel do wprowadzenia parametrów wejściowych\n\nAlgorytm 4.5. A lgorytm optymalizacyjny parametrów obróbki przy ograniczeniach siłowych, cd.\np2 = uipanel('Title', 'Parametry Wejściowe', 'FontSize', 12,\n'Position', [0.05 0.45 0.9 0.4]);\nuicontrol('Parent', p2, 'Style', 'text', 'Position', [20, 180,\n140, 20], 'String', 'Minimalna prędkość vc:', 'HorizontalAlignment',\n'left');\nvcMinEdit = uicontrol('Parent', p2, 'Style', 'edit', 'Position',\n[180, 180, 100, 20], 'String', '400');\nuicontrol('Parent', p2, 'Style', 'text', 'Position', [20, 150, 140,\n20], 'String', 'Minimalny posuw fz:', 'HorizontalAlignment', 'left');\nfzMinEdit = uicontrol('Parent', p2, 'Style', 'edit', 'Position',\n[180, 150, 100, 20], 'String', '0.05');\nuicontrol('Parent', p2, 'Style', 'text', 'Position', [20, 120,\n140, 20], 'String', 'Minimalna głębokość ap:', 'HorizontalAlignment',\n'left');\napMinEdit = uicontrol('Parent', p2, 'Style', 'edit', 'Position',\n[180, 120, 100, 20], 'String', '0.5');\nuicontrol('Parent', p2, 'Style', 'text', 'Position', [20, 90, 140,\n20], 'String', 'Maksymalna prędkość vc:', 'HorizontalAlignment',\n'left');\nvcMaxEdit = uicontrol('Parent', p2, 'Style', 'edit', 'Position',\n[180, 90, 100, 20], 'String', '1200');\nuicontrol('Parent', p2, 'Style', 'text', 'Position', [20, 60, 140,\n20], 'String', 'Maksymalny posuw fz:', 'HorizontalAlignment', 'left');\nfzMaxEdit = uicontrol('Parent', p2, 'Style', 'edit', 'Position',\n[180, 60, 100, 20], 'String', '0.3');\nuicontrol('Parent', p2, 'Style', 'text', 'Position', [20, 30, 140,\n20], 'String', 'Maksymalna głębokość ap:', 'HorizontalAlignment',\n'left');\napMaxEdit = uicontrol('Parent', p2, 'Style', 'edit', 'Position',\n[180, 30, 100, 20], 'String', '6');\n% Przycisk do wywołania optymalizacji uicontrol('Style', 'pushbutton', 'Position', [190, 260, 120, 30],\n'String', 'Optymalizuj', 'Callback', @(~,~) optimizeCallback(net));\n% Panel do wyświetlania wyników p3 = uipanel('Title', 'Wyniki Optymalizacji', 'FontSize', 12,\n'Position', [0.05 0.05 0.9 0.35]);\nuicontrol('Parent', p3, 'Style', 'text', 'Position', [20, 130, 140,\n20], 'String', 'Optymalne vc:', 'HorizontalAlignment', 'left');\nvcOptText = uicontrol('Parent', p3, 'Style', 'text', 'Position',\n[180, 130, 100, 20], 'String', '', 'BackgroundColor', 'white');\nuicontrol('Parent', p3, 'Style', 'text', 'Position', [20, 100,\n140, 20], 'String', 'Optymalny fz:', 'HorizontalAlignment', 'left');\n\nAlgorytm 4.5. A lgorytm optymalizacyjny parametrów obróbki przy ograniczeniach siłowych, cd.\nfzOptText = uicontrol(‘Parent’, p3, ‘Style’, ‘text’, ‘Position’,\n[180, 100, 100, 20], ‘String’, ‘’, ‘BackgroundColor’, ‘white’);\nuicontrol(‘Parent’, p3, ‘Style’, ‘text’, ‘Position’, [20, 70, 140,\n20], ‘String’, ‘Optymalny ap:’, ‘HorizontalAlignment’, ‘left’);\napOptText = uicontrol('Parent', p3, 'Style', 'text', 'Position',\n[180, 70, 100, 20], 'String', '', 'BackgroundColor', 'white');\nuicontrol('Parent', p3, 'Style', 'text', 'Position', [20, 40, 140,\n20], 'String', 'Maksymalna wydajność:', 'HorizontalAlignment', 'left');\nmaxEffText = uicontrol('Parent', p3, 'Style', 'text', 'Position',\n[180, 40, 100, 20], 'String', '', 'BackgroundColor', 'white');\nuicontrol('Parent', p3, 'Style', 'text', 'Position', [20, 10, 140, 20],\n'String', 'Wyliczone Fx:', 'HorizontalAlignment', 'left');\nfxCalcText = uicontrol('Parent', p3, 'Style', 'text', 'Position',\n[180, 10, 100, 20], 'String', '', 'BackgroundColor', 'white');\n% Funkcja callback dla przycisku optymalizacji function optimizeCallback(net)\n% Pobieranie wartości z pól edycyjnych\nFx_max = str2double(get(fxEdit, ‘String’));\nvc_min = str2double(get(vcMinEdit, ‘String’));\nfz_min = str2double(get(fzMinEdit, ‘String’));\nap_min = str2double(get(apMinEdit, ‘String’));\nvc_max = str2double(get(vcMaxEdit, ‘String’));\nfz_max = str2double(get(fzMaxEdit, ‘String’));\nap_max = str2double(get(apMaxEdit, ‘String’));\nD = 16; % Średnica narzędzia [mm] z = 2; % Liczba ostrzy frezu ae = 15; % Szerokość frezowania [mm]\n% Zakresy i kroki zmian parametrów wejściowych vc_values = vc_min:10:vc_max;\nfz_values = fz_min:0.01:fz_max;\nap_values = ap_min:0.1:ap_max;\n% Definicja funkcji celu (wydajność objętościowa frezowania) function Q = calculateVolumeEfficiency(vc, fz, ap) n = (vc * 1000) / (D * pi); % Prędkość obrotowa wrzeciona [min^-1] vf = fz * z * n; % Prędkość posuwowa [mm/min]\nQ = (ae * ap * vf) / 1000; % Wydajność objętościowa [cm^3/min] end\n% Definicja funkcji celu (negatywna wydajność objętościowa) objectiveFunction = @(x) -calculateVolumeEfficiency(x(1), x(2), x(3));\n\nAlgorytm 4.5. A lgorytm optymalizacyjny parametrów obróbki przy ograniczeniach siłowych, cd.\n% Definicja funkcji ograniczeń function [c, ceq] = constraints(x, net, Fx_max)\n% Wejścia do sieci neuronowej inputs = [x(1); x(2); x(3)];\n% Przewidywana wartość Fx z sieci neuronowej\nFx_pred = net(inputs);\n% Ograniczenia nierównościowe (Fx <= Fx_max) c = Fx_pred - Fx_max;\n% Brak ograniczeń równościowych ceq = [];\nend\n% Inicjalizacja zmiennych do przechowywania najlepszych wyników bestParams = [];\nbestError = inf;\n% Przeszukiwanie przestrzeni parametrów for vc = vc_values for fz = fz_values for ap = ap_values\n% Aktualne wartości parametrów wejściowych params = [vc, fz, ap];\n% Wyznaczanie wartości wyjściowych z sieci neuronowej\nFx = net(params’);\n% Obliczanie błędu if Fx < Fx_max error = Fx_max - Fx;\nelse error = Fx - Fx_max;\nend\n% Aktualizacja najlepszych wyników if error < bestError bestError = error;\nbestParams = params;\nbestFx = Fx;\nend end end end\n% Zaokrąglenie wyników vc_opt_rounded = round(bestParams(1) / 10) * 10;\nfz_opt_rounded = round(bestParams(2) * 100) / 100;\nap_opt_rounded = round(bestParams(3) * 10) / 10;\n\nAlgorytm 4.5. A lgorytm optymalizacyjny parametrów obróbki przy ograniczeniach siłowych, cd.\n% Wyznaczanie wartości wyjściowych z sieci neuronowej dla zaokrąglonych wyników inputs_opt_rounded = [vc_opt_rounded; fz_opt_rounded;\nap_opt_rounded];\nFx_pred_opt_rounded = net(inputs_opt_rounded);\nmaxEfficiency = calculateVolumeEfficiency(vc_opt_rounded, fz_ opt_rounded, ap_opt_rounded);\n% Wyświetlenie wyników w GUI set(vcOptText, 'String', num2str(vc_opt_rounded, '%.2f'));\nset(fzOptText, 'String', num2str(fz_opt_rounded, '%.2f'));\nset(apOptText, 'String', num2str(ap_opt_rounded, '%.2f'));\nset(maxEffText, 'String', num2str(maxEfficiency, '%.2f'));\nset(fxCalcText, 'String', num2str(Fx_pred_opt_rounded,\n'%.2f'));\nend end\nPrzykład 1. działania algorytmu dla założonej wartości granicznej\nF = 500 [N], przedstawia ryc. 4.21, zaś przykład 2. dla założonej wartości x granicznej F = 600 [N] – ryc. 4.22. Po weryfikacji otrzymanych wartości parax metrów można stwierdzić, że zawierają się one w założonych granicach.\nW ramach przeprowadzonych analiz opracowano algorytm optymalizacyjny parametrów obróbki, mający na celu znalezienie optymalnych wartości prędkości skrawania (v), posuwu na ostrze (f ) oraz głębokości skrawania (a ), c z p które minimalizują składową siły skrawania F , przy jednoczesnym maksyx malizowaniu wydajności objętościowej frezowania. Optymalizacja została przeprowadzona przy użyciu modelu sieci neuronowej wytrenowanego na danych eksperymentalnych, przewidującego wartość składowej F siły skrax wania na podstawie parametrów obróbki. Przykłady działania algorytmu dla różnych wartości granicznych F potwierdziły, że otrzymane parametry mieszx czą się w założonych granicach, co świadczy o skuteczności zaproponowanego podejścia.\n\nRyc. 4.21. Przykład 1. działania algorytmu optymalizacyjnego dla założonej wartości granicznej F = 500 [N] x\nRyc. 4.22. Przykład 2. działania algorytmu optymalizacyjnego dla założonej wartości granicznej F = 600 [N] x\n\n5. Ocena jakości wyrobów gotowych\nOcena jakości wyrobów gotowych z wykorzystaniem sztucznych sieci neuronowych w procesach produkcyjnych jest zagadnieniem, które w dużym stopniu determinuje efektywność i konkurencyjność współczesnych zakładów produkcyjnych. W zależności od podejścia do problemu jakości analiza ta może przyjmować charakter zarówno klasyfikacyjny, jak i regresyjny, co ma znaczenie dla doboru odpowiednich metod i narzędzi analizy. ANN, dzięki swojej elastyczności i zdolności do modelowania złożonych zależności, oferują szerokie spektrum możliwości w tym zakresie, jednakże wybór odpowiedniego modelu zależy od specyfiki zadania i rodzaju analizowanych danych.\nKlasyfikacja i regresja jako dwa podstawowe podejścia w ocenie jakości różnią się zasadniczo pod względem celu analizy. Problemy klasyfikacyjne koncentrują się na przypisaniu badanego obiektu do jednej z określonych klas, co ma szczególne znaczenie w przypadkach, gdzie konieczne jest jednoznaczne określenie, czy dany wyrób spełnia określone standardy jakości, czy też nie. Przykładem może być wykrywanie wad odlewniczych, gdzie klasyfikacja obrazu jako „bez wad” lub „z wadami” decyduje o dalszym losie produktu w procesie produkcyjnym. Z kolei regresję stosuje się w przypadkach, gdzie istotne jest przewidywanie ciągłych wartości związanych z jakością, takich jak grubość powłoki, chropowatość powierzchni czy inne parametry fizyczne, które wymagają dokładnej kwantyfikacji, a nie tylko binarnego podziału na klasy.\n\nW niniejszym rozdziale, w kolejnych podrozdziałach omówione zostaną oba podejścia z uwzględnieniem specyficznych przypadków zastosowań ANN w procesach produkcyjnych. W pierwszej kolejności przedstawiony zostanie problem klasyfikacyjny związany z wykrywaniem wad w odlewach. W ramach tych badań zastosowano technikę transfer learning, która umożliwia adaptację wcześniej wytrenowanych modeli do specyficznych zadań przemysłowych.\nTakie podejście pozwala na skrócenie czasu potrzebnego na uczenie sieci oraz na znaczną poprawę efektywności kontroli jakości. Drugi przypadek klasyfikacyjny dotyczy problemu wykrywania błędów kształtu na dynamicznych liniach produkcyjnych, gdzie obrazy obiektów są rozmyte z powodu ich ruchu na taśmociągu. Tutaj również zastosowanie znajdują techniki klasyfikacyjne, które pozwalają na precyzyjną identyfikację i lokalizację obiektów o niepożądanych kształtach, co jest istotne dla np. automatyzacji kontroli jakości w czasie rzeczywistym.\nW rozdziale zostanie również omówiony problem regresyjny, gdzie ANN wykorzystywane są do przewidywania twardości wyrobów gotowych po procesie odpuszczania, co jest ważnym aspektem w ocenie jakości materiałów metalowych. Odpuszczanie jako proces cieplny stosowany w przemyśle metalurgicznym ma na celu poprawę właściwości mechanicznych materiału, takich jak twardość, wytrzymałość i plastyczność. Precyzyjne określenie twardości po odpuszczaniu jest niezbędne, aby zapewnić, że wyrób końcowy spełnia wymagania techniczne oraz normy jakościowe.\nKolejnym istotnym aspektem, który zostanie omówiony, jest różnica w analizie danych w zależności od tego, czy rejestrujemy pojedynczy obiekt, czy obraz z linii produkcyjnej, na którym znajduje się wiele obiektów jednocześnie. Analiza pojedynczych obiektów, jak na przykład detekcja defektów w indywidualnych odlewach, jest relatywnie prostsza, ponieważ model koncentruje się na jednym, dobrze zdefiniowanym elemencie. W takich przypadkach istotny jest wybór sieci neuronowej o odpowiedniej głębokości i zdolności do rozpoznawania wzorców na poziomie detalu, co pozwala na dokładną klasyfikację lub regresję.\nZ kolei w przypadku analizy obrazów z linii produkcyjnej, gdzie na jednym obrazie znajduje się wiele obiektów, pojawia się dodatkowe wyzwanie związane z koniecznością lokalizacji, segmentacji oraz klasyfikacji wielu elementów jednocześnie. W takich przypadkach wybór odpowiedniej architektury sieci neuronowej, jak również parametrów modelu, zależy od specyfiki zadania.\nCNN w takich przypadkach mogą być bardziej efektywne ze względu na ich zdolność do analizowania skomplikowanych układów obiektów oraz wykrywania subtelnych różnic między nimi. Dodatkowo w takich scenariuszach często\n\nstosuje się techniki augmentacji danych oraz transfer learning, aby poprawić zdolność modelu do generalizacji na nowych danych produkcyjnych.\nWybór odpowiedniego podejścia do oceny jakości wyrobów gotowych za pomocą ANN zależy od wielu czynników, w tym od charakterystyki analizowanych danych oraz specyficznych wymagań procesu produkcyjnego. W dalszych częściach rozdziału omówione zostaną szczegółowo przykłady zastosowań zarówno klasyfikacyjnych, jak i regresyjnych modeli ANN, z uwzględnieniem różnic w analizie obrazów pojedynczych obiektów oraz tych pochodzących z linii produkcyjnych. Rozdział ten dostarczy wszechstronnego wglądu w możliwości, jakie oferują sztuczne sieci neuronowe w kontekście oceny jakości wyrobów gotowych, oraz przedstawi perspektywy ich zastosowania w różnych procesach produkcyjnych.\n5.1. Wykrywanie wad w odlewanych wyrobach gotowych – problem klasyfikacyjny\nWykrywanie wad w odlewanych wyrobach gotowych stanowi jedno z wyzwań współczesnej produkcji przemysłowej, szczególnie w branży metalurgicznej. Odlewanie jest zaawansowanym procesem produkcyjnym, polegającym na wlewaniu ciekłego materiału, najczęściej metalu, do formy zawierającej wnękę o precyzyjnie zaprojektowanym kształcie, który odpowiada wymiarom gotowego wyrobu. Po wypełnieniu formy materiał jest pozostawiany do stwardnienia, co pozwala na uzyskanie pożądanego kształtu i struktury odlewu. Proces ten, choć powszechnie stosowany, wiąże się z ryzykiem powstawania różnorodnych wad, które mogą znacząco obniżyć jakość wyrobów finalnych.\nDo najczęściej występujących wad odlewniczych należą pęcherze gazowe, mikropory, zadziory, wady skurczowe, wady materiału formy, wady wlewanego metalu oraz wady metalurgiczne. Każda z tych nieregularności może prowadzić do istotnych problemów funkcjonalnych lub estetycznych wyrobu, co w konsekwencji wpływa na jego wartość rynkową i trwałość.\nWady odlewnicze są szczególnie niepożądane w przemyśle, ponieważ mogą prowadzić do znacznych strat finansowych. W przypadku ich wykrycia cała partia produkcyjna może zostać odrzucona, co nie tylko generuje bezpośrednie koszty związane z utratą surowców i energii, ale także wpływa na reputację producenta oraz opóźnia realizację zamówień. Dlatego często firma zaangażowana w procesy odlewnicze posiada dedykowany dział kontroli jakości, którego zadaniem jest identyfikacja wadliwych produktów przed ich wprowadzeniem na rynek.\n\nGłównym problemem tradycyjnych metod kontroli jakości jest ich manualny charakter. Mimo że proces prowadzony jest przez wykwalifikowanych specjalistów, wymaga dużo czasu i podatny na błędy ludzkie. Ręczne inspekcje nie są w pełni dokładne, a ich efektywność zależy od wielu czynników, takich jak zmęczenie inspektorów, złożoność kontrolowanych wyrobów oraz warunki oświetleniowe. W rezultacie nawet niewielkie defekty mogą zostać przeoczone, co prowadzi do dalszych komplikacji w procesie produkcyjnym.\nW obliczu tych wyzwań automatyzacja procesu wykrywania wad staje się nie tylko pożądana, ale wręcz niezbędna. Rozwój technologii głębokiego uczenia, w szczególności wstępnie wytrenowanych CNN, otwiera nowe możliwości w dziedzinie automatycznej kontroli jakości. Wykorzystanie technik transfer learning umożliwia adaptację sieci neuronowych, które zostały wcześniej wytrenowane na dużych zbiorach danych obrazowych, do specyficznych zadań związanych z wykrywaniem defektów w odlewach [98,174,175].\nDzięki modyfikacji warstw końcowych takich sieci, jak ResNet50, ResNet101 czy Darknet53, oraz ich ponownemu trenowaniu na mniejszych, specyficznych zbiorach danych, możliwe jest osiągnięcie wysokiej skuteczności w identyfikacji wadliwych wyrobów.\nZastosowanie wstępnie wytrenowanych sieci CNN w przemyśle odlewniczym ma zatem ogromny potencjał. Nie tylko redukuje czas i zasoby potrzebne do trenowania nowych modeli, ale także podnosi jakość i dokładność procesu kontroli, minimalizując ryzyko związane z błędami ludzkimi. W efekcie automatyzacja procesu wykrywania wad z wykorzystaniem zaawansowanych technik głębokiego uczenia może przyczynić się do znacznego zwiększenia efektywności produkcji, redukcji strat oraz poprawy konkurencyjności przedsiębiorstw na rynku. W kontekście dynamicznie rozwijającej się technologii i rosnących wymagań jakościowych wprowadzenie takich innowacyjnych rozwiązań staje się elementem strategii rozwoju nowoczesnych zakładów produkcyjnych.\n5.1.1. Metodyka prowadzonych badań\nCelem prowadzonych w tej części badań jest ocena skuteczności różnych sieci CNN w klasyfikacji obrazów na dwie kategorie: odlew bez wad (OK) oraz odlew z wadami (defektami). Algorytmy klasyfikacyjne były testowane przy użyciu publicznie dostępnego zestawu obrazów pod nazwą „casting product image data for quality inspection”, który został udostępniony w licencji\nCC BY-NC-ND 4.0 [176].\n\nBaza danych dotyczy produktów wytwarzanych w procesie odlewania, zawiera zdjęcia wykonane z góry produktu, jakim jest wirnik pompy głębinowej. Łącznie w bazie znajduje się 7348 zdjęć w rozdzielczości 300 × 300 pikseli w skali szarości, na których zastosowano augmentację. W bazie występuje 3137 zdjęć bez wad oraz 4167 zdjęć z wadami odlewów. Na ryc. 5.1 przedstawiono przykładowe obrazy z obu kategorii, zarówno te z pęknięciami, jak i bez pęknięć.\na b c d\nRyc. 5.1. Przykładowe zdjęcia z bazy danych: a, b) bez wad; c, d) z wadami\nŹródło: Baza danych „casting product image data for quality inspection” [176]\nWybór architektury sieci neuronowej w badaniach dotyczących klasyfikacji obrazów odlewów został podyktowany specyficznymi wymaganiami zadania, a mianowicie koniecznością dokładnego rozróżnienia między odlewami bez wad a odlewami z defektami. Zdecydowano się na zastosowanie CNN ze względu na ich wyjątkową skuteczność w analizie i klasyfikacji obrazów.\nArchitektura CNN jest szczególnie dobrze przystosowana do przetwarzania danych wizualnych, ponieważ potrafi automatycznie rozpoznać i wyodrębnić istotne cechy z obrazów, co jest ważne przy zadaniach, takich jak wykrywanie defektów w odlewach. Dodatkowo w celu maksymalizacji efektywności klasyfikacji zastosowano metodologię transfer learning. Transfer learning\n\nszczególnie dobrze sprawdza się w wykrywaniu defektów, ponieważ pozwala na skorzystanie z gotowych, wytrenowanych modeli, które mają już zdolność rozpoznawania złożonych wzorców wizualnych To sprawia, że proces uczenia przebiega znacznie szybciej, a dokładność klasyfikacji wzrasta. Dzięki temu podejściu możliwe jest uzyskanie wysokiej jakości wyników nawet przy ograniczonej ilości danych specyficznych dla danego zadania, jak to ma miejsce w przypadku klasyfikacji obrazów odlewów.\nTego rodzaju podejście nie jest nowe w literaturze naukowej, a jego skuteczność została już wcześniej potwierdzona przez różnych badaczy. Przykładowo\nGupta i in. przeprowadzili szczegółową analizę wydajności kilku modeli, w tym\nEfficientNetB3, ResNet18, VGG16 oraz ResNet50, ostatecznie wybierając model\nResNet50 jako najefektywniejszy w zadaniu wykrywania wad odlewniczych.\nIch badania pokazały, że ResNet50, jako model o odpowiedniej głębokości i zdolności do generalizacji, jest wyjątkowo skuteczny w identyfikacji różnorodnych defektów [175]. Z kolei Prasad i in. zastosowali w swoim badaniu sieć ShuffleNet\nV2, która, choć jest mniej złożona i nie posiada tak dużej głębokości jak inne sieci, oferuje znacznie mniejsze zapotrzebowanie na moc obliczeniową. Dzięki temu model ten jest szczególnie użyteczny w środowiskach, gdzie zasoby sprzętowe są ograniczone, choć może to odbywać się kosztem nieco niższej dokładności w porównaniu z głębszymi sieciami neuronowymi [174].\nW prowadzonych badaniach zastosowano podejście, które częściowo różni się od dotychczasowych badań, wykorzystując nie tylko sieci neuronowe stosowane przez innych badaczy, ale także te same modele, aby móc je bezpośrednio porównać. W szczególności, podobnie jak Gupta i in. [175], uwzględniono model ResNet50, który służył jako punkt odniesienia dla oceny skuteczności innych sieci. Dodatkowo w badaniach zastosowano sieci, takie jak ResNet101, Darknet53, Xception, InceptionResNet-v2 oraz Densenet201, które różnią się strukturą i złożonością obliczeniową. Dzięki temu możliwa była dokładna analiza, jak te bardziej złożone modele radzą sobie w porównaniu z ResNet50 w zadaniu identyfikacji defektów w odlewach. Modele te zostały uporządkowane według rosnącej złożoności struktury oraz czasu obliczeń, co pozwoliło na dokładną ocenę ich efektywności i zdolności do identyfikacji defektów w odlewach.\nTakie podejście jest uzasadnione z kilku powodów. Po pierwsze, zastosowanie modeli o różnej złożoności struktury umożliwia porównanie ich wydajności i znalezienie optymalnego balansu pomiędzy dokładnością klasyfikacji a wymaganiami obliczeniowymi. Modele, takie jak ResNet50 i ResNet101, choć bardziej złożone, oferują wysoką dokładność, podczas gdy sieci, takie\n\njak Darknet53 czy Xception mogą dostarczyć lepszy kompromis pomiędzy dokładnością a szybkością przetwarzania. Po drugie, wybór głębokich sieci, takich jak Densenet201 i InceptionResNet-v2, pozwala na wykorzystanie ich zdolności do uchwycenia bardziej złożonych wzorców, co może być ważne w przypadku trudnych do wykrycia defektów. Zastosowanie tej zróżnicowanej puli modeli umożliwia uzyskanie wszechstronnych i solidnych wyników w zadaniu wykrywania wad w odlewach, co ma istotne znaczenie w kontekście przemysłowej kontroli jakości.\nW przypadku sieci konwolucyjnych, takich jak Inception-ResNet-v2,\nResNet50, ResNet101, Darknet53 oraz Xception, proces ten jest znacznie szybszy i mniej zasobochłonny w porównaniu z trenowaniem sieci od podstaw.\nNa przykład sieć Inception-ResNet-v2, wytrenowana na ponad milionie obrazów z bazy ImageNet, posiada zdolność klasyfikacji obrazów do 1000 kategorii.\nPrzez zamianę warstwy końcowej na warstwę binarną (dwuklasową) i ponowne trenowanie na nowych danych, możliwe jest przystosowanie tej sieci do wykrywania konkretnych defektów w obiektach.\nResNet50 to 50-warstwowa sieć konwolucyjna, która jest częścią rodziny\nResNet (Residual Networks) opracowanej przez zespół badawczy He [177].\nSieć ta wykorzystuje technikę residual learning, która polega na wprowadzeniu połączeń przeskakujących umożliwiających propagację sygnału z pominięciem jednej lub więcej warstw. Dzięki temu sieć może efektywnie trenować głębsze modele bez problemu znikającego gradientu. ResNet50 jest powszechnie używana w różnych zastosowaniach związanych z rozpoznawaniem obrazów i klasyfikacją ze względu na swoją wysoką dokładność i efektywność obliczeniową. Listę warstw tej sieci przedstawia tabela 5.1, gdzie przedstawiono dane dotyczące 22 warstw. Zgrupowano w niej główne typy warstw i bloki resztkowe jako pojedyncze pozycje. W rzeczywistości sieć ResNet50 składa się z 50 warstw, które obejmują wszystkie warstwy konwolucyjne, normalizacyjne, aktywacyjne oraz dodatkowe warstwy w powtarzających się blokach resztkowych. Każdy blok resztkowy składa się z kilku warstw, co w sumie daje pełne\n50 warstw w architekturze ResNet50.\n\nTabela 5.1. Lista warstw sieci ResNET50\nLp. Typ warstwy Opis\n1 Conv2D 64 filtry, 7 × 7, krok 2\n2 Batch Normalization Normalizacja\n3 ReLU Warstwa aktywacji z funkcją ReLU\n4 MaxPooling2D 3 × 3, krok 2\n5 Conv2D 64 filtry, 1 × 1, krok 1\n6 Batch Normalization Normalizacja\n7 ReLU Warstwa aktywacji z funkcją ReLU\n8 Conv2D 64 filtry, 3 × 3, krok 1\n9 Batch Normalization Normalizacja\n10 ReLU Warstwa aktywacji z funkcją ReLU\n11 Conv2D 256 filtry, 1 × 1, krok 1\n12 Batch Normalization Normalizacja\n13 Conv2D 256 filtry, 1 × 1, krok 2 (ścieżka skrótu)\n14 Batch Normalization Normalizacja (ścieżka skrótu)\n15 Add Dodanie wyników ze ścieżki głównej i ścieżki skrótu\n16 ReLU Warstwa aktywacji z funkcją ReLU\n17 Blok resztkowy ×3 Powtórzenie bloków: 64 filtry, 64 filtry, 256 filtry\n18 Blok resztkowy ×4 Powtórzenie bloków: 128 filtry, 128 filtry, 512 filtry\n19 Blok resztkowy ×6 Powtórzenie bloków: 256 filtry, 256 filtry, 1024 filtry\n20 Blok resztkowy ×3 Powtórzenie bloków: 512 filtry, 512 filtry, 2048 filtry\n21 AveragePooling2D 7 × 7\n22 Fully Connected 1000 neuronów (dla klasyfikacji ImageNet)\nResNet101 to rozszerzona wersja sieci ResNet50, składająca się ze 101 warstw [177]. Podobnie jak ResNet50, wykorzystuje technikę residual learning, co pozwala na trenowanie jeszcze głębszych modeli. ResNet101 oferuje wyższą dokładność klasyfikacji w porównaniu z ResNet50, jednak kosztem zwiększonego czasu obliczeń. Sieć ta jest również szeroko stosowana w badaniach i aplikacjach przemysłowych ze względu na swoją zdolność do skutecznego rozpoznawania wzorców w skomplikowanych zbiorach danych. Listę warstw tej sieci przedstawia tabela 5.2, gdzie znajdują się dane dotyczące 22 warstw.\nZgrupowano w niej główne typy warstw i bloki resztkowe jako pojedyncze pozycje, analogicznie jak to zostało przedstawione dla sieci ResNet50 powyżej.\n\nTabela 5.2. Lista warstw sieci ResNET101\nLp. Typ warstwy Opis\n1 Conv2D 64 filtry, 7 × 7, krok 2\n2 Batch Normalization Normalizacja\n3 ReLU Warstwa aktywacji z funkcją ReLU\n4 MaxPooling2D 3 × 3, krok 2\n5 Conv2D 64 filtry, 1 × 1, krok 1\n6 Batch Normalization Normalizacja\n7 ReLU Warstwa aktywacji z funkcją ReLU\n8 Conv2D 64 filtry, 3 × 3, krok 1\n9 Batch Normalization Normalizacja\n10 ReLU Warstwa aktywacji z funkcją ReLU\n11 Conv2D 256 filtry, 1 × 1, krok 1\n12 Batch Normalization Normalizacja\n13 Conv2D 256 filtry, 1 × 1, krok 2 (ścieżka skrótu)\n14 Batch Normalization Normalizacja (ścieżka skrótu)\n15 Add Dodanie wyników ze ścieżki głównej i ścieżki skrótu\n16 ReLU Warstwa aktywacji z funkcją ReLU\n17 Blok resztkowy ×3 Powtórzenie bloków: 64 filtry, 64 filtry, 256 filtry\n18 Blok resztkowy ×4 Powtórzenie bloków: 128 filtry, 128 filtry, 512 filtry\n19 Blok resztkowy ×23 Powtórzenie bloków: 256 filtry, 256 filtry, 1024 filtry\n20 Blok resztkowy ×3 Powtórzenie bloków: 512 filtry, 512 filtry, 2048 filtry\n21 AveragePooling2D 7 × 7\n22 Fully Connected 1000 neuronów (dla klasyfikacji ImageNet)\nDarknet53 to 71-warstwowa sieć konwolucyjna, która jest częścią platformy programistycznej Darknet używanej w systemie YOLO do detekcji obiektów w czasie rzeczywistym. Darknet53 charakteryzuje się wysoką dokładnością klasyfikacji i jest zoptymalizowana pod kątem szybkich obliczeń, co czyni ją idealną do zastosowań wymagających przetwarzania obrazu w czasie rzeczywistym. Tabela 5.3 przedstawia strukturę tej sieci, która składa się z 23 warstw. Liczba warstw wynika z charakterystycznej architektury tej sieci, w której występują powtarzające się bloki resztkowe, mające na celu głębsze przetwarzanie danych wejściowych. W przeciwieństwie do sieci ResNet50 czy ResNet101 ostatnia warstwa Darknet53 nie jest warstwą klasyfikacyjną. Wynika to z faktu, że Darknet53 stosuje się głównie jako część większych systemów, takich jak YOLO do detekcji obiektów, gdzie dalsze warstwy są odpowiedzialne za lokalizację i klasyfikację obiektów w obrazie, a nie za klasyfikację całego obrazu do jednej z określonych klas.\n\nTabela 5.3. Lista warstw sieci Darknet53\nLp. Typ warstwy Opis\n1 Conv2D 32 filtry, 3 × 3, krok 1\n2 Batch Normalization Normalizacja\n3 Leaky ReLU Warstwa aktywacji z funkcją Leaky ReLU\n4 Conv2D 64 filtry, 3 × 3, krok 2\n5 Batch Normalization Normalizacja\n6 Leaky ReLU Warstwa aktywacji z funkcją Leaky ReLU\n7 Blok resztkowy ×1 Powtórzenie bloków: 32 filtry, 32 filtry\n8 Conv2D 128 filtry, 3 × 3, krok 2\n9 Batch Normalization Normalizacja\n10 Leaky ReLU Warstwa aktywacji z funkcją Leaky ReLU\n11 Blok resztkowy ×2 Powtórzenie bloków: 64 filtry, 64 filtry\n12 Conv2D 256 filtry, 3 × 3, krok 2\n13 Batch Normalization Normalizacja\n14 Leaky ReLU Warstwa aktywacji z funkcją Leaky ReLU\n15 Blok resztkowy ×8 Powtórzenie bloków: 128 filtry, 128 filtry\n16 Conv2D 512 filtry, 3 × 3, krok 2\n17 Batch Normalization Normalizacja\n18 Leaky ReLU Warstwa aktywacji z funkcją Leaky ReLU\n19 Blok resztkowy ×8 Powtórzenie bloków: 256 filtry, 256 filtry\n20 Conv2D 1024 filtry, 3 × 3, krok 2\n21 Batch Normalization Normalizacja\n22 Leaky ReLU Warstwa aktywacji z funkcją Leaky ReLU\n23 Blok resztkowy ×4 Powtórzenie bloków: 512 filtry, 512 filtry\nXception to 53-warstwowa sieć konwolucyjna zaprojektowana przez\nFrancois Chollet [178]. Sieć ta opiera się na architekturze Inception, ale wprowadza głębokie separowalne sploty, co pozwala na bardziej efektywną ekstrakcję cech z obrazów. Xception oferuje wysoką dokładność klasyfikacji przy stosunkowo niskim obciążeniu obliczeniowym, co sprawia, że jest atrakcyjna dla różnych zastosowań związanych z analizą obrazów. Tabela 5.4 przedstawiająca listę warstw dla sieci Xception zawiera 43 warstwy, ponieważ jest ona zbudowana z podstawowych bloków zawierających konwolucje rozdzielne głębokie (SeparableConv2D), warstwy normalizacji partii (Batch\nNormalization) oraz funkcje aktywacji ReLU. Struktura sieci obejmuje również warstwy konwolucyjne (Conv2D) na początku, warstwy MaxPooling2D do redukcji wymiarów oraz globalne średnie próbkowanie (Global Average\n\nPooling2D) na końcu, przed warstwą w pełni połączoną (Fully Connected) służącą do klasyfikacji.\nTabela 5.4. Lista warstw sieci Xception\nLp. Typ warstwy Opis\n1 Conv2D 32 filtry, 3 × 3, krok 2\n2 Batch Normalization Normalizacja\n3 ReLU Warstwa aktywacji z funkcją ReLU\n4 Conv2D 64 filtry, 3 × 3, krok 1\n5 Batch Normalization Normalizacja\n6 ReLU Warstwa aktywacji z funkcją ReLU\n7 SeparableConv2D 128 filtry, 3 × 3, krok 1\n8 Batch Normalization Normalizacja\n9 ReLU Warstwa aktywacji z funkcją ReLU\n10 SeparableConv2D 128 filtry, 3 × 3, krok 1\n11 Batch Normalization Normalizacja\n12 MaxPooling2D 3 × 3, krok 2\n13 Conv2D 256 filtry, 1 × 1, krok 2 (ścieżka skrótu)\n14 Batch Normalization Normalizacja (ścieżka skrótu)\n15 SeparableConv2D 256 filtry, 3 × 3, krok 1\n16 Batch Normalization Normalizacja\n17 ReLU Warstwa aktywacji z funkcją ReLU\n18 SeparableConv2D 256 filtry, 3 × 3, krok 1\n19 Batch Normalization Normalizacja\n20 MaxPooling2D 3 × 3, krok 2\n21 Conv2D 728 filtry, 1 × 1, krok 2 (ścieżka skrótu)\n22 Batch Normalization Normalizacja (ścieżka skrótu)\n23 SeparableConv2D 728 filtry, 3 × 3, krok 1\n24 Batch Normalization Normalizacja\n25 ReLU Warstwa aktywacji z funkcją ReLU\n26 SeparableConv2D 728 filtry, 3 × 3, krok 1\n27 Batch Normalization Normalizacja\n28 MaxPooling2D 3 × 3, krok 2\n29 Blok resztkowy x8 Powtórzenie bloków: 728 filtry, 728 filtry\n30 SeparableConv2D 1024 filtry, 3 × 3, krok 1\n31 Batch Normalization Normalizacja\n32 ReLU Warstwa aktywacji z funkcją ReLU\n33 SeparableConv2D 1024 filtry, 3 × 3, krok 1\n34 Batch Normalization Normalizacja\n\nTabela 5.4. Lista warstw sieci Xception, cd.\nLp. Typ warstwy Opis\n35 MaxPooling2D 3 × 3, krok 2\n36 SeparableConv2D 1536 filtry, 3 × 3, krok 1\n37 Batch Normalization Normalizacja\n38 ReLU Warstwa aktywacji z funkcją ReLU\n39 SeparableConv2D 2048 filtry, 3 × 3, krok 1\n40 Batch Normalization Normalizacja\n41 ReLU Warstwa aktywacji z funkcją ReLU\n42 Global Average Pooling2D Globalne średnie próbkowanie 2D\n43 Fully Connected 1000 neuronów (dla klasyfikacji ImageNet)\nInceptionResNet-v2 to kombinacja architektury Inception i ResNet składająca się ze 164 warstw [179]. Sieć ta łączy zalety obu podejść, oferując zaawansowane możliwości ekstrakcji cech oraz stabilność uczenia głębokich sieci.\nInceptionResNet-v2 służy do klasyfikacji obrazów i charakteryzuje się zdolnością klasyfikacji do 1000 kategorii. W badaniach nad wykrywaniem defektów InceptionResNet-v2 wykazała wysoką efektywność dzięki zaawansowanej architekturze. Listę warstw tej sieci przedstawia tabela 5.5. W tabeli dla sieci\nInceptionResNet-v2 znajduje się 26 pozycji, które odpowiadają różnym warstwom sieci, analogicznie do poprzednich.\nTabela 5.5. Lista warstw sieci InceptionResNet-v2\nLp. Typ warstwy Opis\n1 Conv2D 32 filtry, 3 × 3, krok 2\n2 Batch Normalization Normalizacja\n3 ReLU Warstwa aktywacji z funkcją ReLU\n4 Conv2D 32 filtry, 3 × 3, krok 1\n5 Batch Normalization Normalizacja\n6 ReLU Warstwa aktywacji z funkcją ReLU\n7 Conv2D 64 filtry, 3 × 3, krok 1\n8 Batch Normalization Normalizacja\n9 ReLU Warstwa aktywacji z funkcją ReLU\n10 MaxPooling2D 3 × 3, krok 2\n11 Conv2D 80 filtry, 1 × 1, krok 1\n12 Batch Normalization Normalizacja\n13 ReLU Warstwa aktywacji z funkcją ReLU\n14 Conv2D 192 filtry, 3 × 3, krok 1\n\nTabela 5.5. Lista warstw sieci InceptionResNet-v2, cd.\nLp. Typ warstwy Opis\n15 Batch Normalization Normalizacja\n16 ReLU Warstwa aktywacji z funkcją ReLU\n17 MaxPooling2D 3 × 3, krok 2\n18 Inception-A blok x5 Powtórzenie bloków: różne konfiguracje filtrów\nRedukcja wymiarów za pomocą max poolingu\n19 Reduction-A i konwolucji\n20 Inception-ResNet-B blok ×10 Powtórzenie bloków: różne konfiguracje filtrów\nRedukcja wymiarów za pomocą max poolingu\n21 Reduction-B i konwolucji\n22 Inception-ResNet-C blok ×5 Powtórzenie bloków: różne konfiguracje filtrów\n23 Global Average Pooling2D Globalne średnie próbkowanie 2D\n24 Dropout 50% deaktywowanych neuronów\n25 Fully Connected 1000 neuronów (dla klasyfikacji ImageNet)\n26 Softmax Warstwa aktywacji z funkcją Softmax\nDenseNet201 to sieć konwolucyjna składająca się z 201 warstw, będąca częścią rodziny DenseNet (densely connected convolutional networks) opracowanej przez Huang i jego współpracowników [180]. Sieć ta charakteryzuje się gęstymi połączeniami, gdzie każda warstwa jest połączona z każdą poprzednią.\nDzięki temu sygnały są efektywnie propagowane przez sieć, co pozwala na lepsze wykorzystanie informacji i bardziej skuteczne trenowanie. DenseNet201 minimalizuje problem znikającego gradientu i umożliwia trenowanie bardzo głębokich sieci bez utraty dokładności. Jest szeroko stosowana w zadaniach związanych z klasyfikacją obrazów i analizą danych medycznych. Listę warstw sieci DenseNet201 przedstawia tabela 5.6, która zawiera 16 pozycji, ponieważ uwzględnia wszystkie główne etapy przetwarzania danych, analogicznie jak w poprzednich sieciach. Zawiera warstwy konwolucyjne, normalizacyjne, aktywacyjne, poolingowe, bloki gęste, warstwy przejściowe oraz końcowe warstwy klasyfikacyjne, co zapewnia kompletną strukturę modelu od wejścia do wyjścia.\nTabela 5.6. Lista warstw sieci DenseNet201\nLp. Typ warstwy Opis\n1 Conv2D 64 filtry, 7 × 7, krok 2\n2 Batch Normalization Normalizacja\n3 ReLU Warstwa aktywacji z funkcją ReLU\n4 MaxPooling2D 3 × 3, krok 2\n5 Blok gęsty x6 Powtórzenie bloków: różne konfiguracje filtrów\n\nTabela 5.6. Lista warstw sieci DenseNet201, cd.\nLp. Typ warstwy Opis\nConv2D: 128 filtry, 1 × 1, krok 1, AveragePooling2D:\n6 Transition Layer\n2 × 2, krok 2\n7 Blok gęsty ×12 Powtórzenie bloków: różne konfiguracje filtrów\nConv2D: 256 filtry, 1 × 1, krok 1, AveragePooling2D:\n8 Transition Layer\n2 × 2, krok 2\n9 Blok gęsty ×48 Powtórzenie bloków: różne konfiguracje filtrów\nConv2D: 512 filtry, 1×1, krok 1, AveragePooling2D: 2 × 2,\n10 Transition Layer krok 2\n11 Blok gęsty ×32 Powtórzenie bloków: różne konfiguracje filtrów\n12 Batch Normalization Normalizacja\n13 ReLU Warstwa aktywacji z funkcją ReLU\n14 Global Average Pooling2D Globalne średnie próbkowanie 2D\n15 Fully Connected 1000 neuronów (dla klasyfikacji ImageNet)\n16 Softmax Warstwa aktywacji z funkcją Softmax\nKażda z wymienionych sieci została dostosowana do klasyfikacji dwuklasowej poprzez zastąpienie oryginalnej w pełni połączonej warstwy (ang. fully connected layer) nową z dwoma neuronami wyjściowymi oraz dodanie warstwy softmax w celu uzyskania prawdopodobieństw dla każdej z dwóch kategorii.\nW analizie wykorzystano SVM (ang. support vector machine – maszynę wektorów nośnych) – algorytm uczenia maszynowego, który jest szeroko stosowany w zadaniach klasyfikacji i regresji. SVM należy do rodziny tzw.\nalgorytmów nadzorowanych, co oznacza, że do jego trenowania potrzebny jest zestaw danych uczących z przypisanymi etykietami.\nCelem algorytmu SVM jest znalezienie hiperpowierzchni, która w jak najlepszy sposób oddziela punkty danych jednej klasy od punktów danych innej klasy. „Najlepszy” oznacza hiperpowierzchnię z największym marginesem między dwiema klasami. Margines to maksymalna szerokość pasa równoległego do hiperpowierzchni, który nie zawiera żadnych punktów danych wewnątrz. Hiperpowierzchnia to granica decyzyjna oddzielająca różne klasy, a wektory nośne to podzbiór obserwacji uczących, które określają położenie hiperpowierzchni. Margines to kryterium, które SVM optymalizuje, maksymalizując odległość między klasami.\nW praktyce wiele problemów nie jest liniowo separowalnych. W takich przypadkach SVM używa funkcji jądra, aby przekształcić dane wejściowe do przestrzeni o wyższym wymiarze, co ułatwia ich separację. Matlab obsługuje kilka typów funkcji jądra.\n\nÒ Funkcja jądra liniowego jest używana do klasyfikacji dwuklasowej i można ją przedstawić za pomocą wzoru:\n(5.1) gdzie: a, b – wektory danych.\nÒ Funkcja jądra wielomianowego to:\n(5.2) gdzie: c – stopień wielomianu.\nÒ Funkcja RBF (Radial Basis Function) jest zdefiniowana jako:\n(5.3) gdzie: – parametr skalujący.\nÒ Funkcja sigmoidalna opisana jest wzorem:\n(5.4) i jest jądrem Mercera dla pewnych wartości i .\nTrenowanie maszyny wektorów nośnych polega na rozwiązaniu problemu optymalizacji kwadratowej, aby dopasować hiperpowierzchnię minimalizującą miękki margines między klasami. Liczba przekształconych cech jest określana przez liczbę wektorów nośnych.\nW prowadzonych badaniach wykorzystano liniowy SVM, który został wytrenowany z użyciem cech wyekstrahowanych przez sieci CNN. Proces obejmował ekstrakcję cech z jednej z warstw sieci CNN dla każdej próbki obrazu, a następnie użycie tych cech jako wejściowych danych do trenowania klasyfikatora SVM. Dane zostały podzielone na zestawy uczące i testowe w proporcji\n30% : 70%, co zapewniło odpowiednie rozdzielenie danych na potrzeby uczenia i testowania modelu. W celu zbalansowania zbioru danych dokonano redukcji liczby obrazów tak, aby każda kategoria miała równą liczbę obiektów (po 3137 zdjęć), co zapewniło, że model nie był uprzedzony na korzyść którejkolwiek z klas. Dane wejściowe zostały przetworzone, aby dopasować je do rozmiaru wejściowego sieci. Proces ten obejmował konwersję obrazów do skali szarości i ich augmentację. W celu ekstrakcji cech z jednej z ostatnich warstw sieci wykorzystano partię danych o wielkości 32. Następnie cechy te posłużyły do trenowania klasyfikatora SVM z użyciem funkcji jądra liniowego.\nW odniesieniu do transfer learningu z użyciem wymienionych wcześniej modeli sieć była inicjalizowana z wstępnie wytrenowanymi wagami,\n\na następnie dostosowywana do specyficznego zadania klasyfikacji obrazów odlewów. Domyślna liczba epok została ustawiona na 30, co pozwala na stopniowe dostosowywanie wag bez ryzyka przeuczenia modelu, które mogłoby wystąpić przy zbyt dużej liczbie iteracji. Współczynnik uczenia, domyślnie ustawiony na 0,01, został wykorzystany do kontrolowania tempa, z jakim sieć modyfikuje swoje wagi podczas procesu trenowania. Dodatkowo została zastosowana regularyzacja L2 z domyślnym współczynnikiem 0,0001, aby przeciwdziałać nadmiernemu dopasowaniu, zwłaszcza podczas pracy z małymi zestawami danych.\nUczenie modeli odbywało się w następujących etapach: inicjalizacja sieci\nCNN z wagami wytrenowanymi na zadanym zbiorze, zastąpienie ostatniej warstwy w pełni połączonej nową warstwą dwuklasową, trenowanie nowych warstw sieci z użyciem danych uczących.\nModele były oceniane przy użyciu danych testowych (2196 obrazów każdej kategorii). Ocena skuteczności modeli obejmowała obliczenie miar jakości, takich jak dokładność, precyzja, czułość oraz F1-score. Dodatkowo przeprowadzono analizę krzywej ROC oraz AUC, aby ocenić zdolności modeli do rozróżniania między dwoma klasami. Wyniki różnych architektur sieci CNN zostały porównane w celu identyfikacji najskuteczniejszego modelu.\n5.1.2. Wyniki działania klasyfikatorów\nPorównanie algorytmów klasyfikacji opartych na transfer learning z głębokimi sieciami neuronowymi (Resnet50, Resnet101, Darknet53, Xception,\nInceptionresnetv2 i Densenet201) zostało przeprowadzone na podstawie macierzy pomyłek, które przedstawia ryc. 5.2. Do testowania klasyfikatorów wykorzystano kolejne 2196 obrazów z każdej kategorii z analizowanego zbioru danych („casting product image data for quality inspection” [176]), które nie były wcześniej używane w procesie uczenia tych klasyfikatorów.\n\na b c d e f\nRyc. 5.2. Macierze pomyłek dla analizowanych modeli klasyfikacyjnych:\na) Resnet50, b) Resnet101, c) Darknet53, d) Xception, e) Inceptionresnetv2, f) Densenet201\n\nTabela 5.7 przedstawia wyniki wskaźników jakościowych: dokładność, precyzja, czułość i F1-score dla poszczególnych algorytmów klasyfikacji z wykorzystaniem CNN. Wyniki te również przedstawiono w formie wykresu na ryc. 5.3.\nTabela 5.7. O cena wydajności poszczególnych algorytmów klasyfikacji z wykorzystaniem CNN\nSieć CNN Dokładność (%) Precyzja (%) Czułość (%) F1-score (%)\nResnet50 99,25 99,27 99,23 99,25\nResnet101 98,47 97,93 99,04 98,48\nDarknet53 99,41 99,73 99,09 99,41\nXception 98,75 99,54 97,95 98,74\nInceptionresnetv2 99,18 99,72 98,63 99,18\nDensenet201 99,61 99,95 99,27 99,61\nRyc. 5.3. Ocena wydajności poszczególnych algorytmów klasyfikacji z wykorzystaniem CNN\nNa podstawie przeprowadzonej analizy wyników działania różnych sieci\nCNN można stwierdzić, że każda z badanych architektur charakteryzuje się odmiennymi parametrami wydajności, które mają istotne znaczenie w kontekście efektywności klasyfikacji obrazów. Sieć ResNet50 uzyskała bardzo wysoką dokładność na poziomie 99,25%, przy jednocześnie zbliżonych wartościach precyzji i czułości wynoszących odpowiednio 99,27% i 99,23%. Wskaźnik F1-score dla tej sieci wyniósł 99,25%, co wskazuje na zrównoważoną wydajność tej architektury w przewidywaniu obu klas, co czyni ją wyjątkowo skuteczną w tym zadaniu.\nZ kolei sieć ResNet101, mimo że osiągnęła wysoką czułość na poziomie 99,04%, charakteryzuje się niższą precyzją (97,93%) oraz dokładnością\n(98,47%) w porównaniu z innymi modelami. Może to sugerować, że sieć ta\n\nlepiej identyfikuje pozytywne przypadki, jednak kosztem większej liczby fałszywych pozytywów, co obniża jej ogólną efektywność.\nSieć Darknet53 uzyskała wysoką precyzję, osiągając wynik 99,73%. Jej dokładność wyniosła 99,41%, a czułość 99,09%. Wysoki poziom precyzji wskazuje, że sieć ta jest wyjątkowo skuteczna w minimalizowaniu liczby fałszywych klasyfikacji, co czyni ją bardzo solidnym wyborem w kontekście redukcji błędnych klasyfikacji.\nArchitektura Xception, pomimo wysokiej precyzji (99,54%), uzyskała niższą czułość (97,95%), co może sugerować, że sieć jest bardziej rygorystyczna w swoich klasyfikacjach, prowadząc tym samym do pominięcia niektórych pozytywnych przypadków. Dokładność tej sieci wyniosła 98,75%, a F1-score 98,74%, co wskazuje na ograniczoną równowagę tego modelu w porównaniu do innych.\nInceptionResNetV2 uzyskała bardziej stabilne wyniki, z precyzją wynoszącą 99,72% oraz czułością na poziomie 98,63%. Dokładność tej sieci wyniosła\n99,18%, a F1-score 99,18%, co wskazuje na jej solidne parametry wydajności.\nNiemniej jednak nieco niższa czułość w porównaniu do modeli Densenet201 i ResNet50 może być pewną wadą tej architektury.\nNajlepsze wyniki osiągnęła sieć DenseNet201, która uzyskała najwyższą dokładność (99,61%), precyzję (99,95%) oraz F1-score (99,61%). Czułość tej sieci wyniosła 99,27%, co wskazuje na jej doskonałą zrównoważoność i efektywność w identyfikacji zarówno pozytywnych, jak i negatywnych przypadków. W odniesieniu do przeprowadzonej analizy można stwierdzić, że sieć\nDenseNet201 jest najbardziej wszechstronną i skuteczną spośród wszystkich badanych modeli, co czyni ją najlepszym wyborem do zadań klasyfikacji obrazów.\nWarto zauważyć, że w badaniach przeprowadzonych przez Gupta i in.\n[175] model ResNet50 został uznany za najlepszy pod względem identyfikacji defektów. W ramach niniejszej analizy ResNet50 również został zastosowany jako punkt odniesienia. Wyniki sugerują jednak, że bardziej złożone modele, takie jak DenseNet201, mogą przewyższać ResNet50 pod względem dokładności, precyzji i ogólnej skuteczności, co wskazuje na ich potencjalną przewagę w zadaniach wymagających wysokiej precyzji klasyfikacji.\n5.1.3. Ocena jakości wyrobów gotowych na podstawie wykrywania wad w odlewach\nW wyniku porównania różnych architektur sieci CNN, w tym ResNet50,\nResNet101, Darknet53, Xception, InceptionResNetV2 oraz DenseNet201 najlepsze wyniki osiągnięto dla sieci DenseNet201, która okazała się najbardziej\n\nskuteczna w wykrywaniu wad. W związku z powyższym do oceny jakości wyrobów gotowych na podstawie wykrywania wad w odlewach przy użyciu zaawansowanych algorytmów klasyfikacji obrazów wykorzystano sieć DenseNet201.\nWyniki działania algorytmu przedstawiono dla 12 losowo wybranych przypadków, co przedstawia ryc. 5.4. Działanie klasyfikatora zostało zaprezentowane w postaci podpisu pod rysunkiem, dla którego wykonano analizę.\nOpracowany algorytm 5.1 przedstawia sposób generowania obrazów z wykorzystaniem sieci DenseNet201. Działanie klasyfikatora jest poprawne, co można zaobserwować na przedstawionych poniżej przykładach.\nRyc. 5.4. Wyniki działania algorytmu\n\nAlgorytm 5.1. Generowanie obrazów i ich klasyfikacja\n% Losowo wybierz 12 obrazów testowych numImages = 12;\nrandomIndices = randperm(Ntest, numImages);\n% Przygotuj rysunek do wyświetlania wyników figure;\nfor i = 1:numImages\n% Wczytaj obraz testowy i jego etykietę testImage = readimage(testSet, randomIndices(i));\ntestLabel = testSet.Labels(randomIndices(i));\n% Wyświetl obraz testowy subplot(4, 3, i); % Rozmieść obrazy w siatce 4x3 imshow(testImage);\n% Utwórz augmentedImageDatastore, aby automatycznie zmieniać rozmiar obrazu podczas wyodrębniania cech obrazu za pomocą aktywacji.\nds = augmentedImageDatastore(imageSize, testImage,\n'ColorPreprocessing', 'gray2rgb');\n% Wyodrębnij cechy obrazu za pomocą CNN densenet201 (net) imageFeatures = activations(net, ds, featureLayer, 'OutputAs',\n'columns');\n% Wykonaj predykcję za pomocą klasyfikatora predictedLabel = predict(classifier, imageFeatures,\n'ObservationsIn', 'columns');\n% Dodaj przewidywaną etykietę jako tytuł do podwykresu titleStr = sprintf('Przypadek nr %d: %s', randomIndices(i), char(predictedLabel));\n% Dodaj tekst poniżej obrazu xlabel(titleStr, 'FontSize', 10, 'FontWeight', 'bold',\n'BackgroundColor', 'white', 'EdgeColor', 'black', 'Interpreter',\n'none');\nend\nNa podstawie prowadzonych analiz w tym podrozdziale oceniano skuteczność różnych sieci CNN w klasyfikacji obrazów odlewów na dwie kategorie: bez wad i z wadami. Wykorzystano metodę transfer learning, adaptując wcześniej wytrenowane modele CNN, takie jak ResNet50, Darknet53, i DenseNet201. Najlepsze wyniki uzyskała sieć DenseNet201, która wykazała się najwyższą dokładnością i precyzją w wykrywaniu defektów. Implementacja modelu DenseNet201 w procesie kontroli jakości może znacząco poprawić jakość i efektywność produkcji poprzez automatyczne i szybkie wykrywanie wadliwych odlewów.\n\n5.1.4. Koncepcja implementacji modelu do wykrywania wad w odlewach w kontroli jakości\nAutomatyczne wykrywanie wad w produktach na liniach produkcyjnych ma istotne znaczenie dla poprawy jakości i efektywności procesów produkcyjnych.\nW oparciu o wytrenowany klasyfikator DenseNet201, który wykazał najwyższą dokładność (99,61%) w zadaniu wykrywania defektów, możliwe jest stworzenie zaawansowanego systemu automatycznej kontroli jakości. Implementacja takiego systemu wymaga skrupulatnego przygotowania danych, integracji modelu z linią produkcyjną oraz monitorowania wyników w czasie rzeczywistym. Schemat koncepcji implementacji modelu do wykrywania wad w produktach na linii produkcyjnej można przedstawić w postaci głównych etapów, które obejmują zbieranie i przetwarzanie danych, konfigurację modelu, przetwarzanie w czasie rzeczywistym oraz zarządzanie wynikami (ryc. 5.5).\nRyc. 5.5. Schemat implementacji modelu do wykrywania wad w produktach na linii produkcyjnej\nNależy podkreślić, że jest to ramowa koncepcja implementacji, która może stanowić podstawę do wdrożenia systemu w rzeczywistych warunkach produkcyjnych. Poszczególne elementy tego rozwiązania mogą zostać dostosowane do specyficznych wymagań i warunków danej linii produkcyjnej, co pozwoli na optymalne wykorzystanie modelu do konkretnych potrzeb przedsiębiorstwa.\nWarto również zaznaczyć, że przedstawiona koncepcja nie zawiera wszystkich szczegółów technicznych, które mogłyby być potrzebne podczas pełnej implementacji systemu w praktyce.\nPierwszy krok to zbieranie i przetwarzanie danych. Niezbędne jest zainstalowanie wysokiej jakości kamery przemysłowej o wysokiej rozdzielczości,\n\nco najmniej 8 megapikseli. Kamera powinna być zamontowana w strategicznym miejscu linii produkcyjnej, aby umożliwić rejestrowanie szczegółowych obrazów każdego produktu. Ważne jest, aby była umieszczona pod odpowiednim kątem, minimalizując zniekształcenia obrazu.\nRównie istotne jest zapewnienie stabilnych warunków oświetleniowych.\nWykorzystanie stałych źródeł światła, takich jak lampy LED, zapewni równomierne oświetlenie bez migotania, co minimalizuje refleksy i cienie. Kamera przemysłowa powinna rejestrować obrazy każdego produktu przechodzącego przez linię produkcyjną. Obrazy muszą być zapisywane w formacie zgodnym z wymaganiami modelu.\nKolejnym krokiem jest przygotowanie danych do analizy, w tym zastosowanie technik augmentacji, które mogą zwiększyć różnorodność danych i poprawić wydajność modelu. Techniki, takie jak losowe obracanie, przycinanie, zmiana jasności, kontrastu i kolorów, zwiększają różnorodność danych i poprawiają wydajność modelu. Wykorzystanie bibliotek, takich jak Keras\nImageDataGenerator, umożliwia automatyczne augmentowanie obrazów podczas uczenia modelu. Przykładowy zapis algorytmu pokazujący augmentowanie danych przedstawia algorytm 5.2.\nAlgorytm 5.2. Augmentacja obrazów\n# Instalacja TensorFlow i Keras\n!pip install tensorflow keras\n# Importowanie potrzebnych modułów import tensorflow as tf from tensorflow.keras.preprocessing.image import\nImageDataGenerator import matplotlib.pyplot as plt\n# Definicja parametrów augmentacji datagen = ImageDataGenerator( rotation_range=40, # Losowe obracanie w zakresie 40 stopni width_shift_range=0.2, # Przesunięcie w poziomie do 20% szerokości obrazu height_shift_range=0.2, # Przesunięcie w pionie do 20% wysokości obrazu shear_range=0.2, # Przekształcenie perspektywiczne do 20% zoom_range=0.2, # Zoom do 20% horizontal_flip=True, # Losowe odbijanie w poziomie fill_mode='nearest' # Tryb wypełniania pustych pikseli po przekształceniach\n)\n\nAlgorytm 5.2. Augmentacja obrazów, cd.\n# Wczytanie przykładowego obrazu img = tf.keras.preprocessing.image.load_img('path_to_image.jpg') x = tf.keras.preprocessing.image.img_to_array(img) x = x.reshape((1,) + x.shape) # Zmiana rozmiaru na (1, height, width, channels)\n# Generowanie augmentowanych obrazów i = 0 for batch in datagen.flow(x, batch_size=1):\nplt.figure(i) imgplot = plt.imshow(tf.keras.preprocessing.image.\narray_to_img(batch[0])) i += 1 if i % 4 == 0: # Generowanie czterech obrazów break plt.show()\nZebrane obrazy powinny być przechowywane w dobrze zorganizowanej bazie danych, umożliwiającej szybki dostęp i przetwarzanie. Każdy obraz powinien być opatrzony metadanymi, takimi jak czas rejestracji, identyfikator produktu i etykieta (z wadą lub bez wad). Baza danych może być zrealizowana za pomocą różnych technologii, takich jak SQL, NoSQL lub systemy plików z odpowiednią strukturą katalogów.\nW celu implementacji modelu sieci neuronowej należy zainstalować i skonfigurować platformę programistyczną (strukturę aplikacyjną) do głębokiego uczenia, taką jak np. TensorFlow lub PyTorch (to dwa najpopularniejsze fremeworki do głębokiego uczenia). Następnie należy zaimportować wytrenowany wcześniej model DenseNet201, przygotowany do klasyfikacji dwóch typów wyjść – obraz z wadami oraz bez wad. Matlab umożliwia eksportowanie wytrenowanych modeli do formatów kompatybilnych z innymi językami programowania, co ułatwia ich integrację.\nPrzetwarzanie w czasie rzeczywistym wymaga integracji kamery przemysłowej z systemem komputerowym, który będzie odpowiedzialny za odbieranie strumienia wideo. Biblioteki takie jak OpenCV mogą być użyte do przetwarzania strumienia wideo na pojedyncze klatki, które będą analizowane przez model DenseNet201. System powinien automatycznie wyodrębniać klatki ze strumienia wideo w regularnych odstępach czasu lub w odpowiedzi na określone zdarzenia, takie jak wykrycie produktu na linii produkcyjnej.\nPoniżej znajduje się przykład kodu w Pythonie (algorytm 5.3), który ilustruje,\n\njak może to zostać zrobione. W danym kodzie sesja MATLABa jest inicjalizowana, a następnie obraz z kamery jest przetwarzany w czasie rzeczywistym.\nObrazy są przeskalowywane, konwertowane do formatu RGB i normalizowane. Następnie są przekazywane do funkcji MATLABa predict_pckniecie, która wykonuje klasyfikację. Wynik klasyfikacji jest wyświetlany na obrazie.\nAlgorytm 5.3. Przetwarzanie obrazów w języku Python import cv2 import numpy as np import matlab.engine\n# Inicjalizacja sesji MATLABa eng = matlab.engine.start_matlab()\n# Inicjalizacja kamery cap = cv2.VideoCapture(0) while True:\nret, frame = cap.read() if not ret:\nbreak\n# Przeskalowanie obrazu do 227x227 pikseli resized_frame = cv2.resize(frame, (227, 227))\n# Konwersja do formatu RGB rgb_frame = cv2.cvtColor(resized_frame, cv2.COLOR_BGR2RGB)\n# Normalizacja pikseli normalized_frame = rgb_frame / 255.0\n# Konwersja obrazu do formatu odpowiedniego dla MATLABa matlab_frame = matlab.double(normalized_frame.tolist())\n# Przewidywanie klasy obrazu za pomocą modelu w MATLABie predictions = eng.predict_pckniecie(matlab_frame) class_id = np.argmax(predictions)\n# Wyświetlenie wyniku na obrazie label = \"Positive\" if class_id == 1 else \"Negative\" cv2.putText(frame, label, (10, 30), cv2.FONT_HERSHEY_SIMPLEX, 1,\n(0, 255, 0), 2)\n# Wyświetlenie obrazu cv2.imshow('Detection', frame)\n# Zakończenie pętli po naciśnięciu klawisza 'q' if cv2.waitKey(1) & 0xFF == ord(‚q’):\nbreak cap.release() cv2.destroyAllWindows()\n\nSystem powinien być wyposażony w mechanizmy alarmowe, które powiadamiają operatorów o wykryciu pęknięć. Powiadomienia mogą mieć formę wizualną, na przykład komunikatów wyświetlanych na ekranie, lub dźwiękową, taką jak alarm. Warto również zintegrować system wykrywania z mechanizmami sortowania, które automatycznie usuwają produkty z wykrytymi defektami z linii produkcyjnej. Może to obejmować ramiona robotyczne lub systemy taśmowe, które przekierowują wadliwe produkty.\nAby skutecznie monitorować wydajność systemu, wyniki klasyfikacji wraz z obrazami powinny być zapisywane do dziennika, umożliwiającego późniejszą analizę i ewaluację. Poniższy przykład pokazuje, jak zapisać wyniki do pliku CSV (algorytm 5.4).\nAlgorytm 5.4. Zapisywanie danych do pliku CSV w języku Python import csv from datetime import datetime\n# Inicjalizacja pliku CSV with open('results.csv', mode='w') as file:\nwriter = csv.writer(file) writer.writerow(['Timestamp', 'Product ID', 'Prediction'])\n# Funkcja zapisywania wyników def save_result(product_id, prediction):\ntimestamp = datetime.now().strftime('%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S') with open('results.csv', mode=’a’) as file:\nwriter = csv.writer(file) writer.writerow([timestamp, product_id, prediction])\n# Przykład użycia save_result('12345', 'Positive')\nSystem powinien regularnie generować raporty dotyczące liczby wykrytych defektów, wskaźników precyzji i czułości oraz innych miar skuteczności. Tworzenie wykresów i tabel przedstawiających wyniki analizy umożliwia łatwe monitorowanie wydajności systemu i identyfikację obszarów do poprawy. Można to osiągnąć za pomocą narzędzi, takich jak pandas i matplotlib. Przykładowy kod w Pythonie przedstawiono jako algorytm 5.5.\n\nAlgorytm 5.5. Tworzenie raportu w języku Python import pandas as pd import matplotlib.pyplot as plt\n# Wczytanie wyników z pliku CSV df = pd.read_csv(‚results.csv’)\n# Generowanie raportów report = df.groupby('Prediction').size() print(report)\n# Tworzenie wykresu report.plot(kind='bar') plt.xlabel('Klasy') plt.ylabel('Liczba wykryć') plt.title('Raport wykrytych defektów') plt.show()\nOstatecznie, aby system był skuteczny w dłuższej perspektywie, konieczna jest jego regularna optymalizacja i utrzymanie. Model powinien być regularnie aktualizowany na podstawie nowych danych z linii produkcyjnej, co można osiągnąć poprzez okresowe retrenowanie (ponowne trenowanie) modelu.\nGromadzenie informacji zwrotnej od operatorów i inżynierów pozwala na identyfikację potencjalnych problemów i wprowadzenie usprawnień. Ponadto regularna konserwacja kamer oraz systemów komputerowych zapewnia nieprzerwane działanie systemu w optymalnych warunkach. Ciągłe monitorowanie stanu technicznego sprzętu i natychmiastowe reagowanie na wszelkie problemy pomaga uniknąć przestojów i utraty danych.\nImplementacja opisanego systemu wykrywania wad w odlewach w kontroli jakości, opartego na wcześniej wytrenowanym modelu DenseNet201, stanowi istotną koncepcję, którą można dostosować do specyficznych potrzeb i warunków produkcyjnych. Dzięki swojej elastyczności model ten może być modyfikowany i optymalizowany w zależności od charakterystyki produkcji, rodzaju wykrywanych wad, dostępnych zasobów technologicznych oraz specyficznych wymagań danego przedsiębiorstwa.\nZastosowanie takiego systemu niesie ze sobą szereg korzyści, które mogą znacząco wpłynąć na poprawę jakości wyrobów, zwiększenie efektywności produkcji oraz wzmocnienie konkurencyjności firmy na rynku.\nAutomatyzacja procesu wykrywania wad pozwala na szybkie i dokładne identyfikowanie defektów, co zmniejsza ryzyko przekazania wadliwych produktów do klienta końcowego. Ponadto zintegrowanie systemu z linią produkcyjną umożliwia bieżące monitorowanie procesów i natychmiastowe\n\nreagowanie na wszelkie nieprawidłowości, co w efekcie redukuje koszty związane z odpadami i przeróbkami.\nKoncepcja ta oferuje również możliwość dostosowania do zmieniających się warunków i wymagań produkcyjnych. W miarę rozwoju technologii oraz pojawiania się nowych typów defektów, system można aktualizować, wprowadzając nowe algorytmy i techniki przetwarzania danych, co zapewnia jego długotrwałą skuteczność. Dodatkowo, dzięki skalowalności modelu, możliwe jest jego zastosowanie zarówno w małych zakładach produkcyjnych, jak i na dużych liniach produkcyjnych, gdzie wymaga się analizy dużych wolumenów danych.\nWarto jednak zaznaczyć, że przedstawiona koncepcja jest ramowa i nie zawiera wszystkich szczegółów technicznych, które mogłyby być potrzebne podczas pełnej implementacji systemu. Ostateczna realizacja projektu wymaga dokładnego planowania, szczegółowej analizy wymagań oraz współpracy między zespołem technicznym a personelem odpowiedzialnym za procesy produkcyjne. Niemniej jednak ta elastyczna koncepcja stanowi solidną podstawę do wdrożenia zaawansowanego systemu kontroli jakości, który może przyczynić się do znaczącej poprawy wyników produkcyjnych i jakościowych w nowoczesnych zakładach produkcyjnych.\n5.2. Wykrywanie błędów kształtu na linii produkcyjnej – problem klasyfikacyjny\nAutomatyzacja i optymalizacja kontroli jakości na linii produkcyjnej ma bezpośredni wpływ na efektywność produkcji oraz na zadowolenie klientów. Wykrywanie błędów kształtu w procesach produkcyjnych stanowi istotny element w zapewnieniu wysokiej jakości wyrobów gotowych. Problem ten nabiera szczególnego znaczenia w kontekście dynamicznych linii produkcyjnych, gdzie elementy przemieszczają się z dużą prędkością na taśmociągach, co utrudnia precyzyjną inspekcję wizualną. Tradycyjne metody wykrywania wad często nie są wystarczająco skuteczne w takich warunkach, co wymaga zastosowania zaawansowanych technologii, takich jak sztuczne sieci neuronowe.\nW odniesieniu do dynamicznych linii produkcyjnych, gdzie czas reakcji jest istotny, wykorzystanie ANN do analizy obrazów pozwala na utrzymanie wysokiego standardu jakości wyrobów bez spowalniania procesu produkcji.\nDodatkowo systemy oparte na ANN mogą być stopniowo doskonalone poprzez dalsze uczenie modelu na nowych danych, co sprawia, że są one elastyczne i mogą się dostosowywać do zmieniających się warunków produkcyjnych.\n\nIntegracja sztucznych sieci neuronowych w procesach produkcyjnych wpisuje się w szerszy trend automatyzacji i wdrażania nowoczesnych technologii w przemyśle. Takie podejście nie tylko zwiększa konkurencyjność przedsiębiorstw, ale również prowadzi do redukcji kosztów operacyjnych i zwiększenia wydajności. Zastosowanie ANN do wykrywania błędów kształtu na liniach produkcyjnych może zatem stanowić nie tylko innowacyjne rozwiązanie technologiczne, ale również strategiczny krok w kierunku optymalizacji procesów produkcyjnych na skalę przemysłową.\nW niniejszym podrozdziale przedstawione zostanie zastosowanie sztucznych sieci neuronowych do wykrywania błędów kształtu na liniach produkcyjnych, gdzie obrazy obiektów są rozmyte z powodu ruchu na taśmociągu.\nOmówiony zostanie proces tworzenia bazy danych obrazów oraz trenowania klasyfikatora, który identyfikuje obiekty o nieprawidłowym kształcie, oraz metoda lokalizacji błędów w czasie rzeczywistym.\nZastosowanie takiego typu rozwiązania ma istotne znaczenie z kilku powodów. Po pierwsze, automatyzacja procesu wykrywania błędów kształtu znacząco redukuje potrzebę manualnej inspekcji, co przekłada się na wzrost efektywności produkcji. Dzięki ANN możliwe jest dokładne i szybkie wykrywanie defektów, które mogą zostać przeoczone przez tradycyjne metody. Po drugie, technologia ta umożliwia monitorowanie jakości w czasie rzeczywistym, co pozwala na natychmiastowe reagowanie na wykryte nieprawidłowości, minimalizując w ten sposób potencjalne straty produkcyjne.\n5.2.1. Metodyka prowadzonych badań oraz przygotowanie danych do modelowania\nCelem prowadzonych w tej części badań było opracowanie i wdrożenie systemu opartego na ANN, który umożliwia automatyczne wykrywanie błędów kształtu na linii produkcyjnej. W szczególności skupiono się na identyfikacji obiektów o kształcie koła, które zostały uznane za niepożądane w kontekście procesu produkcyjnego. System miał na celu nie tylko klasyfikację tych obiektów jako błędnych, ale także precyzyjne określenie ich lokalizacji na obrazach, co jest ważne dla poprawy jakości i efektywności produkcji w warunkach rzeczywistych. Poprzez zastosowanie ANN dążono do stworzenia rozwiązania, które pozwoli na szybkie i dokładne wykrywanie defektów, eliminując potrzebę manualnej inspekcji i minimalizując potencjalne straty produkcyjne.\nBadania koncentrowały się na wykrywaniu obiektów o kształcie koła na linii produkcyjnej, które uznano za niepożądane. Schemat koncepcji\n\nprowadzonych badań można przedstawić w postaci głównych etapów, które zostały przedstawione na ryc. 5.6.\nRyc. 5.6. Schemat prowadzonych badań\nWygenerowanie zestawu danych odbywało się za pomocą skryptu sim_ shapes [181], który tworzył obrazy zawierające różne kształty geometryczne.\nGłówne elementy skryptu obejmowały:\nÒ tworzenie obrazów binarnych z wybranymi kształtami;\nÒ dodawanie rozmycia symulującego efekty wynikające z ruchu na taśmociągu;\nÒ konwersja obrazów do formatu RGB w celu przygotowania ich do dalszej obróbki.\nZe względu na ruch przedmiotów poruszających się po taśmociągu, jak również różnych warunków oświetleniowych, obraz na zdjęciu może ulec rozmyciu. Można go porównać z poruszonym zdjęciem. W związku z tym wygenerowane dane przedstawiają rozmyte na obrazie figury. Ten krok pozwolił na uzyskanie realistycznych obrazów, które odzwierciedlały warunki panujące w rzeczywistych systemach produkcyjnych. Na tym etapie wygenerowano 1400 obrazów, każdy z nich o rozdzielczości: 1197×1380. Przykładowe obrazy z otrzymanej bazy danych zostały przedstawione na ryc. 5.7. Obiekty w kształcie koła uznano za błędne, a wygenerowane obrazy posłużyły jako baza danych do dalszych analiz.\nW kolejnym etapie stworzono bazę danych obrazów, w której etykiety przypisywano na podstawie obecności lub braku obiektów w kształcie koła.\nDo tego celu wykorzystano skrypt (algorytm 5.6) z funkcją Klasyfikacja (algorytm 5.7), który przetwarzał każdy obraz, identyfikując obiekty o kształcie koła i zapisując odpowiednie etykiety w pliku *.csv. Obrazy z wykrytymi obiektami\n\nw kształcie koła oznaczano jako klasa pozytywna (1), a pozostałe jako klasa negatywna (0).\nRyc. 5.7. Przykładowe obrazy z otrzymanej bazy danych\nSkrypt Klasyfikacja działa w kilku krokach:\nÒ wczytywanie i wyświetlanie obrazu;\nÒ konwersja obrazu do skali szarości oraz jego binaryzacja;\nÒ inwersja binarnego obrazu oraz wykrywanie konturów obiektów;\nÒ analiza właściwości obiektów i klasyfikacja ich kształtu na podstawie kryteriów geometrycznych, takich jak stosunek boków prostokąta opisującego obiekt, jego okrągłość oraz inne cechy;\nÒ oznaczanie czerwonym okręgiem wykrytych obiektów w kształcie koła na obrazie oraz zapisanie wyników.\nPrzykłady działania skryptu na obrazach z ryc. 5.7 przedstawiono na ryc. 5.8.\nRyc. 5.8. Przykładowe wyniki działania funkcji Klasyfikacja\n\nAlgorytm 5.6. Tworzenie nowej bazy danych z etykietami\n% Ścieżka do katalogu z obrazami inputDir = 'baza_danych';\noutputDir = 'new_images';\nlabelFile = 'labels.csv';\n% Upewnij się, że katalog wyjściowy istnieje if ~exist(outputDir, 'dir') mkdir(outputDir);\nend\n% Otwórz plik do zapisu etykiet fid = fopen(labelFile, 'w');\nfprintf(fid, 'Image,Label\\n'); % Nagłówek pliku CSV\n% Iteracja przez wszystkie pliki w katalogu „dane” for i = 1:1400\n% Nazwa pliku imageFileName = sprintf('Obraz_%d.png', i); % Zakładamy, że obrazy są w formacie PNG imageFilePath = fullfile(inputDir, imageFileName);\n% Sprawdź, czy plik istnieje if exist(imageFilePath, 'file')\n% Przetwórz obraz i zapisz wynik\nW = Klasyfikacja(imageFilePath);\n% Wyciągnij nazwę pliku bez rozszerzenia\n[~, fileName, ~] = fileparts(imageFileName);\n% Zapisz przetworzony obraz outputFilePath = fullfile(outputDir, [fileName, '_new.png']);\nsaveas(gcf, outputFilePath);\n% Zapisz etykietę: 1 jeśli są koła, 0 jeśli nie if any(W == 1) label = 1;\nelse label = 0;\nend fprintf(fid, '%s,%d\\n', imageFileName, label);\n% Zamknij wszystkie otwarte figury, aby nie zapełnić pamięci close all;\nelse warning('Plik %s nie istnieje.', imageFilePath);\nend end\n% Zamknij plik z etykietami fclose(fid);\ndisp('Przetwarzanie zakończone!');\n\nAlgorytm 5.7. Funkcja Klasyfikacja function W = Klasyfikacja(ImageFile)\n% Krok 1: Wczytanie obrazu\nRGB = imread(ImageFile);\nfigure, imshow(RGB), title('Oryginalny Obraz');\n% Krok 2: Konwersja obrazu z RGB na skalę szarości\nGRAY = rgb2gray(RGB);\nfigure, imshow(GRAY), title('Obraz w Skali Szarości');\n% Krok 3: Progowanie obrazu - Konwersja obrazu do postaci czarno-białej\n% w celu przygotowania do śledzenia konturów przy użyciu bwboundaries.\nthreshold = graythresh(GRAY);\nBW = imbinarize(GRAY, threshold);\nfigure, imshow(BW), title('Obraz Binarny');\n% Krok 4: Odwrócenie obrazu binarnego\nBW = ~BW;\nfigure, imshow(BW), title('Odwrócony Obraz Binarny');\n% Krok 5: Znalezienie konturów - Skoncentrowanie się wyłącznie na zewnętrznych konturach.\n% Opcja ‚noholes’ przyspiesza przetwarzanie, zapobiegając przeszukiwaniu przez bwboundaries konturów wewnętrznych.\n[B,L] = bwboundaries(BW, 'noholes');\n% Krok 6: Określenie właściwości obiektów\nSTATS = regionprops(L, 'BoundingBox', 'Extent', 'Centroid', 'Area',\n'Perimeter');\n% Krok 7: Klasyfikacja kształtów według ich właściwości (tylko koła) figure, imshow(RGB), title('Wykryte Koła');\nhold on\nW = zeros(1, length(STATS)); % Inicjalizacja tablicy W for i = 1:length(STATS)\n\nAlgorytm 5.7. Funkcja Klasyfikacja, cd.\n% Sprawdzenie, czy obiekt jest kołem boundingBoxRatio = abs(STATS(i).BoundingBox(3) - STATS(i).\nBoundingBox(4)) / STATS(i).BoundingBox(3);\ncircularity = (4 * pi * STATS(i).Area) / (STATS(i).Perimeter^2);\nisCircle = (boundingBoxRatio < 0.1) && (STATS(i).Extent < 1) &&\n(circularity > 0.85);\nif isCircle\nW(i) = 1; % Wartość 1 dla występowania koła centroid = STATS(i).Centroid;\n% Rysowanie czerwonej linii wzdłuż granic koła boundary = B{i};\nplot(boundary(:,2), boundary(:,1), ‘r’, ‘LineWidth’, 2);\nend end hold off return\nPo utworzeniu bazy danych przystąpiono do trenowania klasyfikatora na przygotowanych obrazach. Wykorzystano do tego wstępnie wytrenowaną sieć\nAlexNet, której końcowe warstwy zostały dostosowane do liczby klas w zbiorze danych. Opis tej sieci został przedstawiony wcześniej w podrozdziale 3.4.\nPonieważ zadaniem było rozpoznanie obiektów z różnych klas, liczba neuronów w warstwie wyjściowej została dostosowana do liczby unikalnych etykiet w zestawie danych, co wynosiło odpowiednią liczbę klas (2). Oryginalne warstwy końcowe sieci AlexNet zostały zastąpione nową warstwą w pełni połączoną z liczbą neuronów równą liczbie klas oraz nową warstwą klasyfikacyjną, odpowiedzialną za przypisanie etykiety do każdego obrazu. W kodzie zastosowano optymalizator sgdm (ang. stochastic gradient descent with momentum), który jest domyślnym wyborem dla trenowania sieci AlexNet w MATLAB-ie. Optymalizator ten korzysta z gradientu stochastycznego z momentem, co pozwala na stabilizację procesu uczenia i przyspieszenie konwergencji w porównaniu ze standardowym gradientem stochastycznym.\nNastępnie zdefiniowano parametry trenowania sieci. Ustalono wielkość partii danych (ang. MiniBatchSize) na 32 obrazy, co oznacza, że podczas jednej iteracji algorytmu uczenia model przetwarzał 32 obrazy. Proces trenowania był zaplanowany na maksymalnie 100 epok. Współczynnik uczenia ustawiono na 0,0001, co pozwala na delikatne dostosowanie wag i zminimalizowanie\n\nryzyka nadmiernego dopasowania. Dane były mieszane przed każdą epoką, aby zapewnić losowy rozkład obrazów, co mogło poprawić generalizację modelu.\nDodatkowo co 50 iteracji przeprowadzano walidację modelu na zbiorze walidacyjnym, aby monitorować jego postępy w trakcie uczenia. Ustalono również mechanizm wczesnego zatrzymania, który kończył trenowanie, jeśli dokładność modelu na zbiorze walidacyjnym przestawała się poprawiać przez\n8 kolejnych epok. To zapobiegało przeuczeniu modelu, gdy dalsze uczenie nie przynosiło już korzyści.\nObrazy wykorzystywane w procesie trenowania były przeskalowane do rozmiarów 227 × 227 pikseli, co było wymagane przez architekturę AlexNet.\nPodzielono dane na zestawy do trenowania i walidacji w proporcjach 50 : 50, gdzie obrazy były losowo przypisywane do obu zbiorów.\nModel został oceniony przy użyciu danych walidacyjnych (700 obrazów).\nOcena skuteczności modelu obejmowała obliczenie miar skuteczności, takich jak dokładność, precyzja, czułość oraz F1-score.\nW ostatnim etapie wytrenowany klasyfikator został zaimplementowany w aplikacji, której zadaniem było automatyczne wykrywanie i lokalizowanie obiektów o niepożądanym kształcie na obrazach z linii produkcyjnej. Po sklasyfikowaniu obrazu i wykryciu obiektów w kształcie koła (wynik 1), funkcja Klasyfikacja była ponownie wykorzystywana do precyzyjnej identyfikacji i oznaczania miejsce występowania tych obiektów.\n5.2.2. Wyniki modelowania klasyfikatora\nDo testowania otrzymanego klasyfikatora wykorzystano kolejne 700 obrazów, które nie były wcześniej używane w procesie uczenia. Wskaźnikiem skuteczności dopasowania sieci neuronowej do danych jest macierz pomyłek (ryc. 5.9).\nRyc. 5.9. Macierz pomyłek na zbiorze walidacyjnych klasyfikatora wykrywającego błędy kształtu\n\nAnaliza przedstawionej macierzy pomyłek pozwala na ocenę skuteczności klasyfikatora w zadaniu wykrywania błędów kształtu. Macierz wskazuje, że spośród 700 przetestowanych obrazów 655 zostało poprawnie zaklasyfikowanych jako zawierające błędy, podczas gdy 44 obrazy, które były poprawne, zostały również właściwie rozpoznane. Wystąpiła jedna sytuacja, w której prawidłowy obraz został błędnie sklasyfikowany jako zawierający błąd, co oznacza pojedynczy przypadek fałszywie pozytywny. Nie zanotowano żadnych fałszywie negatywnych przypadków, co świadczy o tym, że wszystkie obrazy zawierające błędy zostały poprawnie wykryte.\nNa podstawie tych wyników dokładność klasyfikatora wynosi 99,86%, co oznacza, że model bardzo dobrze radzi sobie z poprawnym klasyfikowaniem obrazów. Precyzja modelu, czyli miara tego, jak wiele spośród przewidywanych przez model błędów rzeczywiście jest błędami, wynosi 99,85%. Wysoka czułość na poziomie 100% wskazuje, że model nie przegapił żadnego obrazu z błędem, skutecznie identyfikując wszystkie przypadki. F1-score, będący średnią harmoniczną precyzji i czułości, również osiąga bardzo wysoką wartość 99,92%, co potwierdza zrównoważoną skuteczność modelu w kontekście zarówno wykrywania błędów, jak i unikania fałszywie pozytywnych klasyfikacji. Ogólnie rzecz biorąc, model charakteryzuje się doskonałą efektywnością w wykrywaniu błędów kształtu na podstawie testowanych danych.\nWyniki dla przykładowych obrazów działania klasyfikatora przedstawiono na ryc. 5.10. Działanie klasyfikatora zostało zaprezentowane w postaci podpisu nad rysunkiem, dla którego wykonana została analiza. Jak można zaobserwować na tych przykładach, działanie klasyfikatora jest poprawne.\nRyc. 5.10. Wyniki działania klasyfikatora dla wybranych obrazów\n\n5.2.3. Implementacja aplikacji do wykrywania błędów\nPo wytrenowaniu klasyfikatora stworzono aplikację, która umożliwia wykrywanie i lokalizację błędnych obiektów na obrazach produkcyjnych. Aplikacja działała na zasadzie:\nÒ klasyfikacji obrazów przy użyciu wytrenowanej sieci, aby zidentyfikować obecność błędów;\nÒ lokalizacji wykrytych obiektów przy użyciu funkcji Klasyfikacja, która precyzyjnie oznacza miejsca występowania obiektów w kształcie koła.\nInterfejs aplikacji został zaprojektowany w celu uproszczenia procesu wykrywania błędów kształtu (kształt koła) na obrazach z linii produkcyjnej.\nPodstawowym celem tej aplikacji było stworzenie narzędzia, które umożliwia użytkownikom, nawet bez specjalistycznej wiedzy technicznej, łatwe wykonywanie analizy obrazów przy użyciu zaawansowanych algorytmów sztucznej inteligencji. Aplikacja ta integruje proces klasyfikacji, lokalizacji oraz wizualizacji wyników w jednym, intuicyjnym środowisku graficznym (ryc. 5.11).\nRyc. 5.11. Interfejs użytkownika aplikacji do wykrywania obiektów o kształcie koła\nInterfejs użytkownika składa się z kilku głównych elementów, które wspierają proces analizy. Po uruchomieniu aplikacji użytkownik jest kierowany do głównego okna, które oferuje funkcjonalności niezbędne do przetworzenia i analizy obrazów. Na początku użytkownik ma możliwość wczytania obrazu, który pochodzi z lokalnego systemu plików (ryc. 5.12). Obraz ten stanowi dane wejściowe, które będą analizowane pod kątem występowania błędnych\n\nobiektów, takich jak koła, które zgodnie z założeniami są uznawane za niepożądane na linii produkcyjnej. Obrazy, które są wczytywane do aplikacji, mogą być zapisane w formatach graficznych typowych dla plików obrazów. W szczególności aplikacja obsługuje formaty, takie jak: PNG (.png), JPG/JPEG (.jpg,\n.jpeg). Te formaty są szeroko stosowane w przemyśle oraz w codziennym użyciu, co zapewnia, że aplikacja jest kompatybilna z większością plików obrazów generowanych w różnych procesach produkcyjnych.\nRyc. 5.12. Interfejs użytkownika – wczytanie danych\nWczytanie pliku w jednym z tych formatów uruchamia proces analizy obrazu, zgodnie z funkcjonalnością aplikacji. Po załadowaniu obrazu (ryc. 5.13) użytkownik ma możliwość uruchomienia procesu klasyfikacji, który jest najważniejszym elementem aplikacji poprzez wciśnięcie przycisku „Predykcja”.\n\nRyc. 5.13. Interfejs użytkownika – widok po wczytaniu obrazu do analizy\nW tle aplikacja korzysta z wcześniej wytrenowanej sieci neuronowej, która analizuje wczytany obraz i ocenia, czy zawiera on obiekty o kształcie koła.\nWynik tej klasyfikacji jest natychmiast wyświetlany w interfejsie. Gdy wykryte zostaną obiekty o kształcie koła, użytkownik jest informowany o tym fakcie poprzez odpowiedni komunikat. W przypadku wyniku klasyfikacji 1 wyświetla się komunikat: „Wykryto obiekt/y o kształcie koła („1”)”, w przeciwnym przypadku jest to komunikat: „Nie wykryto obiektów o kształcie koła („0”)”.\nDodatkowo aplikacja umożliwia dokładne zlokalizowanie tych obiektów na obrazie. Dzięki zaimplementowanej funkcji lokalizacji Klasyfikacja (algorytm 5.7) koła są automatycznie zaznaczane na przetworzonym obrazie, co pozwala na ich łatwą identyfikację. Zaznaczenie to odbywa się poprzez obrysowanie wykrytych obiektów czerwoną linią, co wyróżnia je na tle innych elementów widocznych na obrazie. Przykładowe wyniki działania aplikacji przedstawiono na ryc. 5.14.\n\nRyc. 5.14. Przykładowe wyniki działania aplikacji do wykrywania obiektów o kształcie koła\nW interfejsie użytkownik ma również możliwość zapisania przetworzonego obrazu (ryc. 5.15). Dzięki tej funkcji można zachować wyniki analizy w formacie graficznym na lokalnym dysku, co jest szczególnie użyteczne do dalszej analizy, raportowania lub dokumentacji. Przechowywanie tych danych pozwala na ich późniejsze wykorzystanie, na przykład do porównania z innymi wynikami lub jako dowód poprawności procesu produkcyjnego.\nRyc. 5.15. Interfejs użytkownika – funkcja zapisz jako\n\nPonadto aplikacja oferuje funkcję bezpośredniego drukowania przetworzonego obrazu. Po dokonaniu analizy i zaznaczeniu błędnych obiektów użytkownik może wydrukować obraz wraz z zaznaczonymi błędami bezpośrednio z poziomu interfejsu. Obraz po kliknięciu w opcję „Drukuj obraz” od razu przesyłany jest do domyślnej drukarki. Ta funkcjonalność jest szczególnie przydatna w środowiskach produkcyjnych, gdzie istnieje konieczność szybkiego przekazania wyników analizy do odpowiednich działów lub ich fizyczne przechowanie w dokumentacji. Sposób implementacji opisanego interfejsu graficznego aplikacji do wykrywania błędów przedstawia algorytm 5.8.\nAlgorytm 5.8. Implementacja interfejsu graficznego aplikacji do wykrywania błędów function simpleUI3(trainedNet)\n% Deklaracja zmiennych globalnych global imageData;\nglobal processedImage;\n% Inicjalizacja zmiennych globalnych imageData = [];\nprocessedImage = [];\nload('trainedAlexNet.mat', 'trainedNet'); % Załaduj wytrenowaną sieć\n% Tworzenie głównej figury interfejsu użytkownika f = figure('Name', 'Image Classifier', 'Position', [300, 300, 610,\n600]); % Zwiększenie rozmiaru figury\n% Dodanie przycisku do załadowania obrazu uicontrol('Style', 'pushbutton', 'String', 'Wczytanie obrazu', ...\n'Position', [20, 500, 130, 40], 'Callback', @loadImage,\nFontWeight='bold');\n% Dodanie przycisku do uruchomienia klasyfikacji uicontrol('Style', 'pushbutton', 'String', 'Predykcja', ...\n'Position', [20, 450, 130, 40], 'Callback', @classifyImage,\nFontWeight='bold');\n% Dodanie przycisku do zapisu obrazu uicontrol('Style', 'pushbutton', 'String', 'Zapisz obraz jako...', ...\n'Position', [20, 400, 130, 40], 'Callback', @saveImage,\nFontWeight='bold');\n% Dodanie przycisku do wydruku obrazu uicontrol('Style', 'pushbutton', 'String', 'Drukuj obraz', ...\n'Position', [20, 350, 130, 40], 'Callback', @printImage,\nFontWeight='bold');\n\nAlgorytm 5.8. Implementacja interfejsu graficznego aplikacji do wykrywania błędów, cd.\n% Dodanie panelu na wyniki klasyfikacji resultPanel = uipanel('Parent', f, 'Title', 'Wyniki klasyfikacji', ...\n'FontSize', 14, 'Position', [0.25, 0.1, 0.6, 0.8],\n'BackgroundColor', 'white', 'FontWeight', 'bold');\n% Pole tekstowe do wyświetlenia wyniku klasyfikacji resultText = uicontrol('Style', 'text', 'Parent', resultPanel, ...\n'Position', [20, 10, 500, 30], 'FontSize', 12, 'FontWeight',\n'bold', ...\n'String', ' ‘, 'HorizontalAlignment', 'left',\n'BackgroundColor', 'white');\n% Tworzenie osi do wyświetlania obrazów, domyślnie niewidoczne axOriginal = axes('Parent', resultPanel, 'Position', [0.2, 0.55,\n0.7, 0.4], 'Visible', 'off'); % Oryginalny obraz axProcessed = axes('Parent', resultPanel, 'Position', [0.2, 0.1,\n0.7, 0.4], 'Visible', 'off'); % Przetworzony obraz\n% Funkcja do załadowania obrazu function loadImage(~, ~)\n[fileName, filePath] = uigetfile({'*.png;*.jpg;*.jpeg',\n'Image Files'}, 'Select an Image');\nif fileName imageData = imread(fullfile(filePath, fileName));\nimshow(imageData, 'Parent', axOriginal);\naxis(axOriginal, 'off'); % Ukryj osie set(axOriginal, 'XTick', [], 'YTick', [], 'Box', 'off'); %\nUkryj ticki i ramkę set(axOriginal, 'Visible', 'on'); % Ustawienie osi na widoczne end end\n% Funkcja do klasyfikacji obrazu function classifyImage(~, ~) if ~isempty(imageData)\n% Przeskalowanie obrazu do rozmiaru akceptowanego przez sieć inputImage = imresize(imageData, [227, 227]);\n% Klasyfikacja obrazu przy użyciu wytrenowanej sieci result = classify(trainedNet, inputImage);\n% Wyświetlenie odpowiedniego wyniku if result == categorical(1) resultText.String = 'Wykryto obiekt/y o kształcie koła („1”)';\n% Zapisanie tymczasowego obrazu tempFileName = [tempname, '.png'];\nimwrite(imageData, tempFileName);\n\nAlgorytm 5.8. Implementacja interfejsu graficznego aplikacji do wykrywania błędów, cd.\n% Przekazanie ścieżki do pliku do Classify2_modified i wyświetlenie na osi processedImage = Classify2_modified(tempFileName, axProcessed);\naxis(axProcessed, 'off'); % Ukryj osie set(axProcessed, 'XTick', [], 'YTick', [], 'Box', 'off');\n% Ukryj ticki i ramkę set(axProcessed, 'Visible', 'on'); % Ustawienie osi na widoczne\n% Usunięcie tymczasowego pliku po przetworzeniu delete(tempFileName);\nelse resultText.String = 'Nie wykryto obiektów o kształcie koła\n(„0”)';\n% Ukryj przetworzony obraz, jeśli wcześniej był widoczny set(axProcessed, 'Visible', 'off');\nend else msgbox('Please load an image first.');\nend end\n% Funkcja do zapisu obrazu function saveImage(~, ~) if ~isempty(processedImage)\n[fileName, filePath] = uiputfile({'*.png', 'PNG Files';\n'*.jpg', 'JPEG Files'}, 'Save Image As');\nif fileName imwrite(processedImage, fullfile(filePath, fileName));\nend else msgbox('No processed image to save.');\nend end\n% Funkcja do wydruku obrazu function printImage(~, ~) if ~isempty(processedImage)\n% Przechodzenie na oś przetworzonego obrazu axes(axProcessed);\n% Przechwycenie zawartości osi jako obraz frame = getframe(axProcessed);\nimgToPrint = frame.cdata;\n\nAlgorytm 5.8. Implementacja interfejsu graficznego aplikacji do wykrywania błędów, cd.\n% Tworzenie tymczasowej figury do drukowania obrazu hFig = figure('Visible', 'off'); % Ukrycie figury imshow(imgToPrint, 'Border', 'tight'); % Wyświetlenie obrazu w figurze\n% Drukowanie obrazu bezpośrednio na drukarce print(hFig, '-dwin');% Użycie sterownika Windows do druku\n% Zamknięcie tymczasowej figury close(hFig);\nelse msgbox('No processed image to print.');\nend end end\nCały proces korzystania z aplikacji został zaprojektowany w sposób przemyślany, aby zapewnić użytkownikowi intuicyjne i uporządkowane działanie. Użytkownik prowadzi analizę krok po kroku, zaczynając od wczytania obrazu, przez klasyfikację, aż po wizualizację wyników i ich zapis lub wydruk.\nAplikacja minimalizuje konieczność dogłębnej znajomości technicznych aspektów działania algorytmów sztucznej inteligencji, co sprawia, że jest narzędziem łatwym w użyciu i dostępnym w codziennej pracy na linii produkcyjnej.\nPodsumowując prowadzone analizy i rozważania dotyczące wykrywania błędów kształtu na linii produkcyjnej, można stwierdzić, że zastosowanie sztucznych sieci neuronowych w tym kontekście znacząco może usprawnić procesy produkcyjne. Dzięki wdrożeniu ANN możliwe jest automatyczne i precyzyjne wykrywanie błędnych obiektów (w tym przypadku wyrobów o kształcie koła), co ma istotne znaczenie w dynamicznych warunkach produkcyjnych, gdzie tradycyjne metody kontroli jakości mogą być niewystarczające.\nSystem ten nie tylko identyfikuje defekty, ale także lokalizuje je na obrazach, co pozwala na szybkie podjęcie działań korygujących. W efekcie integracja\nANN może przyczynić się do podniesienia jakości produkcji, minimalizacji ryzyka wystąpienia wadliwych produktów na rynku oraz zwiększenia ogólnej efektywności linii produkcyjnych. Rozwiązanie to stanowi istotny element w doskonaleniu procesów produkcyjnych, oferując zaawansowane narzędzie do utrzymania wysokich standardów jakości w nowoczesnym przemyśle.\n\n5.3. Określenie twardości po odpuszczaniu wyrobów gotowych – problem regresyjny\nWspółczesny przemysł metalowy nieustannie ewoluuje, wprowadzając coraz bardziej zaawansowane technologie, aby sprostać wymaganiom rynku i zapewnić produkty najwyższej jakości. W szczególności przemysł obróbki cieplnej stali odgrywa istotną rolę w kształtowaniu właściwości mechanicznych wyrobów, takich jak twardość, wytrzymałość, plastyczność oraz odporność na zużycie. Procesy, takie jak hartowanie i odpuszczanie, są fundamentalnymi etapami obróbki cieplnej, które determinują ostateczne właściwości materiału. Precyzyjne sterowanie tymi procesami jest podstawą w osiąganiu wysokiej jakości produktów, co ma bezpośredni wpływ na ich trwałość, niezawodność i zdolność do spełniania specyficznych funkcji w złożonych aplikacjach inżynieryjnych.\nJednym z istotnych wskaźników jakości w procesach obróbki cieplnej stali jest twardość materiału po odpuszczaniu. Twardość ta odgrywa fundamentalną rolę w określaniu wytrzymałości, odporności na zużycie oraz innych krytycznych właściwości mechanicznych wyrobów stalowych. Przykłady takich zastosowań obejmują elementy maszyn, wały napędowe, sprężyny oraz różnorodne narzędzia, gdzie nie tylko wytrzymałość, ale również odpowiednia elastyczność i odporność na pękanie są istotne. Tradycyjne metody przewidywania twardości po odpuszczaniu często polegały na empirycznych zależnościach oraz doświadczeniu inżynierów, co, choć skuteczne, nie zawsze pozwalało na uchwycenie pełnego spektrum złożoności procesów obróbki cieplnej.\nZastosowanie sztucznej sieci neuronowej do przewidywania twardości stali po procesie odpuszczania pozwoli prognozować, czy produkt końcowy spełni kryteria jakościowe, bazując na parametrach wejściowych, takich jak typ stali, twardość po hartowaniu, czas czy temperatura odpuszczania.\nW niniejszym podrozdziale zostanie omówione zastosowanie sztucznych sieci neuronowych MLP do analizy i doskonalenia procesów obróbki cieplnej stali, ze szczególnym naciskiem na przewidywanie twardości po odpuszczaniu jako istotnego wskaźnika jakości wyrobów metalowych. Kluczowym zadaniem jest identyfikacja przypadków, w których przewidywana twardość jest poniżej wymaganych standardów, co może oznaczać, że produkt nie spełni kryteriów jakościowych. Zastosowanie sztucznej sieci neuronowej MLP pozwala na uwzględnienie wielu zmiennych jednocześnie i analizę ich wzajemnych wpływów na końcowy wynik procesu.\n\n5.3.1. Metodyka prowadzonych badań\nCelem tej części badań jest przedstawienie metody wykorzystania sztucznej sieci neuronowej MLP do przewidywania twardości stali po odpuszczaniu. W oparciu o parametry wejściowe procesu, takie jak typ stali, twardość po hartowaniu, czas oraz temperatura odpuszczania, model MLP będzie miał za zadanie oszacować twardość końcową materiału. Algorytmy klasyfikacyjne były testowane przy użyciu publicznie dostępnej bazy danych „Tempering data for carbon and low alloy steels”, która została udostępniona w licencji CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 [182].\nBazę danych przygotował zespół Raiipa Technologies. Zestaw danych zawiera informacje dotyczące 1466 prób odpuszczania, obejmujących różne klasy stali, z dodatkowymi danymi na temat składu chemicznego stali, czasu oraz temperatury odpuszczania, a także twardości stali po hartowaniu i po odpuszczaniu.\nNa początkowym etapie analizy baza danych została ograniczona do rekordów, w których była dostępna informacja o twardości początkowej materiału po hartowaniu. Twardość ta stanowiła istotny parametr wejściowy do dalszych analiz, a jej brak uniemożliwiałby prawidłowe przewidywanie twardości po odpuszczaniu.\nNastępnie w celu zwiększenia spójności i wiarygodności wyników modelowania baza danych została zawężona do pięciu typów stali, dla których liczba dostępnych próbek była wystarczająca do przeprowadzenia statystycznie istotnych analiz.\nWybrane typy stali i liczba próbek dla każdego z nich przedstawiają się następująco:\nÒ typ stali 0: AISI-SAE 4140 (42CrMo4) – 43 próbki;\nÒ typ stali 1: AISI-SAE 4340 (36CrNiMo4) – 51 próbek;\nÒ typ stali 2: AISI-SAE 5160 – 51 próbek;\nÒ typ stali 3: AISI-SAE 6150 (51CrV4) – 51 próbek;\nÒ typ stali 4: AISI-SAE E52100 (100Cr6) – 51 próbek.\nStal AISI-SAE 4140 (42CrMo4) jest szeroko stosowana w branżach, takich jak motoryzacja, lotnictwo i budownictwo ze względu na doskonałą wytrzymałość i odporność na zużycie. Często poddawana jest obróbce cieplnej, na przykład hartowaniu i odpuszczaniu, aby poprawić jej właściwości mechaniczne. Ten drugi proces znacząco wpływa na jej twardość i wytrzymałość [183]. Znany ze swojej wysokiej wytrzymałości AISI 4340 (36CrNiMo4) jest stosowany w wymagających zastosowaniach, takich jak komponenty lotnicze i motoryzacyjne. Wykazano, że techniki inżynierii powierzchniowej, na przykład azotowanie, a następnie powłoki NiP i AlCrN, znacznie poprawiają jego odporność na zużycie [184].\nProces odpuszczania wpływa również na jego właściwości mechaniczne, przy czym wyższe temperatury odpuszczania generalnie zmniejszają twardość, ale zwiększają odporność na uderzenia [185]. Stal AISI-SAE 5160 ze względu na\n\nwysoką sprężystość i wytrzymałość jest szeroko stosowana w produkcji sprężyn i resorów [186]. Podobnie stal AISI-SAE 6150 (51CrV4) stal chromowo-wanadowa również wykorzystywana w produkcji sprężyn i narzędzi, charakteryzuje się wysoką twardością i wytrzymałością [187]. AISI-SAE E52100 (100Cr6) zaś to wysokowęglowa stal chromowana stosowana głównie w zastosowaniach łożyskowych ze względu na wysoką twardość i odporność na zużycie. W trakcie hartowania stal ulega znacznym zniekształceniom sieci, które ulegają zmniejszeniu podczas odpuszczania, co prowadzi do zmniejszenia tetragonalności martenzytu i transformacji zatrzymanego austenitu. Proces ten zwiększa stabilność wymiarową i właściwości mechaniczne stali, dzięki czemu idealnie nadaje się do precyzyjnych elementów, takich jak łożyska [188].\nW ramach przeprowadzonej analizy ograniczono się do wybranych zmiennych wejściowych, które najlepiej odzwierciedlają charakter analizowanego problemu:\nÒ typ stali (0-4);\nÒ twardość po hartowaniu;\nÒ czas odpuszczania (w sekundach);\nÒ temperatura odpuszczania (w stopniach Celsjusza).\nIstotnym aspektem bazy danych są zmienne docelowe, które określają twardość stali po procesie odpuszczania. Wyjściem z modelu jest wartość twardości wyrażona w skali Rockwella C (HRC) po zakończeniu procesu odpuszczania.\nAby przewidzieć twardość stali po procesie odpuszczania, stworzono model regresyjny, który został zbudowany z wykorzystaniem sztucznych sieci neuronowych MLP przy użyciu Matlab R2023a, uwzględniając specyficzne wymagania wynikające z ograniczonej liczby danych (247 próbek). Warstwa wejściowa składała się z czterech neuronów (zmienne: typ stali, twardość po hartowaniu, czas odpuszczania, temperatura odpuszczania), podczas gdy warstwa wyjściowa zawierała jeden neuron (twardość stali po odpuszczaniu). Tabela 5.8 przedstawia statystyki opisowe danych wejściowych i wyjściowych.\nTabela 5.8. Statystyki opisowe danych wejściowych i wyjściowych\nTwardość po Czas Temp. Twardość po\nTyp stali hartowaniu odpuszczania odpuszczania odpuszczaniu\n[HRC] [s] [oC] [HRC] średnia - 60,52 17566,73 360,69 48,06 odchylenie\n- 3,02 32193,50 195,02 12,67 standardowe min 0 46,5 10 100 7,3 mediana - 61,6 900 300 51,5 max 4 63,3 86400 700 64\n\nW niniejszym badaniu zastosowano sieć neuronową MLP. Wybrano ją ze względu na jej zdolność do modelowania nieliniowych zależności przy jednoczesnym zachowaniu prostoty struktury. Model posiadał jedną warstwę ukrytą, której liczba neuronów była iteracyjnie dostosowywana w celu znalezienia optymalnej konfiguracji, w zakresie od 4 do 20 neuronów. W warstwie ukrytej zastosowano funkcję aktywacji typu sigmoidalnego, co umożliwiło sieci uchwycenie złożonych wzorców w danych. Do trenowania modelu wybrano trzy algorytmy uczenia: LM, BR oraz SCG. Proces trenowania rozpoczęto od domyślnej inicjalizacji wag, co zapewniło stabilne warunki początkowe dla optymalizacji. Funkcję kosztu zdefiniowano jako MSE, który służył do oceny jakości dopasowania modelu. Dane podzielono na trzy zestawy: treningowy\n(70%), walidacyjny (15%) oraz testowy (15%). Zbiór uczący został wykorzystany do dopasowania modelu, zbiór walidacyjny do monitorowania procesu trenowania w celu zapobiegania przeuczeniu, a testowy posłużył do oceny końcowej skuteczności modelu. Mechanizm wczesnego zatrzymania ustawiono na poziomie 6. Po zakończeniu procesu uczenia model został poddany testom, które polegały na porównaniu przewidywanych wartości twardości po odpuszczaniu z rzeczywistymi wartościami z danych wyjściowych. W ten sposób obliczono metryki jakości modelu (R, MSE, RMSE, RIE, MAPE i MAE), co umożliwiło ocenę jego skuteczności.\n5.3.2. Wyniki modelowania twardości po procesie odpuszczania\nPodczas modelowania analizowano różne konfiguracje liczby neuronów w warstwie ukrytej (4÷20). Ostatecznie zdecydowano się na zastosowanie warstwy ukrytej składającej się z dziewięciu neuronów, co stanowiło optymalny kompromis pomiędzy zdolnością modelu do uchwycenia złożonych zależności w danych a minimalizacją ryzyka przeuczenia. Wybór tej konfiguracji pozwolił na uzyskanie modelu o wysokiej zdolności generalizacji, przy jednoczesnym ograniczeniu ryzyka nadmiernego dopasowania do danych uczących.\nW procesie uczenia na wstępie zastosowano algorytm LM, przy czym najlepsze parametry jakościowe osiągnięto dla sieci neuronowej z dziewięcioma neuronami w warstwie ukrytej, po 29 epokach uczenia. Następnie, wykorzystując konfigurację z dziewięcioma neuronami w warstwie ukrytej, przeprowadzono trenowanie sieci neuronowych z użyciem dwóch dodatkowych algorytmów: SCG oraz BR. Wskaźniki jakości dla różnych modeli sieci neuronowych\nMLP zestawia tabela 5.9.\n\nTabela 5.9. W skaźniki jakości dla różnych algorytmów uczenia sieci modelowania twardości po procesie odpuszczania\nAlgorytm uczenia sieci MLP LM SCG BR\nEpoka 29 51 174\nR (cały zbiór danych) 0,9853 0,9335 0,9894\nMSE 4,6809 20,9592 3,3918\nRMSE 2,1635 4,5781 1,8417\nRIE 0,0435 0,0921 0,0371\nMAPE 0,0411 0,0913 0,0323\nMAE 1,5769 3,4138 1,3451\nTabela 5.9 obrazuje zróżnicowanie parametrów i wskaźników jakościowych dla zastosowanych algorytmów LM, SCG i BR w modelowaniu twardości po procesie odpuszczania. Liczba epok różni się znacząco między algorytmami. LM wymaga najmniejszej liczby epok (29), podczas gdy BR potrzebuje ich aż 174, co sugeruje większe zapotrzebowanie na iteracje w przypadku BR, jednak może to prowadzić do lepszej generalizacji modelu. Wartość współczynnika korelacji dla całego zbioru danych jest najwyższa dla BR (0,9894), co wskazuje na najlepsze dopasowanie modelu, podczas gdy SCG osiąga najniższą wartość (0,9335). Analizując wskaźniki błędów, takie jak MSE, RMSE,\nRIE, MAPE i MAE, można zauważyć różnice w efektywności algorytmów. BR osiąga najniższe wartości dla wszystkich rodzajów błędów, co sugeruje jego wyższą precyzję predykcji. Wyniki sugerują, że BR, mimo większej liczby epok, zapewnia najlepsze dopasowanie modelu i minimalizację błędów.\nNa przedstawionych na ryc. 5.16 wykresach można zaobserwować przebieg wartości MSE w zależności od liczby epok dla trzech algorytmów: LM,\nSCG i BR. Algorytm LM osiąga najlepszą wydajność walidacji na poziomie 4,23 po 23 epokach, co pokazuje szybką zbieżność modelu. W przypadku SCG najlepsza wydajność walidacji wynosi 22,42, osiągnięta po 45 epokach, jednakże dalsze trenowanie skutkuje wolniejszym spadkiem MSE. Algorytm BR wykazuje największą stabilność i najniższą wartość MSE, na poziomie 2,99, osiągniętą dopiero po 173 epokach, co wskazuje na jego zdolność do uzyskiwania bardziej precyzyjnych modeli kosztem dłuższego procesu uczenia.\n\na b c\nRyc. 5.16. Najlepsza wydajność modelu twardości po procesie odpuszczania dla sieci z algorytmem uczenia: a) LM, b) SCG, c) BR\n\nRyc. 5.17 ilustruje wykresy korelacji dla zbiorów danych uczących, walidacyjnych oraz całego zbioru danych, uzyskane przy zastosowaniu różnych algorytmów uczenia: a) LM, b) SCG, c) BR. Wykresy pokazują, że model oparty na BR osiąga najwyższą zgodność predykcji z danymi rzeczywistymi, co potwierdzają najwyższe wartości współczynnika korelacji R dla danych uczących, testowych i walidacyjnych. Wartość R dla LM również jest wysoka, jednak nieco niższa od tej uzyskanej przez BR, co może wskazywać na mniejszą precyzję modelu. Algorytm\nSCG, choć osiąga dobre wyniki, wykazuje niższą zgodność między predykcjami a rzeczywistymi wartościami, szczególnie dla danych testowych, co sugeruje, że jest mniej skuteczny w generalizowaniu wyników na nieznanych danych.\na b c\nRyc. 5.17. Wykresy korelacji dla modelu twardości po procesie odpuszczania z algorytmem uczenia: a) LM, b) SCG, c) BR\n\nPodsumowując wyniki analizy modeli twardości po procesie odpuszczania opartych na algorytmach LM, SCG i BR, można zauważyć, że każdy z nich wykazuje różne mocne i słabe strony. Algorytm LM charakteryzuje się szybką zbieżnością i niskimi wartościami błędów, co czyni go efektywnym w kontekście minimalizacji błędów bezwzględnych, jednak jego wartość współczynnika korelacji R wskazuje na nieco mniejszą precyzję w porównaniu z BR.\nAlgorytm BR wyróżnia się spośród analizowanych modeli najlepszymi wartościami R, zarówno dla danych uczących, testowych, jak i walidacyjnych. Mimo że wymaga większej liczby epok do zbieżności i ma nieco wyższe wartości błędów niż LM w niektórych przypadkach, jego zdolność do uzyskiwania najniższych błędów przy wysokiej korelacji czyni go najbardziej precyzyjnym i niezawodnym w kontekście przewidywań. Biorąc pod uwagę zarówno wskaźniki wydajności, jak i wyniki korelacji, algorytm BR jest najbardziej odpowiedni do modelowania twardości po procesie odpuszczania, oferując najlepszy balans między precyzją predykcji a ogólną jakością modelu.\nNa bazie wytrenowanego modelu twardości po procesie odpuszczania opartego na algorytmie BR opracowano prosty interfejs użytkownika (ryc. 5.18).\nPrzedstawiony interfejs został zaprojektowany w środowisku MATLAB i umożliwia użytkownikowi wprowadzanie danych wejściowych, tj. typ stali, twardość po hartowaniu, czas odpuszczania, temperatura odpuszczania oraz otrzymywanie informacji zwrotnej na twardości po procesie odpuszczania.\nRyc. 5.18. Interfejs użytkownika aplikacji do predykcji twardości po procesie odpuszczania\n\nInterfejs graficzny, zbudowany za pomocą funkcji uicontrol, charakteryzuje się prostotą obsługi oraz czytelnym układem elementów. Główna sekcja\n„Parametry Wejściowe” umożliwia użytkownikowi wprowadzenie danych, takich jak typ stali (zdefiniowany numerycznie dla różnych rodzajów stali), twardość po hartowaniu (wyrażona w skali HRC), czas odpuszczania w sekundach oraz temperaturę odpuszczania w stopniach Celsjusza. Dane te są niezbędne do prawidłowego funkcjonowania modelu predykcji.\nPo wprowadzeniu wszystkich wymaganych wartości użytkownik może skorzystać z przycisku „Predykcja”, który uruchamia proces obliczeniowy w oparciu o wczytaną sieć neuronową. Wynik predykcji, czyli przewidywana twardość stali po procesie odpuszczania, jest wyświetlany w sekcji „Wynik\nPrzewidywania”, zapewniając użytkownikowi bezpośredni wgląd w prognozowaną wartość. Przykład działania aplikacji przedstawia ryc. 5.19.\nRyc. 5.19. Przykład działania aplikacji predykcji twardości po procesie odpuszczania\nInterfejs zawiera również zestaw ikon funkcyjnych umieszczonych na dole ekranu. Ikona zapisu umożliwia zapisanie wyników oraz wprowadzonych danych w pliku (ryc. 5.20), ikona drukowania pozwala na bezpośrednie wydrukowanie wyników (ryc. 5.21), ikona odświeżania resetuje pola wprowadzania danych (ryc. 5.22), a ikona zamknięcia służy do zamknięcia aplikacji (ryc. 5.23).\nCałość została zaprojektowana z myślą o intuicyjnym użytkowaniu, co pozwala na łatwe i efektywne korzystanie z narzędzia do analizy procesów metalurgicznych. Sposób implementacji opisanego interfejsu graficznego został opisany w postaci kodu w oprogramowaniu Matlab przedstawionym jako algorytm 5.9.\n\nRyc. 5.20. Przykład działania aplikacji predykcji twardości po procesie odpuszczania – funkcja zapisz\nRyc. 5.21. Przykład działania aplikacji predykcji twardości po procesie odpuszczania – funkcja drukuj\n\nRyc. 5.22. Przykład działania aplikacji predykcji twardości po procesie odpuszczania – funkcja odśwież\nRyc. 5.23. Przykład działania aplikacji predykcji twardości po procesie odpuszczania – ikona zamknij\n\nAlgorytm 5.9. Implementacja interfejsu graficznego z wykorzystaniem modelu predykcji twardości po procesie odpuszczania function twardosc_odpuszczania1()\n% Wczytaj zapisaną sieć neuronową 'net' load('net.mat', 'net'); % Przykład wczytania sieci z pliku\n% Tworzenie głównego okna GUI f = figure('Position', [300, 300, 600, 500], 'Name',\n'Przewidywanie Twardości po Odpuszczaniu', 'NumberTitle', 'off',\n'Color', [0.7, 0.8, 0.6]);\np1 = uipanel('Title', 'Parametry Wejściowe', 'FontSize', 12,\n'Position', [0.05 0.5 0.9 0.45]);\nuicontrol('Parent', p1, 'Style', 'text', 'Position', [20, 140,\n200, 40], 'String', 'Typ Stali (4140 - 0, 4340 - 1, 5160 - 2, 6150 -\n3, E52100 - 4):', 'HorizontalAlignment', 'left', 'FontSize', 10);\nsteelTypeEdit = uicontrol('Parent', p1, 'Style', 'edit',\n'Position', [220, 140, 150, 30], 'String', '0', 'FontSize', 12);\nuicontrol('Parent', p1, 'Style', 'text', 'Position', [20,\n100, 200, 30], 'String', 'Twardość po Hartowaniu (HRC):',\n'HorizontalAlignment', 'left', 'FontSize', 10);\nhardnessEdit = uicontrol('Parent', p1, 'Style', 'edit',\n'Position', [220, 100, 150, 30], 'String', '60', 'FontSize', 12);\nuicontrol('Parent', p1, 'Style', 'text', 'Position', [20, 60,200,\n30], 'String', 'Czas Odpuszczania (s):', 'HorizontalAlignment',\n'left', 'FontSize', 10);\ntimeEdit = uicontrol('Parent', p1, 'Style', 'edit', 'Position',\n[220, 60, 150, 30], 'String', '600', 'FontSize', 12);\nuicontrol('Parent', p1, 'Style', 'text', 'Position', [20,\n20, 200, 30], 'String', 'Temperatura Odpuszczania (°C):',\n'HorizontalAlignment', 'left', 'FontSize', 10);\ntempEdit = uicontrol('Parent', p1, 'Style', 'edit', 'Position',\n[220, 20, 150, 30], 'String', '200', 'FontSize', 12);\n% Przycisk do wywołania predykcji predictButton = uicontrol('Style', 'pushbutton', 'Position',\n[250, 200, 120, 30], 'String', 'Predykcja', 'Callback', @(~,~) predictCallback(net), 'FontSize', 10);\n% Panel do wyświetlania wyników p2 = uipanel('Title', 'Wynik Przewidywania', 'FontSize', 12,\n'Position', [0.05 0.15 0.9 0.25], 'BackgroundColor', [0.7, 0.8,\n0.6]);\nuicontrol('Parent', p2, 'Style', 'text', 'Position', [20, 40,\n240, 30], 'String', 'Przewidywana Twardość po odpuszczaniu (HRC):',\n'HorizontalAlignment', 'left', 'FontSize', 10, 'BackgroundColor',\n[0.7, 0.8, 0.6]);\n\nAlgorytm 5.9. Implementacja interfejsu graficznego z wykorzystaniem modelu predykcji twardości po procesie odpuszczania, cd.\npredictedHardnessText = uicontrol('Parent', p2, 'Style', 'text',\n'Position', [260, 40, 150, 30], 'String', '', 'BackgroundColor',\n'white', 'FontSize', 12);\n% Dodanie przycisków funkcyjnych addIconButton(50, 50, 'ikona_zapisz.png', @saveFunction); % Zapisz addIconButton(120, 50, 'ikona_drukuj.png', @printFunction); % Drukuj addIconButton(190, 50, 'ikona_reload.png', @clearFunction); % Wyczyść addIconButton(400, 50, 'ikona_wylacz.png', @exitFunction); % Zamknij\n% Funkcja callback dla przycisku predykcji function predictCallback(net)\n% Pobieranie wartości z pól edycyjnych steel_type = str2double(get(steelTypeEdit, 'String'));\ninitial_hardness = str2double(get(hardnessEdit, 'String'));\ntempering_time = str2double(get(timeEdit, 'String'));\ntempering_temperature = str2double(get(tempEdit, 'String'));\n% Tworzenie wektora danych wejściowych input_data = [steel_type, initial_hardness, tempering_time, tempering_temperature]’;\n% Predykcja twardości po odpuszczaniu predicted_hardness = net(input_data);\n% Wyświetlenie wyniku w GUI set(predictedHardnessText, 'String', num2str(predicted_ hardness, '%.2f'));\nend\n% Funkcja zapisująca wynik i dane wejściowe function saveFunction(~, ~) steel_type = get(steelTypeEdit, 'String');\ninitial_hardness = get(hardnessEdit, 'String');\ntempering_time = get(timeEdit, 'String');\ntempering_temperature = get(tempEdit, 'String');\nresult = get(predictedHardnessText, 'String');\n[file, path] = uiputfile('*.mat', 'Zapisz dane jako');\nif ischar(file) data = struct('steel_type', steel_type, 'initial_hardness', initial_hardness, 'tempering_time', tempering_time, 'tempering_ temperature', tempering_temperature, 'result', result);\nsave(fullfile(path, file), 'data');\ndisp(['Dane zapisane w pliku: ', fullfile(path, file)]);\nend end\n\nAlgorytm 5.9. Implementacja interfejsu graficznego z wykorzystaniem modelu predykcji twardości po procesie odpuszczania, cd.\n% Funkcja drukująca wynik function printFunction(~, ~) printdlg(f);\nend\n% Funkcja czyszcząca pola i wynik function clearFunction(~, ~) set(steelTypeEdit, 'String', '');\nset(hardnessEdit, 'String', '');\nset(timeEdit, 'String', '');\nset(tempEdit, 'String', '');\nset(predictedHardnessText, 'String', '');\nend\n% Funkcja zamykająca aplikację function exitFunction(~, ~) close(f);\nend\n% Funkcja dodająca przycisk z ikonką function addIconButton(x, y, iconPath, callback)\n[iconData, map, alpha] = imread(iconPath); % Wczytaj dane ikonki i mapę kolorów oraz kanał alfa if ~isempty(map) iconData = ind2rgb(iconData, map); % Konwersja indeksów na wartości RGB end if size(iconData, 3) == 4 % Sprawdź, czy obraz ma kanał alfa iconData = iconData(:, :, 1:3); % Usuń kanał alfa end\n% Skalowanie obrazka do wymiarów przycisku iconData = imresize(iconData, [40, 40]);\n% Normalizacja wartości pikseli do zakresu [0, 1] iconData = double(iconData) / 255;\n% Dodanie axes dla rysowania prostokąta ax = axes('Position', [x, y, 40, 40], 'Visible', 'off');\nrectangle('Position', [0, 0, 40, 40], 'EdgeColor', [0.7, 0.8,\n0.6], 'LineWidth', 2, 'Parent', ax);\n% Dodanie przycisku z ikonką uicontrol('Style', 'pushbutton', 'Position', [x, y, 40, 40],\n'CData', iconData, 'Callback', callback, 'BackgroundColor', [0.8,\n0.9, 1]);\nend end\n\n5.3.3. Ocena jakości wyrobów gotowych na podstawie twardości po procesie odpuszczania\nOcena jakości twardości po odpuszczaniu na podstawie twardości po procesie odpuszczania jest istotnym elementem kontroli jakości, ponieważ pozwala na weryfikację, czy produkt końcowy spełnia wymagania stawiane przez specyfikację techniczną. Brak ogólnie przyjętych norm dla twardości po odpuszczaniu dla każdego rodzaju stali wynika z różnorodności zastosowań, które wymagają specyficznych właściwości materiału. Pożądana twardość zależy nie tylko od rodzaju stali, ale także od kształtu wyrobu (np. wałek czy element płaski), od jego docelowego zastosowania oraz innych czynników, takich jak obciążenia mechaniczne, którym będzie poddawany.\nW związku z brakiem uniwersalnych ram dotyczących pożądanej twardości po odpuszczaniu, konieczne było przyjęcie określonych zakresów twardości dla każdego z analizowanych typów stali w kontekście danego – przykładowego zastosowania. Na podstawie tych założeń opracowany został algorytm, który umożliwia ocenę jakości wyrobu gotowego. Algorytm ten, uwzględniając przewidywaną przez model sztucznej sieci neuronowej MLP twardość po odpuszczaniu (model oparty na algorytmie uczenia BR), określa, czy dany wyrób spełnia wymagania jakościowe. Jeżeli przewidywana twardość mieści się w przyjętym przedziale, uznaje się, że wyrób spełnia normy jakościowe, w przeciwnym razie wyrób jest klasyfikowany jako niezgodny z wymaganiami.\nNa podstawie danych z analizowanej bazy danych oraz minimalnych i maksymalnych wartości twardości uzyskanych dla różnych typów stali, można zaproponować uniwersalne zakresy twardości, które pozwolą na ocenę jakości wyrobów. Przyjęcie jednolitych przedziałów, takich jak 25-55 HRC, ma na celu pokazanie możliwości stosowania tego typu ograniczeń w ocenie jakości produktów, przy czym w każdym konkretnym zastosowaniu te zakresy mogą być dostosowane do specyficznych wymagań, uwzględniając szczegóły dotyczące finalnego zastosowania wyrobu. Dzięki temu możliwe jest skuteczne zarządzanie procesami produkcyjnymi, minimalizując ryzyko wytwarzania wyrobów niespełniających wymagań jakościowych i zapewniając ich odpowiednią wytrzymałość oraz funkcjonalność. Fragment kodu przedstawiony jako algorytm 5.10 ilustruje sposób implementacji oceny jakości na podstawie zakresu twardości wyrobów gotowych po odpuszczaniu, o który uzupełniono algorytm 5.9.\n\nAlgorytm 5.10. Fragment kodu oceny jakości na podstawie zakresu twardości wyrobów gotowych po odpuszczaniu\n% Ocena jakości na podstawie zakresu twardości if predicted_hardness >= 25 && predicted_hardness <= 55 quality_message = ‚Wyrób gotowy spełnia wymagania jakościowe.’;\nelse quality_message = ‚Wyrób gotowy nie spełnia wymagań jakościowych.’;\nend\n% Wyświetlenie oceny jakości w GUI set(qualityAssessmentText, ‘String’, quality_message);\nWyniki implementacji tego fragmentu kodu (algorytm 5.10) do interfejsu użytkownika przedstawiają ryc. 5.24 oraz ryc. 5.25, przy czym przykładowy wynik działania algorytmu dla wyrobu niespełniającego wymagań jakościowych to ryc. 5.24, zaś dla wyrobu spełniającego wymagania jakościowe – ryc. 5.25.\nRyc. 5.24. Wynik działania algorytmu dla wyrobu niespełniającego wymagań jakościowych\n\nRyc. 5.25. Wynik działania algorytmu dla wyrobu spełniającego wymagania jakościowe\nOcena jakości wyrobów gotowych na podstawie twardości po procesie odpuszczania jest nie tylko efektywnym narzędziem w procesie produkcji, ale także pozwala na szybkie i precyzyjne weryfikowanie zgodności wyrobów z wymaganiami, co jest istotne dla zapewnienia wysokiej jakości końcowych produktów metalowych. Przykładowa implementacja algorytmu oceny jakości w interfejsie użytkownika pokazuje, że możliwe jest skuteczne monitorowanie twardości i natychmiastowa weryfikacja, czy produkt spełnia założone standardy, czy też nie. Dzięki takiemu podejściu proces produkcyjny może być bardziej precyzyjnie zarządzany, minimalizując ryzyko wytwarzania produktów niespełniających wymagań, co przekłada się na wyższą jakość oraz funkcjonalność końcowych wyrobów.\nW niniejszym podrozdziale omówiono zastosowanie sztucznej sieci neuronowej MLP do przewidywania twardości stali po procesie odpuszczania oraz ocenę jakości wyrobów gotowych na podstawie wyników tej predykcji. Podjęte działania oraz wyniki uzyskane z modelowania i implementacji algorytmu oceny jakości podkreślają znaczenie zaawansowanych narzędzi analitycznych, takich jak sztuczne sieci neuronowe, w optymalizacji procesów produkcyjnych. Dzięki temu możliwe jest nie tylko precyzyjne przewidywanie wyników obróbki cieplnej, ale także skuteczna weryfikacja jakości wyrobów, co w konsekwencji przyczynia się do zwiększenia efektywności produkcji i podniesienia standardów jakości w przemyśle metalowym.\n\n6. Predykcja awarii maszyn\nWprowadzenie do tematyki predyktywnego utrzymania ruchu, zwłaszcza z uwzględnieniem wykorzystania sztucznych sieci neuronowych, stanowi ważny element doskonalenia procesów produkcyjnych w przemyśle maszynowym.\nW obliczu dynamicznie rozwijającej się technologii oraz rosnących wymagań rynkowych wdrażanie nowoczesnych metod zarządzania utrzymaniem maszyn staje się nieodzownym elementem strategii przedsiębiorstw dążących do maksymalizacji efektywności operacyjnej oraz minimalizacji ryzyka awarii.\nPredyktywne utrzymanie ruchu to zaawansowana metodologia zarządzania i utrzymania maszyn, która polega na przewidywaniu awarii oraz ocenie stanu technicznego urządzeń. Wykorzystując techniki analizy danych zbieranych z różnorodnych czujników monitorujących parametry pracy maszyn, takie jak temperatura, prędkość obrotowa, moment obrotowy czy zużycie narzędzi, możliwe jest minimalizowanie przestojów produkcyjnych poprzez prognozowanie potencjalnych problemów, zanim jeszcze one wystąpią.\nW kontekście przemysłu maszynowego predyktywne utrzymanie ruchu odgrywa ważną rolę, umożliwiając znaczące zmniejszenie przestojów produkcyjnych. Niespodziewane awarie maszyn mogą powodować poważne zakłócenia w procesie produkcyjnym, prowadząc do strat finansowych i opóźnień w realizacji zamówień. Dzięki zastosowaniu predyktywnych modeli przedsiębiorstwa mogą planować konserwacje i naprawy w sposób bardziej efektywny, unikając nieplanowanych przerw w pracy [13,189].\n\nKolejną istotną korzyścią jest optymalizacja zasobów. Predykcyjne utrzymanie ruchu pozwala na lepsze zarządzanie zapasami części zamiennych oraz planowanie pracy personelu technicznego. Zamiast trzymać duże ilości części zamiennych na magazynie lub angażować liczne zespoły serwisowe w gotowości, firmy mogą dokładnie przewidzieć, kiedy i jakie zasoby będą potrzebne [190,191].\nRedukcja kosztów utrzymania to kolejny znaczący aspekt. Tradycyjne podejście do utrzymania ruchu często wiąże się z wysokimi kosztami związanymi z nadmierną konserwacją lub nieoczekiwanymi naprawami. Predykcyjne utrzymanie ruchu umożliwia bardziej precyzyjne i efektywne zarządzanie cyklem życia maszyn, co prowadzi do obniżenia kosztów operacyjnych. Dzięki dokładnej analizie danych i prognozowaniu awarii możliwe jest uniknięcie kosztownych napraw oraz przedłużenie żywotności maszyn [192,193].\nSieci neuronowe, dzięki swojej zdolności do przetwarzania i analizy dużych zbiorów danych, są idealnym narzędziem do przewidywania ryzyka wystąpienia awarii oraz identyfikacji rodzaju awarii na podstawie parametrów operacyjnych [194]. ANN są w stanie analizować dane z monitorowania stanu technicznego maszyn, takie jak temperatura, prędkość obrotowa, moment obrotowy i zużycie narzędzi, w celu prognozowania, czy awaria wystąpi, a w przypadku wystąpienia – określenia jej rodzaju.\nCelem zastosowania ANN jest nie tylko przewidywanie, czy awaria wystąpi, ale również dokładne rozpoznanie rodzaju awarii. Pozwala to na bardziej precyzyjne planowanie działań prewencyjnych i naprawczych, co przekłada się na zmniejszenie liczby przestojów oraz optymalizację procesów produkcyjnych.\nDzięki funkcji aktywacji softmax ANN mogą dostarczać prawdopodobieństwo przynależności do poszczególnych klas awarii, co ułatwia podejmowanie decyzji na podstawie wyników analizy [195].\nPredyktywne utrzymanie ruchu jest niezwykle ważną koncepcją dla przemysłu maszynowego, oferującą liczne korzyści, takie jak zmniejszenie przestojów, optymalizacja zasobów oraz redukcja kosztów utrzymania. W dobie rosnącej konkurencji i coraz bardziej zaawansowanych technologii wdrożenie predyktywnych metod zarządzania utrzymaniem ruchu staje się nieodzownym elementem strategii przedsiębiorstw dążących do maksymalizacji efektywności operacyjnej i minimalizacji ryzyka awarii [196,197].\nW niniejszym rozdziale omówione zostaną aspekty związane z modelowaniem predykcji awarii maszyn. Na początku zostanie przedstawiona metodyka modelowania predykcji awarii, co pozwoli na zrozumienie podstaw teoretycznych i technologicznych zastosowanych rozwiązań. Następnie szczegółowo omówione zostaną wyniki modelowania klasyfikatora dotyczącego wystąpienia\n\nawarii oraz określania typu awarii. Na zakończenie rozdziału zostanie zaprezentowane praktyczne wykorzystanie predykcji awarii maszyn z zastosowaniem odpowiedniego interfejsu, co pozwoli na pełne zrozumienie wdrożonych metod w kontekście rzeczywistych zastosowań przemysłowych.\n6.1. Metodyka modelowania predykcji awarii\nCelem prowadzonych analiz była predykcja awarii maszyn na podstawie parametrów określających ich stan techniczny. Parametry były gromadzone podczas monitorowania procesu produkcyjnego. Istotne zmienne wejściowe obejmują temperaturę, prędkość obrotową, moment obrotowy oraz zużycie narzędzi, a zmienną wyjściową jest wskaźnik awarii, czy wystąpi, czy też nie. Algorytmy klasyfikacyjne były testowane przy użyciu publicznej bazy danych „AI4I 2020\nPredictive Maintenance Dataset”, która została udostępniona w 2020 roku [198].\nBaza danych AI4I 2020 Predictive Maintenance Dataset jest syntetycznym zbiorem danych, który odzwierciedla rzeczywiste dane spotykane w przemyśle dotyczące predykcyjnego utrzymania ruchu. Baza ta zawiera 10 000 próbek z 10 cechami, w tym identyfikatorami produktów, oraz zmiennymi opisującymi warunki operacyjne i zużycie narzędzi. Są to następujące zmienne:\nÒ unikalny identyfikator;\nÒ identyfikator produktu;\nÒ typ produktu (L, M, H);\nÒ temperatura powietrza [K];\nÒ temperatura procesu [K];\nÒ prędkość obrotowa [obr/min];\nÒ moment obrotowy [Nm];\nÒ zużycie narzędzi w [min];\nÒ wskaźnik awarii (0 – brak awarii, 1 – wystąpienie awarii);\nÒ typ awarii.\nIstotnym aspektem bazy danych są zmienne docelowe, które określają wystąpienie awarii maszyny oraz typ awarii. Wskaźnik awarii jest binarną zmienną, która określa, czy doszło do awarii (1) lub nie (0). Typ awarii obejmuje pięć niezależnych trybów, takich jak:\nÒ awaria narzędzia – występuje, gdy narzędzie przekroczy wartość zużycia od 200 do 240 minut;\nÒ awaria chłodzenia – występuje, gdy różnica temperatur powietrza i procesu jest mniejsza niż 8,6 K, a prędkość obrotowa spada poniżej 1380 [obr/min];\n\nÒ awaria mocy – występuje, gdy moc obliczona jako iloczyn momentu obrotowego i prędkości obrotowej [rad/s] jest poza zakresem 3500–9000 [W];\nÒ awaria przeciążenia – występuje, gdy iloczyn zużycia narzędzi i momentu obrotowego przekracza wartości krytyczne (11 000 minNm dla produktów\nL, 12 000 dla M i 13 000 dla H);\nÒ awarie losowe – niezależne od parametrów procesu, z szansą 0,1% dla każdego punktu danych.\nBaza zawiera zmienne rzeczywiste i kategoryczne, co umożliwia zastosowanie różnorodnych metod analitycznych, w tym sztucznych sieci neuronowych. Ze względu na trudność w uzyskaniu rzeczywistych danych predykcyjnego utrzymania ruchu, zbiór ten stanowi wartościowe źródło danych do badań i testowania algorytmów w warunkach symulowanych, które jak najwierniej odzwierciedlają rzeczywiste scenariusze przemysłowe.\nAby przewidzieć, czy awaria wystąpi, czy też nie, stworzono model klasyfikacyjny, który został zbudowany z wykorzystaniem sztucznych sieci neuronowych przy użyciu Matlab R2023a. Warstwa wejściowa składała się z pięciu neuronów (zmienne: temperatura powietrza, temperatura procesu, prędkość obrotowa, moment obrotowy, zużycie narzędzi), podczas gdy warstwa wyjściowa zawierała jeden neuron (klasyfikator z dwoma wartościami 0 lub 1).\nWartość klasyfikatora 1 oznacza, że awaria wystąpi, zaś 0, że nie wystąpi.\nTabela 6.1 przedstawia statystyki opisowe danych wejściowych.\nTabela 6.1. Statystyka opisowa danych wejściowych temperatura temperatura prędkość moment zużycie powietrza, procesu obrotowa obrotowy narzędzi\n[K] [K] [obr/min] [Nm] [min] średnia 300,0049 310,0056 1538,776 39,98691 107,951 odchylenie\n2,000259 1,483734 179,2841 9,968934 63,65415 standardowe min 295,3 305,7 1168 3,8 0 mediana 300,1 310,1 1503 40,1 108 max 304,5 313,8 2886 76,6 253\nW przypadku tych danych wzięto pod uwagę dwa rodzaje sieci. Pierwszą z nich była sieć neuronowa MLP z jedną warstwą ukrytą, drugą – sieć LSTM.\nDane z monitorowania stanu technicznego maszyn często mają charakter sekwencyjny, gdzie kolejne pomiary parametrów, takich jak temperatura, prędkość obrotowa, moment obrotowy i zużycie narzędzi, są zbierane w regularnych odstępach czasu. Sieci LSTM, jako odmiana rekurencyjnych sieci neuronowych, są\n\nzaprojektowane do analizy takich sekwencji danych, dzięki swojej zdolności do zapamiętywania długoterminowych zależności. W celu podkreślenia korzyści wynikających z wykorzystania LSTM oraz różnic pomiędzy sieciami, dokonano również analizy za pomocą tradycyjnej, sieci neuronowej MLP, która nie posiada zdolności do zapamiętywania długoterminowych zależności czasowych.\nDo uczenia MLP zastosowano algorytm SCG. Liczba neuronów w warstwie ukrytej, mieszcząca się w zakresie od 2 do 50, została dobrana na drodze eksperymentalnej. Maksymalną liczbę epok uczących ustalono na 1000. Aby uzyskać prawdopodobieństwo przynależności do poszczególnych klas, zastosowano funkcję aktywacji softmax w warstwie wyjściowej. Dane zostały podzielone na trzy części: 70% danych przeznaczono na zbiór uczący, 15% na testowy i 15% na walidacyjny. Zbiór uczący był wykorzystywany do trenowania sieci neuronowej. Proces uczenia trwał do momentu, gdy sieć przestawała poprawiać swoje wyniki na zbiorze walidacyjnym. Zastosowano technikę wczesnego zatrzymania na poziomie 6 jako metodę zapobiegania przeuczeniu. Zbiór testowy służył do niezależnej oceny dokładności działania sieci. Jakość działania sieci oceniano przy użyciu funkcji entropii krzyżowej, która była miarą wykorzystywaną do oceny poprawności klasyfikacji dokonywanej przez sieć neuronową.\nDo uczenia sieci neuronowej typu LSTM zastosowano algorytm Adam. Liczba neuronów (jednostek ukrytych) w warstwach ukrytych była dobierana eksperymentalnie, w zakresie od 256 do 4096 jednostek. Testowano zarówno sieci z jedną warstwą LSTM, jak i z dwiema warstwami LSTM. W przypadku drugiej warstwy\nLSTM liczba jednostek ukrytych również była zmieniana w zakresie od 256 do\n4096. Dodatkowo w celu zapobiegania nadmiernemu dopasowaniu zastosowano warstwy dropout z wartością 0,5. Maksymalna liczba epok uczących została ustalona na 1000, a początkowa szybkość uczenia na 0,001. Rozmiar wsadu (ang.\nMiniBatchSize) został ustalony na 256. Aby uzyskać prawdopodobieństwo przynależności do poszczególnych klas, użyto funkcji aktywacji softmax w warstwie wyjściowej. Dane zostały podzielone na trzy części: 70% danych przeznaczono na zbiór uczący, 15% na testowy i 15% na walidacyjny. Wykorzystano te same zestawy, co w przypadku sieci MLP. Proces uczenia był monitorowany przy użyciu zbioru walidacyjnego. Zastosowano technikę wczesnego zatrzymania na poziomie 30.\nW celu stworzenia modeli klasyfikacyjnych dotyczących rodzaju awarii użyto tego samego zbioru danych, w tym identyczne dane wejściowe i środowisko Matlab R2023a. Zastosowano takie same parametry, metodykę prowadzonych analiz dla obu rodzajów modeli. W przypadku modelowania tego klasyfikatora zmianie uległa jedynie zmienna wyjściowa, którą był typ awarii, zakodowany jako zmienna kategoryczna.\n\nPorównując modele między sobą, wykorzystywano takie wskaźniki, jak:\ndokładność, precyzja, czułość oraz F1-score. Dodatkowo przeprowadzono analizę krzywej ROC oraz AUC w celu oceny zdolności modeli do rozróżniania otrzymanych wyników między klasami.\n6.2. Wyniki modelowania klasyfikatora dotyczącego wystąpienia awarii\nNajlepsze wyniki uczenia sieci neuronowej MLP, która może przewidzieć, czy awaria wystąpi czy też nie, uzyskano dla 12 neuronów w warstwie ukrytej, po 112 epokach uczenia sieci. Struktura uczenia sieci neuronowych została przedstawiona na ryc. 6.1, zaś na ryc. 6.2 pokazano przebieg uczenia się sieci neuronowej, monitorowany za pomocą funkcji entropii krzyżowej jako miary błędu, w zależności od liczby epok uczących. Na osi poziomej (x) znajduje się liczba epok, natomiast na osi pionowej (y) przedstawiono wartość entropii krzyżowej, w skali logarytmicznej.\nRyc. 6.1. Struktura sieci neuronowej MLP klasyfikacyjnej wystąpienia awarii\nProces uczenia sieci neuronowej, która może przewidzieć, czy awaria wystąpi czy też nie, trwał przez 112 epok, a najlepsza wydajność na zbiorze walidacyjnym została osiągnięta po 106 epokach, z wartością entropii krzyżowej wynoszącą 0,0583. Widać, że po tym punkcie (oznaczonym zielonym okręgiem) krzywa walidacyjna przestaje się znacząco poprawiać, co sugeruje zastosowanie techniki wczesnego zatrzymania w celu uniknięcia przeuczenia sieci.\nWartości entropii krzyżowej dla zbiorów uczącego, walidacyjnego i testowego zmniejszają się w miarę postępującego uczenia, co wskazuje na poprawę zdolności sieci do rozpoznawania wzorców. Względnie niewielka różnica między krzywymi walidacyjną a testową świadczy o dobrej zdolności sieci do generalizacji na nowych danych.\n\n10-1\n10-2\n0 20 40 60 80 100\n112 Epok awożyzrk aiportnE\nNajlepsza wydajność walidacji 0.0583 w epoce 106\nTrain\nValidation\nTest\nBest\nRyc. 6.2. Przebieg uczenia się sieci neuronowej klasyfikacyjnej MLP wystąpienia awarii\nWykresy na ryc. 6.3 przedstawiają krzywe ROC dla analizowanej sieci neuronowej, która została wytrenowana do klasyfikacji danych w celu określenia, czy awaria nastąpi, czy też nie. Wykres w lewym górnym rogu przedstawia krzywą\nROC dla danych uczących. Wysokie wartości TPR przy niskich wartościach FPR sugerują, że sieć neuronowa dobrze klasyfikuje dane uczące. Wykres w prawym górnym rogu przedstawia krzywą ROC dla danych walidacyjnych. Krzywa jest zbliżona do wykresu dla danych uczących, co wskazuje na dobrą zdolność sieci do generalizacji na niezależnym zbiorze walidacyjnym. Wykres w lewym dolnym rogu przedstawia krzywą ROC dla danych testowych. Podobnie jak w przypadku danych uczących i walidacyjnych, wysoka wartość TPR przy niskim FPR potwierdza dobrą wydajność klasyfikacyjną sieci. Wykres w prawym dolnym rogu przedstawia zsumowaną krzywą ROC dla wszystkich danych (uczących, walidacyjnych i testowych). Krzywa ta obrazuje ogólną wydajność sieci na całym zbiorze danych.\nZ wszystkich wykresów wynika, że sieć neuronowa, która przewiduje, czy awaria wystąpi, czy też nie, ma wysoką skuteczność w klasyfikacji danych, co jest widoczne w wysokich wartościach wskaźnika prawdziwie pozytywnych wyników przy niskich wartościach wskaźnika fałszywie pozytywnych wyników. Zbieżność krzywych ROC dla danych uczących, walidacyjnych i testowych sugeruje, że sieć neuronowa ma dobrą zdolność do generalizacji i nie jest nadmiernie dopasowana do danych uczących.\n\n0.8\n0.6\n0.4\n0.2\n0 0.5 1\nWsk. fałszywie pozytywnych wyników wókinyw hcynwytyzop eiwizdwarp\n.ksW\nROC – uczenie\n0.8\n0.6\n0.4\n0.2\n0 0.5 1\nWsk. fałszywie pozytywnych wyników wókinyw hcynwytyzop eiwizdwarp\n.ksW\nROC – walidacja\n0.8\n0.6\n0.4\n0.2\n0 0.5 1\nWsk. fałszywie pozytywnych wyników wókinyw hcynwytyzop eiwizdwarp\n.ksW\nROC – testowanie\n0.8\n0.6\n0.4\n0.2\n0 0.5 1\nWsk. fałszywie pozytywnych wyników wókinyw hcynwytyzop eiwizdwarp\n.ksW\nROC – cały zbiór danych\nRyc. 6.3. Krzywe ROC dla sieci neuronowej klasyfikacyjnej MLP wystąpienia awarii\nKolejnym ze wskaźników skuteczności dopasowania sieci neuronowej MLP do danych jest macierz pomyłek (ryc. 6.4), która dla zbioru uczącego pokazuje, że większość próbek została poprawnie sklasyfikowana: 6714 z klasy 0 i 137 z klasy 1.\nMacierz walidacyjna pokazuje podobne wyniki, z 98,6% poprawnie sklasyfikowanych próbek dla klasy 0 i 83,8% dla klasy 1. Macierz pomyłek dla zbioru testowego również potwierdza dobrą wydajność sieci: 98,4% poprawnych klasyfikacji dla klasy 0 i 75,0% dla klasy 1. Macierz pomyłek dla wszystkich danych przedstawia ogólną wydajność sieci na całym zbiorze danych, z 98,4% poprawnych klasyfikacji dla klasy 0 i 80,4% dla klasy 1. Wysokie wartości procentowe poprawnych klasyfikacji we wszystkich macierzach świadczą o dobrej skuteczności sieci neuronowej w rozpoznawaniu wzorców, czy awaria wystąpi, czy też nie.\nDla modelowania sieci LSTM najlepsze parametry otrzymano dla dwóch warstw LSTM w modelu oraz dla liczby jednostek ukrytych w pierwszej warstwie – 1024, zaś w drugiej – 2048. Strukturę sieci obrazuje tabela 6.2, zaś\n\nkodowanie architektury i procesu uczenia sieci LSTM dla modelu klasyfikacyjnego wystąpienia awarii obrazuje algorytm 6.1.\n0 1\nPredykcja ytsiwyzcezr natS\nDane uczące\n6714 115 98.3%\n95.9% 1.6% 1.7%\n34 137 80.1%\n0.5% 2.0% 19.9%\n99.5% 54.4% 97.9%\n0.5% 45.6% 2.1%\n0 1\nPredykcja ytsiwyzcezr natS\nDane walidacyjne\n1443 20 98.6%\n96.2% 1.3% 1.4%\n6 31 83.8%\n0.4% 2.1% 16.2%\n99.6% 60.8% 98.3%\n0.4% 39.2% 1.7%\n0 1\nPredykcja ytsiwyzcezr natS\nDane testowe\n1460 24 98.4%\n97.3% 1.6% 1.6%\n4 12 75.0%\n0.3% 0.8% 25.0%\n99.7% 33.3% 98.1%\n0.3% 66.7% 1.9%\n0 1\nPredykcja ytsiwyzcezr natS\nCały zestaw danych\n9617 159 98.4%\n96.2% 1.6% 1.6%\n44 180 80.4%\n0.4% 1.8% 19.6%\n99.5% 53.1% 98.0%\n0.5% 46.9% 2.0%\nRyc. 6.4. Macierz pomyłek dla sieci neuronowej klasyfikacyjnej MLP wystąpienia awarii\nTabela 6.2. Architektura sieci LSTM dla modelu klasyfikacyjnego wystąpienia awarii\nLp. Typ warstwy Opis\n1 Sequence Input 5-elementowe wejście sekwencyjne\n2 LSTM 1024 jednostek ukrytych\n3 Dropout 50% deaktywowanych neuronów\n4 LSTM 2048 jednostek ukrytych\n5 Dropout 50% deaktywowanych neuronów\n6 Fully Connected 2-elementowa warstwa w pełni połączona\n7 Softmax Funkcja aktywacji\n8 ClassificationLayer Warstwa klasyfikacyjna dla dwóch klas\n\nAlgorytm 6.1. Kodowanie architektury i procesu uczenia sieci LSTM dla modelu klasyfikacyjnego wystąpienia awarii\n% Definiowanie warstw sieci LSTM inputSize = 5; % liczba cech (5) numHiddenUnits = 1024;\nnumClasses = 2; % liczba cech (5) layers = [ sequenceInputLayer(inputSize,\"Name\",\"sequence\") lstmLayer(numHiddenUnits,\"Name\",\"lstm\",\"OutputMode\",\"last\") dropoutLayer(0.5,\"Name\",\"dropout\") lstmLayer(2048,\"Name\",\"lstm1\",\"OutputMode\",\"last\") dropoutLayer(0.5,\"Name\",\"dropout1\") fullyConnectedLayer(numClasses) softmaxLayer];\nnet = dlnetwork(layers);\nnet.Initialized\n%% Trenowanie Modelu\n% Konwersja danych wyjściowych do kategorycznych\nY_train = categorical(Y_train);\nY_test = categorical(Y_test);\nY_val = categorical(Y_val);\ninitialLearnRate = 0.001; % Zmniejszona początkowa szybkość uczenia maxEpochs = 1000; % Maksymalna liczba epok miniBatchSize = 256; % rozmiar wsadu options = trainingOptions('adam', ...\n'MaxEpochs', maxEpochs, ...\n'MiniBatchSize', miniBatchSize, ...\n'ValidationData', {X_val_cell, Y_val}, ...\n'ValidationFrequency', 100, ...\n'ValidationPatience', 30, ...\n'Verbose', 0, ...\n'Plots', 'training-progress', ...\n'Metrics','accuracy');\n% Trenowanie sieci LSTM\n[netLSTM,info] = trainnet(X_train_cell, Y_train_balanced, net,\"crossentropy\", options);\nRyc. 6.5 przedstawia wykresy uczenia sieci LSTM dla modelu klasyfikacyjnego wystąpienia awarii. Proces uczenia został zakończony przed osiągnięciem maksymalnej liczby iteracji, w 534. epoce po 14400 iteracjach.\nWykres górny przedstawia zmianę dokładności modelu LSTM w funkcji iteracji podczas procesu uczenia. Oś pozioma (X) reprezentuje liczbę\n\niteracji, natomiast oś pionowa (Y) przedstawia dokładność w procentach\n(%). Niebieskie linie wskazują dokładność modelu na zbiorze uczącym, natomiast czerwone oznaczają dokładność modelu na zbiorze walidacyjnym.\nDokładność modelu na zbiorze uczącym i walidacyjnym wydaje się stabilna i waha się wokół pewnej wartości przez większość iteracji. Podsumowując, dokładność na zbiorze walidacyjnym jest wysoka, co sugeruje, że model dobrze generalizuje na nowych danych.\nRyc. 6.5. Wykresy uczenia sieci LSTM dla modelu klasyfikacyjnego wystąpienia awarii\nWykres dolny przedstawia zmianę wartości funkcji straty modelu LSTM w funkcji iteracji podczas procesu uczenia. Wartość funkcji straty na zbiorze uczącym i walidacyjnym jest stabilna przez większość iteracji, z lekkimi wahaniami. Strata na zbiorze walidacyjnym utrzymuje się na niskim poziomie, co sugeruje skuteczność modelu w minimalizacji błędu predykcji.\nDokładność oraz wartość funkcji straty pokazują, że proces uczenia modelu LSTM jest stabilny, a model nie wykazuje oznak nadmiernego dopasowania ani niedopasowania. Wysoka dokładność na zbiorze walidacyjnym podkreśla dobrą zdolność modelu do generalizacji na nowych danych. Niskie wartości straty na zbiorze walidacyjnym sugerują, że model skutecznie minimalizuje błąd predykcji, co jest istotne dla dokładnych prognoz. Te wyniki sugerują, że model jest dobrze wytrenowany i efektywnie przewiduje wystąpienie awarii na podstawie danych sekwencyjnych.\n\nRyc. 6.6 przedstawia krzywe ROC dla sieci LSTM wystąpienia awarii dla różnych zestawów danych: uczących, walidacyjnych, testowych oraz całego zestawu danych. Dla etapu uczenia krzywe ROC obu klas (Class 1 i Class 0) są bardzo zbliżone, co sugeruje, że model skutecznie rozróżnia te klasy podczas procesu uczenia. Wartości AUC (ang. area under curve) wynoszą 0,92044 dla klasy 1 oraz 0,92043 dla klasy 0, co wskazuje na wysoką skuteczność modelu w trakcie tego etapu. W przypadku walidacji krzywe ROC również pokazują wysoką skuteczność modelu w rozróżnianiu obu klas. Wartości AUC dla obu klas wynoszą\n0,91668, co sugeruje, że model zachowuje stabilność i dobrze generalizuje na danych walidacyjnych. Na etapie testowania krzywe ROC dla danych testowych ukazują jeszcze lepsze dopasowanie modelu. Wartości AUC wynoszą 0,93479 dla obu klas, co jest najwyższym wynikiem spośród wszystkich etapów. Oznacza to, że model bardzo dobrze radzi sobie na nowych, nieznanych danych. Analizując cały zestaw danych, krzywe ROC także pokazują wysoką skuteczność modelu w klasyfikacji. Wartości AUC dla obu klas wynoszą 0,9216, co potwierdza ogólną dobrą wydajność modelu na całym zbiorze danych.\nModel LSTM użyty do wykrywania awarii charakteryzuje się wysoką skutecznością na każdym etapie procesu modelowania. Wysokie wartości AUC\n(powyżej 0,9) dla obu klas na etapach uczenia, walidacji, testowania oraz dla całego zestawu danych wskazują na zdolność modelu do skutecznego rozróżniania klas. Sugeruje to, że model jest dobrze dopasowany i wykazuje zdolność do generalizacji na nowych danych.\n0.8\n0.6\n0.4\n0.2\n0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1\nWsk. fałszywie pozytywnych wyników wókinyw hcynwytyzop eiwizdwarp\n.ksW\nROC - uczenie\nClass 1 (AUC = 0.92044)\nClass 0 (AUC = 0.92043)\n0.8\n0.6\n0.4\n0.2\n0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1\nWsk. fałszywie pozytywnych wyników wókinyw hcynwytyzop eiwizdwarp\n.ksW\nROC - walidacja\nClass 1 (AUC = 0.91668)\nClass 0 (AUC = 0.91668)\n0.8\n0.6\n0.4\n0.2\n0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1\nWsk. fałszywie pozytywnych wyników wókinyw hcynwytyzop eiwizdwarp\n.ksW\nROC - testowanie\nClass 1 (AUC = 0.93479)\nClass 0 (AUC = 0.93479)\n0.8\n0.6\n0.4\n0.2\n0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1\nWsk. fałszywie pozytywnych wyników wókinyw hcynwytyzop eiwizdwarp\n.ksW\nRyc. 6.6. Krzywe ROC dla sieci LSTM wystąpienia awarii\nROC - cały zestaw danych\nClass 1 (AUC = 0.9216)\nClass 0 (AUC = 0.9216)\n\n0.8\n0.6\n0.4\n0.2\n0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1\nWsk. fałszywie pozytywnych wyników wókinyw hcynwytyzop eiwizdwarp\n.ksW\nROC - uczenie\nClass 1 (AUC = 0.92044)\nClass 0 (AUC = 0.92043)\n0.8\n0.6\n0.4\n0.2\n0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1\nWsk. fałszywie pozytywnych wyników wókinyw hcynwytyzop eiwizdwarp\n.ksW\nROC - walidacja\nClass 1 (AUC = 0.91668)\nClass 0 (AUC = 0.91668)\n0.8\n0.6\n0.4\n0.2\n0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1\nWsk. fałszywie pozytywnych wyników wókinyw hcynwytyzop eiwizdwarp\n.ksW\nROC - testowanie\nClass 1 (AUC = 0.93479)\nClass 0 (AUC = 0.93479)\n0.8\n0.6\n0.4\n0.2\n0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1\nWsk. fałszywie pozytywnych wyników wókinyw hcynwytyzop eiwizdwarp\n.ksW\nROC - cały zestaw danych\nClass 1 (AUC = 0.9216)\nClass 0 (AUC = 0.9216)\nRyc. 6.6. Krzywe ROC dla sieci LSTM wystąpienia awarii, cd.\n\n0 1\nPredykcja ytsiwyzcezr natS\nDane uczące\n6716 32 99.5% 0.5% 0\n145 107 42.5% 57.5% 1\n97.9% 77.0%\n2.1% 23.0%\n0 1\nPredykcja ytsiwyzcezr natS\nDane walidacyjne\n1443 6 99.6% 0.4%\n28 23 45.1% 54.9%\n98.1% 79.3%\n1.9% 20.7%\n0 1\nPredykcja ytsiwyzcezr natS\nDane testowe\n1459 5 99.7% 0.3% 0\n23 13 36.1% 63.9% 1\n98.4% 72.2%\n1.6% 27.8%\n0 1\nPredykcja ytsiwyzcezr natS\nCały zestaw danych\n9618 43 99.6% 0.4%\n196 143 42.2% 57.8%\n98.0% 76.9%\n2.0% 23.1%\nRyc. 6.7. Macierz pomyłek dla sieci LSTM wystąpienia awarii\nRyc. 6.7 przedstawia macierze pomyłek dla modelu LSTM, który został zastosowany do klasyfikacji awarii maszyn dla różnych zestawów danych:\nuczących, walidacyjnych, testowych oraz całego zestawu danych. W przypadku danych uczących model klasyfikuje prawidłowo 6716 przypadków klasy\n0 oraz 107 przypadków klasy 1. Błędne klasyfikacje obejmują 32 przypadki klasy 0 i 145 przypadków klasy 1. Dokładność dla klasy 0 wynosi 99,5%, natomiast dla klasy 1 – 42,5%. Wysoka dokładność klasy 0 wskazuje na skuteczne rozpoznawanie tej klasy przez model w trakcie uczenia. Niemniej jednak niższa dokładność dla klasy 1 sugeruje, że model może mieć trudności z identyfikacją tej klasy. W analizie danych walidacyjnych model osiąga dokładność\n99,6% dla klasy 0 oraz 45,1% dla klasy 1. Poprawnie klasyfikuje 1443 przypadki klasy 0 i 23 przypadki klasy 1, przy czym błędne klasyfikacje obejmują\n6 przypadków klasy 0 i 28 przypadków klasy 1. Te wyniki wskazują na dobrą ogólną wydajność modelu klasyfikacji klasy 0, jednak zauważalne są pewne problemy z dokładnością dla klasy 1, co może wpływać na stabilność predykcji w praktycznych zastosowaniach. Dane testowe pokazują, że model klasyfikuje\n\npoprawnie 1459 przypadków klasy 0 i 13 przypadków klasy 1, przy błędnych klasyfikacjach 5 przypadków klasy 0 i 23 przypadków klasy 1. Dokładność dla klasy 0 wynosi 99,7%, natomiast dla klasy 1 – 36,1%. Analiza całego zestawu danych ujawnia, że model osiąga dokładność 99,6% dla klasy 0 oraz 42,2% dla klasy 1. Model poprawnie klasyfikuje 9618 przypadków klasy 0 oraz 143 przypadki klasy 1, z błędami w 43 przypadkach klasy 0 i 196 przypadkach klasy 1.\nWyniki te potwierdzają ogólną wysoką skuteczność modelu klasyfikacji klasy\n0, jednak wyzwanie stanowi utrzymanie wysokiej dokładności dla klasy 1.\nPo wykonaniu obu modeli do klasyfikowania, czy usterki wystąpią, czy też nie (MLP oraz LSTM), dokonano ich porównania. Porównanie modeli na danych testowych jest istotne, ponieważ te dane nie były używane podczas trenowania modelu, a więc najbardziej przypominają rzeczywiste warunki pracy modelu. Dane testowe pozwalają na ocenę zdolności generalizacji modelu, co jest niezbędne dla oceny jego wydajności w praktycznych zastosowaniach.\nIstotne jest również to, że zastosowano w przypadku obu modeli ten sam zestaw danych. Porównanie wskaźników jakościowych dla danych testowych dla obu modeli zestawia tabela 6.3.\nTabela 6.3. Porównanie modeli MLP oraz LSTM modelu wystąpienia awarii (wskaźniki jakości)\nDokładność Precyzja Czułość\nModel TN FP FN TP F1-score [%]\n[%] [%] [%]\nMLP 1460 24 4 12 98,1 33,3 75,0 46,1\nLSTM 1459 5 23 13 98,1 72,2 36,1 48,1\nAnaliza wyników na danych testowych wykazała, że oba modele osiągają dokładność na poziomie 98,1%. Jednakże precyzja, czyli miara liczby prawdziwie pozytywnych wyników w stosunku do wszystkich pozytywnych przewidzianych przez model, wynosi 33,3% dla sieci neuronowej MLP i 72,2% dla modelu LSTM. Wyższa precyzja modelu LSTM oznacza rzadsze występowanie fałszywie pozytywnych klasyfikacji, co jest istotne w kontekście predykcji awarii, gdzie fałszywe alarmy mogą prowadzić do niepotrzebnych interwencji. Czułość, mierząca zdolność modelu do identyfikacji wszystkich rzeczywistych pozytywnych przypadków, wynosi 75,0% dla modelu MLP i 36,1% dla modelu LSTM. Znacznie wyższa czułość modelu MLP wskazuje na jego większą efektywność w wykrywaniu rzeczywistych przypadków awarii. Jest to kluczowy wskaźnik, ponieważ niski poziom czułości oznacza, że wiele rzeczywistych awarii może zostać przeoczonych. F1-score, będący średnią harmoniczną precyzji i czułości, wynosi 46,1% dla modelu MLP i 48,1% dla modelu\n\nLSTM. Wyższy F1-score modelu LSTM sugeruje, że jest on bardziej wyważony w swoim działaniu, łącząc wysoką precyzję i czułość, co czyni go bardziej niezawodnym modelem do predykcji awarii w porównaniu z MLP.\nBiorąc pod uwagę wyższy F1-score (48,1%) i precyzję (72,2%) modelu LSTM w porównaniu z modelem MLP (F1-score: 46,1%, precyzja: 33,3%), model LSTM wydaje się bardziej niezawodny, redukując liczbę fałszywych alarmów. Pomimo wyższej czułości modelu MLP (75,0%) w porównaniu z LSTM (36,1%), co oznacza lepsze wykrywanie rzeczywistych przypadków awarii, niższa precyzja modelu\nMLP wskazuje na większą liczbę fałszywych alarmów.\nW kontekście danych historycznych dla analizowanego zestawu danych, gdzie liczba awarii była niska, ważne jest, aby model skutecznie radził sobie z niewielką liczbą pozytywnych przykładów (awarii) oraz minimalizował fałszywie negatywne wyniki. W scenariuszach z niezrównoważonymi klasami wysoka czułość jest istotna, ponieważ odzwierciedla zdolność modelu do prawidłowego wykrywania awarii. W takich przypadkach model o wyższej czułości, mimo większej liczby fałszywych alarmów, może być bardziej korzystny, gdyż każde przeoczenie awarii może prowadzić do poważnych konsekwencji.\nBiorąc pod uwagę te aspekty, model MLP z wyższą czułością (75,0%) wydaje się bardziej odpowiedni do zastosowań w predykcji w czasie rzeczywistym, gdzie krytyczne jest wykrywanie wszystkich rzeczywistych przypadków awarii.\nPomimo niższej precyzji i większej liczby fałszywych alarmów zdolność modelu\nMLP do wykrywania większej liczby rzeczywistych awarii czyni go bardziej niezawodnym w kontekście zapobiegania potencjalnym krytycznym awariom.\n6.3. Wyniki modelowania klasyfikatora dotyczącego określania typu awarii\nW przypadku modelowania typu awarii na wyjściu można wyróżnić 6 klas:\n1 – brak awarii, 2 – awaria narzędzia, 3 – awaria chłodzenia, 4 – awaria mocy,\n5 – awaria przeciążenia oraz 6 – awarie losowe.\nW przypadku modelowania klasyfikatora dla określania typu awarii z wykorzystaniem sieci neuronowej MLP najlepsze wyniki otrzymano dla sieci z 12 neuronami w warstwie ukrytej. Ryc. 6.8 prezentuje przebieg uczenia się sieci neuronowej, monitorowany za pomocą funkcji entropii krzyżowej w zależności od liczby epok uczących.\n\n10-1\n10-2\n10-3\n0 10 20 30 40 50\n58 Epok awożyzrk aiportnE\nNajlepsza wydajność walidacji to 0.009 w epoce 52\nTrain\nValidation\nTest\nBest\nRyc. 6.8. Przebieg uczenia się sieci neuronowej MLP klasyfikującej typ usterek\nProces uczenia MLP trwał przez 58 epok, a najlepsza wydajność na zbiorze walidacyjnym została osiągnięta po 52 epokach, z wartością entropii krzyżowej wynoszącą 0,009. Po tym punkcie, oznaczonym zielonym okręgiem, krzywa walidacyjna przestaje się znacząco poprawiać, co sugeruje zastosowanie techniki wczesnego zatrzymania w celu uniknięcia przeuczenia.\nWartości entropii krzyżowej dla zbiorów uczącego, walidacyjnego i testowego systematycznie maleją wraz z postępem procesu uczenia, co sugeruje, że sieć neuronowa staje się coraz lepsza w rozpoznawaniu wzorców. Dodatkowo stosunkowo mała różnica pomiędzy krzywymi walidacyjną a testową wskazuje na solidną zdolność sieci do generalizacji, czyli poprawnego działania na nowych, niewidzianych wcześniej danych.\nWykresy (ryc. 6.9) przedstawiają krzywe ROC dla różnych klas w problemie wieloklasowej klasyfikacji typu usterek. Na wykresie ROC dla zestawu uczącego model wykazuje bardzo dobrą zdolność do rozróżniania większości klas. Wysokie wartości dla klas 1, 2, 3, 5 i 6 wskazują na wysoką dokładność klasyfikacji tych klas. Klasa 4, reprezentowana przez żółtą krzywą, wykazuje jednak znacznie gorszą wydajność, co sugeruje trudności modelu w prawidłowej klasyfikacji tej klasy. W zbiorze walidacyjnym wartości dla klas 1,\n2, 3, 5 i 6 pozostają wysokie, co wskazuje na dobrą generalizację modelu na nowe dane. Klasa 4 ponownie wykazuje znacznie gorszą wydajność, co jest widoczne na krzywej ROC, która jest bliska przekątnej, sugerując, że model\n\nma trudności z poprawnym rozróżnieniem tej klasy od innych. W zestawie testowym wyniki są podobne do tych z zestawu walidacyjnego. Analizując krzywą ROC dla całego zestawu danych, można zauważyć, że ogólna wydajność modelu utrzymuje się na wysokim poziomie dla klas 1, 2, 3, 5 i 6, co jest zgodne z wynikami dla poszczególnych zestawów danych. Klasa 4 wykazuje najniższą wartość, co sugeruje, że model ma największe problemy z klasyfikacją tej klasy w całym zbiorze danych.\nRyc. 6.9. Krzywe ROC dla sieci neuronowej MLP klasyfikującej typ usterek\n\nRyc. 6.10. Macierz pomyłek dla sieci neuronowej MLP klasyfikującej typ usterek\nKolejnym ze wskaźników skuteczności dopasowania sieci neuronowej MLP do danych jest macierz pomyłek. Na ryc. 6.10 przedstawiono macierze pomyłek dla sieci neuronowej wytrenowanej do klasyfikacji wieloklasowej na różnych podzbiorach danych: uczących, walidacyjnych, testowych oraz na całym zestawie danych. Zielone komórki, które oznaczają poprawne klasyfikacje, mają wysokie wartości procentowe. Model klasyfikuje klasę 1 z bardzo wysoką dokładnością we wszystkich zbiorach danych (ponad 98%). Klasa 3 również jest dobrze klasyfikowana, szczególnie w danych uczących (54 przypadki), walidacyjnych\n(9 przypadków) i testowych (9 przypadków), co wskazuje na solidność modelu dla tej klasy. Dla tej klasy dokładność modelu osiągnięto na poziomie 90%.\nBrak poprawnych klasyfikacji dla klasy 4 i 5 we wszystkich zbiorach danych.\nMoże to sugerować, że są one trudne do rozpoznania przez model lub są bardzo\n\nrzadkie. Model ma umiarkowaną skuteczność dla klasy 6, szczególnie w danych uczących (36 przypadków – 83,7%), walidacyjnych (10 przypadków – 90,9%) i testowych (14 przypadków – 93,3%). Klasa 2 ma niską skuteczność klasyfikacji we wszystkich zbiorach danych. Chociaż model potrafi poprawnie zaklasyfikować kilka przypadków klasy 2, liczba poprawnych klasyfikacji jest stosunkowo niska w porównaniu z innymi klasami. Niska liczba poprawnych klasyfikacji dla klasy 2 we wszystkich zbiorach danych sugeruje, że model ma trudności z jej rozpoznaniem. Może to wynikać z niewystarczającej liczby przykładów klasy 2 w danych uczących lub z niewystarczającej rozróżnialności cech dla tej klasy.\nDla modelowania sieci LSTM dla modelu klasyfikującego typ usterek najlepsze parametry otrzymano dla dwóch warstw LSTM w modelu oraz dla liczby jednostek ukrytych w pierwszej warstwie – 1024, zaś w drugiej – 2048.\nDla takiej samej struktury jak w przypadku modelu klasyfikującego wystąpienie awarii. Architekturę tej sieci prezentuje tabela 6.2 (podrozdział 6.2).\nRyc. 6.11. Wykresy uczenia sieci LSTM dla modelu klasyfikacyjnego typ usterek\nRyc. 6.11 przedstawia wykresy uczenia sieci LSTM dla modelu klasyfikacyjnego typ usterek. Proces uczenia zakończył się wcześniej, w 267. epoce, po 7200 iteracjach. Dokładność oraz wartość funkcji straty wskazują na stabilny proces uczenia modelu LSTM, bez oznak przeuczenia lub niedouczenia. Wysoka dokładność na zbiorze walidacyjnym świadczy o dobrej zdolności modelu do generalizacji na nowych danych. Niskie wartości straty na zbiorze walidacyjnym sugerują, że model skutecznie redukuje błąd predykcji, co jest istotne dla precyzyjnych prognoz. Niskie wartości straty i wysoka dokładność na danych walidacyjnych wskazują, że model nie ma problemu z niedouczeniem.\n\nRyc. 6.12. Macierz pomyłek dla sieci LSTM dla modelu klasyfikacyjnego typ usterek\nMacierze pomyłek dla sieci LSTM (ryc. 6.12) pokazują wydajność modelu na zestawach danych uczących, walidacyjnych, testowych oraz dla całego zestawu danych. Dla danych uczących macierz pomyłek wskazuje, że model osiągnął bardzo wysoką dokładność (99,7%) w klasyfikacji przypadków braku awarii. Jednakże dokładność dla innych klas awarii, szczególnie dla klas 4 i 5, jest zauważalnie niższa (odpowiednio 66,2% i 50,0%). Wysoka liczba błędnie sklasyfikowanych przypadków w tych klasach sugeruje, że model może mieć trudności z rozróżnianiem między pewnymi typami awarii. W przypadku klasy\n4, znaczący odsetek rzeczywistych przypadków został błędnie przypisany do klasy 1, co może wynikać z podobieństwa cech między tymi dwoma klasami.\nCo więcej, model nie sklasyfikował żadnego przypadku jako klasy 2, 3 i 6, co wskazuje na poważne niedouczenie dla tych klas i sugeruje, że model może mieć problem z wykrywaniem tych specyficznych typów awarii.\nAnaliza danych walidacyjnych pokazuje, że model utrzymuje wysoką dokładność klasyfikacji dla 1 klasy. Wyniki te są zgodne z obserwacjami z danych\n\nuczących, co sugeruje, że problemy z rozróżnianiem klas 4 i 5 są utrwalone również na etapie walidacji. W przypadku danych testowych model nadal wykazuje wysoką dokładność dla klasy 1 (99,9%) i umiarkowaną dla klas 4 i 5 (odpowiednio 53,8% i 46,2%). Co więcej, model ponownie nie sklasyfikował żadnego przypadku jako klasy 2, 3 i 6, co jest bardzo istotnym problemem, sugerującym, że w ogóle nie nauczył się rozpoznawać tych typów awarii.\nDla całego zestawu danych ogólne wzorce są podobne do tych obserwowanych w danych uczących, walidacyjnych i testowych. Model osiąga wysoką dokładność dla klasy 1 (99,8%) i umiarkowaną dla klasy 4 (66,3%) oraz niską dla klasy 5 (52,6%). Pomimo ogólnej wysokiej dokładności problemy z klasyfikacją mniej reprezentatywnych klas awarii są nadal obecne. Średnia precyzja i czułość dla tych klas pozostają niższe, co może wpłynąć na ogólną wydajność modelu w rzeczywistych zastosowaniach. Co istotne, model nadal nie sklasyfikował żadnego przypadku jako klasy 2, 3 i 6, co wskazuje na strukturalny problem z rozpoznawaniem tych awarii.\nModel LSTM osiąga wysoką ogólną dokładność, szczególnie w klasyfikacji przypadków braku awarii. Jednakże wykazuje trudności w prawidłowym klasyfikowaniu pewnych typów awarii, co jest konsekwentne we wszystkich zestawach danych. Szczególnie niepokoi fakt, że model nie jest w stanie sklasyfikować klas 2, 3 i 6, co wskazuje na potrzebę gruntownej rewizji procesu trenowania, być może poprzez np. przeprojektowanie architektury modelu.\nDane te były analizowane dla różnych architektur LSTM, jednakże wyniki wskazują, że sieci LSTM nie sprawdzają się w tym konkretnym przypadku.\nZe względu na analizę macierzy pomyłek, która nie klasyfikuje w ogóle klas 2, 3 i 6, co było zaprezentowane dla najlepszej otrzymanej sieci LSTM, pominięto dalszą analizę ROC oraz wskaźników jakościowych, takich jak dokładność, precyzja, czułość i F1-score.\nW wyniku analizowania wydajności modeli klasyfikacyjnych stosowanych do określania typów awarii zauważono, że dotychczasowe podejście, zarówno przy użyciu sieci neuronowej MLP, jak i sieci LSTM, miały ograniczenia w skutecznej klasyfikacji niektórych klas awarii. Modele miały szczególne trudności z rozpoznawaniem klas 2, 3 i 6, co było widoczne na podstawie macierzy pomyłek. W efekcie tych wyników zdecydowano się na zmianę koncepcji modelowania. Nowe podejście polegało na ograniczeniu zbioru danych jedynie do rekordów zawierających usterki, a następnie ponownym przeprowadzeniu modelowania na takim zredukowanym zestawie. Ten zredukowany zbiór danych obejmował 348 rekordów.\n\n6.4. Wyniki modelowania klasyfikatora dotyczącego określania typu awarii na ograniczonym zbiorze danych\nZmiana koncepcji modelowania była konieczna ze względu na niską jakość wyników osiąganych przez dotychczasowe modele klasyfikacyjne, zarówno\nMLP, jak i LSTM. Modele te miały trudności z prawidłowym rozpoznawaniem niektórych klas awarii, w szczególności klas 2, 3 i 6, co wykazano na podstawie analizy macierzy pomyłek. W odpowiedzi na te problemy postanowiono ograniczyć zbiór danych jedynie do rekordów zawierających usterki i przeprowadzić ponowne modelowanie na takim zredukowanym zestawie, który obejmował 348 rekordów. W przypadku nowego zbioru danych wyróżniono 5 klas: 1 – awaria narzędzia, 2 – awaria chłodzenia, 3 – awaria mocy, 4 – awaria przeciążenia oraz\n5 – awarie losowe.\nRyc. 6.13. Przebieg uczenia się sieci neuronowej MLP klasyfikującej typ usterek na zmniejszonym zestawie danych\nW procesie modelowania klasyfikatora do identyfikacji typów awarii na zmniejszonym zestawie danych, przy zastosowaniu sieci neuronowej MLP, najkorzystniejsze rezultaty uzyskano dla sieci z 15 neuronami w warstwie ukrytej. Na ryc. 6.13 przedstawiono przebieg uczenia się tej sieci neuronowej MLP, monitorowany za pomocą funkcji entropii krzyżowej w odniesieniu do liczby\n\nepok uczenia. Na podstawie analizy procesu uczenia można stwierdzić, że proces uczenia sieci neuronowej trwał 43 epoki i przebiegał efektywnie do momentu osiągnięcia najlepszej wydajności na zbiorze walidacyjnym w 37. epoce.\nRyc. 6.14. Krzywe ROC dla sieci neuronowej MLP klasyfikującej typ usterek na zmniejszonym zestawie danych\nWykresy ROC (ryc. 6.14) przedstawiają zdolność modelu do klasyfikacji pięciu różnych klas awarii w zestawach danych uczących, walidacyjnych, testowych oraz całym zbiorze danych. Na wykresie dla zbioru uczącego widać, że model wykazuje bardzo wysoką zdolność rozróżniania klas. Krzywe dla wszystkich klas znajdują się blisko lewego górnego rogu wykresu, co wskazuje na wysoką skuteczność modelu w przypadku danych do trenowania. Dla zbioru walidacyjnego krzywe ROC również pokazują wysoką wydajność modelu, chociaż widać\n\nniewielkie różnice w porównaniu ze zbiorem uczącym Krzywe dla niektórych klas są nieco dalej od lewego górnego rogu, co sugeruje, że model może mieć niewielkie trudności z generalizacją na nowe dane, ale ogólnie nadal jest skuteczny.\nAnalizując wykres ROC dla zbioru testowego, można zauważyć, że krzywe są podobne do tych z zestawu walidacyjnego. Model utrzymuje wysoką zdolność do rozróżniania klas, jednak podobnie jak w przypadku danych walidacyjnych, niektóre krzywe nie są tak blisko idealnego rozróżnienia jak w zestawie uczącym.\nRyc. 6.15. Macierz pomyłek dla sieci neuronowej MLP klasyfikującej typ usterek na zmniejszonym zestawie danych\nRyc. 6.15 przedstawia macierze pomyłek dla zbiorów danych uczących, walidacyjnych, testowych oraz całego zestawu danych. Obrazują one dokładność modelu w klasyfikacji różnych typów awarii na zmniejszonym zestawie danych. Dla zbioru uczącego model wykazuje wysoką skuteczność klasyfikacji w przypadku klas 1, 2 i 3. Klasa 1 została poprawnie zaklasyfikowana\n\nw 90,3% przypadków, klasa 2 w 96,3%, a klasa 3 w 98,4% przypadków. Klasa 4 osiągnęła dokładność na poziomie 89,7%, co również jest wynikiem dobrym, chociaż nieco niższym w porównaniu z poprzednimi klasami. Klasa 5 została poprawnie zaklasyfikowana w 100% przypadków, co sugeruje, że model jest w stanie skutecznie rozpoznawać tę klasę na danych uczących, chociaż należy zauważyć, że jest to klasa z mniejszą liczbą przypadków.\nW zbiorze walidacyjnym widoczne są pewne różnice w porównaniu ze zbiorem uczącym. Klasa 1 została poprawnie zaklasyfikowana w 83,3% przypadków, co wskazuje na nieco niższą skuteczność w porównaniu z danymi uczącymi. Klasa 2 zachowała wysoką dokładność na poziomie 93,8%, podobnie jak w przypadku danych uczących. Klasa 4 została poprawnie zaklasyfikowana w 75% przypadków, co jest również niższym wynikiem w porównaniu ze zbiorem uczącym. Klasa 5, podobnie jak w przypadku danych uczących, została poprawnie zaklasyfikowana w 100% przypadków, jednakże ponownie należy zauważyć, że jest to klasa z mniejszą liczbą przypadków. Skuteczność modelu w przypadku klasy 3 wyniosła tak jak dla klasy 5 – 100%.\nDla zbioru testowego dla klasy 1 model poprawnie sklasyfikował 6 przypadków (100%), zaś w przypadku klasy 2 model osiągnął dokładność na poziomie\n93,8%, poprawnie klasyfikując 15 przypadków. Jest to wynik bardzo dobry, wskazujący na wysoką zdolność modelu do identyfikacji tej klasy w zbiorze testowym.\nNieco niższą dokładność osiągnął dla klasy 3 na poziomie 92,9% (13 poprawnie sklasyfikowanych przypadków, 1 niepoprawnie). Klasa 4 wykazuje, że model właściwie sklasyfikował 12 przypadków. Chociaż dokładność dla tej klasy wynosi 85,7%, istnieją również przypadki błędnej klasyfikacji, co może wskazywać na pewne trudności modelu w odróżnianiu jej od innych. Klasa 5 ma niższą dokładność, na poziomie 50,0%, jeden przypadek został sklasyfikowany poprawnie, zaś drugi błędnie, w tej klasie były tylko dwa rekordy, co ma znaczący wpływ na taki wynik.\nDla całego zestawu danych model wykazuje wysoką skuteczność w klasyfikacji klas 1, 2, 3 i 4, z wartościami powyżej 90%. Klasa 4 osiągnęła dokładność na poziomie 86,9%, co jest nieco słabszym wynikiem od pozostałych. Wysokie ogółem wartości procentowe poprawnych klasyfikacji powyżej 85% świadczą o dobrej dokładności modelu.\nDla modelowania sieci LSTM dla modelu klasyfikującej typ usterek na zmniejszonym zestawie danych najlepsze parametry otrzymano dla jednej warstwy LSTM w modelu oraz dla liczby jednostek ukrytych 256. Dodatkowo dodano warstwę normalizacyjną. Architekturę tej sieci prezentuje tabela 6.4. Kodowanie architektury i procesu uczenia sieci LSTM dla modelu klasyfikacyjnego wystąpienia awarii na zmniejszonym zestawie danych obrazuje algorytm 6.2.\n\nTabela 6.4. Architektura sieci LSTM dla modelu klasyfikacyjnego typ usterek na zmniejszonym zestawie danych\nLp. Typ warstwy Opis\n1 Sequence Input 5-elementowe wejście sekwencyjne\n2 LSTM 1024 jednostek ukrytych\n3 Batch Normalization Normalizacja partii\n4 Dropout 50% deaktywowanych neuronów\n5 Fully Connected 2-elementowa warstwa w pełni połączona\n6 Softmax Funkcja aktywacji\n7 ClassificationLayer Warstwa klasyfikacyjna dla dwóch klas\nAlgorytm 6.2. Kodowanie architektury i procesu uczenia sieci LSTM dla modelu klasyfikacyjnego wystąpienia awarii na zmniejszonym zestawie danych\n% Definiowanie warstw sieci LSTM inputSize = 5; % liczba cech (5) numHiddenUnits = 256;\nnumClasses = 5;\nlayers = [ sequenceInputLayer(inputSize,\"Name\",\"sequence\") lstmLayer(numHiddenUnits,\"Name\",\"lstm\",\"OutputMode\",\"last\") batchNormalizationLayer(\"Name\",\"batchnorm_1\") dropoutLayer(0.5,\"Name\",\"dropout\") fullyConnectedLayer(numClasses) softmaxLayer];\nnet = dlnetwork(layers);\nnet.Initialized initialLearnRate = 0.001;\nmaxEpochs = 1000;\nminiBatchSize = 16;\noptions = trainingOptions('adam', ...\n'MaxEpochs', maxEpochs, ...\n'MiniBatchSize', miniBatchSize, ...\n'ValidationData', {X_val_cell, Y_val}, ...\n'ValidationFrequency', 100, ...\n'ValidationPatience', 30, ...\n'Verbose', 0, ...\n'Plots', 'training-progress', ...\n'Metrics','accuracy');\n% Trenowanie sieci LSTM\n[netLSTM,info] = trainnet(X_train_cell, Y_train_balanced, net,\"crossentropy\", options);\n\nRyc. 6.16. Wykresy uczenia sieci LSTM dla modelu klasyfikacyjnego typ usterek na zmniejszonym zestawie danych\nNa ryc. 6.16 przedstawiono wykresy procesu uczenia sieci LSTM dla modelu klasyfikacji rodzaju awarii. Proces ten zakończono przed osiągnięciem maksymalnej liczby iteracji, dokładnie w 915. epoce, po przeprowadzeniu 6400 iteracji.\nNa przedstawionych wykresach ROC (ryc. 6.17) dla modelu LSTM klasyfikacyjnego typ usterek na zmniejszonym zestawie danych widoczne są wysokie wartości AUC dla większości klas w różnych zestawach danych, co wskazuje na dobrą zdolność modelu do rozróżniania typów usterek. Klasa 5 zarówno w zbiorze walidacyjnym, jak i testowym, wykazuje najniższe wartości\nAUC, odpowiednio 0,68 i 0,56, co sugeruje, że model ma trudności z poprawnym klasyfikowaniem tej klasy usterek. Wysokie wartości AUC dla klas 1, 2, 3 i 4, które oscylują wokół 0,99 lub 1,00, świadczą o silnej zdolności modelu do precyzyjnej klasyfikacji tych typów usterek, co potwierdza jego skuteczność w większości przypadków.\nMacierze pomyłek przedstawione na wykresach dla danych uczących, walidacyjnych, testowych oraz całego zestawu danych pozwalają na ocenę dokładności modelu w klasyfikacji pięciu różnych klas (ryc. 6.18). W przypadku danych uczących model osiąga wysoką dokładność dla większości klas, zwłaszcza dla klasy 3, gdzie poprawnie sklasyfikowano 64 z 65 przypadków (98,5% dokładność). Klasa 5 jednak wykazuje najniższą dokładność, gdzie poprawnie sklasyfikowano tylko 7 z 13 przypadków, co daje dokładność na poziomie 53,8%.\nModel dobrze rozpoznaje klasy 1, 2 i 4 z dokładnością odpowiednio 87,1%, 93,8% i 96,4%. W danych walidacyjnych model wykazuje solidną zdolność do klasyfikacji dla większości klas, zwłaszcza dla klasy 3, gdzie osiągnięto 100% poprawnych klasyfikacji. Jednak klasa 5 charakteryzuje się słabszą wydajnością, gdzie\n\ntylko 2 z 3 przypadków zostały poprawnie sklasyfikowane, co daje dokładność na poziomie 66,7%. Dane testowe wskazują, że model zachowuje swoją wysoką dokładność dla klasy 3 i 4 (100% poprawnych klasyfikacji). Klasy 1 i 2 również osiągają wysoką dokładność, odpowiednio 85,7% i 93,8%. Klasa 5 charakteryzuje się niższą dokładnością na poziomie 50,0%, co wynika z faktu, że na dwa przypadki w tej klasie tylko jeden został poprawnie sklasyfikowany, a drugi przypisano błędnie. Taki rezultat jest istotny, zważywszy na to, że liczba rekordów w tej klasie była bardzo ograniczona, co znacząco wpływa na ostateczną ocenę dokładności modelu dla tej kategorii.\nRyc. 6.17. Krzywe ROC dla sieci LSTM dla modelu klasyfikacyjnego typ usterek na zmniejszonym zestawie danych\n\nRyc. 6.18. Macierz pomyłek dla sieci LSTM dla modelu klasyfikacyjnego typ usterek na zmniejszonym zestawie danych\nPo wykonaniu obu modeli do klasyfikowania typ usterek na zmniejszonym zestawie danych (MLP oraz LSTM) dokonano ich porównania na podstawie danych testowych. Oba modele zostały ocenione na identycznym zestawie danych, co pozwala na bezpośrednie porównanie ich wydajności. Wskaźniki jakościowe dla danych testowych dla obu modeli przedstawia tabela 6.5.\nTabela 6.5. Porównanie modeli MLP oraz LSTM modelu wystąpienia awarii (wskaźniki jakości)\nModel Dokładność [%] Precyzja [%] Czułość [%] F1-score [%]\nMLP 90,6 91,6 89,8 90,6\nLSTM 93,8 94,8 93,8 93,8\nKiedy analizuje się dane testowe, widać, że sieć LSTM wykazuje lepsze wyniki we wszystkich wskaźnikach jakości, w tym dokładności, precyzji, czułości oraz F1-score, w porównaniu z siecią neuronową MLP. Model LSTM osiągnął dokładność na poziomie 93,8%, co jest wyraźnie wyższe w porównaniu\n\nz 90,6% osiągniętymi przez MLP. Ponadto sieć LSTM charakteryzuje się lepszą precyzją i czułością, co oznacza, że ma wyższą zdolność do prawidłowego rozpoznawania zarówno pozytywnych, jak i negatywnych przypadków, jednocześnie minimalizując liczbę fałszywie pozytywnych i fałszywie negatywnych klasyfikacji. Macierze pomyłek wskazują, że model LSTM skuteczniej rozpoznaje klasy 1, 2 i 3, osiągając lepsze wskaźniki prawdziwie pozytywnych wyników w tych klasach. Choć w przypadku klasy 5 oba modele wykazują trudności, LSTM wciąż osiąga lepsze wyniki niż sieć neuronowa MLP, co ma znaczenie w zastosowaniach praktycznych.\nNa podstawie powyższej analizy model LSTM wydaje się bardziej odpowiedni do zastosowania w warunkach rzeczywistych. Jego wyższa dokładność, lepsza precyzja oraz czułość sugerują, że model ten będzie bardziej niezawodny w praktycznym wykorzystaniu, szczególnie w zadaniach wymagających wysokiej jakości klasyfikacji.\nZmiana koncepcji modelowania przyniosła oczekiwane rezultaty.\nSkupienie się na przypadkach zawierających usterki pozwala na bardziej efektywne wykorzystanie dostępnych danych, eliminując przypadki bez usterek i umożliwiając lepsze zrozumienie oraz modelowanie charakterystyk rzeczywistych awarii. Dzięki temu podejściu modele mogą poprawić swoją dokładność i precyzję w identyfikacji konkretnych typów awarii, co było problemem w przypadku pełnych zestawów danych. Mniejszy, bardziej ukierunkowany zbiór danych, niweluje również ryzyko przeuczenia modeli, co pozwala im lepiej generalizować na nowe dane. Skoncentrowanie się na rzeczywistych przypadkach awarii prowadzi do lepszego rozróżniania i klasyfikacji różnych typów usterek, co jest istotne dla poprawy wydajności systemu detekcji awarii. Zmiana koncepcji modelowania była zatem uzasadniona i niezbędna, aby osiągnąć lepsze wyniki i poprawić skuteczność wykrywania awarii.\n6.5. Predykcja awarii maszyn z wykorzystaniem odpowiedniego interfejsu\nNa bazie wytrenowanych w poprzednich podrozdziałach sieci neuronowych opracowano prosty interfejs użytkownika (ryc. 6.19). Przedstawiony interfejs został zaprojektowany w środowisku MATLAB i umożliwia użytkownikowi wprowadzanie istotnych parametrów operacyjnych maszyny oraz otrzymywanie informacji zwrotnej na temat potencjalnych awarii.\n\nInterfejs graficzny, zbudowany za pomocą funkcji uicontrol, charakteryzuje się prostotą obsługi oraz czytelnym układem elementów. Na wstępie użytkownikowi prezentowany jest nagłówek „Przewidywanie awarii maszyn”, który znajduje się na górze okna interfejsu, co zapewnia przejrzystość i natychmiastową orientację w funkcjonalności programu.\nRyc. 6.19. Interfejs użytkownika aplikacji do predykcji awarii maszyn\nPod nagłówkiem znajduje się zestaw pól tekstowych, w których użytkownik może wprowadzić wartości pięciu parametrów operacyjnych: temperatury powietrza [K], temperatury procesu [K], prędkości obrotowej [obr/min], momentu obrotowego [Nm] oraz zużycia narzędzi [min]. Każde pole jest odpowiednio oznaczone etykietą, co ułatwia wprowadzanie danych i minimalizuje ryzyko popełnienia błędów.\nPo wprowadzeniu wymaganych danych użytkownik ma możliwość uruchomienia procesu predykcji poprzez naciśnięcie przycisku „Predykcja”. W odpowiedzi na to działanie w tle uruchamiana jest funkcja callback, która odczytuje wprowadzone wartości, przekształca je w odpowiedni wektor cech, a następnie przekazuje do wcześniej wytrenowanych sieci neuronowych, które są załadowane z plików ‚net1.mat’ oraz ‚net2.mat’.\nPierwsza sieć neuronowa (net1), sieć neuronowa MLP, jest odpowiedzialna za klasyfikację binarną, decydującą o wystąpieniu awarii. W przypadku wykrycia potencjalnej awarii druga sieć neuronowa (net2) przeprowadza bardziej szczegółową klasyfikację, identyfikując typ awarii, jest to sieć LSTM.\nWynik predykcji w zależności od jej rezultatu jest wyświetlany w dolnej części interfejsu w postaci tekstowej informacji. Jeśli nie zostanie wykryta awaria, użytkownik otrzymuje komunikat „Brak awarii”. W przeciwnym przypadku wyświetlana jest informacja o wykrytej awarii wraz ze wskazaniem jej typu, na przykład „awaria narzędzia”, „awaria chłodzenia”, „awaria mocy”, „awaria\n\nprzeciążenia” lub „awarie losowe”. Przedstawiony poniżej kod ilustruje sposób implementacji opisanego interfejsu graficznego (algorytm 6.3).\nAlgorytm 6.3. Implementacja interfejsu graficznego z wykorzystaniem wcześniej wytrenowanych sieci function Przewidywanie_awarii_maszyn2()\n% Tworzenie interfejsu graficznego fig = figure('Position', [100, 100, 600, 400], 'Name',\n'Przewidywanie_awarii_maszyn', 'Color', [0.8, 0.9, 1]);\n% Nagłówek uicontrol('Style', 'text', 'Position', [100, 350, 400, 40],\n'String', 'Przewidywanie awarii maszyn', 'FontSize', 16, 'FontWeight',\n'bold', 'BackgroundColor', [0.8, 0.9, 1], 'HorizontalAlignment',\n'center');\n% Ramka wokół pól wprowadzania danych uicontrol('Style', 'frame', 'Position', [25, 130, 550, 220],\n'BackgroundColor', [0.9, 0.9, 0.9]);\n% Pola wprowadzania danych uicontrol('Style', 'text', 'Position', [50, 320, 200, 20], 'String',\n'Temperatura powietrza [K]', 'BackgroundColor', [0.9, 0.9, 0.9],\n'FontSize', 12, 'HorizontalAlignment', 'left');\nairTempInput = uicontrol('Style', 'edit', 'Position', [300, 320,\n200, 20], 'FontSize', 12);\nuicontrol('Style', 'text', 'Position', [50, 280, 200, 20], 'String',\n'Temperatura procesu [K]', 'BackgroundColor', [0.9, 0.9, 0.9],\n'FontSize', 12, 'HorizontalAlignment', 'left');\nprocTempInput = uicontrol('Style', 'edit', 'Position', [300, 280,\n200, 20], 'FontSize', 12);\nuicontrol('Style', 'text', 'Position', [50, 240, 200, 20], 'String',\n'Prędkość obrotowa [obr/min]', 'BackgroundColor', [0.9, 0.9, 0.9],\n'FontSize', 12, 'HorizontalAlignment', 'left');\nrotSpeedInput = uicontrol('Style', 'edit', 'Position', [300, 240,\n200, 20], 'FontSize', 12);\nuicontrol('Style', 'text', 'Position', [50, 200, 200, 20], 'String',\n'Moment obrotowy [Nm]', 'BackgroundColor', [0.9, 0.9, 0.9], 'FontSize',\n12, 'HorizontalAlignment', 'left');\ntorqueInput = uicontrol('Style', 'edit', 'Position', [300, 200, 200,\n20], 'FontSize', 12);\nuicontrol('Style', 'text', 'Position', [50, 160, 200, 20], 'String',\n'Zużycie narzędzi [min]', 'BackgroundColor', [0.9, 0.9, 0.9],\n'FontSize', 12, 'HorizontalAlignment', 'left');\ntoolWearInput = uicontrol('Style', 'edit', 'Position', [300, 160,\n200, 20], 'FontSize', 12);\n\nAlgorytm 6.3. Implementacja interfejsu graficznego z wykorzystaniem wcześniej wytrenowanych sieci, cd.\n% Przycisk do predykcji predictButton = uicontrol('Style', 'pushbutton', 'Position', [250,\n110, 100, 40], 'String', 'Predykcja', 'BackgroundColor', [0.2, 0.6,\n0.8], 'ForegroundColor', 'white', 'FontWeight', 'bold', 'FontSize', 12,\n'Callback', @predictCallback);\n% Pole do wyświetlania wyników resultText = uicontrol('Style', 'text', 'Position', [50, 50, 500,\n50], 'String', '', 'FontSize', 14, 'BackgroundColor', [0.8, 0.9, 1],\n'HorizontalAlignment', 'center');\n% Callback do przycisku predykcji function predictCallback(~, ~)\n% Pobieranie danych wejściowych airTemp = str2double(get(airTempInput, 'String'));\nprocTemp = str2double(get(procTempInput, 'String'));\nrotSpeed = str2double(get(rotSpeedInput, 'String'));\ntorque = str2double(get(torqueInput, 'String'));\ntoolWear = str2double(get(toolWearInput, 'String'));\n% Sprawdzenie poprawności danych wejściowych if isnan(airTemp) || isnan(procTemp) || isnan(rotSpeed) || isnan(torque) || isnan(toolWear) set(resultText, 'String', 'Błąd: Proszę wprowadzić poprawne dane wejściowe.');\nreturn;\nend\n% Tworzenie wektora cech features = single([airTemp, procTemp, rotSpeed, torque, toolWear]);\n% Przekształcenie do odpowiedniego formatu featuresMatrix = features’; % Transpozycja do formatu [5x1]\n% Konwersja na komórkę (zgodnie z wymaganiami modelu LSTM) featuresCell = {reshape(featuresMatrix, [5, 1])};\n% Ładowanie wytrenowanych sieci load('net1.mat', 'net1'); % Sieć do wykrywania awarii load('net2.mat', 'net2'); % Sieć do klasyfikacji typu awarii\n% Predykcja awarii faultPrediction = net1(featuresMatrix);\n% Klasyfikacja na podstawie progu 0,5 if faultPrediction < 0.5 result = 'Brak awarii';\nelse\n% Definiowanie klas (zgodne z klasami używanymi w sieci) classNames = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5];\n\nAlgorytm 6.3. Implementacja interfejsu graficznego z wykorzystaniem wcześniej wytrenowanych sieci, cd.\n% Predykcja rodzaju awarii przy użyciu LSTM\nYPred = minibatchpredict(net2, featuresCell);\nfaultType = onehotdecode(YPred, classNames, 2); % Dekodowanie wyniku\n% Konwersja categorical na liczby faultType = double(faultType);\n% Klasyfikacja typu awarii switch faultType case 1 faultDescription = 'awaria narzędzia';\ncase 2 faultDescription = 'awaria chłodzenia';\ncase 3 faultDescription = 'awaria mocy';\ncase 4 faultDescription = 'awaria przeciążenia';\ncase 5 faultDescription = 'awarie losowe';\notherwise faultDescription = 'nieznany typ awarii';\nend result = sprintf('Awaria wykryta! Typ: %s', faultDescription);\nend\n% Wyświetlanie wyniku set(resultText, 'String', result);\nend end\nPoniżej przedstawiono kilka przykładów działania interfejsu wraz z wynikami w postaci zrzutów ekranu. Zestawienie analizowanych przykładów wraz z zadanymi parametrami wejściowymi przedstawia tabela 6.6, zaś zrzuty ekranów dla poszczególnych przypadku odpowiednio #1 – ryc. 6.20, #2 – ryc. 6.21,\n#3 – ryc. 6.22, #4 – ryc. 6.23, #5 – ryc. 6.24, #6 – ryc. 6.25 oraz #7 – ryc. 6.26.\nPo weryfikacji otrzymanych wyników z danymi źródłowymi można stwierdzić, że stworzona aplikacja działa prawidłowo.\n\nTabela 6.6. W yniki wybranych przykładów działania aplikacji dotyczącej predykcji awarii maszyn\nPrzykład #1 #2 #3 #4 #5 #6 #7\nTemperatura powietrza [K] 298,9 298,4 298,9 298,6 297 303,6 297\nTemperatura procesu [K] 308,9 308,2 309,1 309,8 308,3 312 308,3\nPrędkość obrotowa [obr/min] 1750 1282 2861 2271 1399 1309 1399\nMoment obrotowy [Nm] 29,9 60,7 4,6 16,2 46,4 52,9 46,4\nZużycie narzędzi [min] 50 216 143 218 132 86 30\nCzy występuje (0 – brak awarii,\n0 1 1 1 0 1 0\n1 – awaria), jeśli tak, to jaki typ\nTyp awarii (1 – awaria narzędzia,\n2 – awaria chłodzenia, 3 – awaria\n- 4 3 1 - 2 - mocy, 4 – awaria przeciążenia,\n5 – awarie losowe)\nRyc. 6.20. Przykład #1 działania aplikacji dotyczącej predykcji awarii maszyn\nRyc. 6.21. Przykład #2 działania aplikacji dotyczącej predykcji awarii maszyn\n\nRyc. 6.22. Przykład #3 działania aplikacji dotyczącej predykcji awarii maszyn\nRyc. 6.23. Przykład #4 działania aplikacji dotyczącej predykcji awarii maszyn\nRyc. 6.24. Przykład #5 działania aplikacji dotyczącej predykcji awarii maszyn\n\nRyc. 6.25. Przykład #6 działania aplikacji dotyczącej predykcji awarii maszyn\nRyc. 6.26. Przykład #7 działania aplikacji dotyczącej predykcji awarii maszyn\nPrzedstawiony interfejs graficzny nie tylko ułatwia proces predykcji awarii, ale także zwiększa dostępność zaawansowanych metod analizy danych dla szerokiego grona użytkowników, umożliwiając szybkie i intuicyjne przeprowadzenie analizy stanu maszyny. Integracja interfejsu z sieciami neuronowymi MLP i LSTM pozwala na efektywne wykorzystanie technik uczenia maszynowego w rzeczywistych aplikacjach przemysłowych, przyczyniając się do poprawy niezawodności i efektywności operacyjnej maszyn.\nW niniejszym rozdziale przeprowadzono szczegółową analizę modelowania predykcji awarii maszyn z wykorzystaniem różnych typów sieci neuronowych. Wykorzystano zarówno sieci neuronowe MLP, jak i bardziej zaawansowane sieci LSTM, aby przewidzieć zarówno wystąpienie awarii, jak i określić jej typ. Wyniki wskazują, że modele te różnią się skutecznością w zależności od specyfiki problemu oraz rodzaju danych. Dodatkowo podjęto próbę\n\noptymalizacji modeli poprzez ograniczenie zbioru danych do przypadków zawierających usterki, co przyniosło pozytywne rezultaty w kontekście poprawy dokładności klasyfikacji. Ostatecznie opracowano także interfejs użytkownika umożliwiający praktyczne zastosowanie wytrenowanych modeli w rzeczywistych warunkach przemysłowych, co podkreśla praktyczny wymiar badań i ich potencjalne zastosowanie w predykcyjnym utrzymaniu ruchu.\n\n7. Metodyka doboru architektury i parametrów procesu uczenia sieci neuronowych w doskonaleniu procesów produkcyjnych\nDobór architektury oraz parametrów procesu uczenia sieci neuronowych jest kluczowym elementem w kontekście skutecznej aplikacji tych modeli w procesach produkcyjnych. W niniejszym rozdziale zebrano i usystematyzowano wnioski z przeprowadzonych analiz dotyczących różnych zastosowań sieci neuronowych w takich obszarach, jak optymalizacja parametrów obróbki, ocena jakości wyrobów oraz predykcja awarii maszyn.\nTabela 7.1. R odzaje architektur oraz parametrów uczenia sieci rozważane w analizowanych przykładach dla problemów klasyfikacyjnych\nWykrywanie wad Wykrywanie błędów\nPredykcja\nPrzykład w odlewanych kształtu na linii wystąpienia awarii wyrobach gotowych produkcyjnej\nWielkość zbioru\n7348 1400 10000 danych\nCNN, CNN, MLP,\nRodzaj sieci transfer learning transfer learning LSTM\nMLP 2–50,\nLiczba neuronów 32–2048 96–384\nLSTM 256–4096\nLiczba warstw MLP–1,\n48–570 5 ukrytych LSTM 1–2\nFunkcje aktywacji softmax softmax softmax\nFunkcja kosztu klasyfikator SVM entropia krzyżowa entropia krzyżowa\n\nTabela 7.1. Rodzaje architektur oraz parametrów uczenia sieci rozważane w analizowanych przykładach dla problemów klasyfikacyjnych, cd.\nMetody MLP – SCG,\nBFGS1 sgdm optymalizacji LSTM – Adam\nMLP – mechanizm wczesnego\nTechniki regularyzacja L2 warstwa dropout (0,5) zatrzymania – 6, regularyzacji\nLSTM – warstwa dropout (0,5)\nW przypadku problemów klasyfikacyjnych dobór architektury sieci neuronowych zależał od charakteru danych oraz złożoności zadania (tab. 7.1).\nW zadaniach takich jak wykrywanie wad w odlewanych wyrobach gotowych, gdzie analizowano duże zbiory danych, zastosowano CNN z wykorzystaniem techniki transfer learning. Sieci te, charakteryzujące się dużą liczbą neuronów (od 32 do 2048) i głębokimi architekturami (do 570 warstw ukrytych), okazały się efektywne w uchwyceniu skomplikowanych wzorców w obrazach.\nWykorzystano funkcję aktywacji softmax oraz klasyfikator SVM, co pozwoliło na uzyskanie wysokiej precyzji w klasyfikacji. Podobne podejście zastosowano w wykrywaniu błędów kształtu na linii produkcyjnej, gdzie mniejsza liczba neuronów (96–384) i warstw (5 warstw ukrytych) była odpowiednia dla bardziej specyficznego zadania. Optymalizacja za pomocą stochastycznego gradientu z momentem (sgdm) oraz technika dropout były istotne dla zapewnienia stabilności modelu i zapobiegania przetrenowaniu.\nPredykcja awarii maszyn, zrealizowana na podstawie dużego zbioru danych\n(10 000 próbek), wymagała zastosowania różnych podejść w zależności od charakteru danych. Do klasyfikacji binarnej wykorzystano sieć MLP z funkcją softmax i optymalizacją SCG, co zapewniło skuteczne przewidywanie wystąpienia awarii.\nZ kolei do przewidywania rodzaju awarii wykorzystano sieć LSTM, przystosowaną do przetwarzania danych sekwencyjnych. Dzięki dużej liczbie neuronów\n(jednostek ukrytych) (256–4096) i optymalizacji metodą Adam model uzyskał wysoką dokładność w klasyfikacji. Najlepsze pod względem jakościowym modele dla każdego z analizowanych przykładów zostały zaprezentowane w tabeli 7.2.\n1 Funkcją optymalizacyjną jest metoda BFGS (Broyden-Fletcher-Goldfarb-Shanno), jednak sam klasyfikator SVM wykorzystuje wewnętrzną funkcję optymalizacyjną Sequential\nMinimal Optimization (SMO).\n\nTabela 7.2. R odzaje architektur oraz parametrów uczenia sieci z najlepszymi parametrami jakościowymi dla problemów klasyfikacyjnych\nLiczba Dokładność\nPrzykład Rodzaj sieci Czułość [%] neuronów [%]\nWykrywanie wad\nCNN, w odlewanych transfer learning 64–512 99,27 99,61 wyrobach sieć Densenet201 gotowych\nWykrywanie\nCNN, błędów transfer learning 96–384 100 99,86 kształtu na linii sieć AlexNet produkcyjnej\nPredykcja wystąpienia\nMLP 12 75 98,1 awarii – czy wystąpi\nPredykcja wystąpienia\nLSTM 1024 93,8 93,8 awarii – rodzaj awarii\nW przypadku wykrywania błędów kształtu na linii produkcyjnej zastosowano sieć CNN z transfer learning opartą na architekturze AlexNet, która z liczbą neuronów od 96 do 384 oraz pięcioma warstwami ukrytymi jest optymalizowana metodą stochastycznego gradientu z momentem (sgdm). Sieć osiągnęła maksymalną czułość wynoszącą 100% i bardzo wysoką dokładność 99,86%.\nPodobnie wykrywanie wad w odlewanych wyrobach gotowych również przyniosło bardzo dobre rezultaty, gdzie zastosowano sieć CNN z transferem uczenia, opartą na architekturze DenseNet201. Sieć ta, wyposażona w od 64 do 512 neuronów i 199 warstw ukrytych, osiągnęła czułość na poziomie 99,27% oraz dokładność wynoszącą 99,61%. Dla zadania predykcji wystąpienia awarii najlepsze wyniki uzyskano dla dwóch różnych przypadków. Przy przewidywaniu, czy awaria wystąpi, zastosowanie sieci MLP z 12 neuronami w jednej warstwie ukrytej oraz optymalizacją metodą SCG pozwoliło na uzyskanie współczynnika korelacji na poziomie 75% i dokładności wynoszącej 98,1%. Natomiast dla przewidywania rodzaju awarii najlepsze wyniki osiągnięto przy zastosowaniu sieci\nLSTM z 1024 jednostkami ukrytymi, jednej warstwie LSTM oraz optymalizacją metodą Adam, co przyniosło dokładność na poziomie 93,8%.\nWarto zwrócić uwagę na jeszcze jedną istotną kwestię dotyczącą modelowania klasyfikatora przewidującego rodzaj awarii. Podczas modelowania konieczna była zmiana koncepcji prowadzonych badań ze względu na niską jakość wyników osiąganych przez modele klasyfikacyjne, zarówno MLP, jak\n\ni LSTM. Modele te miały trudności z prawidłowym rozpoznawaniem niektórych klas awarii. W odpowiedzi na te problemy postanowiono ograniczyć zbiór danych jedynie do rekordów zawierających usterki i przeprowadzić ponowne modelowanie na takim zredukowanym zestawie, który obejmował 348 rekordów. Zmiana koncepcji modelowania była konieczna, aby poprawić skuteczność klasyfikatora w rozpoznawaniu awarii oraz dostosować model do bardziej specyficznych i szczegółowych danych. Dzięki takiej modyfikacji możliwe stało się lepsze zrozumienie specyfiki każdej z klas awarii, co wpłynęło na podniesienie ogólnej dokładności i skuteczności nowego modelu klasyfikacyjnego.\nTabela 7.3. R odzaje architektur oraz parametrów uczenia sieci rozważane w analizowanych przykładach dla problemów regresyjnych\nModelowanie\nOkreślenie twardości wybranych Modelowanie siły\nPrzykład po odpuszczaniu parametrów skrawania wyrobów gotowych chropowatości 2D\nWielkość zbioru\n46 46 247 danych\nLiczba neuronów 2–12 2–12 4–20\nW problemach regresyjnych, takich jak modelowanie parametrów chropowatości 2D czy siły skrawania, stosowano MLP (tab. 7.3). Przy ograniczonym rozmiarze zbiorów danych (46–247 próbek) sieci te charakteryzowały się jedną warstwą ukrytą i liczbą neuronów w przedziale od 2 do 20. Sigmoidalna funkcja aktywacji oraz optymalizacja za pomocą algorytmu LM, BR i SCG były standardem, co pozwalało na skuteczne modelowanie złożonych zależności przy minimalnym ryzyku przetrenowania. Mechanizm wczesnego zatrzymania dodatkowo zwiększał stabilność modeli, co było szczególnie istotne w kontekście małych zbiorów danych, jak np. w modelowaniu twardości po odpuszczaniu wyrobów gotowych.\nKontynuując analizę problemów regresyjnych, warto zauważyć, że najlepsze parametry modelowania uzyskano przy precyzyjnie dobranej liczbie neuronów oraz odpowiednio dobranej metodzie optymalizacji (tab. 7.4). W modelowaniu parametrów chropowatości najwyższy współczynnik korelacji uzyskano dla parametru Rz (0,9894) przy 9 neuronach i optymalizacji metodą LM. Dla parametru Ra, przy 6 neuronach, współczynnik wyniósł 0,9869. Z kolei dla RSm, mimo zwiększenia liczby neuronów do 10, współczynnik korelacji spadł do 0,911, co sugeruje, że większa liczba neuronów nie zawsze poprawia jakość modelu.\nW modelowaniu siły skrawania najlepszy wynik osiągnięto przy zastosowaniu 7 neuronów w warstwie ukrytej oraz optymalizacji metodą również LM,\n\nco przyniosło wyjątkowo wysoki współczynnik korelacji na poziomie 0,999.\nJest to wynik, który wskazuje na doskonałe dopasowanie modelu do danych.\nNatomiast w przypadku określenia twardości po odpuszczaniu wyrobów gotowych, przy zastosowaniu 9 neuronów oraz optymalizacji metodą BR, uzyskano współczynnik korelacji wynoszący 0,9853. Ten wynik pokazuje, że metoda BR jest równie efektywna w odniesieniu do mniejszych zbiorów danych, zwłaszcza w zadaniach, które wymagają większej stabilności i odporności na przetrenowanie. Te wyniki jasno pokazują, że istotnym czynnikiem sukcesu w problemach regresyjnych jest nie tylko odpowiedni dobór architektury sieci neuronowej, ale także precyzyjna konfiguracja liczby neuronów i zastosowanie najlepszej metody optymalizacji, dostosowanej do specyfiki danego zadania.\nTabela 7.4. P arametry uczenia sieci z najlepszymi parametrami jakościowymi dla problemów regresyjnych\nWspółczynnik\nLiczba Metoda\nPrzykład korelacji R dla neuronów optymalizacji całego zbioru\nModelowanie wybranych parametrów\n6 LM 0,9869 chropowatości – Ra\nModelowanie wybranych parametrów\n9 LM 0,9894 chropowatości – Rz\nModelowanie wybranych parametrów\n10 LM 0,911 chropowatości – RSm\nModelowanie siły skrawania 7 LM 0,999\nOkreślenie twardości po odpuszczaniu\n9 BR 0,9853 wyrobów gotowych\nPodsumowując, dobór architektury oraz parametrów sieci neuronowych w analizowanych zadaniach został precyzyjnie dopasowany do specyfiki problemu i dostępnych danych, co pozwoliło na uzyskanie wysokiej skuteczności modeli w aplikacjach produkcyjnych. Przeanalizowane przypadki ilustrują, jak odpowiednie dostosowanie architektury i parametrów uczenia sieci neuronowych do rodzaju problemu, danych i ich wielkości wpływa na efektywność modelu.\nPrzykłady te zostały przedstawione, aby ukazać, jak można optymalnie dobierać architekturę i parametry uczenia w zależności od konkretnych wymagań zadania. Jednocześnie należy podkreślić, że te modele mogą być z powodzeniem zastosowane w tych konkretnych przypadkach, dla których zostały opracowane. Jednak w wyniku prowadzonych badań zidentyfikowano potrzebę opracowania bardziej ogólnej metodyki doboru architektury i parametrów procesu uczenia sieci neuronowych, która mogłaby znaleźć zastosowanie\n\nw doskonaleniu różnych procesów produkcyjnych. Opracowana metodyka została podzielona na dwa etapy: Etap 1 – Dobór architektury sieci (ryc. 7.1) oraz Etap 2 – Dobór parametrów uczenia sieci (ryc. 7.2).\nRyc. 7.1. Metodyka doboru architektury i parametrów procesu uczenia sieci neuronowych – Etap I\n\nRyc. 7.2. Metodyka doboru architektury i parametrów procesu uczenia sieci neuronowych – Etap II\n\nZaproponowaną metodykę można przedstawić w postaci następujących po sobie kroków.\nEtap 1 – Dobór architektury sieci (ryc. 7.1)\nEtap 1.1. Identyfikacja rodzaju analizowanego problemu\nEtap 1.2. Analiza dostępnych danych\nEtap 1.3. Wybór architektury sieci\nEtap 2 – Dobór parametrów procesu uczenia sieci (ryc. 7.2)\nEtap 2.1. Zaprojektowanie powiązań oraz określenie liczby warstw oraz liczby neuronów w każdej warstwie\nEtap 2.2. Wybór funkcji aktywacji\nEtap 2.3. Wybór funkcji kosztu\nEtap 2.4. Wybór metod optymalizacji\nEtap 2.5. Wybór technik regularyzacji\nEtap 2.6. Proces oceny jakości modelu\nEtap 2.7. Implementacja modelu\nEtap 1.1. Identyfikacja rodzaju analizowanego problemu\nZrozumienie specyfiki problemu stanowi ważny etap w procesie doboru architektury sieci neuronowych oraz parametrów ich uczenia. Pierwszym krokiem jest precyzyjne określenie celu badań, czyli identyfikacja parametrów procesu produkcyjnego, które wymagają poprawy. Może to dotyczyć jakości produktu, efektywności produkcji lub predykcji awarii maszyn. Kolejnym krokiem jest ustalenie rodzaju problemu, czy jest to klasyfikacja czy regresja.\nKlasyfikacja to jeden z najczęstszych problemów w uczeniu maszynowym, gdzie celem jest przypisanie etykiety (klasy) do danych wejściowych.\nSieci neuronowe uczą się rozpoznawać wzorce w danych, co pozwala na klasyfikację każdego przykładu w zbiorze danych. Przykłady zastosowań obejmują wykrywanie wad w produktach, gdzie klasyfikacja jest często używana do automatycznego wykrywania wad na linii produkcyjnej. Na przykład konwolucyjne sieci neuronowe (CNN) analizują obrazy produktów, aby zidentyfikować, czy produkt ma wady. Innym przykładem jest klasyfikacja błędów kształtu w procesach, takich jak formowanie czy odlewanie, gdzie sieci neuronowe analizują dane geometryczne lub obrazy 3D, aby sklasyfikować produkty według rodzaju kształtu. W predykcyjnej konserwacji klasyfikacja jest używana do określenia, czy maszyna działa prawidłowo, czy wymaga interwencji, na przykład poprzez wykrywanie stanów awaryjnych.\n\nRegresja to kolejny rodzaj problemu, gdzie celem jest przewidywanie wartości ciągłej na podstawie danych wejściowych. W produkcji regresja jest używana do modelowania zależności między różnymi parametrami procesów a wynikowymi właściwościami produktów. Przykładem zastosowania regresji może być przewidywanie twardości materiału w przemyśle metalurgicznym, gdzie sieci neuronowe przewidują twardość materiału po procesie obróbki cieplnej na podstawie takich danych wejściowych, jak czas odpuszczania czy temperatura odpuszczania. W procesach obróbki skrawaniem, takich jak frezowanie czy toczenie, sieci neuronowe mogą przewidywać siły działające na narzędzia skrawające w zależności od parametrów procesu.\nWarto podkreślić, że do każdego z wymienionych przypadków – klasyfikacji, regresji – można zastosować różne rodzaje sieci neuronowych, takie jak MLP, rekurencyjne sieci LSTM oraz CNN. Każda z tych architektur ma swoje unikalne zalety, które mogą być skutecznie wykorzystane w zależności od specyfiki problemu. Jednak istotne jest zrozumienie specyfiki problemu przed podjęciem decyzji o wyborze architektury sieci neuronowej. Dopiero dokładna analiza charakterystyki danych i zrozumienie, jakie aspekty są najważniejsze w danym problemie, pozwala na świadome dobranie odpowiedniej architektury i parametrów procesu uczenia. Na przykład w przypadku analizy obrazów CNN mogą być pierwszym wyborem ze względu na ich zdolność do automatycznego wykrywania istotnych cech w danych wizualnych. Natomiast w zadaniach związanych z przewidywaniem na podstawie danych sekwencyjnych LSTM będą bardziej adekwatne.\nRównież parametry procesu uczenia, takie jak liczba warstw, liczba neuronów, funkcje aktywacji oraz metody optymalizacji, powinny być dostosowane do specyficznych wymagań problemu, co pozwoli na uzyskanie najlepszego możliwego modelu. Dlatego, chociaż każda z tych architektur może potencjalnie być zastosowana do różnych typów problemów, ważne jest przeprowadzenie gruntownej analizy problemu, aby wybór architektury i parametrów był optymalny dla osiągnięcia zamierzonych celów w doskonaleniu procesów produkcyjnych.\nEtap 1.2. Analiza dostępnych danych\nAnaliza dostępnych danych jest kolejnym krokiem w procesie projektowania sieci neuronowych i doboru odpowiednich parametrów uczenia. Zrozumienie, jakie dane są dostępne, odgrywa fundamentalną rolę w podejmowaniu decyzji dotyczących architektury modelu oraz metod optymalizacji. Dane mogą\n\nprzyjmować różne formy, a każda z nich niesie ze sobą specyficzne wyzwania i możliwości. Przykładowo obrazy są powszechnie stosowane w problemach związanych z rozpoznawaniem obrazów, takich jak wykrywanie wad powierzchniowych w odlewach. W takim przypadku CNN są często najlepszym wyborem ze względu na ich zdolność do automatycznego wykrywania istotnych cech w danych wizualnych. Z kolei dane sekwencyjne, sygnały czasowe, takie jak analiza drgań czy sygnałów akustycznych, są często wykorzystywane w monitorowaniu stanu maszyn i predykcji awarii. Rekurencyjne sieci\nLSTM są przystosowane do przetwarzania tego typu danych, ponieważ mogą uwzględniać zależności czasowe. Natomiast dane tabelaryczne, typowe dla tradycyjnych procesów produkcyjnych, obejmują takie informacje, jak parametry obróbki, wyniki pomiarów jakości oraz dane dotyczące zużycia surowców. W takich przypadkach MLP mogą być odpowiednim wyborem, ponieważ są wszechstronne i skuteczne w przetwarzaniu danych tabelarycznych.\nWielkość zbioru danych ma ogromny wpływ na wybór architektury sieci neuronowej oraz metodę uczenia. Im większy jest zestaw danych, tym bardziej złożone modele można zastosować. Na przykład duże zbiory danych umożliwiają trenowanie głębokich sieci neuronowych, takich jak CNN czy LSTM, które są zdolne do uchwycenia skomplikowanych zależności w danych. W przypadku CNN, które są szczególnie skuteczne w analizie obrazów, duża ilość danych pozwala na precyzyjne wykrywanie złożonych wzorców, co jest istotne w zadaniach związanych z rozpoznawaniem obrazów. Podobnie LSTM, które są zaprojektowane do przetwarzania sekwencji danych, mogą lepiej uchwycić długoterminowe zależności czasowe, gdy mają do dyspozycji obszerny zbiór danych. Jednak w przypadku mniejszych zbiorów danych istnieje ryzyko nadmiernego dopasowania modelu, czyli sytuacji, w której model zbyt dokładnie uczy się specyficznych cech zbioru uczącego, co prowadzi do słabej generalizacji na nowych danych. MLP, które są wszechstronnymi modelami stosowanymi w zadaniach klasyfikacji i regresji, mogą być bardziej podatne na nadmierne dopasowanie w takich sytuacjach, jeśli są zbyt złożone w stosunku do ilości dostępnych danych. Aby przeciwdziałać problemom związanym z małymi zbiorami danych, można zastosować techniki, takie jak transfer learning, który polega na wykorzystaniu wcześniej wytrenowanych modeli na dużych zbiorach danych do zadań podobnych do tych, które są obecnie analizowane. Transfer learning jest szczególnie przydatny w przypadku CNN, gdzie można wykorzystać modele wytrenowane na dużych zestawach obrazów do analizy mniejszych, specyficznych zbiorów.\n\nJakość danych jest równie istotnym aspektem w procesie modelowania.\nNależy ocenić, czy dane są kompletne, czy występują w nich braki oraz czy są obecne szumy, które mogą zakłócić proces uczenia. Dane o niskiej jakości mogą prowadzić do błędnych wniosków i nieskutecznych modeli, dlatego często konieczne jest przeprowadzenie procesów oczyszczania danych. Obejmuje to imputację brakujących wartości, czyli uzupełnianie braków w danych, oraz normalizację, która ma na celu przekształcenie danych do jednolitego formatu, co jest istotne dla prawidłowego działania modeli neuronowych.\nEtap 1.3. Wybór architektury sieci\nWybór odpowiedniej architektury sieci neuronowej jest kluczowym etapem w procesie projektowania systemu opartego na sztucznej inteligencji, szczególnie w kontekście doskonalenia procesów produkcyjnych. Architektura sieci decyduje o zdolności modelu do przetwarzania danych, identyfikowania wzorców i dostarczania trafnych prognoz lub klasyfikacji. Wybór architektury powinien być oparty na dokładnej analizie specyfiki problemu oraz charakterystyki dostępnych danych, co zostało omówione w poprzednich etapach.\nEtap 2 metodyki projektowania sieci neuronowych skupia się na doborze parametrów procesu uczenia (ryc. 7.2). Ten etap ma istotne znaczenie dla osiągnięcia optymalnych wyników w zależności od specyfiki problemu, jakim może być klasyfikacja lub regresja. W zależności od tego, czy zadaniem jest klasyfikacja, czy regresja, różne parametry mogą być bardziej lub mniej odpowiednie. Poniżej przedstawiono szczegółowy opis tego etapu, uwzględniając różne podejścia w zależności od rodzaju problemu.\nEtap 2.1. Zaprojektowanie powiązań oraz określenie liczby warstw oraz liczby neuronów w każdej warstwie\nLiczba warstw, liczba neuronów oraz struktura połączeń między nimi odgrywają istotną rolę w projektowaniu sieci neuronowej. Każda warstwa i jej powiązania z innymi warstwami muszą być starannie zaprojektowane, aby sieć mogła skutecznie modelować specyfikę rozwiązywanego problemu, takiego jak klasyfikacja czy regresja.\nW przypadku MLP liczba warstw i neuronów zależy od złożoności danych wejściowych. W klasyfikacji przy prostszych problemach, takich jak klasyfikacja na podstawie kilku cech, często wystarczająca może być jedna lub dwie warstwy ukryte z niewielką liczbą neuronów, na przykład 2–100 neuronów na\n\nwarstwę. Jednak w bardziej złożonych przypadkach, takich jak klasyfikacja złożonych zbiorów danych tabelarycznych, można zastosować więcej warstw, od\n3 do 5, z większą liczbą neuronów, od 100 do 512. Eksperymentowanie z różnymi konfiguracjami jest istotne, aby znaleźć optymalną liczbę warstw i neuronów. W przypadku regresji liczba warstw i neuronów może być podobna do tej stosowanej w klasyfikacji, jednak często regresja wymaga bardziej złożonych modeli, zwłaszcza gdy dane wejściowe mają dużą liczbę cech. W takich przypadkach liczba warstw i neuronów może być większa, aby lepiej uchwycić skomplikowane nieliniowe zależności między cechami a wartościami wyjściowymi. Warto jednak pamiętać, że przy pracy z małymi zbiorami danych liczba neuronów w warstwie ukrytej nie powinna przekraczać liczby obserwacji w zbiorze danych. Jest to zalecane na podstawie wcześniejszych badań eksperymentalnych, które wykazały, że nadmierna liczba neuronów w stosunku do dostępnych danych może prowadzić do nadmiernego dopasowania modelu, co skutkuje gorszą generalizacją na nowych danych.\nRekurencyjne sieci neuronowe, takie jak LSTM, są często stosowane w klasyfikacji sekwencji, na przykład w analizie sygnałów. Typowo stosuje się 1–2 warstwy LSTM z liczbą jednostek ukrytych LSTM w zakresie od 50 do 2048, w zależności od długości sekwencji i złożoności danych. Zbyt duża liczba warstw i jednostek LSTM może prowadzić do nadmiernego dopasowania, szczególnie przy ograniczonym zbiorze danych. W zadaniach regresji na danych sekwencyjnych, takich jak prognozowanie wartości ciągłych w czasie, można zastosować więcej warstw, na przykład 2–3, oraz większą liczbę jednostek LSTM, od 256 do 4096, aby lepiej uchwycić długoterminowe zależności w danych. Warto jednak zachować ostrożność, aby uniknąć ryzyka nadmiernego dopasowania.\nCNN znajdują zastosowanie przede wszystkim w klasyfikacji obrazów.\nLiczba warstw konwolucyjnych oraz liczba filtrów w każdej warstwie zależy od złożoności obrazów i wielkości zbioru danych. Typowe architektury CNN mogą zawierać od 3 do 10 warstw konwolucyjnych z liczbą filtrów rosnącą od\n32 do 512 w kolejnych warstwach. W przypadku mniej złożonych problemów, takich jak klasyfikacja prostych wzorców, wystarczy kilka warstw z mniejszą liczbą filtrów. W zadaniach regresji na obrazach takich jak przewidywanie wartości ciągłych na podstawie obrazów, stosuje się podobną liczbę warstw i filtrów jak w klasyfikacji, ale częściej wykorzystuje się dodatkowe warstwy w pełni połączone na końcu sieci, aby przekształcić cechy wykryte przez warstwy konwolucyjne w prognozy ciągłe.\n\nEtap 2.2. Wybór funkcji aktywacji\nWybór funkcji aktywacji jest ważnym aspektem w procesie projektowania sieci neuronowych, a jego dobór zależy od rodzaju problemu (klasyfikacja lub regresja).\nW przypadku MLP w zadaniach klasyfikacyjnych najczęściej stosowaną funkcją aktywacji w warstwach ukrytych jest ReLU, która umożliwia efektywne uczenie się złożonych wzorców dzięki właściwościom nieliniowym i zdolności do unikania problemu zanikania gradientu. Na warstwie wyjściowej w problemach klasyfikacji stosuje się funkcję softmax, która przekształca wyniki sieci w prawdopodobieństwa przypisania do poszczególnych klas. W kontekście regresji w MLP często stosuje się funkcję sigmoidalną w warstwach ukrytych, szczególnie w domyślnych ustawieniach narzędzi, takich jak MATLAB, które preferują tę funkcję dla swoich sieci neuronowych. Funkcja sigmoidalna mapuje wejścia na zakres [0,1][0,1], co może być korzystne w niektórych aplikacjach. Na warstwie wyjściowej dla regresji stosuje się funkcję liniową, co umożliwia przewidywanie wartości ciągłych. Dodatkowo funkcje, takie jak tanh, mogą być stosowane w warstwach ukrytych, jeśli dane cechują się bardziej złożonymi zależnościami nieliniowymi.\nDla LSTM stosowanych często w analizie sekwencji czasowych, w klasyfikacji również wykorzystuje się funkcję ReLU w warstwach ukrytych, co pozwala na efektywne przetwarzanie sekwencji o dużej złożoności. W warstwie wyjściowej dla zadań klasyfikacyjnych, w zależności od liczby klas, stosuje się funkcję softmax lub sigmoidalną (dla klasyfikacji binarnej). W regresji, w przypadku LSTM, na warstwie wyjściowej wykorzystuje się funkcję liniową, co jest standardowym podejściem, umożliwiającym prognozowanie wartości ciągłych w zadaniach takich jak prognozowanie czasowe.\nW CNN, które są powszechnie stosowane w zadaniach związanych z przetwarzaniem obrazów, ReLU jest dominującą funkcją aktywacji stosowaną w warstwach konwolucyjnych. Jej nieliniowy charakter oraz prostota obliczeniowa sprawiają, że to idealny wybór do głębokich sieci, umożliwiający efektywne przetwarzanie złożonych wzorców obrazowych. W zadaniach klasyfikacyjnych warstwa wyjściowa CNN często korzysta z funkcji softmax, która przekształca wyjścia sieci w prawdopodobieństwa przypisania do klas. W regresji w CNN, podobnie jak w innych typach sieci, stosuje się funkcję liniową na warstwie wyjściowej, co pozwala na przewidywanie wartości ciągłych na podstawie cech wyodrębnionych przez warstwy konwolucyjne.\n\nEtap 2.3. Wybór funkcji kosztu\nWybór odpowiedniej funkcji kosztu jest istotnym elementem w procesie trenowania sieci neuronowych, ponieważ bezpośrednio wpływa na to, jak dobrze model będzie w stanie się uczyć i generalizować. W przypadku problemów klasyfikacyjnych najczęściej stosowaną funkcją kosztu jest entropia krzyżowa. Sprawdza się ona w optymalizacji modeli klasyfikacyjnych, ponieważ mierzy różnicę między przewidywaną przez model a rzeczywistą klasą w sposób, który uwzględnia wszystkie klasy, co jest szczególnie istotne w zadaniach wieloklasowych.\nZ kolei w regresji powszechnie stosowaną funkcją kosztu jest MSE. Oblicza średnią kwadratową różnicę między wartościami przewidywanymi przez model a wartościami rzeczywistymi, co pozwala na dokładną optymalizację modeli regresyjnych. MSE jest szczególnie przydatna w regresji, ponieważ penalizuje duże błędy w prognozach, co sprawia, że model uczy się, jak minimalizować odchylenia od rzeczywistych wartości, prowadząc do bardziej precyzyjnych przewidywań.\nEtap 2.4. Wybór metod optymalizacji\nWybór metod optymalizacji jest również ważnym etapem w procesie trenowania sieci neuronowych, ponieważ wpływa bezpośrednio na szybkość i skuteczność uczenia się modelu. Różne rodzaje problemów, takie jak klasyfikacja i regresja, wymagają zastosowania odpowiednich metod optymalizacji, które najlepiej odpowiadają specyfice danych i architektury sieci.\nW przypadku sieci MLP zarówno w problemach klasyfikacyjnych, jak i regresyjnych często stosuje się metody, takie jak LM, BR oraz SCG. Te algorytmy są dobrze dopasowane do zadań, które wymagają precyzyjnej optymalizacji przy relatywnie małych zbiorach danych. LM daje szczególnie dobre efekty dla małych i średnich sieci, gdzie zbieżność do optymalnych wag jest priorytetem.\nBR dodatkowo pomaga w regularyzacji modelu, co ma znaczenie przy pracy z ograniczonymi zbiorami danych, zmniejszając ryzyko nadmiernego dopasowania. SCG natomiast oferuje zbalansowane podejście między szybkością a stabilnością uczenia, co czyni go użytecznym w różnorodnych zastosowaniach.\nW przypadku rekurencyjnych sieci neuronowych, takich jak LSTM, które są wykorzystywane zarówno do klasyfikacji, jak i regresji, optymalizatorem z wyboru często jest Adam. Łączy on zalety RMSProp i momentum, oferując szybkie zbieżności przy jednoczesnym dostosowaniu współczynników uczenia dla każdego parametru, co jest niezwykle istotne w zadaniach sekwencyjnych, gdzie dane są często niestacjonarne i złożone.\n\nDla sieci CNN i transfer learningu, szczególnie w klasyfikacji, powszechnie stosowaną metodą optymalizacji jest sgdm. Preferuje się ją ze względu na jej zdolność do radzenia sobie z dużymi zbiorami danych oraz efektywność w głębokich sieciach neuronowych. Momentum pomaga przyspieszyć zbieżność i uniknąć utknięcia w lokalnych minimach, co jest istotne w skomplikowanych architekturach, takich jak CNN. W zadaniach regresyjnych najczęściej preferowany ze względu na swoją zdolność do efektywnego radzenia sobie z różnorodnymi i złożonymi danymi jest Adam, choć SGDM i RMSProp mogą być również stosowane w zależności od specyfiki problemu i wymagań dotyczących optymalizacji.\nEtap 2.5. Wybór technik regularyzacji\nWybór technik regularyzacji jest również istotnym elementem w projektowaniu sieci neuronowych, ponieważ pomaga w zapobieganiu nadmiernemu dopasowaniu modelu do danych treningowych, co ma szczególne znaczenie w przypadku złożonych modeli lub gdy dostępna jest ograniczona ilość danych.\nW przypadku sieci MLP zarówno w zadaniach klasyfikacji, jak i regresji, popularnymi technikami regularyzacji są regularyzacja L2 oraz mechanizm wczesnego zatrzymania.\nW sieciach LSTM, które są często stosowane do analizy sekwencji czasowych, regularyzacja jest szczególnie ważna, ponieważ modele te mogą być podatne na nadmierne dopasowanie, zwłaszcza gdy mają do czynienia z długimi sekwencjami danych. Dropout to popularna metoda, w której losowo wyłącza się pewien procent neuronów podczas treningu, co zmusza sieć do tworzenia bardziej odpornych reprezentacji danych.\nW sieciach CNN, które są powszechnie stosowane do przetwarzania obrazów, regularyzacja ma na celu zapobieganie nadmiernemu dopasowaniu, szczególnie w przypadku głębokich sieci z dużą liczbą parametrów. Regularyzację\nL2 stosuje się często, zwłaszcza w warstwach pełni połączonych, gdzie liczba parametrów jest największa. Dropout jest również powszechnie stosowany, szczególnie w pełni połączonych warstwach, aby zmusić sieć do tworzenia bardziej odpornych i ogólnych reprezentacji.\nEtap 2.6. Proces oceny jakości modelu\nProces oceny jakości modelu w sieciach neuronowych jest istotny dla oceny skuteczności i dokładności modelu oraz wyboru najlepszego rozwiązania do danego problemu. W kontekście regresji ocena jakości modeli opiera się na\n\nwskaźnikach, takich jak R, MSE, RMSE, RIE, MAPE oraz MAE. Umożliwiają one wszechstronną analizę wyników predykcji, zapewniając, że model jest w stanie dokładnie przewidywać wartości ciągłe.\nW problemach klasyfikacyjnych wskaźniki oceny, takie jak dokładność, precyzja, czułość i F1-score, są ważne dla zrozumienia, jak skutecznie model przypisuje próbki do odpowiednich klas. Analiza tych wskaźników, wsparta narzędziami, takimi jak macierz pomyłek i krzywa ROC, umożliwia dokładną ocenę wydajności modelu, pomagając w identyfikacji jego mocnych i słabych stron oraz w doskonaleniu algorytmów klasyfikacyjnych.\nPorównanie różnych modeli oraz architektur sieci neuronowych jest nieodłącznym elementem procesu walidacji. Testowanie różnych konfiguracji sieci, takich jak liczba warstw, neuronów, funkcji aktywacji i metod optymalizacji, umożliwia wybór najlepszego modelu. Wprowadzenie odpowiednich wskaźników oceny jakości prowadzi do bardziej precyzyjnego i świadomego wyboru modelu, co jest kluczowe dla osiągnięcia wysokiej skuteczności w praktycznych zastosowaniach.\nEtap 2.7. Implementacja modelu\nImplementacja modelu stanowi ważny krok w praktycznym wykorzystaniu sieci neuronowych, zwłaszcza w kontekście doskonalenia procesów produkcyjnych. Po zakończeniu procesu trenowania i walidacji modelu następnym zadaniem jest wdrożenie go w taki sposób, aby mógł być łatwo i efektywnie wykorzystany w środowisku produkcyjnym. Duże znaczenie ma tu przygotowanie odpowiedniego interfejsu użytkownika, który umożliwi pracownikom dostęp do funkcjonalności modelu bez potrzeby głębokiej znajomości technicznych aspektów jego działania.\nMetodyka doboru architektury i parametrów procesu uczenia sieci neuronowych, opracowana w celu doskonalenia procesów produkcyjnych, uwzględniała wszystkie etapy prowadzące do stworzenia skutecznego modelu. Ostatecznym krokiem w tej metodyce jest zapewnienie, że wytrenowany model może być z powodzeniem zaimplementowany w rzeczywistym środowisku produkcyjnym.\nW tym kontekście przygotowanie intuicyjnego i funkcjonalnego interfejsu jest nieodzowne. Interfejs ten powinien być dostosowany do specyficznych wymagań danego przedsiębiorstwa i rodzaju analizowanego problemu, co umożliwia użytkownikom łatwe korzystanie z modelu.\nW monografii zawarto przykłady gotowych kodów źródłowych, które można wykorzystać jako podstawę do tworzenia takich interfejsów. Aby dostosować te rozwiązania do konkretnego przypadku, wystarczy zmienić nazwę wytrenowanego\n\nmodelu lub zastosować nazwę zaproponowaną przez autora. Takie podejście pozwala na szybką adaptację narzędzi do specyficznych potrzeb danego procesu produkcyjnego, co jest zgodne z metodyką, której celem jest doskonalenie procesów produkcyjnych z zastosowaniem sztucznych sieci neuronowych.\nDzięki wdrożeniu tak przygotowanego modelu przedsiębiorstwo może skutecznie wykorzystać potencjał sieci neuronowych do poprawy jakości, zwiększenia efektywności oraz innowacyjności swoich procesów produkcyjnych, realizując założenia metodyki na każdym etapie, od doboru architektury po praktyczne zastosowanie modelu.\nPowyżej przedstawiono metodykę doboru architektury i parametrów procesu uczenia sieci neuronowych, która może być skutecznie zastosowana w doskonaleniu procesów produkcyjnych. Dzięki odpowiedniemu dopasowaniu architektury sieci oraz parametrów uczenia do specyficznych problemów, takich jak klasyfikacja czy regresja, metodyka ta umożliwia znaczną poprawę jakości produktów, efektywności produkcji czy przewidywania awarii maszyn.\nPrzeanalizowane przypadki pokazują, że właściwie dobrana architektura sieci neuronowej oraz optymalne parametry mogą prowadzić do lepszych wyników w różnorodnych zastosowaniach przemysłowych. Metodyka ta stanowi uniwersalne narzędzie, które może być zaadaptowane do różnych procesów produkcyjnych, wspierając innowacyjność i zwiększając konkurencyjność przedsiębiorstw.\n\n8. Zakończenie\nW niniejszej monografii zaprezentowano badania dotyczące wykorzystania sztucznych sieci neuronowych w doskonaleniu procesów produkcyjnych, ze szczególnym uwzględnieniem optymalizacji parametrów obróbki skrawaniem, oceny jakości wyrobów gotowych oraz predykcji awarii maszyn. Badania te skupiały się na doborze odpowiednich architektur sieci neuronowych oraz ich parametrów w kontekście specyficznych zastosowań przemysłowych, co pozwoliło na uzyskanie optymalnych rezultatów w każdym z tych obszarów.\nRozdział 1 wprowadza czytelnika w problematykę zastosowania sztucznych sieci neuronowych w przemyśle produkcyjnym, podkreślając znaczenie efektywnej optymalizacji procesów produkcyjnych. Dalej omówiono cel i zakres pracy badawczej, wskazując na obszary, w których zastosowanie sieci neuronowych może przynieść wymierne korzyści. Rozdział 3 przedstawia teoretyczne podstawy sztucznych sieci neuronowych, a także znaczenie wyboru odpowiedniej architektury sieci w kontekście specyfiki danych i zadań produkcyjnych oraz wyzwania związane z procesem uczenia sieci neuronowych. W rozdziale 4 omówiona została metodyka modelowania i optymalizacji parametrów obróbki skrawaniem przy użyciu sztucznych sieci neuronowych, z naciskiem na zastosowanie perceptronów wielowarstwowych w kontekście ograniczonej ilości danych doświadczalnych. Rozdział 5 koncentruje się na zastosowaniu konwolucyjnych sieci neuronowych oraz perceptronu wielowarstwowego do oceny jakości wyrobów gotowych, w tym na klasyfikacji wad i przewidywaniu\n\ntwardości po procesie odpuszczania. W rozdziale 6 opisano podejście do predykcji awarii maszyn z wykorzystaniem perceptronów wielowarstwowych oraz rekurencyjnych sieci neuronowych LSTM, podkreślając ich rolę w optymalizacji działań predykcyjnych. Rozdział 7 przedstawia szczegółową metodykę, która pozwala na skuteczny dobór zarówno architektury sieci neuronowych, jak i parametrów procesu ich uczenia.\n8.1. Uwagi końcowe i wnioski\nW ramach prowadzonych badań i analiz głównym celem było zaproponowanie sposobu doboru architektury oraz parametrów procesu uczenia sztucznych sieci neuronowych, które mogą być skutecznie zastosowane w doskonaleniu procesów produkcyjnych. Badania koncentrowały się na wykorzystaniu modeli neuronowych w następujących trzech obszarach: optymalizacji parametrów obróbki skrawaniem, ocenie jakości wyrobów gotowych oraz predykcji awarii maszyn.\nKażdy z tych obszarów został zbadany pod kątem efektywności wykorzystania różnych architektur sieci neuronowych, takich jak perceptrony wielowarstwowe\n(MLP), rekurencyjne sieci LSTM oraz konwolucyjne sieci neuronowe (CNN).\nOpracowanie szczegółowej metodyki doboru odpowiednich architektur sieci neuronowych oraz parametrów ich uczenia stanowiło fundament wszystkich przeprowadzonych analiz. Metodyka ta obejmowała kompleksowy proces przygotowania danych, selekcji odpowiednich modeli oraz ich dostosowania do specyficznych wymagań poszczególnych zastosowań przemysłowych. Kluczowym aspektem tej metodyki było uwzględnienie charakterystyki dostępnych danych oraz specyfiki zadań, co pozwoliło na optymalny dobór architektury sieci neuronowej dla każdego z analizowanych obszarów.\nPodczas badań nad optymalizacją parametrów obróbki skrawaniem szczególną uwagę poświęcono doborowi odpowiedniej architektury sieci neuronowej w kontekście dostępnych danych doświadczalnych. Wybór MLP jako głównej architektury do modelowania parametrów obróbki wynikał nie tylko z ich zdolności do modelowania złożonych, nieliniowych relacji, ale również ze specyficznych warunków badawczych, w których dostępna była stosunkowo niewielka ilość danych doświadczalnych. MLP ze względu na swoją strukturę i elastyczność wykazuje dużą odporność na problemy wynikające z ograniczonej liczności prób, co pozwoliło na efektywne wykorzystanie dostępnych danych i uzyskanie wiarygodnych wyników w kontekście optymalizacji procesu obróbki.\n\nW kontekście optymalizacji parametrów obróbki skrawaniem najbardziej efektywne okazały się sieci neuronowe z jedną warstwą ukrytą, przy czym analizowano różne algorytmy uczenia oraz liczbę neuronów w tej warstwie. Spośród badanych algorytmów uczenia: LM, SCG, oraz BR, LM wykazał najwyższą efektywność. Optymalizacja dotyczyła parametrów obróbki, takich jak prędkość skrawania (v), posuw na ostrze (f) oraz głębokość skrawania (a ). W przypadku c z p modelowania parametrów chropowatości, takich jak Ra, najlepsze wyniki uzyskano przy wykorzystaniu MLP z 6 neuronami w warstwie ukrytej, co dało współczynnik korelacji R równy 0,9869. Dla parametru Rz optymalną konfiguracją okazała się sieć MLP z 9 neuronami w warstwie ukrytej, z wartością R wynoszącą 0,9894. Natomiast dla RSm zastosowanie 10 neuronów w warstwie ukrytej pozwoliło osiągnąć współczynnik R na poziomie 0,911. W przypadku modelowania składowej siły skrawania wzdłuż osi X (F ) najlepsze rezultaty x uzyskano przy użyciu MLP z 7 neuronami w warstwie ukrytej oraz algorytmu\nLM, co pozwoliło osiągnąć współczynnik R równy 0,999. Tak dobrane parametry sieci neuronowej umożliwiły skuteczną optymalizację procesu obróbki skrawaniem, nawet przy ograniczonej ilości danych doświadczalnych.\nPodobne rozważania dotyczące doboru architektury sieci neuronowej w odniesieniu do ilości i formatu danych były prowadzone w innych obszarach badań. W przypadku oceny jakości wyrobów gotowych dla problemów klasyfikacyjnych dane wykorzystywane do analizy miały format obrazów, co w naturalny sposób kierowało wybór odpowiedniej architektury sieci neuronowej w stronę CNN. Są one specjalnie zaprojektowane do przetwarzania danych obrazowych, ponieważ potrafią automatycznie i efektywnie identyfikować istotne cechy i wzorce bez potrzeby ręcznego definiowania tych cech, co jest charakterystyczne dla tradycyjnych metod przetwarzania obrazów.\nW przypadku analizy pierwszych dwóch obiektów, takich jak wykrywanie wad w odlewach oraz wykrywanie błędów kształtu na liniach produkcyjnych, zastosowano technikę transfer learning. Transfer learning pozwolił na szybkie zaadaptowanie wstępnie wytrenowanych modeli do nowych zadań, takich jak klasyfikacja defektów w odlewach, gdzie sieć była w stanie skutecznie zidentyfikować różne typy defektów, na przykład pęknięcia, porowatość czy zanieczyszczenia powierzchniowe, bazując na zaledwie kilkuset obrazach uczących.\nPodobnie w przypadku wykrywania błędów kształtu na liniach produkcyjnych transfer learning umożliwił wykorzystanie wcześniej nabytej wiedzy modelu do precyzyjnej klasyfikacji kształtów. W szczególności na liniach produkcyjnych wykrywane były obiekty w kształcie koła, co wymagało od sieci neuronowej zdolności do identyfikacji subtelnych różnic i anomalii w kształcie oraz\n\nwymiarach tych elementów. Dodatkowo, aby bardziej odwzorować rzeczywiste warunki produkcyjne, obrazy były celowo rozmyte z powodu ruchu na taśmociągu. W obu przypadkach zastosowanie CNN pozwoliło na precyzyjne wykrywanie wad i nieprawidłowości, co jest istotne dla automatyzacji kontroli jakości w czasie rzeczywistym.\nW przypadku oceny jakości wyrobów gotowych dotyczących problemu regresyjnego – określenia twardości po odpuszczaniu wyrobów gotowych – również uwzględniono dobór odpowiedniej architektury sieci neuronowej w kontekście ilości i formatu dostępnych danych. W tym przypadku modelowanie twardości po procesie odpuszczania, które jest ważnym parametrem jakościowym wyrobów, wymagało zastosowania sieci neuronowej zdolnej do dokładnego przewidywania wartości ciągłych. Podjęta decyzja o zastosowaniu\nMLP była uzasadniona specyficznymi warunkami badawczymi. W procesie modelowania twardości po odpuszczaniu dysponowano ograniczoną ilością danych doświadczalnych, co wykluczało możliwość użycia bardziej złożonych modeli, takich jak głębokie sieci neuronowe, które wymagają dużych zbiorów danych do skutecznego uczenia sieci. Poprzez zastosowanie MLP możliwe było także zachowanie stabilności modelu przy niewielkiej liczbie prób, co jest szczególnie ważne w kontekście przemysłowym, gdzie dostęp do dużych ilości danych może być ograniczony. Dzięki precyzyjnemu doborowi liczby neuronów (9) i algorytmu uczenia (BR) uzyskano wysoką dokładność prognoz\n(R=0,9894), co jest istotne dla zapewnienia jakości wyrobów. Dodatkowo opracowano algorytm wraz z interfejsem użytkownika, który umożliwia bieżącą ocenę jakości wyrobu gotowego na podstawie przewidywanej przez model\nMLP (z algorytmem uczenia BR) twardości po odpuszczaniu. Algorytm ten określa, czy dany wyrób spełnia wymagania jakościowe. Jeżeli przewidywana twardość mieści się w określonym przedziale tolerancji, wyrób jest uznawany za zgodny z normami jakościowymi; w przeciwnym razie klasyfikuje się go jako niezgodny z wymaganiami. Taki system wspomagania decyzji stanowi cenne narzędzie w procesie produkcyjnym, zwiększając precyzję kontroli jakości i poprawiając efektywność zarządzania jakością.\nW obszarze predykcji awarii maszyn, gdzie dane miały charakter sekwencyjny, a ich ilość była wystarczająca do trenowania bardziej złożonych modeli, zastosowano zarówno MLP, jak i LSTM, co pozwoliło na skuteczne podejście do zróżnicowanych aspektów problemu. Wybór tych architektur był motywowany specyficznymi właściwościami obu typów sieci. MLP okazały się lepszym wyborem w przypadku uchwycenia podstawowych wzorców i relacji w danych, szczególnie w kontekście klasyfikacji binarnej, czyli określania, czy awaria wystąpi\n\nczy też nie. Użycie MLP pozwoliło na szybkie przetworzenie danych wejściowych, takich jak temperatura powietrza, temperatura procesu, prędkość obrotowa, moment obrotowy i zużycie narzędzi, oraz na identyfikację istotnych zależności między tymi parametrami wejściowymi a wynikiem końcowym, czyli wystąpieniem lub brakiem awarii. Natomiast rekurencyjne sieci neuronowe\nLSTM zostały zastosowane w bardziej zaawansowanym etapie analizy, polegającym na identyfikacji rodzaju awarii, gdy już została ona przewidziana. LSTM dzięki swojej zdolności do przetwarzania i analizy długoterminowych zależności w danych sekwencyjnych okazały się wyjątkowo skuteczne w rozpoznawaniu skomplikowanych wzorców, które są niezbędne do precyzyjnej klasyfikacji typu awarii. Takie dwustopniowe podejście łączące prostotę MLP z zaawansowaną analizą sekwencyjną LSTM zapewniło nie tylko efektywność w wykrywaniu awarii, ale także dokładność w określaniu jej typu, co jest istotne dla planowania działań konserwacyjnych i minimalizacji przestojów produkcyjnych.\nWybór tych dwóch różnych architektur sieci neuronowych dostosowanych do specyfiki i ilości danych na każdym etapie analizy przyczynił się do zwiększenia skuteczności i niezawodności całego systemu predykcji awarii.\nPrzeprowadzone analizy wykazały, że dobór architektury sieci neuronowej i jej parametrów musi być ściśle dostosowany do specyfiki zadania oraz dostępnych danych. Odpowiednie dobranie tych elementów pozwoliło na osiągnięcie optymalnych wyników w każdym z badanych obszarów, potwierdzając, że sztuczne sieci neuronowe stanowią nieodzowne narzędzie w nowoczesnych procesach produkcyjnych i mogą przyczynić się do doskonalenia procesów produkcyjnych.\nOpracowanie szczegółowej metodyki doboru odpowiednich architektur sieci neuronowych oraz parametrów ich uczenia stanowi znaczący wkład w rozwój nowoczesnych technologii wytwarzania. Ta metodyka obejmująca kompleksowy proces przygotowania danych, selekcję odpowiednich modeli oraz ich dostosowania do specyficznych wymagań przemysłowych, jest istotna dla optymalizacji różnych aspektów produkcji. Dzięki niej możliwe okazuje się precyzyjne dopasowanie architektury sieci neuronowej do charakterystyki dostępnych danych oraz specyfiki zadania, co pozwala na uzyskanie maksymalnej efektywności w każdym z analizowanych obszarów.\nNowością w prezentowanej pracy jest systematyczne podejście do doboru architektur i parametrów uczenia sieci neuronowych, co umożliwia ich elastyczne i wszechstronne zastosowanie w różnych kontekstach produkcyjnych. Zamiast ograniczać się do jednego modelu czy podejścia, metodyka ta pozwala na dostosowanie narzędzi do specyficznych wyzwań, m.in. takich\n\njak optymalizacja parametrów obróbki frezowaniem, ocena jakości wyrobów gotowych czy predykcja awarii maszyn.\nPomimo licznych zalet stosowanie sieci neuronowych w procesach produkcyjnych wiąże się z pewnymi ograniczeniami. Wymagają one dużych zbiorów danych do skutecznego uczenia, a bardziej złożone modele, takie jak głębokie sieci neuronowe, mogą być trudne do interpretacji, co utrudnia wyjaśnienie wyników końcowych. Dodatkowo realizacja takich modeli często wymaga znacznych zasobów obliczeniowych, co może stanowić barierę dla ich wdrożenia w środowiskach o ograniczonych zasobach technologicznych.\nRozważenie tych ograniczeń jest istotne dla skutecznego wykorzystania sieci neuronowych w przemyśle.\nWyniki prowadzonych badań dostarczają nie tylko nowej wiedzy teoretycznej na temat możliwości i ograniczeń różnych architektur sieci neuronowych, ale również praktycznych narzędzi, które mogą zostać zaimplementowane w rzeczywistych warunkach przemysłowych. Kluczowym elementem tych badań była opracowana metodyka doboru architektury i parametrów procesu uczenia sieci neuronowych, ukierunkowana na doskonalenie procesów produkcyjnych.\nAby korzystanie z opracowanych algorytmów optymalizacyjnych i wyuczonych sieci neuronowych było bardziej przyjazne i intuicyjne dla użytkownika, stworzono interfejsy graficzne, które umożliwiają łatwe wprowadzanie danych wejściowych oraz szybkie uzyskiwanie wyników optymalizacji czy predykcji.\nDzięki takiemu podejściu użytkownicy mogą skupić się na analizie wyników bez potrzeby zagłębiania się w szczegóły techniczne czy kod źródłowy. Takie podejście nie tylko zwiększa efektywność pracy, ale również umożliwia szersze zastosowanie tych narzędzi w praktyce przemysłowej. Dzięki temu rozwój obszaru inżynierii produkcji może przebiegać szybciej, z większą pewnością w osiąganiu założonych celów jakościowych i wydajnościowych, co stanowi istotny wkład w rozwój nowoczesnych technologii produkcyjnych.\n8.2. Kierunki dalszych badań\nZastosowanie sztucznych sieci neuronowych w przemyśle produkcyjnym otwiera nowe perspektywy zarówno w zakresie poprawy efektywności procesów, jak i automatyzacji kontroli jakości oraz predykcji awarii. Mimo że obecne badania dostarczyły istotnych wyników i praktycznych narzędzi, istnieje wiele obszarów, które wymagają dalszych badań i rozwoju, aby w pełni wykorzystać potencjał tych narzędzi w kontekście nowoczesnych technologii wytwarzania.\n\nJednym z głównych kierunków dalszych badań będzie rozwój i adaptacja hybrydowych modeli sieci neuronowych, które łączą różne architektury w celu uzyskania synergii ich zalet w specyficznych zastosowaniach. Przykładem może być połączenie CNN z rekurencyjnymi sieciami neuronowymi LSTM.\nTego rodzaju hybrydowe podejście mogłoby być szczególnie efektywne w analizie danych czasowo-przestrzennych, takich jak dynamiczna kontrola jakości na liniach produkcyjnych, gdzie obiekty są w ruchu, lub w predykcji awarii maszyn na podstawie sygnałów zbieranych w czasie rzeczywistym. Hybrydowe modele mogłyby z jednej strony wykorzystywać zdolność CNN do ekstrakcji cech z obrazów, a z drugiej strony dzięki LSTM analizować zależności czasowe, co w rezultacie mogłoby prowadzić do bardziej precyzyjnych i kompleksowych rozwiązań w procesach produkcyjnych.\nWarto również rozważyć zastosowanie innych metod uczenia maszynowego, które mogą być komplementarne do sieci neuronowych lub stanowić alternatywę w specyficznych warunkach. Przykładem są algorytmy zespołowe, takie jak lasy losowe czy gradient boosting machines (GBM), które są szczególnie efektywne w analizie danych tabelarycznych i znajdują zastosowanie w klasyfikacji lub regresji tam, gdzie sieci neuronowe mogą być zbyt skomplikowane lub podatne na przetrenowanie. Zespołowe metody uczenia maszynowego mogą być również używane jako elementy większych hybrydowych systemów, gdzie wyniki uzyskane przez sieci neuronowe są dodatkowo wzbogacane lub potwierdzane przez inne algorytmy. Badania nad integracją tych metod z sieciami neuronowymi mogą prowadzić do stworzenia jeszcze bardziej efektywnych systemów produkcyjnych, które potrafią lepiej radzić sobie z różnorodnymi typami danych i zadaniami.\nKolejnym istotnym obszarem badań jest zastosowanie technik transfer learning oraz meta-uczenia w jeszcze szerszym zakresie zastosowań przemysłowych. Transfer learning, które umożliwia adaptację wcześniej wytrenowanych modeli do nowych zadań, ma ogromny potencjał w kontekście skrócenia czasu trenowania i zwiększenia efektywności modeli. Przyszłe badania mogłyby skoncentrować się na zastosowaniu tej techniki do bardziej złożonych zadań produkcyjnych, takich jak adaptacja modeli do specyficznych warunków produkcji lub nowych materiałów. Również meta-uczenie, które polega na szybkim dostosowywaniu modeli do nowych zadań, mogłoby zostać eksplorowane jako metoda poprawy adaptacyjności sieci neuronowych w dynamicznie zmieniającym się środowisku produkcyjnym. Te techniki mogłyby znacząco zwiększyć elastyczność i wszechstronność modeli, co jest istotne w odniesieniu do coraz bardziej wymagających warunków produkcji.\n\nW kontekście nowoczesnych rozwiązań produkcyjnych integracja sieci neuronowych z systemami Internetu Rzeczy (IoT) oraz Przemysłem 4.0 jest kolejnym istotnym kierunkiem badań. Przemysł 4.0 i IoT kładą duży nacisk na zbieranie i analizę danych w czasie rzeczywistym, co stwarza nowe możliwości dla zastosowania sieci neuronowych do dynamicznej optymalizacji procesów produkcyjnych. Badania mogą skoncentrować się na opracowaniu skalowalnych i wydajnych systemów, które integrują analizę danych z czujników z modelami neuronowymi, umożliwiając tym samym bardziej inteligentne zarządzanie produkcją. 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UCI Machine Learning Repository 2020.\nhttps://doi.org/10.24432/C5HS5C.", "token_count": 158091} -{"added": "2026-09-08", "author": "Szuster, Janusz J.", "created": "2026", "id": "rock_pollub_pl_e9e7a67e-c405-4968-b87a-0ff169c7b3d1", "license": "CC-BY-SA-4.0", "source": "rock_pollub_pl", "text": "Ćwiczenia i zadania ze wstępu do matematyki finansowej\n\nRada Naukowa Wydawnictwa Politechniki Lubelskiej\nPrzewodnicząca:\nAgnieszka Rzepka\nDyrektor CINT:\nKatarzyna Weinper\nPrzedstawiciele Dyscyplin Naukowych Politechniki Lubelskiej:\nMarzenna Dudzińska\nMałgorzata Franus\nArkadiusz Gola\nBeata Kowalska\nGrzegorz Komarzyniec\nJarosław Latalski\nTomasz Lipecki\nZbigniew Łagodowski\nLucjan Pawłowski\nNatalia Przesmycka\nHalina Rarot\nMagdalena Rzemieniak\nArkadiusz Syta\nWydawnictwo Politechniki Lubelskiej:\nMagdalena Chołojczyk\nKarolina Famulska-Ciesielska\nKatarzyna Pełka-Smętek\n\nPODRĘCZNIKI POLITECHNIKI LUBELSKIEJ\nĆwiczenia i zadania ze wstępu do matematyki finansowej\nJanusz J. Szuster\nLublin 2026\n\nRecenzenci:\ndr hab. Przemysław Matuła, prof. UMCS (Uniwersytet Marii Curie-Skłodowskiej w Lublinie) dr Krzysztof Stroiński\nAutor:\ndr inż. Janusz J. Szuster, prof uczelni, ORCID: 0000-0002-0313-3410\nPolitechnika Lubelska – ROR: https://ror.org/024zjzd49\nRedaktor prowadzący: Magdalena Chołojczyk\nPierwsza korekta: Filip Szałasek\nDruga korekta: Magdalena Chołojczyk\nSkład, łamanie i tagowanie LaTeX: Janusz J. Szuster\nZdjęcie na okładce zostało wygenerowane za pomocą sztucznej inteligencji.\nJeśli nie wskazano źródła ilustracji, stanowi ona opracowanie własne autorów.\nPublikacja wydana za zgodą Rektora Politechniki Lubelskiej\nISBN: 978-83-7947-646-6 (wersja drukowana\nISBN: 978-83-7947-647-3 (wersja elektroniczna)\nDOI: 10.35784/9788379476473\nWydawca: Wydawnictwo Politechniki Lubelskiej www.wpl.pollub.pl ul. Nadbystrzycka 36C, 20-618 Lublin tel. (81) 538-46-59\nKsiążka udostępniona jest na licencji Creative Commons Uznanie autorstwa – na tych samych warunkach\n4.0 Międzynarodowe (CC BY-SA 4.0)\nNakład: 50 egz.\n\nSpis treści\nWstęp 11\n1 Rachunek czasu w matematyce finansowej oraz akumulacja 15\n1.1 Procesy akumulacji i dyskontowania . . . . . . . . . . . . 16\n1.1.1 Akumulacja prosta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18\n1.1.2 Przykłady . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19\n1.1.3 Zadania do samodzielnego rozwiązania . . . . . . 23\n1.2 Akumulacja złożona . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24\n1.2.1 Przykłady . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24\n1.2.2 Zadania do samodzielnego rozwiązania . . . . . . 37\n1.3 Akumulacja ciągła . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41\n1.3.1 Ćwiczenia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43\n1.3.2 Przykłady . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45\n1.3.3 Zadania do samodzielnego rozwiązania . . . . . . 57\n1.4 Stopy procentowe nominalna i efektywna . . . . . . . . . 59\n1.4.1 Ćwiczenia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61\n1.4.2 Przykłady . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62\n1.4.3 Zadania do samodzielnego rozwiązania . . . . . . 66\n1.5 Inflacja, realna stopa zwrotu i RRSO . . . . . . . . . . . . 67\n1.5.1 Ćwiczenia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68\n1.5.2 Przykłady . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68\n1.5.3 Zadania do samodzielnego rozwiązania . . . . . . 70\n2 Renty 73\n2.1 Modele dyskretne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73\n2.2 Renta arytmetyczna i renta geometryczna . . . . . . . . . 77\n2.2.1 Renta arytmetyczna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78\n2.2.2 Renta geometryczna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82\n2.2.3 Ćwiczenia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84\n2.2.4 Przykłady . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86\n2.2.5 Zadania do samodzielnego rozwiązania . . . . . . 96\n\n2.3 Renty – modele ciągłe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98\n2.3.1 Symbolika aktuarialna dla modeli ciągłych . . . . 99\n2.3.2 Ćwiczenia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102\n2.3.3 Przykłady . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102\n2.3.4 Zadania do samodzielnego rozwiązania . . . . . . 106\n2.4 Dyskonto i dyskontowanie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108\n2.4.1 Podstawowe definicje i własności . . . . . . . . . . 108\n2.4.2 Ćwiczenia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110\n2.4.3 Przykłady . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111\n2.4.4 Zadania do samodzielnego rozwiązania . . . . . . 122\n2.5 Wewnętrzna stopa zwrotu IRR i NPV . . . . . . . . . . . 125\n2.5.1 Definicje . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125\n2.5.2 Istnienie i jednoznaczność IRR . . . . . . . . . . . 127\n2.5.3 Ćwiczenia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128\n2.5.4 Przykłady . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129\n2.5.5 Zadania do samodzielnego rozwiązania . . . . . . 139\n3 Plany spłaty długów 141\n3.1 Metoda amortyzacji . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141\n3.1.1 Oznaczenia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141\n3.1.2 Przykłady . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142\n3.1.3 Zadania do samodzielnego rozwiązania . . . . . . 148\n3.2 Ciągła spłata długu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153\n3.2.1 Przykłady . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155\n4 Obligacje 159\n4.1 Podstawy teoretyczne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159\n4.1.1 Premia i dyskonto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160\n4.1.2 Wartości obligacji między płatnościami kuponu . . 161\n4.1.3 Ćwiczenia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162\n4.1.4 Przykłady . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163\n4.1.5 Zadania do samodzielnego rozwiązania . . . . . . 181\n5 Duration i convexity 183\n5.1 Niezbędne definicje i własności . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183\n5.1.1 Ćwiczenia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183\n5.1.2 Przykłady . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185\n5.1.3 Zadania do samodzielnego rozwiązania . . . . . . 190\n\n6 Metody amortyzacji środków trwałych 193\n6.1 Podstawy teoretyczne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193\n6.1.1 Oznaczenia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194\n6.1.2 Ćwiczenia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196\n6.1.3 Przykłady . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197\n6.1.4 Zadania do samodzielnego rozwiązania . . . . . . 198\n7 Odpowiedzi do zadań do samodzielnego rozwiązania 201\nAd 1.1.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201\nAd 1.2.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201\nAd 1.3.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202\nAd 1.4.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203\nAd 1.5.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203\nAd 2.2.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204\nAd 2.3.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204\nAd 2.4.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205\nAd 2.5.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206\nAd 3.1.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207\nAd 4.1.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208\nAd 5.1.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208\nAd 6.1.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209\nBibliografia 211\n\nĆwiczenia i zadania ze wstępu do matematyki finansowej\nStreszczenie: Podręcznik Ćwiczenia i zadania ze wstępu do matematyki finansowej jest adresowany do studentów kierunku matematyka\nPolitechniki Lubelskiej, dla których wstęp do matematyki finansowej jest jednym z przedmiotów prowadzonych na pierwszym roku studiów.\nZakres tematyczny podręcznika obejmuje procesy akumulacji, renty dyskretne oraz ciągłe, dyskonto i dyskontowanie, wewnętrzną stopę zwrotu, plany spłaty długów, obligacje, a także metody amortyzacji środków trwałych. Każdy z rozdziałów rozpoczyna się od wstępu teoretycznego, po którym zamieszczony jest zestaw pytań teoretycznych i nietrudnych zadań rachunkowych dotyczących przedstawionej teorii. Po nim następuje podrozdział zawierający przykładowe zadania wraz ze szczegółowymi rozwiązaniami. Kolejny i ostatni podrozdział stanowią zadania przeznaczone do samodzielnego rozwiązania. Ostatni rozdział zawiera odpowiedzi do trudniejszych zadań.\nSłowa kluczowe: stopa procentowa, stopa zwrotu, akumulacja, dyskontowanie, renta\n\nExercises and Problems in the Introduction to Financial Mathematics\nSummary: The Exercises and Problems in the Introduction to Financial Mathematics textbook is addressed to students of the Mathematics programme at the Lublin University of Technology, for whom the “Introduction to Financial Mathematics” is one of the subjects taught in the first year of studies. The content of the textbook begins with accumulation processes and covers discrete and continuous annuities, discounting and discount rates, internal rate of return, loan repayment plans, bonds, and concludes with methods for the depreciation of fixed assets. Each chapter begins with a theoretical introduction, followed by a set of theoretical questions and straightforward calculation problems related to the presented theory. This is followed by a subchapter with illustrative problems and detailed solutions. The final subchapter contains problems designed for independent solving. The last chapter of the textbook provides answers to the more challenging problems.\nKey words: rate of interest, accumulation, discounting, annuity\n\nWstęp\nPrzedmiot „wstęp do matematyki finansowej” występujący w programie kierunku matematyka prowadzonym w Politechnice Lubelskiej od piętnastu lat, jest jednym z przedmiotów zaliczanych do grupy przedmiotów praktycznych. Historycznie, czyli w początkowych latach istnienia tego kierunku, był on realizowany na piątym semestrze studiów pierwszego stopnia. Kolejne modyfikacje programów kształcenia związane ze zmianami natury prawnej i organizacyjnej spowodowały, że obecnie znajduje się na drugim roku studiów pierwszego stopnia. Ta techniczna informacja jest istotna z punktu widzenia zawartości książki. W praktyce zagadnienia związane z funkcją akumulacji ciągłej oraz powiązane z tą tematyką są realizowane w postaci okrojonej. Natomiast z punktu widzenia wiedzy i umiejętności absolwentów studiów drugiego stopnia, przedmiot ten jest, zgodnie z nazwą, wprowadzeniem do matematyki finansowej. Jego kontynuacją jest przedmiot „wstęp do inżynierii finansowej”, wyposażający absolwentów w znacznie bardziej rozległą wiedzę i umiejętności.\nUkład podręcznika został pomyślany w taki sposób, by wyeksponować na początku rozdziału elementy wiedzy niezbędnej do sprawnego rozwiązywania zadań i ćwiczeń, które w dalszych częściach książki traktowane są jako umiejętności oczywiste. Zdecydowałem, aby proponowane w podręczniku zadania poprzedzić niezbędnym wstępem teoretycznym.\nNastępny podrozdział w każdym przypadku zawiera może nie tyle wzorcowe, ile przykładowe zadania rozwiązane krok po kroku z wyeksponowaniem aspektu teoretycznego odpowiedzi. Każdy z rozdziałów zawiera podrozdział złożony z ćwiczeń lub pytań natury teoretycznej, ważnych dla rozumienia mechanizmów występujących w matematyce finansowej.\nZatrzymajmy się chwilę nad doborem zadań, w tym występujących w podręczniku zadań do samodzielnego rozwiązania. Prezentowany Państwu zestaw składa się z zadań pochodzących z różnych źródeł, a niektóre z nich są mojego autorstwa. Celem zestawu jest omówienie zagadnień analizowanych w ramach wykładu ze wstępu do matematyki finansowej.\nZadania tu zebrane były już testowane przez studentów na ćwiczeniach,\n\nkolokwiach i egzaminach końcowych z tego przedmiotu, a więc mają już własną historię. Część spośród nich to zadania, które występowały na egzaminach aktuarialnych z matematyki finansowej organizowanych przez\nKomisję Nadzoru Finansowego (KNF) dla kandydatów na aktuariuszy.\nRokrocznie kolekcja zadań jest wzbogacana o nowe pozycje, a więc zestaw ma charakter rozwojowy. W praktyce dydaktycznej od początku istnienia kierunku matematyka została przyjęta zasada, według której rdzeniem ćwiczeń audytoryjnych mają być zadania, pochodzące z zestawów egzaminów aktuarialnych, przeprowadzanych przez KNF, dla kandydatów na aktuariuszy. Powody tej decyzji są dwa. Pierwszy z nich to fakt, że matematyka finansowa jest relatywnie nowym przedmiotem wykładowym na kierunkach matematycznych, nie dysponuje więc rozległą bazą literaturową, a drugi to uznanie, że egzaminy aktuarialne wyznaczają poziom wiedzy oczekiwanej z tego przedmiotu przez KNF. Zadania z egzaminów aktuarialnych z zakresu matematyki finansowej, podobnie jak z pozostałych przedmiotów egzaminacyjnych, były i są dostępne na stronach internetowych KNF. Zakładamy bowiem, że przynajmniej część naszych absolwentów zdecyduje się przystąpić do egzaminów aktuarialnych.\nZachęcam Czytelników do samodzielnego rozwiązywania zadań z podręcznika, bo to właśnie w trakcie ich rozwiązywania poznajemy zarówno swoje mocne, jak i słabsze strony. Należy wziąć pod uwagę dwa elementy: tempo rozpoznania modelu oraz czas potrzebny do wykonania niezbędnych obliczeń.\nWszystkie zadania mają charakter praktyczny, odnoszą się bowiem do konkretnych danych, występujących w praktyce aktuarialnej. Wynikiem rozwiązania zadania w warunkach egzaminu aktuarialnego jest liczba, a nie metoda czy też szczegóły teoretyczne. Doradzam jednak, by w warunkach domowych Państwa rozwiązania nie były zbyt lapidarne i by poszczególne etapy rozwiązań były wzbogacane argumentacją teoretyczną. Tylko takie postępowanie pozwala na wzmocnienie wiedzy teoretycznej i uzyskanie efektu „pewnej ręki” w starciu z problemem.\nChcę bardzo podziękować wszystkim studentom, którzy wzięli czynny udział w akcjach rozwiązywania zadań. Nazwiska tych studentów umieszczono przy rozwiązaniach zadań w wersji elektronicznej. Rozwiązania te zostały rozpowszechnione w formie plików pdf. Za aktywność w rozwiązywaniu zadań chcę szczególnie podziękować: Martynie Kalince,\nKarolinie Bartkowicz oraz Karolowi Warmińskiemu.\n\nDla porządku pragnę poinformować, że zadania pochodzące z egzaminów aktuarialnych zostały opatrzone numerem zadania i datą egzaminu, z którego pochodzą (np. [Z3. EA 03.12.07]). Na wykorzystanie ich uzyskałem zgodę firmy MS Products Michał Stańczuk, która publikuje je na stronie msproduct.pl. W podręczniku wykorzystane są także zadania z innych źródeł, a ich pochodzenie zostało wskazane w bibliografii.\nZadania, którym nie towarzyszą odsyłacze, są albo mojego autorstwa, albo też powstały jako modyfikacje zadań znanych z literatury.\nMówiąc o zadaniach, warto poruszyć problem precyzji wyników.\nRezultaty rachunków związanych z rozwiązywaniem zadania zależą od klasy używanego kalkulatora, proszę więc przygotować się na drobne, indywidualne rozbieżności wśród wyników uzyskiwanych przez różne osoby. Ponadto, zadania pochodzące z egzaminów aktuarialnych zostały przeze mnie zmodyfikowane i zamiast wersji z wyborem wyniku mamy do czynienia z jednym możliwym wynikiem przybliżonym.\n□\nChcę poinformować Czytelników, że używam w skrypcie znaku jako symbolu zakończenia rozumowania dotyczącego rozwiązywanego zadania.\nNa zakończenie chcę wyrazić moją głęboką wdzięczność Pani Profesor Ewie Łazuce i Panu Profesorowi Pawłowi Wlaziowi za okazaną mi życzliwość i serdeczną pomoc w redagowaniu podręcznika.\nJanusz J. Szuster\n\n1. Rachunek czasu w matematyce finansowej oraz akumulacja\nIstotą wszystkich prezentowanych w matematyce finansowej modeli jest umiejętny, tzn. zgodny z rzeczywistością lub jej bliski, opis zachowania się pieniądza w czasie. Mówimy o pieniądzu ze względu na mierzalność i łatwy opis, jakkolwiek naszym celem jest ogólny opis akumulacji.\nIstnieje kilka sposobów liczenia czasu trwania inwestycji, a przez to również czasu akumulacji, które zostaną teraz szczegółowo omówione.\nPodkreślmy, że czas t będzie wyrażany w latach.\nI. Dokładna liczba dni. Jeśli przez m 1 oznaczymy liczbę dni roku zwykłego, zaś przez m liczbę dni roku przestępnego trwania inwestycji (akumulacji), to dokładna liczba dni (rozumiana jako część roku) wyniesie wtedy m m t = 1 + 2 . (1.1)\n365 366\nObliczony na podstawie dokładnej liczby dni procent prosty nazywany jest procentem dokładnym (exact implicit interest).\nII. Zasada równych miesięcy. Dla uproszczenia rachunku przyjmuje się w niej, że każdy z miesięcy roku ma 30 dni, a rok ma ich 360.\nWówczas czas inwestycji t jest równy m t = , (1.2) gdzie m oznacza pomnożoną przez 30 liczbę miesięcy kalendarzowych i powiększoną o liczbę dni rozpoczętego miesiąca. Skrót DMY oznacza dzień-miesiąc-rok.\n\nJeśli D M Y oraz D M Y są odpowiednio dniem-miesiącem-\n1 1 1 2 2 2\n-rokiem rozpoczęcia i zakończenia inwestycji, to m = (D 2 −D 1 )+30⋅(M 2 −M 1 )+360⋅(Y 2 −Y 1 ). (1.3)\nProcent prosty obliczony zgodnie z tą zasadą nosi nazwę procentu zwykłego (ordinary simple interest).\nIII. Reguła bankowa. Czas jest w niej obliczany według zasady m t = , gdzie m oznacza dokładną liczbę dni [1, 4].\n1.1. Procesy akumulacji i dyskontowania\nZ doświadczenia wiemy, że wartości dóbr, usług, ale i technologii, ulegają zmianie, zmianie dokonującej się w czasie. Zjawisko to jest następstwem zmiany wartości kapitału w czasie.\nRozpatrzmy przedział lewostronnie domknięty [0;+∞), w którym będzie analizowana zmienna wartość kapitału bądź w chwilach t ∈ i\n[0;+∞), gdzie i ∈ I – przy I rozumianym jako zbiór indeksów, bądź w podprzedziałach domkniętych [t ;t ], gdy i ∈ I, przy I ⊂ N. Przyji−1 i mijmy, że K = K(t ) oznacza wartość kapitału w chwili t , K(t +Δt ) i i i i jego wartość zakumulowaną w przedziale [t ;t + Δt ], zaś różnica i i i\nK(t +Δt )−K(t ) oznacza odsetki od kapitału. Proces dojścia kapitału i i i od kwoty K = K(t ) w chwili t do kwoty K(t ) w chwili t nazywamy\n0 0 0 1 1 jego akumulacją, natomiast matematyczny model tego procesu – funkcją akumulacji. Formalnie przez funkcję akumulacji rozumiemy każdą funkcję A∶ [0;+∞) → R , gdzie R = (0;+∞), będącą funkcją czasu t,\n+ + taką że\n(i) A(0) = 1;\n(ii) A jest rosnąca;\n(iii) jeśli odsetki narastają w sposób ciągły, to funkcja A jest także funkcją ciągłą.\nWyróżniamy trzy rodzaje funkcji akumulacji: funkcję akumulacji prostej A (indeks dolny s pochodzi od angielskiego słowa simple), funkcję s\n\nakumulacji złożonej A (indeks c od ang. słowa composed) oraz funkcję c akumulacji ciągłej A (ct od ang. continuous).\nct\nPodstawowym pojęciem dla procesu akumulacji jest okres bazowy, utożsamiany zwykle z okresem jednego roku. Na ogół liczba okresów bazowych t ∈ N jest liczbą naturalną i wtedy, jeśli r jest stopą procentową,\n+ to zachodzą równości przypadek akumulacji prostej − A (t) = 1+rt, s przypadek akumulacji złożonej − A c (t) = (1+r)t, (1.4) przypadek akumulacji ciągłej − A = eδt, ct gdzie δ = ln(1+r) nosi nazwę intensywności oprocentowania lub też siły stopy procentowej.\nWprowadzone pojęcie funkcji akumulacji ma na celu uporządkowanie znaczenia pojęcia oprocentowania. Oprocentowania rozumianego intuicyjnie jako proces przyrostu nominalnej kwoty kapitału w procesie utraty wartości pieniądza w czasie. Oprocentowanie proste daje się modelować za pomocą ciągu arytmetycznego, zaś oprocentowanie złożone – za pomocą ciągu geometrycznego. Oprocentowanie ciągłe, będące granicznym przypadkiem oprocentowania złożonego, modelują natomiast ciągi typu Eulera. Ciągi, a ściślej wymienione ich rodzaje, występują w odpowiednich dla oprocentowania funkcjach akumulacji. Uwzględniając rolę funkcji akumulacji, mamy, że wartość przyszła kapitału FV, to znaczy jego wartość w chwili końcowej inwestycji wynosi\nFV = K(T) = K ⋅A(T) = K(0)⋅A(T).\nW przedziale [0;T] określamy nową funkcję D ∶ [0;T] → [0;+∞), zwaną funkcją dyskontowania i określoną równością\nD(T) =df czyli A(t)⋅D(t) = 1. (1.5)\nA(T)\nObie funkcje, tak A jak i D, przyjmują wartości niemianowane, będąc funkcjami argumentu t ∈ [0;T]. Fakt ten uniemożliwia traktowanie funkcji D jako funkcji odwrotnej do A w sensie algebraicznym. Warto też podkreślić, że o ile A jest funkcją rosnącą, o tyle D jest funkcją malejącą\n\nna [0;+∞). Z tego powodu\nPV = K(0) = K(T)⋅D(T) = FV ⋅D(T).\nW sytuacji, gdy funkcja D – opisująca dyskontowanie, czyli uaktualniająca (urealniająca) wartość kapitału – nie jest stała w czasie, a zatem, gdy wartość funkcji D jest zależna od czasu t, to czynnik dyskontujący\n(ang. discount factor) oznaczamy symbolem DF(t) przy t ∈ [0;T].\nNazwa „dyskonto” historycznie oznacza opłatę pobraną z góry za korzystanie z cudzych pieniędzy, natomiast stopa dyskonta w chwili t to stosunek zysku (nazywanego wówczas dyskontem) do końcowej wielkości kapitału, a zatem\nK(t)−K(0)\nD(t) =df .\nK(t)\nPosługując się intuicją fizyczną, jest to chwilowa stopa dyskonta. W skali okresu bazowego (rozumianego jako rok), czyli średnia stopa dyskonta w przedziale [0;t] ⊆ [0;T], jest równa\nK(t)−K(0)\nD̂(t) =df , tK(t) gdzie t oznacza czas liczony w latach (okresach bazowych) [1, 4].\n1.1.1. Akumulacja prosta\nGłówne fakty dotyczące procesu akumulacji prostej z odpowiadającą mu funkcją akumulacji prostej A . W konsekwencji funkcję dyskonta s prostego postaci opisują warunki\n⎧ { A s ∶ [0;+∞) → [0;+∞),\n⎨ (1.6)\n{ ⎩ A s (t) = 1+t⋅r,\n⎧ D ∶ [0;+∞) → [0;+∞),\n{ s\n⎨ 1 (1.7)\n{ D (t) = ,\n⎩ s 1+t⋅r gdzie r oznacza nominalną (roczną) stopę procentową [1, 4].\n\n1.1.2. Przykłady\n1. Dnia 20 czerwca 2001 roku pan Malinowski miał na swoim ROR1 kwotę 2500 j.m. W okresie od 1 lipca do 30 września tego roku dokonano dwóch wpłat na rachunek:\n(i) 3250 j.m. – 12 lipca,\n(ii) 1600 j.m. – 17 sierpnia, oraz trzech wypłat:\n(i)’ 4200 j.m. – 23 lipca,\n(ii)’ 1900 j.m. – 5 sierpnia,\n(iii)’ 300 j.m. – 18 września.\nBank dopisuje odsetki do rachunku na koniec każdego kwartału.\nPrzy dodatnim saldzie nalicza odsetki według rocznej stopy 12%.\nW przypadku salda ujemnego – odsetki „karne” przy stopie zwiększonej o 50%. Czas oprocentowania jest obliczany jako dokładna liczba dni przy długości roku 365 dni. Obliczyć odsetki należne panu Malinowskiemu za trzeci kwartał.\nRozwiązanie. Rozpocznijmy od przyjęcia oznaczeń, uporządkowania ważnych terminów oraz określenia kwot przepływów wynikających z przeprowadzanych na rachunku operacji. A zatem chwila t t t t\n0 1 2 3 data 20.06. 01.07. 12.07. 23.07.\nCF(t ) 2500 0,00 +3250 −4200 k chwila t t t t\n4 5 6 7 data 05.08. 17.08. 18.09. 01.10.\nCF(t ) −1900 1600 −300 51,87 k\nPodkreślmy, że podwójne linie pionowe ‖ symbolizują zmianę kwartału. Kwota przepływu CF(t ) jest równa kwocie odsetek skapitalizowanych na zakończenie trzeciego kwartału.\n1 ROR – Rachunek Oszczędnościowo Rozliczeniowy.\n\nNa wstępie ustalmy sposób akumulacji. Jako sposób rachuby czasu obowiązuje zasada dokładnej liczby dni. Dla k-tego okresu miedzy operacjami niech m oznacza dokładną liczbę jego dni. Wiemy, że odsetki od depozytu są oprocentowane w skali roku w wysokości i = 0,12 (czyli 12%), a od debetu i = 0,18 (czyli 18%) – w stosun-\n1 2 ku do stanu konta. Podkreślmy też, że zgodnie z treścią polecenia w przypadku oprocentowania prostego, odsetki są dopisywane (kapitalizowane) na koniec kwartału. Rozumiemy to tak, że chwilą, w której są one dopisywane, jest godzina 0∶00. Jeśli oznaczymy przez K(t ) stan konta w chwili t dla przedziału [t ;t ) k−1 k−1 k−1 k przy k ∈ {1,2,3,4,5,6,7}, to kwota odsetek w chwili t wyniesie k m\nI = I(t ) = ⋅i ⋅K(t ) k k 365 1 k−1 lub m\nI = I(t ) = ⋅i ⋅K(t ), k k 365 2 k−1 odpowiednio w przypadku salda dodatniego oraz debetu. Stan konta będzie wówczas równy\nK(t ) = K(t )+CF(t ), k k−1 k gdzie CF(t ) jest przepływem wynikającym z kwoty operacji.\nk\nW ten sposób uzyskujemy następujące wyniki:\nI(t ) = ( ⋅0,12)⋅2500 = 8,22;\n1 365\nK(t ) = 2500+8,22 = 2508,22;\nI(t ) = ( ⋅0,12)⋅2508,22 = 9,07;\n2 365\nK(t ) = 2508,22+3250 = 5758,22;\nI(t ) = ( ⋅0,12)⋅5758,22 = 20,82;\n3 365\nK(t ) = 5758,22−4200 = 1558,22;\nI(t ) = ( ⋅0,12)⋅1558,22 = 6,66;\n4 365\nK(t ) = 1558,22−1900 = −341,78;\n\nI(t ) = ( ⋅0,18)⋅(−341,78) = −2,02;\n5 365\nK(t ) = −341,78+1600 = 1258,22;\nI(t ) = ( ⋅0,12)⋅1258,22 = 13,24;\n6 365\nK(t ) = 1258,22−300 = 958,22;\nI(t ) = ( ⋅0,12)⋅958,22 = 4,10;\n7 365\nK(t ) = 958,22+51,87 = 1010,09.\nOdsetki należne za trzeci kwartał wynoszą ∑ I(t ) = 51,87. □ k k=2\n2. Pożyczka w wysokości 1200 j.m. zostanie spłacona jednorazowo po upływie czterech miesięcy wraz z odsetkami składanymi, obliczonymi przy miesięcznej stopie procentowej 1,3%. Wyznaczyć kwotę potrzebną do spłaty tej pożyczki.\nRozwiązanie. Ponieważ znana jest miesięczna stopa procentowa, a oprocentowanie jest składane, to kwota potrzebna do spłaty pożyczki wyniesie:\nK = (1,013)4⋅1200j.m. ≈ 1263,63.\n□\nWarto podkreślić, że jest to spłata jednorazowa.\n3. Rozpatrzmy rachunek bankowy o następujących warunkach:\n■ oprocentowanie wynosi 4,5% w skali roku;\n■ właściciel może zaciągnąć kredyt odnawialny (debet) do wysokości 3000 j.m.;\n■ oprocentowanie kredytu wynosi 18% w skali roku;\n■ rachunek czasu jest oparty na równych miesiącach, z których każdy ma 30 dni.\nObliczyć odsetki należne właścicielowi rachunku za drugi kwartał.\nRozwiązanie. Tak jak w poprzednim zadaniu, również i teraz ustalamy oznaczenia, daty, przepływy. Mamy\n\nchwila t t t\n1 2 3 data 01.04. 12.04. 20.04\nCF(t ) +3000 −5000 +1000 k t t t t\n4 5 6 7\n25.04. 15.05. 20.05. 01.07.\n+2000 +3000 −6000 −41,38\nI(t ) = 0,00;\nK(t ) = 3000+0 = 3000;\nI(t ) = ( ⋅0,045)⋅3000 = 4,12;\n2 360\nK(t ) = 3000−5000 = −2000;\nI(t ) = ( ⋅0,180)⋅(−2000) = −8,00;\n3 360\nK(t ) = −2000+1000 = −1000;\nI(t ) = ( ⋅0,180)⋅(−1000) = −2,50;\n4 360\nK(t ) = −1000+2000 = 1000;\nI(t ) = ( ⋅0,045)⋅1000 = 2,50;\n5 360\nK(t ) = 1000+3000 = 4000;\nI(t ) = ( ⋅0,045)⋅4000 = 2,50;\n6 360\nK(t ) = 4000−6000 = −2000;\nI(t ) = ( ⋅0,180)⋅(−2000) = −40,00;\n7 360\nK(t ) = −2000−41,38 = −2041,38.\nStąd CF(t ) = ∑ CF(t ) = −41,38. □\n7 k k=2\n\n1.1.3. Zadania do samodzielnego rozwiązania\n1. Rozpatrzmy rachunek bankowy o następującej historii:\n■ od dnia 1 stycznia 2001 roku w banku obowiązywała stopa oprocentowania środków na rachunkach w wysokości 12% w stosunku rocznym;\n■ stan początkowy rachunku na dzień 1 stycznia 2001 roku wynosił 800 j.m.;\n■ w dniu 26 stycznia 2001 roku wpłynęła na rachunek kwota\n2200 j.m.;\n■ w dniu 10 lutego 2001 roku wypłacono kwotę 1100 j.m.;\n■ w dniu 28 lutego 2001 roku zmieniono oprocentowanie rachunków bankowych z 12% na 9% w stosunku rocznym;\n■ w dniu 13 marca 2001 wpłynęła kwota 1300 j.m.;\n■ w dniu 31 marca 2001 roku wypłacono całą kwotę będącą na rachunku i rachunek zlikwidowano.\nObliczyć odsetki należne właścicielowi rachunku za pierwszy kwartał 2001 roku.\n2. Rozpatrzmy rachunek bankowy o następujących warunkach:\n– oprocentowanie rachunku wynosi 4,5% w stosunku rocznym;\n– właściciel może zaciągnąć kredyt odnawialny (debet) do wysokości\n3000 j.m.;\n– oprocentowanie kredytu wynosi 18% w stosunku rocznym;\n– rachunek czasu oparty na równych miesiącach, z których każdy ma 30 dni.\nHistoria rachunku jest następująca:\n■ na początku trzeciego kwartału 2002 roku stan konta wynosił\n3000 j.m.;\n■ w dniu 12.04 nastąpiła wypłata 5000 j.m.;\n\n■ w dniu 20.04 wpłynęło 1000 j.m.;\n■ w dniu 25.04 wpłynęło 2000 j.m.;\n■ w dniu 15.05 wpłynęło 3000 j.m.;\n■ w dniu 20.05 nastąpiła wypłata 6000 j.m.\nWyznaczyć odsetki należne posiadaczowi rachunku za drugi kwartał 2002 roku.\n1.2. Akumulacja złożona\nPowróćmy do wspomnianej wcześniej akumulacji złożonej oraz jej podstawy – funkcji akumulacji złożonej o wzorze\nA (t) =df (1+r)t, c gdzie t ∈ N, zaś r ∈ R roczną stopą oprocentowania. Dodajmy, że\n+ wartość funkcji akumulacji złożonej w przedstawionej postaci dotyczy przypadku, gdy czas jest wielokrotnością okresu bazowego, a więc jednego roku. Natomiast, gdy czas jest dodatnią liczbą rzeczywistą (t ∈ R ),\n+ to wartość funkcji akumulacji złożonej jest równa\nA (t) = (1+r)[t](1+{t}r), c gdzie [t] oraz {t} oznaczają odpowiednio: część całkowitą (cechę) liczby rzeczywistej t ∈ R oraz jej część ułamkową (mantysę).\n+\nFunkcja akumulacji złożonej podlega ogólnym zasadom nałożonym na funkcje akumulacji. Poprzestaniemy więc na przedstawionych już informacjach [1, 4].\n1.2.1. Przykłady\n1. (i) Jaką wartość osiągnie kapitał K = 1800 j.m. po 4 latach oprocentowania rocznego przy stałej stopie procentowej r =\n6%?\n(ii) Jaka jest wartość odsetek naliczonych za poszczególne lata inwestowania?\n\n(iii) Przy jakiej stopie łączna wartość 4-letnich odsetek byłaby większa o 58 j.m.?\nRozwiązanie. Korzystając z faktów pochodzących z treści zadania, otrzymujemy:\n(i) K(4) = 1800⋅(1+0,06)4 = 2272,46.\n(ii) Wartość odsetek za poszczególne lata\nO = 108, O = 114,48, O = 121,35, O = 128,63.\n1 2 3 4\n(iii) Przy nieznanej stopie procentowej dającej odsetki większe o 58 j.m., otrzymujemy 1800 ⋅ (1 + i)4 − 1800 = 530,58, a stąd i ≃ 0,0666999. □\n2. Po ilu latach kapitał w wysokości 2500 j.m. wygeneruje odsetki w wysokości 3500 j.m. przy rocznej stopie równej 25% oraz kapitalizacji złożonej?\nRozwiązanie. Ponieważ\n2500⋅(1+0,25)n−2500 = 3500, to\n2500⋅(1+0,25)n = 6000 i dalej\n(1,25)n = = 2,4, więc nln(1,25) = ln(2,4), co daje ln(2,4) n = ≃ 3,9233 ≈ 4.\nln(1,25)\nMówiąc ściśle będą to 3 lata i 11 miesięcy. □\n3. Ile lat należy lokować kapitał, aby wzrósł on co najmniej dwa i pół raza, ale nie więcej niż trzykrotnie, przy założeniu, że roczna stopa oprocentowania będzie równa 14%?\nRozwiązanie. Ponieważ w zadaniu mamy miarę względną wzrostu kapitału, to zainwestowana kwota nie ma znaczenia, znaczenie\n\nmają jedynie stopa procentowa i krotność sumy zainwestowanej.\nZ tego powodu przyjmijmy dla wygody, że inwestujemy 1 j.m. Wtedy warunki zadania można wyrazić podwójną nierównością\n2,5 ⩽ (1,14)n < 3.\nLogarytmując stronami przy podstawie e, uzyskujemy ln(2,5) ⩽ nln(1,14) < ln(3).\nSkoro ln1,14 > 0, to ln(2,5) ln(3)\n⩽ n < , ln(1,14) ln(1,14) co po wyliczeniu wartości logarytmów daje oszacowanie\n7 ≃ 6,993077028 ⩽ n < 8,34544437.\nWyrażając odpowiedź w tradycyjnych jednostkach pomiaru czasu, okres lokowania powinien być w zakresie od około 7 lat do mniej\n□ niż 8 lat, 4 miesiące i 6 dni.\n4. Obliczyć wartość odsetek składanych wygenerowanych w ciągu 3 lat, 3 miesięcy i 3 dni przez kapitał w wysokości 1000 j.m. przy rocznym, efektywnym oprocentowaniu 24%. Bank podjął decyzję o naliczeniu odsetek prostych za niepełny rok. Jaka musiałaby być roczna stopa procentowa w ostatnim, niepełnym okresie, by ogólna kwota odsetek nie zmieniła się po podjęciu przez bank decyzji o naliczaniu odsetek prostych? Kwota ulokowana została 31.12.1996 roku.\nRozwiązanie. Obliczmy okres trwania inwestycji wyrażony w latach\n31+28+31+3 n = 3+ = 3,25.\nStosując model jednolitego oprocentowania składanego (wykładniczego), dostajemy:\nK(3,25) = 1000(1+0,24)3,25 = 2011,97 j.m.,\n\na odsetki wynoszą wówczas\nI = K(3,25)−K = 2011,97−1000 = 1011,97 j.m.\nW przypadku, gdy za niepełny rok odsetki naliczane są w sposób prosty, sytuacja depozytariusza jest bardziej korzystna, ponieważ odsetki proste i składane są równe dopiero w przypadku jednego, pełnego okresu oprocentowania. W przedziale (0,1), wyrażającym czas w latach, odsetki proste są w każdej chwili większe od odsetek naliczanych w sposób złożony. Na tym odcinku prosta l ∶ y = x leży ponad każdą z parabol P ∶ y = xα , gdy α > 1. Dokładniej: z jednej strony K (t) = K(1+rt), a z drugiej K (t) = K(1+r)t .\ns c\nW drugim wariancie, gdy bank nalicza odsetki proste za niepełny okres, lokata przyniesie depozytariuszowi wyższe odsetki. Obliczymy je zgodnie z zależnością:\nI\"(n;m) = K(1+r)n(1+mr)−K, gdzie n wyraża całkowitą liczbę lat trwania lokaty, zaś m będące ułamkiem właściwym – część okresu, w którym obowiązuje oprocentowanie proste.\nW przypadku n = 3 i m = 0,25, dostajemy I\"(3,25) = 1021, zatem odsetki rosną o 10 j.m.\nWyznaczymy teraz wysokość oprocentowania w niepełnym okresie, przy której kwoty odsetek obliczane obydwoma metodami byłyby równe. Mamy\nK(1+r)n+m−K = K(1+r)n(1+mr )−K, a stąd\n(1+r)n+m−K = (1+r)n(1+mr ) ⟺ (1+r)m = 1+mr\n1 1 i dalej\n1 1 r = [(1+r)m−1] = [(1+0,24)0,25−1] = 22,1%.\n1 m 0,25\n\nOznacza to konieczność obniżenia oprocentowania w niepełnych okresach prawie o 2%. □\n5. Depozytariusz chciałby przez 6 kolejnych kwartałów odbierać kwotę\n600 j.m. Jaką kwotę powinien dziś zdeponować w banku? Nominalna stopa procentowa wynosi 16% w stosunku rocznym.\nRozwiązanie. Popatrzmy na cały proces, jak na wartość obecną sześciu płatności. Mamy więc\nPV = 600⋅v +600⋅v +600⋅v +600⋅v +600⋅v +600⋅v ,\n1 2 3 4 5 6 gdzie v są czynnikami dyskontującymi wypłat dokonywanych na i koniec i-tego kwartału przy i ∈ {1,2,3,4,5,6}.\nW zadaniu nie została wyraźnie wskazana obowiązująca funkcja akumulacji, wskutek czego nie została także jednoznacznie określona metoda dyskontowania, należy zatem rozpatrzeć trzy przypadki:\n1. akumulacji prostej w całym okresie trwania inwestycji;\n2. akumulacji złożonej w tym samym okresie z kapitalizacją kwartalną;\n3. akumulacji złożonej przy rocznym okresie kapitalizacji i kapitalizacją prostą w okresach krótszych niż rok.\nZatem po kolei:\nAd 1. Model kapitalizacji prostej.\nW tym przypadku\n1 1 v = ≃ 0,9615, v = ≃ 0,9259,\n1 1,04 2 1,08\n1 1 v = ≃ 0,8929, v = ≃ 0,8621,\n3 1,12 4 1,16\n1 1 v = ≃ 0,8333, v = ≃ 0,8065.\n5 1,20 6 1,24\nPV = 600⋅v +600⋅v +600⋅v +600⋅v +600⋅v +600⋅v =\n1 2 3 4 5 6\n= 600⋅5,2822 ≃ 3169,32.\n\nAd 2. Model kapitalizacji złożonej, w cyklu rocznym.\nOznacza to w warunkach zadania, że gdy r = 0,04, to v = ≃ 0,9615 = const.,\n1,04 zaś\nPV = 600(v+v2+v3+v4+v5+v6) ≃ 3144,86.\nAd 3. Model kapitalizacji złożonej z rocznym okresem bazowym oraz kapitalizacją prostą w okresach krótszych niż bazowy.\nW takim przypadku w pierwszych czterech kwartałach obowiązują kapitalizacja i dyskontowanie proste, a po roku następuje kapitalizacja odsetek. Wtedy\n1 1 v = ≃ 0,9615; v = ≃ 0,9259,\n1 1,04 2 1,08\n1 1 v = ≃ 0,8929; v = ≃ 0,8621,\n3 1,12 4 1,16\n1 1 v = ⋅ ≃ 0,8289,\n5 1,16 1,04\n1 1 v = ⋅ ≃ 0,7982,\n6 1,16 1,08\nPV = 600⋅v +600⋅v +600⋅v +600⋅v +600⋅v +600⋅v ≃\n1 2 3 4 5 6\n≃ 600⋅5,2695 = 3161,70.\n□\n6. Obliczyć wartość końcową kapitału K = 1000 j.m. oraz odsetki po dwóch latach, jeśli warunki oprocentowania składanego są określone przez nominalną stopę procentową 24% i okres kapitalizacji o długości:\n1. rocznej;\n2. półrocznej;\n3. kwartalnej;\n4. oprocentowania ciągłego.\n\nRozwiązanie. Przyjmując odpowiednie oznaczenia oraz wartości, mamy:\nr(1) = r nom = 0,24; r(2) = r nom = 0,12;\n1 2 r(4) = r nom = 0,06; r = r = 0,24.\n4 ct nom\nAd 1. Otrzymujemy r = r(1) = 0,24, a także liczbę okresów kapitalizacji m = 2, co daje w konsekwencji\nK(2) = 1000(1+0,24)2 = 1537,60 j.m.\noraz I(2) = K(2)−K(0) = 1537,60−1000 = 537,60 j.m.\nAd 2. W takim przypadku kapitalizacja następuje co pół roku, otrzymujemy więc:\nr 0,24 r(2) = nom = = 0,12,\n2 2 ponadto m = 2⋅2.\nWówczas\nK(4) = 1000(1+0,12)4 = 1573,52;\na ponadto I(4) = 573,52 j.m.\nr 0,24\nAd 3. Przy kapitalizacji kwartalnej r(4) = nom = = 0,06.\n4 4\nPoza tym m = 2⋅4 = 8, skutkiem czego jest\nK(8) = 1000(1+0,06)8 = 1593,85 oraz I(8) = 593,85 j.m.\nAd 4. Teraz r = 24%, co powoduje, że ct\nK(2) = 1000e0,24⋅2 = 1000e0,48 = 1616,07 j.m., stąd też I(ct) = 616,07. □\n\n7. Klient wpłacił na lokatę bankową 10000 j.m. Oprocentowanie wynosi 7% w skali roku2. Ponadto obowiązuje podatek od zysków kapitałowych wysokości 19%. Jaką kwotę otrzyma klient na końcu roku, jeśli\n1. odsetki są kapitalizowane na końcu roku i podatek jest pobierany po roku?\n2. odsetki są kapitalizowane co jeden miesiąc i podatek jest pobierany po roku?\n3. odsetki są kapitalizowane co miesiąc i podatek jest pobierany co miesiąc?\nRozwiązanie. Mamy po kolei\nAd 1. Odsetki narosłe przez rok wyniosą\nI = r⋅K = 0,07⋅10000 = 700j.m.\nPodatek jest naliczany od zysku, a więc od naliczonych odsetek, i wyniesie p = 0,19 ⋅ I = 133 j.m. Kwota wypłaty po zamknięciu lokaty rocznej będzie więc równa\n10000+700−133 = 10567j.m.\nAd 2. W tym przypadku wartość przyszła kapitału, czyli kwota po zakończeniu akumulacji, wyniesie\n0,07\nK′(1) = 10000(1+ ) = 10722,90j.m.\nZatem\nI′ = K′(1)−K(0) = 722,90j.m.\ni od tej kwoty naliczony zostanie podatek w kwocie wynoszącej p′ = 0,19⋅I′ = 137,35 j.m., a wypłata będzie równa\n10000+722,9−137,35 = 10585,55 j.m.\n2 W literaturze używa się do oznaczenia oprocentowania w skali roku łacińskiego skrótu p.a. pochodzącego od słów: per annum.\n\nAd 3. Możemy się domyślać, że skoro w tym przypadku co miesiąc pobierany jest podatek, to podstawa akumulacji ulega przez to zmniejszeniu i z oczywistych powodów kwota końcowa powinna być mniejsza niż w poprzednim przypadku. Sprawdźmy to jednak rachunkowo.\nSkoro każdego miesiąca z narosłej kwoty odsetek potrącanych jest\n19% w formie podatku, to w efekcie oznacza to obniżenie stopy oprocentowania. Mamy bowiem:\n0,07 0,07 0,07 r(12) = −0,19⋅ = 0,81⋅ .\np\n12 12 12\nWiedząc to, możemy natychmiast wyznaczyć kwotę wypłaty:\nK′′(1) = 10000⋅(1+r(12)) = p\n0,07\n= 10000⋅(1+0,81⋅ ) = 10581,97 j.m.\nW istocie troska o „bieżący stan budżetu państwa” jest dla nas\n□ kosztowna.\n8. Inwestor chce umieścić pewną kwotę dolarów amerykańskich na lokacie na okres sześciu lat. Ma do wyboru dwie lokaty roczne w dwóch różnych bankach:\n1. pierwszą z oprocentowaniem stałym 4% w skali roku;\n2. drugą z oprocentowaniem zmiennym o stopie procentowej w kolejnych latach równej: 5%, 3%, 4%, 3%, 3%, 6% (a zatem wynoszącej średnio 4%) p.a.\nKtórą lokatę inwestor powinien wybrać?\nRozwiązanie. Oznaczmy przez K = K(0) wymienioną, a nie określoną w zadaniu kwotę do zainwestowania.\nBiorąc pod uwagę możliwość inwestowania w pierwszym banku, dostaniemy:\nK′(6) = (1+0,04)6K = 1,265319⋅K.\n\nW przypadku drugim funkcja akumulacji zmienia się co rok, ale oprocentowanie pozostaje złożone, otrzymujemy więc\nK′′(6) =(1+0,05)(1+0,04)(1+0,03)3(1+0,06)K =\n=1,2648534⋅K.\nOdpowiedź jest oczywista. Uzyskaliśmy ją w wyniku stosownych rachunków, jednak można ją było przewidzieć i bez tego, korzystając z nierówności między średnimi arytmetyczną i geometryczną:\nx +x +...+x\n1 2 n ⩾ n√x ⋅x ⋅...⋅x .\nn 1 2 n\nJak wiadomo, zachodzi ona dla dowolnych liczb rzeczywistych nieujemnych i staje się ostra, gdy nie wszystkie uczestniczące w niej liczby x , dla x ∈ R, są identyczne. Na mocy tej nierówności mamy i i\n(1+0,05)+(1+0,03)+(1+0,04)+(1+0,03)+(1+0,03)+(1+0,06)\n⩾\n⩾√6(1+0,05)⋅(1+0,03)⋅(1+0,04)⋅(1+0,03)⋅(1+0,03)⋅(1+0,06).\nWskutek podniesienia stronami do potęgi szóstej otrzymujemy\n(1+0,04)6 ⩾ (1+0,05)(1+0,04)(1+0,03)3(1+0,06).\nUogólnijmy problem. Rozpatrzmy przypadek dwóch lokat trwających przez n lat. Jak poprzednio, pierwsza z nich ma stałe oprocentowanie równe r, natomiast druga zmienne, wynoszące w każdym roku odpowiednio r ,r ,...,r , ale jednocześnie takie, że\n1 2 n r +r +...+r\n1 2 n = r.\nn\nDla lokaty pierwszej otrzymujemy K′(n) = K⋅(1+r)n , dla drugiej zaś\nK′′(n) = K ⋅(1+r )⋅(1+r )⋅...⋅(1+r ).\n1 2 n\nPonownie odwołując się do nierówności między średnimi, otrzymujemy\n(1+r )+(1+r )+...+(1+r )\n1 2 n ⩾√n (1+r )(1+r )...(1+r ), n 1 2 n\n\na następnie, po odpowiednim spotęgowaniu r +r +...+r n\n(1+ 1 2 n) ⩾ (1+r )⋅(1+r )⋅...⋅(1+r ).\nn 1 2 n\nNa tej podstawie ustaliliśmy, że dla inwestora bardziej rentowna okaże się inwestycja oparta o stałe oprocentowanie złożone, niż inwestycja oparta na oprocentowaniu złożonym i zmiennym, w którym średnie oprocentowanie jest równe oprocentowaniu stałemu.\n□\nRozumiemy, że obie te inwestycje mają taki sam czas trwania.\n9. Fundacja stypendialna dysponuje kwotą 100000 j.m. na cele statutowe, czyli fundowanie stypendiów. Fundacja ma zamiar wypłacać stypendia w wysokości 11000 j.m. na koniec każdego roku. Posiadany kapitał fundacja lokuje przy 10% stopie efektywnej. Po ilu latach wyczerpie się fundusz stypendialny? Jak wysokie powinny być roczne wypłaty z funduszu stypendialnego, aby mógł on istnieć wiecznie?\nRozwiązanie. Na początku zapiszmy kilka informacji o stanie kapitału fundacji na końcu k-tego roku, gdzie dla ustalonego n ∈ N jest, że k ∈ {0,1,...n}. Mamy\nK(0) = 100000;\nK(1) = 100000⋅1,1−11000 = 99000;\nK(2) = [100000⋅1,1−11000]⋅1,1−11000 = 97900;\n.........................................................\nSprytniej możemy to zapisać w postaci\nK(0) = 100000⋅1,10;\nK(1) = 100000⋅1,11−11000⋅1,10;\nK(2) = 100000⋅1,12−11000⋅1,11−11000⋅1,10;\n......................................................\nn\nK(n) = 100000⋅1,1n−11000⋅ ∑ 1,1n−k.\nk=1\n\nNas interesuje odpowiedź na pytanie, dla jakiego najmniejszego n ∈ N zachodzi nierówność\n+\nK(n) < 0?\nZauważmy, że zależność na K(n) wygodniej jest zapisać w równoważnej postaci n−1\nK(n) = 100000⋅1,1n−11000⋅ ∑ 1,1k.\nk=0\nZatem K(n) < 0, co oznacza, że n−1\n100000⋅1,1n < 11000⋅ ∑ 1,1k k=0 i dalej prowadzi do nierówności n−1\n100⋅1,1n < 11⋅ ∑ 1,1k.\nk=0\nPo przekształceniu dostajemy\n100 1 n−1 1 1−1,1n\n< ⋅ ∑ 1,1k = ⋅1,10 =\n11 1,1n 1,1n 1−1,1 k=0\n1 1,1n−1\n= ⋅ .\n1,1n 0,1\nPo nietrudnych przekształceniach otrzymujemy równoważną nierówność\n10 1\n< 1−\n11 1,1n i dalej\n1 1\n< ⟺ 11 < (1,1)n,\n1,1n 11 a logarytmując stronami, otrzymujemy ln11 ln11 < nln1,1 ⟺ < n.\nln1,1\n\nPo wykonaniu potrzebnych obliczeń dostajemy 25,15 < n, co oznacza, że najmniejszą liczbą naturalną, dla której stan konta fundacji okaże się ujemny, jest 26, zatem fundusz wyczerpie się po 25 latach.\nOdpowiedź na drugie pytanie opiera się na powszechnie znanej opinii, że nie należy wydawać więcej, niż się zarabia. Jeśli przez\nW oznaczymy roczną wysokość funduszu stypendialnego, to musi zachodzić warunek\n100000⋅1,1−Wj.m. ⩾ 100000, j.m.\nco daje, że\nW ⩽ 100000(1,1−1) = 10000j.m.\nZakładając brak innych kosztów, zarząd fundacji może przeznaczać na cele statutowe maksymalnie 10000 j.m. i pod warunkiem, że oprocentowanie kapitału fundacji będzie wieczyście wynosić 10%.\n□\n10. W banku zdeponowano pewną kwotę kapitału w formie pięcioletniej lokaty. W ciągu pierwszych trzech lat kapitał był oprocentowany przy stopie 32% w skali roku, zaś przez następne dwa lata stopa oprocentowania wyniosła 30%. Jaką kwotę zdeponowano, jeśli po wygaśnięciu lokaty, czyli po pięciu latach, przy rocznej kapitalizacji odsetek kwota odsetek była równa 30000 j.m.?\nRozwiązanie. Oznaczmy przez K = K(0) zainwestowaną kwotę, a że wysokość odsetek jest różnicą między przyrostem wartości zainwestowanego kapitału, a jego początkową wysokością, otrzymujemy\nK ⋅A (5)−K = 30000j.m., c gdzie ze względu na strukturę terminową stóp procentowych\n0,32, dlat ∈ (0;3], r(t) = {\n0,30, dlat ∈ (3;5], dzięki czemu otrzymujemy A (5) = (1,32)3⋅(1,30)2 , a zatem c\n30000\nK = ≃ 10391,60 j.m.\n(1,32)3⋅(1,30)2−1\n\n□\n1.2.2. Zadania do samodzielnego rozwiązania\n1. Wyznaczyć stopę procentową dla kapitału w kwocie 2000 j.m., jeśli po dwóch latach przyniósł on 500 j.m. odsetek, przy założeniu rocznej kapitalizacji.\n2. Obliczyć wartość końcową kapitału K = 1000 j.m. oraz odsetki po dwóch latach, jeśli warunki oprocentowania składanego są określone przez nominalną stopę procentową 24% i okres kapitalizacji o długości:\n1. rocznej;\n2. półrocznej;\n3. kwartalnej;\n4. miesięcznej.\n3. Efektywna stopa procentowa jest równa r ef = 0,12. Jaka jest nominalna stopa procentowa, jeśli stosowana jest kapitalizacja złożona z dołu:\n1. miesięcznie;\n2. kwartalnie;\n3. półrocznie?\n4. Wyznaczyć tygodniową, miesięczną i kwartalną stopę oprocentowania prostego dla stopy nominalnej (rocznej) wynoszącej r = 0,16.\nnom\n5. Przez piętnaście lat na koniec roku dokonywane były wpłaty na rachunek oprocentowany według stopy efektywnej wynoszącej: 6%\n– przez początkową dekadę, i 4% – przez następne lata. Każda z pierwszych pięciu wpłat była równa 670 j.m., a każda z następnych dziesięciu 850 j.m. Jaką kwotę zgromadzono na koncie bankowym na koniec piętnastego roku?\n6. Zwycięzcy telewizyjnego turnieju zaproponowano wybór jednej z nagród:\n1. 1000 j.m. obecnie;\n\n2. 1700 j.m. po upływie trzech lat;\n3. po 500 j.m. płatnych na koniec kolejnych trzech lat;\n4. 300 j.m. płatnych obecnie i na koniec kolejnych trzech lat kwot\n330 j.m., 360 j.m. i 390 j.m.\nKtórą z nagród powinien wybrać zwycięzca, jeżeli w ciągu najbliższych trzech lat prognozowana roczna stopa procentowa ma wynosić 18%? [2].\n7. W Banku Serca Polski oprocentowanie wkładów oszczędnościowych podlegało zmianie trzy razy w ciągu roku. W pierwszym kwartale obowiązywała nominalna stopa procentowa w wysokości\n15%, w drugim kwartale było to już 28%, a w drugim półroczu –\n13%. Wyznaczyć wartość konta na koniec roku, na którym inwestor miał w dniu 1 stycznia 3000 j.m. Jaka była przeciętna stopa oprocentowania rocznego dla tej inwestycji?\n8. W dniu 1 lutego 1993 klient umieścił na lokacie terminowej w Banku Kresowym roku swoje oszczędności w kwocie 2000 j.m. Wybrał proponowaną przez Bank dwuletnią lokatę o oprocentowaniu zmiennym z odsetkami naliczanymi w sposób prosty. Gdy wpłacał pieniądze, roczna stopa oprocentowania tej lokaty wynosiła 36%.\nW ciągu kolejnych miesięcy Bank zmieniał stopę, obniżając ją 1 maja 1993 roku do 34%, 1 stycznia 1994 do 30%, 1 lipca 1994 do\n25% oraz 1 stycznia 1995 do 22%. Po upływie dwóch lat, 1 lutego\n1995 roku, klient wycofał wpłaconą kwotę wraz z należnymi odsetkami. Bank Kresowy liczy dni w sposób dokładny i zakłada rok o długości 365 dni.\nObliczyć\n1. jaką kwotę otrzymał klient po dwóch latach?\n2. ile wyniosła przeciętna stopa procentowa?\n9. Jako klient Bank of Western Texas Chuck Norris ulokował w nim 1 lutego 1993 roku swoje oszczędności w wysokości 50000$, na lokacie terminowej. Wybrał proponowaną przez Bank dwuletnią lokatę o oprocentowaniu zmiennym z odsetkami naliczanymi w sposób prosty. Gdy wpłacał pieniądze, roczna stopa oprocentowania tej lokaty wynosiła 36%. W ciągu kolejnych miesięcy Bank zmieniał\n\nstopę, obniżając ją 1 maja 1993 roku do 34%, 1 stycznia 1994 do\n30%, 1 lipca 1994 do 25% oraz 1 stycznia 1995 do 22%. Po upływie dwóch lat, 1 lutego 1995 roku, Chuck wycofał wpłaconą kwotę wraz z należnymi odsetkami. Bank of Western Texas liczy dni w sposób dokładny i stosuje rok o długości 365 dni.\n1. Jaką kwotę otrzymał Chuck po dwóch latach?\n2. Ile wyniosła przeciętna stopa procentowa? [2].\n10. Rodzeństwo w wieku 8, 10 i 15 lat odziedziczyło w spadku kwotę\n1000000 j.m. złożoną w banku, w którym kapitalizacja odsetek odbywa się raz w roku z dołu, a roczna stopa oprocentowania lokat jest stała i wynosi 5%. Wolą spadkodawcy było, by każdemu z dzieci w chwili ukończenia dwudziestego pierwszego roku życia bank wypłacił taką samą kwotę. Obliczyć sumy, jakie przypadły dzieciom w kwocie spadkowej w chwili uruchomienia procedury.\n11. Właściciel firmy budowlanej otrzymuje zapytania ofertowe dotyczące realizacji różnych inwestycji. Przedsiębiorca ma możliwość wyboru jednego spośród trzech wariantów realizacji projektów w okresie najbliższych trzech lat, w których uzyska następujące przychody:\n1. 190000 j.m. dziś, 140000 j.m. za rok i 200000 j.m. po trzech latach;\n2. 240000 j.m. dziś i 260000 j.m. za dwa lata;\n3. 180000 j.m. dziś i 360000 j.m. po trzech latach.\nKtóry wariant powinien wybrać przedsiębiorca, jeżeli roczne oprocentowanie złożone lokat wynosi obecnie 7% i można przewidywać, że nie zmieni się w najbliższych latach? Należy przyjąć, że sytuacja ta ma miejsce w państwie, w którym nie ma podatku od zysków kapitałowych.\n12. Zakon Szpitala Najświętszej Marii Panny Domu Niemieckiego w Jerozolimie, w którym Ulrich von Jungingen pełnił funkcję Wielkiego\nMistrza, zdając sobie sprawę z nieuchronności wojny z Polską, odkładał talary w banku biskupim w Trewirze. W dniu 28 lutego\n\n1408 roku Ulrich miał na swoim rachunku bankowym 11000 j.m.\n(talarów). W okresie od 1 marca do 31 marca dokonał czterech wpłat na konto: 3200 talarów – 7 marca, 2000 talarów – 19 marca,\n3000 talarów – 23 marca i 2300 talarów – 28 marca oraz jednej wypłaty: 16000 talarów – 1 marca. Bankier dopisuje odsetki na koniec każdego miesiąca i w przypadku dodatniego salda są one równe 7% według stopy nominalnej, a przy saldzie ujemnym obciąża klienta odsetkami przy stopie równej 15%. Czas liczony jest jako dokładna liczba dni w roku liczącym 365 dni. Obliczyć odsetki należne Ulrichowi von Jungingen za marzec 1408 roku – wiedząc, że w Trewirze obowiązywał 17% podatek od zysków kapitałowych.\n13. Piotr zdecydował, że przez dwa lata, począwszy od 1 stycznia 1996 roku, do 31 grudnia 1997 roku będzie odkładał na lokacie co kwartał po 3000 j.m. Zebrał oferty czterech banków, dotyczące warunków oprocentowania lokat:\n1. Bank A oferuje comiesięczną kapitalizację przy nominalnej stopie rocznej r = 0,12.\nA\n2. Bank B proponuje klientom oprocentowanie złożone przy podokresowej stopie równoważnej rocznej efektywnej stopie procentowej r = 0,165.\nB\n3. Bank C oferuje oprocentowanie składane przy kwartalnej stopie procentowej proporcjonalnej do nominalnej rocznej stopy procentowej wynoszącej r = 0165.\nC\n4. Bank D kapitalizuje odsetki na koniec roku, a od wpłat uiszczanych w ciągu roku nalicza odsetki proste, opierając się w obu przypadkach na stopie procentowej r = 0,17.\nD\nKtórą z ofert powinien wybrać Piotr, aby uzyskać możliwie największą kwotę na koniec trwania inwestycji?\n14. Bank stosuje roczne nominalne stopy procentowe dla lokat pieniężnych według zasady:\n1. lokaty kwartalne – 15%;\n2. lokaty półroczne – 17%;\n3. lokaty roczne – 18%.\n\nOdsetki dopisywane są do kapitału po deklarowanym okresie trwania lokaty. Niepodjęcie kapitału wraz z upływem ustalonego wcześniej okresu jest równoważne jego wpłacie na następny taki sam okres. Wybrać najkorzystniejszy wariant ulokowania kwoty 5000 j.m. na dwa lata. Jakie straty poniósłby właściciel kapitału przy wyborze najgorszego wariantu?\n1.3. Akumulacja ciągła\nAnalizując procesy akumulacji, zakładaliśmy dotąd, że wzorcowym okresem akumulacji – okresem bazowym – jest rok, przy czym zmienna t wyrażała wtedy liczbę lat. W sytuacji, gdy interesuje nas okres krótszy niż rok i jest on 1 –tą tego okresu, przy m ∈ N , to zgodnie z wcześniejm + szymi obserwacjami dotyczącymi akumulacji złożonej akumulacja ciągła\n– oznaczymy ją przez A – będzie funkcją graniczną dla akumulacji ct złożonej, przy liczbie okresów kapitalizacji m dążącej do nieskończoności.\nRozpocznijmy od modelu dyskretnego, dotyczącego kapitalizacji złożonej.\nW takim przypadku r m t\nA (t) =df [(1+ ) ] , c m a przy niewielkiej modyfikacji ostatniego zapisu mamy, że r m r rt\nA (t) = [(1+ ) ] .\nc m\nOdwołując się do własności ciągu Eulera e (historycznie w literaturze pierwszym jego oznaczeniem było {e } ), ciągu o wyrazie ogólnym n n∈N\n+ n e = (1+ ) , n n otrzymujemy r m r rt\nA (t) = lim A (t) = lim [(1+ ) ] = ct m→∞ c m→∞ m\n\nm rt\n⎡ 1 r ⎤\n= m li → m ∞ A c (t) = m li → m ∞ ⎢(1+ m ) ⎥ = ert.\n⎣ r ⎦\nPrzyjmując δ = ln(1+r), dostajemy A (t) = eδt . W ten sposób, przy ct założeniu niezmienności w czasie stopy zwrotu (czyli w przypadku szczególnym stopy procentowej), otrzymujemy model ciągły akumulacji. W literaturze wielkość δ nazywana jest intensywnością oprocentowania. Jeśli\nδ okaże się być funkcją czasu, będziemy o niej mówić jako o chwilowej stopie procentowej. Funkcja dyskonta ma w ciągłych procesach akumulacji postać\n⎧ { D ct ∶ [0;+∞),\n⎨ (1.8)\n{ ⎩ D ct (t) = e−rt.\nJeśli w przedziale czasu [t;t+h] wielkość płatności w chwili t wynosi\nρ(t), to przy odpowiednio małym h > 0 płatność w przedziale czasu\n[t;t+h] wynosi h⋅ρ(t). Funkcję ρ argumentu t nazywamy gęstością płatności. Przy h → 0+ płatność przypadająca na chwilę t jest równa ρ(t)dt. Intuicyjnie gęstość płatności można rozumieć jako prędkość zmian strumienia kapitału w bardzo krótkich odcinkach czasu. Przy gęstości strumienia płatności równej ρ(t) w chwili t nominalna wielkość płatności w przedziale [0;T] jest równa\nT\nM(T) =df ∫ ρ(t)dt. (1.9)\nZ powodu zmiany wartości pieniądza w czasie można wyznaczyć wartość obecną strumienia płatności w postaci\nT\nPV = ∫ ρ(t)v(t)dt, (1.10) pod warunkiem, że ostatnia całka jest zbieżna. Ponadto\nT 1\nPV = PV(0) = ∫ ρ(t) dt.\nA(t)\n\nNatomiast u nas wartość przyszła FV(T) ciągłego strumienia wpłat jest równa [1, 4]\nT\nFV(T) = ∫ ρ(t)A(0;T)dt.\n1.3.1. Ćwiczenia\nA ∶ R → R,\n1. Niech dana będzie funkcja { +\nA(t) = t2+2t+3.\n1. Pokazać, że A jest funkcją akumulacji.\n2. Znaleźć funkcję oprocentowania kapitału jednostkowego α odpowiadającą funkcji akumulacji A. Dla n ∈ N wyznaczyć\n+\nI .\nn\n2. Wyprowadzić formułę na liczbę rat n potrzebnych do osiągnięcia wartości końcowej FV renty, gdy ustalona rata X jest znana, a stopa procentowa w całym okresie życia renty jest stała i równa r.\n3. Wyprowadzić zależność określającą czas trwania lokaty w kwocie K = K(0) potrzebny do jej podwojenia, jeśli stopa nominalna procentowa jest stała i równa r.\n4. Znaleźć moment (punkt), w którym różnica między funkcją akumulacji oprocentowania prostego, a funkcją akumulacji oprocentowania złożonego (przy tej samej stopie bazowej) jest największa.\n5. Czy z równoważności kapitałów o nominalnej wartości K 1 w chwili t oraz K w chwili t wynika równoważność kapitałów o nominal-\n1 2 2 nej wartości λK oraz λK w momentach odpowiednio t oraz t\n1 2 1 2 przy λ ∈ R ? Odpowiedź uzasadnić.\n+\n6. Czy z równoważności kapitałów o nominalnej wartości K 1 w chwili t oraz K w chwili t wynika równoważność kapitałów o nominal-\n1 2 2 nej wartości K +α oraz K +α w momentach odpowiednio t oraz\n1 2 1 t przy α ∈ R ? Odpowiedź uzasadnić.\n2 +\n7. Niech A będzie funkcją akumulacji z okresowym dopisywaniem procentu, zgodną oraz taką, że r = A(1)−1. Pokazać, że następujące warunki są równoważne:\n\n1. funkcja A jest funkcją oprocentowania prostego z okresową kapitalizacją odsetek;\n2. dla n ∈ N funkcja akumulacji A spełnia następujące równanie rekurencyjne\nA(n) = A(n−1)+r;\n3. kwota odsetek funkcji akumulacji A jest stała we wszystkich okresach bazowych, czyli:\nA(n)−A(n−1) = A(1)−A(0);\n4. funkcja akumulacji A spełnia zależność:\nA (t +t ) = A (t )A (t )\n1 1 2 1 1 1 2 dla dowolnych t ,t ∈ R, zaś funkcja akumulacji A spełnia\n1 2 2 zależność\nA(t +t ) = A(t )+A(t )−1\n1 2 1 2 dla dowolnych t ,t ∈ R. Ponadto A (10) = A (10) = 15.\n1 2 1 2\nδ (5)\nWyznaczyć 1 , gdzie δ i δ są funkcjami intensywności opro-\n1 2\nδ (5) centowania odpowiednio funkcji A i A . Podać przybliżoną war-\n1 2 tość.\n8. Sformułować definicję renty arytmetycznej oraz renty geometrycznej.\n9. Przedstawić metodę zaburzeń i z jej pomocą wyznaczyć formułę na wartość obecną renty arytmetycznej, gdy w okresie życia takiej renty obowiązuje stała stopa procentowa i, a stały związany z nią czynnik dyskontujący jest równy v = .\n1+r\n10. Czy odsetki narosłe w przypadku akumulacji prostej podlegają kapitalizacji?\n11. Sformułować definicję dyskonta oraz omówić powody, dla których różni się ono od odsetek.\n\n12. Czym jest stopa dyskontowa (dyskonta handlowego) i czym się różni od stopy procentowej?\n13. Czy w modelu akumulacji prostej stosunek odsetek do wartości początkowej jest rosnącą funkcją liniową czasu?\n14. Przyjmijmy, że I j oznacza wartość odsetek za j-ty rok, jeżeli j ∈\n{1,2,...,n} generowanych przez kapitał K przy kapitalizacji rocznej i stopie r > 0. Wykazać, że n\n∑I = K[(1+r)n−1].\nj j=1\n15. Jaka jest moc zbioru rozwiązań równania A s (t) = A c (t)?\n16. Sformułować zasadę równoważności stóp procentowych.\n17. Na czym polega reguła bankowa obliczania czasu, jaki upłynął między dwiema datami?\n1.3.2. Przykłady\n1. Stopa procentowa w procesie kapitalizacji półrocznej wynosi r(2) =\n10%. Wyznaczyć równoważną jej stopę oprocentowania ciągłego.\nRozwiązanie. Przypuśćmy, że δ oznacza intensywność oprocenr(n) towania przy akumulacji ciągłej, podczas gdy = r oznacza n stopę w jednym podokresie, gdzie n jest liczbą podokresów w okresie bazowym. Z zasady równoważności stóp procentowych wynika wówczas, że r n\nKeδ = K ⋅(1+ ) , n a w konsekwencji:\nr n eδ = (1+ ) , n lub równoważnie po zlogarytmowaniu:\nr n r\nδ = ln(1+ ) = nln(1+ ), n n\n\na także\nδ r = n(en −1).\nW tym konkretnym przypadku mamy:\n0,1\nδ = 2ln(1+ ) = 0,09758 ≃ 9,76%.\nZatem stopą akumulacji ciągłej równoważną stopie r(2) = 10% jest stopa δ = 9,76%. □\n2. Bank udziela pożyczki przy rocznej stopie procentowej z kapitalizacją ciągłą i odsetkami płaconymi co kwartał. Wyznaczyć wysokość odsetek kwartalnych.\nRozwiązanie. Dla wygody wyznaczmy kwartalną stopę procentową, bo w oparciu o nią będzie nam łatwo wyliczyć kwotę odsetek.\nZ zależności\nδ r = n(en −1), otrzymujemy\n0,08 r = 4(e 4 −1) = 0,0808 ≃ 8,08%.\nDlatego też kwartalna stopa procentowa wynosi\n0,0808\n= 0,0202 = 2,02%.\nJeśli zatem kapitał na początku kwartału wynosił K, to wysokość odsetek będzie równa 0,0202⋅K. □\n3. Patrycjusz postanowił zainwestować kapitał K na dwa lata. Bank przedstawił mu dwie oferty:\n1. w ofercie I zagwarantowano efektywną roczną stopę zwrotu\n15% w każdym roku trwania inwestycji;\n2. w ofercie II zagwarantowano, że intensywność oprocentowania\n(force of interest) δ będzie wynosić δ(t) = 1 t w ciągu całego okresu trwania inwestycji.\n\nPatrycjusz zdecydował, że kwotę αK zainwestuje, korzystając z oferty I, oraz kwotę (1−α)K, korzystając z oferty II. Po dwóch latach inwestor posiadał kwotę K(2) = 200000 j.m. Wiadomo poza tym, że gdyby inwestor zainwestował kwotę 2αK, korzystając z oferty\nI, oraz kwotę (1−2α)K, korzystając z oferty II, to po dwóch latach miałby 205000 j.m. Jaka była kwota K zainwestowana przez\nPatrycjusza?\nRozwiązanie. Dla porządku zauważmy, że e ∫ 0 1 1 0 sds = e [ 2 1 0 t2] 2 0 = e0,2.\nTeraz wykorzystajmy dane z zadania. Dostajemy na ich podstawie układ równań\nαK(1+0,15)2+(1−α)Ke0,2 = 200000,\n{\n2αK(1+0,15)2+(1−2α)Ke0,2 = 205000.\nMnożąc pierwsze z równań przez 2 i wykonując działania, dostajemy równoważny układ równań\n2αK(1,15)2+2Ke0,2−2αKe0,2 = 400000,\n{\n2αK(1,15)2+Ke0,2−2αKe0,2 = 205000.\nPo odjęciu od pierwszego równania równania drugiego otrzymujemy:\nKe0,2 = 195000,\n195000 a stąd już mamy K = ≃ 160000. □ e0,2\n4. Przypuśćmy, że bank oferuje lokatę z oprocentowaniem rocznym\n4%. Obliczymy kwotę końcową tej inwestycji po roku przy założeniu, że zdeponowaliśmy 1 000 j.m., a kapitalizacja jest:\n1. roczna;\n2. półroczna;\n3. kwartalna;\n4. miesięczna;\n5. tygodniowa;\n\n6. dzienna;\n7. godzinowa;\n8. minutowa;\n9. sekundowa.\nRozwiązanie. Niech n oznacza liczbę okresów kapitalizacji występujących w okresie bazowym, podczas gdy K (1) kwotę wypłaty n po roku trwania inwestycji.\nn K (1) n\n1 1040,000\n2 1040,400\n4 1040,604\n12 1040,742\n52 1040,795\n365 1040,808\n8760 1040,811\n525600 1040,811\n31536000 1040,811\nOd przejścia na godzinowe oprocentowanie przy zainwestowanej kwocie równej 1000 j.m. wynik końcowy nie różni się już do trzeciego miejsca po przecinku. Oznacza to, że ciąg wyników jest zbieżny – i to dość szybko – do liczby 1040,811, tak też powinno być w +∞. Tymczasem, przyjmując δ = r = 0,04 dostajemy K (1) =\n∞\n1000⋅e0,04 ≃ 1040,811. □\n−1\n5. Rozważmy funkcję akumulacji A 1 (t) = (1+t) t z intensywnością oprocentowania δ (t) oraz funkcję akumulacji A , dla której\n1 2 intensywność oprocentowania δ (t) w chwili t wyraża się zależnością\n2α+2t+1\nδ (t) = .\n2 (α+t)(α+t+1)\nWyznaczyć efektywną stopę procentową pomiędzy chwilami n oraz n+1 dla funkcji akumulacji dla A (t), gdy\nα = lim δ (t).\nt→∞\n\nRozwiązanie. Mamy t\n∫ δ (s)ds\n1 −1\nA (t) = e0 = (1+t) t.\nZ tego powodu t\n−1\n∫ δ (s)ds = ln(1+t) t, a w konsekwencji d 1 1 1\nδ (t) = [− ln(1+t)] = ln(1+t)− .\n1 dt t t2 t(1+t)\nPrzechodząc do granicy, dostajemy\n1 1 lim δ (t) = lim [ ln(1+t)− ] = t→∞ 1 t→∞ t2 t(t+1) ln(1+t) 1\n= lim −0 =H lim = 0.\nt→∞ t2 t→∞ 2t(t+1)\nDla danych z zadania mamy zatem α = lim δ (t) = 0. W rezultacie t→∞ otrzymujemy równość\n2t+1\nδ (t) = .\n2 t(t+1)\nSkoro t\n∫ δ (s)ds\nA (t) = e0 , to t\n2s+1 2s+1\n∫ ds ∣ = ∣ s(s+1) ∣ s(s+1) ∣\nA (t) = e0 = ∣ ∣ =\n2 ∣ 1 1 ∣\n∣ = + ∣\n∣ s s+1 ∣ t\n1 1\n∫ ( + )ds s s+1 [lns+ln(s+1)] t\n= e0 = e 0 =\n= e ln[s(s+1)]|t\n0 = eln[t(t+1)]\n= t(t+1).\n\nDostajemy stąd, że\nA (n+1) (n+1)(n+2) n+2\n2 = = .\nA (n) n(n+1) n\nZgodnie z poleceniem mamy wyznaczyć efektywną stopę procentową pomiędzy chwilami n i n+1 dla funkcji akumulacji dla A (t)\nA (n+1)−A(n) r (n;n+1) = 2 = ef A(n)\nA (n+1) n+2 2\n= n −1 = −1 = . □\nA (n) n n\n6. Funkcje akumulacji A 1 i A 2 dla dowolnych t 1 ,t 2 ∈ R spełniają układ równości:\nA (t +t ) = A (t )A (t ),\n{ 1 1 2 1 1 1 2\nA (t +t ) = A (t )+A (t )−1.\n2 1 2 2 1 2 2\nWiadomo ponadto, że A (10) = A (10) = 15.\n1 2\nWiedząc, że δ i δ są funkcjami intensywności oprocentowania\n1 2 odpowiednio dla funkcji akumulacji A i A , wyznaczyć przybliżoną\n1 2\nδ (5) wartość ilorazu .\nδ (5)\nRozwiązanie. Warunek zgodności dla funkcji akumulacji A 1 (funkcji akumulacji złożonej) prowadzi do obserwacji\nA (n) = A (1⏟⏟+⏟1⏟+...⏟⏟+⏟1) = [A (1)]n = An(1).\n1 1 1 1 n−składników\nWynika stąd, że A (10) = A10(1) = 15, co prowadzi do wyniku\n1 1\nA (1) = 1√0 15.\nW rezultacie n\nA (n) = (15 0,1 ) = 150,1⋅n i dalej\nA (t) = 150,1⋅t.\n\nZ kolei dla funkcji akumulacji A – funkcji akumulacji prostej – warunek zgodności daje nam zależność\nA (n) = A (1⏟⏟+⏟1⏟+...⏟⏟+⏟1) =\n2 2 n−składników\n= (A⏟2⏟(⏟1)⏟+⏟⏟A 2⏟(⏟1)+⏟...⏟⏟+⏟A⏟2⏟(1⏟))−(n−1) = nA\n(1)−(n−1).\nn−składnik\nStąd dla n = 10 mamy\nA (10) = 10A (1)−9 = 15\n2 2 i dalej\nA (1) = 2,4.\nDla n = t jest\nA (t) = A (1)⋅t−(t−1) = 2,4t−(t−1) = 1,4t+1.\n2 2\nPoza tym t t\n∫ δ (s)ds ∫ δ (s)ds\n1 2\nA (t) = e0 oraz A (t) = e0\n1 2 i dalej po zlogarytmowaniu:\nt t lnA (t) = ∫ δ (s)ds oraz lnA (t) = ∫ δ (s)ds.\n1 1 2 2\n0 0\nRóżniczkując, otrzymujemy:\nA′(t) A′(t)\nδ (t) = 1 oraz δ (t) = 2 ,\n1 A (t) 2 A (t)\n1 2 a zatem\n150,1t⋅0,1⋅ln15\nδ (t) = = 0,1⋅ln15\n1 150,1t oraz\n1, 4\nδ (t) = .\n2 1,4t+1\n\nOstatecznie mamy\nδ\n(5)\n=\n0,1⋅ln15\n=\n0,1⋅ln15\n=\n0,8⋅ln15\n=\nδ (5) 1,4 1,4 1,4\n1,4⋅5+1 8\n4 □\n= ln15 ≈ 1,5474573 ≃ 1,55.\n7. Funkcja intensywności oprocentowania w chwili t 2 dla kwoty zainwestowanej w chwili t przy 0 ⩽ t ⩽ t przyjmuje wartość\n1 1 2\nδ(t ;t) = . Funkcja A(t ,t ) jest funkcją akumulacji\n1 1+t +t 1 2 w chwili t kwoty zainwestowanej w chwili t . Wyznaczyć różni-\n2 1 cę A(1;4)−[A(1;2)⋅A(2;4)] – (różnica między akumulacją bez reinwestycji i z reinwestycją).\nRozwiązanie. W tym zadaniu rzecz sprowadza się do wyznaczenia wartości funkcji akumulacji w oparciu o daną funkcję intensywności oprocentowania. Z treści zadania mamy\nδ(t ;t) = ,\n1 1+t +t stąd\n4 4\n∫ 1 dt ∫ 1 dt\nA(1;4) = e1 1+1+t = e1 2+t = eln(2+t)|4 1 = eln6−ln3 = eln2 = 2.\nPodobnie\n2 4\nA(1;2) = e ∫ 1 1+ 1 1+t dt = e ∫ 1 2 1 +t dt = eln(2+t)|4 1 = eln4−ln3 = eln4 3 = 4 , a także\n4 4\nA(2;4) = e ∫ 2 1+ 1 2+t dt = e ∫ 2 3 1 +t dt = eln(3+t)|4 2 = eln7−ln5 = eln 7 5 = 7 .\nW ten sposób uzyskujemy odpowiedź\n4 7 30−28 2\nA(1;4)−[A(1;2)⋅A(2;4)] = 2− ⋅ = = .\n3 5 15 15\n\n□\n8. Funkcja intensywności oprocentowania ma postać\n1 1\nδ(t) = + .\nt+1 1+2e2t\nObliczyć efektywną stopę zwrotu w piątym roku trwania inwestycji, tzn. w okresie od t = 4,0 do t = 5,0.\nRozwiązanie. Mamy\n∫( 1 + 3 )dt i = A(4;5)−1 = e4 t+1 1+2e2t\n−1 = ef\n5 5 5 5\n∫ 1 dt+∫ 3 dt ∫ 1 dt ∫ 3 dt\n= e4 t+1\n1+2e2t\n−1 = e4 t+1\n⋅e4\n1+2e2t\n−1.\nPoliczmy potrzebne całki:\n5 1 5 6\n[4;5]\nI = ∫ dt = ln|t+1|∣ = ln6−ln5 = ln\n1 t+1 5\n4 4 oraz\n5 3 5 3et\n[4;5]\nI = ∫ dt = ∫ dt =\n2 1+2e2t et+2e3t\n4 4\n∣ u = et ∣\n∣ ∣\n∣ t 4 5 ∣\n∣ ∣ u e4 e5\n∣ ∣\n∣ ∣\n∣ du = etdt ∣ e5 e5\n∣ ∣ 3 6u\n= ∣ ∣ = ∫ du−∫ du =\n∣\n∣\n3etdt\n=\n3du ∣\n∣ e4 u e4 2u2+1\n∣ e3t+et u(2u2+1) ∣\n∣ ∣\n∣ ∣\n∣ 3 3 6u ∣\n∣ = − ∣\n∣ u(2u2+1) u 2u2+1 ∣ e5 e5\n= 3ln|u|∣ − ln(2u2+1)∣ = e4 e4\n3 3\n= 3(lne5−lne4)− ln(2e10+1)+ ln(2e8+1) =\n2 2\n\n3 2e8+1 3 2e8+1\n= 15−12+ ln = 3+ ln .\n2 2e10+1 2 2e10+1\nW rezultacie otrzymujemy e I 1 [4;5]+I 2 [4;5] −1 = e I 1 [4;5] ⋅e I 2 [4;5] −1 = eln 6 5 ⋅e 3+3 2 ln 2 2 e e 1 8 0 + + 1 1 −1 =\n6 ln( 2e8+1 ) 3 2 6 2e8+1 3 2\n= ⋅e3⋅e 2e10+1 = ⋅e3⋅( ) ≃ 0,2 = 20%. □\n5 5 2e10+1\n9. Rachunek oszczędnościowy został założony w chwili t 0 = 0 z początkową wpłatą w wysokości 1 j.m. Na rachunek funduszu dokonywane są w każdej chwili t ∈ R wpłaty, odbywające się w sposób ciągły,\n+ z roczną intensywnością ρ(t) = (1+t)ln(1+t). Ciągła intensywność oprocentowania środków na rachunku wynosi δ(t) = .\n1+t\nWyznaczyć zakumulowaną wartość środków w chwili t = 6,75.\n[Z3.EA10.10.05.]\nRozwiązanie. Stan konta tworzą dwa składniki: wartość zakumulowanej 1 j.m. wpłaconej na początku inwestycji oraz wartość ciągłego procesu wpłat o intensywności\nρ(t) = (1+t)ln(1+t), przy czym oba składniki wyznaczane są w kontekście intensywności oprocentowania równej δ(t) = 1 . Tym samym mamy\n1+t\nK(t ) = K (t )+K (t ),\n∗ 1 ∗ 2 ∗ gdzie t∗\n∫ δ(t)dt\nK (t ) = 1⋅A(t ) = e0\n1 ∗ ∗ oraz t t\n∗ −∫ δ(s)ds\nK (t ) = A(t )⋅∫ ρ(t)e 0 dt,\n2 ∗ ∗\n\nzatem t t\n∗ −∫ δ(s)ds\nK(t ) = A(t )+A(t )⋅∫ ρ(t)e 0 dt =\n∗ ∗ ∗ t t\n⎡ ∗ −∫ δ(s)ds ⎤\n= A(t\n∗\n)⎢1+∫ ρ(t)e 0 dt⎥.\n⎣ 0 ⎦\nMamy równocześnie, że t∗\n∫ 1 dt t∗\nA(t ) = e0 1+t = e ln(1+t)∣ 0 = eln(1+t ∗ )−ln1 = eln(1+t ∗ ) = 1+t .\n∗ ∗\nPonadto t t\n∗ ∗\n∫ ρ(t)e−∫ ρ(s)dsdt = ∫ [(1+t)ln(1+t)]e−[ln(1+t)−ln1]dt =\n0 0 t\n∗\n= ∫ [(1+t)ln(1+t)]e−ln(1+t)dt = t\n∗ ln 1\n= ∫ [(1+t)ln(1+t)]e 1+tdt = t t\n∗ 1 ∗\n= ∫ [(1+t)ln(1+t)] dt = ∫ ln(1+t)dt =\n1+t\n0 0\n∣ f′(t) = 1, g(t) = ln(1+t) ∣\n∣ ∣\n= ∣ ∣ =\n∣ ∣ f(t) = t, g′(t) = 1 ∣ ∣\n1+t t t ∗\n= [tln(1+t)−∫ dt] =\n1+t t\n1+t 1 ∗\n= [tln(1+t)−∫( − )dt] =\n1+t 1+t t t ∗\n= [tln(1+t)−∫dt+∫ dt] =\n1+t t t\n∗ ∗\n= [tln(1+t)−t+ln(1+t)] = [(1+t)ln(1+t)−t] =\n0 0\n\n= (1+t )ln(1+t )−t −1⋅ln1+0 = (1+t )ln(1+t )−t .\n∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗\nW konsekwencji\nK(t ) = (1+t )⋅[(1+t )ln(1+t )−t ],\n∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ a w przypadku t = 6,75 otrzymujemy\n∗\n□\nK(6,75) = 7,75[7,75ln(7,75)−6,5] = 78,427051.\n10. Stopa procentowa przy kapitalizacji półrocznej wynosi i(2) = 0,10.\nWyznaczyć równoważną stopę oprocentowania ciągłego.\nRozwiązanie. Niech symbol δ oznacza stopę procentową przy akui(n) mulacji ciągłej, natomiast = i będzie oznaczać stopę w jednym n podokresie, gdzie n jest liczbą podokresów w okresie bazowym.\nNa mocy zasady równoważności stóp procentowych mamy w tej sytuacji i n\nKeδ = K ⋅(1+ ) , n a w konsekwencji r n eδ = (1+ ) n lub równoważnie po zlogarytmowaniu i n i\nδ = ln(1+ ) = nln(1+ ) n n oraz\nδ r = n(en −1).\nW tym konkretnym przypadku otrzymujemy:\n0,1\nδ = 2ln(1+ ) = 0,09758 ≃ 9,76%.\nStopą akumulacji ciągłej równoważną stopie i(2) = 10% jest stopa\nδ = 9,76%. □\n\n11. Bank udziela pożyczki przy rocznej stopie procentowej i = 0,08, z kapitalizacją ciągłą i odsetkami płaconymi co kwartał. Wyznaczyć wysokość odsetek kwartalnych.\nRozwiązanie. Dla wygody wyznaczmy kwartalną stopę procentową, bo w oparciu o nią będzie nam łatwo wyliczyć kwotę odsetek.\nZ zależności\nδ i = n(en −1) mamy\n0,08 i = 4(e 4 −1) = 0,0808 ≃ 8,08%, zatem kwartalna stopa procentowa wynosi\n0,0808\n= 0,0202 = 2,02%.\nJeśli więc kapitał na początku kwartału wyniósł K, to odsetki będą równe I(0,25) = 0,0202⋅K. □\n1.3.3. Zadania do samodzielnego rozwiązania\n1. Pan Ryszard jest gońcem w firmie XeNoV. Przełożony nakazał mu wpłacić do banku 1000000 j.m. i wpłacić je na konto firmy. Bank stosuje oprocentowanie ciągłe z roczną stopą procentową 16%. Pan\nRyszard pobrał pieniądze o godzinie 8∶00 rano, a o 9∶00 wpłacił na swoje prywatne konto w tym samym banku, po czym o godz. 19∶00 wypłacił pieniądze ze swego konta i wpłacił na konto firmy. O jaką kwotę wzbogacił się tym sposobem pan Ryszard?\n2. James Bond postanowił podzielić premię od Jej Królewskiej Mości za sprawne wykonanie zadania na cztery równe części i każdą z kwot w wysokości K wpłacił do czterech banków. Każdy z nich stosuje nominalną roczną stopę procentową 25%, przy czym pierwszy stosuje oprocentowanie proste, drugi składane kwartalne, trzeci składane miesięczne, a czwarty ciągłe. Po jakim czasie kwota zainwestowana przez Bonda podwoi się w każdym z tych banków?\n3. Roch, miłośnik klasyków motoryzacji, upatrzył sobie Jaguara XJ\nLX358, jednak do ceny zakupu brakuje mu 50000 j.m. Właściciel\n\nsamochodu zgodził się zaczekać pół roku ze sprzedażą, aż Roch zbierze brakującą kwotę. Jaką kwotę Roch musi zainwestować, by przy stopie procentowej 20% zebrać brakujące 50000 j.m., jeśli:\n1. oprocentowanie jest proste,\n2. oprocentowanie jest kwartalne składane,\n3. oprocentowanie jest miesięczne składane,\n4. oprocentowanie jest ciągłe?\n4. Xawery inwestuje kwotę 1000 j.m. na okres jednego roku przy natężeniu oprocentowania δ(t) = e−t2\n. Ile wynosi wartość kapitału wraz z odsetkami na koniec okresu inwestycji, w zaokrągleniu do\n50 j.m.? [Z1.EA24.13.01.]\n5. W funduszu A natężenie oprocentowania wynosi δ A = t+ 1 1 , a w funduszu B jest to δ = 2t . W chwili t = 0 inwestujemy 100000\nB t2+1 j.m. w każdy z funduszy. Wiedząc, że K (t) oraz K (t) oznaczają\nA B odpowiednio kwoty zgromadzone w funduszach A i B w chwili t, znaleźć tę wartość t, dla której funkcja\n⎧ { φ ∶ [0;+∞) → [0;+∞)\n⎨\n{ ⎩ φ(t) = K A (t)−K B (t) osiąga maksimum. [Z10.EA02.06.01.]\n6. Niech K Λ (t) oznacza wartość środków zgromadzonych w funduszu\nΛ w chwili t, gdzie t ∈ R . Wiadomo, że wartość środków zgroma-\n+ dzonych w funduszu A w chwili t ∈ R jest równa K (t) = 1+1√t,\n+ A 2 zaś w funduszu B jest to K (t) = 2+t. Wyznaczyć chwilę t , kie-\nB 0 dy natężenie oprocentowania w funduszu B będzie równe ⋅t\n3 0 natężenia funduszu A. [Z1.EA15.06.02.]\n7. Rachunek oszczędnościowy założono w chwili 0 bez początkowych wpłat. Następnie na rachunek dokonywane są w sposób ciągły wpłaty z roczną intensywnością ρ(t) w chwili t > 0. Ciągła intensywność oprocentowania środków na rachunku wynosi δ(t) =\n, zaś zakumulowana wartość funduszu w chwili t > 0 wynosi\n1+t\nK(t) = t(1+t). Wyznaczyć ρ(t). [Z5.EA05.12.05.]\n\n8. Rachunek oszczędnościowy założono w chwili 0 z początkową wpłatą w wysokości 1 j.m. Dalsze wpłaty na rachunek dokonywane są w sposób ciągły z roczną intensywnością równą\nρ(t) = (1+t)ln(1+t) w chwili t > 0. Ciągła intensywność oprocentowania środków na rachunku wynosi: δ(t) = . Ile wynosi zakumulowana wartość\n1+t środków w chwili t = 4,5? [Z3.EA10.10.05.]\n9. Rachunek oszczędnościowy założono w chwili t 0 = 0 z wpłatą początkową 1 j.m. Następnie wpłaty dokonywane są w sposób ciągły t z roczną intensywnością ρ(t) = K(t), gdzie K(t) oznacza war-\n1+t tość rachunku w chwili t > 0. Ciągła intensywność oprocentowania wynosi δ(t) = . Wyznaczyć wartość α, jeżeli K(1) = 2e.\n1+α+t\n[Z5.EA14.05.07.]\n10. Fundusz inwestycyjny został założony w chwili t 0 = 0 z wpłatą początkową równą 1 j.m. Stan funduszu w chwili t wynosi K(t).\nWpłaty na rachunek dokonywane są w sposób ciągły z roczną intensywnością ρ(t) = . Ciągła intensywność oprocentowania\n1+ 1\nK(t) środków na rachunku wynosi δ(t) = . Jaki jest stan fun-\n1+K(t) duszu w chwili t = 1? [Z6.EA15.120.08.]\n1.4. Stopy procentowe nominalna i efektywna\nRozpatrzmy przypadki dyskretne funkcji akumulacji, a więc funkcje akumulacji prostej oraz funkcje akumulacji złożonej [1, 4]. Różnica między nimi jest istotna, więc przy porównywaniu procesów akumulacji istotne jest wyraźne określenie rodzaju procesu. Jeśli wybieramy oprocentowanie proste, to proces ten prowadzi do nominalnej stopy procentowej, zaś w przypadku wyboru oprocentowania złożonego do efektywnej stopy procentowej.\n\nGdy proces bogactwa wyraża się zależnością\nK(t+h) = K(t)[1+h⋅r(t;h)], gdzie stopa zwrotu w odniesieniu do okresu bazowego wynosi r(t;h), to stopę tę nazywać będziemy stopą nominalną i definiować jako\nK(t+h)−K(t) K(t+h)−K(t) 1 r (t;h) =df = ⋅ . (1.11) nom h⋅K(t) h K(t)\nFunkcja akumulacji prostej, będąca już funkcją dwóch zmiennych – chwili początkowej t oraz długości przedziału trwania inwestycji lub inaczej przyrostu czasu oznaczanego przez h, ma teraz postać:\nA(t;h) = 1+h⋅r (t;h), nom w związku z czym\nA(t;h)−1 r (t;h) = . (1.12) nom h\nW szczególności, jeżeli h = 1, to h jest okresem bazowym i mamy zależności:\nK(t+1)−K(t) K(t+1)−K(t) r (t;1) = = nom 1⋅K(t) K(t) oraz r (t;1) = A(t;1)−1.\nnom\nJeśli wartość inwestycji opisuje formuła h\nK(t+h) = K(t)[1+r(t;h)] , gdzie stopa zwrotu odniesiona do okresu bazowego wynosi r(t;h), to stopę taką nazywać będziemy stopą efektywną i oznaczać ją symbolem r = r (t;h).\nef ef\nW takim przypadku mamy do czynienia z funkcją akumulacji złożonej opisaną równością:\nh\nA c (t;h) = [1+r ef (t;h)] , (1.13) a stąd\nK(t+h) r (t;h) =df h√A (t;h)−1 = h√ −1.\nef c K(t)\n\nIdąc tym samym tokiem rozumowania co poprzednio, ponieważ 1 + r (t;h) ⩾ 1 (dla dodatnich przyrostów czasu h), to 1+r (t;h) może ef ef być przy ustalonym h traktowane jako wartość pewnej funkcji wykładniczej argumentu t, czyli:\n1+r (t;h) = eδ(t;h), ef skąd dostajemy δ(t) = ln(1+r (t;h)). W takim zaś przypadku ef\nA (t;h) = ehδ(t;h) c oraz\nK(t;h) = K(t;0)ehδ(t;h), lub też w alternatywnym zapisie\nK(t+h) = K(t)ehδ(t;h).\nWartość funkcji δ dla argumentu (t;h), czyli liczbę δ(t;h), nazywamy efektywną intensywnością oprocentowania w przedziale [t;t+h].\nDla dowolnej chwili czasu t ∈ [0,+∞) zachodzą następujące warunki\n(zob. [1, 3]):\n⎧ r (t;h) < r (t;h), gdy h ∈ (0,1),\n{ nom ef\n{\n{\n⎨ r nom (t;h) = r ef (t;h), gdy h = 1, (1.14)\n{\n{\n{\n⎩ r nom (t;h) > r ef (t;h), gdy h ∈ (1,+∞).\n1.4.1. Ćwiczenia\n1. Czy przyjmując do opisu procesu bogactwa na dowolnym odcinku czasu raz funkcję akumulacji prostej, a raz złożonej, otrzymamy w każdym przypadku identyczny wynik?\n2. Co w perspektywie jednego roku wyraża efektywna stopa procentowa?\n3. Kiedy warunki oprocentowania składanego są równoważne?\n\n4. Sformułować definicję przeciętnej stopy procentowej przy oprocentowaniu prostym.\n5. Sformułować definicję przeciętnej stopy procentowej przy oprocentowaniu złożonym.\n6. Sformułować definicję przeciętnej stopy procentowej przy oprocentowaniu ciągłym.\n1.4.2. Przykłady\n1. Pani Kornelia złożyła 46000 j.m. na lokacie o miesięcznej kapitalizacji i oprocentowaniu złożonym. Przez 14 kolejnych miesięcy nie potrzebowała ulokowanych środków. Nominalne roczne oprocentowanie lokaty zmieniało się i było równe: 11% przez pierwsze cztery miesiące, 8% przez kolejnych osiem miesięcy oraz 6% w ostatnich dwóch miesiącach. Obliczyć:\n1. wielkość odsetek uzyskiwanych przez panią Kornelię po każdym z wyróżnionych trzech okresów oraz wartość kapitału wypłaconego jej po 14 miesiącach (z uwzględnieniem podatku od zysków kapitałowych w wysokości 19% w skali roku),\n2. roczną efektywną stopę oprocentowania tej lokaty,\n3. przeciętną miesięczną stopę oprocentowania tej lokaty.\nRozwiązanie. Ad 1. Rozpocznijmy od ustalenia najważniejszych faktów, gdzie liczby w nawiasach przy wartości zainwestowanej kwoty oznaczają miesiące, a ściślej ich końce.\nK(0) = 46000;\n0,11\nK(4) = 46000(1+ ) = 47710;\n4 8\n0,11 0,08\nK(12) = 46000(1+ ) ⋅(1+ ) = 50314,70;\n12 12\n4 8 2\n0,11 0,08 0,06\nK(14) = 46000[(1+ ) (1+ ) (1+ ) ] =\n12 12 12\n= 50819,10.\n\nStąd dalej\n0,11\nI(0;4) = K(4)−K(0) = 46000⋅[(1+ ) !−1]=1710;\nI(4;12) = K(12)−K(4) =\n4 8 4\n0,11 0,08 0,11\n= 46000⋅(1+ ) ⋅(1+ ) −46000⋅(1+ ) =\n12 12 12\n4 8\n0,11 0,08\n= 46000⋅(1+ ) [(1+ ) −1] =\n12 12\n0,08\n= 47710,00[(1+ ) −1] = 2604,70;\nI(12;14) = K(14)−K(12) =\n4 8 2\n0,11 0,08 0,06\n= 46000(1+ ) (1+ ) [(1+ ) −1] =504,40.\n12 12 12\nMiesięczna stopa procentowa podatku od zysków kapitałowych wyniesie r(12) = 0,19⋅ 1 = 0,0158, zaś efektywność zysków będzie pod 12 równa\nKtx = K(0)+(1−r(12)) ⋅I(0;14) = pod\n= 46000+0,7998⋅4819,10 ≃ 49854,14.\nDalej\nItx(0;4) = I(0;4)⋅(1−r(12)) = 1604,46;\npod\nItx(4;12) = I(4;12)⋅(1−r(12)) = 2292,49;\npod\nItx(12;14) = I(12;14)⋅(1−r(12)) = 488,55.\npod\nAd 2. Czas trwania lokaty, liczony w latach, wynosi 14 = 7 , a sym-\n12 6 bol r oznacza roczną stopę efektywną. A więc:\nef\n7 K(14)\n(1+r )6 = ef K(0) i dlatego\n6 6\nK(14) 7 50819,10 7 r = [ ] −1 = ( ) −1 = 0,089 = 8,9%.\nef K(0) 46000\n\nAd 3. Oznaczmy średnią miesięczną stopę procentową przez r. Zachodzi wówczas równość\n4 8 2\n0,11 0,08 6\n(1+r)14 = (1+ ) ⋅(1+ ) (1+ ) = 1,0749,\n12 12 12 stąd zaś r = 1√4 1,0749−1 = (1,0740)14 −1 = 1,0052−1 = 0,052%. □\n2. W ciągu ostatniego roku wielokrotnie zmieniano oprocentowanie rachunku bankowego. W pierwszym półroczu stopa nominalna wynosiła 12%, a odsetki kapitalizowano co kwartał. Począwszy od trzeciego kwartału odsetki były kapitalizowane co miesiąc, zaś stopa nominalna wynosiła 10% w okresie od lipca do września, 9% w październiku i listopadzie oraz 8% w grudniu. Obliczyć:\n1. efektywną stopę oprocentowania rachunku;\n2. przeciętną stopę kwartalną;\n3. wartość kapitału 10000 j.m. na koniec roku.\nRozwiązanie. Ad 1. Skoro w pierwszym półroczu w banku obowiązywała nominalna stopa procentowa r(2) = r nom = 12%, to\n12% stopa kwartalna wynosiła r(4) = = 3%. W trzecim kwartale\n10% stopa nominalna wynosiła 10%, a więc r(12) = = 0,8(3)%.\nW czwartym kwartale obowiązywała kapitalizacja miesięczna, ale przy różnych stopach, mamy więc w październiku i listopadzie\n9% r(12)′ = = 0,75%, zaś w grudniu r(12)′′ = 8% = 0,6(6).\n12 12\nWykorzystując znane twierdzenie dotyczące całkowitej stopy zwrotu, otrzymujemy\n3 2 1\n0,10 0,09 0,08 r = (1,03)2(1+ ) (1+ ) (1+ ) = 1,111380.\n12 12 12\nEfektywna stopa oprocentowania rachunku wynosi zatem r = i−1 = 11,1380%.\nef\n\nAd 2. Dla wyznaczenia przeciętnej stopy kwartalnej r(4) skorzystamy z naturalnej równości:\n(1+r(4)) 4 = (1+r(4)) 2 (1+r ) 3 (1+r(12)′ ) 2 (1+r(12′′)).\nW związku z tym r(4) = √4 (1+r )2(1+r(12))3(1+r(12)′)2(1+r(12)\")−1 =\n= √4 1,111380−1 = 2,6752%.\nAd 3. Wartość kapitału na koniec roku wynosi zatem\nK = 11113,80j.m.\n□\n3. Lokata bankowa ma stopę nominalną w wysokości 12% z kwartalną kapitalizacją odsetek. Mamy na koncie 10000 j.m. i jest to nasz kapitał początkowy (tzn. K(0) = 10000 j.m.). Ile wyniesie kwota odsetek, gdy będziemy je wypłacać po upływie okresu kapitalizacji?\nZakładając, że zamierzamy utrzymać w banku pieniądze przez rok, obliczyć, ile wyniesie kwota odsetek, jeżeli nie będziemy ich wypłacać w trakcie trwania inwestycji, a dopiero na koniec? Ile w takim przypadku wyniesie stopa efektywna z tej inwestycji?\nRozwiązanie. Przy wypłacie odsetek po każdym kwartale ich łączna wysokość po roku wyniesie\nI′(1) = [10000⋅(0,03)]⋅4 = 1200,00j.m., a gdy odsetki nie będą wypłacane dostaniemy odsetki w kwocie\nI′′(1) = 10000⋅(1,03)4−10000 = 1255,08 j.m.\nZ uwagi na to, że czas życia inwestycji jest w tym przypadku równy\n1, otrzymujemy\n11255,08 r = √1 −1 = 1,125508−1 = 0,125508 ≃ 0,12550.\nef 10000\n□\n\n1.4.3. Zadania do samodzielnego rozwiązania\n1. Firma AGAT założyła lokatę w banku na okres trzech lat w wysokości 38000 j.m. Obecne saldo jej rachunku wynosi 45000 j.m.\nWyznaczyć przeciętną stopę procentową założonej lokaty [3].\n2. Roczna efektywna stopa procentowa wynosi r ef = 0,0855. Obliczyć nominalną kwartalną stopę procentową.\n3. Roczna efektywna stopa procentowa wynosi r ef = 0,12. Obliczyć nominalną miesięczną stopę procentową.\n4. Bank A oferuje złożoną kapitalizację kwartalną z nominalną stopą procentową r = 0,36. Bank B natomiast oferuje roczną kanomA pitalizację ciągłą r . Jaka powinna być wysokość rocznej stopy\nB procentowej banku B, aby warunki kapitalizacji w obu bankach były równoważne [6]?\n5. Bank A oferuje kapitalizację prostą przy stopie nominalnej równej i = 0,25. Bank B oferuje półroczną kapitalizację złożoną opartą nomA na nieznanej chwilowo stopie nominalnej i . Wiadomo równonomB cześnie, że inwestycje o jednakowym czasie życia t dają następujące rezultaty:\n1. kwota K = 2000 j.m. zainwestowana w banku A daje na\nA koniec czasu trwania inwestycji kwotę K (t) = 5500 j.m.,\nA\n2. kwota K zainwestowana na ten sam okres czasu daje K (t) =\nB B\n9K .\nB\nWyznaczyć wysokość stopy r [6].\nnomB\n6. Inwestor chce dokonać trzech wpłat do banku:\n1. na początku pierwszego roku w wysokości 1,\n2. na początku drugiego roku w wysokości 2,\n3. na początku trzeciego roku w wysokości 4, jednocześnie planując wypłacenie całej lokaty (zainwestowanego kapitału wraz z odsetkami) po dziesięciu latach.\n\nGdyby inwestor wybrał bank A, oferujący efektywną roczną stopę zwrotu r , to po dziesięciu latach mógłby wypłacić kwotę 8, gdyby ef\nA zaś wybrał bank B, oferujący efektywną roczną stopę zwrotu r , ef\nB to po dziesięciu latach mógłby wypłacić kwotę 10. Ile będzie mógł wypłacić, wybierając bank C oferujący efektywną roczną stopę zwrotu (r +r )? [Z9. EA 15.06.02.] ef ef\nA B\n7. Dane są trzy fundusze, odpowiednio F I , F II oraz F III , oprocentowane przy efektywnej rocznej stopie zwrotu (ang. annual effective interest rate) równej odpowiednio I = 0,1 i I = 0,08 oraz I = 0,06.\nI II III\nOdsetki z każdego z funduszy są wypłacane na końcu każdego roku oraz reinwestowane w następujący sposób:\n1. odsetki z funduszu F są reinwestowane w funduszu F , a z fun-\nI II duszu F są reinwestowane w funduszu F ;\nII III\n2. odsetki z funduszu F są reinwestowane w tym samym fun-\nIII duszu.\nW chwili początkowej t = 0 do funduszu dokonywana jest wpłata.\nWyznaczyć efektywną roczną stopę zwrotu z inwestycji, jeżeli po dziesięcioletnim okresie inwestowania wszystkie środki zgromadzone w poszczególnych funduszach zostaną umorzone (wypłacone).\n[Z3. EA 25.01.03.]\n1.5. Inflacja, realna stopa zwrotu i RRSO\nPojęcie inflacji, rozumiane jako spadek wartości pieniądza (w jego konkretnym przejawie, czyli konkretnej jednostki monetarnej j.m.), może być modelowane przy użyciu procesu akumulacji.\nPodstawowym narzędziem do ustalania inflacji jest zdefiniowany na początku tego procesu tzw. koszyk dóbr konsumpcyjnych. Jest to zestaw\n1800 dóbr, corocznie przeglądany i w razie potrzeby modyfikowany przez specjalistów z banku centralnego. Celowo podkreślona została umowność tego koszyka (zakładamy tu dobrą wolę osób dokonujących wyboru dóbr wchodzących w skład koszyka). Ceny dóbr koszyka w chwili t stanowią podstawę do wyznaczenia indeksu cenowego konsumenta (consumer price index) CPI(t), co oznacza wartość koszyka w chwili t w jednostkach monetarnych (j.m.). Inflacja zależy od czasu i jeśli t ∈ (t ,t ) przy i i+1\n\ni ∈ {1,...,t } oraz ustalonym n ∈ N, przez stopę inflacji w okresie n\n(t ,t ) – ściślej w przedziale otwartym czasu (t ,t ) – rozumieć i i+1 i i+1 będziemy przyrost względny indeksu CPI w tym przedziale. Stopa inflacji oznaczana jest jako r (t ,t ):\nCPI i i+1\nCPI(t )−CPI(t ) i+1 i r CPI (t i ,t i+1 ) = CPI(t ) . (1.15) i\nInną miarą utraty wartości pieniądza jest realna stopa zwrotu, oznaczana dla ustalonego procesu akumulacji A(t) przez r (t). Definiujemy real ją jako\nA(t)⋅K r (t) = , (1.16) real CPI(t) gdzie K oznacza wartość inwestycji w chwili początkowej t . Realna stopa zwrotu pozwala na wyrażenie kwoty K(t) = K(t )A(t ) przy i ∈ I, zaś\n1 i i ∈ {1,...,t }, gdzie i ∈ (1;n], przy ustalonym n ∈ N.\nn\nNajważniejszą formułą matematyczną odnoszącą się do realnej stopy zwrotu jest wzór Fishera, który przy wcześniej przyjętych oznaczeniach ma postać r(t ,t )−r (t ;t ) r (t ,t ) = i+1 i CPI 2 i .\nreal I i+1 1+r (t ,t )\nCPI i+2 i\n1.5.1. Ćwiczenia\n1. Co to jest koszyk dóbr konsumpcyjnych?\n2. Co to jest indeks cenowy konsumenta CPI?\n3. Zdefiniować pojęcie inflacji.\n4. Podać definicję realnej stopy zwrotu.\n5. Podać wzór Fishera (ewentualnie wzbogacić odpowiedź o dowód wzoru).\n1.5.2. Przykłady\n1. Rozpatrzmy sytuację, gdy bank proponuje klientom roczną lokatę o oprocentowaniu stałym 8%. Wyznaczymy realną stopę zwrotu\n\nz tej lokaty, jeśli roczna stopa inflacji π wyniesie odpowiednio: (a)\n5%, (b) 7%, (c) 10%. [4]\nRozwiązanie. Na podstawie wzoru Fishera wiemy, że r−π r = , real 1+π a stąd dalej\n0,08−0,05 r = = 2,86%, real,(a) 1+0,05\n0,08−0,07 r = = 0,0093%, real,(b) 1+0,07\n0,08−0,01 r = = −1,82%.\nreal,(c) 1+0,01\nZatem realna stopa zwrotu wynosi odpowiednio: (a) 2,86%, (b)\n0,93%, (c) −1,82%. □\n2. Bank ustalił, że pożyczka o wartości K = PV = 15000 j.m. ma zostać spłacona po dwóch latach w kwocie FV = 21000 j.m. Założono, że stopa inflacji będzie stała i wyniesie 3%. Wyznaczyć realną roczną stopę oprocentowania pożyczki, gdy:\n1. stopa inflacji będzie zgodna z z przyjętą prognozą,\n2. w pierwszym roku życia pożyczki inflacja wyniosła 2,0%, a w następnym 1,5%.\nRozwiązanie. Dla rozpatrywanej pożyczki w chwili t = 0 jest\nPV = 15000, natomiast po dwóch latach kwota jej spłaty wynosi\nFV = 21000. Z uwagi na to, że\nFV = PV(1+r ), nom dostajemy\nFV r = √ −1, nom PV\n\nco w przypadku tego zadania prowadzi do równości\n21000 7 r = √ −1 = √ −1 = nom 15000 5\n= 1,183215957−1 ≃ 1,183−1 = 0,183 = 18,3%.\nPrzypomnijmy, że zgodnie z umową z zadania co do inflacji mamy r (1) = 2% oraz r (2) = 1,5%, zatem inflacja w ciągu dwóch infl infl lat wynosi r = (1+0,02)(1+0,015)−1 = 1,0353 ≃ 0,035.\ninfl\nWtedy r −r 0,183−0,035 0,148 rdwuletnia = nom infl = = = 0,143.\nreal 1+r 1+0,035 1,035 infl\nZatem średnioroczna realna stopa oprocentowania jest równa rroczna = 0,069. Skoro już to wiemy, to odpowiedzmy na niezainfl dane pytanie: ile wyniosła nie założona wartość przyszła, która, jak pamiętamy, wynosiła FV = 21000 j.m., ale realna wartość przyszła oparta na „twardych” obliczeniach? Otóż\nFV =PV ⋅(1+rdwuletnia) = 15000j.m.⋅(1+0,143) = real real\n=17145, a więc bank „przeszacował”(?) kwotę spłaty o 3855 j.m.! □\n1.5.3. Zadania do samodzielnego rozwiązania\n1. Rozpatrzmy sytuację, w której gospodarka jest wolna od inflacji, czyli roczna jej stopa wynosi r = 0,1, rynkowa stopa procentowa infl l = 0,04, natomiast podatek od dochodów ma stopę r = 0,3.\npod\nDysponując dość pokaźną kwotą kapitału pożyczamy klientowi sumę 20000 j.m. na okres dwóch lat na zakup samochodu.\nWyznaczyć:\n(i) wartość zysku brutto od tej transakcji, w skali dwóch lat,\n(ii) kwotę podatku od tej kwoty,\n\n(iii) wielkość oraz stopę zysku netto (po opłaceniu podatku).\n2. Pozostając przy tej samej transakcji, jednak w przypadku, gdy r = 0,1, a nominalna rynkowa stopa procentowa jest równa infl l = 0,14, wyznaczyć:\n(i) kwotę zysku brutto oraz kwotę należnego podatku,\n(ii) kwotę zysku netto i wysokość stopy zysku netto (po opodatkowaniu).\n3. W banku założono roczną lokatę w kwocie 10000 j.m. przy rocznej stopie procentowej depozytów r = 0,026. Wyznaczyć r oraz r , nom real jak również nominalną i realną wartość odsetek na koniec roku przy rocznej stopie inflacji r = 0,02. Ustalić wysokość realnego infl przyrostu wartości lokaty na jej koniec.\n\n2. Renty\nPrzez rentę dyskretną rozumiemy ciąg przepływów finansowych, skończony lub nieskończony CF ∈ RN , którego wyrazy nazywamy wypłatami\n+ renty dokonywanymi w chwilach t ∈ N oraz takimi, że dla dowolnego i i ∈ N zachodzi warunek t −t = const. Długość przedziału czasu\n+ i i−1\nΔt = t −t nosi nazwę okresu wypłaty. Z przyczyn historycznych i i i−1 w przypadku rent stopa procentowa jest oznaczania przez i, a nie, jak poprzednio, przez r.\nPoza rentami dyskretnymi istnieją renty ciągłe, którym poświęcimy osobną część rozdziału, a których rola w matematyce finansowej ma znaczenie zarówno teoretyczne, jak i praktyczne [1, 4].\n2.1. Modele dyskretne\nRenty dyskretne dzielą się\nI. ze względu na czas trwania na\n■ renty pewne, czyli takie, których czas trwania jest skończony (renta ma skończoną liczbę wypłat);\n■ renty wieczyste, czyli renty, których czas trwania jest nieskończony\n(renta ma nieskończoną liczbę wypłat).\nII. ze względu na moment rozpoczęcia wypłat na\n■ natychmiast płatne, gdy wypłata następuje natychmiast po ustanowieniu renty,\n■ odroczone, gdy znany jest czas przesunięcia pierwszej wypłaty renty względem momentu jej ustanowienia;\nIII. ze względu na moment wypłaty na\n\n■ renty płatne z góry, gdy wypłaty następują na początku okresu wypłaty;\n■ renty płatne z dołu, gdy wypłaty następują na końcu okresu wypłaty.\nKażda z rent jest, jak zauważamy, określona przez czas trwania, moment rozpoczęcia, momenty wypłaty, a także niewspomniane jeszcze:\nkapitał rentowy i kwotę wypłaty.\nPrzez kapitał rentowy rozumiemy zaktualizowaną na chwilę ustanowienia renty wartość wszystkich wypłat, rozumianą jako wartość obecną\n(w chwili ustanowienia) albo PV (present value). Z kolei ze względu na kwotę wypłaty renty dzielimy na renty stałe oraz renty zmienne, czyli takie, których kwoty wypłat nie są stałe dla całego czasu trwania renty.\nPrzyjmując umowę, że związane z rentą przepływy finansowe CF k oznaczają kwoty wypłat w chwilach t , otrzymujemy następujące zależk ności dla rent pewnych:\n• dla renty n okresowej płatnej z dołu n n k\n⎡ ⎤\nPV=∑CF k DF k = ∑CF k ⎢∏DF(t j−1 ,t j )⎥, (2.1) k=1 k=1\n⎣j=1 ⎦\n• renty n okresowej płatnej z góry n−1 n−1 k\nPV̈ =CF 0 + ∑ CF k ⋅DF k =CF 0 + ∑ CF k ⋅ ⎡ ⎢∏DF(t j−1 ,t j ) ⎤ ⎥. (2.2) k=1 k=1\n⎣j=1 ⎦\nNatomiast dla rent wieczystych dostajemy\n• wartość obecną renty wieczystej płatnej z dołu\n∞ ∞ k\n⎡ ⎤\nPV=∑CF k ⋅DF k =∑CF k ⋅⎢∏DF(t j−1 ,t j )⎥, (2.3) k=1 k=1\n⎣j=1 ⎦\n• wartość obecną renty wieczystej płatnej z góry\n∞ ∞ k\nPV̈ =CF 0 + ∑CF k ⋅DF k =CF 0 + ∑CF k ⋅ ⎡ ⎢∏DF(t j−1 ,t j ) ⎤ ⎥. (2.4) k=1 k=1\n⎣j=1 ⎦\nWarto podkreślić, że takie rozumienie wartości obecnej dopuszcza zmienność zarówno kwot wypłat, jak i czynników dyskontujących w po-\n\nszczególnych okresach wypłat. Jest rzeczą zrozumiałą, że tak daleko posunięta dowolność parametrów rent jest utrudnieniem w przypadku rent pewnych, a w przypadku rent wieczystych – wręcz uniemożliwia ich modelowanie.\nZ tego powodu w praktyce rozważa się na ogół przypadki rent, dla których w ciągu całego okresu ich życia, stopy procentowe – a co za tym idzie również czynniki dyskontujące – są stałe, a kwoty wypłat podlegają jakiejś formie regularności. Jeśli więc mamy do czynienia ze stałym oprocentowaniem, to DF(t ;t ) = v = const i wtedy j−1 j k\nDF k = DF(t 0 ;t k ) = ∏DF(t j−1 ,t j ) = vk. (2.5) j=1\nW związku z tym\n• dla renty n okresowej płatnej z dołu n\nPV n = ∑CF k ⋅vk. (2.6) k=1\n• dla renty n okresowej płatnej z góry n\nPV̈ n = ∑CF k ⋅vk−1, (2.7) k=1\n• dla renty wieczystej płatnej z dołu\n∞\nPV ∞ = ∑CF k ⋅vk, (2.8) k=1\n• dla renty wieczystej płatnej z góry\n∞\nPV̈ ∞ = ∑CF k ⋅vk−1. (2.9) k=1\nW przypadku, kiedy kwoty wypłat są stałe, czyli gdy zachodzi równość CF = X = const, sytuacja się upraszcza. W tym przypadku użyk wamy już oficjalnej symboliki aktuarialnej, pamiętając, że czynnik dyskontujący jest jednoznacznie określony przez stopę procentową z uwagi na znaną zależność v = 1 i na odwrót i = 1 −1:\n1+i v\n\n■ a n i – dla wartości obecnej renty pewnej, n okresowej, płatnej z dołu, przy płaskiej strukturze terminowej, przy stopie i w całym okresie życia renty;\n■ ä n i – dla wartości obecnej renty pewnej, n okresowej, płatnej z góry, przy płaskiej strukturze terminowej, przy stopie i w całym okresie życia renty;\n■ a ∞ i – dla wartości obecnej renty wieczystej, płatnej z dołu, przy płaskiej strukturze terminowej, przy stopie i w całym okresie życia renty;\n■ ä ∞ i – dla wartości obecnej renty wieczystej, płatnej z góry, przy płaskiej strukturze terminowej, przy stopie i w całym okresie życia renty.\n■ k| a ∞ i – dla wartości obecnej odroczonej o k okresów wypłat, renty wieczystej, płatnej z dołu, przy płaskiej strukturze terminowej, przy stopie i w całym okresie życia renty;\n■ k| ä ∞ i – dla wartości obecnej odroczonej o k okresów wypłat renty wieczystej, płatnej z góry, przy płaskiej strukturze terminowej, przy stopie i w całym okresie życia renty.\nW przypadku gdy CF = X = 1, otrzymujemy j n n 1−vn a n i = ∑1⋅vj = ∑vj = v 1−v , (2.10) j=1 j=1 n n 1−vn\nä n i = ∑1⋅vj−1 = ∑vk−1 = 1−v , (2.11) j=1 j=1\n∞ ∞ a ∞ i = ∑1⋅vj = ∑vj = v 1−v , (2.12) j=1 j=1\n∞ ∞\nä ∞ i = ∑1⋅vk−1 = ∑vk−1 = 1−v . (2.13) j=1 j=0 vn+1 k| a n i = vka n i = a n+k i −a n i = 1−v (1−vk), (2.14)\n\nvn k| ä ∞ i = vkä n i = ä n+k i −ä n i = 1−v (1−vk). (2.15)\nPodkreślmy, że jeśli wypłaty renty są stałe i na przykład równe\nX, to wartości obecnej renty z takimi wypłatami, zależą od X jako od mnożnika. Sprawy komplikują się w przypadku wypłat o zmiennych wysokościach.\nPoza wartością obecną renty możemy zdefiniować jej wartość przyszłą, nazywaną zgodnie aktuarialną tradycją future value, oznaczaną symbolem FV.\nTak jak istnieją symbole aktuarialne dla wartości obecnych, tak też istnieją odpowiadające im symbole wartości przyszłych:\n■ s n i – dla renty pewnej n okresowej płatnej z dołu,\n■ ä n i – dla renty pewnej n okresowej płatnej z góry,\n■ k |a n i – dla renty pewnej n okresowej płatnej z dołu, odroczonej o k okresów wypłat,\n■ k |ä n i – dla renty pewnej n okresowej płatnej z góry, odroczonej o k okresów wypłat,\n■ s n (m i ) – dla renty pewnej n letniej płatnej z dołu w m podokresach w ciągu roku,\n■ ä n (m i ) – dla renty pewnej n letniej płatnej z góry w m podokresach w ciągu roku [1, 4].\n2.2. Renta arytmetyczna i renta geometryczna\nW tym rozdziale zajmujemy się umiejętnościami niezbędnymi do rozwiązywania zadań ze wstępu do matematyki finansowej. W przypadku modeli dyskretnych są to metody algebraiczne, a także wybrane metody analityczne, natomiast w odniesieniu do modeli ciągłych są to metody analityczne. Fakt, że zajmujemy się nimi w początkowej części zbioru zadań sugeruje, że ich opanowanie stanowi dla rozwiązujących zadania ważną umiejętność rachunkową.\n\n2.2.1. Renta arytmetyczna\nNiech ciąg wypłat\nCF ,CF ,...CF\n1 2 n renty będzie ciągiem arytmetycznym, a dla wygody przyjmijmy, że CF = k\nX = k dla k ∈ {1,2,...,n}.\nk\nRozpatrzmy przypadek renty płatnej z dołu. W tym przypadku przy wzorcowej wysokości CF = 1, różnicy ciągu arytmetycznego wypłat X\n1 k wynoszącej 1 oraz przy stałym czynniku dyskontującym v dostajemy n n\nPVa = (Ia) = ∑X vk = ∑kvk.\nn n i k k=1 k=1\nMetoda zaburzeń. Jej istotą jest wyznaczenie analitycznej bądź inaczej jawnej postaci sumy n początkowych wyrazów nieskończonego ciągu liczbowego a ∈ RN jako funkcji indeksu n. Rozpatrzmy zatem taki ciąg oraz jego sumy początkowych wyrazów S oraz S . Bezpośrednio n n+1 z definicji mamy n\nS n+1 = a 0 +a 1 +...a n−1 +a n = S n +a n = a 0 + ∑a i+1 . (2.16) k=0\nCelem procesu zwanego metodą zaburzeń jest takie przedstawienie sumy n\nS = ∑a , aby była ona pewną liniową funkcją f sumy S , czyli by n+1 n n k=0 możliwa była jej reprezentacja w postaci\nS n+1 = S n +a n = f(S n )+Φ(n), (2.17) gdzie Φ(n) jest jawną formułą argumentu n, zaś f pewną funkcją liniową argumentu S . Zatem ze zrozumiałych powodów zachodzi równość n f(S n ) = λS n , (2.18) f nie może być funkcją stałą, to zaś oznacza, że λ ≠ 1. W tych warunkach z (2.17) i (2.18) dostajemy zależność\n(1−λ)S n = Φ(n)−a n , (2.19)\n\na stąd już otrzymujemy\nΦ(n)−a\nS n = 1−λ n. (2.20)\nZ ostatniej zależności na S widać dodatkowy powód zastrzeżenia, że n\nλ ≠ 1.\nDla ilustracji przedstawionej metody przeanalizujmy następujący przykład.\nPrzykład. Użyjemy metody zaburzeń do wyznaczenia jawnej postaci sumy n\nS n = ∑kvk−1, (2.21) k=1 wyrażającej wartość obecną renty arytmetycznej płatnej z góry, której symbolem aktuarialnym jest (Iä) .\nn i\nZ definicji sumy S wiemy, że jeśli pierwszym wyrazem ciągu a n+1 jest a , to otrzymamy n+1 n\nS = ∑ kvk−1 = ∑kvk−1+(n+1)vn, n+1 k=1 k=1 czyli przy standardowym oznaczeniu\nS n+1 = S n +(n+1)vn. (2.22)\nSumę S możemy zapisać także w postaci n+1 n+1 n+1\nS = ∑ kvk−1 = 1+ ∑ kvk−1.\nn+1 k=1 k=2\nDokonując podstawienia k ∶= k+1 przy jednoczesnym zachowaniu sensu sumowania, dostajemy n n n n n\nS = 1+ ∑(k+1)vk = ∑kvk+ ⎛ ⎜1+ ∑vk⎞ ⎟ = ∑kvk+ ∑vk.\nn+1\n⎝ ⎠ k=1 k=1 k=1 k=1 k=0\n\nNapiszmy wyraźnie:\nn n\nS = ∑kvk+ ∑vk.\nn+1 k=1 k=0\nStąd, po nietrudnej modyfikacji, dostajemy n 1−vn+1 1−vn+1\nS n+1 = v∑kvk−1+ 1−v = vS n + 1−v . (2.23) k=1\nKonfrontując równości (2.22) i (2.23) oraz rugując z nich S , otrzymun+1 jemy zależność\n1−vn+1\nS +(n+1)vn = vS + .\nn n 1−v\nPorządkując dalej z myślą o wyznaczeniu S , otrzymujemy n\n1−vn+1\n(1−v)S = −(n+1)vn+ .\nn 1−v\nPo nietrudnych przekształceniach dostajemy\n1−(n+1)vn+nvn+1\nS n = (1−v)2 , (2.24) a w konsekwencji n 1−(n+1)vn+nvn+1\n∑kvk−1 = . (2.25)\n(1−v)2 k=1\n□\nMetoda przesunięcia. Rozpatrzmy przypadek wyznaczania wartości obecnej rent arytmetycznych, z wypłatami równymi X = k, przy stałej k stopie procentowej i > 0, a więc także stałym czynniku dyskontującym v = . Poszukujemy:\n1+i\n(i) wartości obecnej renty arytmetycznej pewnej płatnej z dołu, z wypłatami równymi X = k dla k ∈ {1,2,...,n}. Symbolem aktuarialnym k\n\ntej renty jest (Ia) . Mamy wtedy n i n\nPV = (Ia) = ∑ k⋅vk = n i k=1 (2.26)\n= v+2v2+3v3+...(n−1)vn−1+nvn.\nZ drugiej jednak strony n\nPV⋅v = v⋅∑k⋅vk = v2+2v3+...+(n−1)vn+nvn+1. (2.27) k=1\nOdejmując stronami od równości (2.26) równość (2.27), otrzymujemy\n(1−v)PV = (1−v)(Ia) = n i\n= (v+v2+v3+...+vn)+nvn+1 = a +nvn+1, n i co prowadzi do równości a +nvn+1\nPV = (Ia) n i = n i 1−v . (2.28)\n(ii) wartości początkowej renty wieczystej płatnej z dołu mającej wypłaty\nX = k dla k ∈ N . Symbolem aktuarialnym tej renty jest (Ia) .\nk + ∞ i\nMamy wtedy\n∞\nPV = (Ia) = ∑k⋅vk =\n∞ i\n(2.29) k=1\n= 2v2+3v3+...(n−1)vn−1+nvn+..., i dalej\n∞\nPV⋅v = (Ia) ⋅v = v⋅∑k⋅vk =\n∞ i\n(2.30) k=1\n= v2+2v3+3v4+...(n−1)vn+nvn+1+..., a stąd po odjęciu stronami przedstawionych równości mamy\n(1−v)PV = (1−v)(Ia) = n i v\n= v+v2+v3+...+vn+... = a = ,\n∞ i 1−v\n\nz uwagi na to v\nPV = (Ia) ∞ i = (1−v)2 . (2.31)\nMetoda analityczna. Podobnie, jak w poprzednich przypadkach, kolejna metoda użyteczna przy rozwiązywaniu zadań rachunkowych służy wyznaczaniu wartości obecnej rent lub inaczej wyznaczaniu kapitału rentowego.\nTym razem poza umiejętnościami algebraicznymi wykorzystane zostaną własności ciągów i szeregów funkcyjnych. Należy pamiętać, że posługiwanie się tymi narzędziami zależy od uprzedniego sprawdzenia założeń stojących za wykorzystywanymi w tym procesie twierdzeniami, zwłaszcza tym o różniczkowaniu szeregów funkcyjnych wyraz po wyrazie.\nPodobnie jak poprzednie, również metoda analityczna służy wyznaczaniu wartości obecnej rent arytmetycznych.\nDla renty arytmetycznej rosnącej płatnej z góry mamy\n(Iä) = 1+2v+3v2+4v3+... = (v+v2+v3+...)′ =\n∞\n′\n1 1 1\n= ( ) = = .\n1−v (1−v)2 d2\nW przypadku renty arytmetycznej rosnącej płatnej z dołu, której kwoty wypłat w kolejnych latach są kolejnymi krotnościami wypłaty w pierwszym roku, mamy, że jej obecna wartość oznaczana przez (Ia)\n∞ wynosi:\n(Ia) = v+2v2+3v3+4v4+... =\n∞\n1 1 1 (2.32)\n= v(1+2v+3v2+...) = v⋅ = ⋅ .\nd2 i d\n2.2.2. Renta geometryczna\nW tym przypadku ciąg wypłat CF ,CF ,... jest ciągiem geometrycznym.\n1 2\nTu również rozpatrzymy na wstępie ciągi skończone, n wyrazowe, a następnie zajmiemy się ciągami nieskończonymi, a właściwie szeregami.\nPrzypadek renty geometrycznej pewnej, płatnej z dołu. Jeśli CF = 1 oraz iloraz wypłat jest liczbą q ∈ R , to CF = 1 ⋅ qk−1 . Dostajemy\n+ k\n\nwtedy przy stałym czynniku dyskontowym, że n n\nPV g = (Ig̈) = ∑qk−1vk = ∑(qk−1)vk = n n k=1 k=1 n 1−(qv)n\n= v∑(qv)k−1 = v ,1\n1−qv k=1 a więc\n1−(qv)n g\nPV n = (Ig) n = v 1−qv . (2.33)\nPrzypadek renty geometrycznej pewnej, płatnej z góry. Różnica w stosunku do renty płatnej z dołu polega jedynie na „późniejszym” dyskontowaniu, bowiem n n\nPV̈ g = (Ig̈) = ∑vk−1 = ∑(qk−1)vk−1 = n n k=1 k=1 n 1−(qv)n\n= CF ∑(qv)k−1 = ,\n1 1−qv k=1 a zatem\nPV̈ n g = (Ig̈) n = 1− 1− (q q v v )n . (2.34)\nRozpatrując wieczystą rentę geometryczną, zamiast skończonych ciągów geometrycznych rozpatrujemy ciągi nieskończone, a wartość obecna jest odpowiednią sumą szeregu geometrycznego. Jego zbieżność zapewnia jedynie iloraz z przedziału (−1;1). W przypadku wypłat mogą wystąpić tylko ilorazy dodatnie, a więc dostajemy, że 0 < qv < 1. Przy tym warunku dla renty wieczystej płatnej z dołu otrzymujemy zależność v g\nPV ∞ = (Ig) ∞ = 1−qv , (2.35)\n1 Ponieważ wśród symboli aktuarialnych nie ma takich, które odpowiadałyby wartościom obecnym rent geometrycznych, to symbole (Ig) oraz (Ig̈) wprowadzamy n n w tym tekście na odpowiedzialność autora, podobnie jak ich odpowiedniki dla wieczystych rent geometrycznych.\n\na dla renty wieczystej płatnej z góry zależność zmodyfikowaną do postaci\nPV̈ g ∞ = (Ig̈) ∞ = 1− 1 qv . (2.36)\nZauważamy z łatwością, że renta geometryczna daje się sprowadzić do przypadku renty o stałych wypłatach i zmodyfikowanym czynniku dyskontującym.\n2.2.3. Ćwiczenia\n1. Wyznaczyć formułę na wartość przyszłą arytmetycznej n okresowej renty płatnej z dołu (Is)̈ przy stałej stopie procentowej (płaskiej n i strukturze terminowej).\n2. Wyznaczyć formułę na wartość przyszłą wieczystej renty arytmetycznej płatnej z dołu (Is) przy stałej stopie procentowej (pła-\n∞ i skiej strukturze terminowej).\n3. Wyznaczyć formułę na wartość obecną n okresowej renty arytmetycznej płatnej z góry (Iä) przy stałej stopie procentowej n i\n(płaskiej strukturze terminowej).\n4. Wyznaczyć formułę na wartość obecną wieczystej renty arytmetycznej płatnej z góry (Iä) przy stałej stopie procentowej (płaskiej\n∞ i strukturze terminowej).\n5. Wyznaczyć formułę na wartość przyszłą n okresowej renty arytmetycznej płatnej z dołu (Is) przy stałej stopie procentowej n i\n(płaskiej strukturze terminowej).\n6. Wyznaczyć formułę na wartość przyszłą wieczystej renty arytmetycznej płatnej z góry (Is)̈ przy stałej stopie procentowej (płan i skiej strukturze terminowej).\n7. Zakładając schodkową postać struktury terminowej stóp procentowych, czyli stałość czynników dyskontujących w obrębie każdego okresu wypłaty X dla k ∈ {1,2,...,n} renty n okresowej płatnej k z dołu oraz dla renty wieczystej płatnej z dołu, przedstawić wartość czynnika dyskontującego dla k-tej wypłaty.\n\n8. Zakładając schodkową postać struktury terminowej stóp procentowych, czyli stałość czynników dyskontujących w obrębie każdego okresu wypłaty X dla k ∈ {1,2,...,n} renty n okresowej płatnej k z góry oraz renty wieczystej płatnej z góry, przedstawić wartość czynnika dyskontującego dla k-tej wypłaty.\n9. Wyznaczyć formułę na wartości obecną oraz przyszłą n okresowej renty geometrycznej.\n10. Przedstawić metodę zaburzeń oraz zakres jej stosowalności.\n11. Stosując metodę zaburzeń, wyznaczyć w jawnej postaci sumę n n n\n(i) S = ∑kvk−1, (ii) ∑k2vk, (ii) ∑k3vk.\nn k=1 k=1 k=1\n12. Wykonać polecenia zadań 1–6, posługując się metodą zaburzeń.\n13. Pokazać, że\n1 1\n(i) a = , (iv) ä = ,\n∞ i i ∞ i d\n1 1\n(ii) a (m) = , (v) ä (m) = ,\n∞ i i(m) ∞ i d(m)\n(iii) 1−vm 1 = 1 d(m), (vi) i(m) = 1−vm 1 .\nm m 1 vm b−a\n14. Pokazać, że jeżeli a n = a oraz s̈ n = b, to d = ab .\n15. Dowieść, że a n i (1+i)k = s k ̈ −1 i +ä n−k+1 i .\n16. Dowieść, że jeśli a n i = p oraz (Ia) n i = q, to n−p i = .\n(n+1)p−q\n17. Dowieść, że n s̈\n∑ 2k i = n+s̈ .\ns̈ k−1 i k−1 k i\n\n18. Zbadać, czy dla n,t ∈ N + prawdziwa jest nierówność t(t+1) < t−a t i .\nn(n+1) n−a n i\n19. Zakładając, że stopa procentowa oprocentowania złożonego z dołu jest równa i oraz że stopa dyskontowa oprocentowania złożonego z góry d są równoważne, dowieść, że d3 (i−d)2 1\n= , gdy v = = 1−d.\n(1−d)2 1−v 1+i\n2.2.4. Przykłady\n1. Przez dwa lata na koniec każdego miesiąca wpłacamy 200 j.m. na rachunek oprocentowany według stopy i(12) = 0,005. Wyznaczyć stan oszczędności na koniec drugiego roku.\nRozwiązanie. Wpłaty tworzą rentę o liczbie rat n = 24. Jest to renta pewna, płatna z dołu, o jednakowej kwocie wypłat równej\nX = 200 oraz i = i(12) = 0,005. Mamy więc\n24 (1+0,005)24−1\nFV=s =(Ia) = 200∑ = 5086,392j.m.\n24 24 0,005 i=1 □\n2. Saldo rachunku bankowego, oprocentowanego przy stopie nominalnej i kwartalnej kapitalizacji odsetek, wynosi 10000 j.m. Jaką kwotę można pobierać co kwartał z tego rachunku przez trzy lata, jeśli pierwsza wypłata nastąpi dokładnie za trzy miesiące?\nRozwiązanie. Jeśli przez trzy lata mamy wybierać co kwartał ustaloną kwotę X raty renty, to w ten sposób otrzymujemy rentę płatną z dołu, o dwunastu ratach przy stopie procentowej i = i(12) = 0,08 = 0,02. W ten sposób\nPV = X ⋅a .\n\nZatem skoro\n12 1− 1\n1 1 (1+0,02)−12 a = ∑ = =\n12 (1+0,02)i 1−1,02 1− 1 i=1 1+0,02\n1−(1,02)−12\n= = 10,57534 ≃ 10,5753,\n0,02 to\n10000\nX = ≃ 945,60.\n10,5753 □\n3. Renta wieczysta wypłaca jedną j.m. na koniec pierwszego roku, dwie na koniec drugiego roku i trzy na koniec trzeciego, zwiększając się co roku o jeden. Które z następujących wyrażeń przedstawia obecną wartość renty?\n1 1−d\n(i) , (ii) , (iii) eδ +e−δ?\ni2 d2\nRozwiązanie. Ponieważ mamy s = (Ia) = v+2v2+3v3+4v4+... =\n∞ ∞\n1 1 1\n= v(1+2v+3v2+...) = v⋅ = ⋅ d2 i d oraz\n(Ia) s̈ = ∞ = 1+2v+3v2+... = (Iä) =\n∞ i ∞\n′\n1 1 1\n= (v+v2+v3+...)′ = ( ) = = ,\n1−v (1−v)2 d2 to odejmując stronami, dostaniemy:\ns 1\n∞ −s = s ( −1) = 1+v+v2+... = i ∞ ∞ v\n1 1 1+i\n= = = .\n1−v 1− 1 i\n1+i\n1+i 1+i\nZatem s i = , a więc s = . □\n∞ i ∞ i2\n\n4. Znaleźć wartość obecną ciągu płatności X, gdy stopa procentowa jest stale równa i = 0,05, zaś wyraz ogólny ciągu ma postać k(20−k), dla k ∈ {1,2,...,20},\nX = { k 0, dla k ∈ {21,22,...}.\nRozwiązanie. Mamy:\na = ∑k(20−k)vk = k=1\n= 1(20−1)v+2(20−2)v2+...+19(20−19)v19+20(20−20)v20.\nAle również:\na\n20 = 1(20−1)+2(20−2)v+...+19(20−19)v18+20(20−20)v19.\nv\nPoza tym jest:\nk(20−k)−(k−1)[20−(k−1)] = 21−2k.\nW konsekwencji możemy zapisać:\na 19\n20 −a = a ⋅i = 19+ ∑[21−2(k+1)]vk = v 20 20 k=1\n= 19+ ∑(19−2k)vk = 19+19a −2a ⋅a .\n19 20 19 k=1\nStąd\n19+19a −2a a a = 19 20 19 ≃ 836,\n20 i\nä −nvn gdzie a a = n . □\n20 19 i\n5. Wyznaczyć obecną wartość płatności dokonywanych na koniec każdego roku przez trzydzieści lat, jeżeli wysokość płatności w roku t k(k+1) jest równa X , gdzie X = . Do obliczeń przyjmujemy\n31−t k 2 techniczną stopę procentowa równą i = 0,05.\n\nRozwiązanie. Dla wygody przyjmijmy oznaczenie: a = 1I,\n30 2 gdzie\nI = 30(30+1)v+29(29+1)v2+...+1(1+1)v30.\nStąd natychmiast\nI = 30(30+1)v2+29(29+1)v3+...+1(1+1)v31.\nI ponownie dla wygody mamy:\nIv−I = I(v−1) = 2⋅v2+2⋅29v3+...+2⋅2v30+2⋅1v31−30⋅31v, gdzie jeśli\n30v+29v2+...+1v30 = Av, to\nA(v−1) = v2+v3+...v30+v31−30v.\nWtedy otrzymujemy v(a −30)\nA = 30 .\nv−1\nTo daje wynik\n2v2(a −30)\n30 −30⋅31v\n1 v−1 □\nA = ⋅ ≃ 3450.\n2 v−1\n6. Renta wieczysta wypłaca raty na końcu każdego roku. W latach nieparzystych pierwsza rata wynosi dwa, a każda następna jest o trzy większa od poprzedniej, natomiast w latach parzystych pierwsza rata wynosi trzy, a każda następna jest o dwa większa od poprzedniej. Ile wynosi obecna wartość tej renty, jeżeli stopa procentowa jest równa i = 0,05?\nRozwiązanie.\n\n(I. sposób) Bez zbędnych komentarzy wprost z treści zadania mamy\nPV = (⏟2⏟v⏟2⏟+⏟5⏟v⏟3+⏟8⏟v5⏟+⏟⏟...⏟)+(⏟3⏟v⏟2⏟+⏟5⏟v⏟4+⏟7⏟v6⏟+⏟⏟...⏟) =\nS S\n1 2\n∞ ∞\n= ∑(3k−1)v2k+1+ ∑(2k+1)v2k.\nk=1 k=1\nMamy, że\n∞ ∞\nS = ∑3kv2k−1 = v∑(3k−1)v2(k−1) = k=1 k=1\n∞ ∞\n= 3v∑k(v2)k−1−v∑(v2)k−1 = k=1 k=1\n∞ ∞ ∣ u ∶= v2 ∣\n= 3v∑[(v2)k] ′ − ∑(v2)k = ∣ ∣ = v ∣ ∣ k=1 k=1 ∣ v = √u ∣\n∞ ′ ∞\n= 3√u ⎛ ⎜∑uk⎞ ⎟ − 1 ∑uk = 3√u( u ) ′ − 1 u =\n√u 1−u √u1−u\n⎝ ⎠ k=1 k=1\n1−u+u √u 3√u √u\n= 3√u − = − =\n(1−u)2 1−u (1−u)2 1−u\n3−1+u 2+u 2+v2 v3+2v\n= √u = √u = v = .\n(1−u)2 (1−u)2 (1−v)2 (1−v2)2\nNapiszmy z ulgą, że v3+2v\nS = .\n1 (1−v2)2\nObliczmy teraz sumę S . Mamy\n∞ ∞ ∞\nS = ∑(2k+1)v2k = ∑2kv2k+ ∑v2k = k=1 k=1 k=1\n∞ k−1 ∞ u ∶= v2\n= 2v2 ∑k(v2) + ∑v2k = ∣ ∣ = v = √u k=1 k=1\n\n∞ ′ ∞\n= 2u ⎛ ⎜∑uk⎞ ⎟ + ∑uk = 2u( u ) ′ + u =\n1−u 1−u\n⎝ ⎠ k=1 k=1\n1−u+u u 2u+u(1−u) u(3−u)\n= 2u + = = =\n(1−u)2 1−u (1−u)2 (1−u)2\n3u−u2 3v2−v4\n= = .\n(1−u)2 (1−v2)2\nW takim razie\n3v2−v4\nS = ,\n2 (1−v2)2 a w konsekwencji v3+2v 3v2−v4 −v4+v3+3v2+2v\nS = S +S = + = .\n1 2 (1−v2)2 (1−v2)2 (1−v2)2\nPrzy stopie procentowej i = 0,05 mamy, że\n1 1 v = = ≃ 0,952381,\n1+i 1,05 a wtedy S ≃ 540. □\n(II. sposób) Taką rentę możemy podzielić na dwie „podrenty”.\nZajmijmy się nimi po kolei.\nRenta płatna w latach nieparzystych. Dla tej renty jej k-ta wypłata ma postać\nX′ = 2+(k−1)⋅3, k a więc jej wartość obecna to\n∞ ∞ k−1\nPV = ∑X′⋅(v2)k−1 = ∑[2+(k−1)⋅3]⋅(v2) = np k k=1 k=1\n∞\n= ∑(2⋅v2k+3k⋅v2k−3⋅v2k) = v2 k=1\n∞ ∞\n= 1 ⎛ ⎜∑3k⋅v2k− ∑v2k⎞ ⎟ = v2\n⎝ ⎠ k=1 k=1\n\n∞ ∞ ∞ ∞\n= 1 ⎛ ⎜3∑k⋅(v2)k− ∑(v2)k⎞ ⎟ = 1 ⎛ ⎜3∑k⋅vk− ∑vk⎞ ⎟, v2 v\n⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ k=1 k=1 k=1 k=1 gdzie v = v2 . Następnie, korzystając ze znanych już formuł, otrzymujemy\n∞ v v2\n∑vk = =\n1−v 1−v2 k=1 oraz\n∞ n v v2\n∑k⋅vk = lim ∑k⋅vk = = , n→∞ (1−v)2 (1−v2)2 k=1 k=1 a ponieważ v2 = 0,906, to mamy\n∞\n1 1\n∑vk = = ≃ 10,64,\n1−v2 1−0,906 k=1 stąd zaś\n1 v2 v2\nPV = (3⋅ − ) = np v2 (1−v2)2 1−v2\n1 1\n= 3⋅ − = 3⋅(10,64)2−10,64 = 328,99.\n(1−v2)2 1−v2\nRenta płatna w latach parzystych\nX′′ = 3+(k−1)2 k i wtedy\n∞ ∞ k−1 k−1\nFV = ∑X′′⋅v⋅(v2) = v∑X′′⋅(v2) = p k k k=1 k=1\n∞ ∞ k−1 k−1\n= v∑[3+(k−1)2]⋅(v2) = v∑(1+2k)⋅(v2) = k=1 k=1\n∞ ∞\n=\n1 ⎛ ⎜∑vk+2∑kvk⎞\n⎟ =\n⋅( v\n+2 v\n) = v v 1−v (1−v)2\n⎝ ⎠ k=1 k=1\n1 v2 v2\n= ( +2 ) = v 1−v2 (1−v2)2\n\n= 1,05⋅(0,906⋅10,64+2⋅0,906⋅(10,64)2) = 225,51.\nOstatecznie mamy\nPV = PV +PV ≃ 328,99+225,51 = 554,50. □ np p\n7. Pracownik rozważa metodę zabezpieczenia swoich finansów na moment przejścia na emeryturę, co nastąpi za dziesięć lat. Zakładając, że może on z bieżących dochodów odłożyć na początku każdego miesiąca tysiąc złotych i że nominalna stopa oprocentowania lokat ma być równa i = 0,05, to czy ze zgromadzonych pieniędzy może on liczyć na kwotę dwunastu tysięcy wypłacanych na początku każdego roku, spośród piętnastu, jakie emeryt zamierza przeżyć od chwili uzyskania świadczeń?\nRozwiązanie. Skoro do momentu przejścia na emeryturę czeka pracownika jeszcze dekada, to jego regularne wpłaty w kwocie 1000 j.m. dokonywane na początku miesiąca stanowią dziesięcioletnią rentę płatną z góry, pamiętając, że stopa nominalna lokat jest równa i = 0,05. Tu warto zauważyć rzecz oczywistą, że wpłata w pierwszym miesiącu będzie oprocentowana na 12 ⋅0,05, druga na 11 ⋅0,05, a ostatnia na 1 ⋅0,05, dlatego też wygodniej nam\n12 12 będzie ustalić wysokość rocznej wpłaty wraz z oprocentowaniem.\nOznaczając ją przez W, mamy\n12 11\nW = 1000⋅(1+ ⋅0,05)+1000⋅(1+ ⋅0,05)+...\n12 12\n...+1000⋅(1+ ⋅0,05) =\n12+11+...+2+1 78\n= 12000+ ⋅50 = 12000+ ⋅50 = 12325.\n12 12\nTym samym wpłaty na lokatę można uznać za rentę płatną z góry o wartości przyszłej W = 12325, ale rentę 9-letnią, bo pierwsza taka kwota zostanie zgromadzona po upływie roku, a ostatnia po upływie kolejnych 9 lat. A więc wartość przyszła, za dziesięć lat\n\nFV wyniesie\n1−1,05\nFV = W ⋅a = 12325⋅1⋅ =\n90,05 1−1,05\n1,05 −1\n= 12000⋅ = 12000⋅20⋅(1,059−1) =\n0,05\n= 240000⋅(1,551328216−1)240000⋅0,551328216 =\n= 132318,7718.\nWszystko, co otrzyma emeryt, da się zaktualizować na chwilę t =\n10, czyli na moment przejścia na emeryturę. Mamy więc nową rentę płatną z góry przez piętnaście lat, przy tej samej stopie procentowej, bo kapitał, jaki został zgromadzony, będzie też „obrastał odsetkami” przy stopie i = 0,05. Zaktualizowaną sumę wypłat oznaczmy przez\nPV . Mamy wtedy\n15 15\n1−( 1 ) 1−( 1 )\n1,05 1,05\nPV = 12000⋅1⋅ = 12000⋅1⋅ =\n10 1− 1 0,05\n1,05 1,05\n= 12000⋅21⋅[1−( ) ] = 12000⋅21⋅(1−0,481017098) =\n1,05\n= 12000⋅21⋅0,518982901 = 132318,7718.\nOdpowiedź na postawione w zadaniu pytanie jest twierdząca, ponieważ\nFV −PV = 132318,7718−132318,7718 = 1535,08052.\n10 10\nGdyby jednak zapobiegliwy przyszły emeryt miał pecha i przeżył na emeryturze więcej, niż piętnaście lat, to po upływie tego czasu\n□ nie mógłby już liczyć na dodatkowe pieniądze.\n8. Wyznaczyć wartość obecną renty wieczystej, płatnej z dołu i wypłacającej w roku k ratę w wysokości 1 , gdzie k ∈ N , jeżeli obowiązuje k + płaska struktura stóp terminowych, a stopa procentowa wynosi i = 0,05.\n\nRozwiązanie. Tradycyjnie niech PV oznacza wartość obecną renty.\nSkoro dana jest stopa procentowa i = 0,05, to przedstawmy wartość obecną renty jako funkcję argumentu i. Zatem\n∞\nPV(i) = ∑ ⋅(1+i)−k.\nk k=1\nNie dysponujemy zależnością, która pozwalałaby na zwarty zapis ostatniej formuły, jednak traktując prawą jej stronę jako sumę szeregu potęgowego, możemy skorzystać z twierdzenia o różniczkowalności takiego szeregu „wyraz po wyrazie”. Na wstępie obliczmy pochodną PV(i).\n∞\n1 1\nPV′(i) = −∑(1+i)−k−1 = −[ + +...].\n(1+i)2 (1+i)3 k=1\nOtrzymana suma szeregu geometrycznego ma iloraz 1 < 1,\n1+i a więc spełniony jest warunek jego zbieżności. Dostajemy zgodnie z nim\n(1+i)2 −1\nPV′(i) = − = .\n1 i(1+i)\n1−\n1+i\nTeraz możemy się powołać na twierdzenie o całkowalności szeregu potęgowego „wyraz po wyrazie”, co daje nam równość\n1 1 1\nPV(i) = −∫ di = ∫( − )di = i(1+i) 1+i i\n1+i\n= ln|1+i|−ln|i| = ln∣ ∣.\ni\nDla i = 0,05 dostajemy\n1+0,05\nPV(0,05) = ln∣ ∣ = ln21 = 3,045\n0,05\n□ i to jest odpowiedź na postawione w zadaniu pytanie.\n\n2.2.5. Zadania do samodzielnego rozwiązania\n1. Renta 5-letnia płacąca z dołu raty roczne w stałej wysokości X k =\n5000 j.m. ma wartość obecną PV = 16375,10. Wyznaczyć wartość stopy procentowej, przy której wartość ta została osiągnięta [2].\n2. Rozpatrzmy dwie renty pewne, 12-okresowe, płacące raty w wysokości X = 100 j.m. każda, przy okresowej stopie procentowej k wynoszącej i = 0,095, przy czym jedna z nich raty płaci z góry, a druga z dołu. Przy jakiej wartości stopy procentowej zachodziłaby równość |PV −PV | = 0,8⋅X [2]?\n1 2 k\n3. Rozpatrzmy rentę 12-miesięczną płatną z dołu, której kwoty wypłat opisuje następujący warunek:\n⎧ { 100 j.m., dla k ∈ {1,2,3,4,5},\n{\nX k = ⎨ 200 j.m., dla k ∈ {6,7,8,9},\n{\n{ ⎩ 150 j.m., dla k ∈ {10,11,12}.\nWiedząc, że w czasie życia renty obowiązuje nominalna stopa procentowa i = 0,12 oraz kapitalizacja miesięczna, obliczyć dla tej renty wartości obecną PV oraz wartość przyszłą FV.\n4. Dane są dwie renty wieczyste. Pierwsza z nich w roku k ∈ N +\n(k−1)2+1 wypłaca ratę w wysokości X = na początku roku, k 2k−1⋅(k−1)!\nnatomiast druga wypłaca ratę na końcu roku w wysokości Y = k k(k+2). Ile wynosi suma wartości obecnych tych rent, jeżeli stopa procentowa jest równa i = 0,045? [Z2.EA04.04.11.]\n5. Renta wieczysta płatna z dołu wypłaca w k-tym okresie kwotę\n1 1 1 w wysokości X = 1+ + +...+ , dla k ∈ N . Wiedząc, że k 2 3 k + w czasie życia renty stopa procentowa wynosi i = 0,05 i jest stała, wyznaczyć PV – wartość obecną renty [Z2.EA14.05.07.]\n6. Renta 20-letnia, płatna z dołu, wypłaca w k-tym okresie kwotę w wysokości X = ( ) j.m. Wiedząc, że w czasie trwania renty k k stopa procentowa jest stała oraz równa i = 0,05, obliczyć wartość obecną renty. [Z6.EA05.06.06.]\n\n7. Obliczyć wartość przyszłą 15-miesięcznej renty o stałej wysokości wypłat kwartalnych, wiedząc, że kwoty wypłat rosną w kolejnych kwartałach o 4%. Pierwsza rata renty wynosi 150, a miesięczna stopa procentowa jest równa 2%. [Z9.EA17.06.00.]\n8. Wyznaczyć wartość obecną płatności dokonywanych na końcu każdego roku przez okres 25 lat, wiedząc, że wysokość płatności w roku k wynosi X = k(26−k) dla k ∈ {1,2,...,25}. Przyjąć efektywną k roczną stopę i = 5,00%. [Z8.EA11.10.03.] ef\n9. Renta wieczysta płaci na koniec roku o numerze k ∈ N + kwotę k\nX = . Efektywna roczna stopa dyskontowa jest zmienna, k k+1 k przy czym w roku k wynosi ona ⋅ i, gdzie stale i = 0,08.\nk+1\nWyznaczyć wartość obecną tej renty. [Z8.EA09.10.06.]\n10. Renta wieczysta płatna z dołu w roku o numerze k ∈ N + płaci ratę\nX = . Rozpatrzmy n takich identycznych rent, gdzie n ∈ k k(k+1)\nN . Ile co najmniej powinno wynosić n, aby suma wartości obecnych\n+ rent była dwukrotnie wyższa od wartości obecnej renty wieczystej płatnej z dołu wypłacającej kwotę Y = , jeśli obowiązuje stały k k czynnik czynnik dyskontujący v = 0,9? [Z3.EA05.10.09.]\n11. Wartość obecną renty wieczystej płatnej z dołu wyraża zależność\nPV = , przy v generowanym przez obowiązującą w czasie\n(1−v)3 życia renty stopę procentową i. Jaka jest wypłata X , jeśli i = 0,05?\n[Z8.EA30.11.09.]\n12. Renta wieczysta płatna z dołu wypłaca w k-tym roku jej życia kwotę w wysokości X =k, dla k ∈ N . Zakładając, że struktura k + terminowa stóp procentowych jest płaska w całym czasie życia renty oraz v = 0,49, obliczyć wartość obecną renty.\n[Z2.EA31.05.10.]\n13. Renta wieczysta płatna z góry wypłaca raty X k na początku każdego nieparzystego roku k. Wysokość raty wypłacanej na początku\n\nroku 2n−1, gdzie n ∈ N, wynosi:\nX = .\nn (n+1)(n+2)⋅3n\nObliczyć wartość PV tej renty na początku pierwszego roku, jeżeli stopa oprocentowania wynosi i = 0,045. [Z10.EA20.06.11.]\n14. Renta wieczysta wypłaca raty na początku każdego nieparzystego roku. Wysokość raty wypłacanej na początku roku o numerze 2n+1, gdzie n ∈ N, jest równa\n(2n+1)(2n+3)\nX = .\n2n+1 2n\nWyznaczyć formułę wyrażającą wartość obecną PV tej renty na początku pierwszego roku, jeżeli czynnik dyskontujący jest stale równy v. [Z2.EA03.10.11.]\n15. Renta wieczysta wypłaca raty na końcu każdego parzystego roku.\nKwota raty wypłacanej na końcu roku 2n, gdzie n ∈ N , wynosi:\n+ n(2n−1)\nX = .\n2n 5n\nPrzyjmijmy, że PV(v) oznacza wartość obecną tej renty obliczoną przy wartości czynnika dyskontującego równej v. Wyznaczyć pochodną funkcji PV(v). [Z10.EA15.06.15.]\n16. Wyznaczyć wartość obecną renty wieczystej płatnej z dołu i wypłacającej w roku k ratę w wysokości X = 1 , gdzie k ∈ N , jeżeli k k + obowiązuje płaska struktura stóp terminowych, a stopa procentowa wynosi i = 0,05. [Z8.EA05.12.05.]\n2.3. Renty – modele ciągłe\nDotychczas traktowaliśmy renty jako funkcje argumentu dyskretnego,\n{1,2,...,n} a więc albo jako elementy zbioru R , czyli renty pewne, albo\n+\nN elementy zbioru R +, czyli ciągi nieskończone – renty wieczyste. Jako\n+ że na etapie omawiania końcowej fazy procesu akumulacji dokonaliśmy przejścia z liczbą przepływów finansowych od przypadków skończonych,\n\npoprzez nieskończenie przeliczalne, do przypadków nieprzeliczalnych, co oznacza w istocie modele ciągłe.\nRozpatrując rentę pewną n okresową, o czasie życia [0;T], taką, że wszystkie przepływy wypłaty CF są równe 1 j.m., zauważamy, że przy t stałej stopie procentowej i > 0 funkcja akumulacji ciągłej A ∶ [0;T] → ct\nR jest graniczną postacią przy n → +∞, funkcji akumulacji złożonej\nA ∶ [0;T] → R i ma postać c i n t\nA (t) = lim A (t) = lim [(1+ ) ] = ct n→+∞ c n→+∞ n n it\n⎡ 1 i⎤\n= lim ⎢(1+ ) ⎥ = eit.\nn→∞ n\n⎣ i ⎦\nPrzyjmujemy wówczas, że δ ∶=df ln(1+i), co daje możliwość nadania funkcji akumulacji nowej postaci, a bardziej precyzyjnie: funkcji akumulacji ciągłej jako funkcji zadanej równością\nA (t) = eδt, dla t ∈ [0;+∞).\nct\nNiezmienność w czasie stopy zwrotu, algebraicznie wyrażona równością\nδ = δ(t) = const w przypadku szczególnym stopy procentowej, prowadzi do modelu ciągłego akumulacji. W literaturze wielkość δ nazywana jest intensywnością oprocentowania, zaś w sytuacji, w której δ nie jest stałą funkcją czasu, funkcję t ↦ δ(t) nazywamy zwykle chwilową stopą procentową.\n2.3.1. Symbolika aktuarialna dla modeli ciągłych\n1. Jednostka kapitału płatna równomiernie, czyli gdy ρ(t) = 1 w ciągu roku przez T lat.\nJest to zatem forma renty pewnej, renty ciągłej, gdy t ∈ [0;T].\nSymbol aktuarialny wartości obecnej takiej renty to a , a więc\nT mamy\n1 T 1\nPV = ∫ ρ(t)⋅e−δtdt = − e−δt∣ = (1−e−δt). (2.37)\nδ δ\n[0;T] 0\n\nWartość przyszła takiej renty ma następujące symbol i formułę:\n1 T 1\nFV = ∫ ρ(t)⋅eδtdt = eδt∣ = (eδt−1). (2.38)\nδ δ\n[0;T] 0\nDla renty ciągłej z jednostką płatną równomiernie w ciągu roku przez T lat mamy zatem:\n■ a – wartość obecna renty ciągłej przy ρ(t) = 1 oraz t ∈\nT\n[0;T].\n■ s – wartość przyszła renty ciągłej przy ρ(t) = 1 oraz t ∈\nT\n[0;T].\n2. Jednostka kapitału płatna równomiernie, czyli gdy ρ(t) = 1 w ciągu roku, ale wieczyście.\nJest to zatem forma renty pewnej, ale ciągłej, w której t ∈ [0;T].\nSymbol aktuarialny wartości obecnej takiej renty to a , a więc\nT mamy\n1 T\nPV =∫ ρ(t)⋅e−δtdt = − lim (e−δt∣ ) =\n[0;+∞) δ T→+∞ 0 (2.39)\n1 1 1 1\n= − lim ( − ) = .\nδ T→+∞ eδ⋅T eδ⋅0 δ\nZ łatwością zauważamy, że wartość przyszła takiej renty jest równa\n1 T\nFV =∫ ρ(t)⋅eδtdt = lim (eδt∣ ) =\n[0;+∞) δ T→+∞ 0\n1 1\n= lim (eδ⋅T −eδ⋅0) = ⋅(∞−1) = +∞.\nδ T→+∞ δ\nA zatem dla renty ciągłej z jednostką płatną równomiernie w ciągu roku wieczyście mamy, że\n■ a ∞ – wartość obecna renty ciągłej przy ρ(t) = 1 oraz t ∈\n[0;+∞) jest odwrotnością intensywności oprocentowania, czyli .\nδ\n■ s ∞ – wartość przyszła renty ciągłej, przy ρ(t) = 1 oraz t ∈\n[0;∞) jest nieograniczona.\n\n3. Renty zmienne płatne w sposób ciągły.\nMając na względzie fakt, że funkcja ρ ∶ [0;T] → R jest ciągła, ale\n+ nie jest określona jawnie, wymagamy od niej, by była rosnąca. W tej sytuacji możemy jedynie omówić przykład funkcji intensywności przepływów. Przyjmijmy, że ρ(t) = t, do tego załóżmy, że T ∈ N .\n+\nWtedy wartość obecna tak określonej renty ciągłej jest wówczas równa\nT tvt 1 T\nPV = ∫ tvtdt = ∫ tvtdt = [ −∫ vtdt] = lnv lnv\n[0;T] 0 0\n1 T 1−vT TvT a −TvT\n= [tvt−∫vtdt] = − = T .\nlnv 0 δ2 δ δ\nZatem dla renty ciągłej z rosnącą funkcją przepływów postaci\nρ(t) = t oraz dla t ∈ [0;T] mamy\n■ (Ia) – wartość obecna renty ciągłej przy ρ(t) = t oraz t ∈\nT\n[0;T].\n■ s ∞ – wartość przyszła renty ciągłej przy ρ(t) = 1 oraz t ∈\n[0;∞) jest nieograniczona.\nCo do zasady, gdy funkcja intensywności (gęstości) przepływów finansowych ρ ∶ [0;T] → R nie jest formalnie określona, to wartość obecna takiej renty jest równa\nT\nPV = ∫ φ(t)vtdt, gdy stopa procentowa i w czasie życia renty jest stała, przez co czynnik dyskontujący jest również stały, przy czym v = ,\n1+i a intensywność oprocentowania δ(t) = δ = ln(1+i) nie zależy od czasu. Jeśli natomiast δ zależy od czasu t, to dostajemy t\nT −∫ δ(s)ds\nPV = ∫ ρ(t)e 0 dt.\n\n2.3.2. Ćwiczenia\n1. Dla przypadku funkcji akumulacji ciągłej, funkcji intensywności oprocentowania δ oraz ciągłej funkcji gęstości płatności ρ tak określonych w przedziale czasu [0;T], że\nδ(t) = δ = const oraz ρ(t) = ρ = const, wyznaczyć wartość obecną PV strumienia płatności, jeśli zachodzi warunek T = 1. Co jest warunkiem koniecznym istnienia PV?\n2. Wyznaczyć wartość obecną PV renty ciągłej o intensywności wypłat\nρ(t) = 1 oraz stałej funkcji natężenia oprocentowania δ(t) = δ = const w przedziale [0;+∞).\n3. Jaka jest wartość obecna ciągłej renty pewnej a n o intensywności oprocentowania równej δ(t) = δ oraz gęstości płatności ρ(t) = 1?\n4. Jaka jest wartość obecna wieczystej renty ciągłej a ∞ o intensywności oprocentowania równej δ(t) = δ oraz gęstości płatności\nρ(t) = 1?\n2.3.3. Przykłady\n1. Dane są renty ciągłe, w których płatność w chwili t jest równa\nρ(t) = t, a natężenie oprocentowania zależy od długości okresu wypłaty i wynosi δ = 1 . Wyznaczyć, ile razy wartość obecna renty n wypłacanej przez trzy lata jest większa od wartości obecnej renty wypłacanej przez dwa lata.\nRozwiązanie. Rozpocznijmy od faktu:\nt\nPV(t) = ∫ ρ(s)e−δsds.\nW naszym przypadku n n\nPV(n) = ∫ ρ(t)e−δtdt = ∫ te− n 1tdt.\n0 0\nDla uproszczenia rachunków obliczmy całkę nieoznaczoną\n\nn ∣ f(t) = t g′(t) = e− n 1t ∣\n∫ te− n 1tdt = ∣ ∣ ∣ ∣ =\n0 ∣ ∣ f′(t) = 1 g(t) = −ne− n 1t ∣ ∣\n= −nte− n 1t+n∫e− n 1tdt = −nte− n 1t−n2e− n 1t+C.\nZ kolei na mocy twierdzenia Newtona-Leibniza możemy policzyć\nPV(n) i mamy:\nn n\nPV(n) = ∫ te− n 1tdt = [−nte− n 1t−n2e− n 1t] =\n= −n2te−1−n2te−1+n2 = n2(1− ).\ne\nStąd\nPV(3) 9(1− 2 e ) 9\nλ = = = = 2,25.\nPV(2) 4(1− 2) 4 e\nZatem λ = 2,25. □\n2. Inwestor rozważa nabycie 10-letniej renty pewnej ciągłej, natychmiast płatnej, o intensywności wypłat określonej przez równość\nρ(t) = t2 . Wiadomo, że w całym rozpatrywanym okresie intensywność oprocentowania jest stała i wynosi δ = 7%. O ile mniej zapłaciłby inwestor, gdyby zrezygnował z otrzymywania płatności w ostatnim, 5-letnim okresie wypłaty, a intensywność oprocentowania zostałaby podwyższona i wynosiłaby δ = 10,00%? Cena renty w każdym rozpatrywanym przypadku jest równa jej obecnej wartości.\nRozwiązanie. Mamy n\nPV(n,δ) = ∫ ρ(t)e−δtdt, a uwzględniając postaci intensywności wypłat oraz intensywności oprocentowania występujące w treści zadania, dostajemy n\nPV(n,δ) = ∫ t2e−δtdt.\n\nWyznaczymy teraz funkcję pierwotną. Mamy\n∣ f(t) = t2, g′(t) = e−δt ∣\n∣ ∣\n∫t2e−δtdt = ∣ ∣ =\n∣ f′(t) = 2t, g(t) = −1e−δt ∣\n∣ ∣\nδ\n∣ f (t) = t, g′(t) = e−δt ∣\n−1 2 ∣ 1 1 ∣\n= t2e−δt+ ∫te−δtdt = ∣ ∣ =\nδ δ ∣ f′(t) = 1, g (t) = −1e−δt ∣\n∣ 1 1 δ ∣\n−1 2 −1 1\n= + ( te−δt+ ∫e−δtdt) =\nδ δ δ δ\n−1 2 2 1 2 2\n= t2e−δt− te−δt− e−δt+C = −e−δt( + + )+C.\nδ δ2 δ3 δ δ2 δ3\nW rezultacie, na mocy twierdzenia Newtona-Leibniza, mamy n\n1 2 2\nPV(n,δ) = [−e−δt( + + )] =\nδ δ2 δ3\n1 2 2 2\n= −e−nδ( n2+ n+ )+ .\nδ δ2 δ3 δ3\nJeśli przez Δ oznaczymy kwotę, którą inwestor zaoszczędzi przy rezygnacji z części okresu wypłat, ale przy podwyższeniu intensywności oprocentowania, to dostajemy\nΔ = PV(20;0,07)−PV(15;0,1) =\n400 40 2 2\n= −e−1,4( + + )+ +\n0,07 0,0049 0,000343 0,000343\n225 30 2 2\n+e−1,5( + + )− ≃ 589.\n0,1 0,01 0,001 0,001\nZatem przyjmujemy Δ ≃ 589. □\n3. Kapitał w kwocie 1 j.m. został zainwestowany w funduszu oprocentowanym w sposób ciągły, z roczną intensywnością oprocentowania w n-tym roku równą δ (n) = λn. Znaleźć wszystkie wartości λ, przy których odsetki zakumulowane na koniec piątego roku wystarczą na zakup piętnastoletniej renty ciągłej o rocznej intensywności wpłat w chwili t równej ρ(t) = 5λ oraz rocznej intensywności oprocentowania δ (t) = λ.\n\nRozwiązanie. Zacznijmy od równania wartości. Mamy\n20 ⎛ 1 ∣ 20 ⎞ e5λ−1 = ∫ 5λe−λtdt = 5λ⎜⎜− e−λt∣ ⎟⎟ =\nλ ∣\n5 ⎝ ∣ 5 ⎠\n1 1\n= 5λ(− e−20λ+ e−5λ)\nλ λ i dalej\n1 1 e5λ−1 = 5( − ).\ne5λ e20λ\nPo pomnożeniu stronami przez e20λ dostajemy równanie e20λ(e5λ−1) = 5(e15λ−1), a po uporządkowaniu\n(e5λ−1)[e20λ−5(e10λ+e5λ+1)] = 0.\nZatem\n(i) e5λ−1 = 0 lub (ii) e20λ−5(e10λ+e5λ+1) = 0.\nZ równania (i) łatwo dostajemy, że 5λ = 0, czyli λ = 0. Ponieważ intensywność oprocentowania δ(t) = λt i równocześnie t ∈ [5;20], to intensywność oprocentowania dla każdego t musi spełniać warunek 0 < δ(t) < 2. W takim przypadku mamy, że 20λ < 2, czyli\nλ < 1 . To dla nas ważna informacja, bowiem mamy ograniczenie na u = e5λ postaci u ∈ (1;1,65), co po dokonaniu podstawienia prowadzi do równości u4−5(u2+u+1) = 0.\nW celu oceny istnienia pierwiastków tego równania wielomianowego wprowadźmy funkcję pomocniczą f określoną w przedziale u ∈ (1;1,65) i mającą wzór f(u) = u4−5(u2+u+1).\n\nJej pochodna ma postać f′(u) = 4u3−10u−5, a nieznacznie ją przekształcając, dostajemy f′(u) = 4u(u2− )−5, u ∈ (1;1,65).\nNa dziedzinie funkcji f′ funkcja u ↦ 4u(u2− 5) jest rosnąca i do tego przyjmuje wartości ujemne, co oznacza, że również f′(u) < 0.\nZatem f jest malejąca w dziedzinie, a ponadto inf f(u) = −14, u∈(1;1,65) co gwarantuje nieistnienie pierwiastków w dziedzinie. Skoro tak, to dostajemy pośrednio, że równanie (ii) nie ma rozwiązania. Warunki zadania są spełnione tylko przy λ = 0. □\n2.3.4. Zadania do samodzielnego rozwiązania\n1. Rozpatrzmy dwie renty. Pierwszą arytmetyczną, n-letnią, z dołu, natychmiast płatną, o ratach w wysokości\nX = 1000+(t−1)⋅500, t dla t ∈ {1,2,...,n}, których suma wynosi 332500. Drugą, również natychmiast płatną, ale ciągłą, o czasie trwanian identycznym jak w przypadku renty poprzedniej o intensywności wypłat ρ(t) = λ⋅t.\nWartość obecna obydwu rent jest identyczna. Przy założeniach, że:\n■ struktura terminowa jest płaska oraz v = 0,9;\n■ intensywność jej wypłat opisuje formuła\n⎧ { 0, dla t ∈ [0;5],\nρ (t) =\n∗ ⎨\n{ ⎩ (√3 a+2)⋅t, dla t ∈ (5;n];\nnależy obliczyć wartość obecną drugiej renty. [Z10.EA12.10.02.]\n\n2. Natężenie oprocentowania w chwili t wynosi δ(t) = kt3 , zaś K jest wartością obecną sześcioletniej renty ciągłej o intensywności wypłat ρ(t) = mt3 . Wyznaczyć wartość K. [Z5.EA15.01.00.]\n3. Dane są renty ciągłe, w przypadku których intensywność płatności w chwili t wynosi ρ(t) = t, natomiast natężenie oprocentowania\nδ zależne jest od okresu wypłacania renty n i wynosi δ(t) = 1t.\nn\nWyznaczyć, ile razy obecna wartość renty wypłacanej przez okres trzech lat jest większa od wartości obecnej renty wypłacanej przez dwa lata. [Z4.EA17.06.00.]\n4. Ile wynosi na koniec drugiego roku wartość renty, w przypadku której kwota w wysokości 1 j.m. wypłacana jest na początku każdego roku przez 10 lat, natomiast oprocentowanie w roku t wynosi i(t) = . [Z3.EA24.03.01.]\n5+t\n5. Niech K(t) oznacza stan środków w funduszu, w którym natężenie oprocentowania opisuje zależność δ(t) = mt2 +nt+k. W chwili t = 0 do funduszu wpłynęła kwota 1 j.m. Wiedząc, że:\n⎧ { e0,004, gdy t = 1,\n{\nK(1) = ⎨ e0,42, gdy t = 3,\n{\n{ ⎩ e1,60, gdy t = 5, wyznaczyć K(7). [Z10.EA17.05.03.]\n6. Stopa procentowa i jest roczną efektywną stopą oprocentowania równoważną intensywności oprocentowania, którą opisuje następująca zależność\n2t5+6(t3+t)\nδ(t) = , gdy t ∈ [0;1].\nt6+t4+12t2+8\nW chwili t = 0 kwoty w wysokości 1 j.m. zostają wpłacone do funduszy A oraz B, w których obowiązują modele ciągłe akumulacji, przy czym\n■ w funduszu A jest to funkcja akumulacji prostej,\n■ w funduszu B funkcja akumulacji z intensywnością oprocentowania δ.\n\nWyznaczyć chwilę t, w której funkcja K(t) = K (t)−K (t) osią-\nA B gnie maksimum, przy czym K (t) oraz K (t) oznaczają odpo-\nA B wiednio kwoty zgromadzone w funduszu A oraz w funduszu B.\n[Z8.EA15.06.02.]\n7. Natężenie oprocentowania δ ∶ R + → R określa zależność\n1 1\nδ(t) = +\n1+2et 1+3e2t\nWyznaczyć roczną efektywną stopę oprocentowania w trzecim roku trwania inwestycji, czyli gdy t ∈ (2;3) lub inaczej, między t = 2, a t = 3. [Z10.EA06.12.03.]\n8. Intensywność oprocentowania δ(t) = , gdzie funkcja f spełnia f(t) dla wszystkich x, y zależność:\nx+y f(x)+f(y) f ( ) = [ ].\n2 2\nDodatkowo wiadomo, że δ(t) jest funkcją ciągłą spełniającą warunki: δ(0) = 1 oraz δ(1) = 1 . Obliczyć a . [Z10.EA17.01.05.] t n i\n9. Rachunek oszczędnościowy założono w chwili 0 z początkową wpłatą w wysokości 1 j.m. Dalsze wpływy na rachunek dokonywane były w sposób ciągły z roczną intensywnością ρ ∶ R → R\n+ w chwilach t > 0. Ciągła intensywność wpłat środków na rachunek wynosiła ρ(t) = (1 + t)ln(1+t), podczas gdy ciągła intensywność oprocentowania środków zdeponowanych na nim wynosiła\nδ(t) = . Obliczyć zakumulowaną wartość środków w chwili\n1+t t = 4,5. [Z3.EA10.10.05.]\n2.4. Dyskonto i dyskontowanie\n2.4.1. Podstawowe definicje i własności\nTa część jest rozszerzoną kontynuacją paragrafu w rozdziale dotyczącym funkcji akumulacji. Najogólniej mówiąc, dyskontowanie jest odwrotnością oprocentowania. Proces dyskontowania pozwala wyznaczać wartość obecną pieniądza, spodziewanego w przyszłości. W sposób bardziej\n\nsformalizowany, zgodnie z definicjami wcześniej wprowadzonych pojęć, zachodzą równości\nFV PV 1\nFV = (1+r)t⋅PV ⟺ = (1+r)t ⟺ = ,\nPV FV (1+r)t gdzie t oznacza czas (liczony w latach) dzielący początek i koniec inwestycji, zaś r jest stałą, nominalną stopą procentową w tym czasie.\nZauważamy, że wykorzystując definicję funkcji akumulacji A określonej równością A(t) =df (1+r)t , moglibyśmy zapisać\nFV = PV⋅A(t) ⟺ PV = FV⋅ .\nA(t)\nPowołując się na wcześniejsze ustalenia, funkcję dyskontowania D możemy zdefiniować równością\nD(t) =df ,\nA(t) o czym była mowa wcześniej. Pamiętając, że wtedy też, przy ustalonej nominalnej stopie procentowej r, przyjmowaliśmy v =df\n1+r i nazywaliśmy czynnikiem dyskontującym. W nomenklaturze matematyki finansowej przez stopę dyskontową, oznaczaną symbolem d, rozumiemy stosunek odsetek do kwoty na koniec okresu inwestowania, a więc r d =df .\n1+r\nZałóżmy, że pożyczamy 1 j.m. przy efektywnej stopie dyskontowej d.\nW rzeczywistości otrzymujemy realnie kwotę 1−d, zaś d stanowi kwotę odsetek. Zgodnie z wcześniejszą definicją stopy procentowej dostajemy zależność d r = .\n1−d\nPoza dyskontem bezprzymiotnikowym w praktyce bankowej występuje również dyskonto handlowe oznaczane symbolem D , które definiowane h jest równością\nD =df FV −PV.\nh\n\nZauważmy, że ze względu na tę definicję D jest kwotą wyrażoną w jedh nostkach monetarnych, a więc miarą bezwzględną, nie zaś stopą procentową wyrażoną w jednostkach niemianowanych, czyli miarą względną\n[1, 4].\n2.4.2. Ćwiczenia\n1. Sformułować definicję dyskonta oraz stopy dyskonta.\n2. Pokazać, że w modelu inwestycji opartej na funkcji akumulacji złożonej, kapitalizacji rocznej i czasie trwania t wyrażonym w latach, stopie dyskonta D i stopie zwrotu r = r(t) zachodzi równość:\n[1+D(t)]⋅[1+r(t)] = 1.\n3. Czy jeśli v 1 oraz v 2 są funkcjami dyskonta, to czy są nimi również funkcje v∗ = v ⋅v lub v∘ = v +v ?\n1 2 1 2\n4. Niech v ∶ [0;+∞)2 → [0;+∞) będzie określona warunkiem\n⎧ 1\n{ { , gdy s < t,\n1+(t−s) v(s,t) =\n⎨\n{\n{ ⎩ 1+(t−s), gdy s ⩾ t.\nDowieść, że v nie jest funkcją dyskonta.\n5. Pokazać, że jeśli p ∶ [0;+∞) → [0;+∞) jest dowolną funkcją, to p(t) funkcja v(s,t) = jest funkcją dyskonta.\np(s)\n6. Rozpatrzmy inwestycję z modelem oprocentowania składanego i rocznym okresem kapitalizacji, gdzie symbol I oznacza wysokość odsetek, K – kapitał początkowy inwestycji, i – stopę procentową w czasie trwania inwestycji, w którym dla n ∈ N zachodzą\n+ równości\n(i) FV = K(1+i)n oraz (ii) I = K[(1+i)n−1],\n\nsymbol D oznacza wysokość dyskonta w okresie jednego roku, v jest rocznym czynnikiem dyskontującym, d – roczną stopą dyskontową\n(utratą wartości zainwestowanego kapitału w ciągu roku), przy czym spełnione są zależności\n1 i\n(iii) v = oraz (iv) d = 1−v = .\n1+i 1+i\nUdowodnić, że w tym modelu D = I.\n7. Rozpatrzmy inwestycję modelowaną przez funkcję akumulacji złożonej o rocznym okresie kapitalizacji, kapitale początkowym K, stopie procentowej i > 0 stałej w czasie życia inwestycji oraz wartości odsetek I(k) — za rok k ∈ {1,2,...,n}. Dowieść, że w przedstawionym modelu zachodzi równość n\n∑I(k) = K⋅[(1+i)n−1].\nk=1\n8. Przedstawić definicję realnej stopy zwrotu oraz dowieść twierdzenie zwane wzorem Fishera.\n2.4.3. Przykłady\n1. Dla t ∈ [0;+∞) na rynku obowiązują: stała stopa procentowa i oraz związany z nią czynnik dyskontujący v = .\n1+i\n(i) Rozpatrzmy rentę wieczystą wypłacającą na koniec każdego roku od chwili jej ustanowienia kwoty CF = n, tj. dla n ∈ N.\nn\nObliczyć wartość obecną tej renty.\n(ii) Rozpatrzmy rentę wieczystą wypłacającą na koniec każdego roku od chwili jej ustanowienia kwoty CF = n2 , tj. dla n ∈ N.\nn\nObliczyć wartość obecną tej renty.\nRozwiązanie. Przyjmijmy klasyczne oznaczenia, a więc niech\nK(0) = PV oznacza poszukiwaną kwotę, będącą w istocie kapitałem rentowym.\n\nAd (i) Mamy równości\nPV = 1v+2v2+3v3+... oraz PV⋅v = v2+2v3+3v4+...\nOdejmując stronami, dostajemy v\nPV −PV ⋅v = (1−v)⋅PV = v+v2+v3+... = ,\n1−v a w konsekwencji otrzymujemy v\nPV = = (Ia) .\n(1−v)2 ∞ i\nRenta określona w podpunkcie (i) nazywana jest wieczystą rentą arytmetyczną płatną z dołu, której symbolem aktuarialnym jest wprowadzony na koniec symbol (Ia) .\n∞ i\n□\nAd (ii) Mamy\nPV = 12v+22v2+32v3+42v4+...\noraz\nPV⋅v = 12v2+22v3+32v4+...\nOdejmując stronami dostajemy\nPV −PV ⋅v =\n= v+(22−12)⋅v2+(32−22)v3+(b2−32)v4!+!... =\n= v+3v2+5v3+7v4+... =\n= (v+v2+v3+v4+...)+(2v2+4v3+6v4+...) =\n= v+3v2+5v3+7v4+... =\n= (v+v2+v3+v4+...)+2v(1v+2v2+3v3+...).\nRównoważnie możemy zapisać v v\n(1−v)⋅PV = +2v⋅ =a +2v(Ia) ,\n1−v (1−v)2 ∞ i ∞ i\n\na w konsekwencji mamy v v 1 v v\nPV = +2v⋅ = [ +2v⋅ ].\n(1−v)2 (1−v)3 1−v 1−v (1−v)2\nOtrzymaliśmy zatem, że\nPV = 12⋅v+22⋅v2+32⋅v3+42⋅ v4... =\n1 v v\n= [ +2v⋅ ] = ä [a +2v(Ia) ].\n1−v 1−v (1−v)2 ∞ i ∞ i ∞ i\n□\n2. Wyznaczyć kwotę wpłaconą na 3-letnią lokatę o kapitalizacji kwartalnej, gdzie przez 2 lata i kwartał oprocentowanie nominalne wynosiło 12%, a przez pozostałą część czasu jej trwania – 8%, jeśli po 3 latach wartość lokaty wyniosła 25479,60.\nRozwiązanie. Niech, podobnie jak w poprzednim zadaniu, K(0) oznacza poszukiwaną kwotę, a FV = K(4) = 25479,60. Czas trwania depozytu został podzielony na kwartały w celach formalnych.\nMamy zatem, że\n1 1\nD(i) = v = = i 1+ 12 1,03 dla kwartałów o numerach i ∈ {1,2,...,9}, a dla kwartałów o numerach i ∈ {10,11,...,16}\n1 1\nD(i) = v = = .\ni 1+ 8 1,02\nZgrabniej byłoby użyć zapisu warunkowego\n⎧ 1\n{ , dla i ∈ {1,2,...,9},\n{ 1,03\nD(i) =\n⎨ { 1\n{ , dla i ∈ {10,11,...,16}.\n⎩ 1,02\n\nW tej sytuacji dostajemy\nK(0) = K(4)⋅D(4) = K(4)⋅∏D(i) = i=1\n9 16\n= K(4)⋅[∏D(i)⋅ ∏ D(i)].\ni=1 i=10\nStąd\n9 7\n1 1\nK(0) = 25479,60⋅( ) ⋅( ) ≃ 17000.\n1,03 1,02\nUwzględniając dokładność używanych kalkulatorów i biorąc pod uwagę przybliżenie, przyjmujemy wynik z dokładnością do jednej jednostki monetarnej 17000 j.m. □\n3. Pan Ernest planuje za dwa lata spędzić wraz z żoną i dwojgiem dzieci tygodniowe wakacje w Turcji. Ocenia, że na ten cel potrzebnych będzie około 4000 €, co przy możliwych wahaniach kursów walut oznacza konieczność zgromadzenia na ten cel około 20000\nPLN. Przewiduje się, że na przestrzeni dwóch lat bazowa stopa oprocentowania rocznego lokat będzie wynosić r = 6%, o czym świadczyć może oprocentowanie obligacji skarbowych. Jaką kwotę pan Ernest powinien jednorazowo uiścić na lokacie, jeśli zakładamy, że kwoty wpłaty mogą być wielokrotnością 200 PLN?\nRozwiązanie. Z treści zadania wynika, że pan Ernest dokona wpłaty w złotówkach, w których zarabia. Kwota 20000 PLN, jak rozumiemy, oznacza wszystkie wydatki potrzebne na planowane wakacje i potraktujemy ją jako wartość przyszłą wydatku równą\nFV = K(2) = 20000. Z kolei informacja o stałym oprocentowaniu lokat terminowych, wynoszącym r = 6%, pozwala na określenie funkcji akumulacji oraz funkcji dyskontowania w przedziale czasu\n[0;2] jako funkcji postaci A(t) = (1+r)t oraz funkcji dyskontującej\nD(t) = . Mamy zatem, że\n(1+r)t\nPV = K(0) = D(t)FV,\n\na stąd otrzymujemy\nPV = K(0) = D(2)⋅FV = ⋅FV =\n(1,06)2\n= ⋅20000 ≃ 17799,928,\n(1,06)2 co przy konieczności wpłaty będącej wielokrotnością 200 złotych oznacza, że wartość obecna przyszłego wydatku, czyli PV rozumiane jako kwota wpłaty K(0) musi wynieść co najmniej 17800\n□ złotych.\n4. Pan Krzysztof planuje za dwa lata spędzić wraz z żoną i dwojgiem dzieci tygodniowe wakacje w Turcji. Ocenia, że na ten cel potrzebnych będzie około 4000 €, co przy możliwych wahaniach kursów walut oznacza konieczność zgromadzenia na ten cel około 20000\nPLN. Przewiduje się, że na przestrzeni dwóch lat bazowa stopa oprocentowania rocznego lokat będzie wynosić r = 6%, o czym świadczyć może oprocentowanie obligacji skarbowych. Jaką stałą kwotę powinien wpłacać pan Krzysztof na początku kolejnych\n24 miesięcy, aby odłożyć niezbędne pieniądze, jeśli zakładamy, że kwoty wpłaty mogą być wielokrotnością 200 PLN.\nRozwiązanie. Rozkładając proces oszczędzania pieniędzy na pokrycie kosztów przyszłej wycieczki, musimy wziąć pod uwagę efektywną stopę procentową r , dla której zachodzi równość (1 + ef r )12 = 1+r , gdzie przy danych z zadania mamy r = 0,06.\nef nom nom\nW związku z tym r = 1√2 1,06−1, ef co daje r ≃ 1,00486755−1 = 0,0049 — tyle wynosi miesięczef na stopa procentowa dla dwuletniego procesu oszczędzania. Nas jednak interesuje miesięczny czynnik akumulacji a = 1+r , wyef noszący w warunkach zadania a = 1,0049.\nNiech teraz Y oznacza comiesięczną ratę wpłaty. Mamy stąd\nFV = Y(a24+a23+a22+...+a2+a1) =\n\n24 1−a24\n= Y ⋅ ∑ak = Y⋅a⋅ .\n1−a k=1\nUwzględniając dane liczbowe, mamy\n1−(1,0049)24\n20000 = Y ⋅[1,0049 ] =\n1−1,0049\n(1,0049)24−1\n= Y ⋅[1,0049 ] =\n1,0049−1\n1,0049\n= Y ⋅ ⋅[(1,0049)24−1] =\n1,0049−1\n1,0049\n= Y ⋅ ⋅(1,1245−1) =\n0,0049\n= Y ⋅208,08⋅0,1245 = Y ⋅25,906.\nJako konsekwencję tej informacji otrzymujemy\n20000\nY = ≃ 772,022.\n25,906\nPonieważ wpłaty na lokatę bankową muszą być wielokrotnościami\n200 PLN, to miesięczna rata będzie równa Y∗ = 800 PLN. Wtedy jednak kwota zgromadzona na eskapadę do Turcji wyniesie FV∗ =\n800⋅25,906 = 20724,80. □\n5. Dwaj studenci zamierzają wynająć mieszkanie od osoby planującej wyjazd na dwa lata za granicę. Właściciel mieszkania proponuje jednorazową opłatę w wysokości 20000 PLN, jednak studenci nie dysponują tak dużą kwotą i proszą o rozłożenie należności na cztery półroczne raty. Właściciel przystaje na tę propozycję i proponuje raty w wysokości 6000 PLN wpłacane z góry, a więc w pierwszym dniu każdego półrocznego okresu, na jego konto, na którym odsetki naliczane są miesięcznie przy miesięcznej stopie 0,95%.\n(i) Jaką kwotę otrzyma właściciel po powrocie z zagranicy?\n(ii) Czy mając możliwość zapłacenia za mieszkanie z góry, studenci powinni wybrać wariant ratalny?\n\nRozwiązanie. Ponieważ wysokość raty jest ustalona i wynosi\nX = 6000 PLN, to możemy popatrzeć na proces zapłaty jak na rentę pewną, czerookresową, płatną co pół roku. Stąd\nCF = CF = CF = CF = X = 6000.\n0 1 2 3\nZ drugiej strony cena wynajmu mieszkania została ustalona w chwili t = 0 w kwocie X = 6000 PLN i to na tę chwilę należy zannualizować wszystkie związane z wynajmem przepływy finansowe.\nOznaczmy przez t moment wpłaty kwoty X na konto bankowe k−1 właściciela mieszkania przy k ∈ {1,2,3,4}. Mamy zatem, że\nCF = X ⋅DF(0;0) = X ⋅1,\nCF = X ⋅DF(0;6) = X ⋅0,947,\n(1)\nCF = X ⋅DF(0;12) = X ⋅0,897,\nCF = X ⋅DF(0;18) = X ⋅0,850.\nZ tych to powodów otrzymujemy, że wartość obecna, w rozumieniu\n„na chwilę” t = 0, jest równa\nPV = K(0) = CF ⋅DF(0;0)+CF ⋅DF(0;6)+\n0 1\n+CF ⋅DF(0;12)+CF ⋅DF(0;18).\n2 3\nZ informacji zawartych w treści zadania wiemy, że kapitalizacja odsetek w banku, w którym ma konto właściciel mieszkania, następuje na koniec każdego miesiąca — czyli z dołu i przy stopie miesięcznej r = 0,0095 = 0,95%. W rezultacie czynnik dyskontujący (stały przy stałej stopie procentowej lokat) jest równy\n1 1 v = = = 0,9905894 ≃ 0,991.\n1+0,0095 1,0095\nKonsekwencją tego są wartości potrzebnych nam czynników opisane równością\nDF(0;k−1) = vk−1\n\ni dalej\nDF = DF(0;0) = (v6)(1−1) = 1,\n(2−1)\nDF = DF(0;6) = (v6) ,\n(3−1)\nDF = DF(0;12) = (v6) ,\n(4−1)\nDF = DF(0;18) = (v6) .\nDysponując przedstawionymi wartościami, otrzymujemy\nPV = 6000(1+0,947+0,897+0,850) =\n= 6000⋅3,694 = 22164.\nW związku z tym odpowiedź na postawione w zadaniu pytania brzmi następująco:\nAd (i) W przypadku powrotu z zagranicy właściciel mieszkania będzie miał na koncie kwotę 22164 PLN, przewyższającą znacznie żądaną przez niego kwotę 20000 PLN.\nAd (ii) W tej sytuacji jest oczywiste, że studenci powinni wybrać\n□ możliwość zapłaty z góry za wynajmowane mieszkanie.\n6. Pan Kowalski chciałby kupić mieszkanie i na ten cel powinien zgromadzić kwotę 600000 PLN. Obecnie dysponuje kapitałem 16000\nPLN, który ma możliwość ulokowania w inwestycję opartą na procencie składanym, naliczanym w skali roku i wynoszącym 32%.\nJak długo powinna trwać ta inwestycja, aby Pan Kowalski mógł kupić zaplanowane mieszkanie, jeśli w tym czasie jego cena nie ulegnie zmianie?\nRozwiązanie. Jedynym problemem jest odpowiedź na pytanie o to, przez jak długi okres czasu powinna trwać inwestycja polegająca na depozycie bankowym, by jej zdyskontowana wartość przyszła\nFV = 600000 PLN dała kwotę PV = 16000 PLN.\nJako że musimy udzielić odpowiedzi w pełnych okresach kapitalizacji, czyli w latach, to należy się spodziewać, że wynik obliczeń musi być ograniczeniem górnym kwoty PV. Zgodnie z wcześniejszymi\n\numowami, spodziewamy się, że\nDF(t) = vt = .\n(1+0,32)t\nW konsekwencji tego\nPV = DF(t)⋅FV, co w kontekście danych z zadania daje równanie\n16000 = 600000 ⋅ ,\n(1+0,32)t a stąd już mamy, że\n600000 600\n(1,32)t = ⟺ (1,32)t = ⟺ (1,32)t = 37,5.\n16000 16\nPo zlogarytmowaniu stronami logarytmem naturalnym i uporządkowaniu dostajemy wynik ln(37,5) t = , ln(1,32)\n3,6243409 t = = 13,054491.\n0,2776317\nOznacza to, że deponując na lokacie bankowej w swoim banku posiadane 16000 PLN przy stałej stopie oprocentowania depozytów w wysokości r = 0,32, pan Kowalski będzie dysponował kwotą\n600000 PLN najwcześniej po upływie 13 lat i dwudziestu dni. □\n7. Wyznaczyć wartość obecną renty wieczystej płacącej w roku k ∈ N + kwotę X = przy założeniu, że w czasie jej życia czynnik k 2k+1 dyskontujący jest równy v = 0,49.\nRozwiązanie. Przejdźmy do obliczeń. Mamy\n∞ ∞\nPV = ∑ vk =\n∑ v k+1\n−1\n2 =\n2k+1 2 k+ 1 k=1 k=1 2\n\n∞\n1 1 k+1\n= ∑ v 2 = Λ. (1)\n2√v n+ 1 k=1 2\nZauważmy, że możemy skorzystać z analitycznych własności ostatniego szeregu potęgowego, o którym wiemy, na mocy stosownego twierdzenia z teorii szeregów funkcyjnych, że można go zarówno różniczkować, jak i całkować wyraz po wyrazie. Stąd\n∞ ′\nΛ = 1 ∫ ⎛ ⎜⎜∑ ⎡ ⎢ 1 v k+1 2 ⎞ ⎟ ⎤ ⎥dv =\n2√v ⎝k=1 ⎣n+ 1 2 ⎠ ⎦\n∞ ′ ∞\n1 ⎡ ⎛ 1 k+1⎞ ⎤ 1 ⎛ k−1⎞\n= ∫⎢∑⎜ v 2⎟ ⎥dv = ∫⎜∑v 2⎟dv =\n2√v ⎣k=1 ⎝n+ 1 2 ⎠ ⎦ 2√v ⎝ k=1 ⎠\n∞\n=\n∫\n⎛\n⎜\n1 ∑vk⎞\n⎟dv =\n∫(\n1 v\n)dv =\n2√v √v 2√v √v1−v\n⎝ ⎠ k=1\n1 √v\n= ∫ dv,\n2√v 1−v ponieważ analizowany szereg jest zbieżnym szeregiem geometrycznym o ilorazie v = 0,49.\nDla wyznaczenia PV = Λ potraktujmy jako osobne zagadnienie\n√v całkę I = ∫ dv. Mamy\n1−v\n∣ √v = t, ∣\n∣ ∣\n√v ∣ 1 ∣ 2t2\nI = ∫ dv = ∣ dv = dt, ∣ = −∫ dt =\n1−v ∣ 2√v ∣ t2−1\n∣ ∣\n∣ ∣\n∣ √vdv = 2t2dt, ∣\n2(t2−1)+2 2\n= −∫ dt = −∫(2+ )dt = t2−1 t2−1\n1 1\n= −∫2dt−∫( − )dt = −2t−ln|t−1|+ln(|t+1|= t−1 t+1 t+1 √v+1\n= ln∣ ∣−2t = ln∣ ∣−2√v.\nt−1 √v−1\nDodajmy dla porządku, że aby uzyskać przekształcenie tożsamościowe, różniczkując, a następnie całkując, przy braku stałej pod\n\nznakiem pochodnej, stałą całkowania C uznajemy za równą 0. Możemy teraz powrócić do wyznaczenia zależności na Λ.\n1 1 √v+1 1 √v+1\nΛ = ⋅I = ⋅(ln∣ ∣−2√v) = ln∣ ∣−1.\n2√v 2√v √v−1 2√v √v−1\nDostaliśmy, że\n1 √v+1\nPV(v) = ln∣ ∣−1,\n2√v √v−1 co przy danym w zadaniu v = 0,49 (wysokość okazuje się nieprzypadkowa) prowadzi do wyniku\n1 1,7 5 17\nPV(0,49) = ln∣ ∣−1 = ln∣ ∣−1 ≃\n1,4 −0,3 7 3\n≃ 1,239−1 = 0,239 ≃ 0,3.\nZatem wartość obecna renty wieczystej, o parametrach zawartych w treści zadania, wynosi PV = 0,3. □\n8. Firma zamierza sprzedać nieruchomość w drodze przetargu. Właściciel otrzymał od potencjalnych nabywców trzy oferty. Pierwszy z nich chciałby ją kupić natychmiast, realizując należność gotówką w wysokości 250000 PLN, drugi proponuje kwotę 260000 PLN przy zapłacie za rok, a trzeci gotów jest zapłacić 280000 PLN za trzy lata. Którą ofertę należy wybrać, jeśli istnieje możliwość ulokowania gotówki w banku przy oprocentowaniu 35% w skali roku?\nRozwiązanie. Podejdźmy do problemu w następujący sposób: na początku zaktualizujmy wszystkie wynikające z ofert kwoty, a więc wyznaczmy dla każdej z kwot jej wartość obecną. Niech PV , PV\n1 2 i PV oznaczają wysokości oferowanych kwot na chwilę t = 0. Czyn-\n\nniki dyskontujące dla poszczególnych ofert są równe\nDF(0) = 1,\nDF(1) = ≃ 0,7407,\n1+0,35\nDF(2) = ≃ 0,5486,\n(1+0,35)2\nDF(3) = ≃ 0,4064421.\n(1+0,35)3\nOtrzymujemy natychmiast, że\nPV = 250000⋅1 = 250000PLN,\nPV = 260000⋅0,7407 ≃ 192582PLN,\nPV = 280000⋅0,4064 ≃ 113792PLN.\nPorządkując uzyskane wyniki, dostajemy zależność:\nPV < PV < PV ,\n3 2 1 a to oznacza, że najbardziej hojna była pierwsza oferta i ją należy\n□ wybrać.\n2.4.4. Zadania do samodzielnego rozwiązania\n1. Kwota K = 1570 j.m. została zdeponowana w banku przy stopie depozytowej r = 12% oraz rocznym okresie kapitalizacji. Ile lat powinna ona pozostać w depozycie, by uzyskać z tej inwestycji\nK = 23000 j.m.?\n2. Wartość nowego ciągnika przeznaczonego do pracy w kamieniołomach wynosi 975000 j.m. Wartość rynkowa takiego ciągnika spada o 22,5% rocznie.\n(i) Obliczyć wartość rynkową ciągnika po ośmiu latach.\n(ii) Jaki procent wartości początkowej wart jest ciągnik po ośmiu latach?\n\n3. W oparciu o kwotę K = 20000 j.m. stanowiącą kapitał rentowy ustanowiono rentę pewną, płatną z dołu, o stałych kwotach wypłat równych X = 2000 j.m. Jak długo będzie można co miesiąc z kapitału rentowego wypłacać kwoty X, przy założeniu kapitalizacji miesięcznej oraz przy miesięcznej stopie procentowej r = 1%?\n4. Organizatorzy konkursu przedstawili jego przyszłym uczestnikom cztery możliwe wersje wypłaty nagrody:\n(i) zaraz po zakończeniu turnieju zwycięzca otrzymuje kwotę\n10000 j.m.;\n(ii) zaraz po konkursie zwycięzca otrzymuje 5000 j.m., a za dwa lata kwotę 7000 j.m.;\n(iii) na początku każdego kolejnego roku przez pięć lat zwycięzca będzie otrzymywał z góry po 2500 j.m.;\n(iv) będzie dostawał z góry kwotę 1500 j.m. do końca życia.\nKtóra z propozycji jest najkorzystniejsza dla zwycięzcy, jeśli założymy, że stopa procentowa wynosi r = 20% [2]?\n5. Franciszek kupił kino domowe za K j.m. Wartość tego sprzętu spada o r% rocznie przez okres pięć lat. Na koniec piątego roku od jego zakupu wartość rynkowa spadła do kwoty 1 K. Znaleźć wartość stopy r z dokładnością do trzech miejsc po przecinku.\n6. Inwestor ma dwie możliwości ulokowania posiadanych pieniędzy:\nw banku A, bądź w banku B. Bank A oferuje kapitalizację miesięczną przy stopie bazowej wynoszącej 18%. Jaka powinna być oferta banku B, aby przy kapitalizacji kwartalnej jego oferta była konkurencyjna wobec banku A?\n7. Inwestorowi przedstawiono możliwość kupna jednej z dwóch rent pewnych, natychmiast płatnych, których wartości obecne są jednakowe i równe K. Formuły wypłat tych rent są postaci:\n(i) Renta 99-letnia ma wypłaty X dokonywane na końcu k-tego k roku, opisane zależnością\nX = 50⋅α,\nX = { 50 k X = X = (50−k)⋅α, dla k ∈ {1,2,...,49}.\n50−k 50+k\n\n(ii) Renta 100-letnia ma wypłaty X dokonywane na końcu k-tego k roku, opisane zależnością\nX = X = 50⋅β,\nX = { 50 51 k X = X = (50−k)⋅β, dla k ∈ {1,2,...49}.\n50−k 51+k\nα\nUstalić , przyjmując do obliczeń i = 0,07. [Z5.EA24.03.01.]\nβ\n8. Obliczyć wartość obecną renty wieczystej płatnej z góry o kwotach wypłat X = k3 dla k ∈ N przy stałej stopie procentowej i = 0,1.\nk +\n9. Dane są dwie renty wieczyste płatne z dołu o formułach wypłat:\n(i) dla renty pierwszej:\n⎧ { k, dla k = 3n+3, gdy n ∈ N,\n{\nX k 1 = ⎨ { k+2, dla k = 3n+1, gdy n ∈ N,\n{ ⎩ k+1, dla k = 3n+2, gdy n ∈ N,\n(ii) dla renty drugiej:\n(1,1)k\nX2 = , dla k ∈ N .\nk k2 +\nObliczyć sumę wartości obecnych obu rent przy założeniu, że wysokość stopy procentowej jest stała i równa i = 0,1.\n[Z7.EA16.05.05.]\n10. Ignacy w dniu rozpoczęcia pierwszej pracy postanowił oszczędzać na emeryturę. Założył przy tym, że będzie pracował przez 40 lat, a więc odprowadzi na ten cel 480 składek, płatnych z góry każdego miesiąca. Pierwsze honorarium Ignacego wyniosło 2000 j.m.\ni będzie wzrastać o 3% każdego roku, w sposób równomierny. Celem Ignacego jest zgromadzenie na koniec okresu pracy, czyli po\n40 latach, kwoty pozwalającej na kupno 20-letniej renty pewnej, płatnej każdego miesiąca z dołu, o wypłacie stałej równej 60% jego ostatniego (w rozumieniu 480-tego honorarium), wyliczanej przy stopie procentowej, równej 4%. Jaką część swojej pensji Ignacy powinien odkładać, zakładając, że w czasie jego czterdziestoletniej\n\npracy stopy procentowe będą określone warunkiem\n0,06, dla k ∈ {1,2,...,20};\ni = { k 0,03, dla k ∈ {21,22,...,40}?\n[Z3.EA09.10.06.]\n2.5. Wewnętrzna stopa zwrotu IRR i NPV\n2.5.1. Definicje\nRozpatrzmy ciąg płatności (przepływów finansowych)\nCF ,CF ,CF ,...,CF\n0 1 2 n w chwilach odpowiednio: 0 = t < t < t < ... < t = T. Jeśli w czasie\n0 1 2 n życia inwestycji [0;T] stopa procentowa jest stała i równa r, to mamy:\nn\nCF CF CF\nPV = ∑ i = CF + 1 +...+ n .\n(1+r)t i\n0 (1+r)t\n(1+r)t n i=0\nW przypadku, gdy stopę procentową zastąpimy intensywnością oprocentowania, otrzymujemy:\nn\nPV = ∑CF e−t i δ, gdzie eδ = r+1, i i=0 czyli jedną z metod dynamicznych oceny efektywności projektów inwestycyjnych. Wyraża ona stopę zwrotu z inwestycji, przy której teraźniejsza wartość ujemnych przepływów pieniężnych (wydatków) równoważy się z teraźniejszą wartością dodatnich przepływów pieniężnych (wpływów) projektu.\nPrzez wewnętrzną stopę zwrotu – IRR (Internal Rate of Return) rozumiemy jedną z wielu metod oceny efektywności inwestycji. Jest to taka stopa, dla której wartość obecna jest równa wartości przepływów lokalnych z analizowanej inwestycji. Jako że stopa IRR jest z zasady dodatnia, to może być rozumiana jako dodatni pierwiastek równania\n\nwartości n\nCF\n∑ i = 0 (2.40)\n(1+r)t i i=0\n– o ile taki istnieje, bo równanie wartości może mieć jedynie pierwiastki niedodatnie.\nNatomiast wewnętrzną intensywnością nazywamy taką wartość δ >\n0, dla której n\n∑CF e−t i δ = 0.\ni i=0\nBezpośrednio z definicji zauważamy, że wewnętrzna stopa zwrotu jest taką stopą procentową, przy której wartość obecna wpływów z inwestycji jest równa wartości obecnej nakładów inwestycyjnych — to taka „stopa równowagi”, tak samo jak wewnętrzna intensywność. Zależność między nimi ustala równość: IRR = eδ −1.\nPodsumowując, można powiedzieć, że IRR jest stopą rentowności ustalonego przedsięwzięcia, a jednocześnie jest ona stopą graniczną, będącą najwyższą stopą zwrotu, akceptowalną przez inwestora i pozwalającą mu uznać projekt jako wart realizacji.\nWewnętrzna stopa zwrotu wchodzi w skład innego pojęcia, mianowicie wielkości NPV zwanej zaktualizowaną wartością netto inwestycji\n(ang. net present value), definiowanej jako n n\nCF CF\nNPV = ∑ k = ∑ k −|CF |,\n(1+IRR)k (1+IRR)k 0 k=0 k=1 gdzie CF oznacza początkowy wkład finansowy w inwestycję, który z natury rzeczy jest wielkością ujemną z punktu widzenia inwestora, bo jest dla niego wydatkiem. Przy tak określonych pojęciach zauważamy, że IRR jest stopą, przy której NPV = 0.\nJeśli stopa oprocentowania rachunku bankowego jest równa r, to inwestycja, dla której: (i) NPV > 0, jest bardziej opłacalna od lokaty bankowej, (ii) NPV = 0 jest równoważna lokacie, (iii) NPV < 0 jest mniej opłacalna [1, 4].\n\n2.5.2. Istnienie i jednoznaczność IRR\nPodstawowe własności dotyczące tytułowego zagadnienia zawarte są w następującym ciągu faktów:\nn\n■ Jeśli CF 0 < 0 oraz ∑CF i > 0, to istnieje IRR.\ni=0 n\n■ Jeśli CF 0 = 0, CF 1 < 0 oraz ∑CF i > 0, to istnieje IRR.\ni=0\n■ Jeśli\nCF < 0,CF < 0,...,CF < 0\n0 1 k oraz\nCF > 0,CF > 0,...,CF > 0, k+1 k+2 n n a przy tym ∑CF > 0, to istnieje dokładnie jedna wewnętrzna i i=1 stopa zwrotu IRR.\n■ Jeżeli IRR > r, to inwestycja jest opłacalna, a gdy IRR < r – inwestycja jest nieopłacalna.\nDla zilustrowania pojęcia wewnętrznej stopy zwrotu, rozpatrzmy następujące dwie inwestycje:\n(i) Inwestycja A: nakłady inwestycyjne wynoszą 7000 j.m., zaś wpływy\n— 3430 j.m., płatne na koniec każdego z trzech lat.\n(ii) Inwestycja B: nakłady inwestycyjne wynoszą 12000 j.m., a wpływy\n— 5520 j.m., płatne na koniec każdego z trzech lat.\nPrzy założeniu, że koszt kapitału wynosi rocznie 10% (taka jest rynkowa stopa procentowa), ocenimy, który projekt należy wybrać, stosując kryteria PV oraz IRR.\nW przypadku inwestycji A mamy IRR = 20,05%, podczas gdy dla\nA inwestycji B – IRR = 18,01%. W obu przypadkach stopy zwrotu są\nB wyższe od stopy rynkowej, a więc obie są opłacalne.\nNie da się jednoznacznie wskazać, którą należałoby wybrać, bo co prawda w przypadku A stopa zwrotu jest wyższa, a przez to i margines\n\nbezpieczeństwa większy, ale za to wartości obecne tych inwestycji są w porządku odwrotnym, bo mamy: PV = 1529,9 zaś PV = 1772,42.\nA B\n□\n2.5.3. Ćwiczenia\n1. Czy wraz ze wzrostem wartości inwestycji netto wzrasta rentowność inwestycji?\n2. Czy wewnętrzna stopa zwrotu jest najwyższą stopą oprocentowania kredytu możliwą do zaakceptowania przez inwestora?\n3. Czy jest poprawnym twierdzeniem zdanie:\n„Dla każdego ciągu przepływów pieniężnych\nCF ,CF ,...,CF ,CF ,CF ,...,CF ,\n0 1 k k+1 k+2 n gdzie n ∈ N przy k < n, wewnętrzna stopa zwrotu IRR istnieje oraz jest jednoznacznie określona w przypadku, gdy przepływy CF i są tylko ujemne dla i < k+1 natomiast tylko dodatnie dla i > k”?\n4. Czy jest poprawnym twierdzeniem zdanie:\n„Dla każdego ciągu przepływów pieniężnych\nCF ,CF ,...,CF ,CF ,CF ,...,CF ,\n0 1 k k+1 k+2 n n gdzie n ∈ N, jeżeli CF < 0 oraz ∑ CF > 0, to istnieje IRR”?\n0 i i=0\n5. Czy projekt inwestycyjny może mieć dwie wewnętrzne stopy zwrotu?\n6. Załóżmy, że konkretna inwestycja ma dwie wewnętrzne stopy zwrotu. W jakim zakresie zmienności IRR inwestycja taka jest opłacalna?\n7. Czy jest możliwe, by NPV była funkcją rosnącą, której argumentem jest stopa procentowa? Podaną odpowiedź uzasadnić.\n8. Dział finansowy spółki ALVARO S.A. przedstawił zarządowi spółki raport odnoszący się do planowanego zwiększenia zewnętrznego\n\nfinansowania bieżącej działalności ALVARO. Raport składał się z następujących trzech pozycji:\n(i) kredyt −30000 j.m.;\n(ii) stopa procentowa r = 0,12;\n(iii) wewnętrzna stopa procentowa IRR = 0,13.\nCzy zarząd powinien (dla dobra spółki) zdecydować o zwiększeniu finansowania bieżącego funkcjonowania ALVARO S.A.? Przedstawić argumentację za podaną odpowiedzią.\n9. Wewnętrzna stopa zwrotu z inwestycji IRR = 0,15, natomiast nominalna stopa procentowa pozyskania kapitału r = 0,1505. Ustalić znak NPV i przedstawić precyzyjne uzasadnienie udzielonej odpowiedzi.\n2.5.4. Przykłady\n1. Inwestor ma otrzymać płatności w wysokościach odpowiednio: kwotę 4 w chwilit = 0, w chwili t = 2 — kwotę (λ+1)2 , natomiast w chwili t = 1 będzie musiał zapłacić (λ−4). Sformułować warunek konieczny i wystarczający ze względu na parametr λ ∈ R, który zagwarantuje istnienie dwóch różnych wewnętrznych stóp zwrotu r oraz r , spełniających jednocześnie warunki:\n1 2\n(i) każda z nich będzie większa od 25%,\n(ii) każda z nich będzie mniejsza od 100%,\n(iii) ich suma będzie mniejsza od 150%.\nRozwiązanie: Z definicji IRR wiemy (zakładając płaską strukturę terminową, czyli stałość oprocentowania w przedziale czasu\n[0;2]), że będzie nią każda wartość v = , przy której PV = 0.\n1+r\nNapiszmy zależność na wartość obecną opisanego w zadaniu trójwyrazowego ciągu przepływów o wyrazach:\nCF = 4, CF = −(λ−4), CF = (λ+1)2.\n0 1 2\n\nZ uwagi na definicję IRR mamy\nPV = 4v0−(λ−4)v+(λ+1)2v2 = 0, a po uporządkowaniu otrzymujemy równanie kwadratowe\n(1) (λ+1)2v2−(λ−4)v+4 = 0, λ ∈ R.\nJak widać, przy warunku nałożonym na parametr λ równanie (1) nie jest zawsze równaniem kwadratowym. Przestaje nim być dla\nλ = −1 i wtedy redukuje się do równania liniowego\n5v+4 = 0, co wyklucza istnienie dwóch stóp IRR.\nDla λ ∈ R∖{−1} mamy, że (1) jest równaniem kwadratowym i możemy wyznaczyć wyróżnik. Otrzymujemy\nΔ = Δ(λ) = (λ−4)2−16(λ+1)2 =\n= [(λ−4)+4(λ+1)][(λ−4)−4(λ+1)] =\n= 5λ(−3λ−8) = −15λ(λ+ ).\nZatem istnienie dwóch różnych stóp IRR: r i r , a pośrednio dwóch\n1 2 czynników dyskontujących v i v , przekłada się na dodatniość\n1 2 wyróżnika, czyli\nΔ(λ) = −15λ(λ+ ) > 0 ⟺\n8 8\n⟺ λ(λ+ ) < 0 ⟹ λ ∈ (− ;0).\n3 3\nWarunek ten jest jednak warunkiem wstępnym – zapewnia tylko istnienie dwóch różnych stóp, ale w treści zadania mamy jeszcze warunki dodatkowe (i)–(iii).\nWydaje się rozsądnym wyrażenie tych warunków nie w języku stóp zwrotu, lecz w języku odpowiadających im czynników dyskontowych.\n\nMamy wymagania, by\n(i) r > 0,25, (ii) r < 1, (iii) r +r < 1,5.\n1,2 1,2 1 2\nZ (i) oraz (ii) dostajemy 1 < r < 1 . Stąd mamy, że\n4 1,2\n5 10\n< 1+r < 2, ∧ < (1+r )+(1+r ) < 4.\n4 1,2 4 1 2\nNastępnie\n5 1 5 1 1\n< < 2, ∧ < + < 4.\n4 v 2 v v\n1,2 1 2\nPorządkując, otrzymujemy\n1 4 5 v +v\n< v < ∧ < 1 2 < 4.\n2 1,2 5 2 v v\n1 2\nW efekcie możemy obecnie skorzystać ze wzorów Viéte’a i w wyniku ich użycia pojawiają się nowe, wygodne warunki:\n8 1 16 5 v +v\n1 < v +v < ∧ < v v < ∧ < 1 2 < 4.\n1 2 5 4 1 2 25 2 v v\n1 2\nMając do dyspozycji współczynniki równania (1), uzyskujemy nowy układ równań, odnoszący się już bezpośrednio do parametru λ, przy czym z warunku na istnienie dwóch wewnętrznych stóp zwrotu dostaliśmy, że λ ∈ (−8;−1)∪(−1;0). W związku z tym dla takich wartości λ muszą być spełnione dodatkowo\nλ−4 8 1 4 16 5 λ−4\n1 < < ∧ < < ∧ < < 4,\n(λ+1)2 5 4 (λ+1)2 25 2 4\n\nczyli\n⎧λ ∈ (−8;−1)∪(−1;0), ⎧ λ ∈ (−8;−1)∪(−1;0),\n{ { 3 { { 3\n{ { (λ+1)2 < λ−4, { { λ2+λ+5 < 0,\n{ {\n{ {\n{ 5λ−20 < 8(λ+1)2, { 8λ2+11λ+28 > 0,\n{ {\n⟺\n⎨ { (λ+1)2 < 16, ⎨ { −4 < λ+1 < 4,\n{ {\n{ { (5) 2 < (λ+1)2, { { 0 < (λ+1+ 5)(λ+1− 5),\n{ { 2 { { 2 2\n{ { 5 < λ −1 < 4, { { 7 < λ < 5,\n⎩ 2 4 ⎩ 2 4 to\n⎧ λ ∈ (−8;−1)∪(−1;0),\n{ 3\n{\n{\n{ λ ∈ ∅,\n{\n{\n{ λ ∈ R,\n{\n⟹ ⟹ λ ∈ ∅.\n⎨\n{ λ ∈ (−5;3),\n{\n{\n{ λ ∈ (−∞;−9)∪(1;+∞),\n{ 2 4\n{\n{\n{ λ ∈ (14;20).\n⎩\nRozumowanie zostało poprowadzone krok po kroku, żeby nie powstało wrażenie, że wynik wyskoczył jak królik z kapelusza, ale z pewnością już kilka kroków wcześniej dało się dostrzec symptomy tego, że zbiór liczb λ ∈ R spełniających warunki zadania jest pusty.\nTrochę szkoda, że otrzymaliśmy taki wynik, ale praca uszlachetnia! Zwłaszcza samodzielna praca rachunkowa podnosi odporność\n□ psychiczną matematykom.\n2. Rozważmy inwestycję, o której wiadomo, że w chwili t = 0 inwestor otrzymuje kwotę (k− 1) , po ośmiu latach (a więc w chwili t = 8) kwotę (k−1), zaś na końcu szesnastego roku – czyli w chwili t = 16 – kwotę 1. W zależności od k wyznaczyć warunek konieczny i wystarczający nieistnienia wewnętrznej stopy zwrotu dla tej inwestycji.\n\nRozwiązanie: Z definicji IRR wiemy (zakładając płaską strukturę terminową, czyli stałość oprocentowania w przedziale czasu\n[0;16] ∋ t), że będzie nią każda wartość v = , przy której\n1+r\nPV = 0. Napiszmy zależność na wartość obecną opisanego w zadaniu trójwyrazowego ciągu przepływów, w którym to ciągu mamy\nCF = (k− ) , CF = (k−1), CF = 1.\n0 2 1 2\nIndeksując latami ciąg przepływów, uzyskalibyśmy\nCF = CF(t = 0) = (k− 1) ,\n0 2\nCF = CF(t = 8) = (k−1),\nCF = CF(t = 16) = 1.\nWartość obecna tak określonego ciągu przepływów wynosi\nPV = CF v0+CF v8+CF v16,\n0 1 2 a po wstawieniu wartości kolejnych przepływów\nPV = (k− ) ⋅v0+(k−1)⋅v8+1⋅v16.\nZ drugiej strony widać, że równanie to można traktować jako równanie kwadratowe złożonego argumentu, w którym nową zmienną jest np. z = v8 . Mamy wtedy\n(2) z2+(k−1)z+(k− ) = 0.\nPonieważ równanie to jest równaniem „kontekstowym”, bo opisuje zjawisko uwarunkowane ekonomicznie, w którym i > 0, to musi być też 0 < v < 1, a tym samym z ∈ (0;1).\nW zadaniu mamy wyznaczyć warunek, przy którym IRR nie istnieje, a mówiąc językiem algebry, kiedy wyróżnik równania (2) jest\n\nujemny. Policzmy, co trzeba\nΔ = Δ(k) = (k−1)2−4⋅(k− ) =\n= k2−2k+1−4k2+2k−1 = −3k2+2k.\nA więc\nΔ(k) < 0 ⟺ −3k2+2k < 0 ⟺ 3k(k− ) > 0.\nW ten sposób otrzymujemy\nΔ(k) < 0 ⟺ k ∈ (−∞;0)∪( ;+∞).\nW konsekwencji warunkiem koniecznym i wystarczającym nieistnienia wewnętrznej stopy zwrotu (IRR), dla przedstawionej w zadaniu inwestycji jest, by k ∈ (−∞;0)∪( ;+∞).\nSkoro już odpowiedzieliśmy na postawione pytanie, to możemy się teraz zastanowić nad pytaniami komplementarnymi:\n■ Czy istnieją dwie różne stopy IRR?\n■ Czy istnieje dokładnie jedna taka stopa?\nWarunkiem wstępnym dla wszystkich przypadków jest nieujemność wyróżnika Δ(k). Każdy z nich będzie miał jednak nieco inne ograniczenia dodatkowe. Mianowicie:\nAd (i) Warunki miałyby postać\n⎧ Δ(k) > 0,\n{\n{ z ∈ (0;1),\n⎨ 1\n{\n{ ⎩ z 2 ∈ (0;1).\nWiemy, że Δ(k) > 0 dla k ∈ (0; 2). Przy pozostałych dwóch warunkach mamy z ∈ (0;1) ∧ z ∈ (0;1) ⟹ z +z ∈ (0;2) ∧z z ∈ (0;1).\n1 2 1 2 1 2\n\nPosługując się wzorami Viéta’a dostajemy\n−2 0\n∈ (0;2) oraz ∈ (0;1).\n−3 −3\nOstatni warunek nie jest spełniony, wiemy więc, że nie mogą istnieć dwie różne stopy IRR.\nAd (ii) Przypadek jednej tylko wewnętrznej stopy zwrotu składa się z dwóch podprzypadków:\n1. gdy stopa jest pierwiastkiem podwójnym równania kwadratowego, czyli że równanie kwadratowe wiążące stopę procentową z warunkami zadania ma wyróżnik Δ(k) = 0;\noraz\n2. gdy istnieją co prawda dwa pierwiastki z i z , ale jeden z nich\n1 2 nie spełnia warunku z ∈ (0;1). Byłyby dwie wartości krytyczne dla k, czyli k = 0 oraz k = 2 .\n1 2 3\nPrzy k = 0 rozwiązanie równania (2) przyjmuje postać\n−(0−1) 1 z′ = = .\n0 2 2\nStąd już mamy\n1 1\n= ⟹ (1+r′)8 = 2 ⟹ r′ = √8 2−1 ≃ 0,09.\n(1+r′)8 2\nDla k = 2 rozwiązaniem równania (2) jest\n−(2 −1) 1 z′′ = 3 = ,\n0 2 6 co w konsekwencji daje r′′ = √8 6−1 ≃ 0,25.\nPrzejdźmy do drugiego podprzypadku. Będzie nadal Δ(k) > 0, ale z ∉ (0;1) lub z ∉ (0;1). Wciąż pozostajemy przy warunku, że\n1 2\nΔ > 0, tzn. k ∈ (0; 2).\n\nGdyby jeden z pierwiastków z ,z był ujemny, a drugi dodatni, to\n1 2\n(k−1)2 zgodnie ze wzorami Viéte’a 2 < 0, a to jest niemożliwe.\nGdyby teraz jeden z pierwiastków był większy lub równy 1, to przy\n−(k−1)−√−3k2+2k z = ⩾ 1\n1 2 lub\n−(k−1)+√−3k2+2k z = ⩾ 1.\n2 2\nWarunek z ⩾ 1 jest równoważny nierówności\n−k−1 ⩾ √−3k2+2k, w której dla k ∈ (0; 2) lewa strona jest ujemna, a prawa nieujemna, zatem otrzymaliśmy sprzeczność.\nWarunek z ⩾ 1 po przekształceniu przechodzi w nierówność\n√−3k2+2k ⩾ k+1, a ponieważ obie strony są nieujemne, to po podniesieniu nierówności do kwadratu zachowujemy zwrot nierówności i dostajemy\n−3k2+2k ⩾ k2+2k+1. Otrzymaliśmy nierówność 0 ⩾ 4k2+1, której nie spełnia żadne k.\nWidać zatem, że przypadek jednej tylko stopy IRR nie może wystąpić przy dwóch różnych pierwiastkach równania (2). □\n3. Inwestor ma w portfelu:\n(i) pięć obligacji zerokuponowych, każda o wartości nominalnej\nF = 100 j.m., cenie P = 91,67 oraz rocznym terminie wyku-\n1 1 pu,\n(ii) trzy obligacje, każda o wartości nominalnej F = 100, cenie\nP = 110, stopie kuponowej r = 0,1, dwuletnim terminie\n2 ∗ wykupu oraz kuponach płatnych corocznie z dołu.\nObliczyć wewnętrzną stopę zwrotu z inwestycji opisanej portfelem.\n\nRozwiązanie: Koszt zakupu opisanego portfela wynosi\nCF = −(3⋅110+5⋅91,67) = −788,35.\nWewnętrzna stopa zwrotu r = IRR i związana z nią stopa dyskontowania v (sprawdzić czy nie lepiej byłoby napisać czynnik dyskontujący), dla której wartość bieżąca przychodów z opisanego portfela obligacji będzie równa jego kosztowi zakupu, czyli 788,35 j.m. Innymi słowy r jest taką stopą procentową, dla której wartość bieżąca netto portfela jest równa zeru.\nWyliczmy zatem, ile wynoszą przychody w zależności od stopy dyskontowania v.\nW pierwszym okresie wykupione zostaje 5 obligacji o cenie nominalnej 100 zł, otrzymujemy również 30 zł z odsetek. W drugim okresie otrzymujemy znów 30 zł z odsetek oraz wykupujemy trzy obligacje o cenie nominalnej 100 zł. Mamy więc przepływy CF = 530 oraz\nCF = 330, a CF = −788,35 wyliczyliśmy już wcześniej. Wiemy,\n2 0 że\nPV = CF +CF v+CF v2,\n0 1 2 gdzie v = . Równanie to zapiszmy w bardziej wygodnej postaci\n1+r\n330v2+530v−788,35 = 0.\nDo kosztu zakupu portfela otrzymaliśmy równanie kwadratowe o wyróżniku Δ = 1321522. Jedynym dodatnim pierwiastkiem jest v = 0,938749551 = , a stąd 1+r = 1,065246848 oraz\n1+r\nIRR = r ≃ 6,52%. □\n4. Przyjmujemy jako obowiązującą płaską strukturę terminową z efektywną roczną stopą procentową i = 0,10.\n(i) Obliczyć średni czas trwania d strumienia płatności równych\nCF(t) = 1 dla t ∈ N.\n(ii) Rozważmy dwie inwestycje:\n■ zakup dziesięcioletniej obligacji płacącej roczny kupon 5% nominału równego d po cenie brudnej V .\nA\n\n■ zakup po cenie V B = 20 instrumentu płacącego t w chwili t, przy t ∈ N .\n+\nWyznaczyć zbiór V > 0, przy których IRR > IRR .\nA A B\nRozwiązanie. a) Skorzystamy z zależności\n∞ k k x\n(1) ∑ = .\nx (1−x)2 k=1\n∞\nV = ∑1(1+r)k = = 10.\nr k=1\nStosując (1) do x = , dostajemy\n1+r\n∞ t 1+r\n(2) ∑ = .\n(1+r)t r2 t=1\nW związku z tym dla r = i otrzymujemy\n∞\n1 t 110 d = = ∑ = = 11.\nPV (1+i)t 10 t=1 b) Z (2) wynika, że IRR jest dodatnim pierwiastkiem równania\nB\n1+r\n0 = −V + , b r2 zatem IRR = 0,25.\nB\nNiech PV (r) oznacza wartość obecną inwestycji A, wyznaczoną\nA przy efektywnej rocznej stopie r. Ponieważ funkcja r ↦ PV (r)\nA ściśle maleje, to\nIRR ⩽ VIRR ⩽ PV (IRRB) ⩾ 0,\nA B A\n0,05d d\n−V +10∑ + ⩾ 0.\nA (1,25)t (1,25)10 t=1\nZ uwagi na to\n0 ⩽ V ⩽ 2,2+8,8⋅(0,8)10 ≈ 3,1448. □\nA\n\n2.5.5. Zadania do samodzielnego rozwiązania\n1. O pewnej inwestycji wiadomo, że w chwili t 0 = 0 oraz w chwili t 2 =\n2 należy wpłacić odpowiednio kwoty P = 504 j.m. oraz P = 2400\n1 2 j.m., natomiast w chwili t = 1 oraz t = 3 otrzymuje się odpowiednio kwoty B = 1910 j.m. oraz B = 1000 j.m. Które z następujących\n1 3 sformułowań dotyczących tej inwestycji są prawdziwe:\n(i) istnieją dokładnie dwie wewnętrzne stopy zwrotu, z których jedna wynosi i = 0,25;\n(ii) wartość obecna tej inwestycji jest funkcją rosnącą stopy zwrotu i dla i ∈ [0,25;0,30];\n(iii) dla v ∈ [0,60;0,91] wartość obecna tej inwestycji jest minimalizowana dla v = 0,60, natomiast maksymalizowana dla v = 0,91. [Z3.EA12.10.02.]\n2. Planowana trzyletnia inwestycja wymaga natychmiastowego wyłożenia kwoty 70000 j.m., a także kwoty 10000 j.m. na koniec drugiego roku jej życia. Natomiast przychody mają napłynąć na koniec pierwszego roku w kwocie 40000 j.m. oraz na koniec trzeciego roku, kiedy inwestor otrzyma zwrot w wysokości 55770 j.m.\nOblicz IRR dla tej inwestycji.\n3. Wiadomo, że inwestor ma otrzymać płatności odpowiednio w wysokościach 4 w chwili t = 0 oraz (m+1)2 w chwili t = 2. Wiadomo\n0 2 też, że będzie musiał zapłacić (m−1) w chwili t . Podać warunek konieczny i wystarczający dla parametru m, gwarantujący, że będą istniały dwie różne wewnętrzne stopy zwrotu i oraz i , spełniające\n1 2 równocześnie następujące warunki:\n(i) każda z nich będzie większa od 25%,\n(ii) każda z nich będzie mniejsza od 100%,\n(iii) ich suma będzie mniejsza od 150%.\n4. Ciąg wszystkich przepływów dotyczących pewnej inwestycji w ciągu roku ma postać\nCF = −1000, CF = 200, CF = −100,\n0 1 2\nCF = 500, CF = 200, CF = 300\n3 4 5\n\nprzy stopie rynkowej r = 0,04. Obliczyć NPV inwestycji citepokl.\n5. Przedsiębiorstwo rozważa wdrożenie trzyletniego projektu inwestycyjnego, którego wydatki i wpływy są następujące:\n■ nakład inwestycyjny wynosi 40000 j.m.,\n■ wpływy wyniosą po pierwszym roku 16000 j.m., po drugim\n22000 j.m., a po trzecim 17000 j.m.\nObliczyć NPV oraz IRR, jeżeli stopa dyskontowa wynosi 13%. Zinterpretować otrzymane wyniki.\n6. O pewnym planie wpłat i wypłat wiadomo, że jeżeli w chwili przystąpienia otrzyma się z niego wypłatę w wysokości k, to na końcu pierwszego roku po przystąpieniu należy wpłacić kwotę ⋅k, a rok później otrzyma się kwotę ⋅k. Do planu można przystąpić na początku każdego roku, ale wyjście z niego następuje zawsze na końcu drugiego roku, licząc od daty przystąpienia. Do planu można przystępować wielokrotnie, niekoniecznie po uprzednim wyjściu z niego. Inwestor przystępuje do planu trzykrotnie: w chwili t = 0, w chwili t = 1 oraz w chwili t = 2, każdorazowo otrzymuje wypłaty odpowiednio: 48 j.m., 240 j.m. oraz 460 j.m. Obliczyć sumę czynników dyskontujących v odpowiadających wewnętrznym stopom zwrotu, zrealizowanym przez inwestora. [Z6.EA25.01.03.]\n7. Po przeanalizowaniu inwestycji o stałej wysokości osiąganych dochodów P w kolejnych latach, o stałej wysokości A kosztów stałych oraz stałej wysokości kosztów zmiennych b% osiąganych przychodów P, ustalono, że\n(i) NPV(12 ∶ 3,0;8%) = 100,\n(ii) NPV(15 ∶ 4,0;12%) = 120, gdzie symbol NPV(P;A;b%) oznacza obecną wartość zysków z inwestycji wyznaczoną przy stałej stopie procentowej i.\nWyznaczyć poziom stałych dochodów P, przy których zachodzi równość NPV(P;0,8;20%) = 0. [Z7. EA 09.12.00.]\n\n3. Plany spłaty długów\n3.1. Metoda amortyzacji\nIstotą tej metody jest podział czasu życia długu (kredytu) na okresy odsetkowe, zwykle jednakowej długości. Odsetki od kredytu są naliczane na koniec okresu odsetkowego na podstawie zadłużenia z początku tego okresu i zwane są stanem zadłużenia, wielkością zadłużenia lub jeszcze inaczej saldem długu. Wszystkie przepływy gotówki są kumulowane, dlatego też zwykle mają miejsce na koniec okresu odsetkowego. Przepływy te nazywane są zamiennie spłatami kredytu lub jego rat.\nKażda z rat kredytu składa się z części odsetkowej oraz części kapitałowej (chyba że treść umowy kredytowej dopuszcza inne zasady). Podział raty na część odsetkową i kapitałową powoduje fakt, że część kapitałowa zwolniona jest z podatku, w przeciwieństwie do części odsetkowej, stanowiącej przychód kredytodawcy.\nW sytuacji, gdy kwota przepływu nie pokrywa wysokości raty do spłacenia w którymś z okresów, różnica między kwotą przepływu a kwotą raty zostaje dopisana do kwoty zadłużenia. Ma wtedy miejsce zjawisko zwane amortyzacją ujemną lub amortyzacją negatywną.\nPrzedstawiony schemat ma charakter ogólny, od przedstawionej zasady istnieją bowiem odstępstwa zależne od warunków umowy zawartej między kredytodawcą a kredytobiorcą. Okres życia kredytu następuje, gdy suma wpłat jest równa kwocie kredytu [4].\n3.1.1. Oznaczenia\nW skrypcie używane będą klasyczne oznaczenia matematyki finansowej związane ze spłatą kredytów (długów), a mianowicie:\n■ K – wysokość zaciągniętego kredytu;\n■ n – liczba okresów, na które podzielono czas życia kredytu;\n\n■ r k – stopa procentowa w k-tym okresie, dla k ∈ {1,2,...,n};\n■ O k – odsetki naliczone w k-tym okresie, dla k ∈ {1,2,...,n};\n■ CF k – przepływ gotówki na koniec k-tego okresu, k ∈ {1,2,...,n};\n■ T k – rata kapitałowa na koniec k-tego okresu, dla k ∈ {1,2,...,n};\n■ S k – stan zadłużenia w k-tym okresie, dla k ∈ {1,2,...,n,n+1} oraz S = K, S = 0.\n1 n+1\nPrzyjmujemy ponadto, że wszystkie salda S oraz stopy r są nieujemne.\nk k\nKonsekwencją przyjętych oznaczeń są następujące fakty:\n■ O k = r k ⋅S k ,\n■ S k+1 = S k +O k −CF k , n n\n■ ∑CF k = K + ∑O k , k=1 k=1 gdzie n oznacza liczbę okresów spłat, zaś k ∈ {1,2,...,n}.\n3.1.2. Przykłady\n1. Pożyczka 20-letnia ma być spłacana poprzez dokonywanie równych spłat kapitału w wysokości 100 j.m. oraz odsetek od bieżącej kwoty zadłużenia, na koniec każdego roku. O ile zmniejszy się wysokość zapłaconych odsetek, jeśli rata kapitałowa ulegnie podwojeniu?\nRozwiązanie. Zgodnie z przyjętą konwencją oznaczmy odsetki w pierwszym i drugim przypadku odpowiednio przez I oraz I .\n1 2\nMamy wtedy\nI = 0,1⋅20000+0,1⋅19000+...+0,1⋅1000 =\n= 0,1⋅(20000+19000+...+1000) =\n20000+1000\n= 0,1⋅ ⋅20 = 21000\n\noraz\nI = 0,1⋅20000+0,1⋅28000+...+0,1⋅2000 =\n= 0,1(20000+18000+...+2000) =\n20000+2000\n= 0,1⋅ ⋅10 = 11000.\nW rezultacie Δ = I −I = 10000. □\n1 2\n2. Pożyczka w wysokości 600000 j.m. ma być spłacona w ciągu trzydziestu pięciu lat w równych comiesięcznych ratach płatnych z dołu, przy stopie oprocentowania r(12) = 6%. Prowizja pobierana przez bank wynosi 3%. Po dziesięciu latach pożyczkobiorca zdecydował, że spłaci połowę pozostałego zadłużenia, a pozostałą połowę spłaci w ciągu dziesięciu lat w równych kwartalnych ratach płatnych z dołu przy stopie oprocentowania i(4) = 8%. Ile wyniósł koszt pożyczki?\nRozwiązanie. Niech X oznacza wysokość comiesięcznej raty wyrażonej w jednostkach monetarnych. Wtedy mamy, że przy trzydziestu pięciu latach spłat jest:\n600000 = X ⋅a = X ⋅175,38,\n4200,005 co daje X = 3421,14.\nDo spłacenia po dziesięciu latach pozostaje\n3421,14⋅a = 3421,14⋅155,20 ≃ 530960,67.\n3000,005\nSpłacił nie za wiele, bo tylko 600000−530960,67 = 69039,28.\nPołowa tej kwoty wynosi 265480,34 i ją właśnie spłaca pożyczkobiorca, a identyczną kwotę pozostawia do spłaty na dekadę w ratach kwartalnych. Ratę kwartalną w tych warunkach oznaczmy przez\nX . Otrzymujemy wówczas:\n265480,34 = X ⋅a = X ⋅27,355,\n1 400,02 1 a stąd X = 9048,83.\n\nPoliczmy teraz koszty. Jak wiemy, w pierwszym okresie spłat odsetki wyniosły\nO = 120⋅X −69039,28 =\n= 120⋅3421,14−69039,28 = 341497,52.\nW drugim okresie natomiast były równe\nO = 40⋅9048,83−265480,34 = 96472,86.\nDo tego dochodzi jeszcze prowizja w wysokości 3%, której koszt to\n18000 j.m.\nCałkowity koszt tego kredytu wynosi\n341497,52+96472,86+18000 = 455970,38.\nOtrzymany wynik rozumiemy jako 455970,38 j.m. □\n3. Pożyczka ma być spłacona w ciągu trzydziestu lat rocznymi ratami w wysokości 10000 j.m., płatnymi z dołu, przy efektywnej stopie oprocentowania równej 8%. Po dziesięciu płatnościach pożyczkobiorca chciałby wpłacić jednorazowo kwotę X, w takiej wysokości, aby pozostały dług mógł spłacić w ciągu dekady ratami płatnymi co pół roku w wysokości 5000 przy nominalnej półrocznej stopie oprocentowania 4%.\nRozwiązanie: Wysokość pożyczki w momencie jej wypłaty można przy warunkach zadania obliczyć jako\nPV = 10000⋅a = 10000⋅11,258 = 112580.\n300,08\nNatomiast równanie wartości dla tej pożyczki ma postać\n10000⋅a =\n300,08\n1 1\n= 10000⋅a +X ⋅ +5000⋅a ⋅ .\n100,08 (1,08)10 200,04 1,0810\nPrzekształcając tę równość, wyliczmy kwotę X jako\n\nX =\n= (10000(a −a )−5000a )(1,08)10\n300,08 100,08 200,04(1,08)10 i dalej\nX = 10000(a −a )(1,08)10−5000a .\n300,08 100,08 200,04\nPo wykonaniu stosownych obliczeń mamy, że a ≃ 11,258, a ≃ 6,710,\n300,08 100,08 a = 13,590, = 0,463,\n200,04 (1,08)10 podstawiamy i otrzymujemy\nX = 10000⋅(11,258−6,710)⋅0,463−5000⋅13,590 ≃ 30241.\nW chwili kończącej pierwszą i rozpoczynającej kolejną dekadę pożyczkobiorca powinien dokonać jednorazowej wpłaty w wysokości\nX = 30241 j.m. □\n4. Zaciągnięto kredyt w wysokości 300000 j.m. przy nominalnej rocznej stopie oprocentowania wynoszącej 5,5%. Prowizja dla banku za jego udzielenie wyniosła 2% wartości. Kredytobiorca wybrał opcję trzymiesięcznej karencji w spłacie kapitału (przez pierwsze trzy miesiące spłaca wyłącznie odsetki). Po trzech miesiącach karencji kredyt jest spłacany w 360 równych miesięcznych ratach płatnych z dołu. Po zapłaceniu 120 rat kredytobiorca spłaca całość pozostałego do spłaty kredytu jednorazowo na koniec kolejnego miesiąca.\nIle wyniosła łączna nominalna suma kosztów tego kredytu?\nRozwiązanie. Na początku wypiszmy dane, jakie mamy w zadaniu. Wysokość kredytu:\nK = 300000 j.m.\n\nStopa procentowa (stała przez cały okres życia kredytu):\nr = 5,5% = 0,055.\nJako że kredyt jest spłacany w miesięcznych ratach, stopa, którą będziemy się posługiwać wynosi:\n5,5% r(12) = ≃ 0,46% = 0,0046.\nBank pobiera prowizję w wysokości 2%, a więc od razu możemy wyliczyć należną mu kwotę:\n0,02⋅300000 = 6000.\nWiemy ponadto, że kredyt jest spłacany w 360 j.m. równych ratach oraz że po spłacie 120 j.m. z nich kredytobiorca podjął decyzję o uregulowaniu pozostałej należności.\nMamy również informację, że kredytobiorca zdecydował się na trzymiesięczny okres karencyjny. Oznaczmy te spłaty kolejno CF ,\n−3\nCF , CF , gdzie:\n−2 −1\nCF = CF = CF = CF = 300000⋅0,0046 = 1375.\n−3 −2 −1 0\nNa początku zajmijmy się obliczeniem wysokości raty miesięcznej po okresie karencji. Kolejne raty będziemy oznaczać przez\nCF ,CF ,...,CF . Ponadto przez S oznaczymy kwotę zadłuże-\n1 2 360 i nia w i-tym okresie. Wiemy, że S = 300000, na które będzie się składać suma wszystkich rat zdyskontowanych współczynnikiem v = ≃ 0,995 (z treści zadania wiemy, że raty są płacone\n1+r(12) z dołu, a więc należy pamiętać o przemnożeniu sumy przez czynnik dyskontujący). Po czym otrzymujemy:\nS = 300000 = v∑CF vi.\n1 i i=1\nZe względu na to, że raty są stałe, czyli CF = CF = ... = CF =\n1 2 360\nCF, otrzymujemy\n\n300000 = vCF∑vi = i=1\n= vCF(1+v1+v2+...+v360) =\n1−v360\n= vCF = 166,165CF.\n1−v\nStąd po podzieleniu mamy:\nCF = 1805,43.\nTeraz skupmy się na fakcie, że po 120 ratach kredytobiorca spłacił resztę kredytu. Znając wysokość rat, możemy obliczyć stan zadłużenia po 120 miesiącach, czyli kwotę S . Mamy zatem:\nS = vCF ⋅(1+v1+v2+⋯+v240) =\n1−v240\n= vCF ⋅ =251496,39.\n1−v\nWiemy, że pozostałą część kredytu kredytobiorca spłaci dopiero na koniec kolejnego miesiąca, więc pozostałą kwotę mnożymy raz jeszcze przez miesięczny czynnik akumulujący:\n251496,39⋅(1+0,0046) ≃ 153501,90.\nDo obliczenia pozostała wysokość odsetek, jakie urosły przez okres\n120 miesięcy, kiedy kredytobiorca regularnie spłacał kredyt. Skorzystamy z zależności O = S ⋅ r , gdzie O oznacza wysokość i i i i odsetek w i-tym okresie. Przy założeniu, że stopa jest stała, suma odsetek wyniesie:\n120 120\n∑O = r∑S = r(S +S +⋯S ) = i i 1 2 120 i=1 i=1\n1−v360 1−v359 1−v240\n= r(v CF +v CF +⋯+v CF ).\n1−v 0 1−v 0 1−v 0\n\nPo wyciągnięciu powtarzających się czynników i uproszczeniu wyrażenia w nawiasie dostajemy:\nrvCF\n∑O = 0[120−v240(1+v1+v2+⋯+v120)].\ni 1−v i=1\nDalej, po zapisaniu wyrażenia w nawiasie w postaci sumy ciągu geometrycznego i podstawieniu, mamy:\n0,0046⋅0,995⋅1805,43 1−0,548\n∑O = (120−0,3⋅ ) = i 0,005 0,005 i=1\n= 153501,90.\nDostajemy zatem łączny koszt obsługi kredytu w wysokości\n153501,90+1156,88+(3⋅1375,00)+6000,00 = 164783,78.\nŁączny koszt kredytu jest sumą otrzymanej kwoty oraz S , w związku z czym dostajemy:\n164783,78+251496,39 = 416280,17. □\n3.1.3. Zadania do samodzielnego rozwiązania\n1. Czternastoletnia pożyczka w wysokości K = 150000 j.m. miała być spłacona przy użyciu renty pewnej, natychmiast płatnej, o równych spłatach R dokonywanych na końcu każdego roku. Do kalkulacji spłat przyjęto strukturę stóp procentowych, w której efektywna roczna stopa procentowa będzie wynosić w pierwszym okresie siedmioletnim i = 0,05, a w drugim siedmioletnim okresie spłaty i = 0,1. Po zapłaceniu trzech rat pożyczkobiorca zdecydował się pożyczyć dodatkowo 75000 j.m. oraz spłacić całość zadłużenia równymi spłatami w wysokości R , dokonywanymi na końcu każdego roku przez okres dwudziestu lat, począwszy od tej chwili. Przy kalkulacji kwot płatności R przyjęto efektywną roczną stopę procentową równą i = 0,15. Wyznaczyć R . [Z7.EA06.12.03.]\n3 2\n\n2. Pożyczka w kwocie 150000 j.m., zaciągnięta przy stałej stopie procentowej i = 0,11, ma być spłacana przez okres dwudziestu pięciu lat w równych ratach płatnych na końcu każdego roku. Prowizja pobierana przez pożyczkodawcę przy zawieraniu umowy i potrącana z udzielonej pożyczki wynosi 0,03. Wyznaczyć roczną stopę zysku pożyczkodawcy, jeśli ten zdecyduje się spłacić pozostałą część długu łącznie z drugą ratą. [Z2.EA15.01.00.]\n3. Pożyczkobiorca spłacił dziesięcioletnią pożyczkę w równych ratach płatnych na koniec każdego roku. Ile wyniosła całkowita kwota spłaconych odsetek, jeśli\n(i) kapitał spłacony w pierwszych trzech ratach wynosi 1253;\n(ii) kapitał spłacony w ostatnich trzech ratach wynosi 1763?\n[Z3.EA17.06.00.]\n4. Pożyczka jest spłacana za pomocą 10 malejących rat w kwotach odpowiednio 20 j.m., 19 j.m., 18 j.m., ..., 12 j.m., 11 j.m., dokonywanych na końcu każdego roku. Znaleźć wysokość oprocentowania zapłaconego w piątej racie. [Z6.EA17.06.00.]\n5. Pożyczka w wysokości 100000 j.m. jest spłacana za pomocą rosnących spłat dokonywanych na końcu każdego półrocza. Pierwsza spłata wynosi 3000 j.m., a każda następna jest wyższa od poprzedniej o 3000 j.m. (z wyjątkiem ostatniej raty – niższej od wynikającej z tej zależności, na tyle wysokiej, by po jej uiszczeniu spłacone zostało całe pozostałe zadłużenie). Wiedząc, że nominalna roczna stopa procentowa naliczana kwartalnie wynosi i(4) = 0,08, wyznaczyć wysokość odsetek zapłaconych w czwartym roku trwania umowy pożyczki. [Z8.EA17.05.03.]\n6. Pożyczka zaciągnięta przy stopie procentowej i(2) jest spłacana przez okres osiem lat za pomocą równych rat dokonywanych na końcu każdego kwartału. W przypadku wydłużenia okresu spłat do szesnastu lat (bez zmiany pozostałych warunków) wysokość każdej raty zmniejszy się o\n. Wyznaczyć wysokość stopy procentowej i(2)\n.\n[Z9.EA09.12.00.]\n\n7. Rozważmy kredyt w wysokości 240000 j.m., który ma zostać spłacony w ciągu 20 lat i wiadomo też, że w ciągu pierwszej dekady raty są płatne na końcu każdego roku, a w ciągu kolejnych 10 lat\n– na końcu każdego kwartału. Wiadomo też, że łączna suma uiszczona w ciągu każdego z dwóch rozpatrywanych okresów spłaty jest taka sama, a w trakcie każdego z nich wysokość raty pozostaje stała. Przy kalkulacji wysokości rat założono, że w pierwszej dekadzie spłacania pożyczki efektywna roczna stopa procentowa wynosi i = 0,12 oraz, że nominalna roczna stopa procentowa w trakcie drugiej dekady spłaty jest równa i(4) = 0,16.\nNatychmiast po zapłaceniu szesnastej raty kredytobiorca pożyczył dodatkowo kwotę L, w związku z czym bank zmodyfikował zasady spłaty obecnego łącznego zadłużenia. Wiadomo, że według nowego planu spłaty zmodyfikowana rata ma być płatna na końcu każdego miesiąca przez okres pozostający do końca oryginalnie ustalonego terminu spłaty, a jej wysokość pozostaje stała. Wiemy dodatkowo, że przy kalkulacji zmodyfikowanej raty użyto nominalnej stopy procentowej i, a wtedy i(12) = 0,18. Obliczyć wysokość L, jeśli wiadomo, że suma faktycznie zapłaconych odsetek jest o 0,15 wyższa od sumy odsetek, która zostałaby zapłacona, gdyby nie nastąpiły żadne zmiany. [Z8.EA12.10.02.]\n8. Rozpatrzmy plan spłaty czterdziestoletniego kredytu w nieznanej wysokości L, jeśli wiadomo, że:\n(i) w pierwszej dekadzie na końcu każdego roku spłacane będzie jedynie 0,25 kwoty odsetek od oryginalnego zadłużenia;\n(ii) przez kolejną dekadę na końcu każdego roku spłacane będą jedynie odsetki od bieżącego zadłużenia;\n(iii) przez ostatnią dekadę na końcu każdego roku spłacany będzie jedynie kapitał przy użyciu równych rat, przy czym łącznie w tym okresie zapłacone zostanie 0,50 nominalnej kwoty zadłużenia.\nObliczyć wysokość stałej raty płatnej na końcu każdego roku w trzeciej dekadzie spłaty, jeśli wiadomo, że gdyby w pierwszej oraz drugiej dekadzie spłaty na końcu każdego roku spłacane było 0,50 kwoty odsetek od oryginalnego zadłużenia, przy niezmienionych\n\npłatnościach w ostatniej dekadzie spłaty, to wynosiłaby ona 450000 j.m. Wiadomo ponadto, że efektywna roczna stopa procentowa wyniesie odpowiednio 0,14, 0,12, 0,10 oraz 0,08 w kolejnych dekadach spłaty. [Z3.EA17.05.03.]\n9. Rozpatrzmy plan spłaty trzydziestoletniego kredytu w kwocie\n500000 j.m., o którym wiadomo, że:\n(i) przez pierwszych dziesięć lat na końcu każdego roku spłacane będą jedynie odsetki od kwoty bieżącego zadłużenia;\n(ii) przez kolejnych dziesięć lat na końcu każdego roku spłacany będzie jedynie kapitał przy użyciu równych rat, przy czym łącznie nominalnie zapłacone zostanie 0,40 pierwotnej kwoty zadłużenia;\n(iii) przez ostatnią dekadę na końcu każdego roku spłacone zostanie pozostałe zadłużenie przy użyciu równych rat.\nObliczyć wysokość raty płatnej w ostatnim dziesięcioletnim okresie spłaty, jeśli wiadomo, że w całym okresie spłaty efektywna roczna stopa procentowa wyniesie i = 0,08, z wyjątkiem roku 5, 15 oraz\n25, kiedy to w wyniku wahań kursowych efektywna roczna stopa procentowa wzrośnie i wyniesie odpowiednio 0,10, 0,12 oraz 0,14.\n[Z4.EA25.01.03.]\n10. Pożyczka oprocentowana przy nominalnej rocznej stopie procentowej naliczanej kwartalnie i(4) miała być spłacana przez okres\n32 lat za pomocą płatności dokonywanych wraz z końcem każdego kwartału, przy czym płatności dokonywane na koniec kwartału parzystego (tj. na końcu półrocza) miały być dwa razy większe od płatności dokonywanych na końcu kwartału nieparzystego. Po zapłaceniu połowy rat wydłużono pozostały okres spłaty do 32 lat\n(bez zmiany pozostałych warunków), w wyniku czego wysokość każdej raty zmniejszyła się o 20%. Wyznaczyć stopę procentową i(4) . [Z9.EA11.10.03.]\n11. Inwestor bierze kredyt w wysokości 100000 j.m. spłacany w 50 równych rocznych ratach płatnych z dołu przy stopie i = 0,10.\nBezpośrednio po zapłacie 10-tej raty renegocjuje warunki kredytu.\n\nPozostała do spłaty część kredytu będzie teraz spłacona przez kolejne 30 lat (łącznie 40 lat) w równych ratach ze zmienioną stopą i = 0,12. Wyznaczyć różnicę między sumą odsetek zapłaconych na koniec 12, 14, 16, ..., 40 roku przy nowych warunkach, a sumą odsetek, która byłaby zapłacona w pierwotnej formule spłaty kredytu w tym samym czasie. [Z5.EA10.10.05.]\n12. Kredyt w wysokości 100000 j.m. jest spłacany w 20 ratach płatnych na koniec kolejnych lat w wysokościach\nX, (X +a), (X +2a), ... , (X +19a), gdzie X,a ∈ R. Efektywna roczna stopa oprocentowania kredytu wynosi i = 0,07. Wyznaczyć wartość a, przy której 0,60 dziesiątej ef raty stanowią odsetki. [Z7.EA20.03.06.]\n13. Kredyt hipoteczny o wartości 400000 j.m. będzie spłacany przez 30 lat ratami płatnymi na końcu każdego roku, w następujący sposób:\n(i) w pierwszej dekadzie kredyt spłacany jest równymi ratami w wysokości R,\n(ii) w drugiej dekadzie raty tworzą ciąg malejący o wyrazach\nR, (R−1000), (R−2000),...,(R−9000),\n(iii) w trzecim dziesięcioleciu kredyt ponownie spłacany jest ratami o stałej wartości,\n(iv) oprocentowanie kredytu w pierwszym dziesięcioleciu wynosi\n0,09, w drugim 0,08, a w trzecim 0,07.\nWiedząc, że wartość kapitału spłaconego w ratach siedemnastej i dwudziestej siódmej wynosi w sumie 35774,12 j.m., obliczyć kwotę odsetek zapłaconych w drugim dziesięcioleciu.\n[Z9.EA26.03.18.]\n14. Trzy osoby biorą z banku kredyty w wysokości 100000 j.m. każda.\nKredyty są spłacane za pomocą rat płatnych na koniec każdego roku przez najbliższych piętnaście lat. Każdy z kredytobiorców ma inny plan spłaty.\n\nPierwszy spłaca kredyt za pomocą rat postaci:\nP, (P−500), (P−1000),...,(P−7000)\n(każda rata jest o 500 j.m. mniejsza od poprzedniej).\nDrugi spłaca kredyt za pomocą rat postaci:\nQ, (2Q), (3Q),...,(15Q).\nTrzeci spłaca kredyt za pomocą rat postaci:\nR, [(1,1)R], [(1,1)2R],..., [(1,1)14R].\nRoczna efektywna stopa procentowa jest równa i = 0,07. Obliczyć wartość sumarycznych odsetek zapłaconych przez wszystkich trzech kredytobiorców w ciągu całego okresu spłacania kredytów.\n[Z7.EA15.12.08.]\n15. Kredyt hipoteczny w wysokości 500000 j.m. spłacany jest w 40 równych rocznych ratach, płatnych z dołu przy stopie i = 0,05. Bezpośrednio po spłacie ósmej raty ulega zmianie stopa procentowa.\nJednocześnie kredytobiorca decyduje się na skrócenie pozostałego okresu kredytowania. Pozostała część kredytu będzie teraz spłacana przez kolejnych dwadzieścia lat w równych, płatnych z dołu, rocznych ratach, ze zmniejszoną stopą r = 0,04. Niech S oznacza r sumę odsetek zapłaconych w pierwszych dziesięciu latach nowego kredytu (tj. w latach 10,11,...,19, licząc od momentu zaciągnięcia pożyczki), natomiast S sumę odsetek, które byłyby zapłacone i\nS i w tym samym okresie w oryginalnej formie. Obliczyć .\nS r\n[Z9.EA08.10.07.]\n3.2. Ciągła spłata długu\nCiągła spłata długu jest to model teoretyczny, oparty na akumulacji ciągłej, w którym tak odsetki, jak i spłaty kapitału odbywają się w sposób ciągły. W istocie jest to graniczny model kredytu ciągu modeli spłat dyskretnych, gdy liczba okresów spłaty dąży do nieskończoności [4].\n\nPrzypatrzmy się ciągłemu planowi spłaty kredytu w oparciu o metodę amortyzacji. Weźmy kredyt o jednorazowej wypłacie oraz bez prowizji i kosztów manipulacyjnych. Zakładamy, że kredyt został zaciągnięty w chwili t = 0 [4].\nDo tego celu przyjmijmy oznaczenia\n■ K – wysokość zaciągniętego kredytu;\n■ T – czas życia kredytu;\n■ r(t) – stopa procentowa w chwili t;\n■ O(t 1 ;t 2 ) – odsetki naliczone w okresie [t 1 ;t 2 ];\n■ CF(t 1 ;t 2 ) – wpłaty (przepływ gotówki) w okresie [t 1 ;t 2 ];\n■ g(t) – gęstość strumienia płatności w chwili t;\n■ S(t) – stan zadłużenia w chwili t, gdzie S(0) = K, S(T) = 0.\nZałożeniem dodatkowym jest, że: wszystkie salda S(t), stopy r(t), gęstości g(t) w chwili t są nieujemne, a wszystkie wymienione funkcje są mierzalne dla argumentów nieujemnych.\nW przedziale [t ;t ] przepływ gotówki jest zależny od gęstości stru-\n1 2 mienia płatności i wynosi:\nt\nCF(t ;t ) = ∫ g(s)ds.\n1 2 t\nWielkość odsetek jest wyznaczona przez stan zadłużenia i przez stopę procentową:\nt\nO(t ;t ) = ∫ r(s)S(s)ds.\n1 2 t\nZmiana stanu zadłużenia zależy od strumienia wpłat i od kwoty odsetek.\nMamy wtedy:\nS(t ) = S(t )+O(t ;t )−CF(t ;t ),\n2 1 1 2 1 2\n\na więc\nS(t )−S(t ) = O(t ;t )−CF(t ;t ).\n2 1 1 2 1 2\nPrzyjmując t = t oraz t = t+Δt, dostajemy zależność\n1 2\nΔS(t) = ∫ r(s)S(s)ds− ∫ g(s)ds,\n[t;t+Δt] [t;t+Δt] a następnie dzieląc stronami przez Δt, otrzymujemy\nΔS 1 1\n= ∫ r(s)S(s)ds− ∫ g(s)ds.\nΔt Δt Δt\n[t;t+Δt] [t;t+Δt]\nModyfikując zapis, otrzymujemy\nΔS\n=\nΔt\n∫ r(s)S(s)ds− ∫ r(s)S(s)ds ∫ g(s)ds− ∫ g(s)ds\n[0;t+Δt] [0;t] [0;t+Δt] [0;t]\n= − .\nΔt Δt\nPrzyjmując F(s) ∶= ∫r(s)S(s)ds oraz G(s) ∶= ∫g(s)ds, dostajemy w konsekwencji zależność\nΔS F(t+Δt)−F(t) G(t+Δt)−G(t)\n= − ,\nΔt Δt Δt a przy Δt → 0 otrzymujemy\nS′(t) = f(t)−g(t) = r(t)S(t)−g(t), gdzie f(t) = f′(t) = r(t)S(t).\nOtrzymana zależność ma jeszcze i tę dobrą stronę, że dostajemy z niej formułę na gęstość g(t) = r(t)S(t)−S′(t).\n3.2.1. Przykłady\n1. Bank kapitalizujący co kwartał z dołu, przy nominalnej stopie procentowej i = 0,24, zamierza przejść na kapitalizację ciągłą. Wy-\n\nznaczyć wysokość nominalnej stopy procentowej przy kapitalizacji ciągłej, aby w czasie pięciu lat obydwa warianty oprocentowania były jednakowo atrakcyjne.\nRozwiązanie. W sytuacji opisanej w zadaniu kwartalna stopa\n0,24 oprocentowania wynosi i = = 0,06. Przyjmijmy, że r jest nokw 4 minalną stopą kapitalizacji ciągłej. Biorąc pod uwagę treść zadania, dostajemy równość [(1,06)4]5 = e5r, która po zlogarytmowaniu daje 5r = ln(1,06)20 = 20ln(1,06) i z której dostajemy r = 4ln(1,06) ≃ 0,233 = 0,233.\nStąd stopa kapitalizacji ciągłej, równoważna w okresie pięciu lat kapitalizacji kwartalnej wynoszącej 0,06, jest równa 0,233.\nZauważamy, że zadanie to nie odnosi się do zadłużenia, ale do depozytu. Kłopot formalny związany z możliwością stosowania ciągłej spłaty długu polega na stronie prawnej. Mianowicie, w przypadku dyskretnego modelu spłaty długu dzieli raty na część obarczoną\n□ podatkiem i część wolną od podatku.\n2. Wyznaczyć A(2), gdy\n(i) A(0) = 10, (ii) δ(t) = ln2+2tln3+2t ln2ln4.\nt\n∫ δ(s)ds\nRozwiązanie. Z uwagi na to, że: A(t) = A(0)e0 , to w tym przypadku:\n2 2\n∫ δ(s)ds ∫(ln2+2sln3+2sln2ln4)ds\nA(2) = A(0)e0 = A(0)e0 =\n⎛⎜⎜⎜ln2∫ 2 ds+ln3∫\n2sds+ln2ln4∫\n2sln2ln4d\n⎞⎟⎟⎟\n= 10e⎝ 0 0 0 ⎠ =\n= 10e\n[2ln2+4ln3+ln4ln2 l n s\n∣ 2\n]\n= 10e\n[ln4+ln81+(22−20)ln4]\n=\n= 10e[ln4+ln81+ln64] = 10e [ln34+ln44] =\n= 10eln(34⋅44) = 10⋅34⋅44 = 10⋅(3⋅4) 4 =\n= 10⋅124 = 10⋅1442 = 10⋅20736 = 207360.\n\nW konsekwencji otrzymujemy więc A(2) = 207360 j.m. □\n\n4. Obligacje\n4.1. Podstawy teoretyczne\nNa wstępie przedstawimy metodę wyznaczania stopy zwrotu z obligacji do momentu jej zapadalności, w języku angielskim zwanej w skrócie\nYTM (Yield to Maturity) W przypadku obligacji o stałym oprocentowaniu, z którą wiąże się n + 1 przepływów pieniężnych, najwcześniejszym przepływem jest CF = −P i jest to kwota, za którą inwestor zakupił obligacje. Przepływy\nCF ,CF ,...,CF\n1 2 n−1 są kuponami, natomiast przepływ ostatni CF jest sumą kuponu oraz n kwoty będącej ceną wykupu. Wymienione przepływy mają miejsce odpowiednio w chwilach t ,t ,t ,..., t .\n0 1 2 n\nJak już wspomnieliśmy, stopa procentowa YTM jest stopą zwrotu z obligacji do momentu jej zapadalności. Zakładamy, że odsetki (w tym przypadku kupony) są reinwestowane z taką samą efektywną stopą zwrotu. Efektywna stopa zwrotu YTM spełnia zatem równość:\nP⋅(1+YTM)t n =\n= CF ⋅(1+YTM)t n −t 1 +CF ⋅(1+YTM)t n −t 2 +...\n1 2 t −t\n...+CF ⋅(1+YTM) n (n−1) +CF n−1 n\nRówności tej można nadać równoważną postać\nCF CF\n0 = CF + 1 + 2 +...\n0 (1+YTM)t\n(1+YTM)t\nCF CF\n⋯+ n−1 + n .\n(1+YTM) t ( n−1) (1+YTM)t n\n\nStąd już tylko krok do czynników dyskontujących B(t ), odpowiadająn cych chwilom t ,t ,...,t , mającym postacie\n0 1 n\nB(t ) =df , i (1+YTM)t i a w szczególności\nB(t ) = (1+YTM)0 = 1.\nWynika z tego, że efektywna stopa procentowa zwrotu z inwestycji w rozpatrywaną obligację jest równa stopie zwrotu do momentu zapadalności.\nA zatem R(t ) = YTM. Ponieważ znane są czynniki dyskontujące dla n poszczególnych chwil t ∈ {t ,t ,...,t }, więc możemy zapisać\n0 1 n\n0 = CF ⋅B(t )+CF ⋅B(t )+CF ⋅B(t )+...\n0 0 1 1 2 2\n...+CF ⋅B(t )+CF ⋅B(t ).\nn−1 n−1 n n\nZnając B(t) dla t ∈ {t ,t ,...,t }, wartość B(t ) wyznaczamy z zależ-\n1 2 n−1 n ności\nP = CF ⋅B(t )+CF ⋅B(t )+...+CF ⋅B(t ).\n1 1 2 2 n n\nSposób ten nosi nazwę metody łańcuchowej.\nPrzyjmujemy oznaczenia obowiązujące w matematyce finansowej.\nWarto dodać, że są to oznaczenia zatwierdzone przez Międzynarodowe\nTowarzystwo Aktuarialne, którego historia sięga 1895 roku.\nP cena (rynkowa) obligacji\nF nominał obligacji\nC cena wykupu (kwota płacona posiadaczowi w dniu wykupu) r stopa kuponowa obligacji (kupon/nominał)\nFr wysokość kuponu g zmodyfikowana stopa kuponowa, g definiuje ją równość: Fr=Cg i stopa zwrotu z obligacji (do momentu zapadalności YTM) n liczba okresów płatności kuponu od daty obliczeń do daty wykupu\nK wartość obecna, obliczana z użyciem stopy i, ceny wykupu K =Cvn\nG kwota bazowa obligacji, definiuje ją równość Gi=Fr\n4.1.1. Premia i dyskonto\nW przypadku gdy cena zakupu obligacji przewyższa cenę wykupu\n(P > C), mówimy, że obligacja została kupiona z premią. Różnica P−C\n\njest kwotą premii. Może być wyrażona procentowo. Jeżeli natomiast cena zakupu jest niższa od ceny wykupu (P < C), to mówimy, że obligacja została kupiona z dyskontem. Różnica C−P nazywana jest kwotą dyskonta\n(może też być wyrażona jako procent wykupu). Stąd mamy zależności:\npremia = P−C = (Fr−Ci)a = C(g−i)a , gdy g > i, n i n i dyskonto = C−P = (Ci−FR)a = C(i−g)a , gdy g < i.\nn i n i\nZajmując się obligacjami, mamy do czynienia z trzema stopami procentowymi:\n1. Nominalna stopa procentowa – jest wyrażona w stosunku rocznym stopą kuponową, tzn.\nroczny kupon nominalna stopa procentowa = .\nnominał obligacji\n2. Bieżąca stopa zwrotu (current yield) – jest stosunkiem rocznego kuponu do ceny rynkowej obligacji.\n3. Stopa zwrotu liczona do momentu zapadalności (YTM), czyli wyrażona w stosunku rocznym wewnętrzna stopa zwrotu.\nCztery formuły wyrażające cenę obligacji lp. Nazwa Formuła\n1. Formuła podstawowa P =Fra +Cvn =Fra +K n i n i\n2. Formuła premia/dyskonto P =C+(Fr−Ci)a n i\n3. Formuła kwoty bazowej P =G+(C−G)vn\n4. Formuła Makehama P =K + g(C−K) i\n4.1.2. Wartości obligacji między płatnościami kuponu\nOznaczmy przez B i B ceny lub wartości księgowe obligacji tuż po t t+1 dwóch kolejnych płatnościach kuponu. Pamiętamy, że Fr jest wielkością kuponu. Mamy wtedy\nB = B (1+i)−Fr, t+1 t\n\nprzy założeniu stałej stopy zwrotu i. A oto powód tej zależności:\nB (1+i)−Fr = [Fra +Cvn−t](1+i)−Fr = t n−t\n= Fr(1+v+...+vn−t−1)+Cvn−t−1−Fr =\n= Fra +Cvn−t−1 = B .\nn−t−1 t+1\nZajmiemy się teraz zachowaniem B dla 0 < k < 1.\nt+k\nJeżeli obligacja jest kupowana między płatnościami, to należy podzielić przyszły (w rozumieniu „najbliższy”) kupon między dwie strony transakcji, ponieważ nowy posiadacz obligacji na koniec okresu otrzyma cały kupon. Będziemy uważać, że do chwili k narosła pewna część kuponu (oznaczana przez Fr ), zwana po angielsku: accured coupon (kupon k skumulowany). Mamy przy tym: Cr = 0 oraz Fr = r.\n0 1 f\nPrzez B oznacza się pieniądze, które zmieniają właściciela przy t+k zakupie obligacji w chwili t+k (w polskiej literaturze używa się też nazwy cena brudna obligacji, ang. flat price). Symbolem\nBm oznaczamy cenę t+k z wyłączeniem narosłego kuponu (w polskiej literaturze cena czysta, zaś ang. market price). Mamy\nB f = Bm +Fr , dla 0 < k < 1.\nt+k t+k k\nW praktyce giełdowej ceny obligacji podawane są w postaci dwóch składników tej sumy, czyli jako cena czysta (kurs) oraz narosły kupon!\n4.1.3. Ćwiczenia\n1. Sformułować definicję obligacji zerokuponowej oraz przedstawić wartość obecną takiej obligacji, jeśli znane są jej czas trwania, nominalna rynkowa stopa procentowa oraz cena wykupu, a także przedstawić jej wartość obecną, gdy znane są F, C, r.\n2. Sformułować definicję obligacji kuponowej, jeśli znane są jej czas trwania, nominalna rynkowa stopa procentowa oraz cena wykupu, a także przedstawić jej wartość obecną, gdy znane są F, C, r.\n3. Sformułować definicję premii oraz definicję dyskonta. Podać formułę wyceny obligacji dla przypadku premia/dyskonto, a także formuły na premię i na dyskonto.\n\n4. Uzasadnić, że stopę zwrotu w terminie do wykupu można analitycznie wyznaczyć tylko i wyłącznie dla obligacji 0–kuponowej oraz że dla modeli dyskretnych i modeli ciągłych dysponujemy odpowiednio zależnościami\nF n 1 F r = ( ) −1 oraz r = ln( ).\nd P ct t P n\n5. Sformułować definicję stopy procentowej YTM oraz przedstawić rozumowanie prowadzące do wyznaczenia odpowiedniej formuły.\n6. Sformułować definicje ceny czystej i ceny brudnej obligacji.\n7. Omówić zagadnienie ustalania wartości obligacji między płatnościami kuponów.\n8. Omówić zagadnienie ustalania wartości księgowej obligacji oraz metody: teoretyczną, praktyczną i semiteoretyczną.\n4.1.4. Przykłady\n1. Dane są trzy obligacje o tej samej wartości wykupu i mające te same terminy płatności kuponów:\n(i) pierwsza z kuponem wysokości 40 ma sumę zakupu P;\n(ii) druga z kuponem w wysokości 30 ma cenę zakupu Q;\n(iii) trzecia z kuponem w wysokości 30 ma (nieznaną) cenę zakupu\nR.\nWyznaczyć cenę R trzeciej obligacji.\nRozwiązanie. Przyjmijmy, że C oznacza cenę wykupu (wartość wykupu) obligacji, a jak pamiętamy – jest ona zwykle równa wartości nominalnej obligacji, F, czyli C = F. Poza tym, mimo że nie ma o tym mowy w treści zadania, znana jest nam stopa oprocentowania i oraz fakt, że mamy do czynienia z płaską strukturą stóp procentowych. Dodatkową informacją, którą należy przyjąć w celach technicznych, jest czas życia obligacji wyrażony w latach – oznaczmy go przez n.\n\nOznaczmy też zwyczajowo przez v zależny od i czynnik dyskontujący\n(v = 1 ). Przy przyjętych umowach informacje zawarte w treści\n1+i zadania pozwalają utworzyć układ równań\n⎧ P = 40a +Cvn,\n{ { n i\nQ = 30a +Cvn,\n⎨ { n i\n{ ⎩ R = 80a n i +Cvn.\nWidzimy, że jest to układ równań liniowych z trzema niewiadomymi:\n■ a n i — rentą n-letnią płatną z dołu, ze stopą procentową i,\n■\nCvn\n— zaktualizowaną na moment zakupu wartością nominalną obligacji,\n■ R — nieznaną ceną trzeciej obligacji.\nPonieważ trzecie z równań układu jest „konsumentem” informacji możliwych do uzyskania z równań pierwszego i drugiego, to zajmijmy się rozwiązaniem wspomnianego „podukładu”:\nP = 40a +Cvn,\n{ n i\nQ = 30a +Cvn.\nn i\nOdejmując stronami drugie od pierwszego z równań wchodzących w skład układu, otrzymujemy\nP−Q = 10a przy Q = 30a +Cvn.\nn i n i\nStąd już bez trudu dostajemy:\na = (P−Q) n i 10 oraz po wstawieniu do drugiego równania\nP = 4(P−Q)+Cvn, a zatem\nCvn = 4Q−3P.\n\nW konsekwencji mamy\nR = 80⋅ (P−Q)+4Q−3P.\nOstatecznie R = 5P−4Q. □\n2. Obligacja dwuletnia o wartości wykupu 10000 j.m., równej wartości nominalnej, płaci roczne kupony równe r = 0,03 wartości\n∗ nominalnej. Cena emisyjna wyznaczana jest w oparciu o następującą strukturę stóp procentowych: i = 0,05 jest stopą procentową\n(forward) w pierwszym roku po emisji, zaś i = 0,04 w drugim roku po emisji. Wiadomo, że pierwszy kupon będzie reinwestowany w momencie jego płatności na okres pozostały do wygaśnięcia obligacji, przy stopie procentowej i . Za zakumulowaną wartość wypłat\n(uwzględniając opisaną reinwestycję kuponu) kupujemy w momencie wygaśnięcia obligacji dziesięcioletnią rentę o stałych, rocznych płatnościach, płatną na początku kolejnych lat, skalkulowaną przy stałej stopie technicznej równej wewnętrznej stopie zwrotu (YTM) z obligacji. Jaka jest roczna wypłata z tej renty?\nRozwiązanie. Oznaczmy przez P cenę emisyjną obligacji dwuletniej. Niech przy tym Fr oznacza wartość kuponów pod koniec\n∗ pierwszego i drugiego roku życia obligacji. Mamy wtedy z treści zadania, że przepływy finansowe wynoszą odpowiednio\nCF = −P = −10000,\nCF = Fr = 003⋅10000 = 300,\n1 ∗\nCF = F +Fr = 0,03⋅10000+10000 = 10300,\n2 ∗ gdzie r oznacza stopę kuponową, zaś F nominał obligacji.\n∗\nW zadaniu mamy do czynienia z dwiema stopami procentowymi, a przez to z dwiema czynnikami dyskontującymi. Pierwszy z nich obowiązuje w roku pierwszym i wynosi:\n1 1 v = oraz drugi: v = .\n1 1,05 2 1,05⋅1,04\nStąd:\nPV = CF v +CF v ,\n1 1 2 2\n\nczyli\n300 10300\nPV = + ≃ 9717,94.\n1,05 1,05⋅1,04\nZauważmy, że pierwszy z wypłaconych kuponów został poddany rocznej reinwestycji na rok, przy stopie i = 0,04, a jego wartość przyszła na koniec drugiego roku wyniosła\nFr ⋅(1+i ) = 300⋅(1+i ).\n∗ 2 2\nJednak udział tego kuponu w wartości obecnej obligacji, czyli w PV, wiąże się ze zdyskontowaniem kwoty 300⋅(1+i ) w dwuletnim przedziale czasu. Proces aktualizacji jego wartości na „chwilę zerową” jest oparty o czynnik dyskontujący właściwy dla tego przedziału, czyli o czynnik v . Z uwagi na to, udział drugiego kuponu w wartości PV obligacji wynosi\n300⋅(1+i )⋅v = 300⋅(1+i )⋅ =\n2 2 2 (1+i )⋅(1+i )\n1 2\n300 300\n= = .\n1+i 1,05\nOznaczmy teraz przez r• wewnętrzną stopę zwrotu IRR, a wtedy równanie pozwalające na jej wyznaczenie ma postać:\n1 1\nP−Fr ⋅ −(F +Fr )⋅ = 0.\n∗ 1+r• ∗ (1+r•)2\nPo pomnożeniu stronami przez\n(1+r•)2 i podstawieniu wcześniej wyznaczonej wartości na P dostajemy:\n9717,94(1+r•)2−300(1+r•)−10300 = 0.\nPodstawiając t ∶= 1+r• i od razu zakładając, że t > 0, dostajemy równanie:\n9717,94t2−300t−10300 = 0.\nW rezultacie Δ = 40046900 oraz √Δ ≃ 20011,725, a zatem jednym z pierwiastków równania jest liczba ujemna t < 0, drugim zaś – nas interesującym – jest t = 1,0450633. W następnej kolejności dostajemy t ≃ 1,045% i dalej r• ≃ 4,5%.\n\nTeraz kupujemy rentę! Otóż do zainwestowania mamy zakumulowaną wartość pierwszego kuponu: Fr (1+i ), plus drugi kupon\n∗ 2 i kwotę wykupu, które oznaczyliśmy jako: F +Fr . Stąd mamy\n∗\nFV = 300⋅1,04+10300 = 10612,00.\nJednak FV inwestycji to jest PV renty płatnej z góry przez 10 lat w równych ratach po X. Mamy więc:\nPV = X ⋅ä .\nrenty 10 0,045\nDla renty płatnej z góry przy oprocentowaniu wynoszącym i =\n0,045% mamy, że\nä ≃ 8,2687901.\n10 0,045\nStąd mamy już ratę X\nPV renty 10612,00\nX = = ≃ 1283,38j.m.\nä 8,2687901\n10 0,045\nPrzyjmijmy jako wynik przybliżony X ≃ 1284 j.m. □\n3. Inwestor kupił w dniu emisji obligacje: 10-letnią i 12-letnią. Wartość wykupu każdej obligacji wynosi 10000 j.m. Każda obligacja wypłaca kupon o wartości 800 j.m. co dwa lata, począwszy od końca drugiego roku. Inwestor sfinansował 80% wartości zakupu obligacji za pomocą kredytu, natomiast pozostałą część opłacił z własnych środków. Odsetki otrzymane z obligacji są reinwestowane w funduszu.\nPo trzech latach inwestor sprzedaje obie obligacje, wycofuje środki z funduszu i spłaca kredyt w całości wraz z należnymi odsetkami.\nWiedząc, że:\n■ cena zakupu obligacji została ustalona przy stopie procentowej\n6%,\n■ cena sprzedaży obligacji została ustalona przy stopie procentowej 5%,\n\n■ stopa zwrotu funduszu, w którym reinwestowane są środki otrzymane z wypłaconych kuponów obligacji, wynosi 7%,\n■ oprocentowanie kredytu wynosi 8%, obliczyć efektywną (roczną) stopę zwrotu z zainwestowanych środków własnych.\nRozwiązanie. Pamiętając, że kupony w wysokości 800 j.m. płacone są co dwa lata i oznaczając obecne wartości obligacji 10-cio i 12-\n-letniej przez PV oraz PV , mamy\n10 12\n1 1 1 10000\nPV = 800( + +...+ )+ ,\n10 (1,06)2 (1,06)4 (1,06)10 (1,06)10\n1 1 1 10000\nPV = 800( + +...+ )+ .\n12 (1,06)2 (1,06)4 (1,06)12 (1,06)12\nJeśli K = K(0) jest kwotą zaciągniętego kredytu, to\nK(0) = 0,8(PV +PV ),\n10 12 co wynika z treści zadania. Po wykonaniu stosownych obliczeń dostajemy, że\nPV = 8442,23 oraz PV = 8225,55,\n10 12 a stąd już mamy kolejny potrzebny wynik:\nK(0) = 0,8(PV +PV ) = 13334,22.\n10 12\nTeraz oznaczmy przez\nS(3) oraz\nS(3) kwoty, za jakie zostały sprze-\n10 12 dane poszczególne obligacje w trzy lata po zakupie. Mamy, że:\nS(3) = 10000⋅v7+800⋅(v7+v5+v3+v ) ≃ 9755,15\n10 s s s s s oraz\nS(3) = 10000⋅v9+800⋅(v9+v7+v5+v3+v ) ≃ 9610,12,\n12 s s s s s s gdzie v = jest ustalonym na podstawie stopy sprzedaży s 1.05 równej 5% czynnikiem dyskontującym sprzedaży. Kwota uzyskana\n\nze sprzedaży obu obligacji\nS(3) po trzech latach ich życia jest zatem równa\nS(3) = S(3)+S(3) = 19365,27.\n10 12\nJednak w międzyczasie zaciągnięty w chwili kupna obligacji kredyt w kwocie K(0) „obrósł” odsetkami, czyli zakumulował się w sposób złożony przy stopie oprocentowania kredytu wynoszącej – zgodnie z treścią zadania wynoszącej 8%. A więc w chwili sprzedaży obligacji jego wartość wyniosła\nK(3) = K(0)⋅(1,08)3, co w szczegółach daje\nK(3) = K(0)(1,08)3 = 13334,22⋅(1,08)3 = 16797,28.\nOznaczając przez Z zysk z inwestycji, wartość środków zgromadzonych w funduszu po trzech latach trwania inwestycji przez U(3), a udział środków własnych inwestora przez W mamy równanie:\nZ = S(3)+U(3)−K(3).\nMamy zgodnie z treścią zadania, że U(3) = 1600⋅(1+r ), gdzie\nU stopa zwrotu funduszu r = 0,07 – zgodnie z treścią zadania. Stąd\nU\nU = 1600⋅1,07 = 1712;\n{\nW = 0,2(PV +PV ) = 3333,56.\n10 12\nPo podstawieniu stosownych wartości liczbowych i wykonaniu koniecznych działań otrzymujemy: Z = 4280. Jeżeli oznaczymy przez r efektywną stopę stopę zwrotu inwestora z jego własnych środef ków, to dostaniemy równość\nZ\n(1+r )3 = .\nef W\nMamy wtedy\n4280,00\n(1+r )3 = ≃ 1,2839127 ef 3333,56\n\nstąd r = √3 1,2839127−1 ≃ 1,0868722−1 ≈ 0,087.\nef\nZatem r ≃ 0,087. □ ef\n4. Obligacja o wartości nominalnej, równej wartości wykupu równej\n1500 j.m., ze stopą kuponową r będzie wykupiona po n latach.\nW przypadku gdy zwiększymy stopę kuponową o 1%, cena zakupu wzrośnie o 75 j.m. Cena zakupu obligacji została wyliczona przy stopie stopie zwrotu 6%, o półrocznej kapitalizacji odsetek. Inna obligacja o wartości nominalnej, równej wartości wykupu 1500 j.m., będzie wykupiona po 2n latach. Wiedząc, że obie obligacje wypłacają półroczne kupony, obliczyć cenę zakupu obligacji 2n letniej, przy stopie zwrotu 6% o półrocznej kapitalizacji odsetek, jeżeli jej stopa kuponowa wynosi 7%.\nRozwiązanie. Trzymajmy się klasycznych oznaczeń dotyczących obligacji. Niech tradycyjnie P oznacza cenę zakupu obligacji, F cenę nominalną, a C – cenę jej wykupu. Do tego niech r oznacza stopę kuponową. Z treści zadania wiemy, że\nC = F = 1500 j.m., a nominalna stopa procentowa wynosi r = 0,06, z czego z kolei nom wynika wysokość stopy półrocznej wynosząca i = 0,03. To ta stopa wyznacza czynnik dyskontujący równy v = (1,03)−1 .\nOdwołajmy się teraz do formuły podstawowej dla wyceny obligacji\nP = Fra +Cvn . Informacja, że kupony płacone są co pół roku, ni a stopa kuponowa jest określona w stosunku rocznym oznacza, że wartość kuponu wynosi\n1 1\nFr = ⋅1500⋅r.\n2 2\nW naszych warunkach dostajemy\n1 1\n(1) 1500 = ⋅1500⋅r⋅a +1500⋅ .\n2 2n0,03 1,032n\nPrzejdźmy do drugiego warunku zawartego w zadaniu, a związanego ze wzrostem ceny zakupu obligacji w wyniku wzrostu stopy\n\nkuponowej o 0,01. Wtedy zachodzi równość\n1 1\n(2) 1500+75 = ⋅1500⋅(r+0,01)⋅a +1500⋅ .\n2 2n0,03 1,032n\nOdejmując stronami od równania (2) równanie (1) dostajemy\n75 = ⋅1500⋅a\n2 2n0,03 i w efekcie przekształceń kolejną równość a = 10,\n2n0,03 która po uporządkowaniu prowadzi do zależności\n1− = 0,3,\n(1,03)2n a z niej\n(1,03)2n = .\nLogarytmując stronami, dostajemy ln n = 7 ≃ 6,033311839.\n2ln(1,03)\nA więc dobrnęliśmy do informacji, że n = 6.\nPrzyszła pora na ostatni akord, jakim jest obliczenie ceny\nP∗ zakupu obligacji 2n letniej, przy stopie zwrotu 6%, o półrocznej kapitalizacji odsetek, jeżeli jej stopa kuponowa wynosi 7%, a kupony wypłacane są co pół roku. Mamy\n1 1\nP∗ = ⋅1500⋅0,07⋅a +1500⋅ .\n2 240,03 (1,03)24\nPo wykonaniu wszystkich koniecznych rachunków, przy danych z zadania dostajemy, że\n1 (1,03)24−1 1\nP∗ = ⋅1500⋅0,07⋅ +1500⋅ = 1627.\n2 (1,03)24⋅0,03 (1,03)24\n\nW konsekwencji P = 1627. □\n5. Inwestor kupuje 20-letnią obligację o wartości wykupu równej wartości nominalnej 1000 j.m. przy założeniu efektywnej stopy procentowej i za kwotę 1500 j.m. Kupony płatne są corocznie, a stopa kuponowa jest równa 3i (trzykrotnej stopie procentowej i). Po 10 latach, sprzedaje ją za kwotę X, przy założeniu tej samej efektywnej stopy zwrotu i. Obliczyć wartość X.\nRozwiązanie. Mamy przy standardowych oznaczeniach: r ∗ = 3i\n– stopa kuponowa, C = 1000 – wartość wykupu (równa cenie nominalnej F), cena (rynkowa) zakupu: P = 1500, że\nP = Fr ⋅a +Fv20.\n∗ 20 i\n1−v20\nPonieważ mamy a = , to\n20 i i\n1−v20\n1500 = 1000⋅3i⋅ +1000v20 = 3000−2000v20.\ni\nA stąd już mamy:\nv20 = = 0,75,\n3 √3 czyli v10 = √0,75 = √ = ≃ 0,8660254.\n4 2\nPrzejdźmy teraz do celu głównego zadania. Poszukujemy wartości\nX, która oznacza cenę sprzedaży obligacji po dziesięciu latach, przy założeniu, że stopa sprzedaży oraz stopa zwrotu przy zakupie obligacji są identyczne i wynoszą i (tak sobie życzy autor zadania).\nMamy zatem\nX = Fr ⋅a +Fv10,\n∗ 10 i co w przełożeniu na wartości liczbowe daje\nX = 1000⋅3i1−v10 +1000⋅v10 i i dalej\nX = 3000−2000v10 = 1000(3−2⋅ √3 ) =\n= 1000(3−√3) ≃ 1267,9492.\n\nZatem X = 1270. □\n6. Dany jest pakiet 10 obligacji o kuponach płatnych półrocznie w wysokości 50 j.m. każdy i wartości wykupu równej 1000 j.m. Termin wykupu obligacji przypada co roku, począwszy od końca 10. roku, tj. pierwsza obligacja zapada na końcu 10. roku, druga na końcu\n11. roku, ..., dziesiąta obligacja zapada na końcu 19. roku. Inwestor bierze kredyt na zakup obligacji w wysokości 70% wartości zakupu obligacji, a za pozostałą część płaci z własnych środków. Odsetki otrzymane z obligacji są reinwestowane w funduszu. Inwestor po dwóch latach sprzedaje pakiet obligacji, wycofuje środki z funduszu i spłaca kredyt w całości wraz z należnymi odsetkami. Obliczyć efektywną roczną stopę zwrotu i z zainwestowanych środków, ef jeżeli wiadomo że\n1. cena zakupu pakietu obligacji została ustalona przy stopie procentowej i(2) = 10%;\n2. cena sprzedaży pakietu obligacji została ustalona przy stopie procentowej , i(2) = 6%;\n3. fundusz, w którym inwestowane są środki otrzymane z zapadłych kuponów są reinwestowane przy stopie i(2) = 8%;\n4. kredyt na sfinansowanie zakupu jest oprocentowany przy stopie i(2) = 16%.\nRozwiązanie. Rozpatrzmy wartości obecne poszczególnych obligacji przyjmując oznaczenie, że stopa procentowa zakupu jest równa i(2)\n10% i = 1 = = 5%.\nz 2 2\nPonieważ czas życia obligacji z zakupionego pakietu waha się od 10 do 19 lat, to liczba okresów kapitalizacji kuponów waha się również od 20 do 38. Wypłata kuponów następuje od momentu upłynięcia pół roku od zakupu do wykupu ostatniej dziesiątej obligacji. Wartość obecna poszczególnych obligacji to\n\n20 20\n1 1\nPV = 50∑v j +1000v20 = 50∑ +1000⋅ ,\n10 z z (1,05)j (1,05)20 j=1 j=1\n22 22\n1 1\nPV = 50∑v j +1000v22 = 50∑ +1000⋅ ,\n11 z z (1,05)j (1,05)21 j=1 j=1\n................................................................\n38 38\n1 1\nPV = 50∑v j +1000v38 = 50∑ +1000⋅ .\n19 z z (1.05)j (1,05)38 j=1 j=1\nMamy stąd, że\nPV = PV +PV +...+PV =\n10 11 19\n20 22 38\n= ⎡ ⎢50 ⎛ ⎜⎜∑v j z\n+∑v j z\n+...+∑v j z\n⎞ ⎟⎟ ⎤ ⎥+\n(4.1)\n⎣ ⎝j=1 j=1 j=1 ⎠⎦\n+1000⋅(v20+v22+...+v38).\nz z z\nPorządkując otrzymujemy\n1−v20 1−v22 1−v30\nPV = 50(v z +v z +...+v z )+ z 1−v z 1−v z 1−v z z z\n+1000⋅(v20+v22+...+v38) = z z z v [(1−v20)+(1−v22)+...+(1−v38)] z z z z\nPV = 50 +\n1−v z\n+1000⋅(v20+v22+...+v38) = z z z v [10−(v20+v22+...+v38)] z z z z\n= 50 +\n1−v z\n+1000(v20+v22+...+v38) = z z z v 1−v20 1−v20\n= 50{ z [10−(v20 z )]}+1000⋅(v20 z ) =\n1−v z 1−v2 z 1−v2 z z z v 1−v20 v\n= 500 z +50v20 z (20− z ) =\n1−v z 1−v2 1−v z z z\n\n∣ ∣ v = ,\n∣ z 1+i ∣\n∣ z ∣ 1 1−v20 1\n= ∣ ∣ = 500 +50v20 z (20− ).\n∣ a więc: ∣ i z 1−v2 i\n∣ v 1 ∣ z z z\n∣ z = . ∣\n∣ 1−v i ∣ z z\n1 1\nI tu czeka nas nagroda, bo skoro i = 0,05, to = = 20.\nz i 0,05 z\nZatem bez rachunków mamy, że drugi składnik ostatniej sumy jest równy 0 – obeszło się bez forsownych obliczeń – i summa summarum mamy:\nPV = PV(i) = 500⋅20 = 10000 j.m.\nPo tym sukcesie możemy jeszcze raz popatrzeć na rachunki. Zauważmy, że w sumie (4.1) pierwszy składnik (suma w nawiasie kwadratowym), to nic innego jak wartość obecna kuponów wypłacanych przez wszystkie obligacje na przestrzeni życia inwestycji, a drugi (suma w nawiasie zwykłym), to wartość obecna wypłat wartości nominalnych obligacji w chwilach zapadalności!\nTo był konieczny wstęp, a teraz niech K = K(0) oznacza, tradycyjnie już, zaciągnięty kredyt, zaś W – udział w inwestycji środków własnych inwestora. Z treści zadania mamy, że\nK(0) = 0,7⋅PV = 7000, zaś co oczywiste\nW = 0,3⋅PV = 3000.\nW zadaniu jest ważne, jaka kwota kredytu będzie do spłacenia po dwóch latach trwania inwestycji, a więc liczymy. Stopa oprocentowania kredytu wynosi i(2) = 16%, a więc oprocentowanie w okresie półrocznym (w takim kredyt jest rozliczany), które oznaczymy dla porządku i =df i(\n2)\n= 16% = 8%. Stąd też k 2 2\nK(2) = K(0)⋅(1+i )4 = 7000⋅(1,08)4 ≃ 9523,423.\nk\nPo dwóch latach, zgodnie z treścią zadania, inwestor sprzedaje obligacje i z funduszu wycofuje środki U(2), które narosły w nim wskutek inwestowania wszystkich kuponów, jakie płaciły obligacje\n\nw ciągu dwóch lat było to dodajmy, czterokrotnie. Wysokość wypłat to oczywiście 500 j.m. co pół roku. Stopa zwrotu funduszu i(2)\n8% r =df 3 = = 4%.\nU 2 2\nŁatwo policzymy, że było to\nU(2) = 500[(1+r )3+(1+r )2+(1+r )+1] =\nU U U\n1−(1,04)4\n500[(1,04)3+(1,04)2+1,04+1] = 500 ≃\n1−1,04\n≃ 500⋅4,246465 ≈ 2123,2325.\nPozostała nam jeszcze do wyznaczenia cena obligacji po upływie dwóch lat – pamiętając, że stopa procentowa zakupu i sprzedaży są różne. Stopa procentowa sprzedaży obligacji wynosi i(2)\n6% i =df 2 = = 3%.\ns 2 2\nStąd też czynnik dyskontujący sprzedaży\n1 1 v = = ≃ 0,9708737.\ns 1+i 1,03 s\nDo obliczenia wartości sprzedaży obligacji S(2) posłużmy się doświadczeniem z wyceny obligacji w chwili zakupu. W formule jej dotyczącej zmienia nam się perspektywa, bo po dwóch latach czas życia wszystkich obligacji skrócił się o 4 półrocza, a więc w konsekwencji zmienia się również wartość kuponów. Poza tym, jak już wspomnieliśmy, inna jest stopa oprocentowania i inny czynnik dyskontujący. Skorzystamy już z ostatniej, najwygodniejszej jej postaci, która zaadoptowana do obecnych warunków daje, że:\n1 1−v20 1\nS(2) = 500 +50v16 s (20− ) = i s 1−v2 i s s s\n0,4463242\n= 16666,667+50⋅0,6231669 (20−33,333333) ≃\n0,05704\n≃ 13436,531.\n\nOtrzymaliśmy więc, że zysk Z inwestora wyniósł\nZ = S(2)+U(2)−K(2) =\n= 13436,531+2123,2325−9523,423 ≃ 6036,3405.\nTeraz możemy przejść do odpowiedzi na zasadnicze pytanie: „jaka była efektywna roczna stopa zwrotu inwestora z zainwestowanych środków własnych?”. Mamy\nW 6036,3405\n(1+r )2 = = = 2,01211135 ef Z 3000 i dalej r = √2,01211135−1 = 1,4184899−1 = 0,4184899 ≈ 42% ef\nZatem r ≈ 42%. □ ef\n7. Inwestor kupuje w momencie emisji 10-letnią obligację o wartości nominalnej 100000 j.m. z 5% kuponami rocznymi i wartością wykupu równą nominalnej. Inwestor natychmiast sprzedaje jednak tę obligację i za uzyskaną kwotę kupuje w momencie emisji 7-letnią obligację z rocznymi kuponami, której wartość wykupu równa jest wartości nominalnej. Pierwszy kupon tej obligacji stanowi 3% wartości nominalnej, a każdy następny wzrasta o 2 punkty procentowe. Znaleźć wartość nominalną obligacji siedmioletniej, jeżeli oprocentowanie wynosi 6%.\nRozwiązanie. Rozpocznijmy od wyceny obligacji dziesięcioletniej, bo ona jest warunkiem startu. Mamy, że\nC = F = 100000 j.m.\n10 10 podczas gdy stopa kuponowa wynosi r = 0,05, skąd wartość kuponu wynosi 0,05⋅100000 = 5000. Stopa oprocentowania i = 6%, a więc v = jest czynnikiem dyskontującym. Stąd mamy, że wartość\n1,06 obecna, czyli cena rynkowa obligacji, wynosi:\nPV = P = F r(v+v2+...+v10)+F v10 =\n10 10 10 10\n\n1−v10\n= F ra +F v10 = F r +F v10 =\n10 100,06 10 10 i 10\n1−0,5583947\n= 5000⋅ +100000⋅0,5583947 =\n0,06\n= 5000⋅7,3600871+55839,47 = 36800,435+55839,47 =\n= 91639,905.\nCena obligacji siedmioletniej, drugiej z obligacji, jest znana, bo wiemy, że PV = PV . Nie jest zaś znana wartość nominalna\n10 7 obligacji siedmioletniej F , równa jej cenie wykupu C .\n7 7\nWartość obecna kuponów, które daje obligacja siedmioletnia, wynosi\nPV = P = 0,03F v+0,05F v2+...0,15F v7 coupon c 7 7 7\nPo uproszczeniu zapisu mamy\nPV = P = (0,03v+005v2+...+0,15v7)F .\ncoupon c 7\nZ drugiej strony, wykorzystując fakt, że kupony tworzą rentę arytmetyczną o różnicy 0,02, możemy, mnożąc ostatnią równość przez czynnik dyskontujący v, dostać pomocniczą równość\nP v = (0,03v2+0,05v3+...0,15v8)F .\nc 7\nStąd\nP −P v = (0,03v+0,05v2+...+0,15v7)F + c c 7\n−(0,03v2+0,05v3+...0,15v8)F =\n= (0,03v+0,02v2+0,02v3+...+0,02v7−0,15v8)F =\n= [(0,02v+0,02v2+0,02v3+...+0,02v7)+0,01v−0,15v8]F =\n= [0,02(v+v2+...+v7)+0,01v−0,15v8]F .\nMożemy zatem napisać\n[0,02(v+v2+...+v7)+0,01v−0,15v8]F\nP = = c 1−v\n\n1−v7\n0,02v +0,01v−0,15v8\n1−v\n= F =\n1−v 7\n1−v7\n0,02 +0,01v−0,15v8 i\n= F .\n1−v 7\nSkoro mamy oczywistą równość\nPV = PV +F v7,\n7 coupon 7 a także ponieważ zachodzi równość PV = P , to możemy w wy-\n7 10 godnej dla nas postaci zapisać\nP = P +F v7.\n10 c 7\nWcześniej wyliczyliśmy, że:\n1−v10\nP = (r +v10)F\n10 i 10 oraz\n1−v7\n0,02⋅ +0,01v−0,15v8 i\nP = F .\nc 1−v 7\nMożna zatem utworzyć równanie z jedną tylko niewiadomą, niewiadomą F i mamy\n1−v10\n(r +v10)F = i 10\n1−v7\n0,02⋅ +0,01v−0,15v8 i\n= F +F v7.\n1−v 7 7\nStąd już dostajemy poszukiwaną równość\nP\nF = 10 =\n7 1−v7\n0,02⋅ +0,01v−0,15v8 i\n+v7\n1−v\n\n1−v10\n(r +v10)F i 10\n= .\n1−v7\n0,02⋅ +0,01v−0,15v8 i\n+v7\n1−v\nPonieważ znamy teraz wartość liczbową P oraz wiemy, że P =\n10 10\n91639,905, to wystarczy obliczyć wartość wyrażenia z mianownika dla i = 0,06 oraz v = 0,9433962. Mamy zatem\n1−v7\n0,02⋅ +0,01v−0,15v8 i\n+v7 =≃ 1,141521.\n1−v\n91639,905\nZatem F = ≈ 81154,769 j.m.\n7 1,141521\nWartość nominalna obligacji siedmioletniej kupionej przez inwestora jest równa w przybliżeniu 81155 j.m. □\n8. Inwestor ma w portfelu\n(i) pięć obligacji zerokuponowych, każda o wartości nominalnej\nF = 100 j.m., cenie P = 91,67 oraz terminie wykupu 1 rok,\n1 1\n(ii) trzy obligacje, każda o wartości nominalnej F = 100 j.m., cenie P = 110 j.m., stopie kuponowej r = 0,1, terminie\n2 ∗ wykupu 2 lata oraz kuponach płatnych co roku z dołu.\nObliczyć wewnętrzną stopę zwrotu opisanego portfela.\nRozwiązanie. Koszt zakupu opisanego portfela wynosi\nP = CF = 3⋅110+5⋅91,67 = 788,35 j.m.\nWewnętrzna stopa zwrotu r = IRR będzie taką stopą dyskontowania r, dla której wartość bieżąca przychodów z opisanego portfela obligacji będzie równa jego kosztowi zakupu, czyli 788,35 j.m. Innymi słowy, jest to taka stopa procentowa, dla której wartość bieżąca netto portfela jest równa zeru.\nWyliczmy zatem, ile wynoszą przychody w zależności od stopy dyskontowania r.\nW pierwszym okresie wykupione zostaje 5 obligacji o cenie nominalnej 100 j.m. oraz otrzymujemy 30 j.m. z odsetek. W drugim okresie\n\notrzymujemy znów 30 j.m. z odsetek oraz wykupowane są 3 obligacje o cenie nominalnej 100 j.m. Mamy przepływy CF = 530 j.m.\noraz CF = 330 j.m., a CF = 788,35 j.m. wyliczone już wcześniej.\n2 0\nRównanie wartości ma więc postać\n530 330\n788,35 = +\n1+r (1+r)2 do kosztu zakupu portfela otrzymujemy równanie kwadratowe. Dla uproszczenia przyjmijmy x ∶= 1+r. Mamy wtedy\n788,350x2−530x−330 = 0.\nRozwiązując otrzymujemy jeden dodatni wynik x = 1,0652, a stąd\nIRR = r = 6,52%. □\n4.1.5. Zadania do samodzielnego rozwiązania\n1. Za 930 j.m. inwestor kupuje roczną obligację zerokuponową, o wartości nominalnej 1000 j.m. Obliczyć stopę zwrotu inwestora.\n2. Inwestor nabył za 648,36 j.m. czystą obligację dyskontową (obligacja zerokuponowa) na osiem lat przed wykupem z zamiarem trzymania tej obligacji do momentu wykupu. Obligacja będzie wykupiona według wartości nominalnej. Jaka jest wartość nominalna obligacji, jeżeli roczna stopa zwrotu z tej obligacji wynosi 8%?\n3. Obligacja 100-letnia o wartości nominalnej wynoszącej 1000 j.m.\npłaci roczne kupony (z dołu) równe 5% wartości nominalnej. Obecna rynkowa wartość obligacji wynosi 1100 j.m. Jaką kwotę należałoby zainwestować dzisiaj w lokatę bankową, aby przy oprocentowaniu równym stopie zwrotu z tej obligacji (YTM) po jednym roku uzyskać taką samą nominalną kwotę odsetek, jak uzyskana z posiadanych obligacji przez cały okres inwestycji?\n4. Rozpatrzmy 20-letnią obligację o następujących parametrach\n■ cenie nominalnej F = 1000 j.m.;\n■ cenie wykupu C = 1050 j.m.;\n■ płacącej półroczne kupony w wysokości 50 j.m.\n\nObliczyć cenę P wiedząc, że nominalna roczna stopa procentowa przy półrocznej kapitalizacji wynosi 8%. [Z3.EA15.01.00.]\n5. Obligacja 10-letnia o wartości nominalnej F = 1000 j.m. płaci kupony półroczne w wysokości 50 j.m. każdy. Środki uzyskane z kuponów są reinwestowane przy stopie i(2) = 0,04. Wyznaczyć kwotę P, za którą inwestor zakupił obligację, jeśli stopa zwrotu z inwestycji w ciągu 10-letniego okresu inwestowania wyniesie i = 0,10. [Z5.EA17.06.00.]\n6. Inwestor rozważa zakup n-letniej obligacji mającej nominał F =\n1000 j.m., cenę wykupu C = F oraz stopę kuponową równą r =\n∗\n0,06. Ile inwestor powinien zapłacić za obligację, aby rentowność obligacji była równa 5%, jeśli wiadomo, że obligacja 2n-letnia kosztowałaby 50 j.m. więcej. [Z10.EA24.03.01.]\n7. Obligacja 10-letnia o cenie wykupu C = 1000 j.m. płaci kwartalnie kupony w wysokości 50 j.m. Inwestor zamienia tę obligację na dwie jednakowe płatności dokonywane w odstępie jednego roku, przy czym suma tych dwóch płatności jest równa sumie nominalnych kwot otrzymanych z tytułu kuponów oraz wykupu obligacji. Znaleźć chwilę t∗\n, w której ma miejsce z pierwszą z tych dwóch płatności, przyjmując do obliczeń stopę procentową i = 0,10.\n[Z10.EA10.12.00.]\n8. Ile wynosi w dniu emisji cena nieskończonego pakietu obligacji zerokuponowych, takiego, że w każdą rocznicę zakupu wygasa dokładnie jedna obligacja z tego pakietu, natomiast n-letnia obligacja ma nominał F = n2 j.m.? Wiadomo, że stopa procentowa jest stała, n a czynnik dyskontujący wynosi v = 0,95. [Z6.EA08.10.07.]\n9. Portfel inwestycyjny P tworzy nieskończony ciąg obligacji zerokuponowych, nabytych w dniu emisji (w chwili t = 0), w którym na koniec każdego kolejnego roku wygasa dokładnie jedna obligacja. Obligacja wygasająca na koniec k-tego roku ma cenę wykupu\nC = k2 , a ponadto od momentu zakupu portfela obowiązuje płak ska struktura terminowa, w której czynnik dyskontujący wynosi v = 0,95. Wyznaczyć cenę portfela P na dzień emisji obligacji.\n[Z6.EA08.10.07.]\n\n5. Duration i convexity\n5.1. Niezbędne definicje i własności\nRozpatrzmy inwestycję określoną w przedziale czasu [0;T], gdzie T > 0 oraz podział tego przedziału postaci\n0 < t < t < ... < t < t = T,\n1 2 n−1 n gdzie przepływy finansowe dokonują się w punktach podziału przedziału, tworząc ciąg CF ,CF ,...,CF ,CF , przy czym zakłada się w tym\n1 2 n−1 n n modelu, że PV = ∑CF ⋅DF(t ), że PV > 0.\ni i i=1\nPrzez duration inwestycji [4] rozumiemy średni czas życia ustalonej inwestycji, ważony udziałem wartości obecnej kolejnych przepływów gotówki w wartości obecnej całej inwestycji n n t PV 1 d =df ∑ i i = ∑t ⋅CF ⋅DF(t ).\nPV PV i i i i=1 i=1\nNatomiast przez convexity (po polsku: wypukłość) rozumiemy średni kwadrat czasu ustalonej inwestycji, przy czym n t2PV 1 n c =df ∑ i i = ∑t2⋅CF ⋅DF(t ).\nPV PV i i i i=1 i=1\n5.1.1. Ćwiczenia\n1. Jaki dla obligacji zerokuponowej jest związek między duration a długością terminu do wykupu?\n2. Jaka jest relacja dla obligacji kuponowej między jej duration a terminem do wykupu?\n\n3. Jaka jest zależność między duration a oprocentowaniem obligacji\n(przy tych samych stopie dochodu i terminie wykupu) oraz stopą dochodu (przy tych samych oprocentowaniu i terminie wykupu)?\n4. Czy istnieje wprost proporcjonalna zależność między duration a terminem do wykupu obligacji (przy tym samym oprocentowaniu i stopie dochodu) oraz siłą reakcji ich ceny na zmiany stopy dochodu?\n5. Które z poniższych zdań jest zdaniem prawdziwym?\n■ Wypukłość obligacji jest miarą nieliniowości zmiany ceny obligacji w zależności od stóp procentowych.\n■ Im niższe oprocentowanie obligacji, tym większa ich wypukłość (przy równych stopach dochodu i równej długości okresu do wykupu).\n■ Im wyższe oprocentowanie obligacji, tym większa ich wypukłość (przy równych stopach dochodu i równych zmodyfikowanych czasach trwania).\n■ Im dłuższy okres do terminu wykupu, tym większa wypukłość obligacji (przy równych stopach dochodu i równym oprocentowaniu).\n■ Im niższa stopa dochodu w okresie wykupu (YTM), tym większa wypukłość obligacji.\n■ Im dłuższy średni termin wykupu, tym większa wypukłość obligacji.\n6. Zakładając, że wypłaty następują na koniec roku, struktura terminowa jest płaska, a stopa procentowa wynosi (w skali rocznej) r = 10%, obliczyć średni czas życia (duration) i wypukłość (convexity) następujących inwestycji\n(i) pięcioletniej spłaty kredytu, w ratach równej wysokości zawierających spłatę kapitału i odsetki,\n(ii) renty płacącej odsetki w nieskończoność.\n\n5.1.2. Przykłady\n1. Dany jest nieskończony ciąg płatności dokonywanych na końcu każdego roku, przy czym płatność na koniec roku n jest równa\nCF = a⋅n+5. Jaką wartość powinien mieć parametr a, by duration n tego ciągu płatności, przy stopie procentowej i = 0,04, była równa\n50.\nRozwiązanie. Z uwagi na to, że w definicji duration mamy n n t PV 1 d =df ∑ i i = ∑t ⋅CF ⋅DF(t )\nPV PV i i i i=1 i=1 n przy skończonej liczbie płatności n, gdzie PV = ∑ CF vi , to w przyi i=1 padku nieskończonym dostajemy\n∞ t PV d =df ∑ i i,\nPV i=1\n∞ gdzie DF(t ) = vi oraz PV = ∑CF vi. Wskutek tego i i i=1\n∞\n∑ t CF vn n n d = n=1 .\n∞\n∑ CF vn n n=1\nUwzględniając postać przepływów CF = a⋅n + 5, t = n oraz n n\nDF(t ) = vn , otrzymujemy n\n∞\n∑ n(a⋅n+5)vn d = n=1 .\n∞\n∑(a⋅n+5)vn n=1\nDo dalszych obliczeń użyjemy metody przesunięć, w szczególności z wyniku (2.31), czyli że v\n(Ia) = ,\n∞ i (1−v)2\n\noraz formuły dotyczącej wartości obecnej wieczystej renty płatnej z dołu, a więc v a = .\n∞ i 1−v\nOtrzymujemy w ten sposób\n2(Ia) −a a ∞ i ∞ i +5(Ia)\n1−v ∞ i d = = a(Ia) +5a\n∞ i ∞ i\n2v v\n−\n(1−v)2 1−v v a +5\n1−v (1−v)2\n= = av 5v\n+\n(1−v)2 1−v v[a(1+v)+5(1−v)] a+5+(a−5)v\n= = = 50.\nv(1−v)[a+5(1−v)] a+5−(10+a)v+5v2\nOstatnia równość prowadzi nas do równania z jedną niewiadomą, niewiadomą a, bo czynnik dyskontujący jest znaną liczbą\n1 1 v = = =≃ 0,962.\n1+i 1,04\nWspomniane równanie z niewiadomą a, po uporządkowaniu, ma postać a(50v−50v2−v−v2) =\n= 5v−5v2+250v2−250v2−250v3−250v+250v2, toteż po kolejnym uporządkowaniu otrzymujemy\n495v2−250v3−245v 495v−250v2−245 a = a(v) = = .\n49v−51v2 49−51v\nZatem a = a(1,0962) ≃ 4,6. □\n\n2. Wiadomo, że wypukłość (convexity) strumienia płatności określona jest równością\nPV′′(i) c =df ,1\nPV(i) gdzie PV oznacza wartość obecną strumienia płatności, natomiast i > 0 stopę dyskontową.\nDuration pewnej renty, płacącej z dołu na koniec roku k kwotę X , k\n1+i dla k ∈ N jest równa . Wyznaczyć convexity tej renty, gdy\n+ i i = 0,1.\nRozwiązanie. Pozostając przy dotychczasowej konwencji, że czynnik dyskontujący oznaczany jest przez v oraz v = 1 , otrzymujemy,\n1+i że\n∞\nX X X\nPV[v(i)] = ∑X vk(i) = 1 + 2 + 3 +..., k 1+i (1+i)2 (1+i)3 k\n∞\nX 2X 3X\nPV′[v(i)]=∑X kvk−1(i) =− 1 − 2 − 3 −....\nk (1+i)2 (1+i)3 (1+i)4 k=1\nW związku z tym\nX X 3X\n1 + 2 + 3 +...\n1+i (1+i)2 (1+i)3 1+i d = = ,\nX X X i\n1 + 2 + 3 +...\n1+i (1+i)2 (1+i)3 a w konsekwencji\n1+i\nPV′[v(i)](1+i) = − PV[v(i)].\ni\nDzieląc stronami przez (1+i), dostajemy wygodną równość\nPV′[v(i)] = − PV[v(i)].\ni\n1 Formuła ta jest wynikiem przejścia od inwestycyjnego procesu dyskretnego do procesu ciągłego poprzez przesunięcie równoległe struktury terminowej stóp procentowych.\n\nZ uwagi na to, że potrzebna nam druga pochodna wartości obecnej, względem i, to wykorzystując ostatnią równość i licząc pochodną ilorazu dwóch funkcji, otrzymujemy\nPV′[v(i)]⋅i−1⋅PV[v(i)]\nPV′′[v(i)] = − .\ni2\nPowołując się na treść zadania mamy\nPV′′(i) PV[v(i)] 1 2 c = = − + = ,\nPV(i) PV[v(i)]⋅i i2 i2 a zatem przyjmując, że i = 0,1 dostajemy odpowiedź:\nc = = 200. □\n(0,1)2\n[Z3. EA 14.05.07.]\n3. Zakładając, że wypłaty następują na koniec roku oraz że struktura terminowa jest płaska i stopa procentowa w skali rocznej wynosi r = 10%, obliczyć średni czas życia (duration) i wypukłość\n(convexity) następujących obligacji w dniu emisji (pięć lat przed wykupem):\n(i) pięcioletnia obligacja z kuponem zerowym;\n(ii) pięcioletnia obligacja z kuponem 10%;\n(iii) pięcioletnia obligacja z kuponem 8%.\nRozwiązanie.\nAd (i) Niech tradycyjnie F oznacza wartość nominalną obligacji. Ze względu na to\nF\nCF = F, CF = 0 dla i ≠ 5 oraz PV = PV = .\n5 i 5 (1+r)5\nStąd\nPV PV d = 5 5 = 5 oraz c = 52 5 = 25.\nPV PV\nAd (ii) W tym przypadku występuje pięć przepływów, mamy zatem\nCF = CF = CF = CF = 0,1F oraz CF = 1,1F.\n1 2 3 4 5\n\nWartość obecna PV po aktualizacji przepływów ma postać\n0,1F 0,1F 0,1F 0,1F 1,1F\nPV = + + + + =\n1,1 (1,1)2 (1,1)3 (1,1)4 (1,1)5\n0,1F 0,1F 0,1F 1,1F 1,1F\n= + + + = ⋯ = = F.\n1,1 (1,1)2 (1,1)3 (1,1)4 1,1\nW związku z tym\n0,1F 0,1F 0,1F 0,1F (1,1)F d = +2 +3 +4 +5 =\n1,1F (1,1)2F (1,1)3F (1,1)4F (1,1)5F\n0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 5,5\n= + + + + = 4,1699,\n1,1 (1,1)2 (1,1)3 (1,1)4 (1,1)5 a także\n0,1F 0,1F 0,1F 0,1F 1,1F c = 12 +22 +32 +42 +52 =\n(1,1)F (1,1)2F (1,1)3F (1,1)4F (1,1)5F\n0,1 0,4 0,9 1,6 27,5\n= + + + + = 19,2658.\n1,1 (1,1)2 (1,1)3 (1,1)4 (1,1)5\nAd (iii) Podobnie jak w przypadku (ii), występuje tu pięć przepływów finansowych\nCF = CF = CF = CF = 0,08F, oraz CF = 1,08F.\n1 2 3 4 5\nFormuła na wartość obecną, czyli PV ma postać\n0,08F 0,08F 0,08F 0,08F 1,08F\nPV = + + + + = 0,9242F.\n1,1 (1,1)2 (1,1)3 (1,1)4 (1,1)5\nStąd\n0,08F 0,08F 0,08F 0,08F 1,08\n+2 +3 +4 +5\n1,1 (1,1)2 (1,1)3 (1,1)4 (1,1)5\n= =\n0,9242F\n0,08 0,16 0,24 0,32 5,4\n+ + + +\n1,1 (1,1)2 (1,1)3 (1,1)4 (1,1)5\n= = 4,2814\n0,9242\n\noraz\n0,08F 0,08F 0,08F 0,08F 1,08F\n12 +22 +32 +42 +52\n1,1 (1,1)2 (1,1)3 (1,1)4 (1,1)5 c = =\n0,9242F\n0,08 0,32 0,72 1,28 27\n+ + + +\n1,1 (1,1)2 (1,1)3 (1,1)4 (1,1)5\n= = 20,0363.\n0,9242\nMożemy teraz sformułować odpowiedzi na postawione w zadaniu pytania:\n■ Dla obligacji zerokuponowej: d = 5, zaś c = 25,\n■ Dla obligacji z kuponem 10%: d = 4,1699 oraz c = 19,2658,\n■ Dla obligacji z kuponem 8%: d = 4,2814 i c = 20,0363.\n5.1.3. Zadania do samodzielnego rozwiązania\n1. Wyznaczyć duration d ciągłej płatności wynoszącej w chwili t\nCF = (10−t), t gdy t ∈ [0;10], przyjmując i = 0,05 oraz że\n∫ t2e[−ln(1,05)]tdt = 232,25.\n[0;10]\n[Z8.EA15.01.00.]\n2. Niech d k oznacza duration renty malejącej, zaś (da) jej wartość k i obecną. Przyjmując wysokość stopy procentowej i = 0,05, wyznaczyć lim d . [Z8.EA17.06.00.] k k→∞\n3. Wyznaczyć duration nieskończonego ciągu płatności dokonywanych raz w roku z dołu, gdy wysokość wypłaty w chwili t jest równa\nCF = 2t+3, przyjmując do obliczeń wysokość stopy procentowej t i = 0,05. [Z4.EA02.06.01.]\n4. Obliczyć wartość obecną nieskończonej renty ciągłej, której intensywność płatności w chwili t wynosi ρ(t) = t3 , intensywność opro-\n\ncentowania jest równa δ(t) = δ, zaś jej duration spełnia równość d(Ia ) = α. [Z6EA05.12.05.]\n∞\n5. W portfelu inwestycyjnym znajdują się trzy rodzaje instrumentów finansowych:\n■ 15-letnie zero kuponowe obligacje;\n■ 20-letnie obligacje z kuponem o wartości 5% wartości nominalnej, płatnym na koniec roku;\n■ bezterminowe obligacje (perpetuity) wypłacające na koniec każdego roku stałą kwotę.\nDuration całego portfela wynosi 17,5, natomiast duration portfela składającego się tylko z obligacji piętnastoletnich i obligacji bezterminowych wynosi 20. Wyznaczyć udział procentowy obligacji 20-letnich w portfelu przy założeniu, że stopa procentowa jest równa 5%. [Z9.EA06.04.09.]\n\n6. Metody amortyzacji środków trwałych\n6.1. Podstawy teoretyczne\nW praktyce opisu formalnego działalności firm (w rozumieniu podatników) segment dotyczący kosztów ich działalności, poza częścią związaną z zaopatrywaniem się ich w materiały niezbędne do produkcji, zawiera również koszty związane z funkcjonowaniem części technicznej. Zaliczamy do nich zarówno maszyny i urządzenia niezbędne do produkcji, jak i obsługujące produkcję środki transportu, pomieszczenia, w których odbywa się produkcja, zaplecze magazynowe, teren, gdzie są one zlokalizowane, a także wiele innych elementów.\nZgodnie z wykładnią prawną przez środki trwałe rozumie się nabyte\n– bądź wytworzone we własnym zakresie, składniki rzeczowe będące własnością lub współwłasnością podatnika (firmy). Zaliczane są do nich budynki lub szerzej: budowle, lokale, środki transportu, maszyny i urządzenia służące potrzebom firmy albo też przez nią wynajmowane lub dzierżawione. Do środków trwałych zaliczane są także grunty służące działalności firmy. Jako że środki trwałe zmieniają wartość w czasie, to ich wartości podlegają aktualizacji. W większości przypadków wartość ta maleje. Kontrprzykładem może być tu jedynie grunt, którego wartość zwykle rośnie wraz z upływem czasu. Będziemy zajmować się środkami trwałymi, których wartość maleje. Spada ona w wyniku zużycia (mowa wtedy o zużyciu fizycznym) oraz w wyniku postępu technologicznego, który dostarcza wydajniejszych i trwalszych narzędzi (jest to zużycie moralne).\nW warunkach polskich wartość początkowa środka trwałego nie może być mniejsza niż 10 tysięcy złotych, a czas użytkowania krótszy niż jeden rok. Podstawą do ustalenia wartości początkowej składnika majątku firmy jest cena jego zakupu. Jeśli środek trwały jest wytworzony przez firmę (rozumianą jako podatnika), za podstawę uznawane są koszty poniesione podczas jego wytworzenia.\n\nW modelu amortyzacji zakładamy, że w procesie produkcji wartość przenosi się ze środków trwałych na produkty, obejmując sobą koszty ich wytworzenia. Odpisy dokonywane przez właściciela stanowią koszt uzyskania dochodów, pomniejszając przez to zysk. Skutkuje to również zmniejszeniem obciążeń podatkowych. Amortyzacja środków trwałych interpretowana jest jako przenoszenie wartości tych środków na produkty firmy. Wykonywanie odpisów amortyzacyjnych pozwala wskazać na rzeczywistą wartość zużywanych składników. Metody amortyzacji stanowią element systemu podatkowego państwa, a odpowiednie przepisy regulują metody amortyzacji poszczególnych kategorii środków trwałych\n[4].\n6.1.1. Oznaczenia\nPrzyjmujemy:\n■ n – czas amortyzacji liczony w latach (rozumiany również jako liczba okresów kapitalizacji odsetek). Przepisy prawne zadają stawkę amortyzacyjną (równą\n1) właściwą dla danego środka, a ściślej n kategorii środków;\n■ A – wartość dobra (aktywów) liczona na początku rozważanego okresu okresu (w Polsce nosi to nazwę wartości brutto);\n■ S – cena umorzenia dobra (aktywów) po upływie n okresów (zakłada się, że aktywo (aktywa) będzie można sprzedać po cenie S lub wyższej);\n■ CF t – dla t ∈ {0,1,...,n} są to okresowe dochody z aktywów;\n■ B t – wartość księgowa środka trwałego w chwili t (ten sam, co poprzednio zakres t), w Polsce zwana wartością netto, gdzie przyjmujemy B = A oraz B = S;\n0 n\n■ D t – kwota deprecjacji w okresie t, zwana w Polsce odpisem amortyzacyjnym, D = B −B ;\nt t−1 t\n■ U t – umorzenie po upływie t lat;\n■ i t – stopa zwrotu z inwestycji w czasie [t−1;t];\n\n■ j – stopa zwrotu z funduszu umorzeniowego na okres kapitalizacji;\nD\n■ r t – stopa amortyzacji w roku t, gdzie (r t = B t ).\nt−1\nPrzy tych oznaczeniach mają miejsce równości:\nn t\n∑D = A−S, U = ∑D t t s t=1 s=1 t\nU +B = A, B = ∑ D +S, t t t t s=t+1\nU −U = B −B = D , U = 0,U = A−S.\nt t−1 t−1 t t 0 n\nUwagi. S, tj. wartość dobra na koniec okresu amortyzacji, ma następujące własności:\n■ S = 0 oznacza koniec użytkowania dobra, jego likwidację i pomijalnie małe dochody z ewentualnej sprzedaży lub też koszty jego likwidacji;\n■ S > 0 oznacza wycofanie z użytku aktywa, które można sprzedać innemu użytkownikowi za cenę niższą niż S;\n■ S < 0 oznacza, że nie można pominąć kosztów likwidacji środka trwałego.\nCF\nGdy S = A, to i = t . Zazwyczaj A ≠ S. Przy czym t A\n— jeśli A < S, to mówimy, że aktywa podlegają aprecjacji;\n— jeśli natomiast A > S, że aktywa podlegają deprecjacji.\nDla A ≠ S podstawową formułą jest\nA−S\nCF = Ai + t t s n j\nFormuła ta ma następującą interpretację: po czasie n firma chciałaby odnowić urządzenia, sprzedać za kwotę S zużytą (materialnie lub moralnie) maszynę i kupić nową za kwotę A. Z tego powodu roczne dochody netto wynikające z eksploatacji środków trwałych rozkładane są\n\nna dwa składniki. Składnik A odpowiada za zwrot z pierwotnie zainwei t\nA−S stowanej kwoty A, natomiast składnik oznacza wysokość rocznej s n j wpłaty do funduszu, którego celem jest gromadzenie (przy stopie j) kwoty\n(A−S) potrzebnej w chwili n do odnowienia środka trwałego za cenę\nA. Maszyna podlega spadkowi wartości (deprecjacji) w ciągu lat pracy.\nW każdym roku przypisujemy jej w księgach coraz mniejszą wartość, zwaną wartością księgową.\nJest kilka metod obliczania wartości księgowej. O wyborze konkretnej metody decydują przepisy podatkowe. Odpisy amortyzacyjne są odejmowane od zysku jako wydatki (koszty działalności).\n6.1.2. Ćwiczenia\n1. Co nazywamy środkiem trwałym?\n2. Co oznaczają pojęcia „zużycie fizyczne” i „zużycie moralne”?\n3. Podać przykłady środków trwałych, których wartość w czasie rośnie, oraz takich, których wartość maleje.\n4. Na czym polega model amortyzacji środków trwałych?\n5. Czy istnieją środki trwałe, których wartość umorzeniowa jest ujemna? Jeśli tak, to podać przykład lub przykłady.\n6. Podać nazwy metod amortyzacji, w przypadku których wysokość odpisu amortyzacyjnego\n■ jest stała w czasie,\n■ maleje wraz z czasem,\n■ rośnie wraz z czasem,\n■ maleje w postępie geometrycznym,\n■ rośnie w postępie geometrycznym,\n■ maleje w postępie arytmetycznym,\n■ rośnie w postępie arytmetycznym,\n■ umorzenie jest liniową funkcją czasu,\n■ wartość księgowa maleje coraz wolniej,\n\n■ wartość księgowa maleje coraz szybciej,\n■ wartość księgowa maleje w stałym tempie.\n6.1.3. Przykłady\n1. Maszyny I oraz II wytwarzają ten sam produkt. Wartość maszyny I w chwili zakupu wynosi A = 10000, natomiast jej wartość\nI w chwili umorzenia jest równa S = 1000. Wiadomo też, że okres\nI jej użytkowania jest równy n = 10 lat. Zauważono, że koszty\nI roczne K w relacji do wielkości produkcji P wyraża równość\nI I\nK = 500 + 4P . W przypadku maszyny II odpowiednie warto-\nI I ści wynoszą A = 20000 oraz S = 2000, a czas jej użytkowania\nII II jest równy n = 5. Zależność między kosztami i wielkością produk-\nII cji dla tej maszyny wyraża formuła K = 1000+2P . Wyznaczyć,\nII II przy jakiej wielkości produkcji (P = P ) jednostkowe koszty wy-\nI II tworzenia produktu przy użyciu obydwu maszyn są sobie równe, jeżeli do obliczeń przyjmiemy stopę procentową równą i = 0,05.\nRozwiązanie. Mamy\nK = 10000+(500+4P)a −1000v10\nI 10 0,05 oraz\nK = [20000+(1000+2P)a −2000v5](1+v5).\nII 5 0,05\nZ uwagi na to, że koszty jednostkowe w obu przypadkach są takie same oraz P = P = P , a produkcja wynosi 10P, to mamy\nI II\nK = K , a stąd\nI II\n□\nP = 1770.\n2. Cena zakupu maszyny I wynosi 50000 j.m., a maszyna ta produkuje tysiąc zapałek w ciągu roku. Koszty jej utrzymania wynoszą\n10000 j.m. rocznie, okres jej użytkowania to dziesięć lat, a wartość umorzeniowa wynosi S = 0.\nI\nCena zakupu maszyny II wynosi 10000 j.m. i produkuje ona K w ciągu roku, a koszty utrzymania wynoszą rocznie 15000 j.m., okres jej użytkowania to pięć lat, a wartość umorzeniowa wynosi S = 0. Przy stopie procentowej i = 10% koszty zakupu obu\nII maszyn są równe. Wyznaczyć przybliżoną wartość K.\n\nRozwiązanie. Zgodnie z treścią zadania, dla wyznaczenia wartości K musimy skorzystać z ceny jednej zapałki, bo poprzez tę cenę możemy porównywać ceny obu maszyn. Przyjmijmy, że cena ta jest równa z. Do tego, zgodnie z informacją zawartą w treści zadania, zakup maszyn odbywa się przy stopie i = 0,1. Dla pierwszej maszyny równanie wartości ma postać\n50000 = (1000⋅z−10000)⋅a .\n10 0,1\nDla maszyny drugiej\n10000 = (K ⋅z−15000)a .\n5 0,1\nOtrzymaliśmy formalnie układ dwóch równań z dwiema niewiadomymi\n⎧ (1000⋅z−10000)⋅a = 50000,\n{\n10 0,1\n⎨\n{ (K ⋅z−15000)⋅a = 10000.\n⎩ 5 0,1\nPo podzieleniu pierwszego z równań przez 1000 otrzymujemy\n(z−10)⋅a = 5, a stąd z = +10.\n10 0,1 a\n10 0,1\nModyfikacja drugiego z równań wchodzącego w skład układu prowadzi do postaci\n10000\nKz = +15000.\na\n5 0,1\nZ uwagi na to, że mamy a = 3,7908 oraz a = 6,1446, to\n5 0,1 10 0,1 z ≃ 10,8137 oraz K ≃ 1631,0759 ≈ 1631.\nPrzybliżona wartość K, przy której wartości zakupu obu maszyn są równe, wynosi K = 1631. □\n6.1.4. Zadania do samodzielnego rozwiązania\n1. Ceny zakupu trzech maszyn M 1 , M 2 , M 3 są równe odpowiednio\nP , P , P . Każda z nich będzie amortyzowana przez dwadzieścia\n1 2 3\n\nlat, a na koniec tego okresu wartość umorzeniowa każdej z nich wyniesie S = 1000 j.m. Dysponując danymi zawartymi w tabeli danymi dotyczącymi procesów ich amortyzacji, uszeregować ceny zakupu maszyn P , P i P w porządku rosnącym.\n1 2 3\nCena zakupu Wartość maszyny Metoda maszyny po 10 latach amortyzacji\nP 37000 sinking fund, i = 0,1\nP 38000 liniowa\nP 39000 sum of the digits\n[Z2.EA02.12.00.]\n2. Inwestor kupił trzy maszyny o wartości 100 j.m. każda. Każda z maszyn amortyzowana jest przez okres dwudziestu lat przy pomocy innej metody. Przy tym:\n(i) maszyna I amortyzowana jest według metody amortyzacji liniowej (straight line method);\n(ii) maszyna II amortyzowana jest metodą stałej stopy amortyzacji (compound discount method);\n(iii) maszyna III amortyzowana jest według metody liniowo malejących odpisów amortyzacyjnych amortyzacyjnych (sum of the digit method).\nPo upływie dekady wartość każdej z maszyn wynosi 75 j.m. Jaka będzie wartość łączna wszystkich trzech maszyn po dwudziestu latach? [Z2.EA24.03.01.]\n3. Nowa maszyna, której cena zakupu wynosi a j.m, ma wartość b j.m. po upływie n lat. Wiedząc, że\n■ wartość maszyny po upływie t lat od chwili zakupu przy zastosowaniu metody amortyzacji liniowej (straight-line method) wynosi AL(t),\n■ wartość maszyny po upływie t lat od chwili zakupu przy zastosowaniu metody liniowo malejących odpisów amortyzacyjnych\n(sum of the digit method) wynosi AS(t),\n\nwyznaczyć wartość t ∈ R, dla której funkcja f ∶ R → R określo-\n+ na równością postaci f(t) = AS(t)−AL(t) przyjmuje minimum.\n[Z2.EA17.06.00.]\n4. Łączna wartość aktualna odpisów amortyzacyjnych maszyny o czasie życia T lat wynosi 359165 j.m., przy użyciu metody amortyzacji liniowej 1912,09 j.m., jeśli zastosować metodę liniowo malejących odpisów amortyzacyjnych. Wiedząc, że wartość końcowa S maszyny jest równa zero, a stopa użyta do dyskontowania odpisów amortyzacyjnych jest równa 0,08, obliczyć wartość początkową maszyny A oraz wyznaczyć długość okresu amortyzacji T.\n\n7. Odpowiedzi do zadań do samodzielnego rozwiązania\nAd 1.1.3.\n1. Odsetki za pierwszy kwartał wyniosły około 54 j.m.\n2. Właściciel konta zapłaci około 41,4 j.m. odsetek za drugi kwartał.\nAd 1.2.2.\n1. Stopa procentowa wynosiła 11,8%.\n2. Końcowa wartość kapitału wynosi dla okresu kapitalizacji w poszczególnych przypadkach (i) 1537,60 j.m., (ii) 1573,51 j.m., (iii)\n1593,84 j.m., (iv) 1608,43 j.m.\n3. Nominalna stopa procentowa wynosi w poszczególnych przypadkach: (i) 11,30%. (ii) 11,49%, (iii) 11,66%.\n4. Stopy dla odpowiednich przypadków wynoszą: (i) 0,003%, (ii) 1,(3)%,\n(iii) 4%.\n5. Na rachunku zgromadzono kwotę 14376,7 j.m.\n6. Zwycięzcy najkorzystniej jest wybrać wariant (iii), bo wtedy wartość przyszła nagrody FV = 1786,2 j.m. jest największa spośród\n(III) proponowanych.\n7. Na koniec roku na koncie było 3540 j.m., a przeciętna stopa procentowa oprocentowania rocznego wynosiła 18%.\n8. (i) Po dwóch latach lokaty bankowej, w dniu 01.02.1995, klientowi wypłacono K(2) = 3218,4 j.m.\n(ii) Przeciętna stopa procentowa wyniosła r = 26,85%.\n\n9. Chuck Norris otrzymał 432189,6$, a przeciętna stopa procentowa wyniosła r = 30,47%.\n10. W momencie uruchomienia procedury spadkowej dzieciom przypadły przybliżone kwoty:\nK ≃400945,68 j.m., K ≃314115,31 j.m., K ≃284939,0 j.m.,\n15 10 8 gdzie dolny indeks przy K oznacza wiek dziecka.\n11. Najkorzystniejszym dla przedsiębiorcy jest wariant (i), ponieważ\nPV ≃ 484100, zaś PV ≃ 467094 a PV ≃ 473867.\n(i) (ii) (iii)\n12. Odsetki należne Wielkiemu Mistrzowi, przy podanych przepływach finansowych na koncie, są ujemne i równe w przybliżeniu\nO ≃ −39,3 talarów. Ponieważ podatek od zysków kapitałowych obliczany jest od zysku, jak wskazuje jego nazwa, to Ulrich von\nJungingen nie będzie miał od czego płacić podatku.\n13. Najkorzystniejszym wariantem lokaty dla Piotra jest wariant zaproponowany przez bank D.\n14. Najkorzystniejszy jest wariant (iii), a najmniej korzystny (i). Strata inwestora przy wyborze najmniej korzystnego wariantu (i) do wariantu optymalnego (iii) wyniosłaby 250 j.m.\nAd 1.3.3.\n1. Pan Ryszard „wzbogacił się” o 183 j.m.\n2. Zainwestowana kwota podwoi się w poszczególnych przypadkach za: (i) 4 lata, (ii) 12 kwartałów, czyli 3 lata, (iii) 34 miesiące, (iv) 2 lata i 281 dni.\n3. Dla poszczególnych, wymienionych sposobów oprocentowania, kwoty potrzebne do zebrania brakującej sumy 50000 j.m. są następujące: (i) 45454 j.m., (ii) 45351,5 j.m., (iii) 45279,1 j.m., (iv) 45241,9 j.m.\n4. Wartość inwestycji K(1) = 1000∫ e−t2 dt ≈ 2100 j.m.\n5. t = 0,5.\n\n6. t = 4.\n7. ρ(t) = t+1.\n8. Zakumulowana wartość środków wynosi 32,5.\n9. α ≃ −2 .\n10. W chwili t = 1 wartość funduszu K(1) ≃ 2,9.\nAd 1.4.3.\n1. Przeciętna stopa procentowa r ≃ 0,058.\n2. r = 0,02.\nkw\n3. e = 0,009488.\nmiesięczna\n4. r B = 0,3447.\n5. e nom = 0,3399.\nB\n6. Kwota wypłaty może wynieść około 11,37.\n7. r ef = 0,093.\nAd 1.5.3\n1. (i) zysk brutto za okres dwuletni wynosi 1632 j.m.;\n(ii) podatek wynosi 489,6 j.m.;\n(iii) stopa zysku wynosi 5,7%.\n2. (i) zysk brutto wynosi 1727,79, a podatek od niego to 518 j.m.; (ii) zysk netto: 1209,45, stopa zysku netto jest równa 6%.\n3. (i) nominalna stopa zysku r nom = 0,59%,\n(ii) realna stopa zysku r = 0,4%, real\n(iii) zysk nominalny Z = 59 j.m., nom\n(iv) zysk realny Z = 40 j.m.\nreal\n\nAd 2.2.5.\n1. e = 18%.\n2. e = 14,35%.\n3. Kwoty wartości obecnej renty i wartości przyszłej wynoszą odpowiednio około PV = 1578 j.m. oraz FV = 1767 j.m.\n4. Około 24486 j.m.\n5. Około 64 j.m.\n6. Około 647575 j.m.\n7. Około 2795 j.m.\n8. Około 836 j.m.\n9. Około 1615 j.m.\n10. Około 12,5 j.m.\n11. Z obliczeń otrzymujemy n ≃ 6,18 > 7, a więc najmniejsze n ∈ N musi być równe 7.\n12. Wysokość wypłaty X 10 nie jest określona jednoznacznie.\n13. Około 540 j.m.\n14. Około 0,56 j.m.\n48−24v2+4v4\n15. PV(v) = .\n8−121v2+6v4−v6\n30v5+400v3+250v\n16. PV′(v) = .\n(5−v2)4\nAd 2.3.4.\n1. Około 723.\nt\n6 −∫ ks8ds m\n2. K = ∫ mt3e 0 dt = (1−e−324k).\nk\n\nR\n3. 1 = 2,25.\nR\n15 15\n6 8\n4. R 0 = ∑ t oraz R 2 = ∑ t .\nt=6 t=6\n5. K(7) ≃ 58.\n6. t ∗ = 1 2 .\n7. Dla t ∈ (2;3), czyli w trzecim roku inwestycji, roczna efektywna stopa procentowa wyniosła r = 4,7%.\nef\n8. a n i = ln(1+n) 4,7%.\n9. Około 32,5 j.m.\nAd 2.4.4.\nln(14,65)\n1. Z obliczeń dostajemy, że n ≃ ≈ 23,69 oraz n ∈ N, to ln(1,12) najmniejszą liczbą naturalną większą od 23,69 jest n = 24.\n2. (i) 126887 j.m. wartość ciągnika po 8 latach; (ii) 10,678% wartości początkowej ciągnika.\n3. 10,6 miesięcy.\n4. Propozycje organizatorów konkursu prowadzą do następujących wersji kwot wypłaty nagrody głównej:\n(i) 10000 j.m.;\n(ii) 9861 j.m.;\n(iii) 8970 j.m.;\n(iv) 9000 j.m. przy założeniu, że zwycięzca będzie jeszcze żył 100 lat.\nZatem najkorzystniejsza dla zwycięzcy jest propozycja (i).\n5. r ≃ 0,392 = 39,2%.\n\n6. Na to, aby oferta banku B była konkurencyjna wobec oferty banku A, jego stopa bazowa powinna być wyższa od stopy banku A.\nKonsekwencją tego będzie również wyższa stopa oprocentowania depozytów przy kapitalizacji kwartalnej.\nα\n7. = 1,0025.\nβ\n8. Wartość renty wieczystej płatnej z góry, przy stopie i = 0,1 jest równa 76571 j.m.\n9. Przybliżona wartość sumy rent wynosi 285.\n10. 17,6%.\nAd 2.5.5.\n1. Tylko (ii).\n2. IRR ≃ 9,9%.\n3. (i) Na to, aby obie wewnętrzne stopy zwrotu były większe od 25%, potrzeba by m ∈ (−∞;−2,5)∪(1,5;+∞), ale na to, by istniały dwie stopy zwrotu musi być, że m ∈ (−5;1). Część wspólna tych zbiorów jest zbiorem pustym, zatem nie ma takich m ∈ R, dla których warunek postawiony w podpunkcie (i) zadania zachodzi.\n(ii) Aby każda z wewnętrznych stóp zwrotu była mniejsza od 100%, powinno być, że m ∈ (−5;3), jednakże stopy takie muszą istnieć i być różne, co wprowadza znany warunek m ∈ (−5;1). Część wspólna obu tych warunków to przedział\n(−5;1), co oznacza, że wszystkie różne wewnętrzne stopy zwrotu – o ile istnieją – są mniejsze do 100%.\n(iii) Aby suma różnych wewnętrznych stóp zwrotu była mniejsza od\n150%, spełniony musi być warunek m ∈ (−∞;15), ale dwie różne stopy IRR muszą istnieć, a to oznacza, że dodatkowo powinien być spełniony warunek m ∈ (−5;1). W konsekwencji otrzymujemy, że m ∈ (−∞;15)∩(−5;1) = (−5;1). Przedział (−5;1) jest zbiorem\n3 3 3 tych m, dla których spełniony jest podpunkt (iii) zadania.\n4. Przy stopie rynkowej r = 0,04 otrzymujemy NPV = −38,11.\n\n5. NPV ≃ −2,38 zaś IRR ≃ 0,1764.\n6. Suma czynników dyskontujących wynosi 0,3.\n7. P = 3,8.\nAd 3.1.3.\n1. 31553.\n2. r = 12,8%.\n3. Całkowita kwota spłaconych odsetek wyniosła 1475.\n4. 17−ä 6 i −11v6 , gdzie i (a przez to v = 1 1 +i ) nie zostały podane w zadaniu, dlatego przyjmujemy je jako „dane ogólne”.\n5. Wysokość zapłaconych odsetek w czwartym roku trwania umowy o pożyczkę wynosi 3450 j.m.\n6. i(2) = 8,85% = 0,0885.\n7. L = 48242 j.m.\n8. W przybliżeniu 213046 j.m.\n9. Wysokość raty to 126226 j.m.\n10. r(4) ≃ 8,8%.\n11. Jeśli dla wygody ΔO ∶= O 2 −O 1 , to\n1−v30 1−v30\n⎡(15−v 2 ) (15−v11 1 ) ⎤\n⎢\n2 1−v2\n2 ∣v = 1\n1 1−v2\n1 ∣v = 1 ⎥\nΔO = 100000⎢ 2 1,12 − 1 1,10⎥.\n⎢ a a ⎥\n⎢\n500,12 500,10\n⎥\n⎣ ⎦\n12. a = 330.\n13. W przybliżeniu 224760 j.m.\n14. Sumaryczne odsetki wszystkich trzech kredytobiorców w całym okresie spłacania kredytów wynoszą 235760 j.m.\n\nS\n15. i ≃ 1,4\nS r\nAd 4.1.5.\n1. r = (1000) −1 = 7 ≃ 0,075.\n930 93\n2. r = 0,08 = ( F ) −1 stąd wartość nominalna obligacji jest\n648,36 równa F ≃ 700,23.\n3. 110119 j.m.\n4. Cena obligacji wynosi P = 1250−200v40 .\n5. Cena zakupu obligacji wynosi P ≃ 854 j.m.\n6. Cena zakupu powinna wynosić P ≃ 1100 j.m.\n7. t∗ = 5,72.\n8. Cena zakupu pakietu wynosi 14820 j.m.\n9. Cena portfela na dzień emisji obligacji wynosi 14820 j.m.\nAd 5.1.3.\n1. d ≃ 3,1.\n2. Wartość graniczna wynosi 21.\n3. Około 39,66.\n3α\n4. δ2 a ∞ .\n5. Obligacje 20-letnie stanowią 36% portfela.\n\nAd 6.1.4.\n1. P 1 = 3700 < P 2 = 3800 < P 3 = 3900.\n2. 172.\n3. Dla t = n .\n4. 5000 j.m. oraz T = 8 lat.\n\nBibliografia\n1. J. Banaś, B. Rzepka, Wykłady matematyki finansowej, Oficyna Wydawnicza Politechniki Rzeszowskiej, Rzeszów 2019.\n2. J. Borowski, R. Golański, K. Kasprzyk, L. Melon, M. Podgórska,\nMatematyka finansowa – przykłady, zadania, testy, rozwiązania, Oficyna\nWydawnicza SGH, Warszawa 1998.\n3. E. Podlewska, Bankowość w przykładach i zadaniach, Wydawnictwo Państwowej Wyższej Szkoły Zawodowej we Włocławku 2001.\n4. P. Jaworski, J. Micał, Modelowanie matematyczne w finansach i ubezpieczeniach, Wydawnictwo POLTEXT, Warszawa 2005.\n5. M. Podgórska, J. Klimkowska, Matematyka finansowa, Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa 2005.\n6. T. Stanisz, Zadania z matematyki finansowej, Wydawnictwo Trapez, Kraków 2003.\n7. Strona internetowa firmy MS Products Michał Stańczuk: https://msproduct.pl, dnia 26.09.2024.", "token_count": 111106} -{"added": "2026-09-08", "author": "Wlaź, Paweł", "created": "2025", "id": "rock_pollub_pl_0e26bff5-e51a-4d36-9524-fdef6e3e6ab7", "license": "CC-BY-SA-4.0", "source": "rock_pollub_pl", "text": "Symulacje Monte Carlo\nTeoria i zastosowania\n\nP O D R Ę C Z N I K I\nRada Naukowa Wydawnictwa Politechniki Lubelskiej\nPrzewodnicząca:\nAgnieszka Rzepka\nDyrektor CINT:\nKatarzyna Weinper\nPrzedstawiciele dyscyplin naukowych Politechniki Lubelskiej:\nMarzenna Dudzińska\nMałgorzata Franus\nArkadiusz Gola\nBeata Kowalska\nGrzegorz Komarzyniec\nJarosław Latalski\nTomasz Lipecki\nZbigniew Łagodowski\nLucjan Pawłowski\nNatalia Przesmycka\nHalina Rarot\nMagdalena Rzemieniak\nArkadiusz Syta\nWydawnictwo Politechniki Lubelskiej:\nMagdalena Chołojczyk\nKarolina Famulska-Ciesielska\nKatarzyna Pełka-Smętek\nP O L I T E C H N I K I L U B E L S K I E J\n\nSymulacje Monte Carlo\nTeoria i zastosowania\nPaweł Wlaź\nLublin 2025\n\nR E C E N Z E N C I :\ndr hab. Michał Bereta, prof. UMCS, Uniwersytet Marii Curie-Skłodowskiej w Lublinie dr hab. inż. Mariusz Bieniek, prof. PK, Politechnika Krakowska\nA U T O R :\ndr Paweł Wlaź, ORCID: 0000-0003-0565-4946\nPolitechnika Lubelska – ROR: https://ror.org/024zjzd49\nRedaktor prowadzący: Magdalena Chołojczyk\nKorekta językowa: Magdalena Chołojczyk\nSkład i łamanie: Paweł Wlaź\nPublikacja została sfinansowana w ramach programu projakościowego prorektora ds. studenckich:\nKonkurs na wydanie podręcznika akademickiego lub skryptu.\nIlustracja na okładce została wykonana przez autora.\nJeśli nie wskazano źródła ilustracji, stanowią one opracowanie własne autora.\nPublikacja wydana za zgodą Rektora Politechniki Lubelskiej\nISBN: 978-83-7947-639-8 (wersja drukowana)\nISBN: 978-83-7947-640-4 (wersja elektroniczna)\nDOI: 10.35784/9788379476404\nWydawca: W ydawnictwo Politechniki Lubelskiej www.wpl.pollub.pl ul. Nadbystrzycka 36C, 20-618 Lublin tel. (81) 538-46-59\nKsiążka udostępniona jest na licencji Creative Commons Uznanie autorstwa – na tych samych warunkach\n4.0 Międzynarodowe (CC BY-SA 4.0)\nNakład: 50 egz.\n\nSpis treści\nWykazoznaczeń 9\nWstęp 11\n1. PodstawowyschematmetodyMonteCarlo 13\n1.1. Intuicja . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13\n1.2. Trochę teorii . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20\n1.2.1. Rozważania statystyczne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20\n1.2.2. Prawa wielkich liczb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20\n1.2.3. Twierdzenie ergodyczne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21\nZadania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22\nOdpowiedzi, wskazówki . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24\n2. Generowanieliczbpseudolosowych 25\n2.1. Liczby losowe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25\n2.2. Liczby pseudolosowe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26\n2.3. Liniowe generatory liczb pseudolosowych . . . . . . . . 29\n2.3.1. Inne metody generowania ciągów pseudolosowych . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33\nZadania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33\nOdpowiedzi, wskazówki . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34\n3. Generowaniepróbekzróżnychrozkładów 35\n3.1. Rozkłady jednowymiarowe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35\n3.1.1. Rozkład dyskretny równomierny . . . . . . . . . 35\n3.1.2. Rozkład zero‐jedynkowy i rozkład dwumianowy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36\n3.1.3. Dowolny rozkład dyskretny o wartościach ograniczonych od dołu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36\n3.1.4. Metoda odwracania dystrybuanty . . . . . . . . . 37\n3.1.5. Rozkład normalny . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42\n3.2. Rozkład wielowymiarowy normalny . . . . . . . . . . . 48\n3.3. Metoda akceptacji/odrzucania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52\n3.4. Generowanie liczb pseudolosowych w C++11 . . . . . . . 54\n3.4.1. Generatory i rozkłady . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54\n3.4.2. Liczby prawdziwie losowe . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56\n3.4.3. Dystrybuanta rozkładu normalnego i jej odwrotność w C++ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57\n\nZadania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60\nOdpowiedzi, wskazówki . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63\n4. Dokładnośćpomiaruiredukcjawariancji 65\n4.1. Estymacja przedziałowa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65\n4.1.1. Przedział ufności dla średniej . . . . . . . . . . . 65\n4.1.2. Przedział ufności dla frakcji . . . . . . . . . . . . 67\n4.2. Zmienne antytetyczne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71\n4.3. Zmienne kontrolne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74\n4.4. Losowanie istotnościowe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79\n4.5. Losowanie warstwowe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81\n4.5.1. Przedział ufności dla losowania warstwowego . . 87\n4.6. Metoda quasi‐Monte Carlo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88\n4.6.1. Ciągi o niskiej rozbieżności . . . . . . . . . . . . 89\n4.6.2. Ciąg Haltona . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92\nZadania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93\nOdpowiedzi, wskazówki . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97\n5. WybraneaspektystosowaniametodyMonteCarlo 99\n5.1. Całkowanie funkcji, obliczanie miar obszarów . . . . . . 99\n5.2. Badanie własności rozkładów zmiennych losowych . . . 101\n5.3. Badanie własności procesów stochastycznych . . . . . . 103\n5.3.1. Zagadnieniainżynieriifinansowejprowadzącedo stochastycznych równań różniczkowych i symulacji trajektorii . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103\n5.3.2. Proces Wienera . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105\n5.3.3. Stochastyczna całka Itô . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107\n5.3.4. Obliczanie całek stochastycznych metodą\nMonte Carlo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109\n5.3.5. Stochastyczne równania różniczkowe . . . . . . . 110\n5.3.6. Wycena opcji europejskich w modelu\nBlacka–Scholesa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110\n5.3.7. Most Browna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113\n5.3.8. Losowanie warstwowe końcowe przy symulacji trajektorii . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114\n5.4. Próbkowanie Monte Carlo łańcuchami Markowa . . . . 116\n5.4.1. Algorytm Metropolisa–Hastingsa . . . . . . . . . 117\nZadania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119\nOdpowiedzi, wskazówki . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120\nBibliografia 121\nIndeksterminów 123\n\nSymulacjeMonteCarlo.Teoria i zastosowania\nSkryptzostałopracowanynapodstawienotatekdowykładówilabora‐ toriówzprzedmiotu„metodaMonteCarlo”prowadzonegonastudiach pierwszegostopnianakierunkumatematykawPolitechniceLubelskiej.\nW skrypcie omawiane są sposoby generowania pseudolosowych próbek z różnych rozkładów, metody mierzenia dokładności oraz re‐ dukcji wariancji, obliczenia quasi‐Monte Carlo, obliczenia związane z procesami stochastycznymi i algorytm Metropolisa–Hastingsa.\nSłowakluczowe:metodaMonteCarlo,statystyka,liczbylosowe,liczby pseudolosowe, metody obliczeniowe.\n\nMonteCarlo simulations.Theory and applications\nThis academic script is based on notes from lectures and laboratories for the subject Monte Carlo Method, which is taught at the first‐cycle studiesinthefieldofmathematicsattheLublinUniversityofTechno‐ logy.\nThe script discusses methods of generating pseudorandom sam‐ ples from various distributions, methods of measuring accuracy and reducing variance, calculations using the quasi‐Monte Carlo method, calculations related to stochastic processes and Metropolis–Hastings algorithm.\nKeywords:Monte Carlo method, statistics, random numbers, pseudorandom numbers, computational methods.\n\nWykaz oznaczeń\nR – zbiór liczb rzeczywistych\nN – zbiór liczb naturalnych\n(Ω,F,Pr) – przestrzeń probabilistyczna ze zbiorem zdarzeń elementarnych Ω, σ‐ciałem zbiorów mierzalnych\nF i funkcją prawdopodobieństwa Pr\nEX – wartość oczekiwana zmiennej losowej X\nVarX – wariancja zmiennej losowej X\nCov(X,Y) – kowariancja między zmiennymi losowymi X oraz Y\nρ(X,Y) – współczynnik korelacji między zmiennymi losowymi X oraz Y\nμ – wartość oczekiwana zmiennej losowej\nσ – odchylenie standardowe zmiennej losowej\nN(μ,σ) – rozkład normalny z wartością oczekiwaną μ i odchyleniem standardowym σ\nφ∶ R → R – funkcja gęstości rozkładu N(0,1)\nΦ∶ R → R – dystrybuanta rozkładu N(0,1) erf∶ R → R – funkcja błędu x – średnia arytmetyczna z próby x ,x ,...,x\n1 2 n s2̂ – nieobciążony estymator wariancji z próby x ,x ,...,x\n1 2 n v.r.r. – współczynnik redukcji wariancji\n{W(t)} – proces Wienera t∈[0,∞)\n\nWstęp\nMetody Monte Carlo mają nie tylko atrakcyjną nazwę, ale także bar‐ dzo ciekawą historię i ważne współczesne zastosowania. Koniecznie należywspomniećoznakomitychpostaciachzwiązanychztymimeto‐ dami – jak Ulam, von Neumann, Metropolis – które w latach 40. i 50.\nXXwiekumiaływielkiwkładwrozwójtechnologiikomputerowejoraz tych działów techniki i matematyki, które do rozwoju tej technologii się przyczyniały, a również z niego wiele czerpały.\nNawet kilkadziesiąt lat po powstaniu pierwszych komputerów wciąż do podręczników opisujących metody symulacyjne dodawano tablice liczb losowych, które umożliwiały czytelnikowi – pozbawione‐ munaogółswobodnegodostępudocyfrowegośrodowiskaobliczenio‐ wego – przeprowadzanie na papierze eksperymentalnych symulacji.\nMogły być one jednak jedynie ćwiczeniem pomagającym w rozumie‐ niu teorii – dla osiągnięcia jakiejkolwiek przydatnej dokładności me‐ tody te wymagają bardzo wielkiej liczby prób, do których komputer jest konieczny. Zatem metody te bez użycia komputera i możliwości zaprogramowania eksperymentu nie mają praktycznego sensu.\nJest to więc dziedzina, w której najlepiej będzie się czuł ktoś, kto rozumiematematykę,rachunekprawdopodobieństwaistatystykę,ale jednocześnie potrafi zaprogramować obliczenia lub przynajmniej po‐ służyćsiępakietemoprogramowaniaprzeznaczonymdowspomagania obliczeń Monte Carlo. Kluczowa jest jednak biegłość z dziedziny, któ‐ rej eksperyment ma dotyczyć, zbudowanie modelu badanej sytuacji, zidentyfikowanie zmiennych losowych, ich rozkładów, parametrów, opracowaniemożliwościpseudolosowejrealizacjitychzmiennych,ob‐ liczania i uśredniania lub całkowania interesującej wielkości.\nJeżelichcemy,bytakieksperymentpoprawnieopisywałrzeczywi‐ stość,bycokolwiekpewnego(czyteżwysoceprawdopodobnego)moż‐ na było powiedzieć o dokładności wyników, to niezbędna jest także wiedza i umiejętności dotyczące probabilistycznych i statystycznych własności metod symulacyjnych.\n\nZdobyciutychwłaśnieumiejętnościiwiedzymasłużyćprzedmiot metodaMonteCarlo.Jesttoprzedmiotnastudiachpierwszegostopnia na kierunku matematyka (studia o profilu praktycznym) prowadzo‐ nymwPolitechniceLubelskiej.Naprzedmiottenprzeznaczonejest20 godzinwykładui20godzinlaboratorium.Programstudiównatymkie‐ runkunieprzewidujeniektórychważnychdlaprzedmiotudziedzin,na przykład procesów stochastycznych (występują na studiach drugiego stopnia). Elementy tej teorii wystarczające do zaprogramowania wła‐ ściwegoeksperymentusąwtakiejsytuacji,beznadmiernejszczegóło‐ wości, podane podczas zajęć. Nie inaczej jest w niniejszym skrypcie.\nW skrypcie omawiane są podstawowe intuicje związane z obli‐ czeniamimetodąMonteCarlo,sposobygenerowaniapseudolosowych próbek z różnych rozkładów, metody mierzenia dokładności i powięk‐ szania dokładności za pomocą redukcji wariancji. Omówione są także obliczenia metodą quasi‐Monte Carlo, obliczanie trudnych rozkładów statystycznych metodą Monte Carlo, badanie własności procesów sto‐ chastycznych, omówione zostało także próbkowanie Monte Carlo łań‐ cuchami Markowa na przykładzie algorytmu Metropolisa–Hastingsa.\nMam nadzieję, że skrypt okaże się użyteczny także dla studentów innychkierunków–założonajestjedynieznajomośćrachunkuprawdo‐ podobieństwa w zakresie najważniejszych rozkładów oraz statystyki matematycznej, zwłaszcza estymacji punktowej i przedziałowej (ale podstawowe dla dużych prób modele estymacji przedziałowej są tu‐ taj przywołane). Nie da się też skorzystać w pełni z tego skryptu bez znajomości C++, bo w tym języku programowania prezentowane są li‐ stingiitegojęzykadotyczązadania,wktórychwystępujekonieczność programowania. Większość tych problemów może być jednak tak na‐ prawdęrozwiązanawwieluinnychśrodowiskachprogramistycznych.\nTakie zadania do samodzielnego rozwiązania znajdują się na końcu każdego z pięciu rozdziałów. Po treściach zadań umieszczono wska‐ zówki lub odpowiedzi do wybranych zagadnień.\n\nROZDZIAŁ\nPodstawowy schemat metody 1\nMonte Carlo\n1.1. Intuicja\nIntuicjastojącazaogólnązasadąMonteCarlowynikazanalogii,jakie widać między miarą prawdopodobieństwa a „zwykłą” miarą, taką jak długość,powierzchnia,objętość1.Szczególniedobrzewidocznejestto, gdymamydoczynieniaztzw.prawdopodobieństwemgeometrycznym, a więc w sytuacji, w której zdarzenia elementarne to punkty z ustalo‐ negomierzalnegopodzbioruΩ ⊂ Rn,natomiastprawdopodobieństwa zdarzeń–czylipodzbiorówΩ–sąproporcjonalnedopowierzchni(lub długości, objętości) tych podzbiorów.\nTo, co w probabilistyce posłużyło do określenia prawdopodobień‐ stwa, w przypadku metody Monte Carlo działa w drugą stronę – moż‐ na szacować miarę Lebesgue’a zbioru na podstawie oceny prawdopo‐ dobieństwa przynależności do danego zbioru. Ta ocena z kolei może zostać dokonana na podstawie symulacji, losowego, a częściej pseu‐ dolosowego, eksperymentu, który wybierając wielokrotnie punkt ze zbioru Ω obliczy frakcję punktów znajdujących się w badanym pod‐ zbiorze.\nProstą ilustracją tej zasady jest następujący przykład.\nPrzykład 1.1. Oszacuj wartość liczby π na podstawie eksperymentu polegają‐ cegona10000000‐krotnymjednostajnymlosowaniupunktuzkwadratuiob‐ liczeniufrakcjipunktówznajdującychsięwkolewpisanymwtenkwadrat.\n1 By skrócić i uściślić dalsze zapisy będę używał pojęcia miary Lebesgue’a, wtedy gdy w n‐wymiarowym przypadku zechcę użyć uogólnienia pojęcia powierzchni (długości, objętości). Do zrozumienia nie jest konieczne zna‐ jomośćdokładnejdefinicjitejmiary,wystarczyintuicyjnawiedzanatemat pojęć,któretamiarauogólnia.\n\nOczywiście ta frakcja nie zależy od tego, jaka jest długość boku kwadratu. Tak czy inaczej wiemy, że stosunek pola koła wpisanego w kwadrat do pola tego kwadratu wynosi π, stąd nasze oszacowanie wyniesie k\nπ ≈ 4 , n gdzie n jest liczbą wylosowanych punktów, natomiast k jest liczbą punktów, które znajdą się w kole.\nWtegotypuzadaniuważnejest,byproceduraprowadzącadoosza‐ cowaniapewnejwielkościniekorzystaławżadensposóbztejwielko‐ ści. Dokładnie tak jest w tym przypadku. Ważne jest też, by losowa‐ niebyło jednostajne.Tooznacza,żeprawdopodobieństworealizacji w danym zborze jest proporcjonalne do miary Lebesgue’a tego zbioru.\nByrozwiązaniezaimplementować,przyjmijmy,żerozważanykwadrat ma wierzchołki o współrzędnych\n(−1,−1), (−1,1), (1,1), (1,−1), jak na rysunku 1.1.\n−1 1\n−1\nRys.1.1.Położeniefigurzprzykładu1.1\n\nZestaw funkcji realizujących losowanie punktu z kwadratu (do‐ kładnie to z wnętrza kwadratu), sprawdzających, czy punkt ten leży wewnątrz koła i na tej podstawie dokonujących oszacowania liczby π przedstawiony jest na listingu 1.1. Zauważmy, że gdy mowa o mierze bądźprawdopodobieństwie,tobezznaczeniabędzie,czyfigurywtym zadaniu traktujemy jako domknięte czy jako otwarte, ale w praktycz‐ nym losowaniu na coś trzeba się zdecydować.\n#include <iostream>\n#include <random>\n3 double runif_o() {\n// wylosuj liczbę z przedziału otwartego (-1,1)\n5 static std::mt19937_64 gen{}; // static – inicjowana tyko raz\n6 static std::uniform_real_distribution<double> u(-1.0, 1.0);\n7 double x;\n8 do { x = u(gen);\n10 } while (x == -1.0);\n11 return x;\n}\n13 int ile_sukcesów(bool Y(), int n) {\n// uruchom n-krotnie funkcje Y i zwróć liczbę wartości TRUE\n15 int ile=0;\n16 for (int i=0; i<n; i++) ile += Y();\n18 return ile;\n}\n20 bool punkt_w_kole() {\n// wylosuj punkt i zwróć TRUE jeśli punkt leży wewnątrz kole\n22 double x = runif_o(), y = runif_o();\n23 return x*x+y*y < 1.0;\n}\n25 int main() {\n26 int n = 10'000'000;\n27 int k = ile_sukcesów( punkt_w_kole, n );\nstd::cout << \"liczba prób \" << n << \", liczba trafień: \" << k << \",\\noszacowanie liczby π: \" << k/double(n)*4.0 <<\n\".\\n\";\n}\nListing1.1.Rozwiązaniedlaprzykładu1.1\n\nJeszczekrótkikomentarzdokodu.Losowaniejednostajnewtakim obszarze prostokątnym łatwo uzyskujemy, losując z rozkładu jedno‐ stajnego w odpowiednich przedziałach dla każdej współrzędnej.\nNajczęściej generowanie liczb pseudolosowych w językach programo‐ wania, w przypadku losowania jednostajnego z przedziału rzeczywi‐ stego,sprowadzasiędolosowaniazprzedziałulewostronniedomknię‐ tego, prawostronnie otwartego. Jest to z wielu powodów wygodne, o czym jest mowa w dalszej części skryptu. Akurat w tym przykładzie zręczniejsze jest (ze względu na matematyczną treść i symetrię roz‐ ważanych figur) losowanie jednostajne z przedziału obustronnie do‐ mkniętego lub obustronnie otwartego. Przyjąłem tę drugą opcję i kod prezentuje jeden z możliwych sposobów rozwiązania tego dylematu.\nWracając do części obliczeniowej: tekst, jaki wyświetli program z listingu 1.1 na poprzedniej stronie, to liczba prób 10000000, liczba trafień: 7854766, oszacowanie liczby π: 3.14191.\nJakwidać,wynikniejestzbytimponujący.Różnisięookoło0.0009 od π i to mimo znacznej liczby prób. Co gorsza, otrzymaliśmy tylko oszacowanie punktowe i na tym etapie nie mamy żadnych gwarancji, że na przykład używając innego generatora lub tego samego genera‐ tora, ale z innym ziarnem2, wynik nie będzie się znacznie różnił od otrzymanegowcześniej.Ocenędokładnościuzyskamynaprzykładsto‐ sując teorię przedziałów ufności.\nNa zakończenie rozważań związanych z tym przykładem dodam, że gdyby liczbę 10000000 zamienić na 100 w treści przykładu (oraz wprogramie),touzyskalibyśmy76trafieńwkołoioszacowanieliczby\nπ wynoszące około 3.04.\nRozważania dotyczące domkniętości/otwartości przedziału także nie mają w tym przypadku istotnego znaczenia. Gdybyśmy w listin‐ gu1.1napoprzedniejstronielinijki7–12zastąpiliuproszczonąwersją ignorującą ten problem, czyli\n2 Ziarno to stan początkowy generatora. O metodach pozyskiwania liczb pseudolosowych można przeczytać w rozdziale 2 oraz (zwłaszcza w kon‐ tekściejęzykaC++)wpodrozdziale3.4.\n\nreturn u(gen);\ntoomawianewynikinieuległyby żadnej zmianie.Wartośćrównale‐ wemukońcowiprzedziałudlarozkładujednostajnegogenerowanajest takrzadko(dlatypudouble),żejejwpływnawynikitakiegoekspery‐ mentu można zaniedbać.\n.................................. koniecprzykładu1.1 ..................................\nRzecz jasna liczba π badana w powyższym przykładzie jest nam znana – przynajmniej jeżeli chodzi o jej przybliżenia z dokładnością do bardzo wielu cyfr znaczących. Chodziło o jasny, czytelny przykład odwołującysiędopojęćpowszechnieznanych.Gdybysobiejednakpo‐ stawićpytanieorealizacjętegoeksperymentu bez technikikompute‐ rowej, to natychmiast dotrzemy do zasadniczych problemów. I wcale nie chodzi o to, że trudno „ręcznie” przeprowadzać wielokrotne loso‐ wanie. Ważniejsze jest nawet pytanie o to, jak choćby jednokrotnie przeprowadzić prawdziwie jednostajne losowanie z kwadratu. Rzuca‐ niezbliskaniewątpliwiespowoduje,żeniektóreobszarybędąbardziej intensywnie wybierane. Z kolei rzucanie z daleka spowoduje, że szan‐ sa trafienia w kwadrat zbliży się do zera.\nNie sposób przy okazji nie wspomnieć słynnego zadania Buffona, którezostanieprzedstawionewkolejnymprzykładzie.Wzadaniutym, a właściwie w jego kontynuacji, eksperyment przeprowadzony „natu‐ ralną” metodą jest jak najbardziej możliwy.\nPrzykład1.2(IgłaBuffona). Słynnyproblemdotyczącyprawdopodobieństwa geometrycznego, autorem opublikowanego w 1777 roku rozwiązania jest\nGeorges‐LouisLeclerc,hrabiadeBuffon[2].\nIgładługościtrzucanajest(wprzypadkowysposóbizwysoka)napłasz‐ czyznęznarysowanymirównoległymiliniami,odległośćmiędzysąsiednimili‐ niamitoh,h > t.Wyznaczprawdopodobieństwo,żeigłaprzetniejednązlinii.\nSytuacjazostałazilustrowananarysunku1.2nanastępnejstronie.\nJeślizałożysię, żekątostryAmiędzyigłąa liniamijest zmiennąloso‐ wą o rozkładzie jednostajnym w przedziale [0, π], a odległość D mię‐ dzy środkiem igły a najbliższą linią jest zmienną losową o rozkładzie jednostajnymwprzedziale[0, h]–założeniausprawiedliwionetreścią\n\nh t sinA\nD\nA hh\nRys.1.2.IgłaBuffona zadania–tomożnazauważyć,żewarunkiemprzecięciaprzezigłęlinii jest, by t sinA > D. (1.1)\nSzkic zbioru możliwych wartości dwuwymiarowej zmiennej loso‐ wej (A,D), wraz z zaznaczonym zbiorem punktów spełniających wa‐ runek (1.1) można znaleźć na rysunku 1.3 na następnej stronie.\nObiezmiennelosowemająrozkładjednostajny.Zmiennetesąnie‐ zależne, stąd rozkład w prostokącie jest także jednostajny, a prawdo‐ podobieństwo jest proporcjonalne do powierzchni.\nOstatecznie więc mamy\nπ/2\n∫ h/2⋅sinxdx\n2t\nPr(„igła przetnie linię”) = 0 = .\nπ ⋅ h πh\n2 2\n\nD h t D = t sinA\n2 2\nπ A\nRys.1.3.ProblemIgłyBuffonasprowadzonydoprawdopodobieństwageometrycznego\nNatymkończysięzadanieprobabilistyczne,dlanasciekawszajest jegokontynuacja.W1812rokuLaplacezauważył[19],żenapodstawie liczbyprzecięćwwielupróbachmożnaoszacowaćwielkośćπ,zastępu‐ jąc prawdopodobieństwo częstością i przekształcając powyższy wzór do postaci\n2tn\nπ ≈ h k gdzie n jest liczbą prób, k jest liczbą uzyskanych przecięć.\nZnaleźli się nawet chętni do przeprowadzenia takiego ekspery‐ mentu: w 1901 roku Lazzarini [20] opublikował pracę, w której ra‐ portował, że w 3408 rzutach igłą o długości 2.5 cm, przy liniach odda‐ lonycho3cm,uzyskał1808trafieńwlinię,codałooszacowanieliczby\nπ wynoszące 3.141593. To znakomite przybliżenie. Jest to doskonałe zaokrągleniedosiedmiucyfrznaczącychliczbyπ.Wartoteżdodać,że liczba trafień 1808 była najlepszą możliwą, każda inna dawała gorsze przybliżenie π. Rzetelne (przeprowadzone z wykorzystaniem kompu‐ tera) eksperymenty pokazują, że uzyskiwane oszacowania mają przy\n3408 próbach przedziały ufności długości około 0.2. Wrócimy do tego w zadaniu 4.2 na stronie 94. Można także na drodze teoretycznej wy‐ kazać,jaknieprawdopodobniewielkieszczęściemusiałobyprowadzić do trafienia właśnie 1808 razy. Praca Lazzariniego została oczywiście w późniejszych latach wielokrotnie krytycznie oceniona w aspekcie wiarygodności [2].\n................................. koniecprzykładu1.2 .................................\n\n1.2. Trochęteorii\nFakt, że uśrednianie takie, jak w przykładzie 1.1 na stronie 13, zbliża nas do prawidłowego teoretycznie wyniku, może być tłumaczony na wiele sposobów.\n1.2.1. Rozważaniastatystyczne\nLiczba trafień może być traktowana jako liczba sukcesów w schema‐ cie Bernoulliego. Ze statystyki matematycznej [4] wiadomo, że esty‐ matorem prawdopodobieństwa sukcesu jest właśnie K n, gdzie K to n n zmienna losowa równa liczbie sukcesów w n próbach. Jest to estyma‐ tor zgodny, nieobciążony, efektywny.\n1.2.2. Prawawielkichliczb\nPrzypomnijmy kilka praw wielkich liczb [16].\nTwierdzenie1.1(PrawowielkichliczbBernoulliego). JeżeliK jestliczbą n sukcesówwnpróbach,todladowolnegoε > 0\nK lim Pr(∣ n −p∣ > ε) = 0, n→∞ n gdziepjestprawdopodobieństwemsukcesuwpojedynczejpróbie.\nK\nTwierdzenie to oznacza właśnie zgodność estymatora n.\nn\nTwierdzenie 1.2 (Mocne prawo wielkich liczb). Jeżeli X ,X ,... jest cią‐\n1 2 giemniezależnychzmiennychlosowychotymsamymrozkładzie,tonato,by\n1 n\nPr( lim ∑X = a) = 1 n→∞ n k k=1 potrzebaiwystarcza,byEX = a.\ni\nW przypadku igły Buffona, przyjmując X = 1, gdy w i‐tej próbie i igłaprzetnielinię,i0wprzeciwnymwypadku,mocneprawowielkich\n\nliczb przyjmie postać\nK 2t\nPr( lim n = a) = 1 ⟺ a = .\nn→∞ n πh\n1.2.3. Twierdzenieergodyczne\nPodejście statystyczne oraz prawa wielkich liczb jednak zakładają ja‐ kąś przestrzeń probabilistyczną. Tymczasem używając (na przykład takjakwprzedstawionychwcześniejlistingach)liczbpseudolosowych, korzystamyprzyobliczeniachwistocierzeczyzdeterministycznegoal‐ gorytmu – nie ma tam zmiennej losowej. Jak taka sytuacja ma się do tejopisywanejzapomocąprzestrzeniprobabilistycznej?Jakuzasadnić poprawność uzyskiwanej przybliżonej równości?\nJednym z mocno przemawiających argumentów jest twierdzenie ergodyczne Birkhoffa [7].\nNajpierw zostanie przypomniane pojęcie ergodyczności.\nDefinicja1.1. Niech (X,F,μ) będzie przestrzenią probabilistyczną.\nPrzekształcenie T∶ X → X zachowujące miarę jest ergodyczne, je‐ żelidowolnyzbiórniezmienniczytegoprzekształceniajestmiaryzero lub pełnej miary.\nTwierdzenie1.3(Ergodyczne Birkhoffa). Jeżeliprzekształcenie\nT∶ X → X zachowujemiaręijestergodyczne,afunkcjaf∶ X → Rjestcałkowalna,to\n1 n−1 lim ∑f(Tkx) = ∫f(y)dμ(y) n→∞ n k=0\nX dlawszystkichxpozazbioremmiary0.\nMożnatointerpretowaćnastępująco.Powiedzmy,żexjeststanem początkowym (ziarnem) generatora liczb pseudolosowych, T(⋅) jest przekształceniem, algorytmem, który na podstawie stanu generatora dokonuje przejścia do kolejnego stanu. Wtedy uśredniona dla dużego n wartość funkcji f(Tkx) zbliża się do jej całki.\n\nOpisana wyżej koncepcja jest podstawą tzw. prostej metody\nMonte Carlo (ang.crudeMonteCarlo,CMC).Abyobliczyćprzybliżenie wartości oczekiwanej\nEf(X) dla zmiennej losowej X, należy wygenerować za pomocą generatora liczb pseudolosowych n liczb „pasujących” do realizacji ciągu nieza‐ leżnych zmiennych losowych o rozkładzie identycznym jak rozkład X i uśrednić wartości funkcji f na tym ciągu liczb. Oczywiście dla dużej wartości n.\nPozostaną kwestie takie jak:\nn problemygenerowanialiczbpseudolosowychoodpowiednimroz‐ kładzie, n szacowanie błędów w takich obliczeniach, n modyfikacja CMC prowadząca do szybszej zbieżności, n szczególne sposoby postępowania w wybranych dziedzinach za‐ stosowań.\nProblemom tym poświęcone zostaną kolejne rozdziały skryptu.\nZadania\nZadanie 1.1. Zapisz wartość ∫ exp(−x2)dx jako wartość oczekiwaną z f(X) dla odpowiednio dobranej formuły f(⋅), gdy\n(a) X jest zmienną losową o rozkładzie jednostajnym w [0,2],\n(b) X jest zmienną losową o rozkładzie określonym gęstością\n−0.5⋅x+1, dla x ∈ [0,2], g(x) = {\n0, dla x ∉ [0,2].\nWkażdymztychprzypadkówwylosuj1000wartościf(X).Oczywiście spodziewamy się podobnej średniej w obu powyższych przypadkach.\nCzy można to samo powiedzieć o wariancji uzyskanych prób?\nZadanie1.2.Dla całki określonej na przedziale nieskończonym\n∞\n∫ f(x)dx\n\nmożemy, dokonując zamiany zmiennych, sprowadzić całkę do prze‐ działu skończonego, a następnie zamienić tę całkę na wartość oczeki‐ wanąfunkcjizmiennejlosowejprzyjmującejwartościztegoprzedzia‐ łu (na przykład – ale niekoniecznie – zmiennej losowej o rozkładzie jednostajnym).Innamożliwośćtolosowaniezmiennejmającejgęstość dodatnią w całym przedziale nieskończonym, którego dotyczy orygi‐ nalna całka (np. wykładniczy, normalny, lognormalny).\nPrzedstaw całkę\n∞\n∫ dx\n1+x3.5 jako wartość oczekiwaną funkcji zmiennej losowej X o rozkładzie:\n(a) wykładniczym o wartości oczekiwanej 1,\n(b) wykładniczym o wartości oczekiwanej 10,\n(c) normalnym N(0,1),\n(d) jednostajnymwprzedziale[0,1],zamianyzmiennejwcałcedoko‐ naj podstawieniem t = 1 ,\n1+x2\n(e) jednostajnymwprzedziale[0,1],zamianyzmiennejwcałcedoko‐ naj podstawieniem t = 1 ,\n1+x3.5\n(f) jednostajnymwprzedziale[0,1],zamianyzmiennejwcałcedoko‐ naj podstawieniem t = e−x.\nZadanie1.3.Wiadomo z podstawowej analizy matematycznej, że\n∫ = ln2, x a zatem pole powierzchni figury ograniczonej liniami y = , y = 0, x = 1, x = 2 x wynosi ln2. Dokonując modyfikacji programu przedstawionego na li‐ stingu 1.1 na stronie 15, oszacuj liczbę ln2. Użyj 10000000 punktów wylosowanych z prostokąta o wierzchołkach\n(1,0), (2,0), (2,1), (1,1).\n\nOdpowiedzi,wskazówki\nZadanie 1.1. Należy skorzystać z ogólnej zasady, że jeśli X ma gęstość g(⋅) to\nEf(X) = ∫f(x)g(x)dx.\nR\nWariancja powinna być mniejsza w przypadku (b), zostanie to wyja‐ śnionewpodrozdziale4.4.Prostysposóbnagenerowaniepróbekzroz‐ kładu o zadanej gęstości podany jest w podrozdziale 3.1.4.\nZadanie1.2.Wartość tej całki znamy z analizy matematycznej:\nπ/3.5\n.\nsin(π/3.5)\nZadanie1.3.Wynik: 0.69329.\n\nROZDZIAŁ\nGenerowanie liczb pseudolosowych\n2.1. Liczbylosowe\nPrzezgeneratorliczblosowychrozumiemypewiensposób,mechanizm otrzymywania ciągu zmiennych losowych\nU ,U ,...,\n1 2 przy czym n każde U i ma rozkład jednostajny na odcinku [0,1], n zmienne są niezależne.\nPierwsza własność jest tylko pewną wygodną normalizacją (przy czym matematycznie domykanie przedziałów jest dla zmiennej typu ciągłego bez znaczenia).\nDruga własność jest istotniejsza, oznacza w szczególności, że dla dowolnegoiwartośćU niemożewżadensposóbbyćprzewidzianana i podstawie wartości U ,U ,...,U .\n1 2 i−1\nWjakisposóbtakrozumianalosowośćmożebyćrealizowanazapo‐ mocą komputera? Czy w ogóle jest to możliwe?\nWznacznejmierzezależytoodsprzętu,któryposiadamy,systemu operacyjnego oraz używanego oprogramowania.\nŹródłemlosowości,napodstawiektóregomożnadokonaćobliczeń prowadzącychdociągurealizacjizmiennychgeneratora,mogąbyćele‐ mentytakiejak:stansystemowegozegara,odstępyczasoweobserwo‐ wanepodczasużywaniaklawiatury,ruchyurządzeniemwskazującym, przerwania systemowe bądź sieciowe. System operacyjny może tego rodzaju przekształcane w źródło losowych bitów informacje zbierać i udostępniać aplikacjom uruchamianym na danej platformie.\n\nPrzykładem takiego właśnie podejścia jest /dev/random – urzą‐ dzenie używane w systemie Linux od połowy lat dziewięćdziesiątych\nXX wieku [13].\nJednak źródło tak pojętej losowości jest mało wydajne i jest nie‐ przydatne w obliczeniach prowadzonych metodą Monte Carlo. Obli‐ czenianumerycznewymagająźródłaostatystycznychwłaściwościach zbliżonych do źródła losowego, jednak dającego się przewidzieć, kon‐ trolować, powtórzyć, bardzo szybko generować.\n2.2. Liczbypseudolosowe\nGeneratorliczbpseudolosowychjestalgorytmem,którynapodstawie zadanych parametrów wylicza wartości ciągu u ,u ,...,u ,\n1 2 k wtakisposób,bybyłontrudnydoodróżnieniaodrealizacjizmiennych\nU ,U ,...,U generatora liczb losowych.\n1 2 k\nOznacza to między innymi, że jeżeli k jest dużą liczbą, to liczba wartości ciągu, które znajdą się w dowolnie ustalonym podprzedzia‐ le [0,1], powinna być proporcjonalna do jego długości. To odpowiada pierwszej z własności ciągu losowego – jednostajności rozkładu.\nNatomiast druga własność – niezależność, powinna objawić się tym,żewśródliczbwygenerowanychciągiempseudolosowymniewy‐ łaniają się zauważalne wzorce, co oznacza zwłaszcza, że statystyczne testyniemogądawaćpodstawdoodrzuceniahipotezyoniezależności.\nPozostałe oczekiwania od generatorów liczb pseudolosowych to:\nn duży okres generowanego ciągu1, n duża szybkość, n możliwośćpowtórzeniaeksperymentu(powtórnegowygenerowa‐ nie dokładnie tego samego ciągu),\n1 Ciąg a ,a ,... nazywany jest okresowym, jeśli istnieje liczba T > 0 taka,\n1 2 żea =a dlan∈N.NajmniejszatakaliczbaT jestnazywanaokresem n+T n ciągu.\n\nn przenośność(niepowinienbyćbardzouzależnionyodszczegółów operacji arytmetycznych wykonywanych na różnych platformach systemowo‐sprzętowych).\nPrzykład2.1(Generator von Neumanna). W1949rokuvonNeumannopi‐ sałmetodę(wcześniejjużznaną,gdyżkoncepcjatakabyłaopisywanajużwXIII wieku)zwanąmiddle square.Niechmbędzieustalonądodatniąliczbącałko‐ witąparzystą.Ciągzaczynasięoddowolnejconajwyżejm‐cyfrowejdodatniej liczbycałkowitejx ,następnie,abyotrzymaćliczbęx ,liczbax podnoszo‐\n0 n n−1 najestdokwadratu,ewentualnieuzupełnianazeramizlewejstronydo2mcyfr, poczymjakox przyjmujesięliczbęutworzonązm„środkowych”cyfr.\nn\nLiczby tak tworzone mają właściwości, które sprawiają, że obec‐ nie wyklucza się ich poważne zastosowanie.\nDzieląckażdąztychliczbprzez10m uzyskamypseudolosowyciąg liczbzprzedziału(0,1).Naprzykładdlam = 4,przyjmującjakopierw‐ szy wyraz 894, dostaniemy kolejne wyrazy 7992, 8720, 384, 1474.\nPo podzieleniu przez 10m będzie to ciąg 0.7992, 0.8720, 0.0384, 0.1474.\nLosowość tego typu ciągu może być zilustrowana na diagramie, w którym dla ciągu x ,x ,...x na wykresie zostanie umieszczonych\n1 2 2k k par postaci\n(x /10m,x /10m),(x /10m,x /10m),...,(x /10m,x /10m).\n1 2 3 4 2k−1 2k\nDla m = 6, k = 1000, przyjmując jako stan początkowy x liczbę\n234569, otrzymamy ciąg przedstawiony na rysunku 2.1 na następnej stronie.\nNarysunkutymmamyjednakzaskakującomałopunktów,jestich\n128. Wynika to z faktu, że tego rodzaju ciągi względnie szybko docho‐ dzą do małych cykli i ostatecznie liczba różnych elementów w cią‐ gu jest niewielka. Gdybyśmy taką liczbę różnych elementów uzyski‐ wanychdlaposzczególnychziaren(łącznieztymiziarnami)uśrednili, to na przykład dla m = 2 wynosi ona około 5.8, dla m = 4 około 43.7.\nOdpowiednie wielkości dla m = 6 (wyjaśniające małą liczbę punktów na rysunku 2.1 na następnej stronie) oraz m = 8 są rozwiązaniem za‐ dania 2.2.\nOczywiście zwiększając m możemy doprowadzić analogiczne rysunkidobardziejoczekiwanejformy.Naprzykładrysunek2.2nana‐ stępnej stronie jest wykonany dla 1000 par wziętych z ciągu\n\nvon Neumanna dla m = 12. Nie wygląda gorzej od rysunku 2.3 na następnejstronie,przytworzeniuktóregoużytostandardowegogene‐ ratora mt19937_64 w połączeniu z metodą uzyskiwania rozkładu jed‐ nostajnego z biblioteki standardowej C++11 (zob. podrozdział 3.4).\n................................. koniecprzykładu2.1 .................................\nRys.2.1.1000kolejnychparwylosowanychgeneratoremvonNeumannadla6cyfr–różnych elementówjesttuwielokrotniemniejniż1000\nRys.2.2.1000punktówzkwadratujednostkowegowylosowanychgeneratorem vonNeumanna(12cyfr)\n\nRys.2.3.1000punktówzkwadratujednostkowegowylosowanychprzyużyciugeneratora mt19937_64wC++\n2.3. Liniowegeneratoryliczbpseudolosowych\nNajpopularniejsze generatory liczb pseudolosowych nazywane są li‐ niowymi generatorami liczb pseudolosowych, uzyskuje się je za pomocą wzoru [29] x = (ax +c) mod m; u = x /m, (2.1) i+1 i i+1 i+1 przy czym m jest ustaloną (dużą) liczbą naturalną. Zatem x ∈ {0,1,...,m−1}, i natomiastu ∈ [0,1).Naliczbyu trzebapatrzećpoprostujaknaunor‐ i i mowany ciąg x , niekoniecznie zaś jak na docelowy ciąg pseudoloso‐ i wyorozkładziejednostajnym(czyteżdokładniejmówiącnaśladujący realizację ciągu niezależnych zmiennych o rozkładzie jednostajnym).\nRozkład jednostajny w przedziale może być otrzymany na podstawie rozkładu równomiernego bardziej wyrafinowaną metodą niż dziele‐ niemciągu(x )przezm.Wrócimydotegowpodrozdziale3.4przyoka‐ i zji omawiania zagadnienia generowania liczb pseudolosowych w C++.\nSzczególny przypadek c = 0 był rozważany i dyskutowany kilka lat wcześniej [21].\nAngielska nazwa generatorów określonych formułą (2.1) to linear congruentialpseudorandomnumbergenerator(LCG).\n\nWksiążceSztukaprogramowania[18]D.E.Knuthpodaje,żeabyuzy‐ skać maksymalny okres ciągu wystarczy dla c ≠ 0 spełnić poniższe warunki n c oraz m są względnie pierwsze, n każdy pierwszy dzielnik m jest także dzielnikiem a−1, n jeżeli 4|m to także 4|(a−1).\nPrzykład2.2. Korzystajączpowyższychwskazówek,dlam = 32możnaprzy‐ jąć a = 9, c = 15. Wtedy, jeśli przyjmiemy początkowy wyraz x = 5, to otrzymamyciągkolejnychwartościx :\ni\n28,11,18,17,8,23,30,29,20,3,10,9,0,15,22,21,\n12,27,2,1,24,7,14,13,4,19,26,25,16,31,6,5,\n28,11,18,..., natomiastprzyjmującx = 12,otrzymamy\n27,2,1,24,7,14,13,4,19,26,25,16,31,6,5,28,\n11,18,17,8,23,30,29,20,3,10,9,0,15,22,21,12,\n27,2,1,...\nWartościu odpowiadającepierwszemuznichtociąg i\n0.875,0.34375,0.5625,0.53125,0.25,0.71875,0.9375,0.90625,\n0.625,0.09375,0.3125,0.28125,0,0.46875,0.6875,0.65625,\n0.375,0.84375,0.0625,0.03125,0.75,0.21875,0.4375,0.40625,\n0.125,0.59375,0.8125,0.78125,0.5,0.96875,0.1875,0.15625,\n0.875,0.34375,0.5625,...\nW jakiś prosty sposób te liczby mogą naśladować realizację ciągu zmiennych o rozkładzie jednostajnym w [0,1]. Zwróćmy uwagę na parzystość liczb x , i zmieniasięonazbytregularnie.Wyrażająctęwłasnośćzapomocąliczbu :ciąg i\n⌊32⋅u ⌋ mod 2tociąg i\n0,1,0,1,0,1,..., awięcciągokresowyookresie2.Terazu jużniewydająsiętakdobrzenaśla‐ i dowaćrealizacjiciąguniezależnychzmiennychorozkładachjednostajnych.\n\nTa obserwacja pokazuje, że generatory LCG mają pewne oczywi‐ stesłabości,jeślichodziostatystycznewłasności,wieleznichdotyczy właśnie młodszych bitów. Dlatego niektóre praktyczne generatory ko‐ rzystające z koncepcji LCG pracują (i przechowują stan) na słowach\n2kbitowych,natomiastnawyjściudlaużytkownikaumieszczajątylko k starszych bitów.\nJeżelic = 0,zaśmjestliczbąpierwszą,to[18]dlamaksymalizacji okresu wystarczy, by liczba a była pierwiastkiem pierwotnym modu‐ lo m, to znaczy, by n am−1 = 1 mod m, n aj ≠ 1 mod m, dla j = 1,2,...m−2.\nJeślitakipierwiastekistnieje,tomaksymalnyokreswynosim−1(licz‐ ba0woczywistysposóbmusibyćztakgenerowanegociąguwykluczo‐ na).Pierwiastkimodulomistniejątylkowszczególnychprzypadkach:\nm = 2,m = 4,mbędącepotęgąliczbypierwszejnieparzystej,mbędą‐ ce podwojoną potęgą liczby pierwszej nieparzystej [27].\nNa przykład dla m = 31 można przyjąć za a dowolną z liczb\n3,11,12,13,17,21,22,24.\nKilkaprzykładowychsprawdzonychukładówstałychdlaLCG(gwa‐ rantują one maksymalny okres oraz dobre właściwości wielu testów statystycznych [18]) umieszczono w tabeli 2.1.\nTab.2.1.PrzykładowestałeużywanewgeneratorachLCG m a c uwagi\n231−1 16807 0 minstd_rand0wC++11\n231−1 48271 0 minstd_randwC++11\n231−1 1226874159 0\n232 134775813 1 TurboPascal4.0\n224 16598013 12820163 MicrosoftVisualBasic6\nPoważną wadą, sprzeczną z intuicyjnym rozumieniem generowa‐ nialiczbpseudolosowych,jestliniowośćstrukturotrzymywanychwko‐ stce d‐wymiarowej. Łatwo możemy to zaobserwować, robiąc wykres punktów(u ,u )dlai = 1,2,...,gdzieu sąliczbamirzeczywistymi\n2i−1 2i i z przedziału [0,1) otrzymywanymi według wzoru (2.1). Przykładowa\n\nilustracja dla generatora z przykładu 2.2 pokazana została na rysun‐ ku 2.4. Możemy takie struktury zaobserwować także w przypadku re‐ alnych stałych – rysunek 2.5.\nu\n2i\n0 u\n0 2i−1 1 a=9, c=15, m=32\nRys.2.4.Punktypostaci(u ,u )dlageneratorazprzykładu2.2\n2i−1 2i u\n2i\n0 0 u 2i−1 0.0002 a=48271,c=0, m=2147483647\nRys.2.5.Punktypostaci(u ,u )dlageneratorazprzykładu2.2\n2i−1 2i\n\n2.3.1. Innemetodygenerowaniaciągówpseudolosowych\nWśród innych sposobów tworzenia generatorów warto wymienić:\nn użycie rekurencji wyższego rzędu, np.\nx = (a x +a x +...a x ) mod m, i+1 0 i 1 i−1 p i−p co pozwala na uzyskiwanie dużo większych okresów (przy tym samym zakresie liczb), n użycie kilku generatorów i podawanie jako wyniku pewnej ich funkcji (np. sumy), n tworzeniegeneratorówdokonującychobliczeńwstrukturachciał\nGalois GF(2) lub GF(2p), które dają jako wynik strumień bitów – na przykład rejestry przesuwające [17].\nZadania\nZadanie2.1.Dlastałychztabeli2.1nastronie31sprawdź,czyspełnione są warunki do osiągnięcia maksymalnej wielkości okresu ciągu.\nZadanie 2.2. Rozważmy użycie generatora von Neumanna dla liczb m cyfrowychiniechxbędzieliczbącałkowitąmniejsząniż10miniechk x będzieliczbą różnych elementówwwygenerowanymmetodąmiddle square ciągu x ,x ,x ,...\n0 1 2 dla x = x. Wyznacz średnią wartość k , to znaczy\n0 x\n10m−1\n∑ k ,\n10m x x=0 gdy\n(a) m = 6,\n(b) m = 8.\nZadanie 2.3. Zaprogramuj generowanie 1000000‐elementowego ciągu liczb rzeczywistych z przedziału [0,1), na podstawie współczynników ostatniego wiersza tabeli 2.1 na stronie 31, i oblicz, ile elementów\n\nciągu znalazło się w przedziałach\n[0,0.25), [0.25,0.5), [0.5,0.75), [0.75,1).\nOdpowiedzi,wskazówki\nZadanie 2.2. Dla m = 6 średnia wartość to 326.198, dla m = 8 jest to\n4403.29.\nZadanie2.3.Wyniki: 250555, 249525, 249492, 250428.\n\nROZDZIAŁ\nGenerowanie próbek z różnych 3 rozkładów\nW rozdziale tym rozważymy zarówno generowanie próbek z rozkła‐ dówjednowymiarowych,jakiwielowymiarowych.Naszczególnąuwa‐ gę zasługują metody uniwersalne (odwracanie dystrybuanty, metoda akceptacji/odrzucania)orazmetodyzwiązanezgenerowaniemrozkła‐ dównormalnych.Wszystkieonesprowadząsiędopewnegoprzekształ‐ caniazmiennychlosowychorozkładachjednostajnych,dlagenerowa‐ nia których bazą są ciągi pseudolosowe omawiane w rozdziale 2.\n3.1. Rozkładyjednowymiarowe\n3.1.1. Rozkładdyskretnyrównomierny\nFakt3.1. NiechmbędzieliczbącałkowitądodatniąiniechU marozkładjedno‐ stajnyw[0,1].Wtedy\nX = ⌊U ⋅m⌋ marozkładrównomiernyw\n{0,1,...,m−1}.\nDowód. Rzeczywiście,dladowolnegok ∈ {0,1,...,m−1}otrzymujemy\nPr(X = k) =Pr(⌊U ⋅m⌋ = k) = Pr(k ⩽ U ⋅m < k+1) =\n=Pr(U ∈ [k/m,k/m+1/m)) = 1/m.\n\n3.1.2. Rozkładzero-jedynkowyirozkładdwumianowy\nFakt3.2. Niechp ∈ (0,1)iniechU marozkładjednostajnyw[0,1].Wtedy\n1, U < p,\nX = {\n0, U ⩾ p, marozkładzero‐jedynkowyzparametremp.\nPowyższy fakt jest oczywisty, gdyż Pr(U < p) = p dla każdego p ∈ (0,1).\nRozkładdwumianowy1dlanpróbmożemyuzyskaćnaprzykładsu‐ mując n zmiennych o rozkładzie zero‐jedynkowym. Przy dużej liczbie nskuteczniejszemożebyćskorzystaniezogólnejmetodygenerowania próbek z rozkładu dyskretnego, omówionej w punkcie 3.1.3.\n3.1.3. Dowolnyrozkładdyskretnyowartościachograniczonych oddołu\nFakt3.3. Załóżmy,żeX przyjmujewartości x < x < ...\n1 2 z prawdopodobieństwami p ,p ,... i niech U ma rozkład jednostajny w [0,1].\n1 2\nWtedyzmiennalosowa\n⎧x , U < f ,\n{ 1 1\nY = x , U ∈ [f ,f ),\n⎨ 2 1 2\n{\n⎩..., ...\ni gdzief = ∑ p ,i = 1,2,...,marozkładidentycznyzrozkłademX.\ni j=1 j\nRzeczywiście, przyjmując f = 0 mamy dla k ∈ {1,2,...}, że\nPr(Y = k) = Pr(U ∈ [f ,f )) = f −f = p .\ni−1 i i i−1 i\n1 Inaczej nazywany rozkładem Bernoulliego, czyli rozkład liczby sukcesów w schemacie n niezależnych prób, w których w każdej osiąga się sukces zprawdopodobieństwemp.\n\n3.1.4. Metodaodwracaniadystrybuanty\nUniwersalnąmetodąwprzypadkurozkładówjednowymiarowych(nie zawszenajbardziejwydajną)jestmetodawykorzystującaodwracanie dystrybuanty.\nSzczególnieprostąformęuzyskujesięwprzypadku,gdydystrybu‐ anta jest funkcją ściśle rosnącą.\nTwierdzenie3.1. NiechF będzieściślerosnącądystrybuantą,aU niechbędzie zmiennąlosowąorozkładziejednostajnymw[0,1].WtedyF−1(U)marozkład zadanydystrybuantąF.\nDowód. Rzeczywiście, niech x ∈ R. Wtedy\nPr(F−1(U) ⩽ x) =Pr(F(F−1(U)) ⩽ F(x)) =\n=Pr(U ⩽ F(x)) = F(x).\nW bardzo wielu przypadkach, nawet dla rozkładów ciągłych, dys‐ trybuanta w pewnych odcinkach jest stała. Taka funkcja, w ścisłym sensie tego słowa, nie daje się odwrócić.\nNawettakpodstawowyrozkładciągłyjakrozkładwykładniczynie madystrybuantyściślerosnącej,gdyżwcałymprzedziale(−∞,0]ma ona wartość zero, a więc przeciwobraz zera ma nieskończenie wiele elementów.\nJednoznaczność uzyskamy przyjmując w miejsce odwrotności funkcję kwantylową Q(p) zdefiniowaną dla p ∈ (0,1) (3.1) wzorem\nQ(p) = inf{t ∈ R∶ p ⩽ F(t)}. (3.2)\nW przedziałach, w których dystrybuanta jest rosnąca, Q niczym nie różnisięodF−1.Dlap = 0orazp = 1wwieluprzypadkachwzór(3.2) każe liczyć infimum ze zbioru pustego bądź ze zbioru zawierającego dowolnie małe wartości, stad ograniczenie (3.1). Ograniczenia te nie są istotne, w praktyce oczywiście by obliczać Q(U) musimy czasem uzupełnić wartość Q dla 0 lub 1 – ale możemy to robić tak, jak jest nam wygodnie, bo nie wpłynie to na rozkład zmiennej Q(U).\n\nTakokreślanafunkcjakwantylowaczęstonazywanajestuogólnio‐ ną funkcją odwrotną do dystrybuanty, bywa też oznaczana tak samo jak funkcja odwrotna do dystrybuanty.\nFunkcja Q(⋅) ma własność\nQ(p) ⩽ x ⟺ p ⩽ F(x) dla dowolnego p ∈ [0,1]. (3.3)\nPrawastronaimplikujelewąwprostzokreślenia(3.2).Natomiastwy‐ nikanie w drugą stronę jest prostym wnioskiem z prawostronnej cią‐ głości dystrybuanty.\nTwierdzenie 3.2. Niech F będzie dystrybuantą, Q jej funkcją kwantylową i niech U będzie zmienną losową o rozkładzie jednostajnym w [0,1]. Wtedy\nQ(U)marozkładzadanydystrybuantąF.\nDowód. Niech x ∈ R. Wtedy\nPr(Q(U) ⩽ x) = [na mocy (3.3)] = Pr(U ⩽ F(x)) = F(x).\nZ wielu względów – co widać na przykładzie podrozdziału 3.1.3 – wygodniejestrozważaćdlapodstawowegorozkładujednostajnegotyl‐ ko przedziały lewostronnie domknięte, prawostronnie otwarte. Taka też jest tradycja w wielu językach programowania, które oferują pro‐ gramistom pseudolosowe generowanie rozkładu jednostajnego, dając wyniki właśnie w przedziale lewostronnie domkniętym, prawostron‐ nie otwartym.\nTymczasem funkcja kwantylowa (co wynika z jej definicji oraz zprawostronnejciągłościdystrybuanty)jestlewostronnieciągła.Naj‐ prostszym sposobem poradzenia sobie z tym jest wyznaczenie odpo‐ wiedniejfunkcjikwantyloweji–wprzypadkugdyjejdefinicjabędzie oparta o przedziały otwarte bądź prawostronnie domknięte – zmie‐ nieniejejnaniemaltakąsamąfunkcjęh(⋅),aleopartąnaprzedziałach lewostronniedomkniętych.Brakującąwpunkcie0wartośćmożnauzu‐ pełnić dowolnie, ilustruje to przykład 3.1.\n\nPrzykład3.1. Rozważmydystrybuantę\n⎧0, dlax < 1,\n{\n{0.3(x−1), dlax ∈ [1,2),\nF(x) =\n⎨ 0.5+0.4(x−2)2, dlax ∈ [2,3),\n{\n{\n⎩1 dlax ⩾ 3.\nDystrybuanta określona w tym przykładzie jest jak widać dystry‐ buantą pewnej zmiennej losowej mieszanej z dodatnimi prawdopodo‐ bieństwami realizacji wartości 2 oraz 3.\nFunkcja kwantylowa konstruowana jest dość łatwo. W otwartych przedziałach, w których dystrybuanta rośnie, zwyczajnie ją odwraca‐ my. Dla wartości p, dla których istnieje wiele x, dla których F(x) = p, bierzemy infimum tych wartości x. Korzystamy z gwarantowanej le‐ wostronnej ciągłości i ostatecznie dostajemy dla p ∈ (0,1)\n⎧10p+1, dla p ∈ (0,0.3],\n{ 3\n{\n{2 dla p ∈ (0.3,0.5],\nQ(p) =\n⎨ { 2+√5(p−0.5), dla p ∈ (0.5,0.9],\n{ 2\n{\n⎩3, dla p ∈ (0.9,1).\nKorzystajączuwagnatematdomykaniaprzedziałów(ipreferowa‐ niadomykanialewostronnegoprzedziałów),możnaokreślićdlawszyst‐ kich p ∈ [0,1) funkcję\n⎧10p+1, dla p ∈ [0,0.3),\n{ 3\n{\n{2 dla p ∈ [0.3,0.5), h(p) =\n⎨ { 2+√5(p−0.5), dla p ∈ [0.5,0.9),\n{ 2\n{\n⎩3, dla p ∈ [0.9,1).\nOczywiste jest, że jeśli U ma rozkład jednostajny w przedziale [0,1] to h(U) oraz Q(U) mają identyczny rozkład (ich wartości różnią się nazbiorzemiaryzero).Funkcjah(⋅)jestniecobardziejkonsekwentna\n(określona na jednakowego typu przedziałach) od Q(⋅) oraz lepiej pa‐ sujedopraktyczniespotykanejsytuacji,wktórejsystemprogramowa‐ niadostarczafunkcjigenerującejjednostajniewartościwłaśniez[0,1).\n\nW C++ realizacja h(⋅) mogłaby wyglądać na przykład tak – sprawdza‐ nesątylkoprostewarunkizostryminierównościami,liczbawyborów warunkowych jest o jeden mniejsza niż liczba przypadków w opisie funkcji, w wyborach warunkowych wystarczy tylko rozważanie przy‐ padku spełnienia warunku:\ndouble h(double x) { if (x<0.3) return 10/3.0*x + 1.0;\nif (x<0.5) return 2.0;\nif (x<0.9) return 2.0 + sqrt(5.0/2.0*(x-0.5));\nreturn 3;\n}\n................................. koniecprzykładu3.1 .................................\nPrzykład3.2. Rozważmyrozkładwykładniczyzparametremczęstotliwościμ, toznaczyrozkładodystrybuancie\n0, dlax < 0,\nF(x) = {\n1−exp(−μx), dlax ⩾ 0.\nFunkcja kwantylowa dla tego rozkładu to\n−ln(1−p)\nQ(p) = , dla p ∈ (0,1).\nμ\nJeżeli U ma rozkład jednostajny na [0,1], to Q(U) ma rozkład wykład‐ niczy z parametrem μ. Oczywiście Q(⋅) powinno być uzupełnione w 0 iw1,alemożebyćuzupełnione dowolnie (tepunktysądlaU osiąga‐ ne z prawdopodobieństwem 0, a więc nie mają wpływu na rozkład).\nDlapraktycznejsytuacji,gdygeneratorbędziedostarczałwartości zprzedziału[0,1),koniecznejesttylkouzupełnieniew0(konieczne,bo tawartośćmożesiętrafić,prawdopodobieństwojestmałe,aleniejest zerowe dla generatora liczb pseudolosowych).\n\nWtymwypadkunaturalnejestuzupełnieniewartością0dlap = 0, uzyskany wzór to\n−ln(1−p) h(p) = , dla p ∈ [0,1).\nμ\nNa koniec zauważmy jeszcze, że jeśli U ma rozkład jednostajny w [0,1], to taki sam rozkład ma również 1−U. Zatem skoro −ln(1−U)\nμ ma rozkład wykładniczy, to wynika z tego, że także −lnU ma rozkład\nμ wykładniczyzparametremμ.Pamiętajmytylko,żedlapraktycznejsy‐ tuacji tym razem musimy zadbać, żeby U nie osiągnęło wartości 0.\nJeślichcielibyśmykorzystaćzobuwzorówdogenerowaniarozkła‐ du wykładniczego, to znaczy z\n−ln(1−U) −lnU oraz ,\nμ μ\n– a może to być potrzebne choćby przy korzystaniu z metody zmien‐ nych antytetycznych (podrozdział 4.2) – to najwygodniejszy byłby ge‐ nerator liczb pseudolosowych o rozkładzie jednostajnym dający war‐ tości tylko z przedział otwartego (0,1). Można go zorganizować na przykładtak,jaktopokazanowlistingu1.1nastronie15.Wkażdymra‐ zie problemu tego zignorować nie wolno, bo mogłoby to doprowadzić do nieprawidłowego zachowania się programu.\n................................. koniecprzykładu3.2 .................................\nMetodaodwracaniadystrybuantyjestszczególnieatrakcyjna,gdy mamyzwartąpostaćdystrybuantyitotaką,którąmożnałatwoodwró‐ cić analitycznie. Takie były dystrybuanty w przykładach 3.2 oraz 3.1.\nW innych sytuacjach może być trudniej, na przykład dla rozkładu nor‐ malnegodystrybuantaniemapostacizwartej.Nawetwtakiejsytuacji dasiętęmetodęstosować:skorodasiędystrybuantęobliczać(choćby numerycznym całkowaniem), to da się ją numerycznie odwracać (na przykład ogólnymi metodami rozwiązywania równań nieliniowych).\nJednak dla szczególnych sytuacji – jak choćby właśnie rozkładu normalnego,kluczowegodlawielustatystycznychmodeliorazdlaprze‐ prowadzaniasymulacjiiocenyichwyników–opracowanoszczególne sposoby, całkowicie odchodzące od koncepcji odwracania dystrybuan‐ ty. Takie zagadnienia są tematem podrozdziału 3.1.5.\n\n3.1.5. Rozkładnormalny\nRozkładnormalnyN(μ,σ)ześredniąμiodchyleniemstandardowymσ ma funkcję gęstości daną wzorem\n1 −(x−μ)2 f(x) = √ e 2σ2 .\n2πσ\nDystrybuanta jest więc równa x\n1 −(t−μ)2\nF(x) = √ ∫ e 2σ2 dt,\n2πσ\n−∞ nie ma ona zwartej postaci, nie jest więc łatwa w odwracaniu.\nZauważmy jeszcze tylko, że ze względu na możliwość standaryza‐ cji, czyli ze względu na to, że\nY −μ\nY ∼ N(μ,σ) ⟺ ∼ N(0,1), dla dow. μ ∈ R,σ > 0,\nσ przy generowaniu próbek rozkładu normalnego wystarczy „nauczyć się” generowania próbek rozkładu N(0,1). Mnożąc te próbki przez σ i dodając do nich μ dostaniemy próbki z rozkładu N(μ,σ).\nZe względu na szczególną przydatność rozkładu N(0,1), jego gę‐ stość oraz dystrybuanta będą oznaczane zgodnie z tradycją przez φ oraz Φ, to znaczy x\nφ(x) = √ 1 e−x 2 2 , Φ(x) = ∫ φ(t)dt. (3.4)\n2πσ\n−∞\nMetodybazującenaCentralnymTwierdzeniuGranicznym\nCentralne Twierdzenie Graniczne ma wiele form i odmian. Przypo‐ mnijmy,żeichistotąjestto,żeprzyodpowiednichzałożeniachdystry‐ buanta sumy ciągu zmiennych losowych dla dużej liczby składników bliska jest dystrybuanty rozkładu normalnego.\nPoniżej przytoczona zostanie jedna z podstawowych postaci tej rodziny twierdzeń.\n\nTwierdzenie3.3(Centralne twierdzenie Lindeberga–Lévy’ego [3]). x\nJeżeliX ,X ,X ,...jestciągiemniezależnychzmiennychlosowychojednako‐\n1 2 3 wymrozkładzieowartościprzeciętnejμiskończonejwariancjiσ2 > 0,to n\n∑ X −nμ lim Pr( i=1√ i ⩽ x) = Φ(x), dladowolnegox ∈ R.\nn→∞ nσ\nSuma wielu zmiennych o tym samym rozkładzie (o ile mają skoń‐ czonąidodatniąwariancję)marozkładzbliżonydonormalnego,więc na przykład prosta do generowania suma\nX +X +...X −6\n1 2 12\n– gdzie X mają rozkład jednostajny na [0,1] – ma rozkład zbliżony i doN(0,1).Zgodnośćśredniejiwariancjijestoczywista,wprzypadku zmiennych niezależnych wariancja sumy to suma wariancji, zaś wa‐ riancja rozkładu jednostajnego w przedziale [a,b] to\n(b−a)2\n.\nAlternatywnie może to być suma\nX +X +...X ,\n1 2 12 gdzieX sąniezależnymizmiennymilosowymiorozkładziejednostaj‐ i nym w [−0.5,0.5].\nOczywiście mogłoby się nasunąć pytanie czy 12 to naprawdę już\n„duża” liczba. Okazuje się, że w przypadku sumowania rozkładów jed‐ nostajnych,12zmiennychdajedobreprzybliżenierozkładunormalne‐ go, gęstości pokazane są na rysunku 3.1 na następnej stronie.\nNa tym rysunku linia zielona to gęstość rozkładu N(0,1), nato‐ miast linia niebieska to gęstość sumy 12 zmiennych jednostajnych na\n[0,1] pomniejszonej o 6.\nOczywiście powiększając liczbę zmiennych X (jednocześnie do‐ i konującodpowiedniegoskalowania),udoskonalamypodobieństwodo rozkładunormalnego,jednakefektywnośćtakiegorozwiązaniaspada.\nTransformacjaBoxa–Mullera\nDużaczęśćefektywnychmetodgenerowaniapróbekrozkładunormal‐ negoopartajestnatransformacjiBoxa–Mullera.Przekształcenietozo‐ stało opisane w twierdzeniu 3.4.\n\n0.4\n0.3\n0.2\n0.1\n−4 −2 0 2 4\nRys.3.1.Porównaniegęstościrozkładunormalnego(liniazielona)zgęstościąsumy12 niezależnychzmiennychorozkładziejednostajnym(linianiebieska)\nTwierdzenie 3.4 (Box–Muller [5]). Jeżeli D jest zmienną losową o rozkła‐ dzie wykładniczym z wartością oczekiwaną 2 i jeżeli A jest zmienną losową orozkładziejednostajnymw[0,2π],DiAniezależne,tozmiennelosowe\n√ √\nX = D⋅cos(A), Y = D⋅sin(A) sąniezależneiobiemająrozkładN(0,1).\nDowód. Para zmiennych losowych (X,Y) powstaje z pary zmiennych\n(D,A), co można zapisać jako\n(X,Y) = ψ(D,A).\nW takiej sytuacji dla gęstości mamy f X,Y (x,y) = f D,A (ψ−1(x,y))⋅detJ ψ−1 (ψ−1(x,y)), (3.5) gdzie J oznacza macierz Jacobiego przekształcenia h.\nh\nFunkcja ψ(⋅,⋅) to w naszym przypadku\n√ √\nψ(d,a) = ( dcosa, dsina),\n\njej jakobian to\n√1 cosa √1 sina 1 detJ (d,a) = ∣ 2 √ d √ 2 d ∣ = ,\nψ − dsina dcosa 2 stąd detJ (x,y) = 2.\nψ−1\nZatem, korzystając z niezależności D i A oraz ze znajomości ich roz‐ kładów, możemy zapisać f X,Y (x,y) = e−x2+ y2\n⋅ 2\nπ ⋅2 = 2\nπ e−x2+ y2\n. (3.6)\nMając gęstość łączną wektora (X,Y), możemy policzyć gęstość X:\n∞ ∞ f (x) =∫\n1 e−x2+y2 dy = √\n1 e−x2\n∫ √ e\n−y2 dy =\nX 2π 2 2π 2 2π 2\n−∞ −∞\n=√\n1 e−x2\n.\n2π\nW podobny sposób wykażemy, że f (y) = √ e\n−y2\n.\nY 2\n2π\nTakwięcX orazY mająrozkładN(0,1).Wpołączeniuzformułą(3.6) dostajemy f (x,y) = f (x)⋅f (y),\nX,Y X Y a więc została wykazana także niezależność X i Y.\nPowyższe twierdzenie daje następującą metodę wygenerowania dwuliczbz ,z pseudolosowychzrozkładuN(0,1)(wykorzystanyzo‐\n1 2 stałdotegosposóbgenerowaniazmiennejorozkładziewykładniczym, omówiony w przykładzie 3.2 na stronie 40):\n1. Wygeneruju ,u pseudolosowezrozkładujednostajnegona[0,1).\n1 2\n2. Oblicz r = √−2⋅ln(1−u ).\n3. Oblicz a = 2π⋅u .\n4. Oblicz z = rcosa, z = rsina.\n1 2\n\nNalistingu3.1pokazanajestprzykładowarealizacjawC++,która naprzemiangenerujedwieliczbyizwracapierwsząznich,albonicnie generuje, a jedynie zwraca drugą liczbę z poprzednio wygenerowanej pary. Stan przechowywany jest w lokalnej zmiennej statycznej, która charakteryzuje się tym, że jej wartość nie jest tracona w momencie zakończenia funkcji.\n#include <random>\n#include <cmath>\n3 using namespace std;\n4 double runif() {\n// przykładowa funkcja dająca wyniki pseudolosowe\n// z rozkładu jednostajnego na [0,1)\n7 static mt19937_64 gen;\n8 static uniform_real_distribution<double> u;\n9 return u(gen);\n}\n11 double norm() {\n12 static bool generuj = false;\n13 static double n2;\ngeneruj = !generuj;\n15 if (generuj) {\n16 double u1 = runif();\n17 double u2 = runif();\n18 double r = sqrt(-2*log(1-u1));\n19 double a = 2*M_PI*u2;\n20 double n1 = cos(a)*r;\nn2 = sin(a)*r;\n22 return n1;\n23 } else\n24 return n2;\n}\nListing3.1.Realizacjaalgorytmuwynikającegoztwierdzenia3.4\nMetodaMarsaglia–Braya\nŁącząc idee transformacji Boxa–Mullera i jej graficznej interpretacji oraz obliczania rozkładu warunkowego, Marsaglia i Bray opracowali\n\nmodyfikację metody, w której nie wymagane jest obliczania funkcji trygonometrycznych [23]:\n1. Wygeneruj x, y z rozkładu jednostajnego na (−1,1).\n2. Oblicz u ∶= x2 +y2.\n3. Jeżeli u ⩾ 1 powróć do kroku 1.\n4. t ∶= √−2ln(1−u)/u.\n5. z ∶= xt, z ∶= yt.\n1 2\nUzasadnienie sformułowane zostanie jako twierdzenie 3.5.\nZauważmyjeszczetylko,żekroki1,2,3tejmetodygenerująparę\n(x,y), będącą realizacją zmiennej losowej dwuwymiarowej o rozkła‐ dzie jednostajnym w kole jednostkowym.\nTwierdzenie3.5. Niech(X,Y)będziedwuwymiarowązmiennąlosowąoroz‐ kładziejednostajnymwkole\n{(x,y) ∈ R2∶ x2 +y2 < 1} iniech\nU = X2 +Y2, T = √−2ln(1−U)/U, Z = X ⋅T, Z = Y ⋅T.\n1 2\nZmiennelosoweZ orazZ sąniezależneimająrozkładN(0,1).\n1 2\nDowód. Para (X,Y) ma rozkład jednostajny w kole, dlatego prawdo‐ podobieństworealizacjiwdanympodzbiorzekołajestproporcjonalne do jego powierzchni, stąd\n√\n[pole koła o promieniu s]\nPr(U ⩽ s) = = s, dla s ∈ [0,1]\n[pole koła jednostkowego] zatem U ma rozkład jednostajny w [0,1]. Niech A będzie kątem pro‐ mienia wodzącego punktu (X,Y). Zauważmy, że t\nPr(A ⩽ t) = , dla t ∈ [0,2π],\n2π a więc zatem A ma rozkład jednostajny w [0,2π].\nRozważenie dystrybuanty łącznej\n√\nπ⋅( s)2 ⋅ t\nPr(U ⩽ s,A ⩽ t) = 2π = Pr(U ⩽ s)⋅Pr(A ⩽ t)\nπ\n\nwykazuje, że U oraz A są niezależne.\nZauważmy,żewtakimrazieD = −2ln(1−U)marozkładwykład‐ niczy z wartością oczekiwaną 2 i D nie zależy od A. Ponadto\nX √ √\nZ =√ ⋅ D = cos(A)⋅ D,\nX2 +Y2\nY √ √\nZ =√ ⋅ D = sin(A)⋅ D\nX2 +Y2 i teza twierdzenia wynika z twierdzenia 3.4.\nJakie mogą być korzyści ze stosowania procedury będącej konse‐ kwencją twierdzenia 3.5 zamiast tej wynikającej z twierdzenia 3.4?\nZ jednej strony przy stosowaniu metody Marsaglia–Braya nie trzeba obliczać funkcji trygonometrycznych. Z drugiej strony traci się część generowanych pomocniczych liczb pseudolosowych – średnio\nπ\n1− ≈ 21%.\nInnymisłowydlauzyskaniapróby1000realizacjirozkładunormalnego potrzeba średnio około 1273 liczb z rozkładu jednostajnego.\nStosowanie metody Marsaglia–Braya zamiast Boxa–Mullera jest uzależnione od tego, jak w danym systemie przedstawia się sytuacja kosztów poszczególnych składowych całego procesu – a więc oblicza‐ nia funkcji trygonometrycznych, logarytmicznych, różnych operacji arytmetycznych, losowania z rozkładu jednostajnego.\n3.2. Rozkładwielowymiarowynormalny\nZmienna losowa n‐wymiarowa X ma rozkład normalny wielowymia‐ rowyN(μ,Σ),gdzieμjestkolumnąnwartościoczekiwanych,aΣjest n × n macierzą kowariancji (która jest symetryczna i dodatnio okre‐ ślona), wtedy i tylko wtedy gdy gęstość X wyraża się wzorem\n1 1 f (x) = exp(− (x−μ)TΣ−1(x−μ)).\nX √(2π)ndetΣ 2\nPrzydziałaniachelementyzRn traktujemyjakomacierzejednokolum‐ nowe.\n\nNiechterazzmiennalosowan‐wymiarowaY danabędzieformułą\nY = AX +B, (3.7) gdzie A – macierz n×n, B – kolumna n‐elementowa.\nJakobianemprzekształcenia(3.7)jestdetA,stądgęstośćY –przy wykorzystaniu formuły (3.5) – wynosi\n1 1 f (y) = ⋅ ⋅\nY detA √(2π)ndetΣ\n⋅exp(− (A−1(y−B)−μ)TΣ−1(A−1(y−B)−μ)) =\n= ⋅\n√(2π)ndet(AΣAT)\n⋅exp(− (y−Aμ−B)T(AΣAT)−1(y−Aμ−B)), czyli\nY ∼ N(Aμ+B,AΣAT). (3.8)\nPrzyjmijmyteraz,żemamydodatniookreślonąsymetrycznąn×n macierz Σ oraz kolumnę μ ∈ Rn. Korzystając z (3.8), dla zmiennej losowej X mającej rozkład N(0,I ) można zapisać n\nY = AX +μ ∼ N(μ,Σ), o ile tylko\nAAT = Σ. (3.9)\nMacierz A spełniającą równość (3.9) można uzyskać na przykład dokonując rozkładu Choleskiego [10], co zostanie przedstawione po‐ niżej.Natomiastgenerowaniepojedynczejpróbkizrozkładuwielowy‐ miarowego N(0,I ), to po prostu wygenerowanie próbki n niezależ‐ n nych zmiennych o rozkładzie N(0,1), co już zostało objaśnione w poprzednich podrozdziałach.\n\nRówność(3.9)chcemyzapewnićdladolnietrójkątnej2macierzyA, zatem\nA2 = Σ ,\n11 11\nA A = Σ ,\n21 11 21\nA2 +A2 = Σ\n21 22 22\n⋮ lub ogólnie j\n∑A A = Σ ,j ⩽ i, ik jk ij k=1 stąd mamy metodę wyznaczania A :\nij j−1\nA =(Σ −∑A A )/A , j < i, ij ij ik jk jj k=1\n√\n√ i−1\n√\nA = Σ −∑A2 , j = i.\nii ii ik\n⎷ k=1\nPrzykład 3.3. Dysponujemy następującymi realizacjami zmiennych X,Y,Z\n(każdywierszodpowiadajednejrealizacjirozkładutrójwymiarowego).\nx y z\n4.0 2.0 0.60\n4.2 2.1 0.59\n3.9 2.0 0.58\n4.3 2.1 0.62\n4.1 2.2 0.63\nZakładamy, że (X,Y,Z) ma rozkład trójwymiarowy normalny, wektor war‐ tości oczekiwanych wyznaczymy jako zwykłą średnią z realizacji, natomiast macierzkowariancjioszacujemyjakokowariancjęzpróby.\nChcemywyznaczyćmacierzCholeskiego,którapozwoligenerowaćtrójwy‐ miarowepróbkizrozkładuN(μ,Σ).\n2 Alternatywniemożnawynikrozkładuotrzymaćwformie macierzygórnie trójkątnej.\n\nObliczamy\n2.50⋅10−2 7.50⋅10−3 1.75⋅10−3\n⎛ ⎞\nΣ =⎜7.50⋅10−3 7.00⋅10−3 1.35⋅10−3⎟.\n⎝1.75⋅10−3 1.35⋅10−3 4.30⋅10−4\n⎠\nNastępnie, postępując zgodnie z algorytmem, otrzymujemy\n√\nA = 2.50⋅10−2 ≈ 1.58113883⋅10−1, potem\nA =7.50⋅10−3/A ≈ 4.74341649⋅10−2,\n21 11\nA =√7.00⋅10−3 −A2 ≈ 6.89202438⋅10−2,\n22 21\nA =1.75⋅10−3/A ≈ 1.10679718⋅10−2,\n31 11\nA =(1.35⋅10−3 −A A )/A ≈ 1.19703581⋅10−2,\n32 31 21 22\nA =√4.30⋅10−4 −A2 −A2 ≈ 1.28144655⋅10−2.\n33 31 32\nGdybyjeszczedodatkowo(zgodnieztreściązadania)wektorśrednich\nμ = [μ ,μ ,μ ]T oszacować jako średnią z kolumn, czyli przyjąć\n1 2 3\nμ = [4.1,2.08,0.604]T, to uzyskalibyśmy poniższą prostą metodę generowania liczb o zada‐ nym rozkładzie wielowymiarowym.\nJeżeli V , V , V są niezależnymi zmiennymi o rozkładach N(0,1),\n1 2 3 to wektor losowy (X,Y,Z), gdzie\nX = A V +μ ,\n11 1 1\nY = A V +A V +μ ,\n21 1 22 2 2\nZ = A V +A V +A V +μ ,\n31 1 32 2 33 3 3 ma wielowymiarowy rozkład normalny o obliczonej macierzy kowa‐ riancji Σ, gdzie A to macierz rozkładu Choleskiego macierzy Σ.\n................................. koniecprzykładu3.3 .................................\n\n3.3. Metodaakceptacji/odrzucania\nOmawiana w tym podrozdziale metoda jest metodą uniwersalną, któ‐ rapozwalanagenerowaniepróbekzinteresującegonasrozkładu,jeśli tylkopotrafimyobliczaćwartośćgęstościtegorozkładuimamymożli‐ wośćgenerowaniapróbekinnegorozkładu,któregogęstośćpotrafimy obliczyćiktórajestniezerowawszędzie,gdzieniezerowajestgęstość interesującegonasrozkładu.Metodatamożebyćstosowanadoszero‐ kiej gamy rozkładów. Nie ma żadnych przeszkód, by wykorzystywać ją do generowania próbek rozkładów wielowymiarowych.\ny y =c·g(x) y =f(x)\nR\nQ\n0 P x\nRys.3.2.Metodaakceptacji/odrzucania:liniaograniczającaodgórytoprzeskalowana gęstośćg(⋅)rozkładupomocniczego\nIlustracjąniechbędzierysunek3.2.Narysunkutymlinia„górna” jest przeskalowaną czynnikiem c gęstością g(⋅) rozkładu, który potra‐ fimy generować innym sposobem. Linia „dolna” to gęstość rozkładu f(⋅), „trudnego”. Jeżeli przy losowaniu z rozkładu o gęstości g(⋅) trafi namsięwartośćodpowiadającaodciętejpunktuP,tobędziemyjąod‐ rzucać z prawdopodobieństwem odpowiadającym stosunkowi długo‐ ści odcinków QR i PR. Tym samym będziemy tę wartość akceptować zprawdopodobieństwemodpowiadającymstosunkowidługościodcin‐ ków PQ i PR. Wtedy kształt histogramu akceptowanych punktów bę‐ dzie się – w miarę zwiększania jego dokładności i zwiększania liczby punktów – zbliżał do kształtu pożądanej gęstości.\n\nTe nieformalne rozważania mogą zostać sformułowane w postaci następującego twierdzenia.\nTwierdzenie3.6. Niechf(⋅)będziegęstościązmiennejlosowejn‐wymiarowej iniechg(⋅)będzietakągęstością,żedlapewnejstałejc > 0 f(x) ⩽ cg(x), dlax ∈ Rn. (3.10)\nNiech X ma rozkład zadany gęstością g(⋅), niech U ma rozkład jednostajny w[0,1]orazniechU iX będąniezależne.Wtedywarunkowyrozkładzmiennej\nX przywarunku f(X)\nU ⩽ cg(X) zadanyjestgęstościąf(⋅).\nDowód. NiechX będziezmiennąlosowąogęstościg(⋅).Zewzględuna warunek (3.10) mamy f(X) f(X)\nPr(U ⩽ ) = .\ncg(X) cg(X)\nNastępnie zauważmy, że f(X) f(x)\nPr(U ⩽ ) =∫ Pr(U ⩽ )g(x)dx = cg(X) cg(x)\nRn\n(3.11) f(x) 1 1\n=∫ g(x)dx = ∫ f(x)dx = .\ncg(x) c c\nRn Rn\nNiech A będzie dowolnym borelowskim podzbiorem Rn. Wtedy f(X) Pr(X ∈ A,U ⩽ f(X) ) cg(X)\nPr(X ∈ A|U ⩽ ) = = cg(X) Pr(U ⩽ f(X) ) cg(X)\n∫ Pr(U ⩽ f(x) )g(x)dx\n= A cg(x) = c f(x)\n=c∫ g(x)dx = ∫f(x)dx.\ncg(x)\nA A\nPowyższe twierdzenie prowadzi do następującej metody genero‐ wania liczb pseudolosowych y o rozkładzie f(⋅):\n\n1. Wyznacz liczbę pseudolosową x z rozkładu o gęstości g(⋅).\n2. Wyznaczliczbępseudolosowąuzrozkładujednostajnegona[0,1].\n3. Jeżeli u < f(x) , to y ∶= x, w przeciwnym przypadku powróć do c⋅g(x) kroku 1.\nMetoda ta jest jest użyteczna, gdy generowanie liczb z rozkładu g(⋅) jest istotnie łatwiejsze od generowania liczb z rozkładu f(⋅).\nZauważmy jeszcze, że jeśli znajdziemy stałą spełniającą warunek\n(3.10),tokażdastaławiększabędzietakżeformalnieprawidłowa.Jed‐ nak ze względu na równość (3.11) korzystna jest jak najmniejsza war‐ tość c.\nPrzykład3.4. Jeżelizagęstośćf(⋅)przyjmiemygęstośćrozkładunormalnego\nN(0,1), a jako gęstość g(⋅) – gęstość rozkładu dwustronnego wykładniczego\n(Laplace’a) ze średnią 0, to optymalnym wyborem okazuje się wybór parame‐ truskalidlarozkładuLaplace’a1orazstałejdlametodyakceptacji/odrzucania c = √2e.\nπ\nW uzyskanej metodzie prawdopodobieństwo akceptacji wylosowanej licz‐ byzrozkładuLaplace’ajakoliczbyzrozkładunormalnegowynosi\n≈ 76%.\nc\n3.4. GenerowanieliczbpseudolosowychwC++11\n3.4.1. Generatoryirozkłady\nNawet gdy pominiemy metody symulacyjne, liczby pseudolosowe od‐ grywają dużą rolę w programowaniu, będąc częścią wielu ważnych algorytmów (choćby QuickSort [1]).\nW standardzie języka C++ przed C++11 programista dysponował jedynie surowym zestawem dostarczanym przez bibliotekę cstdlib:\nn stałaRAND_MAX–maksymalnawartośćgeneratora,owartościróż‐ nejdlaróżnychkompilatorów(naprzykład231−1,alemożnaspo‐ tkać nawet tak małe wartości jak 215 −1), n rand() – funkcja dająca wyniki będące liczbami całkowitymi ze zbioru {0,1,...,RAND_MAX}, n srand(int) – funkcja pozwalająca na ustalenie stanu generatora.\n\nZestaw ten daje możliwość generowania liczb całkowitych pseudolo‐ sowych o rozkładzie równomiernym, stąd można już łatwo wyprowa‐ dzićgenerowanieliczbprzybliżającychpróbkizrozkładujednostajne‐ go w przedziale. Na tej podstawie można następnie generować inne potrzebne rozkłady.\nWady tego (dość popularnego i wciąż stosowanego) rozwiązania to między innymi brak standaryzacji, wątpliwa jakość w niektórych realizacjach,problemyprzyprzetwarzaniurównoległym,konieczność dokonywania uzupełnień – na przykład przy generowaniu podstawo‐ wych rozkładów – dla wielu typowych sytuacji.\nWymagało to więc albo dodatkowego nakładu pracy, albo korzy‐ stania z bibliotek spoza standardu, jak boost – (zob. https://www.\nboost.org/).\nWersja C++11 (i oczywiście nowsze standardy) dostarcza biblio‐ tekę random, która umożliwia nowy, obiektowy sposób generowania liczb pseudolosowych.\nWkoncepcjitej generator,leżącyupodstawprocesupozyskiwa‐ nia liczb pseudolosowych, jest oddzielony od rozkładu, który przy pomocy generatora oblicza kolejne liczby o zadanych własnościach.\nGeneratory są obiektami, które co do zasady generują liczby cał‐ kowite o rozkładzie równomiernym, mają metody max() i min(), kon‐ struktor, który może przyjmować (między innymi) parametr takiego typujakwynikigeneratora,służącydoustawienia ziarna generatora, operator operator(), który sprawia, że generator staje się obiektem funkcyjnym (może być wywoływany jak funkcja), także metodę seed pozwalającą na zmianę ziarna.\nJest zdefiniowany cały szereg takich generatorów, na przykład:\ndefault_random_engine, ranlux48, mt19937_64, knuth_b.\nObiektytegorodzajumogąbyćzapisywaneiodczytywanezestru‐ mieni za pomocą operatorów <<, >>.\nRozkład zkoleijestobiektemzodpowiedniejklasy,któregokon‐ struktor ma zestaw parametrów charakterystycznych dla konkretnej klasy (na przykład w przypadku rozkładu wykładniczego jest to para‐ metrczęstotliwości,wprzypadkurozkładujednostajnego–obakońce przedziału,dlarozkładunormalnego–średniaiodchyleniestandardo‐ weitd.). Rozkład mazdefiniowanyoperatoroperator(),przyjmują‐ cy jako parametr generator i dający w wyniku liczbę z właściwego rozkładu.\n\nPrzykłady rozkładów:\nn uniform_int_distribution, n uniform_real_distribution, n poisson_distribution, n gamma_distribution, exponential_distribution n i wiele innych.\nObiekty tego rodzaju – podobnie jak generatory – mogą być zapi‐ sywane i odczytywane ze strumieni za pomocą operatorów <<, >>.\nPrzykład 3.5. Zasymulowanie funkcji rand() oraz srand() może wyglądać następująco:\n#include<random>\n#include<cstdlib> std::mt19937_64 __mg;\nvoid srand(int s = 1) {\n__mg.seed(s);\n} int rand() { static std::uniform_int_distribution<int> uni(0,RAND_MAX);\nreturn uni(__mg);\n} jednakwnowotworzonychprogramachlepiejoczywiścieunikaćrand()oraz\nRAND_MAX.\n3.4.2. Liczbyprawdziwielosowe\nIstnieje też szczególna klasa generatorów – random_device – której obiekty mają generować wyniki niepowtarzalne i nieprzewidywalne.\nNie każdy kompilator potrafi ją prawidłowo zrealizować, zatem uży‐ cie jej powinno być ograniczone na przykład do jednokrotnego zaini‐ cjowania innego generatora – już zwykłego, pseudolosowego. Nawet itomożeniedaćoczekiwanychrezultatów,bozdarzająsiękompilato‐ ry z deterministycznym działaniem random_device – na przykład tak jestwprzypadkukompilatoraMinGW-W64dlaWindows,wwersji8.1.0\n–jednegozzalecanychdoużyciazaktualną(wchwilipublikacjiskryp‐ tu) wersją 20.03 popularnego środowiska Code::blocks.\n\nPrzyzałożeniupoprawnegodziałaniaklasyrandom_device,wmiej‐ sce starego srand(time(0));\nmożna w tym kontekście użyć na przykład moj_generator.seed(random_device{}());\nlub wprost przy konstrukcji np.\nmt19937_64 moj_generator(random_device{}());\n3.4.3. DystrybuantarozkładunormalnegoijejodwrotnośćwC++\nBiblioteka <cmath> dostarcza funkcję błędu erf(double) (zwaną także funkcją błędu Gaussa) taką, że x erf(x) = √ ∫ e−t2dt.\nπ\nNa tej podstawie można wyprowadzić, że erf(√x )+1\nΦ(x) = 2 , (3.12) gdzie Φ(⋅) jest dystrybuantą rozkładu normalnego N(0,1).\nJej odwrotności niestety w standardzie aktualnym nie ma, jest w bibliotekach typu boost. Do jej odwrócenia można użyć ogólnych metod rozwiązywania równań nieliniowych (jak bisekcja lub metoda stycznych), są także dla tego szczególnie ważnego przypadku opraco‐ wane efektywne metody wykorzystujące jego specyfikę.\nByuniknąćkoniecznościkorzystaniazdodatkowychbibliotek(jak boost, co nie zawsze jest wygodne), dla dalszych rozważań i obliczeń zostanie w skrypcie zaproponowany prosty w użyciu niewielki plik qnorm.cpp – listing 3.2. Plik ten może zostać dołączony do projektu\n\nwieloplikowego w C++ jako niezależnie kompilowany plik źródłowy.\nNowo definiowane nazwy umieszczone są w przestrzeni nazw mc, dla skojarzenia z tematyką skryptu.\nPlik ten wprowadza dwie użyteczne funkcje C++:\nn double pnorm(double) – dla danego parametru oblicza wartość dystrybuanty rozkładu N(0,1), jest zbudowana przy wykorzysta‐ niu erf zgodnie z formułą (3.12), n double qnorm(double) – dla danego parametru oblicza wartość funkcjikwantylowejrozkładuN(0,1),opartajestnakoncepcjizre‐ alizowanej w programie Matlab funkcji erfinv, kod funkcji NewtonRefinementInverseError z listingu 3.2 jest kopią kodu funk‐ cji ze strony http://www.mimirgames.com/articles/programmi ng/approximations-of-the-inverse-error-function/.\nDla ułatwienia nagłówki tych dwu funkcji zostały umieszczone w pliku qnorm.h, którego treść zaprezentowana jest na listingu 3.3.\nPrzykładowy program korzystający z tych funkcji, a właściwie te‐ stujący ich działanie dla wybranych (w tym często używanych w sta‐ tystyce) kwantyli, umieszczony jest na listingu 3.4. Oto wynik jego działania:\nqnorm(0.005) = -2.57583, pnorm(qnorm(0.005)) = 0.005 qnorm(0.01) = -2.32635, pnorm(qnorm(0.01)) = 0.01 qnorm(0.05) = -1.64485, pnorm(qnorm(0.05)) = 0.05 qnorm(0.1) = -1.28155, pnorm(qnorm(0.1)) = 0.1 qnorm(0.5) = 0, pnorm(qnorm(0.5)) = 0.5 qnorm(0.9) = 1.28155, pnorm(qnorm(0.9)) = 0.9 qnorm(0.95) = 1.64485, pnorm(qnorm(0.95)) = 0.95 qnorm(0.99) = 2.32635, pnorm(qnorm(0.99)) = 0.99 qnorm(0.995) = 2.57583, pnorm(qnorm(0.995)) = 0.995\nWynik ten warto porównać ze znanymi wartościami z tabel kwanty‐ li rozkładu normalnego bądź z wartościami uzyskiwanymi w progra‐ mach takich jak R czy Octave.\nGdybyśmyjednak w danymprojekciedecydowali się na użyciebi‐ bliotekiboost,tozplikówqnorm.hiqnorm.cppmożemyzrezygnować i posłużyć się kodem z listingu 3.5. Pokazuje on, jak w takiej sytuacji możnaprostozdefiniowaćfunkcjepnorm(double)orazqnorm(double), któreobliczajądystrybuantęorazfunkcjekwantylowąrozkładuN(0,1).\n\n#include <cmath>\n// funkcje sign, NewtonRefinementInverseError skopiowane z\n// http://www.mimirgames.com/articles/programming\n// /approximations-of-the-inverse-error-function/\n5 namespace mc {\n6 double sign(double x){ return (x > 0) - (x < 0); }\n7 double NewtonRefinementInverseError(const double x){\n8 static const double pi = 4.0 * atan(1.0);\n9 double r;\n10 double a[] =\n{0.886226899,-1.645349621,0.914624893,-0.140543331};\n12 double b[] =\n{1,-2.118377725,1.442710462,-0.329097515,0.012229801};\n14 double c[] =\n{-1.970840454,-1.62490649,3.429567803,1.641345311};\n16 double d[] = {1, 3.543889200, 1.637067800};\n17 double z = sign(x) * x;\nif(z <= 0.7){\n19 double x2=z*z;\nr=z*(((a[3]*x2+a[2])*x2+a[1])*x2+a[0]);\nr/=(((b[4]*x2+b[3])*x2+b[2])*x2+b[1])*x2+b[0];\n22 } else {\n23 double y=sqrt(-log((1-z)/2));\nr=(((c[3]*y+c[2])*y+c[1])*y+c[0]);\nr/=((d[2]*y+d[1])*y+d[0]);\n} r=r*sign(x);\nz=z*sign(x);\nr-=(erf(r)-z)/(2/sqrt(pi)*exp(-r*r));\nr-=(erf(r)-z)/(2/sqrt(pi)*exp(-r*r));\n31 return r;\n}\n33 auto inv_erf = NewtonRefinementInverseError;\n34 const double sq2 = sqrt(2.0);\n35 double qnorm(double x) {\n36 return mc::sq2*mc::inv_erf(2.0*x-1.0);\n};\n38 double pnorm (double x) {\n39 return (erf(x/mc::sq2) + 1.0)/2.0;\n}\n}\nListing3.2.Zawartośćplikuqnorm.cpp\n\n#ifndef __QNORM__H__\n#define __QNORM__H__\n3 namespace mc {\n4 double qnorm(double);\n5 double pnorm(double);\n}\n#endif // __QNORM__H__\nListing3.3.Zawartośćplikuqnorm.h\n#include \"qnorm.h\"\n#include <iostream>\n3 int main() {\n4 for (auto p: {0.005, 0.01, 0.05, 0.1, 0.5,\n0.9, 0.95, 0.99, 0.995}) {\n6 auto q = mc::qnorm(p);\n7 auto xp = mc::pnorm(q);\nstd::cout << \"qnorm(\" << p << \") = \" << q << \", pnorm(qnorm(\" << p << \")) = \" << xp << \"\\n\";\n}\n}\nListing3.4.Plikgłównyprogramudokonującegoprostegotestowaniafunkcjipnormorazqnorm\nWyniki, jakie dostaniemy programami z listingów 3.4 oraz 3.5, są do‐ kładnie takie same.\nZadania\nZadanie3.1.ZaimplementujwłasnąmetodęwC++wyznaczaniapróbek rozkładudwumianowego(bazującąnastandardowejmetodziewyzna‐ czającej próbki rozkładu jednostajnego):\n(a) opartą na sumowaniu próbek zero‐jedynkowych,\n(b) opartą na funkcji kwantylowej.\nPorównajichefektywnośćdlaróżnychwartościparametrówrozkładu dwumianowego.\n\n#include \"boost/math/distributions.hpp\"\n#include <iostream>\n4 double qnorm(double p) {\n5 static boost::math::normal_distribution<double> mn(0,1);\n6 return quantile(mn, p);\n}\n8 double pnorm(double q) {\n9 static boost::math::normal_distribution<double> mn(0,1);\n10 return cdf(mn, q);\n}\n13 int main() {\n14 for (auto p: {0.005, 0.01, 0.05, 0.1, 0.5,\n0.9, 0.95, 0.99, 0.995}) {\n16 auto q = qnorm(p);\n17 auto xp = pnorm(q);\nstd::cout << \"qnorm(\" << p << \") = \" << q << \", pnorm(qnorm(\" << p << \")) = \" << xp << \"\\n\";\n}\n}\nListing3.5.Plikgłównyprogramudokonującegoprostegotestowaniafunkcjipnormoraz qnorm,zdefiniowanychprzywykorzystaniuboost\nZadanie 3.2. Opracuj (wykorzystując funkcję kwantylową) i zaimple‐ mentuj w C++ metodę generowania pseudolosowych próbek rozkładu geometrycznego z parametrem p ∈ (0,1).\nZadanie3.3. Niech\n⎧0, dla x < 0,\n{\n{ 1 x2, dla x ∈ [0,2),\n{10\nF(x) = 1x, dla x ∈ [2,3),\n⎨4\n{ {1 9 0 , dla x ∈ [3,4),\n{\n⎩1, dla x ∈ [4,∞) będzie dystrybuantą pewnej zmiennej losowej (typu mieszanego).\n\n(a) Wyznacz (korzystając z funkcji kwantylowej) funkcję h taką, by zmienna losowa Y = h(X) miała dystr. F, gdzie X jest zmienną o rozkładzie jednostajnym w [0,1].\n(b) Oblicz EY oraz VarY.\n(c) Metodą Monte Carlo – dla 10000000 powtórzeń – zweryfikuj po‐ prawność generowania, porównując średnią i wariancję z próby z wartościami obliczonymi w (b).\n(d) Oszacuj – metodą Monte Carlo dla 100000000 prób – wartość\nPr(A+B+C +D+E +F ∈ (7,14]), gdzieA,B,C,D,E,F sąniezależnymizmiennymilosowymiojed‐ nakowym rozkładzie danym dystrybuantą F.\nZadanie3.4.Przetestuj funkcję z listingu 3.1 na stronie 46, na podsta‐ wie 10000000 wygenerowanych liczb z rozkładu N(0,1), szacując mo‐ menty zwykłe do rzędu 6 włącznie i porównując je z wartościami teo‐ retycznymi dla rozkładu N(0,1).\nZadanie 3.5. Korzystając z metody Marsaglia–Braya, opracuj funkcję w języku C++ obliczającą liczbę losową z rozkładu N(0,1).\nDo tworzenia próbek z rozkładu jednostajnego użyj obiektu kla‐ sy uniform_real_distribution<double>. Generatorem niech będzie obiekt klasy mt19937_64 inicjowany domyślnie.\n(a) Wygeneruj próbkę dla n = 50, zapisz wyniki w pliku tekstowym.\nOblicz (na przykład w R) p‐value testu Kołmogorowa–Smirnowa dla hipotezy H , według której próbka pochodzi z rozkładu nor‐ malnego.\n(b) Wygeneruj104takichpróbek(jednapróbkabędziezapisanawjed‐ nym wierszu). Sprawdź, jaki procent próbek ma p‐value testu\nKołmogorowa–Smirnowa poniżej 0.05.\nZadanie 3.6. Wróć do przykładu 3.4 na stronie 54 i uzasadnij wybór parametru skali dla rozkładu Laplace’a oraz wybór stałej c wskaza‐ nejwprzykładzie.NastępniezaimplementujfunkcjęgenerującąwC++ i dokonaj testowania, podobnie jak w zadaniu 3.4.\n\nOdpowiedzi,wskazówki\nZadanie3.1.Wprzypadku(b),skorofunkcjakwantylowajestprzedzia‐ łami stała, to dla dużego n na pewno warto zoptymalizować wyszuki‐ waniepasującegoprzedziału,naprzykładjakowyszukiwaniebinarne.\nZadanie3.2.W rozkładzie tym\nPr(X = k) = (1−p)k−1p, dla k ∈ {1,2,3...}.\nZadanie3.3.(b) Wyniki: EY = 53, VarY = 2467, (d) około 0.63.\n24 2880\nZadanie3.4.Dla rozkładu N(0,1) momenty rzędu k ∈ {1,2,3,...} dane są formułą\n0 dla k nieparzystego,\nM = { k\n(k−1)!! dla k parzystego.\nZadanie3.5.Odpowiedzi: (a) 0.319831, (b) 4.76%.\n\nROZDZIAŁ\nDokładność pomiaru i redukcja wariancji\nRozdziałtenpoświęconyjestzagadnieniomzwiązanymzprecyzjąosza‐ cowań uzyskiwanych metodą Monte Carlo i połączonym z tym proble‐ memredukowaniawariancji.Podstawowakoncepcjależącaupodstaw badaniadokładnościuzyskiwanychoszacowańtooczywiście estyma‐ cja przedziałowa.Jejwybraneelementyzostanąomówionewnastę‐ pującym podrozdziale.\n4.1. Estymacjaprzedziałowa\nIstniejewielemodeli–zależnychodzałożeńwobecrozkładu,odliczeb‐ ności próby i szacowanego parametru rozkładu – estymacji przedzia‐ łowej. Niektóre z nich w metodzie Monte Carlo są mniej istotne, bo\n– na przykład – na ogół możemy przyjąć, że próba, jaką utworzymy metodą generowania liczb pseudolosowych, jest duża, zatem modele dotyczące prób o małej liczności możemy pominąć.\nWpodstawowejmetodzieMonteCarloszacujemywartośćoczeki‐ waną, zatem ważniejsze są modele dla wartości średniej niż modele dla wariancji czy kwantyli. W krótkim przypomnieniu skupię się na dwu modelach: przedział ufności dla średniej oraz przedział ufności dla frakcji wyróżnionych elementów – oba modele zostaną tu rozwa‐ żone dla przypadku licznej próby.\n4.1.1. Przedziałufnościdlaśredniej\nRozważamy model, w którym mamy niezależne zmienne losowe\nX ,X ,X ,...,X\n1 2 3 n\n\no dowolnym, jednakowym rozkładzie, który ma skończoną wartość oczekiwaną μ oraz skończoną wariancję, n ⩾ 100 [4].\nNiech\n1 n\nX = ∑X n i i=1 będzie średnią próby, zaś\n1 n\nS2̂ = ∑(X −X)2 n−1 i i=1 niech będzie wariancją próby. Niech α ∈ (0,1). Przedziałem ufności dla wartości μ na poziomie ufności 1−α jest przedział postaci\nŜ Ŝ\n(X − √ z ,X + √ z ), (4.1) n α n α gdzie z jest kwantylem rzędu 1− α rozkładu N(0,1).\nα 2\nInterpretacjaprzedziałuufnościjesttaka,że stosując konkretną procedurę uzyskiwania przedziału ufności dla danego n (dla różnych realizacji zmiennych losowych), frakcja osiąganych sukcesów – gdzie sukcesem jest to, że nieznana wartość μ znajdzie się w wyznaczonym przedziale – będzie na poziomie ufności 1−α. Rozważany model jest oczywiście przybliżony ze względu na to, że dopuszcza się dowolne\n(byle o skończonej wariancji) rozkłady, formuła (4.1) wyprowadzana jest w oparciu o Centralne Twierdzenie Graniczne [11].\nJeżeli więc za α przyjmiemy małą liczbę rzeczywistą – na przy‐ kład 0.05 lub 0.01, to można z dużą pewnością założyć, że szacowana wartośćznajdujesięwwyznaczonymprzedziale.Innymisłowymożna środek przedziału (czyli wartość średnią z próby) uznać za oszacowa‐ nie szukanej wartości, natomiast połowę długości przedziału ufności\n– jako oszacowanie wartości bezwzględnej popełnianego błędu.\nZatem oszacowanie wartości bezwzględnej błędu to\nŜ\n√ z , (4.2) n α\n\nczyli wielkość proporcjonalna do odchylenia standardowego z próby, odwrotnieproporcjonalnadopierwiastkakwadratowegozliczebności próbyiproporcjonalnadokwantylarzędu1−α rozkładunormalnego.\nKwantyl rzędu 1 − 0.05 rozkładu N(0,1) wynosi około 1.959964, natomiastkwantylrzędu1−0.01 tegorozkładutookoło2.575829.Stąd czasemprzyjmuje się uproszczonywzór,w którym zamiast mnożnika z użyta jest wartość 2 w formule (4.2). Na przykład w podręczniku\nα\nMetodyMonteCarlo [32] wartość\nŜ\n2√ n nazywana jest błędem metody Monte Carlo.\nPrzykład 4.1. Rozwiązując zadanie 1.1(a) uśredniamy 1000 realizacji wyraże‐ nia 2exp(−X2), gdzie X ma rozkład jednostajny w [0,2]. Uzyskany wynik\n(zakładamC++,generatormt19937_64)to x = 0.879172, ŝ≈ 0.695968.\nStąd, przyjmując poziom ufności 1 − α = 95%, dostajemy przedział ufności\n(0.836037,0.922308) i błąd oszacowania 0.0431357. Tymczasem wartość wyznaczonadokładniejsząmetodą,to\n√\nπerf(2)\n≈ 0.882081.\nZatemdokładnawartośćewidentnieznajdujesięwwyznaczonejrealizacjiprze‐ działuufności.\nTo,żedomyślnainicjalizacjageneratoradałataktrafnywynik,tooczywi‐ ście przypadek, ale przypadek, co do którego zajścia mieliśmy 95% pewności.\nDalsze eksperymenty pokazują, że przy 100000 tego rodzaju prób w 95050 przypadkach dokładna wartość znajduje się w szacowanym przedziale. Jest to\n95.05%przypadków,coświadczyopoprawnościmodelu.\n4.1.2. Przedziałufnościdlafrakcji\nJeżeli dysponujemy liczbą sukcesów w n próbach, to istotne jest dla naspytanieoprawdopodobieństwosukcesuwpojedynczejpróbie.Jest to też wartość oczekiwana zmiennej dającej wartość 1 w przypadku\n\nsukcesu i wartość 0 przypadku porażki. Wartość ta jest także nazywa‐ na frakcją wyróżnionych elementów.\nEstymator\nS n, n gdzie S jest liczbą sukcesów w ciągu n prób, jest zgodnym, nieobcią‐ n żonym i efektywnym estymatorem frakcji.\nJeżeli chodzi o przedziały ufności dla frakcji, to proponowanych jest wiele rozwiązań. Opiszmy kilka z nich. Załóżmy, że S to liczba n sukcesów w n próbach, jako p̂ oznaczmy stosunek liczby sukcesów do liczby prób, natomiast p to nieznana frakcja.\nMetodaasymptotyczna\nMetoda ta jest stosowana przy n ⩾ 100 [11], co na ogół zakładamy wmetodzieMonteCarlo.Jesttomodelbazującynaprzybliżaniusumy rozkładów zero‐jedynkowych rozkładem normalnym i z tego powodu może nie dawać właściwych rezultatów, gdy p jest bliskie zera lub je‐ dynki (bo wtedy to przybliżenie jest dyskusyjne). Formuła przedziału ufności:\np̂(1−p̂) p̂(1−p̂)\n(p̂−√ z ,p̂+√ z ). (4.3) n α n α\nWyniki uzyskane tą metodą są zbliżone do wyników, które uzyskamy, stosując dla zmiennych zero‐jedynkowych formułę (4.1).\nMetodaWilsona\nMetodatarównieżjestopartanaprzybliżaniurozkłademnormalnym, jednaketapwyprowadzeniaformułyjestbardziejścisłyniżwprzypad‐ ku poprzedniej metody, według testów wyniki są korzystniejsze [30].\nPrzedział ufności opisany jest formułą\n(A(B−C),A(B+C)), (4.4) gdzie n z2 z z2\nA = , B = p̂+ α, C = α√np̂(1−p̂)+ α.\nn+z2 2n n 4\nα\n\nMetoda ta jest często stosowana i łatwa w użyciu. Warto zauwa‐ żyć,żewodróżnieniuodpoprzedniopodanychformuł(4.1)oraz(4.3) środek przedziału ufności różni się od średniej z próby.\nWniektórychpracach[4]podajesiędlatejmetodyzałożenie,żen powinnowynosićconajmniej100,jednakokazujesię[30],żemetoda naogółdziałabardzodobrzetakżedlamniejszychwartościn,coitak w przypadku metody Monte Carlo ma niewielkie znaczenie.\nPrzedziałyoparteorozkładbeta\nWmetodzietejgraniceprzedziałówwyznaczonesąjakokwantyleroz‐ kładu beta.\nRozkładbetaz parametramia, b to rozkład, w którym gęstość jest dodatnia w przedziale (0,1) i jest w tym przedziale proporcjonalna doxa−1(1−x)b−1.OznaczmyprzezB (⋅)dystrybuantętegorozkładu.\na,b\nWtedy przedział ufności dla frakcji może być wyznaczony jako [31]\n(B−1 (α/2),B−1 (1−α/2)). (4.5)\nS ,n−S +1 S ,n−S +1 n n n n\nNiecozmienionywzór,wedługbadań[6]dającylepszepraktycznewy‐ niki to\n(B−1 (α/2),B−1 (1−α/2)). (4.6)\nS +0.5,n−S +0.5 S +0.5,n−S +0.5 n n n n\nWtymprzypadku,jeśliS = 0,tojakodolnągranicęmożnaprzyjąć0, n natomiastjeśliS = n,tojakogórnągranicęmożnaprzyjąć1–wobu n sytuacjach tę drugą granicę należy obliczyć według formuły (4.6).\nNa listingu 4.1 umieszczono przykładową funkcję w C++ oblicza‐ jącą, przy wykorzystaniu wspomnianej biblioteki boost, końce prze‐ działów według wzorów (4.6).\nPrzykład 4.2. W przykładzie 1.1 na stronie 13 szacowanie liczby π odbywało się na podstawie frakcji punktów trafiających w koło, przemnożonej przez 4.\nTabela 4.1 pokazuje, jak poszczególne metody omawiane w tym podrozdziale szacująprzedziałdlaposzukiwanejfrakcji.\nZauważmy,żedlarzeczywiściedużegonwszystkiemetodydajątakiesa‐ mewyniki.Zatemjeślifrakcjaniejestbardzobliskazerulubjedynce(comożna zauważyćpodczaswstępnejoceny),tousprawiedliwionejeststosowanieproste‐ gomodelu,takiegojak(4.3),doszacowaniaprzedziałuufnościbądźszacowania liczbynpotrzebnejdouzyskaniażądanejdokładności.\n\n#include <boost/math/distributions.hpp>\n#include <tuple>\n3 using boost::math::beta_distribution;\n4 double qbeta(double p, double a, double b) {\n// oblicz wartość w punkcie *p* funkcji kwantylowej\n// rozkładu beta z parametrami *a*, *b*\n7 return quantile(beta_distribution<double>(a,b), p);\n}\n9 std::pair<double, double> binom_interv_beta(int k, int n,\n10 double alpha) {\n// przedział ufności dla frakcji przy *k* sukcesach\n// w *n* próbach\n13 auto interv=[k,n](double p) {\n14 return qbeta( p, k+0.5, n-k+0.5 );\n};\n16 double lewy = (k==0)? 0 : interv(alpha/2);\n17 double prawy = (k==n)? 1 : interv(1-alpha/2);\n18 return {lewy, prawy};\n}\nListing4.1.Obliczenieprzedziałuufnościwedługformuły(4.6)wC++\nTab.4.1.Przedziałyufnościomawianewprzykładzie4.2\nS n formuła przedział przedz.×4 n\n76 100 (4.3) (0.676293,0.843707) (2.70517,3.37483)\n76 100 (4.4) (0.667677,0.833087) (2.67071,3.33235)\n76 100 (4.6) (0.669695,0.835505) (2.67878,3.34202)\n76 100 (4.5) (0.664265,0.831220) (2.65706,3.32488)\n76 100 (4.1) (0.675872,0.844128) (2.70349,3.37651)\n7854766 10000000 (4.3) (0.785222,0.785731) (3.14089,3.14292)\n7854766 10000000 (4.4) (0.785222,0.785731) (3.14089,3.14292)\n7854766 10000000 (4.6) (0.785222,0.785731) (3.14089,3.14292)\n7854766 10000000 (4.5) (0.785222,0.785731) (3.14089,3.14292)\n7854766 10000000 (4.1) (0.785222,0.785731) (3.14089,3.14292)\n\nOmawianemodeleocenianiaprzedziałówufności–zwłaszczamo‐ del (4.1), ale w połączeniu z uwagami w przykładzie 4.2 dotyczy to takżeprzedziałówdlafrakcji–wskazująnaistotnośćwariancjizmien‐ nychlosowych,którychwartośćoczekiwanąpróbujemyszacowaćme‐ todą Monte Carlo. Metodami redukcji wariancji zajmiemy się w kolej‐ nych podrozdziałach.\n4.2. Zmienneantytetyczne\nZmienne antytetyczne (ang. antithetic) to zmienne o tym samym roz‐ kładzie, ujemnie skorelowane [32]. Skoro zmienne te mają ten sam rozkład, to mają także tę samą wartość oczekiwaną. Natomiast ujem‐ na korelacja powoduje, że ich odchyłki od średniej mają przeciętnie przeciwny kierunek, stąd korzystne zmniejszenie wariancji sumy. Te intuicyjne uwagi zostaną sformułowane jako poniższe twierdzenie.\nTwierdzenie4.1. Niech(Y ,Ỹ ),(Y ,Ỹ ),...będzieciągiemniezależnych\n1 1 2 2 zmiennychlosowych(dwuwymiarowych)ojednakowymrozkładzie,przytym wszystkie Y ,Ỹ, i = 1,2,3... mają ten sam rozkład o skończonej wariancji.\ni i\nWariancjazmiennej\n(Y +Ỹ +...Y +Ỹ )\n2n 1 1 n n jestmniejszaodwariancji\n(Y +Y +...+Y )\n2n 1 2 2n wtedyitylkowtedy,gdyY iỸ sąujemnieskorelowane.\n1 1\nDowód. Wariancjasumyzmiennychniezależnychjestrównasumieich wariancji, stąd\n1 1\nVar( (Y +Ỹ +...Y +Ỹ )) = nVar(Y +Ỹ ) =\n2n 1 1 n n (2n)2 1 1\n2VarY +2Cov(Y ,Ỹ ) VarY +ρ(Y ,Ỹ )VarY\n= 1 1 1 = 1 1 1 1,\n4n 2n gdzie ρ(Y ,Ỹ ) jest współczynnikiem korelacji między Y i Ỹ .\n1 1 1 1\n\nNatomiast\n1 1 VarY\nVar( (Y +Y +...+Y )) = 2nVarY = 1.\n2n 1 2 2n (2n)2 1 2n\nPorównanie liczników obu uzyskanych ułamków kończy dowód.\nWpraktyceopisanawyżejwłasnośćmożebyćstosowanawnastę‐ pującysposób.OtóżczęstoupodstawobliczeńMonteCarloleżyjakieś przekształceniezmiennejorozkładziejednostajnymna[0,1].Widaćto było w wielu przykładach, nawet generowanie próbek z różnych roz‐ kładów może być sprowadzone do przekształcania zmiennych o roz‐ kładzie jednostajnym (choćby w metodzie odwracania dystrybuanty).\nPowiedzmy, że Y = f(X ), gdzie X ma rozkład jednostajny na [0,1].\ni i i\nWtedymożnaprzyjąćnp.Ỹ = f(1−X ).AgdybynaprzykładX miał i i i rozkład N(0,1), to za Ỹ można przyjąć f(−X ) itd.\ni i\nW przypadku gdy Y = f(X ), gdzie X ma rozkład jednostajny i i i na [0,1], przyjęcie Ỹ = f(1−X ) da najlepszy efekt wtedy, gdy prze‐ i i kształcenie f(⋅) jest bliskie liniowemu.\nDefinicja4.1. Współczynnikiemredukcjiwariancji(variancereductionra‐ tio) nazywamy liczbę v.r.r. równą stosunkowi wariancji estymatora standardowego do wariancji estymatora zmodyfikowanego opartego na próbce tej samej wielkości.\nFakt 4.1. Przy użyciu poprzednich oznaczeń, dla metody zmiennych antyte‐ tycznychzachodzi v.r.r. = . (4.7)\n1+ρ(Y ,Ỹ )\n1 1\nUzasadnienie. Porównujemy wariancje oparte na próbkach tej samej liczności, zatem dzielimy przez siebie oba ułamki uzyskane w dowo‐ dzie twierdzenia 4.1, stąd uzyskujemy wartość ze wzoru (4.7).\nPrzykład4.3. Rozważmyproblemobliczeniacałki\n∞\nI = ∫ x0.6e−3xdx metodąMonteCarlo.\n\nDokładny wynik przy użyciu funkcji gammaEulera (Γ) to\nΓ (3)\n5 ≈ 0.1540664.\n5⋅33\nZa względu na równość\n∞ ∞\n∫ x0.6e−3xdx = ∫ ( x0.6)3e−3xdx\n0 0 oraz na to, że 3e−3x dla x > 0 jest gęstością rozkładu wykładniczego z parametrem częstotliwości 3, możemy spojrzeć na szukaną wartość jak na\nI = E( ⋅V0.6), gdzie V ma rozkład wykładniczy z parametrem częstotliwości 3 (czyli wykładniczy z wartością oczekiwaną 1/3). V może być też – przy wy‐ korzystaniu metody opisanej w przykładzie 3.2 na stronie 40 – przed‐ stawiony jako\n−1/3ln(1−X), gdzie X ma rozkład jednostajny w [0,1]. Zatem\n1 0.6\nI = E(− ln(1−X)) , gdzie X ma rozkład jednostajny w [0,1].\nNiech\n1 1 0.6\nY = (− ln(1−X )) i 3 3 i oraz niech\n1 1 0.6\nỸ = (− lnX ) i 3 3 i dlai = 1,2,3,...,przyczymX mająrozkładjednostajnyw[0,1].Wte‐ i dy ρ(Y ,Ỹ ) ≈ −0.89813512 i stąd dosyć duży\n1 1 v.r.r. ≈ 9.816926.\nZewzględunawzór(4.1),któryznajdujesięnastronie66,oznaczato, że dla dużego n spodziewamy się ponad trzykrotnie węższych\n\nprzedziałów ufności, gdy zamiast uśredniania\nY ,Y ,...,Y\n1 2 2n uśrednimy\nY ,Ỹ ,Y ,Ỹ ,...,Y ,Ỹ\n1 1 2 2 n n lub–conajednowychodzi,alejestwygodne,bopozwalanastosowa‐ nie na przykład właśnie wzoru (4.1) – uśrednimy\nY +Ỹ Y +Ỹ Y +Ỹ\n1 1, 2 2,..., n n.\n2 2 2\nCzas na eksperyment w C++. Do generowania liczb o rozkładzie jednostajnymużytouniform_real_distribution<double>orazgene‐ ratora mt19937_64 i przyjęto poziom ufności 1−α = 0.99.\nŚrednia z 100000000 realizacji zmiennych Y dała przedział ufno‐ i ści dla szukanej wielkości\n(0.154029,0.154078), natomiast średnia z 50000000 realizacji (Y +Ỹ)/2 dała przedział i i\n(0.154059,0.154075).\nStosunekdługościprzedziałówto3.13277,awięcmetodapotwierdziła swoją skuteczność.\n................................. koniecprzykładu4.3 .................................\n4.3. Zmiennekontrolne\nMetodazmiennychkontrolnychwykorzystujebłędywocenieznanych wielkości, by zredukować błędy oszacowania wielkości nieznanych.\nNiech Y ,Y ,... będzie ciągiem niezależnych zmiennych losowych\n1 2 ojednakowymrozkładzie,którychrealizacjadlaustalonegonpozwoli oszacować EY metodą Monte Carlo jako realizację estymatora\nY = (Y +Y +⋯+Y )/n.\n1 2 n\n\nNiech\nC ,C ,...\n1 2 będzie ciągiem zmiennych losowych takich, że\n(Y ,C ),(Y ,C ),...\n1 1 2 2 jest ciągiem niezależnych zmiennych losowych o jednakowym rozkładzie.\nZałóżmy,żezmienneC mająwartośćoczekiwanąiniechdlab ∈ R i\n(b)\nY = Y −b(C −EC ) i i i 1 oraz\nY(b) = (Y (b) +Y (b) +⋯+Y (b) )/n.\n1 2 n\nTwierdzenie4.2. Dladowolnegob ∈ RestymatorY(b) jestzgodnyminieob‐ ciążonymestymatoremEY .\nUzasadnienie. Estymator średnia z próby jestnieobciążonymizgod‐ nymestymatoremwartościoczekiwanej(oileonaistnieje),aponadto\n(b)\nEY = EY .\n1 1\nFakt 4.2. Wprost z podstawowych własności wariancji i kowariancji, jeśli za‐ łożymyistnienieVarY orazVarC ,to\n1 1\nVarY (b) = VarY −2bCov(Y ,C )+b2VarC . (4.8)\n1 1 1 1 1\nWynikaztego,żewariancjaestymatoraY(b) jestminimalizowana dla\nσ b∗ = Y 1ρ(Y ,C ), (4.9)\nσ 1 1\nC gdzieρ(Y ,C )towspółczynnikkorelacjimiędzyY iC .Wstawiwszy\n1 1 1 1\n(4.9) do (4.8) otrzymamy, że\nVarY VarY 1 v.r.r. = = 1 = . (4.10)\nVarY(b∗) VarY (b∗) 1−ρ2\n1 CY\n\nStąd wniosek, że korzyści z metody (czyli znaczny współczynnik v.r.r.) są duże, gdy korelacja między Y i C jest silna, niezależnie od\n1 1 jej kierunku.\nBy ułatwić interpretację tej metody zauważmy jeszcze tylko, że wzór (4.9) jest współczynnikiem kierunkowym prostej regresji dru‐ giego rodzaju objaśniającej Y za pomocą C .\n1 1\nRozważmy rysunek 4.1.\ny = b∗(c−C)+Y\nY\nEY\nY(b∗)\nC EC\nRys.4.1.Interpretacjametodyzmiennychkontrolnych\nDladanychzrysunkuśredniaC jestzaniżonawstosunkudowar‐ tości oczekiwanej EC . Korelacja między Y i C jest ujemna (na co\n1 1 1 wskazuje nachylenie linii regresji), zatem spodziewamy się, że śred‐ niaY jestzawyżonawstosunkudoEY ,wzwiązkuztymkorygujemy tę średnią o właściwą wielkość (wynikającą z nachylenia linii), uzy‐\n(b∗) skując Y , co jest na ogół bliższe szukanej wartości EY .\nPrzykład4.4(Pierwotne zmiennekontrolne). Wykonującobliczeniame‐ todą MonteCarlo używamy zwykle zmiennych losowych U o znanym rozkła‐ i dzie–najczęściejjednostajnymna[0,1].WtedymożnaprzyjąćjakoC wartość i f(U ),jeślitylkojesteśmywstaniepodaćdokładnąwartośćE(f(U )).Tądo‐ i 1 kładnąwartościąoczekiwanąmożebyćnaprzykładmomentustalonegorzędu, najlepiejtakdobrany,byzwiększaćv.r.r.\n\nPrzykład 4.5. Rozważając wycenę opcji na akcje przeprowadza się symula‐ cję,wktórejbędąwystępowałymiędzyinnymizmiennelosoweodpowiadające funkcji dyskonta, wartości papieru podstawowego, wartości opcji. Ponieważ – przyzałożeniubrakumożliwościarbitrażu–zakładasię,żewartośćoczekiwa‐ na wartości obecnej papieru podstawowego w ustalonym odległym momencie czasowym jest równa jego aktualnej (dzisiejszej) cenie, więc wartość obecna papierupodstawowegojestnaturalnymkandydatemnazmiennąkontrolną.\nOczywiściezwykleniemamymożliwościdokładnegopoznaniab∗, więc wielkość ta jest estymowana np. wzorem n\n∑ (C −C)(Y −Y) b̂ = i=1 i i .\nn\n∑ (C −C)2 i=1 i\nJest to standardowy estymator współczynnika kierunkowego prostej regresji [4].\nNiestety zastępując b∗ przez b̂ sprawiamy, że estymator Y(b) jest naogółobciążony(choćoczywiściejestasymptotycznienieobciążony).\nWynika to z tego, że b̂ zależy od C , nie może więc być potraktowa‐ i nejakstała.Istniejekilkasposobówradzeniasobieztymproblemem, w praktyce jednak estymator\nY(b̂) ma bardzo dobre właściwości.\nJedna z prostszych metod pozbycia się obciążenia, to szacowanie b̂ napodstawieczęścirealizacji(Y ,C ),następniebudowaestymatora i i i kontynuacja obliczeń na podstawie pozostałych realizacji (Y ,C ).\ni i\nZe względu na niezależność obu zbiorów obserwacji, nieobciążoność jestjasna,oczywiściekosztempowiększeniawariancji,gdyżzpowodu małej wielkości próby użytej do budowania b̂ jego wartość zapewne nieco będzie się różnić od optymalnej wartości b∗.\nPrzypadekwielowymiarowy\nMetoda zmiennych kontrolnych ma naturalne uogólnienia na przypa‐ dek wielokrotny.\nPrzykład4.6. Wprzypadkupierwotnychzmiennychkontrolnych,omawianych wprzykładzie4.4napoprzedniejstronie,możnarozważaćwielefunkcjioblicza‐ nychnapodstawiezmiennychwykorzystywanychdogenerowaniapróbekprzy symulacji–naprzykładmogątobyćmomentyróżnegorzędu.Stąddostaniemy wielezmiennychkontrolnychoznanychwartościachoczekiwanych.\n\nPrzykład 4.7. W przykładzie 4.5, który znajduje się na poprzedniej stronie, powiedziane zostało, że wartość obecna papieru wartościowego w dowolnie ustalonym momencie jest właściwym kandydatem na zmienną kontrolną. Ale takich momentów możemy sobie wybrać dowolnie dużo, możemy więc mieć wielezmiennychkontrolnychtegorodzaju.\nZałóżmy, że mamy zmienne Y ,Y ,... (ich realizacjami będą wyni‐\n1 2 ki symulacji) oraz C = [C (1) ,...,C (d) ]T, załóżmy ponadto, że znamy i i i wektor wartości oczekiwanych EC , że pary\n(C ,Y ), i = 1,2,...,n i i są niezależne i o jednakowym rozkładzie oraz istnieje macierz kowa‐ riancji\nΣ Σ\n[ C CY],\nΣT σ2\nCY Y która jest nieosobliwa.\nWtedy również rozważamy estymator\nY(b) = Y −bT(C −EC), gdzieb ∈ Rd.Wzapisachmacierzowychb traktowanejestjakmacierz kolumnowa.\nOkazujesię[12],żeoptymalnymwyborembminimalizującymwa‐ riancję jest b∗ = Σ−1Σ ,\nC CY a v.r.r. wynosi 1/(1−R2), gdzie\nR2 = ΣT Σ−1Σ /σ2.\nCY C CY Y\nW praktyce nie znamy b∗, lecz estymujemy formułą b̂ = S−1S ,\nC CY gdzie w d ×d macierzy S element w i‐tym wierszu i j‐tej kolumnie\nC wynosi\n1 n\n(∑C (i) C (j) −n⋅C(i) ⋅C(j)).\nn−1 k k k=1\n\nDokładniejsze przyjrzenie się wszystkim wzorom dla przypadku wielu zmiennych kontrolnych pokazuje, że są one uogólnieniem pod‐ stawowego przypadku jednej zmiennej kontrolnej.\nWarto jeszcze dodać, że w przypadku wysokiej korelacji między jakąśparązmiennychkontrolnych,lepiejjestzmniejszyćliczbęzmien‐ nych kontrolnych, gdyż macierz S w takiej sytuacji może być trudna\nC do odwrócenia.\n4.4. Losowanieistotnościowe\nOpisane wcześniej metody redukcji wariancji mogą być bardzo sku‐ teczne, jednak nie w każdej sytuacji da się je zastosować. Metoda omawianawtympodrozdzialenietylkopozwalanaznacząceprzyśpie‐ szeniezbieżnościrozwiązaniaosiąganegometodąMonteCarlo(zwłasz‐ cza gdy gęstość rozkładu zmiennych losowych jest mocno skupiona wjakimśobszarze),alewdodatkuumożliwiagenerowaniezmiennych losowych o całkiem innym rozkładzie. Generowanie liczb z „oryginal‐ nego” rozkładu może być bardzo trudne lub nawet niemożliwe (na przykład dystrybuanta ma trudną postać lub gęstość jest znana tylko z dokładnością do stałej normującej).\nAngielski termin dla omawianej metody to importance sampling.\nTłumaczenianajęzykpolski,zktórymimożnasięspotkać,tozarówno losowanie istotnościowe, jak i losowanie istotne.\nGłówne twierdzenie sformułujemy w terminach gęstości, jednak można również dokonać analogicznego sformułowania dla rozkładów dyskretnych. Sytuacja jest pod tym względem nieco zbliżona do pod‐ rozdziału 3.3.\nTwierdzenie 4.3. Niech X będzie d‐wymiarową zmienną losową, niech f(⋅) będziejejgęstością,niechh ∶ Rd → Rbędziefunkcjątaką,żeistnieje\nEh(X).\nNiechY będzied‐wymiarowązmiennąlosowąogęstościg(⋅)takiej,że f(x) > 0 ⟹ g(x) > 0, dlax ∈ Rd.\n\nWtedy f(Y)\nEh(X) = E(h(Y) ). (4.11) g(Y)\nIloraz funkcji f(⋅) i g(⋅) we wzorze (4.11) traktujemy jako zerowy wszędzie tam, gdzie mianownik jest równy zero.\nDowód.\nh(x)f(x)\nEh(X) = ∫ h(x)f(x)dx = ∫ g(x)dx = g(x)\nRd Rd f(Y)\n= E(h(Y) ).\ng(Y)\nOznaczmyprzezα(̂ n)podstawowyestymatorwielkościEh(X)ba‐ zujący na n‐elementowej próbie, tzn.\n1 n\nα(̂ n) = ∑h(X ), n i i=1 natomiast przez α̂ (n) – estymator istotnościowy g\n1 n f(Y )\nα̂ (n) = ∑h(Y ) i , (4.12) g n i g(Y ) i=1 i gdzieX ,X ...sąniezależneogęstościf(⋅)orazY ,Y ,...sąniezależne\n1 2 1 2 o gęstości g(⋅).\nWartościoczekiwaneestymatorówα(̂ n)iα̂ (n)sąjednakowe,za‐ g tem porównując wariancję wystarczy porównać drugie momenty.\n2 2 f(Y) f(y)\nE(h(Y) ) = ∫ (h(y) ) g(y)dy = g(Y) g(y)\nRd f(y) f(X)\n= ∫ h(y)2 f(y)dy = E(h(X)2 ), g(y) g(X)\nRd\n\nco oczywiście może być dużo większe bądź dużo mniejsze niż\nEh(X)2, wszystko zależy od doboru funkcji g(⋅).\nOgólna wskazówka: dobrze byłoby, gdyby gęstość g(⋅) była bliska funkcji proporcjonalnej do iloczynu funkcji h(⋅) oraz f(⋅). Łatwo moż‐ na zauważyć, że gdyby gęstość g(⋅) była z prawdopodobieństwem 1 proporcjonalnadoiloczynu(hf)(⋅),towariancjaestymatoraα (n)wy‐ g niosłaby0.Widaćtonatychmiast,gdywyobrazimysobietakąsytuację patrząc na wzór (4.12). Wszystkie składniki sumy byłyby wtedy iden‐ tyczne.\nW szczególnym przypadku, gdy h(⋅) jest indykatorem pewnego zbioru A ⊂ Rd, optymalnym doborem gęstości g(⋅) jest oryginalna gę‐ stość warunkowana zbiorem A. W praktyce znaczy to, że należy wy‐ braćtakągęstośćg(⋅),byzdarzeniuprzynależnościdozbioruAdaćwy‐ sokie prawdopodobieństwo, no i oczywiście, żeby na zbiorze A miała ona wartości w przybliżeniu proporcjonalne do f(⋅).\n4.5. Losowaniewarstwowe\nZałóżmy, że chcemy oszacować EY dla pewnej zmiennej losowej Y.\nNiechX będzieinnązmienną(byćmożewielowymiarową),dlaktórej istniejąrozłączneniepustezbioryA ,A ,...,A ,dlaktórychpotrafimy\n1 2 k obliczać p = Pr(X ∈ A ). Wtedy oczywiście i i k\nEY = ∑p E(Y|X ∈ A ). (4.13) i i i=1\nRzecz jasna szacowanie każdej z wartości E(Y|X ∈ A ) może się i odbywać metodą Monte Carlo na podstawie próbki n elementowej, i przy czym liczbę n można dobierać według rożnych kryteriów. Ze i względu na charakter tego rozdziału, najistotniejsza będzie dla nas minimalizacja wariancji estymatora.\nJeżeliuzyskaniepojedynczejrealizacjiY wymagacałegociąguwie‐ lu próbek losowych – taka sytuacja ma miejsce choćby przy badaniu metodą symulacyjną własności procesu stochastycznego – nie\n\nstosujemy tej metody (podziału na warstwy) „wewnątrz” trajektorii;\nstosujemy ją „między” trajektoriami, czyli całe trajektorie będą zali‐ czane do poszczególnych warstw. Na przykład znając rozkład końco‐ wychwartościtrajektoriimożna,uwzględniającnarzuconeprawdopo‐ dobieństwa na warstwy, wylosować jej zakończenia, następnie – dla każdej trajektorii osobno – wylosować uzupełnienia. Do tej koncepcji nawiążemy w podrozdziale 5.3.7.\nWwieluwypadkachzbioryA dobierasiętak,byp byłynazbliżo‐ i i nym poziomie. To może być wygodne, jednak nie ma to znaczenia dla minimalizacjiwariancjiestymatorawarstwowego.Samogenerowanie realizacjipar(X,Y)jestbardzozależneodkonkretnegoproblemu,mo‐ że być tak, że Y obliczany jest na podstawie X, związek ten może być jednakbardziejsubtelny(jakchoćbywomawianejwpoprzednimaka‐ picie sytuacji z trajektorią procesu stochastycznego, gdzie X mógłby być końcową wartością trajektorii, a Y byłby wartością obliczaną na podstawie całej trajektorii).\nNiech q = n i, gdzie n jest założoną liczbą próbek w i‐tej war‐ i n i stwie, n jest liczbą wszystkich próbek, k jest liczbą warstw. Niech Ŷ będzie warstwowym estymatorem EY, to znaczy k 1 n i k 1p n i\nŶ = ∑p ∑Y = ∑ i ∑Y , (4.14) in ij nq ij i=1 i j=1 i=1 i j=1 gdzie(X ,Y ),j = 1,2,...n tociągniezależnychzmiennychlosowych ij ij i mających rozkład taki jak (X,Y)|X ∈ A .\ni\nWdalszymciągutegopodrozdziałubędziemyzakładali,żedlakaż‐ dej warstwy istnieje warunkowa wariancja Y|X ∈ A , dla tej warian‐ i cji oraz dla warunkowych wartości oczekiwanych będziemy używać oznaczeń σ2 oraz μ , to znaczy i i\nσ2 = Var(Y|X ∈ A ) oraz μ = E(Y|X ∈ A ), dla i = 1,2,...,k.\ni i i i\nLemat4.1. WartośćoczekiwanaestymatorawarstwowegoEŶ jestrównawar‐ tościoczekiwanejEY.\n\nDowód. Teza wynika natychmiast z liniowości wartości oczekiwanej oraz równości (4.13) i (4.14):\nk 1p k\nEŶ = ∑ in μ = ∑p μ = EY.\nnq i i i i i=1 i i=1\nNastępnie zauważymy, że w sytuacji, gdy liczebności n próbek i wposzczególnychwarstwachdobierzemyproporcjonalniedoprawdo‐ podobieństw p dla poszczególnych warstw, to wariancja estymatora i warstwowegozmniejszysięwstosunkudowariancjiestymatorastan‐ dardowego.\nLemat4.2. Załóżmy,żeprzyoznaczeniachużytychwtympodrozdzialezacho‐ dzirównośćp = q .Wtedy i i\nVarŶ ⩽ VarY, przyczymnierównośćstaniesięostra,jeśliniewszystkieμ sąidentyczne.\ni\nDowód. Na podstawie wzoru (4.14) możemy zapisać, że k 1 n i k p2\nVarŶ = ∑p2Var( ∑Y ) = ∑ i σ2. (4.15) i n ij n i i=1 i j=1 i=1 i\nJeśli n = p ⋅n, to i i k p2 1 k\nVarŶ = ∑ i σ2 = ∑p σ2.\nnp i n i i i=1 i i=1\nZauważmy, że k k\nEY2 = ∑p E(Y2|X ∈ A ) = ∑p (μ2 +σ2).\ni i i i i i=1 i=1\n\nZatem\n1 1\nVarY = VarY = (EY2 −(EY)2) = n n\n1 k k 2\n= (∑p (μ2 +σ2)−(∑p μ ) ) ⩾ n i i i i i i=1 i=1\n1 k k\n⩾ (∑p (μ2 +σ2)−∑p μ2) = VarŶ.\nn i i i i i i=1 i=1\nSkorzystaliśmy tu z nierówności k 2 k\n(∑p μ ) ⩽ ∑p μ2, i i i i i=1 i=1 która jest po prostu nierównością Jensena [9] dla funkcji wypukłej f(x) = x2.\nNierównośćtawprzypadku,gdyniewszystkieliczbyμ sąidentyczne i jest nierównością ostrą.\nTwierdzenie4.4. Zachodzirówność\nE(Ŷ) = EY, aponadtowariancjaestymatoraŶ osiągaminimumdla p σ q∗ = i i , i = 1,2,...,k.\ni k\n∑ p σ j=1 j j\nMinimumtowynosi\n1 k\n(∑p σ ) ⩽ VarY.\nn i i i=1\nDowód. Wypowiedź na temat wartości oczekiwanej była uzasadniona w lemacie 4.1.\nWzór (4.15) zapiszmy – korzystając z n = q n – w postaci i i\n1 k p2\n∑ i σ2. (4.16) n q i i=1 i\n\nChcemyznaleźćukładliczbq ,i = 1,2,...,k,minimalizującywariancję, i ale oczywiście przy spełnieniu warunku q +q +...q = 1.\n1 2 k\nSkorzystamy z metody mnożników Lagrange’a: w tym celu defi‐ niujemy funkcję\n1 k p2\nF(q ,q ,...,q ,λ) = ∑ i σ2 −λ(q + +...q −1),\n1 2 k n q i 1 2 k i=1 i dla której szukamy punktu ekstremalnego, rozwiązując układ q +q +...q = 1\n1 2 k\n{\n−p2 i σ i 2 −λn = 0 dla i = 1,2,...k.\nq2 i\nStąd obliczamy p σ q = i i , dla i = 1,2,...,k.\ni k\n∑ p σ j=1 j j\nJest to jedyny punkt, w którym może być poszukiwana ekstremalna wartość.Abyprzekonaćsię,żejesttoekstremumminimumzauważmy, żegdybytakiewłaśniewartościwstawićdowzoru(4.16),tootrzyma‐ libyśmy\n1 k p2σ2 k 1 k\nVarŶ = ∑( i i ∑p σ ) = (∑p σ ) ⩽ n p σ j j n i i i=1 i i j=1 i=1\n1 n\n⩽ ∑p σ2 ⩽ VarY.\nn i i k=1\nPierwsza z powyższych nierówności to znów nierówność Jensena dla funkcjikwadratowej,natomiastdrugazostałaudowodnionaprzyoka‐ zji uzasadniania lematu 4.2 na stronie 83.\nOczywiście wielkości σ nie są na ogół znane – w praktyce es‐ i tymuje się je za pomocą pomocniczych losowań, następnie dopiero przeprowadza się zoptymalizowane losowanie warstwowe. Wiadomo też, że trudno się spodziewać, by liczby n⋅q dla optymalnych q były i i\n\ncałkowite, jednak jeśli n jest dostatecznie duże (co przeważnie ma miejsce w próbach Monte Carlo), a liczba warstw jest względnie nie‐ wielka,tofaktycznawariancjawarstwowegoestymatorazliczbamin i tylko w przybliżeniu równymi nq (dla optymalnych q ) będzie bardzo i i bliska tej optymalnej wariancji, o której mówi twierdzenie 4.4.\nPrzykład4.8. Rozważmyobliczeniecałki\nπ\n∫ exp(−x)∣sin ∣ dx.\nx+0.001\nWidać ze wzoru funkcji podcałkowej (zob. także rysunek 4.2), że najwięcejkłopotuwrachunkach–zewzględunadużewahaniewarto‐ ści – przysparza lewa część przedziału [0,1]. Dla konkretnych rachun‐ ków przyjmiemy k = 10 warstw.\n. . .\n0.8\nπ y=exp( x) sin\n− x+0.001\n0.6\n. . .\n0.4\n0.2\n. . .\n0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1\nRys.4.2.Wykresfunkcjipodcałkowejzprzykładu4.8.Zbytdużewahaniefunkcjiuniemożliwiło dokładnyrysunekwskrajnielewejczęściprzedziału\nUżywając terminologii tego podrozdziału, zmienną losową X jest zmiennaorozkładziejednostajnymw[0,1],zmiennalosowaY (której wartość oczekiwana to interesująca nas wielkość) to\nπ\nY = exp(−X)∣sin ∣,\nX +0.001\n\nnatomiast zbiory A to przedziały lewostronnie domknięte postaci i\nA = [(i−1)⋅0.1,i⋅0.1), i = 1,2,...,10.\ni\nDla każdej warstwy A , na podstawie m = 1000 próbek, oszacowa‐ i na została wariancja σ2. Każde z p jest w tym wypadku oczywiście i i równe0.1.Natejpodstawiejużmożna(korzystającztwierdzenia4.4) dokonaćustaleniaprzybliżeńoptymalnychwielkościpróbek.Dladzie‐ sięciu warstw (od przedziału [0,0.1) zaczynając) jest to około: 20%,\n18%, 15%, 14%, 14%, 9%, 1%, 3%, 3%, 3%.\nPo zapoznaniu się z tymi wynikami zauważymy, że rysunek 4.2 napoprzedniejstroniezdajesięjepotwierdzać:naprzykładprzedział\n[0.6,0.7)naokocechujesięnajmniejszązmiennościąfunkcjipodcałko‐ wej, zatem trzeba mu poświęcić najmniej „uwagi”.\nNazakończeniewartododać,żestandardowepakietydoobliczeń numerycznych mają kłopoty z radzeniem sobie z tą całką. Na przy‐ kład standardowa konfiguracja funkcji quad_quags w programie MaximabądźfunkcjiintegratewjęzykuRjestniewystarczająca,trzeba zwiększaćliczbępodziałówprzedziałucałkowania(wprzypadkuMaximy także tzw. tolerancję). Po „dostrojeniu” obie te funkcje dają wynik w przybliżeniu zgodny i potwierdzany metodą Monte Carlo. Na przy‐ kładfunkcjarombergwprogramieMaximaliczybezżadnychtechnicz‐ nych błędów i ostrzeżeń, ale daje wynik znacząco inny niż pozostałe z wymienionych, zgodne metody.\n................................. koniecprzykładu4.8 .................................\n4.5.1. Przedziałufnościdlalosowaniawarstwowego\nPrzyobliczaniuprzedziałuufnościmożnaprzyjąćponiższąprocedurę.\n(a) Środek przedziału ufności ŷwyznaczamy jako realizację estyma‐ tora warstwowego k p n i\nŷ= ∑ i ∑y .\nn ij i=1 i j=1\n\n(b) Oszacowanie s2̂ wariancji estymatora warstwowego można obli‐ czyć ze wzoru wynikającego z (4.15), tzn.\nk p2 s2̂ = ∑ i ŝ 2 , n i i=1 i gdzieŝ jestwartościąnieobciążonegoestymatorawariancjidla i próbki y ,y ,...y .\ni1 i2 in i\n(c) Przedział ufności na poziomie ufności 1−α będzie dany wzorem\n(ŷ−z(1−α/2)s,̂ ŷ+z(1−α/2)s)̂ , gdzie z(1−α/2) jest kwantylem rzędu 1−α/2 rozkładu normal‐ nego.\nOpisane wyżej postępowanie wynika z tego, że rozkład średnich obliczanych wewnątrz warstw jest w dobrym przybliżeniu normalny, zkoleisumakilkuzmiennychorozkładzienormalnym(czyliwprzybli‐ żeniu średnich z poszczególnych warstw) także ma rozkład normalny.\n4.6. Metodaquasi-MonteCarlo\nMożnazauważyć,żelosującbardziej„równomiernie”wwariancieme‐ todyzmiennychantytetycznych,którywrazzf(X)–dlaX zrozkładu jednostajnego w [0,1] – wprowadzał także do liczenia średniej war‐ tość f(1 − X), szybciej uzyskujemy zadowalający wynik. Oczywiście toniemożebyćażtakproste:gdypozbędziemysięlosowanianarzecz tej równomierności, regularności, to dużo tracimy. Przestrzeń, z któ‐ rej trzeba losować punkty dla uzyskania pojedynczego wyniku może być ogromna i wtedy nie będzie możliwe regularne jej próbkowanie, a przede wszystkim ta nadmierna regularność zabierze nam możli‐ wość korzystania z praw statystyki, choćby przy wyliczaniu przedzia‐ łów ufności.\nMimo tych zastrzeżeń są sytuacje, gdy takie regularne przeglą‐ danie przestrzeni ma sens i bywa stosowane. Część idei jest zbliżo‐ na do tych stosowanych w metodzie Monte Carlo, zatem zostanie to\n\nomówionewłaśniewtymrozdziale,dotyczącymdokładnościobliczeń.\nNazwa tej metody to „metoda quasi‐Monte Carlo”.\nZałóżmy, że naszym celem jest obliczenie wartości oczekiwanej zmiennej losowej f(U ,U ,...,U ), to znaczy\n1 2 d\nEf(U ,U ,...,U ) = ∫ f(x)dx,\n1 2 d\n[0,1)d gdzie U są niezależnymi zmiennymi losowymi o rozkładzie jednostaj‐ i nym na [0,1], zaś f∶ Rd → R.\nW metodzie quasi‐Monte Carlo\n1 n\n∫ f(x)dx ≈ ∑f(x ), (4.17) n i\n[0,1)d i=1 gdziex ∈ [0,1)d,aciągx ,x ,...jestdeterministycznymciągiemwko‐ i 1 2 stce d‐wymiarowej, który powinien w sposób „równomierny” wypeł‐ niać tę kostkę. Dlatego w tej metodzie ważne jest ścisłe określenie wymiaru problemu, to znaczy liczby elementów z [0,1) potrzebnych do wygenerowania jednej z uśrednianych w (4.17) wartości. Zauważ‐ my,żewzwykłejmetodzieMonteCarlonieprzejmujemysiętymzbyt‐ nio; w szczególności przy stosowaniu metody akceptacji/odrzucania nawetniewiadomodokładnie,ileliczbpotrzebadootrzymaniajednej z uśrednianych wartości.\nOczywiściepojęcie„równomiernego”wypełnianiamusibyćjakoś uściślone,dotegobędąsłużyłypojęcia rozbieżności i niskiej roz‐ bieżności.\n4.6.1. Ciągioniskiejrozbieżności\nJakomiaręrozbieżnościciągówn‐elementowychwkostce[0,1)d przyj‐ muje się [26]\n|{x ,...,x }∩A|\nD (x ,x ,...,x ) = sup ∣ 1 n −μ(A)∣, n 1 2 n n\nA∈A\n\ngdzie μ(A) jest d‐wymiarową miarą Lebesgue’a zbioru A, zaś A jest zbiorem tych podzbiorów kostki d‐wymiarowej, które są iloczynami kartezjańskimi przedziałów lewostronnie domkniętych i prawostron‐ nie otwartych.\nJest też druga, podobna miara, mianowicie\n|{x ,...,x }∩A|\nD∗(x ,x ,...,x ) = sup ∣ 1 n −μ(A)∣, n 1 2 n n\nA∈A∗ gdzie A∗ to zbiór tych elementów z A, które są zbudowane na bazie przedziałów o lewym końcu równym 0.\nRelacja między tymi miarami może być przedstawiona poniższą nierównością:\nD∗(x ,x ,...,x ) ⩽ D (x ,x ,...,x ) ⩽ 2dD∗(x ,x ,...,x ).\nn 1 2 n n 1 2 n n 1 2 n\nNa przykład dla d = 1 wiadomo, że rozbieżność D∗ ciągu n‐ele‐ n mentowego jest od dołu ograniczona przez 1 (dla miary D to ogra‐\n2n n niczenie wynosi 1) i ograniczenie dolne jest realizowane przez ciąg n\n2i−1 x = ,i = 1,2,...,n, i 2n zarówno dla miary D∗, jak i dla D .\nn n\nGdybyjednakchciećwskazaćnieskończonyciągimierzyćrozbież‐ ności jego początkowych fragmentów, to clnn\nD∗(x ,x ,...,x ) ⩾ .\nn 1 2 n n\nPrzyzwiększaniuwymiarud przyjmujesię,żemamiejsceograni‐ czenie (w sytuacji, gdy mierzona jest rozbieżność początkowego frag‐ mentu ciągu nieskończonego) c (lnn)d\nD∗(x ,x ,...,x ) ⩾ d , n 1 2 n n przy tym c jest pewną stałą zależną tylko od wymiaru d. Ta hipoteza d jestcoprawdaudowodnionatylkodlad ⩽ 2,jednakżestałasiępodsta‐ wą do przyjęcia, że ciągiem niskiej rozbieżności nazywamy taki\n\nciąg nieskończony x ,x ,..., gdzie x ∈ [0,1)d, dla którego\n1 2 i\n(lnn)d\nD∗(x ,x ,...,x ) = O( ), n 1 2 n n lubinnymisłowy:istniejetakastałak > 0,żedladostateczniedużych n ∈ N zachodzi\n(lnn)d\nD∗(x ,x ,...,x ) ⩽ k⋅ .\nn 1 2 n n\nPrzy pewnych założeniach odnośnie funkcji f(⋅) (skończone wa‐ hanie f(⋅) w sensie Hardy’ego i Krause’a [26]) można wykazać, że dla ciągów o niskiej rozbieżności, dla dowolnego ε > 0 istnieje k > 0, że\n1 n 1\n∣∫ f(x)dx− ∑f(x )∣ < k⋅ (4.18) n i n1−ε\n[0,1)d i=1 dla prawie wszystkich n.\nW świetle formuły (4.1), która znajduje się na stronie 66, widać, że błąd rozwiązania otrzymywanego metodą Monte Carlo jest rzędu\nO(√ ), n zaś w przypadku metody quasi‐Monte Carlo dla błędu mamy korzyst‐ niejsze oszacowanie\nO( ), n1−ε przy dowolnie małym ε > 0.\nJednak należy zwrócić uwagę na fakt, że nierówność (4.1) daje konkretne stałe mnożące czynnik √1 . Natomiast stała k w nierówno‐ n ści(4.18)niejestsprecyzowanaidlaεbliskiegozerumożebyćbardzo duża. Dlatego oszacowanie (4.18) nie ma może bardzo praktycznego znaczenia, raczej pokazuje ono, jak ważne mogą być ciągi o niskiej rozbieżności, które rzeczywiście w wielu przypadkach są skutecznym narzędziem obliczeniowym [12].\n\n4.6.2. CiągHaltona\nW podrozdziale tym zaprezentowany zostanie przykładowy ciąg o ni‐ skiej rozbieżności, budowany na bazie liczb pierwszych, zwany cią‐ giemHaltona.Jegokonstrukcjazostałaopisanaw1960rokuwartyku‐ le On the efficiency of certain quasi‐random sequences of points in evaluating multi‐dimensionalintegrals [14].\nNiech d > 0. Ciąg d‐wymiarowy nieskończony x ,x ,..., gdzie\n1 2\n(1) (2) (d) x = (x ,x ,...,x ), k ∈ N, k k k k definiujemy poprzez:\nx (i) = a ⋅p−1 +a ⋅p−2 +...a p−m, k 0 i 1 i m−1 i gdzie p jest i‐tą liczbą pierwszą, zaś współczynniki a ,a ,...a to i 0 1 m−1 cyfry zapisu liczby k przy podstawie p , to znaczy i k = a +a p +a p2 +...a pm−1.\n0 1 i 2 i m−1 i\nPrzykład 4.9. Jeśli przyjmiemy d = 3, to pięć pierwszych wyrazów ciągu\nHaltonaprzedstawiasięnastępująco\n(1, 1, 1),(1, 2, 2),(3, 1, 3),(1, 4, 4),(5, 7, 1 ).\n2 3 5 4 3 5 4 9 5 8 9 5 8 9 25\n................................. koniecprzykładu4.9 .................................\nNa rysunku 4.3 pokazane jest 5000 elementów ciągu Haltona dla d = 2, pierwsza współrzędna to odcięta, druga to rzędna punktu na wykresie. Kwadrat wydaje się dość solidnie wypełniony.\nZnacznie gorzej przedstawia się sytuacja tych współrzędnych, do użycia których wykorzystane były większe liczby pierwsze. Widać to dobrzenarysunku4.4,gdzierzutowanesąwspółrzędne14i15.Jakła‐ twosiędomyślić,jeszcze więcejluk widać narysunkuzrzutowanymi współrzędnymi 39 i 40 (rys. 4.5).\nZatemciągten–choćrzeczywiście jest ciągiemoniskiejrozbież‐ ności – ma pewne słabości, które są przezwyciężone w innych kon‐ strukcjach (jak ciągi Sobola [12]).\n\n0.8\n0.6\n0.4\n0.2\n0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1\nRys.4.3.5000elementówciąguHaltona,d=2\n0.8\n0.6\n0.4\n0.2\n0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1\nRys.4.4.5000elementówciąguHaltona,rzutowanewspółrzędne14i15\nZadania\nZadanie 4.1. Szacowanie przedziału ufności przy założeniach zadania\n1.1, ze strony 22, zostało omówione w przykładzie 4.1. Dokonaj analo‐ gicznych obliczeń dla części (b) tego zadania.\n\n0.8\n0.6\n0.4\n0.2\n0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1\nRys.4.5.5000elementówciąguHaltona,rzutowanewspółrzędne39i40\nZadanie 4.2. Oceń, korzystając z modelu (4.3), długość uzyskiwanego przedziału ufności dla szukanej wartości liczby π w eksperymencie\nLazzariniego (t = 2.5, h = 3, n = 3408 – przykład 1.2 na stronie 17).\nPrzyjmijpoziomufności1−α = 0.95.Przeprowadźsymulacjękompu‐ terową eksperymentu.\nZadanie 4.3. Program rozwiązujący zadanie 1.3 wzbogać o obliczanie przedziału ufności – przy wykorzystaniu modelu (4.3) – przyjmując poziomufności99%.Natejpodstawiepodajocenębłędupopełnianego w sytuacji, gdy jako wynik podamy środkową wartość przedziału.\nZadanie4.4.Dla obliczenia całki\nπ/2\n∫ sinx2dx, przyjmując poziom ufności 1 − α = 0.95, wyznacz przedział ufności, korzystając z 100000000 próbek:\n(a) prostą metodą Monte Carlo,\n(b) z użyciem „naturalnej” metody zmiennych antytetycznych.\nWyznacz stosunek długości przedziałów uzyskanych w (a) i (b).\n\nZadanie 4.5. Używając próbek wielkości n = 100000000, oszacuj (li‐ cząc 95% przedziały ufności) całkę\n∫ exp(−x2)dx, traktując szukaną wielkość jako\nE( exp(−X2)), gdzie X ma rozkład jednostajny w [0,5].\n(a) Użyj prostej metody Monte Carlo.\n(b) Użyj metody zmiennych kontrolnych. Niech zmienną kontrolną będzie X. Na podstawie długości przedziałów w (a) i (b) podaj oszacowanie v.r.r.\n(c) Użyj metody zmiennych kontrolnych. Niech zmienną kontrolną będzie X2. Na podstawie długości przedziałów w (a) i (c) podaj oszacowanie v.r.r.\nZadanie4.6.Rozważmy obliczenie całki\nI = ∫ x2esinxdx metodą Monte Carlo, używając koncepcji metody losowania istotno‐ ściowego. Obliczenie tej całki inną metodą numeryczną dało wynik w przybliżeniu 6.772267.\nPrzyjmijmynaprzykład–używającoznaczeńztwierdzenia4.3na stronie 79 – że\nI = Eh(X), gdzie X ma rozkład jednostajny na [0,2], oraz h(x) = 2x2esinx.\nIloczynh(⋅)igęstościzmiennejlosowejXjestfunkcjąściślerosną‐ cą w przedziale [0,2] od wartości 0, co mogłoby sugerować przyjęcie jakogęstościg(⋅)naprzykładfunkcjirosnącejliniowoodzerawprze‐ dziale [0,2].\nWykonaj próbę tej metody dla n = 500000000, przy szacowaniu przedziałów ufności przyjmij poziom ufności 1−α = 0.95, porównaj z wynikami podstawowej metody Monte Carlo i oszacuj v.r.r.\n\nZadanie4.7.W zadaniu 4.6 liniowa (w przedziale [0,2]) funkcja gęsto‐ ści g(⋅) dała całkiem niezłą redukcję wariancji, ale prawdziwie impo‐ nujący wynik dostaniemy poprzez jeszcze lepsze dopasowanie funk‐ cji gęstości g(⋅) do iloczynu h(⋅) i f(⋅). Iloczyn ten pokazany jest na rysunku 4.6, widać, że styczna w lewym końcu przedziału jest pozio‐ ma, zatem jeszcze lepszym kandydatem na gęstość g(⋅) będzie para‐ bola z wierzchołkiem w (0,0). Oczywiście z odpowiednim czynnikiem\n0 0.5 1 1.5 2\nRys.4.6.Kształtwykresuh(⋅)f(⋅)zzadań4.6i4.7(liniaczarna)wrazzprzeskalowanymi wykresamiliniiy=xorazy=x2 normującym. Dla takiej właśnie funkcji g(⋅) wykonaj polecenia analo‐ giczne do tych z zadania 4.6.\nZadanie4.8.Dlacałkizprzykładu4.8,używającopisanegotampodzia‐ łu na warstwy, wykonaj samodzielne obliczenia, wyznaczając bliskie optymalnym liczby n za pomocą 1000 próbek w każdej warstwie. Na‐ i stępniewykonajszacowanieprzedziałuufności(biorącn = 100000000,\n1−α = 0.99)dlametodyklasycznejorazwarstwowejiwyznaczv.r.r.\nZadanie 4.9. Napisz wartości 9. współrzędnej d‐wymiarowego ciągu\nHaltonadlawyrazówonumerachi,i+1,i+2,i+3,i+4,gdziei = 1585.\nKońcowe wyniki należy zaokrąglać do ośmiu cyfr znaczących.\n\nOdpowiedzi,wskazówki\nZadanie 4.2. Długość przedziału wynosi około 0.2. Wskazówka: prze‐ dział dla frakcji trzeba odwrócić i przeskalować czynnikiem 2t.\nh\nZadanie 4.3. Końce przedziału dla frakcji należy pomnożyć przez pole prostokąta, z którego losujemy jednostajnie punkty, w tym wypadku pole to szczęśliwie wynosi 1. Oszacowanie błędu to około 0.000376.\nZadanie4.4.Stosunek długości przedziałów to około 3.47.\nZadanie4.5.Przybliżone wartości v.r.r.: (b) 2.58, (c) 1.58.\nZadanie4.6.v.r.r. ≈ 5.22.\nZadanie4.7.v.r.r. ≈ 93.4.\nZadanie4.8.v.r.r. ≈ 2.55.\nZadanie4.9.Podstawą jest liczba 23, a żądane, właściwie zaokrąglone liczby to:\n9.5479576⋅10−1,9.9827402⋅10−1,2.4656859⋅10−4,\n4.3724829⋅10−2,8.7203090⋅10−2.\n\nROZDZIAŁ\nWybrane aspekty stosowania metody 5\nMonte Carlo\n5.1. Całkowaniefunkcji,obliczaniemiarobszarów\nNumeryczne obliczenia związane z wyznaczaniem wartości całek, to prawdopodobnie najczęstsze skojarzenie z metodą Monte Carlo. Wła‐ ściwiekażdąwartośćoczekiwanąrozkładumożnaprzestawićjakocał‐ kę,więcbardzowieleprzykładówstosowaniametodyMonteCarlopa‐ suje do takich skojarzeń.\nW sytuacji gdy mówimy o klasycznym zagadnieniu z analizy ma‐ tematycznej, to znaczy obliczaniu\n∫h(x)dx,\nA gdzieAjestpodzbioremRd ah∶ Rd → R,ogólnametodapoleganazna‐ lezieniu jakiegoś rozkładu o dodatniej gęstości f(⋅) na A i obliczeniu\nE(h∗(X)/f(X)), gdzie X jest zmienną losową o rozkładzie z gęstością f(⋅), natomiast funkcja h∗ ma być zgodna z h(⋅) w zbiorze A, a poza nim ma się zero‐ wać, to znaczy h(x), dla x ∈ A, h∗(x) = {\n0, dla x ∈ Rd ∖A.\nDobórgęstościmożebyćdokonanystosowniedosytuacji,naprzykład metodą losowania istotnościowego, jak w podrozdziale 4.4, lub w pe‐ wien uniwersalny, prosty sposób, który w przypadku ograniczonych\n\nzbiorówAmożesprowadzaćsiędolosowaniajednostajnegoznadzbio‐ ru A.\nTego rodzaju postępowanie było istotą przykładów 4.1 (str. 67),\n4.3 (str. 72), 4.8 (str. 86) oraz kilku zaproponowanych zadań: 1.1, 1.2,\n4.1, 4.4, 4.5, 4.6, 4.7, 4.8.\nOczywiściedlafunkcjionieskomplikowanymprzebiegu,mających małe wahanie, ciągłych poza być może kilkoma punktami, jest wiele skutecznych metod numerycznych obliczania całek oznaczonych, me‐ tod, w których nie ma mowy o losowaniu. Ale nawet wtedy meto‐ da Monte Carlo – ze względu na swoją prostotę – może posłużyć na przykład do testowania, zgrubnego (lub dokładnego, ale kosztownego czasowo) sprawdzenia. Stosunkowo prosta funkcja, która sprawia pe‐ wien kłopot standardowym metodom numerycznym, a z którą łatwo sobie radzi uniwersalna metoda Monte Carlo omówiona była w przy‐ kładzie 4.8 na stronie 86.\nLiczenie długości krzywych, pól powierzchni, objętości i innych tego rodzaju miar często daje się sprowadzić do całek oznaczonych.\nW szczególności łatwo liczy się pole podzbioru R2 lub objętość pod‐ zbioru R3, gdy są to obszary normalne, a więc takie, które leżą po‐ między wykresami dwu funkcji o wspólnej dziedzinie. Wtedy miara takiego obszaru jest całką wartości bezwzględnej różnicy tych ograni‐ czających funkcji.\nW sytuacji gdy obszar ten nie jest normalny, można dzielić go na części,wktórychjestnormalny,byćmożeuprzedniodokonujączamia‐ ny zmiennych. Gdyby jednak w miarę łatwo dawało się stwierdzać, czy dany punkt z przestrzeni należy czy też nie do tego obszaru i gdy‐ byobszartenbyłpodzbiorempewnegoograniczonegozbioruoznanej mierze, to wystarczyłoby z tego ograniczającego nadzbioru losować jednostajnie punkty i szacować frakcję punktów trafiających w wy‐ różniony obszar. Oszacowanie frakcji pomnożone przez miarę ograni‐ czającego nadzbioru będzie oszacowaniem miary interesującego nas obszaru.\nTego rodzaju postępowanie omawiane było w przykładach 1.1\n(str. 13), 4.2 (str. 69) oraz zadaniach 1.3 i 4.3.\n\n5.2. Badaniewłasnościrozkładówzmiennychlosowych\nMetoda Monte Carlo jest metodą obliczeniową ściśle opartą na staty‐ styce i rachunku prawdopodobieństwa. Jednocześnie te dziedziny ma‐ tematykipotrzebująmetodyMonteCarlo,byobliczaćwartości,wobec których metody analityczne bądź też klasyczne (nie używające liczb pseudolosowych) metody numeryczne wydają się bezradne. Na przy‐ kładdlawielutestówstatystycznychichwartościkrytycznesąwyzna‐ czane właśnie metodą Monte Carlo.\nPrzykład 5.1. Test Kołmogorowa–Lillieforsa jest testem służącym do spraw‐ dzania hipotezy o normalności rozkładu. Mając próbkę m uporządkowanych niemalejąco wartości x ,x ,...,x należy obliczyć średnią z próby x,̄ odchy‐\n1 2 m leniestandardowepróbyŝ(pierwiastekzwartościnieobciążonegoestymatora wariancji),obliczyćliczby x −x̄\nF = Φ( i ), d = max{|F −(i−1)/m|,|F −i/m|}, i ŝ i i i dlai = 1,2,...morazobliczyćstatystykętestową k = max{d ,d ,...,d }.\nm 1 2 m\nDuże wartości statystyki testowej świadczą oczywiście przeciw hipotezie zerowej,którąjestnormalnośćrozkładu.Wedłughipotezyalternatywnejbada‐ nyrozkładniejestrozkłademnormalnym.Hipotezazerowanieprecyzujepara‐ metrówrozkładu,jedyniemówiorodzajurozkładu.\nSkądwziąćwartościkrytycznedlatakiegotestu?Analityczniewy‐ dajesiętobardzotrudne,natomiastobliczenieichmetodąMonteCarlo jest niezwykle proste i wynika wprost z koncepcji testów istotności.\nMianowicie ustalmy liczbę m (liczebność próby) oraz poziom istotno‐ ści testu α (mała liczba dodatnia będąca prawdopodobieństwem mylnego odrzucenia hipotezy zerowej) i jakiekolwiek konkretne pa‐ rametry dla rozkładu normalnego, może to być nawet μ = 0, σ = 1.\nNastępnien‐krotnie(ntoliczbapróbdlapodstawowejmetodyMonte\nCarlo)wykonujemyeksperymentpolegającynawygenerowaniumpró‐ bekzrozkładuN(μ,σ)iobliczeniustatystykitestowej.Mającntakich wartości, obliczamy ich kwantyl rzędu 1−α i ta wartość będzie przy‐ bliżeniem szukanej wartości krytycznej.\n\nW taki sposób zostały te wartości wygenerowane i opublikowa‐ neworyginalnejpracyOntheKolmogorov–Smirnovtestfornormalitywith meanandvarianceunknown [22] wyjaśniającej koncepcję tego testu. Jej autorpisze,żeliczbanzakażdymrazembyłarównaconajmniej1000, bez sprecyzowania, jak dużo więcej niż 1000 mogło to być. Można się domyślać,żeniewielewięcej,biorącpoduwagęfakt,żepracajestzro‐ ku 1967. W przytoczonej publikacji podane są wartości krytyczne dla\nα ∈ {0.01,0.05,0.10,0.15,0.20}, m ∈ {4,5,6...,30}. (5.1)\nDla wartości m > 30 podane zostały proste formuły aproksymujące wartości krytyczne, osobne dla każdego z pięciu wskazanych wyżej poziomów istotności.\nWpracyz2017roku[25]przeliczonoponowniewartościkrytycz‐ netąmetodą,tymrazemwkażdymprzypadkubiorącn = 105ipodając wynikizaokrąglonedoczterechcyfrpokropce.Jednakniematamżad‐ negouzasadnienia,dlaczegotakaliczbanmiałabydaćpewnośćakurat tylu cyfr dokładności.\nPoniżej opisany został przykład procedury, która w takim przy‐ padku da racjonalne podstawy do oceny dokładności obliczeń. Można wygenerować wyniki testu Kołmogorowa–Lillieforsa (przy ustalonym m)dladużejliczbypróbek,powiedzmyn = 107,następniedlauzyska‐ nego rozkładu empirycznego należy wyznaczyć przedział ufności – na wysokimpoziomieufności,powiedzmy99%–dlakwantylirzędu1−α, biorącαjakwformule(5.1).To,jakwyznaczaćprzedziałyufnościdla kwantyli, stanowi osobne zagadnienie statystyczne, dla uproszczenia użyto (dla wygenerowanych w C++ danych) funkcji QuantileCI z pa‐ kietu DescTools środowiska R [28].\nPrzyjmijmy, że m = 25 oraz poziom istotności α ∈ {0.01,0.05}.\nWtabeli5.1pokazanowpierwszymwierszuoszacowaniawartościkry‐ tycznych z pracy [22], w wierszu drugim – poprawione oszacowania zpracy[25],natomiastwtrzecimiczwartympokazano99%przedzia‐ ły ufności dla wartości krytycznych, uzyskane opisanym wyżej sposo‐ bemnapodstawien = 105próborazn = 107prób.Jasnowidać,żeczte‐ ry cyfry w pracy [25] były przejawem nieuzasadnionego optymizmu.\n................................. koniecprzykładu5.1 .................................\n\nTab.5.1.TabelawartościkrytycznychtestuKołmogorowa–Lillieforsadlarozmiarupróby równego25(przykład5.1);dwaostatniewierszeto99%przedziałyufnościdlaszacowanej wielkości obliczenia α=0.01 α=0.05 praca[22],n⩾103 0.203 0.180 praca[25],n=105 0.2010 0.1726 skrypt,n=105 (0.199182,0.201895) (0.172088,0.173448) skrypt,n=107 (0.201189,0.201450) (0.172925,0.173063)\n5.3. Badaniewłasnościprocesówstochastycznych\nProcesemstochastycznym{S(t)} nazywamyrodzinęzmiennychlo‐ t∈T sowych, to znaczy przyporządkowanie każdemu elementowi zbioru indeksów T zmiennej losowej S(t) określonej w pewnej przestrzeni probabilistycznej (Ω,F,Pr). Przyjmiemy, że T jest zbiorem liczb rze‐ czywistychdodatnich,wygodnąinterpretacjąT jestwtakimprzypad‐ kuczas.Zmiennelosowe,któresąwartościamiprocesustochastyczne‐ go, będziemy traktowali jako rzeczywiste jednowymiarowe zmienne losowe,chociażoczywiściewinnychobszarachzastosowańużywasię bardziej ogólnego podejścia.\nDla każdego t ∈ T wartość S(t) to zmienna losowa, a więc for‐ malnie funkcja, której dziedziną jest Ω. W sytuacji, gdy warto będzie podkreślić, że chodzi o konkretną realizację wartości procesu, może być użyty zapis S(t,ω). Na przykład trajektorią procesu {S(t)} t∈T nazywamy każdą funkcję f∶ T → R, dla której istnieje ω ∈ Ω, że f(t) = S(t,ω), dla t ∈ T.\n5.3.1. Zagadnieniainżynieriifinansowejprowadzącedo stochastycznychrównańróżniczkowychisymulacjitrajektorii\nTypowymi przykładami zagadnień, w modelowaniu których może po‐ jawićsięprocesstochastyczny,atakżeokreślającegorównanie,sące‐ nyakcji,cenyinstrumentówfinansowychpochodnych,wielkościstóp procentowych.\nCena akcji w każdej przyszłej chwili jest modelowana zmienną losową, mamy więc zależną od czasu rodzinę zmiennych losowych,\n\nktóra stanowi proces stochastyczny. Proces ten ma właściwości, któ‐ re w pewnym uproszczeniu wyrażone są odpowiednim równaniem.\nW równaniu tym, obok wartości procesu, istotną rolę odgrywa także przyrost wartości procesu w krótkim czasie, znajdzie się tam także pewien czynnik nieprzewidywalny, losowy – stąd w naturalny sposób dostaniemy stochastyczne równanie różniczkowe. Następnie na bazie ceny instrumentu podstawowego obliczana jest wartość instrumentu pochodnego (opcja zakupu lub sprzedaży akcji). Rozwiązanie anali‐ tycznemożebyćtrudne–przybliżonerozwiązaniemożnauzyskaćme‐ todą Monte Carlo.\nPrzykład 5.2. Cena S(t) papieru bazowego (akcji) w chwili t ⩾ 0 może być modelowanarównaniem dS(t) = μS(t)dt+σS(t)dW(t), (5.2) gdzielewastronaoznaczaprzyrostceny,μiσsąpewnymistałymiparametra‐ mi,natomiastdW(t)jestprzyrostemprocesuWienera,natematktóregowięcej szczegółów pojawi się w podrozdziale 5.3.2. Składnik związany z dW(t) kon‐ centruje w sobie całą losowość prawej strony równania (5.2), gdyby tej części nie było, to równanie sprowadziłoby się do prostego równania różniczkowego, którego rozwiązaniem byłaby funkcja wykładnicza (zakładając jedną wartość wchwilit = 0).\nRozwiązawszyrównanie(5.2)możnanastępnienp.szacowaćwartośćopcji związanychztymiakcjamibądźrozważaćróżnegotypustrategieportfelowe.\nRysunek5.1pokazujeprzykładowedwietrajektorieprocesu(5.2),dlakon‐ kretnychwartościparametrówrównaniaiwspólnejwartościpoczątkowej.\nPrzykład 5.3. Model Vasička zakłada, że intensywność oprocentowania R(t) podlegaprawu dR(t) = a(b−R(t))dt+σdW(t), (5.3) gdzie parametr b jest długoterminową średnią, natomiast mnożnik a determi‐ nuje szybkość zbliżania się procesu do średniej, σ wyznacza zmienność części losowejprawejstronyrównania.\nNa rysunku 5.2 można znaleźć przykłady dwu trajektorii, które pokazu‐ ją, jak realizowana jest „skłonność” do zbliżania się do owej długoterminowej średniej.\n\n0 100 200 300 400\nRys.5.1.Dwietrajektorieprocesu(5.2),rysunekwygenerowanydlaμ=0.2,σ=0.3\n0.09\n0.08\n0.07\n0.06\n0.05\n0.04\n0 100 200 300 400\nRys.5.2.Dwietrajektorierozwiązaniarównania(5.3).Rysunekwygenerowanydlaa=10.5, b=0.05,σ=0.025\n5.3.2. ProcesWienera\nU podstaw modelowania, którego przykłady pojawiły się w poprzed‐ nim podrozdziale, leży proces zwany procesu Wienera.\n\nProces stochastyczny o wartościach rzeczywistych {W(t)} t∈[0,∞) nazywanyjest procesem Wienera (lubjednowymiarowym ruchem\nBrowna), jeżeli n W(0) = 0 z prawdopodobieństw √ em 1, n W(t) − W(s) ma rozkład N(0, t−s), tzn. rozkład normalny ze średnią 0 i wariancją t−s, n dla dowolnego układu 0 < t 1 < t 2 < ... < t n zmienne losowe\nW(t ), W(t )−W(t ),...,W(t )−W(t ) są niezależne.\n1 2 1 n n−1\nPowszechność tego procesu w rozważaniach z wielu działów matema‐ tyki, fizyki, techniki czy finansów może być tłumaczona centralnymi twierdzeniami granicznymi.\nWłasnościtrajektoriiprocesuWienera\nPoniższetwierdzenie–któregodowódmożnaznaleźćnaprzykładw[8]\n–implikuje,żezprawdopodobieństwem1trajektorieprocesuWienera są ciągłe.\nTwierdzenie 5.1. Niech {W(t)} będzie procesem Wienera oraz niech t∈[0,∞) u > 0. Wtedy dla dowolnego 0 < γ < 0.5 i dla prawie wszystkich ω ∈ Ω istniejetakieK > 0,żedladowolnychs,t ∈ [0,u]zachodzi\n|W(t,ω)−W(s,ω)| ⩽ K|t−s|γ.\nJednakkolejnetwierdzenie[8]pokazuje,żetrajektorie,gdyimsię dobrze przyjrzymy (pomyślmy na przykład o powiększaniu, skalowa‐ niuwykresutrajektorii)mająwłasnościmocnoodbiegająceodfunkcji, którymi zajmujemy się w klasycznej analizie rzeczywistej.\nTwierdzenie 5.2. Niech {W(t)} będzie procesem Wienera. Wtedy dla t∈[0,∞) prawie wszystkich ω ∈ Ω trajektoria t ↦ W(t,ω) jest w każdym punkcie nieróżniczkowalna.\nŚcisłydowódniejestwtymskrypciepotrzebny,ajakonieformal‐ ne uzasadnienie wskażmy, jaki jest dla dowolnego t > 0 rozkład ilora‐ zuróżnicowego(cowyprowadzasięnatychmiastzokreśleniaprocesu\nWienera i z ogólnych własności wariancji), mianowicie\nW(t +Δt)−W(t ) 1\n0 0 ∼ N (0, √ ).\nΔt Δt\n\nZatemprzyΔt → 0zmiennośćilorazuróżnicowegorośniedonieskoń‐ czoności. To daje intuicyjne wyjaśnienie braku różniczkowalności tra‐ jektorii oraz coraz bardziej stromych przebiegów trajektorii w miarę kolejnego przybliżania (skalowania) rysunku.\nIlustracją tego faktu niech będą trzy kolejne wykresy (wszystkie umieszczone na rys. 5.3), z których pierwszy pokazuje przykładową trajektorię W(⋅,ω) w przedziale [0,1] z zaznaczonym punktem\n(0.5,W(0.5,ω)), drugi i trzeci to 10‐ i100‐krotneprzybliżenie otoczenia wyróżnionego punktu (skala przybliżenia dotyczy osi czasu).\n5.3.3. StochastycznacałkaItô\nProblemem w określeniu całki typu\nT\n∫ F(t,W(t))dW(t) (5.4) jest to, że próbując sumowania wartości na trajektoriach, napotyka się problemy nieznane w klasycznej analizie – trajektoria nie ma ni‐ gdzie pochodnej i ma nieograniczone wahanie. Konstrukcja takiej cał‐ ki (której wynikiem dla ustalonego T jest zmienna losowa) polega na tworzeniu sum Riemanna na trajektoriach przy właściwym wyborze podziałów i punktów reprezentujących podprzedziały (w przypadku całki Itô – lewe końce).\nNa przykład, zgodnie z intuicją, mamy [8]\nT\n∫ dW(t) = W(T), (5.5) ale (to już może mniej intuicyjne)\nT W2(T) T\n∫ W(t)dW(t) = − . (5.6)\n2 2\nGdybyprzyokreślaniusumRiemannabraćpoduwagęśrodkiprze‐ działów, to składnik −T we wzorze (5.6) zniknie.\n\n1.5\n0.5\n-0.5\n0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1\n)ω,t(W t\n1.5\n1.4\n1.3\n1.2\n1.1\n0.9\n0.46 0.48 0.5 0.52 0.54\n)ω,t(W t\n1.2\n1.18\n1.16\n1.14\n1.12\n1.1\n1.08\n0.496 0.498 0.5 0.502 0.504\n)ω,t(W t\nRys.5.3.WybranatrajektoriaprocesuWienerawtrzechskalach;ramkaotaczającawyróżniony punktnapierwszychdwuwykresachzakreślafragmenttrajektoriipowiększanynakolejnym wykresie\n\nTab.5.2.Porównaniewartościobliczonychanalitycznieipochodzącychzobliczeńmetodą\nMonteCarlodlacałek(5.5)i(5.6),T =10 wartośćoczekiwana odch.standardowe całka teoret. metodaMC teoret. metodaMC\n√ całka(5.5) 0 −0.00427387 10≈3.1623 3.1621\n√ całka(5.6) 0 −0.00041301 5 2≈7.0711 7.0684\n5.3.4. ObliczaniecałekstochastycznychmetodąMonteCarlo\nWynik całki (5.4) dla ustalonego T jet zmienną losową, której wła‐ sności (dystrybuantę, momenty i.t.p.) można łatwo wyliczać metodą\nMonte Carlo, nawet podstawową, szacującą wartości za pomocą śred‐ niej z próbek.\nWnajprostszymprzypadkunależywygenerowaćntrajektoriipro‐ cesu Wienera obliczonych w równo oddalonych punktach\n0 = t < t < ... < t , gdzie t −t = T/m.\n0 1 m−1 i+1 i\n(i)\nJeżeli w oznacza wartość i‐tej trajektorii procesu Wienera w punk‐ j cie t , to na przykład wartość oczekiwaną całki (5.4) można aproksy‐ j mować wielkością\n1 n m−1\n(i) (i) (i)\n∑ ∑ F(t ,w )(w −w ), n j j j+1 j i=1 j=0\n(i) (i) (i) w = 0,natomiastprzyrostyw −w należygenerowaćjakoliczby\n0 j+1 j pseudolosowe z rozkładu N(0,1) pomnożone przez √t −t .\nj+1 j\nPrzykład obliczeń dla T = 10,n = 106,m = 104 przedstawiono w tabeli 5.2.\nWzwiązkuzsubtelnościamizwiązanymizdefinicjącałkiItô,trze‐ ba także mocno uważać przy symulacjach związanych z tą całką.\nNa przykład gdyby przy obliczaniu całki (5.6) brać „prawego” repre‐ zentantaprzedziałudosumycałkowej(zamiast„lewego”),tozamiast liczby−0.00041301wtabeli5.2pojawiłabysięwartość9.99931,awięc różnica między obliczonymi różnymi technikami wartościami oczeki‐ wanymi zmiennej losowej znacznie przekroczyłaby nawet jej odchyle‐ nie standardowe. Czyli wynik ten byłby kompletnie bezużyteczny!\n\n5.3.5. Stochastycznerównaniaróżniczkowe\nPrzez rozwiązanie równania w postaci dX = f(X,t)dt+g(X,t)dW,\n{\nX(0) = X , dla 0 ⩽ t ⩽ T, rozumiemy proces stochastyczny X(⋅), spełniający dla dowolnego 0 ⩽ t ⩽ T równość t t\nX(t) = X +∫ f(X(s),s)ds+∫ g(X(s),s)dW(s)\n0 0 prawie pewnie.\nSzczegółowezałożeniaodnośniedofunkcjiiprocesówwystępują‐ cych powyżej zostały pominięte – nie są one potrzebne do wykonywa‐ nia obliczeń metodą Monte Carlo w zakresie niniejszego skryptu.\nNiektóre równania tego rodzaju dają się rozwiązać analitycznie.\nNa przykład wspomniane wcześniej równanie (5.3) ma rozwiązanie t\nR(t) = R(0)e−at +b(1−e−at)+σ∫ e−a(t−s)dW(s)ds, skąd można wywnioskować, że dla 0 ⩽ s < t warunkowy rozkład\nR(t)|R(s) jest normalny ze średnią\nR(s)e−a(t−s) +b(1−e−a(t−s)) i wariancją\nσ2\n(1−e−2a(t−s)).\n2a\n5.3.6. WycenaopcjieuropejskichwmodeluBlacka–Scholesa\nEuropejskaopcjakupnazcenąwykonaniaK iochwiliwykupuT,jest to opcja, która po upływie czasu T daje prawo zakupu akcji po cenie\nK. Zatem jej wartość w chwili T wynosi max(S(T)−K,0),\n\ngdzie S(t) jest wartością papieru bazowego w chwili t.\nWmodeluBlacka–Scholesa–przyzałożeniubrakumożliwościar‐ bitrażu, stałej intensywności oprocentowania, możliwości swobodne‐ go lokowania przy ustalonej intensywności oraz możliwości swobod‐ nego zakupu i sprzedaży akcji – cena takiej opcji w chwili 0 wynosi ln S(0) +(r+ σ2)T\nS(0)⋅Φ( K √ 2 )−\nσ T\n(5.7) ln S(0) +(r− σ2)T\n−Ke−rTΦ( K √ 2 ),\nσ T gdzie r jest obowiązującą intensywnością oprocentowania, zaś σ jest zmiennością akcji (szacowaną poprzez odchylenie standardowe).\nEuropejskaopcjasprzedażyzcenąwykonaniaKiochwiliwykupu\nT, jest to opcja, która po upływie czasu T daje prawo sprzedaży akcji po cenie K. Zatem jej wartość w chwili T wynosi max(K −S(T),0), gdzie S(t) jest wartością papieru bazowego w chwili t.\nWmodeluBlacka–Scholesa–przyzałożeniubrakumożliwościar‐ bitrażu, stałej intensywności oprocentowania, możliwości swobodne‐ go lokowania przy ustalonej intensywności oraz możliwości swobod‐ nego zakupu i sprzedaży akcji – cena takiej opcji w chwili 0 wynosi\n−ln S(0) −(r− σ2)T\nKe−rTΦ( K √ 2 )−\nσ T\n−ln S(0) −(r+ σ2)T\n−S(0)⋅Φ( K √ 2 ).\nσ T\nDziękitemuprostemumodelowiipowyższymbezpośrednimwzo‐ rom można łatwo testować skuteczność metody Monte Carlo (a także poprawność wyprowadzeń tych wzorów). Przykładowy program po‐ równujący obliczenia podstawową metodą Monte Carlo z wynikami według formuły (5.7) przedstawiony jest na listingu 5.1.\n\n#include <iostream>\n#include <random>\n#include <cmath>\n4 double rnorm() {\n5 static std::mt19937_64 gen;\n6 static std::normal_distribution<double> norm(0,1);\n7 return norm(gen);\n}\n9 int main() {\n// parametry dla opcji\n11 const double T = 3./12.; // czas wykupu\n12 const double K = 12; // cena wykupu\n13 const double r=0.05; // oprocentowanie\n14 const double sigma = 2.5; // zmienność\n15 const double S0 = 10; // cena początkowa akcji\n// parametry dla metody Monte Carlo\n17 const int n = 10'000'000; // ile wartości dla uśredniania\n18 const int m = 500; // liczba podprzedziałów przy\n// symulacji\n// ---------------------------------------------------\n21 double Sum = 0;\n22 for (int i=0; i<n; ++i) {\n23 if (i%1000==0) std::cout << i << \"\\n\";\n// jedna ścieżka\n26 double S = S0; //w S liczę końcową cenę akcji;\n27 double dt = T/m; double sdt = sqrt(dt);\n28 for (int j=0; j<m; ++j) {\n29 double dW = rnorm()*sdt;\nS += S*(r*dt + sigma*dW);\n}\nSum += std::max( 0., S-K);\n}\n34 double sr = Sum/n;\nstd::cout << \"oszacowanie ceny = \" << sr*exp(-T*r) << \"\\n\";\n}\nListing5.1.MetodaMonteCarlodlaeuropejskichopcjikupna\n\nNaprzykładdlaK = 12,T = 3/12,S = 10,r = 0.05,σ = 2.5cena opcjikupnawyznaczonapouśrednieniu107 trajektorii(zktórychkaż‐ da była obliczona w 500 punktach) podstawową metodą Monte Carlo wyniosła 4.23032. Tymczasem cena ze wzoru (5.7) to 4.22914.\nPo co robić symulacje rozwoju cen akcji, skoro równanie (5.2) można rozwiązać analitycznie? Chodzi właśnie o to, by program, taki jakopisanywyżej,mógłzostaćdopasowanydozupełnieinnejsytuacji niż tylko ta wymagająca końcowej ceny akcji. Modyfikacja programu w ten sposób, by obliczał oszacowania cen opcji w innych, trudniej‐ szych analitycznie przypadkach, jest stosunkowo prosta. Może to do‐ tyczyć na przykład opcji amerykańskich (dowolny moment realizacji prawazakupulubsprzedaży),opcjiazjatyckich(zależnychodśredniej wartości ceny aktywa bazowego w ustalonym okresie w przyszłości), opcji z progiem (przekroczenie progu w wyznaczonym odcinku czaso‐ wym powoduje uzyskanie premii).\n5.3.7. MostBrowna\nCzasem, przy generowaniu trajektorii procesu Wienera, pojawia się potrzebagenerowaniatrajektoriioznanympoczątkuikońcu.Takapo‐ trzeba może wystąpić na przykład przy losowaniu warstwowym tra‐ jektorii procesu stochastycznego. Kanonicznym przypadkiem są tra‐ jektorie procesu Wienera uwarunkowane zależnością W(1) = 0. Taki proces, tzn. (W(t)|W(1) = 0), nazywany jest mostem Browna.\nKilka trajektorii tego procesu zostało przedstawionych na rysun‐ ku 5.4.\nMożna udowodnić [12], że jeżeli W(t) jest procesem Wienera, to\nB(t) = W(t)−t⋅W(1) jest mostem Browna. Podobnie, jeżeli B(t) jest mostem Browna, to\nW(t) = B(t)+t⋅Z jest procesem Wienera, gdzie Z jest niezależną od B(t) zmienną loso‐ wą o rozkładzie N(0,1).\n\n0.5\n-0.5\n-1\n0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1\n)t(W t\nRys.5.4.PięćprzykładowychtrajektoriimostuBrowna\nTwierdzenie5.3. NiechW(t)będzieprocesemWienerainiech0 ⩽ t < t < t .\na b\nWtedyW(t),przywarunkuW(t ) = w ,W(t ) = w ,marozkładnormalny a a b b ześrednią\n(t −t)w +(t−t )w b a a b t −t b a iwariancją\n(t−t )(t −t) a b .\nt −t b a\nDowód można znaleźć np. w [12]. Dla nas istotne jest praktyczne znaczenie: gdy znamy dwa punkty trajektorii procesu Wienera i chce‐ myjeuzupełnićpunktami„pomiędzy”,towłaśnietakiegouzupełnienia można dokonać, losując z rozkładu normalnego o parametrach poda‐ nych w twierdzeniu 5.3.\n5.3.8. Losowaniewarstwowekońcoweprzysymulacjitrajektorii\nJeżeli do jakiejś symulacji potrzebujemy obliczania wielu trajektorii procesu Wienera, to jakość losowania może być podniesiona poprzez zapewnienie „sprawiedliwego” losowania. Mianowicie, jeśli końcową\n√ chwiląsymulacjijestT,towiadomo,żeW(T) ∼ N(0, T).Jeżelizbiór liczb rzeczywistych podzielimy na kilka podzbiorów o jednakowych\n\nprawdopodobieństwachdlategorozkładu,tosensownewydajesię,by liczbawartościkońcowychtrajektorii, którenależą dokażdegoz tych zbiorów, była podobna.\nPrzykład 5.4. Na rysunku 5.5 przedstawiono jedenaście przypadkowo wylo‐ sowanychtrajektoriiprocesuWienera.Rzucasięwoczybraksymetriiosiowej względemosiodciętych,któryjestoczywiściedziełemprzypadku.\nPoniżej przedstawiony jest algorytm, który losuje k trajektorii procesu\nWienera, i‐ta trajektoria kończy się w i‐tym podzbiorze R, i = 0,1,...k − 1, przy czym każdy z tych podzbiorów jest jednakowo prawdopodobny według\n√ rozkładuN(0, T),każdatrajektoriareprezentowanajestprzezm+1punk‐ tówodpowiadającychchwilom0 = t < t < t < ... < t = T.\n0 1 2 m\nTrajektorie procesu Wienera z użyciem mostu Browna\nKażde spośród m zakończeń trajektorii wylosowane jest z jed‐ nego z m rozłącznych zbiorów o jednakowym prawdopodobień‐ stwie względem rozkładu W(T).\ndla i = 0,1,... k−1 wygeneruj U z rozkł. jednostajnego na [0,1) v = (i+U)/k // v ∈ [ i/k, (i+1)/k)\n√\nW(t ) = t Φ−1(v) m m dla j = 1,2,..., m−1 generuj Z z rozkładu N(0,1)\nW(t ) = (t −t )/(t −t ) W(t )+ j m j m j−1 j−1\n+(t −t )/(t −t ) W(t )+ j j−1 m j−1 m\n+√((t −t )(t −t ))/(t − t )Z m j j j−1 m j−1\nRysunek5.6pokazuje11trajektoriiwylosowanychprzyużyciute‐ go właśnie algorytmu. Rzeczywiście ten rysunek wygląda na bardziej\n„wyrównany”,awięcmożnaspodziewaćsięmniejszejwariancjiwyni‐ ków symulacji.\n................................. koniecprzykładu5.4 .................................\n\n-1\n-2\n0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1\n)t(W t\nRys.5.5.JedenaścietrajektoriiprocesuWienera\n-1\n-2\n0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1\n)t(W t\nRys.5.6.JedenaścietrajektoriiprocesuWienerazlosowaniemwarstwowymkońcowym, jakwprzykładzie5.4\n5.4. PróbkowanieMonteCarlołańcuchamiMarkowa\nGrupametodznanapodnazwą„próbkowanieMonteCarlołańcuchami\nMarkowa” opiera się na konstruowaniu łańcuchów Markowa, na pod‐ stawiektórychmożnaotrzymywaćpróbkizinteresującegonasrozkła‐ du.ŁańcuchyMarkowatoprocesystochastycznezczasemdyskretnym,\n\ndlaktórychcharakterystycznejestto,żeprawdopodobieństwauzyski‐ waniaposzczególnychstanówwkolejnymkrokuzależątylkoodstanu procesu w kroku bezpośrednio poprzedzającym rozważany moment.\nMetody te szczególnie przydatne okazały się w przybliżaniu nu‐ merycznym całek wielowymiarowych, umożliwiając koncentrację ob‐ liczeń na najważniejszych punktach (o największej gęstości interesu‐ jącego nas rozkładu).\nWgrupietychmetodwyróżniasię–zewzględunabogatąhistorię i czytelny opis – algorytm Metropolisa–Hastingsa.\n5.4.1. AlgorytmMetropolisa–Hastingsa\nAlgorytm,znanyjakoalgorytmMetropolisa,zostałopisanyw1953ro‐ ku [24], później go ulepszono [15] i jego zmodyfikowana wersja to właśnie algorytm Metropolisa–Hastingsa.\nZałóżmy,żemamypewienwielowymiarowyrozkładodanejfunk‐ cji gęstości f∶ Rd → R. Jak się okaże w algorytmie – wystarczy znajo‐ mość f(⋅) z dokładnością do stałej, gdyż w algorytmie ta funkcja wy‐ stępuje jednocześnie w liczniku i mianowniku pewnego ułamka.\nPotrzebnajesttakże funkcja błądzenia losowego q(y|x),któ‐ ra oblicza gęstość prawdopodobieństwa położenia kolejnego punktu y, gdy w poprzednim kroku przyjęty został punkt x. To może być na przykład gęstość rozkładu wielowymiarowego normalnego z warto‐ ściąoczekiwanąxiwariancją(macierząwariancjiikowariancji)przy‐ jętą stosownie do rozważanego zagadnienia. Najprościej jest przyjąć, żeq(y|x)jestgęstościąd‐wymiarowegorozkładunormalnegozniesko‐ relowanymiwspółrzędnymiiśredniąx.Wariancjedlaposzczególnych współrzędnychmożnadopracowaćeksperymentalnie,umieszczającna początku algorytmu dodatkową pętlę, która wypróbuje różne warian‐ cje i dobierze właściwe wartości (być może różne dla różnych współ‐ rzędnych). Zbyt małe wariancje q(y|x) są niekorzystne, bo oznaczają, żestanyłańcuchabędąsiępobadanejprzestrzeniprzemieszczałyzbyt wolno. Za duża wariancja z kolei może oznaczać wielką liczbę przejść wregionyzniskągęstościąf(⋅),cobędziepowodowaćniewielkąfrak‐ cję akceptowanych próbek. Można się spotkać z zaleceniami dobiera‐ nia funkcji q(y|x) tak, by frakcja akceptowanych punktów wynosiła\n\nokoło 30%. W opisie algorytmu, dla zachowania przejrzystości zakła‐ damy, że funkcja q(y|x) jest dana.\nOto przebieg algorytmu [12]:\nAlgorytm Metropolisa–Hastingsa\nWejście: funkcja gęstości f(⋅), funkcja błądzenia losowego q(y|x), punkt początkowy x .\ndla t = 1, 2, ..., n wylosuj y z rozkładu q(⋅|x );\nt−1 wylosuj u rozkładu jednostajnego na [0,1] jeżeli u < f(y)q(x t−1 |y) f(x )q(y|x ) t−1 t−1 x = y t w przeciwnym razie x = x t t−1\nW praktyce – oprócz wspomnianej fazy dobrania właściwych pa‐ rametrów dla q(y|x) – początkową część otrzymywanych puntów od‐ rzuca się, by szybciej uniezależnić uzyskany zbiór punktów od stanu początkowego x .\nZauważmy jeszcze, że na przykład dla funkcji błądzenia losowe‐ go q(y|x), będącej gęstością rozkładu normalnego o średniej x, mamy oczywiście q(x|y) = q(y|x). Zatem funkcja q(⋅|⋅) znika z nierówności w opisanym wyżej algorytmie, dając czytelną interpretację: jeżeli gę‐ stość w punkcie y jest większa niż w punkcie x , to na pewno y t−1 zostaniezaakceptowany,jeślinatomiastgęstośćwnowowygenerowa‐ nympunkciejestmniejszaniżwpoprzednim,toprawdopodobieństwo f(y) jego przyjęcia jest równe stosunkowi .\nf(x ) t−1\nJak uzasadnić poprawność tego algorytmu? Po pierwsze, z ogól‐ nychwłasnościłańcuchówMarkowawynika,żejeśliłańcuchMarkowa jestodwracalnywzględempewnejmiary,tomiaratajestmiarąstacjo‐ narną. Odwracalność łańcucha względem miary oznacza, że równie prawdopodobne jest bycie w chwili t w stanie ze zbioru A (to zależy odtejwłaśniemiary)iprzejściedostanuzezbioruB(tojużzwiązane jestz„działaniem”łańcucha),cobyciewchwilitwstaniezezbioruB i przejście do stanu ze zbioru A w chwili następnej. I tak ma być dla wszystkich możliwych par mierzalnych zbiorów A,B.\n\nZ algorytmu Metropolisa–Hastingsa wynika, że dla ustalonego x, gęstość przejścia od stanu x do stanu y (dla x ≠ y) pomnożona przez f(x) wynosi f(y)q(x|y) f(x)q(y|x)⋅min( ,1) f(x)q(y|x) i łatwo sprawdzić, że wartość ta jest symetryczna ze względu na x i y.\nZatemmiarazadanarozkłademf(⋅)jestdlałańcuchatworzonego algorytmem Metropolisa–Hastingsa miarą stacjonarną.\nStacjonarnośćrozkładuf(⋅)implikuje,żewychodzączdowolnego stanu – o ile stany łańcucha komunikują się ze sobą – rozkład łańcu‐ cha w chwili n zbliża się do właśnie tego rozkładu stacjonarnego, gdy n → ∞.\nKomunikowaniesięzesobąstanówłańcuchałatwozapewnimydo‐ bierającfunkcjęq(⋅|⋅),którasięnigdzieniezeruje,naprzykładopartą o rozkład normalny.\nZadania\nZadanie5.1.Napiszfunkcjęprzyjmującąjakoparametry:wielkośćpró‐ by n, funkcję h∶ R2 → R, funkcję ψ∶ R2 → {0,1} oraz liczby rzeczywi‐ ste x ,x ,y ,y . Jej wynikiem jest oszacowanie podstawową metodą\n1 2 1 2\nMonte Carlo całki ∫∫ h(x,y)dxdy, gdzie obszar D to zbiór tych punk‐\nD tów,dlaktórychfunkcjaψ(⋅,⋅)dajewynik1iktóryjestzawartywpro‐ stokącie [x ,x ]×[y ,y ]. Wykonaj test dla\n1 2 1 2\nD = {(x,y) ∈ R2∶ x < y < 3x, 1 < y < 5,x > 0,y > 0}, x x h(x,y) = y, [x ,x ]×[y ,y ] = [0.5,2.5]×[1,4].\nx 1 2 1 2\nZadanie 5.2. Powróćmy do przykładu 5.1. Dla m = 30 i α = 0.05 pra‐ ca[25]podaje(napodstawie105 prób)oszacowaniewartościkrytycz‐ nejtestuKołmogorowa–Lillieforsarówne0.1590.Woryginalnejpracy\nLillieforsa [22] oszacowanie to wynosiło 0.161, na podstawie dużo mniejszej mniejszej liczby prób. Zweryfikuj te wartości, oblicza‐ jąc oszacowanie punktowe na podstawie 107 prób.\nZadanie5.3.Zmodyfikujprogramzlistingu5.1,takbydziałałdlaeuro‐ pejskiej opcji sprzedaży.\n\nZadanie 5.4. Zmodyfikuj rozwiązanie zadania 5.3, tak aby dotyczyło azjatyckiej opcji sprzedaży. Opcja ta w momencie wykupu T będzie miała wartość max(K − A,0), gdzie K jest ustaloną z góry ceną wy‐ konania, natomiast A to średnia z całego okresu od nabycia opcji do wykonania.\nZadanie 5.5. Napisz funkcję w C++ realizującą algorytm Metropolisa–\nHastingsa, która przyjmuje następujące parametry:\nn punkt początkowy x 0 , n funkcję f(⋅) proporcjonalną do gęstości rozkładu, n funkcję h(⋅) do liczenia wartości oczekiwanej Ef(X), gdzie X po‐ chodzi z rozkładu c ⋅ f(X) dla nieznanej wartości stałej normali‐ zującej c, n n – liczbę próbek, które posłużą do oszacowania średniej, n m – liczbę prób, na podstawie których oceniona zostanie jedna para odchyleń standardowych dla funkcji błądzenia losowego, n k – liczbę próbek do pominięcia po fazie „dostrojenia” funkcji błądzenia losowego, n\nS–wektorproponowanychodchyleństandardowych,któretrzeba wypróbować w fazie ustalania funkcji błądzenia losowego.\nFunkcja błądzenia losowego ma być budowana (dla każdej współrzęd‐ nej) na podstawie rozkładu normalnego, parametry mają być tak do‐ bierane, by wyznaczyć parę parametrów dającą frakcję akceptacji jak najbliższą 30%.\nWypróbujdziałanie,przyjmującfunkcjęh(⋅)zzadania5.1,funkcję f(⋅)będącąfunkcjącharakterystycznązbioruDzzadania5.1,n = 108, m = 104, k = 105 i wektor możliwych odchyleń standardowych S postaci\nS = [2−4,2−3,2−2,2−1,20,21,22].\nOdpowiedzi,wskazówki\nZadanie5.1.Dla przykładu testowego wynik dokładny to 4.\nZadanie5.5. Dla danych testowych wynik dokładny to 2 . Dla funkcji ln3 błądzenia losowego najlepszy wybór z proponowanych to σ = 0.25, x\nσ = 2.\ny\n\nBibliografia\n1. Aho A.V., Ullman J.D. i Hopcroft J.E., Projektowanie i analiza algoryt‐ mów,Helion2003.\n2. Badger L., Lazzarini’s lucky approximation of π, Mathematics Maga‐ zine,67,http://www.jstor.org/stable/2690682(dostęp20.04.2025),\n83–91,1994.\n3. BartosJ.,KrólikowskaK.,WasilewskiM.,DyczkaW.iKrysickiW.,\nRachunek prawdopodobieństwa i statystyka matematyczna w zada‐ niach. Część 1: rachunek prawdopodobieństwa, Wydawnictwo Nauko‐ wePWN2004.\n4. BartosJ.,KrólikowskaK.,WasilewskiM.,DyczkaW.iKrysickiW.,\nRachunek prawdopodobieństwa i statystyka matematyczna w zada‐ niach.Część2:statystykamatematyczna,WydawnictwoNaukowePWN\n2004.\n5. BoxG.E.P.iMullerM.E.,Anoteonthegenerationofrandomnormalde‐ viates, The Annals of Mathematical Statistics, 29, DOI:10.1214/aoms/\n1177706645,610–611,1958.\n6. Brown L.D., Cai T.T. i DasGupta A., Interval estimation for a binomial proportion,StatisticalScience,16,101–133,2001.\n7. CornfeldI.,FominS.iSinaiY.G.,ErgodicTheory,Springer‐Verlag1982.\n8. EvansL.C.,Anintroductiontostochasticdifferentailequations,Ameri‐ canMathematicalSociety2013.\n9. Fichtenholz G.M., Rachuek różniczkowy i całkowy, Tom I, Wydawnic‐ twoNaukowePWN2007.\n10. FortunaZ.,MacukowB.iWąsowskiJ.,Metodynumeryczne,Wydawnic‐ twoNaukowePWN2017.\n11. GajekL.iKałuszkaM.,Wnioskowaniestatystyczne,WNT1996.\n12. GlassermanP.,MonteCarloMethodsinFinancialEngineering,DOI:10.\n1007/978‐0‐387‐21617‐1,Springer2013.\n13. GuttermanZ.iPinkasB.,Analysisofthelinuxrandomnumbergenera‐ tor,http://www.pinkas.net/PAPERS/gpr06.pdf(dostęp20.04.2025).\n14. HaltonJ.H.,Ontheefficiencyofcertainquasi‐randomsequencesofpo‐ ints in evaluating multi‐dimensional integrals, Numerische Mathema‐ tik,2,84–90,1960.\n15. HastingsW.K.,Montecarlosamplingmethodsusingmarkovchainsand theirapplications,Biometrica,57,97–109,1970.\n16. Jakubowski J. i Sztencel R., Rachunek prawdopodobieństwa dla (pra‐ wie)każdego,Script2017.\n17. KleinA.,LinearFeedbackShiftRegisters,w:KleinA.,StreamCiphers,\nDOI:10.1007%2F978‐1‐4471‐5079‐4_2,Springer2013.\n\n18. Knuth D.E., Sztuka programowania. Tom 2: Algorytmy seminumerycz‐ ne,WNT2002.\n19. LaplaceP.S.de,Théorieanalityquedesprobabilités,1812.\n20. Lazzarini M., Un’applicazione del calcolo della probabilità alla ricerca sperimentale di un valore approssimato di π, Periodico di Matematica perl’InsegnamentoSecondario,4,140–143,1901.\n21. LehmerD.,Mathematicalmethodsinlarge‐scalecomputingunits,Pro‐ ceedingsofaSecondSymposiumonlarge‐scaledigitalcalculatingma‐ chinery,141–146,1949.\n22. Lilliefors H.W., On the Kolmogorov–Smirnov test for normality with meanandvarianceunknown,JournaloftheAmericanStatisticalAsso‐ ciation,62,DOI:10.1080/01621459.1967.10482916,399–402,1967.\n23. Marsaglia G. i Bray T.A., A convenient method for generating normal variables,SIAMReview,6,DOI:10.1137/1006063,260–264,1964.\n24. MetropolisN.,RosenbluthA.W.,RosenbluthM.N.,TellerA.H.iTellerE.,\nEquation of state calculations by fast computing machines, Journal of\nChemicalPhysics,21,1087–1092,1953.\n25. MolinP.iAbdiH.,Newtablesandnumericalapproximationfor theKolmogorov–Smirnov/Lillierfors/vanSoesttestofnormality,Tech‐ nicalreport,Univ.ofBourgogne,https://personal.utdallas.edu/~herve/\nMolinAbdi1998‐LillieforsTechReport.pdf,1998.\n26. Niederreiter H., Random number generation and quasi‐Monte Carlo methods,SocietyforIndustrialiAppliedMathematics1992.\n27. SierpińskiW.,Teorialiczb,WydawnictwoNaukowePWN1959.\n28. SignorellA.,Desctools:toolsfordescriptivestatistics,https://CRAN.R‐ project.org/package=DescTools,Rpackageversion0.99.55,2024.\n29. Thomson W.E., A modified congruence method of generating pseudo‐\n‐randomnumbers,TheComputerJournal,1,DOI:10.1007/978‐1‐4471‐\n5079‐4_2,1958.\n30. WallisS.,Binomialconfidenceintervalsandcontingencytests:mathe‐ matical fundamentals and the evaluation of alternative methods,\nJournal of Quantitative Linguistics, 20, DOI: 10.1080/09296174.2013.\n799918,178–208,2013.\n31. Zieliński R., Przedział ufności dla frakcji, Matematyka Stosowana, 37,\nDOI:10.14708/ma.v37i51/10.265,2009.\n32. ZielińskiR.,MetodyMonteCarlo,WNT1970.\n\nIndeks terminów algorytm middlesquare27\nMetropolisa–Hastingsa117 modelVasička104 mostBrowna113 biblioteka boost 55,57,58,69 okresciągu26,30,31,33\nDescTools102 opcje random55 amerykańskie113\nBuffon17 azjatyckie113,120 europejskie110 całkaItô107 ciągHaltona92 prawdopodobieństwo geometryczne13 funkcja prawowielkichliczb20 błędu57 proces kwantylowa37 stochastyczny103\nWienera104,106 generatorl.losowych25 prostametodaMonteCarlo22 generatorl.pseudolosowych26 prostaregresji77 liniowy29 przedziałufności ziarno16,21,55 dlafrakcji67 generatorvonNeumanna27 dlakwantyli102 dlaśredniej65\nLaplace19 przekształcenieergodyczne21\nLazzarini19 rejestryprzesuwające33 łańcuchMarkowa116 rozkładCholeskiego50 metoda testKołmogorowa–Lillieforsa101 akceptacji/odrzucania52 transformacjaBoxa–Mullera43 losowania twierdzenie istotnościowego79 ergodyczneBirkhoffa21 warstwowego81\nLindeberga–Lévy’ego43\nMarsaglia–Braya47 quasi‐MonteCarlo88 współczynnik zmiennychantytetycznych71 redukcjiwariancji72 zmiennychkontrolnych74 miaraLebesgue’a13,90 zgodnośćestymatora20", "token_count": 65283} -{"added": "2026-09-08", "author": "Gułkowski, Sławomir", "created": "2026", "id": "rock_pollub_pl_513c690d-72b3-4604-b62e-e21e44b91645", "license": "CC-BY-SA-4.0", "source": "rock_pollub_pl", "text": "Modelowanie i analiza eksperymentalna parametrów pracy modułów fotowoltaicznych w warunkach rzeczywistych\n\nRada Naukowa Wydawnictwa Politechniki Lubelskiej\nPrzewodnicząca:\nAgnieszka Rzepka\nDyrektor CINT:\nKatarzyna Weinper\nPrzedstawiciele Dyscyplin Naukowych Politechniki Lubelskiej:\nMarzenna Dudzińska\nMałgorzata Franus\nArkadiusz Gola\nBeata Kowalska\nGrzegorz Komarzyniec\nJarosław Latalski\nTomasz Lipecki\nZbigniew Łagodowski\nLucjan Pawłowski\nNatalia Przesmycka\nHalina Rarot\nMagdalena Rzemieniak\nArkadiusz Syta\nWydawnictwo Politechniki Lubelskiej:\nMagdalena Chołojczyk\nKarolina Famulska-Ciesielska\nKatarzyna Pełka-Smętek\n\nMONOGRAFIE POLITECHNIKI LUBELSKIEJ\nModelowanie i analiza eksperymentalna parametrów pracy modułów fotowoltaicznych w warunkach rzeczywistych\nSławomir Gułkowski\nLublin 2026\n\nRecenzenci:\nprof. dr hab. inż. Dorota Chwieduk, Politechnika Warszawska dr hab. inż. Piotr Olczak, prof. Instytutu Gospodarki Surowcami Mineralnymi i Energią PAN\nAutor:\ndr Sławomir Gułkowski, ORCID: 0000-0003-4082-1391\nPolitechnika Lubelska – ROR: https://ror.org/024zjzd49\nRedaktor prowadzący: Aleksandra Drozd\nKorekta językowa: Aleksandra Drozd\nSkład i łamanie: Łukasz Maj\nProjekt graficzny serii: Łukasz Maj\nMonografia została sfinansowana z programu projakościowego Politechniki Lubelskiej pn.:\n„Granty na finansowanie kosztów publikacji monografii naukowej” (Grant nr: 9/GMN/2025)\nZdjęcie na okładce – Sławomir Gułkowski.\nO ile nie wskazano inaczej, wszystkie ilustracje stanowią opracowanie własne autora.\nPublikacja wydana za zgodą Rektora Politechniki Lubelskiej\nISBN: 978-83-7947-673-2 (wersja drukowana)\nISBN: 978-83-7947-674-9 (wersja elektroniczna)\nDOI: 10.35784/9788379476749\nWydawca: Wydawnictwo Politechniki Lubelskiej www.wpl.pollub.pl ul. Nadbystrzycka 36C, 20-618 Lublin tel. (81) 538-46-59\nKsiążka udostępniona jest na licencji Creative Commons Uznanie autorstwa – na tych samych warunkach 4.0 Międzynarodowe (CC BY-SA 4.0)\nNakład: 50 egz.\n\nSpis treści\nWykaz skrótów 11\nWykaz symboli 12\n1. Wstęp i cel pracy 15\n2. Przegląd literatury 21\n2.1. Charakteryzacja modułów PV 21\n2.2. Modelowanie parametrów pracy modułów PV 28\n2.3. Ocena wydajności systemów fotowoltaicznych 33\n3. Obiekty badawcze i metodyka badań 37\n3.1. Obiekty badawcze 39\n3.1.1. System eksperymentalny I-DEA\nUniwersytetu w Jaén (Hiszpania) 39\n3.1.3. System eksperymentalny KIOŹE\nPolitechniki Lubelskiej (Polska) 45\n3.1.3. System eksperymentalny farmy PV,\nEnergia Dolina Zielawy (Polska) 52\n3.2. Model matematyczny oraz metodyka badań parametrów charakterystycznych modułów PV i wydajności systemów fotowoltaicznych 57\n3.2.1. Parametry charakterystyczne modułu PV 57\n3.2.2. Czteroparametrowy model diodowy 66\n3.2.3. Pięcioparametrowy model diodowy 68\n3.2.4. Parametry modelu diodowego w zmiennych warunkach G i T 72\n3.2.5. Parametry pracy systemu fotowoltaicznego 74\n3.2.6. Niepewności pomiarowe w analizie parametrów pracy modułów i systemów PV 79\n4. Wyniki badań i dyskusja 81\n4.1. Analiza parametrów pracy modułów fotowoltaicznych 83\n4.1.1. Analiza parametrów elektrycznych metodą regresji liniowej 83\n4.1.2. Analiza parametrów temperaturowych metodą regresji liniowej 90\n4.1.3. Analiza parametrów elektrycznych metodą translacji krzywych I-V do warunków standardowych 96\n\n4.2. Długoterminowa analiza parametrów pracy modułów PV 100\n4.3. Analiza parametrów elektrycznych w systemie stacjonarnym 109\n4.4. Analiza parametrów modelu diodowego modułu PV 113\n4.4.1. Model jednodiodowy pięcioparametrowy 113\n4.4.2. Analiza zależności parametrów modelu w funkcji natężenia promieniowania słonecznego i temperatury modułu PV 122\n4.4.3. Model diodowy czteroparametrowy 128\n4.5. Ocena wydajności systemów fotowoltaicznych różnych technologii 133\n4.5.1. Analiza uzysków energii. Współczynnik wydajności PR 133\n4.5.2. Analiza spadku wydajności systemów PV. Współczynnik PLR 144\n5. Podsumowanie i wnioski 149\nBibliografia 154\n\nAutor składa serdeczne podziękowania wszystkim osobom, które przyczyniły się do powstania niniejszej monografii.\nAutor pragnie podziękować dr. Piotrowi Draganowi za możliwość prowadzenia badań dotyczących instalacji eksperymentalnej farmy fotowoltaicznej w Bordziłówce.\nAutor wyraża szczególne podziękowania prof. Vicente Muñozowi oraz prof. Gustavo Nofuentesowi za ich życzliwość i wsparcie naukowe w zakresie charakteryzacji modułów i systemów fotowoltaicznych, a także prof. Jorge Aguilerze za możliwość prowadzenia badań podczas pobytu autora na Uniwersytecie w Jaén.\nEl autor expresa su especial agradecimiento a prof. Vicente Muñoz y prof. Gustavo Nofuentes por su amabilidad y apoyo académico en la caracterización de módulos y sistemas fotovoltaicas, así como a prof. Jorge Aguilera por la posibilidad de realizar investigaciones durante mi estancia en la Universidad de Jaén.\n\nModelowanie i analiza eksperymentalna parametrów pracy modułów fotowoltaicznych w warunkach rzeczywistych\nStreszczenie\nNiniejsza monografia poświęcona jest analizie parametrów pracy modułów oraz systemów fotowoltaicznych. Szczególną uwagę skupiono na technologiach bazujących na krzemie krystalicznym, w tym technologii PERC (ang. Passivated Emitter and Rear Cell). Analizą objęto również cienkowarstwowe moduły fotowoltaiczne wykonane z diselenku miedziowo-indowo-galowego (CIGS), tellurku kadmu\n(CdTe) oraz krzemu amorficznego. Zbadano również technologię hybrydową HIT (ang. Heterojunction with Intrinsic Thin Layer). Badania przeprowadzono na terenie Politechniki Lubelskiej, na farmie fotowoltaicznej w Bordziłówce (województwo lubelskie) oraz na Uniwersytecie w Jaén w południowej Hiszpanii.\nPostawiono hipotezę, że zastosowanie zaproponowanych metod modelowania komputerowego oraz analiz eksperymentalnych umożliwia dokładną ocenę parametrów pracy modułów fotowoltaicznych różnych technologii w rzeczywistych warunkach eksploatacyjnych.\nW części badawczej monografii wyróżniono trzy etapy. Pierwszy dotyczy analizy parametrów elektrycznych i temperaturowych modułów PV, uzyskanych na podstawie charakterystyk prądowo-\n-napięciowych (I-V). Pomiary przeprowadzono w rzeczywistych warunkach eksploatacyjnych, charakteryzujących się dużą dynamiką zmian oraz wyraźną odmiennością względem tzw. standardowych warunków testowych. Zaproponowano metodykę wyznaczania parametrów referencyjnych modułów\nPV na podstawie krzywych I-V zmierzonych w warunkach rzeczywistych.\nW kolejnej części opracowania przeprowadzono analizę korelacji parametrów eksperymentalnych modułów PV z parametrami uzyskanymi przy użyciu modelu diodowego, co pozwoliło na zaproponowanie relatywnie prostych, a jednocześnie dokładnych modeli matematycznych do symulacji krzywych prądowo-napięciowych w dowolnych warunkach natężenia promieniowania słonecznego oraz temperatury modułu PV.\nOstatnia część monografii jest skoncentrowana na analizie systemów fotowoltaicznych podłączonych do sieci elektroenergetycznej. Przedstawiono ocenę miesięcznych uzysków i strat energii oraz współczynnika wydajności w pierwszym roku eksploatacji farmy PV. Dokonano analizy stopnia degradacji modułów PV, stosując standardowe metody, takie jak metoda rok do roku (ang. year-on-year, YoY) oraz klasycznej dekompozycji sezonowej (ang. classical seasonal decomposition, CSD). Zaproponowano alternatywną metodę opartą na technice analizy widma szczególnego (ang. singular spectrum analysis,\nSSA), która okazała się skuteczna w przypadku danych krótkookresowych wydajności systemów PV.\nSłowa kluczowe: energia słoneczna; moduły fotowoltaiczne; współczynniki temperaturowe; charakterystyki prądowo-napięciowe (I-V); specyficzny uzysk energii; współczynnik wydajności; degradacja modułów PV;\nmodelowanie komputerowe; model jednodiodowy\n\nModeling and Experimental Analysis of Photovoltaic Module Operating\nParameters under Real Outdoor Conditions\nAbstract\nThis monograph is devoted to the analysis of the operating parameters of photovoltaic modules and systems. Particular attention was focused on technologies based on crystalline silicon, including\nPERC (Passivated Emitter and Rear Cell) technology. The analysis also covered thin-film photovoltaic modules made of copper-indium-gallium diselenide (CIGS), cadmium telluride (CdTe), and amorphous silicon, as well as the hybrid HIT technology (Heterojunction with Intrinsic Thin Layer). The research was conducted at the Lublin University of Technology, at a photovoltaic farm in Bordziłówka (Lublin\nVoivodeship), and at the University of Jaén in southern Spain. It was hypothesised that the application of the proposed computer modeling methods and experimental analyses enables an accurate assessment of the operating parameters of photovoltaic modules of various technologies under real operational conditions.\nThe research section of the monograph is divided into three stages. The first stage focuses on analysing the electrical and temperature parameters of PV modules, obtained from current–voltage\n(I-V) characteristics. The measurements were conducted under real operating conditions, characterised by high variability and a clear deviation from the so-called standard test conditions (STC). A methodology for determining the reference parameters of PV modules based on I-V curves measured under real conditions was proposed.\nIn the next part of the study, a correlation analysis was conducted between the experimental parameters of PV modules and the parameters obtained using the diode model, which enabled the development of relatively simple yet accurate mathematical models for simulating current–voltage\n(I-V) curves under any solar irradiance and PV module temperature conditions.\nThe final part of the monograph focuses on the analysis of grid-connected photovoltaic systems.\nThe assessment included monthly energy yields and losses, as well as the performance ratio during the first year of the PV farm’s operation. The degradation of PV modules was also analysed using standard methods, such as the year-on-year (YoY) approach and classical seasonal decomposition\n(CSD). Additionally, an alternative method based on singular spectrum analysis (SSA) was proposed, which proved particularly effective for short-term PV system performance data.\nKeywords: s olar energy; photovoltaic modules; temperature coefficients; current–voltage characteristics (I-V);\nspecific energy yield; performance ratio; PV module degradation; computer modeling; single diode model\n\nWykaz skrótów\nAM – masa optyczna atmosfery a-Si – krzem amorficzny\nCdTe – tellurek kadmu\nCI – przedział ufności\nCIGS – diselenek miedziowo-indowo-galowy\nCIS – selenek miedziowo-indowy\nCSD – klasyczna dekompozycja sezonowa\nDC – prąd stały\nHIT – ogniwo heterozłączowe z cienką warstwą niedomieszkowaną\nMATLAB – środowisko programistyczne do obliczeń naukowo-inżynierskich mc-Si – krzem multikrystaliczny\nMPP – punkt mocy maksymalnej\nNOCT – nominalna temperatura pracy ogniwa\nOPC – rzeczywiste warunki pomiaru pc-Si – krzem polikrystaliczny\nPERC – ogniwo fotowoltaiczne z pasywacją tylnej powierzchni\nPOA – płaszczyzna modułów fotowoltaicznych\nPV – fotowoltaika\nPVGIS – fotowoltaiczny system informacji geograficznej\nPVLIB – biblioteka funkcji w środowisku MATLAB lub Python wspomagająca analizę parametrów działania systemów fotowoltaicznych\nRANSAC – metoda konsensusu losowej próby (ang. random sample consensus) sc-Si – krzem monokrystaliczny\nSDM – jednodiodowy model ogniwa lub modułu fotowoltaicznego\nSSA – analiza widma szczególnego\nSTC – standardowe warunki testowe\nTOPCon – ogniwo fotowoltaiczne z tunelową warstwą tlenku i pasywacją kontaktu (ang. tunnel oxide passivated contact)\nYoY – rok do roku\n\nWykaz symboli\nA – powierzchnia modułów PV (m2) a – stała zależna od materiału półprzewodnikowego ogniwa si a – współczynnik diody w funkcji temperatury w modelu n pięcioparametrowym\nARE – błąd względny (%) b – stała zależna od materiału półprzewodnikowego ogniwa si\nCM – macierz kowariancji\nE – energia generatora fotowoltaicznego po stronie prądu\nA stałego (Wh)\nE (T) – przerwa energetyczna półprzewodnika w temperaturze T (eV) g\nE – przerwa energetyczna półprzewodnika w temperaturze 0 K g0\n(eV)\nE – energia wyprodukowana przez system fotowoltaiczny na out wyjściu z falownika (Wh)\nFF – współczynnik wypełnienia (−)\nG – natężenie promieniowania słonecznego (W·m−2)\nH – napromieniowanie (Wh·m−2)\nI – natężenie prądu (A)\nI – natężenie prądu nasycenia diody (A)\nI – natężenie fotoprądu (A)\nL\nI – natężenie w punkcie mocy maksymalnej (A) m\nI – natężenie prądu zwarcia (A) sc k – stała Boltzmana (1,38110−23 J/K)\nB\nL – straty systemowe (Wh·W−1) s ∙\nL – straty konwersji energii (Wh·W−1) c mi – indeks miesiąca (1, 2, 3, itd.)\nN – liczba zarejestrowanych wartości natężenia promieniowania słonecznego oraz wartości mocy generatora fotowoltaicznego\nNMBE – znormalizowany średni błąd systematyczny (%)\nNRMSE – znormalizowany pierwiastek średniego błędu kwadratowego (%)\n\nn – współczynnik diody\nPLR – współczynnik spadku wydajności (%/r)\nPR – współczynnik wydajności systemu fotowoltaicznego\nP – moc nominalna generatora fotowoltaicznego (W)\nP – moc generatora fotowoltaicznego po stronie prądu stałego (W)\nA\nPR – współczynnik wydajności generatora fotowoltaicznego\nDC\n(po stronie prądu stałego)\nP – moc nominalna (W) m\nP – moc maksymalna wyznaczona na podstawie punktów z pomiarowych q – ładunek elementarny (1,610−19 C)\nR – rezystancja szeregowa (Ω) s ∙\nR – rezystancja równoległa (Ω) sh\nTr – trend szeregu czasowego mi\nT – temperatura zewnętrzna (°C) a\nT – temperatura ogniwa lub modułu (°C) m\nV – napięcie (V)\nV – napięcie w punkcie mocy maksymalnej (V) m\nV – napięcie obwodu otwartego (V) oc\nW {·} – główna gałąź funkcji Lamberta,\nX* – wielkość X w standardowych warunkach testowych, gdzie X to np. V oc\n, I sc\n, P m oraz G i T m\nY – kolejna wartość (i-ta wartość) w szeregu czasowym Y i\nY – uzysk energii z generatora fotowoltaicznego (Wh·W−1)\nA\nY – końcowy uzysk energii z systemu PV (Wh·W−1) f\nY – uzysk referencyjny (Wh·W−1) r u – niepewność wyznaczenia współczynnika degradacji\nRD\n– wariancja współczynników dopasowania prostej do trendu szeregu czasowego\nα – temperaturowy współczynnik natężenia prądu zwarcia\nIsc\n(%/°C)\nα , α – współczynniki empiryczne natężenia prądu\n1 2 w czteroparametrowym modelu diodowym\n\n– współczynniki empiryczne napięcia w funkcji natężenia\nβ1, β2 promieniowania słonecznego w czteroparametrowym modelu diodowym\n– temperaturowy współczynnik napięcia obwodu otwartego voc\nβ (%/°C)\n– współczynniki empiryczne napięcia w funkcji temperatury\nγ1, γ2 w czteroparametrowym modelu diodowym\n– temperaturowy współczynnik mocy (%/°C)\nPm\nγ – współczynnik empiryczny rezystancji szeregowej exp\nγτ – przedział (krok) czasowy (h)\nη – sprawność (%)\nκ – współczynnik temperaturowy rezystancji szeregowej modułu PV (Ω/°C)\nρ – współczynnik eksperymentalny służący do wyznaczenia temperatury modułu na podstawie temperatury otoczenia i natężenia promieniowania słonecznego (0,035 °C·m2/W)\n\n1. Wstęp i cel pracy\nW ciągu ostatnich kilku lat światowy sektor fotowoltaiki (PV) doświadcza ogromnego wzrostu. W roku 2023 osiągnął moc zainstalowaną 1,6 TW (IEA-PVPS,\n2024). Zgodnie z raportem Międzynarodowej Agencji Energetycznej (IEA-PVPS,\n2024) w 2023 roku co najmniej 29 krajów zainstalowało ponad 1 GW mocy w instalacjach PV. W roku 2022 było ich 25. Łączna moc PV w nowych instalacjach w 2023 roku podwoiła się zatem w porównaniu do roku 2022 (ok. 446 GW w 2023 i 236 GW w 2022). Największy w tym udział w 2023 roku przypadł Chinom, aż\n662,0 GW; następnie 268,1 GW krajom Unii Europejskiej; 169,5 GW Stanom\nZjednoczonym; 95,3 GW Indiom oraz 91,4 GW Japonii (IEA-PVPS, 2024).\nOgromny rozwój sektora PV nie ominął także Polski. Na koniec pierwszego kwartału 2024 roku całkowita moc zainstalowana w PV wyniosła 17,73 GW, z czego znaczną część stanowiły mikroinstalacje prosumenckie o mocy do\n50 kW. Na koniec 2023 roku ich liczba przekroczyła 1,4 mln sztuk. Moc zainstalowana przekroczyła 11,2 GW, co stanowiło 64% całkowitej mocy PV (IEO,\n2025). Na dynamiczny rozwój rynku prosumenckiego wpłynęły m.in. programy wsparcia finansowego, które opisane zostały w wielu pracach (Duda i in., 2022;\nKulpa i in., 2022; Olczak i in., 2021a, 2021b, 2022). W ostatnim czasie udział mikroinstalacji w strukturze mocy spada za sprawą rosnącej liczby małych instalacji w zakresie mocy od 50 kW do 1000 kW oraz farm powyżej 1 MW.\n\nZgodnie z danymi przedstawionymi przez Instytut Energetyki Odnawialnej\n(IEO, 2025) procentowy udział mocy małych instalacji i farm w sektorze PV na koniec marca 2024 roku wyniósł odpowiednio 25,1% i 11%.\nW ostatnich latach, wraz z rozwojem sektora fotowoltaiki w Polsce rośnie również liczba jednostek prowadzących badania naukowe w tym zakresie. Przejawem tego są artykuły naukowe, których autorami lub współautorami są polscy naukowcy. Opublikowane prace dotyczą zarówno analizy parametrów pracy pojedynczych modułów PV, jak i systemów fotowoltaicznych. Dla przykładu, w publikacjach zbadano wpływ warunków atmosferycznych na parametry pracy, w tym sprawność nowej generacji modułów PV, dwustronnych (ang. bifacial), wykonanych w technologii krzemu monokrystalicznego (Dobrzycki i in., 2021; Kurz i in.,\n2025). Opublikowano również analizę wpływu chłodzenia na parametry pracy modułu krzemowego polikrystalicznego (Sarniak, 2021). Eksperymenty przeprowadzono na dwóch identycznych modułach PV, z których jeden wyposażono dodatkowo w system chłodzenia oparty na wymuszonym przepływie powietrza na tylnej stronie modułu PV. W innej pracy zbadana została możliwość zastosowania materiałów fazowo-zmiennych (PCM, ang. phase change materials) o grubości od\n2 cm do 5 cm w celu odprowadzenia ciepła z modułu PV (Klugmann-Radziemska i Wcisło-Kucharek, 2017). W kolejnej pracy przeanalizowano możliwości zastosowania hybrydowych modułów PV/T w umiarkowanym klimacie na przykładzie warunków panujących w Polsce (Bigorajski i Chwieduk, 2019). Autorzy zaproponowali modyfikację wzoru służącego do obliczania temperatury modułu PV, dostosowaną do analizowanego typu konstrukcji, a następnie wykorzystali ją w badaniach symulacyjnych systemu PV/T na przykładzie budynku jednorodzinnego.\nPorównanie produkcji energii przez moduły fotowoltaiczne zainstalowane w różnych konfiguracjach przedstawiono w pracy, gdzie pokazano różnicę w uzyskach energii modułu PV w układzie stacjonarnym zorientowanym pod kątem 37°, oraz modułu znajdującego się na dwuosiowym układzie śledzenia, tzw. systemu nadążnego (Frydrychowicz-Jastrzębska i Bugała, 2021). Liczne artykuły dotyczą również analizy parametrów pracy mikroinstalacji PV. Trzeba tu wspomnieć o pracy dotyczącej działania pompy ciepła zasilanej energią z systemu fotowoltaicznego, przeznaczonej do ogrzewania budynku jednorodzinnego o niskim zapotrzebowaniu na energię w warunkach klimatycznych Polski (Chwieduk i Chwieduk, 2021).\nPowstało także porównanie produkcji energii w okresie rocznym czterech instalacji\n\no mocach od 3,58 kW do 7,13 kW zlokalizowanych w województwie lubelskim\n(Krawczak, 2023). Każda z instalacji składa się z modułów wykonanych w technologii krzemu monokrystalicznego. Dane eksperymentalne zostały porównane do wyników symulacji komputerowych przeprowadzonych z wykorzystaniem programów wspierających projektowanie systemów fotowoltaicznych, takich jak\nDDS CAD, PVSol, PVGIS, PVWatts. Pracę poświęcono także porównaniu eksperymentalnych uzysków energii z obliczeniami teoretycznymi (Sarniak, 2020).\nW tym przypadku rozmiar analizowanej instalacji nie przekroczył 3,5 kW. Analiza wydajności instalacji fotowoltaicznych o mocach 4,4 kW i 5 kW składających się z modułów monokrystalicznych także zaprezentowana została w publikacjach\n(Kazanecka i Olczak, 2023; Olczak, 2022). Przeanalizowane zostały uzyski energii kilku instalacji o mocach w zakresie od 3,66 kW do 40 kW zorientowanych na południe, wschód-zachód i zachód-południe oraz o kątach nachylenia w zakresie od 10° do 30° (Gulkowski, 2022). Dokonano porównania wydajności systemu\nPV na przestrzeni trzech lat (Gulkowski i Krawczak, 2024a). Moc analizowanej instalacji PV jest równa 9,6 kW. System złożony jest z monokrystalicznych modułów krzemowych nowej generacji. Dodatkowo przedstawiono wyniki analiz warunków atmosferycznych w rozważanym okresie. Wpływ wybranych warunków pogodowych na wydajność systemu PV zaprezentowany został również w innej publikacji (Sarniak, 2024).\nW literaturze można znaleźć artykuły dotyczące analiz ekonomicznych zawierających czasy zwrotu inwestycji w system PV dla różnych założeń programów wsparcia (Bukowski i in., 2021; Cieślak, 2022). Dokonano też oceny czynników wpływających na produkcję energii z instalacji fotowoltaicznych (Izdebski i Kosiorek, 2023). We wspomnianej pracy oceniono hierarchię czynników ekonomicznych, technicznych i społecznych produkcji energii z PV. Analizowana instalacja ma rozmiar 10 kW. Powstało również opracowanie dotyczące czynników wpływających na rozwój inwestycji PV, barier ekonomicznych, rynkowych, środowiskowych i infrastrukturalnych, a także czynników napędzających rozwój sektora PV w Polsce na tle innych krajów Europy, będących liderami w dziedzinie fotowoltaiki, takich jak Niemcy, Włochy czy Hiszpania (Wardal i in., 2024).\nDostępna jest również ocena makroekonomicznego kontekstu branży fotowoltaicznej w Polsce (Hysa i Mularczyk, 2024). Metodę oceny projektów fotowoltaicznych opisano w publikacji proponującej system bazujący na informacji geograficznej\n\n(GIS) oraz wskaźnika LCOE (ang. levelized cost of electricity), w celu analizy kwalifikowalności gruntów i przeprowadzania ocen techniczno-ekonomicznych pod kątem ich rozmieszczenia pod systemy fotowoltaiczne (Benalcazar i in., 2024).\nWraz ze wzrostem liczby farm fotowoltaicznych (o mocy powyżej 1 MW) pojawiły się również w ostatnich latach prace dotyczące zarówno symulacji komputerowych uzysków energii (Walichnowska i in., 2022), jak i prace przedstawiające rzeczywistą produkcję energii oraz wydajność systemów zlokalizowanych w Polsce\n(Dragan i Zdyb, 2017; Krechowicz i in., 2022; Zdyb i Gulkowski, 2020). Uwagę zwrócono również na systemy hybrydowe, w których energia produkowana pochodzi zarówno z instalacji fotowoltaicznej, jak i farmy wiatrowej (Małek i in., 2024).\nNie sposób nie wspomnieć o połączeniu instalacji fotowoltaicznej z magazynem energii. Rozwiązanie takie również zostało opisane (Ross i in., 2023). W pracy przeanalizowano farmę o mocy 1 MW z magazynem energii o pojemności 0,5 MWh i sprawności 0,87. W innej publikacji zaprezentowano natomiast konieczność inwestycji w magazyny energii w celu zrównoważenia produkcji energii ze źródeł zależnych od pogody i zapewnienia stabilności produkcji energii elektrycznej ze źródeł o niskiej elastyczności (Olczak i Matuszewska, 2023).\nW świetle dynamicznie rozwijającego się rynku fotowoltaiki w Polsce i na świecie, rosnącej liczby zarówno małych, jak i mikroinstalacji a także farm\nPV, istotnego znaczenia nabiera sektor O&M (ang. operation & maintenance) związany z monitoringiem systemów fotowoltaicznych, charakterystyką modułów PV i oceną parametrów ich pracy.\nNiniejsze opracowanie poświęcone jest analizie parametrów pracy modułów fotowoltaicznych (PV) różnych technologii w warunkach zewnętrznych. Badania prowadzono w trzech odmiennych lokalizacjach: na terenie\nPolitechniki Lubelskiej, na farmie fotowoltaicznej w Bordziłówce w województwie lubelskim oraz na Uniwersytecie w Jaén w południowej Hiszpanii.\nW ramach przeprowadzonych badań analizie poddano moduły PV pierwszej i drugiej generacji. Pierwszą stanowią moduły z krzemu monokrystalicznego\n(sc-Si), polikrystalicznego (pc-Si), w tym zaawansowane technologie, takie jak\nHIT (ang. heterojunction with intrinsic thin layer) oraz PERC (ang. passivated emitter rear cell). W ramach drugiej generacji zbadano moduły wykonane w technologii tellurku kadmu (CdTe) oraz diselenku miedziowo-indowo-galowego\n(CIGS), a także krzemu amorficznego (a-Si). Różnorodność badanych technologii\n\numożliwiła weryfikację skuteczności i uniwersalności zaproponowanej metodyki badań parametrów pracy modułów fotowoltaicznych. Analizę przeprowadzono w oparciu o szereg pomiarów charakterystyk prądowo-napięciowych modułów\nPV, zarówno w okresie krótkoterminowym, jak i długoterminowym. W rezultacie pracy badawczej zaproponowano metodę wyznaczenia parametrów referencyjnych badanych modułów PV na podstawie analizy krzywych I-V zmierzonych w warunkach rzeczywistych.\nProsty, szybki i dokładny model matematyczny modułu PV odgrywa ogromną rolę w prognozowaniu uzysków energii i wydajności systemów fotowoltaicznych, i tym samym stanowi doskonałe narzędzie w ocenie efektywności ich pracy. Dlatego też, w ramach prac badawczych, wykonano analizę parametrów modelu jednodiodowego w zmiennych warunkach natężenia promieniowania słonecznego i temperatury modułu PV. Z uwagi na zastosowanie pojedynczej diody skupiono się na modelowaniu charakterystyk prądowo-napięciowych modułów pierwszej generacji, uwzględniając najnowsze technologie (HIT, PERC).\nKorelacja wyników modelowania z pomiarami doświadczalnymi umożliwiła zaproponowanie relatywnie prostych i dokładnych modeli matematycznych służących do symulacji kształtu krzywych I-V modułów fotowoltaicznych oraz ich parametrów charakterystycznych w dowolnych warunkach atmosferycznych.\nW ramach badań wykonano również analizę parametrów pracy modułów\nPV funkcjonujących w systemie fotowoltaicznym podłączonym do sieci energetycznej w pierwszym roku po uruchomieniu farmy PV. Wyniki analiz dotyczyły modułów należących zarówno do pierwszej (pc-Si), jak i drugiej generacji\n(CdTe, CIGS, a-Si). Ocenę parametrów pracy wykonano pod kątem uzysków energii, wydajności poszczególnych technologii oraz strat energii. Zbadano także współczynnik spadku wydajności poszczególnych technologii w okresie trzech pierwszych lat po uruchomieniu farmy PV. Zastosowano do tego celu metodę rok do roku (ang. year-on-year, YoY) oraz klasyczną dekompozycję sezonową\n(ang. classical seasonal decomposition, CSD). Ponadto zaproponowano alternateywną metodę opartą na technice analizy widma szczególnego (ang. singular spectrum analysis, SSA), która sprawdziła się w przypadku krótkookresowych danych dotyczących wydajności systemów PV.\nHipoteza badawcza zakłada, że zaproponowane metody analizy eksperymentalnej i modelowania komputerowego umożliwiają dokładne określenie\n\nparametrów pracy modułów i systemów fotowoltaicznych w warunkach rzeczywistych.\nSzczegółowe cele badawcze pracy można sformułować następująco:\n analiza parametrów elektrycznych i temperaturowych modułów fotowoltaicznych w zmiennych warunkach natężenia promieniowania słonecznego i temperatury modułów PV,\n analiza wybranych metod modelowania charakterystyk I-V modułów PV umożliwiających prognozowanie ich parametrów pracy w funkcji natężenia promieniowania słonecznego i temperatury modułów PV,\n analiza produkcji i strat energii przez systemy fotowoltaiczne, złożone z modułów różnych technologii, podłączone do sieci energetycznej,\n analiza wydajności systemów fotowoltaicznych oraz degradacji modułów\nPV pierwszej i drugiej generacji w okresie krótkoterminowym.\nRealizacja wyznaczonych celów badawczych wymagała opracowania przez autora programów komputerowych, w których zaimplementowano metody analizy danych pochodzących z systemów fotowoltaicznych oraz omówione w książce modele komputerowe. Kluczowym elementem było również zapewnienie kompatybilności opracowanych programów z istniejącymi bibliotekami numerycznymi przeznaczonymi do pracy na danych PV1.\nProgramy komputerowe napisane zostały w środowisku przeznaczonym do obliczeń naukowych MATLAB firmy MathWorks (The MathWorks Inc.,\n2023). Zarówno analizę danych, modelowanie komputerowe, jak i prezentację wyników, w postaci wykresów, wykonano z wykorzystaniem programów napisanych w wersji R2023a (aktualizacja 4) programu na licencji Politechniki\nLubelskiej. Obliczenia numeryczne zostały przeprowadzone na komputerze PC wyposażonym w procesor Intel(R) Core(TM) i5-12600KF 3.70 GHz dwunastej generacji, 16 GB pamięci RAM i kartę graficzną NVIDIA GeForce GTX 1660 z 64-bitowym systemem operacyjnym Windows 11 Pro.\n1 Na przykład biblioteką PVLIB (Holmgren i in., 2018).\n\n2. Przegląd literatury\n2.1. Charakteryzacja modułów PV\nCharakteryzację modułów fotowoltaicznych pod kątem parametrów pracy można podzielić na dwie kategorie. W pierwszej mieszczą się parametry elektryczne charakteryzujące moduł PV. Do drugiej kategorii zaliczyć można współczynniki temperaturowe informujące o tym, jak zmieniają się poszczególne parametry elektryczne modułu PV pod wpływem temperatury. Zarówno parametry elektryczne, jak i temperaturowe podawane są dla ściśle ustalonych warunków zwanych standardowymi warunkami testowymi STC (ang. standard test conditions). Zalicza się do nich natężenie promieniowania słonecznego padającego na powierzchnię modułów PV, którego wartość wynosi 1000 W·m−2;\ntemperaturę modułów wynoszącą 25°C oraz współczynnik AM = 1,5, związany z odpowiednią energią kwantów padającego promieniowania słonecznego.\nAnalizując temperaturę modułu definiuje się również wielkość NOCT\n(ang. nominal operating cell temperature), tj. temperaturę modułu w obwodzie otwartym zmierzoną w następujących warunkach: natężenie padającego promieniowania słonecznego G = 800 W·m−2, temperatura powietrza\nT = 20°C, prędkość wiatru 1 m·s−1. Można znaleźć eksperymentalną zależa ność pomiędzy temperaturą powietrza a temperaturą typowego modułu PV\n\n(Wenham i in., 2013). Autorzy podają prosty wzór (2.1) wiążący dwie wartości temperatury:\n(2.1) gdzie:\nT – temperatura ogniwa lub modułu (°C), m\nT – temperatura zewnętrzna (°C), a\nG – natężenie promieniowania słonecznego (W·m−2),\nρ – współczynnik eksperymentalny równy 0,035°C·m2/W.\nCzęsto stosuje się w tym celu wzór (2.2) wykorzystujący wartość NOCT\n(Elbreki i in., 2017; Kaplanis i in., 2022). Zależność ta jest istotna w sytuacjach, gdy zamiast temperatury modułu rejestrowana jest temperatura zewnętrzna.\n(2.2) gdzie:\nNOCT – temperatura ogniwa lub modułu (°C).\nBardziej złożonej zależności uwzględniającej także, poza temperaturą otoczenia i natężeniem promieniowania słonecznego, współczynniki strat cieplnych oraz transmitancję i absorpcję pokrywy modułu słonecznego również poświęcono publikację (Kou i in., 1998).\nIstotne wnioski wynikają z kompleksowego przeglądu zależności sprawności modułu PV oraz mocy generowanej w funkcji temperatury (Skoplaki i Palyvos, 2009). Autorzy stwierdzają, że temperatura modułu odgrywa kluczową rolę w procesie konwersji energii przez moduł PV. Zarówno moc wyjściowa jak i elektryczna wydajność są liniowymi funkcjami temperatury modułu PV i maleją wraz z jej wzrostem. Badacze podkreślają przy tym, że przedstawione w pracy równania oraz ich parametry nie zależą wyłącznie od materiału, z jakiego zbudowane są ogniwa, ale także od specyfikacji systemu fotowoltaicznego, czyli na przykład od sposobu montażu modułów, tj. zastosowanych elementów montażowych czy stopnia integralności z budynkiem.\n\nLiniowe zależności parametrów elektrycznych modułu PV także zostały przedstawione w pracach (Dubey i in., 2015; Piliougine i in., 2025). Na ich podstawie wyznaczono współczynniki temperaturowe wspomnianych wielkości elektrycznych modułów wykonanych w technologii krzemu monokrystalicznego i multikrystalicznego a także modułów cienkowarstwowych (CIGS, a-Si).\nAutorzy pierwszej pracy (Dubey i in., 2015) zaznaczyli, że na wielkość napięcia obwodu otwartego, poza temperaturą, wpływ ma także natężenie promieniowania słonecznego, jednak w zakresie od 600 Wm–2 do 1000 Wm–2 wpływ ten jest nieznaczny dla wszystkich badanych technologii.\n∙ ∙\nZależność współczynników temperaturowych w funkcji natężenia promieniowania słonecznego była również przedmiotem badań (Gasparin i in., 2022).\nAutorzy dokonali pomiarów charakterystyk prądowo-napięciowych kilku modułów wykonanych w technologii krzemu multikrystalicznego (6 modułów) oraz krzemu polikrystalicznego (2 moduły) i przedstawili jak zmienia się temperaturowy współczynnik mocy maksymalnej, napięcia obwodu otwartego i natężenia prądu zwarcia w zależności od natężenia promieniowania. Badania przeprowadzono w zakresie natężeń od 100 W∙m–2 do 1000 W∙m–2. Stwierdzono, że współczynnik temperaturowy napięcia obwodu otwartego maleje wraz ze zmniejszającą się wartością natężenia promieniowania słonecznego, przy czym spadek ten staje się bardziej znaczący poniżej 600 W∙m–2, co potwierdzają również inne obserwacje (Dubey i in., 2015). Jak podkreślają autorzy, wielkość natężenia promieniowania słonecznego nie wpływa znacząco na współczynnik temperaturowy prądu zwarcia. Co więcej, w przypadku modułów charakteryzujących się wysoką sprawnością, zależność współczynnika temperaturowego mocy od natężenia promieniowania słonecznego jest praktycznie stała. Fakt ten zaobserwowano dla modułów PERC o sprawnościach ok. 22%. Natomiast moduły starszego typu (o sprawnościach poniżej 20%) wykazały większą „wrażliwość” na temperaturę przy niższych wartościach natężenia promieniowania.\nW literaturze odnajdziemy wyniki badań wpływu temperatury modułu PV na jego parametry pracy (Senturk, 2020a). Przedmiotem analizy były dwa moduły\nPV wykonane w technologii krzemu multikrystalicznego oraz cienkowarstwowego (CIGS). Zbadano trzy główne parametry, tj. moc w punkcie mocy maksymalnej, napięcie obwodu otwartego i natężenie prądu zwarcia z uwzględnieniem różnych warunków pogodowych tj. dnia słonecznego, częściowo pochmurnego\n\ni pochmurnego (nie podano w jaki sposób autor definiuje poszczególne dni).\nWykonano symulację poszczególnych parametrów dla danej wartości natężenia promieniowania słonecznego i temperatury modułów PV oraz współczynników temperaturowych podanych przez producenta w karcie charakterystyki (przypadek 1). Analogiczną symulację wykonano z pominięciem zależności temperaturowych, uwzględniając wyłącznie wpływ natężenia promieniowania słonecznego na parametry pracy modułów PV (przypadek 2). Wyniki obu symulacji porównano z pomiarami doświadczalnymi używając błędu NRMSE (znormalizowany pierwiastek średniego błędu kwadratowego) jako metryki. W przypadku natężenia prądu zwarcia nie zaobserwowano znaczącej różnicy między wartościami otrzymanymi z uwzględnieniem i bez uwzględnienia wpływu temperatury w obu technologiach i we wszystkich rodzajach dnia (słoneczny, pochmurny itd.).\nŚwiadczy to o pomijalnym wpływie temperatury na wartość natężenia prądu.\nNatomiast w przypadku napięcia obwodu otwartego oraz mocy maksymalnej różnice te są istotne, w szczególności w dniach słonecznych. Oznacza to konieczność uwzględnienia temperatury w obliczeniach mocy. Co ciekawe, porównanie wyników otrzymanych dla dni pochmurnych z doświadczeniem pokazuje, że uwzględnienie efektów temperaturowych prowadzi do większych błędów w prognozowaniu mocy niż ich pominięcie. Efekt ten zaobserwowano dla obu badanych technologii modułów (krzem krystaliczny i CIGS).\nW celu określenia parametrów pracy modułu PV w standardowych warunkach testowych wyróżnić można dwa podejścia. Pierwsze z nich, o charakterze laboratoryjnym, polega na pomiarze charakterystyk prądowo-napięciowych (I-V) z wykorzystaniem symulatora Słońca. Metoda laboratoryjna umożliwia kontrolowane odwzorowanie wybranych warunków pracy modułów fotowoltaicznych w szerokim zakresie natężenia promieniowania słonecznego i temperatury z uwzględnieniem standardowych warunków testowych. Opisywaną metodę zastosowano w pracy, w której symulator Słońca posłużył do analizy charakterystyk I-V modułu PV w technologii krzemu polikrystalicznego (Ruschel i in.,\n2021). Celem pomiarów było zbadanie zależności parametrów modelu diodowego od natężenia promieniowania oraz temperatury, co jest również tematem niniejszego opracowania. Symulator, którego użyto do pomiarów gwarantuje pomiar parametrów elektrycznych z dokładnością 0,2%, a błysk światła (ang. flash) o długości 10 ms umożliwił oświetlenie obszaru 4 m2. Analizy przeprowadzone\n\nna urządzeniu wykazały niejednorodność rzędu 0,27%. Weryfikację przeprowadzono rejestrując prąd zwarcia ogniwa krzemowego multikrystalicznego w 64 różnych pozycjach pomiarowych. Badanie modułów przeprowadzono dla różnych wartości natężenia promieniowania słonecznego ustawiając kolejno wartości w zakresie od 1000 W·m−2 do 75 W·m−2 co 50 W·m−2 utrzymując stałą wartość temperatury modułów w zakresie 25°C ± 1°C. Analogicznie wykonano pomiary zachowując stałe wartości natężenia promieniowania słonecznego i zmieniając temperaturę modułów w zakresie od 25°C do 60°C. Pomiar jednej krzywej I-V trwał 10 ms, co pozwoliło na uzyskanie 418 punktów pomiarowych. Kontrolę temperatury zapewniła komora wyposażona w termoizolację oraz specjalny materiał zamocowany do tylnej strony modułu umożliwiający jego podgrzewanie. Dodatkowo wentylatory umożliwiały utrzymanie jednolitej temperatury na powierzchni modułu.\nW innej pracy opisana została analogiczna metoda pomiaru parametrów charakterystycznych modułów PV w technologii krzemu polikrystalicznego za pomocą symulatora Słońca (Malik i in., 2021). Pomiary krzywych I-V w standardowych warunkach testowych wykonano w celu zbadania rzeczywistych parametrów modułów PV pracujących w systemie fotowoltaicznym. Zbadano dokładność modeli diodowych o różnej liczbie parametrów (od 3 do 5) porównując prognozowaną moc wyjściową modułów PV z wartością doświadczalną. Zastosowany symulator Słońca zapewnił natężenie promieniowania słonecznego o wartości 1000 W·m–2 na powierzchni 4 m2. W tym przypadku niejednorodność wyniosła do ± 2%.\nDrugą metodą umożliwiającą wyznaczenie parametrów charakterystycznych modułu fotowoltaicznego są pomiary prowadzone w warunkach zewnętrznych, z wykorzystaniem naturalnego promieniowania słonecznego.\nW przeciwieństwie do metody laboratoryjnej, w tym przypadku nie ma możliwości pełnej kontroli warunków testowych – zmienność natężenia promieniowania słonecznego, temperatury otoczenia, temperatury modułu oraz innych czynników ogranicza stabilność pomiarów. Z tego powodu jednym z najważniejszych urządzeń jest rejestrator charakterystyk I-V (ang. tracer I-V), którego zadaniem jest wykonanie pomiaru krzywej w jak najkrótszym czasie w celu zachowania jednorodnych warunków pomiaru (głównie natężenia promieniowania słonecznego). W kolejnej pracy (Zhu i Xiao, 2020) scharakteryzowano\n\nkilka urządzeń do rejestracji krzywych I-V. Porównanie obejmuje zarówno czas wykonania pomiaru, jak i rozdzielczość oraz zakresy pomiarowe poszczególnych urządzeń. Czas potrzebny na rejestrację jednej charakterystyki I–V waha się zazwyczaj od 0,005 s do 15 s, w zależności od urządzenia oraz zakresu pomiaru. Maksymalne zakresy pomiaru napięcia zawierają się w przedziale od 20 V do 1500 V, natomiast maksymalne zakresy pomiaru natężenia prądu wynoszą od 15 A do 100 A. Przedstawione zestawienie obejmuje także urządzenia zastosowane w ramach niniejszej pracy (IV500w oraz PVPM).\nUrządzenie PVPM2540 wykorzystano również w pomiarach charakterystyk prądowo-napięciowych modułów w technologii krzemu monokrystalicznego (Drouiche i in., 2018). Do rejestracji temperatury modułu użyto czujnika\nPt1000, natężenie promieniowania słonecznego zarejestrowano natomiast za pomocą ogniwa referencyjnego. W oparciu o zmierzone krzywe wyznaczono parametry charakterystyczne modułów PV, a następnie parametry modelu diodowego w warunkach referencyjnych. Parametry modelu wykorzystane zostały następnie do oceny jego dokładności w oparciu o dane o produkcji energii systemu fotowoltaicznego o mocy 3,2 kW, ze szczególnym uwzględnieniem dni słonecznych i pochmurnych.\nAutorzy definiują dzień pochmurny jako dzień, w którym odnotowuje się znaczące wahania wartości natężenia promieniowania słonecznego. W przypadku dnia słonecznego natomiast nie obserwuje się wahań wartości natężenia w ciągu dnia. Bardziej precyzyjnym wskaźnikiem jest współczynnik oparty na tzw. modelu czystego nieba, w którym zmierzone w danym okresie napromieniowanie porównuje się do wartości teoretycznej (modelowej). W przypadku dnia słonecznego wartość współczynnika nie powinna być niższa niż 0,75.\nDzień częściowo pochmurny odpowiada wartości w przedziale od 0,25 do 0,75.\nWartość poniżej 0,25 oznacza dzień całkowicie pochmurny (Theocharides i in., 2024).\nUrządzenie PVPM2540 wykorzystano także do badania modułów PV różnych technologii (Mittal i in., 2018). Podobnie jak w poprzednim przypadku, natężenie promieniowania rejestrowano za pomocą ogniwa referencyjnego, natomiast temperaturę mierzono za pomocą czujnika Pt100. Badane moduły to m.in. technologie cienkowarstwowe (CIGS, ang. cooper indium gallium diselenide, CdTe, ang. cadmium telluride) oraz technologie krzemowe (krzem\n\nmultikrystaliczny i amorficzny). Autorzy porównali metody sztucznej inteligencji z modelem diodowym pod kątem prognozy wydajności modułów PV.\nInnym urządzeniem stosowanym do rejestracji charakterystyk prądowo-napięciowych jest IV500. Przykładowo zastosowano je do pomiaru krzywych IV modułów w technologii krzemu multikrystalicznego (Kumar i Kumar,\n2017). Podobnie jak w poprzednich przypadkach, do pomiaru natężenia promieniowania słonecznego wykorzystano ogniwo referencyjne. Do pomiaru temperatury modułów zastosowano sensor Pt300N. W wyniku otrzymano 128 punktów eksperymentalnych dla każdej krzywej. Wyniki wykorzystano do analizy dokładności jedno i dwudiodowego modelu modułu PV.\nW literaturze odnotowuje się również podejścia bazujące wyłącznie na analizie mocy maksymalnej modułów PV. Przeanalizowano wpływ temperatury na moc generowaną przez moduł PV (Rahman i in., 2015). Dodatkowo przedstawiono korelację temperatury modułu PV i natężenia promieniowania słonecznego padającego na jego powierzchnię, która w tym przypadku mierzona była za pomocą pyranometru. Temperatura natomiast mierzona była za pomocą termopar typu K. Moc w punkcie mocy maksymalnej (MPP, ang.\nmaximum power point) rejestrowano również w innej pracy (Massi Pavan i in.,\n2014) w celu oceny dokładności modelu analitycznego w zmiennych warunkach natężenia promieniowania słonecznego i temperatury. Do badań wykorzystano moduły różnych technologii uwzględniając technologie cienkowarstwowe CIGS i CdTe. W kolejnej pracy (Fébba i in., 2018) przedstawiono analizę wpływu temperatury modułu PV na jego parametry modułu. Do badań użyto modułów w technologii krzemu polikrystalicznego. Badania przeprowadzono dla wartości temperatury w zakresie od 25°C do 55°C i natężenia promieniowania słonecznego wynoszącego 1000 W·m−2. Do pomiaru natężenia wykorzystano pyranometr CM4 (Kipp & Zonen). Moduły PV zostały zamontowane na aluminiowej płycie o kontrolowanej temperaturze. Do kontroli jednorodnego rozkładu temperatury użyto kamery termowizyjnej. Pomiar charakterystyk przeprowadzono wykorzystując urządzenie Keithley 2635A Source Measuring\nUnit (SMU), wykonujące pomiary natężenia prądu i napięcia z 5-cyfrową rozdzielczością. Szczegółową analizę wpływu temperatury modułu na jego parametry przedstawił również we wspomnianej już pracy Kaplanis i inni (2022).\nPodobnie jak poprzednio, do pomiaru natężenia promieniowania słonecznego\n\nużyto wysokiej klasy pyranometru (CM11) oraz prowadzono rejestrację temperatury modułu PV.\n2.2. Modelowanie parametrów pracy modułów PV\nMetody modelowania komputerowego pozwalają opisać kształt charakterystyki prądowo-napięciowej modułu fotowoltaicznego i tym samym określić jego parametry pracy. Do pierwszej grupy metod należy zaliczyć metody analityczne, w których poszczególne parametry modelu dane są wzorami. Druga grupa wymaga zastosowania technik rozwiązania odpowiedniego układu równań w celu obliczenia parametrów modelu (Boutana i in., 2017; Et-torabi i in.,\n2017; Lo Brano i Ciulla, 2013; Toledo i Blanes, 2014). Najczęściej do opisu krzywej I-V stosuje się elektryczny schemat diodowy, o różnej liczbie diod\n(model jednodiodowy, dwudiodowy itd.). Liczba diod w modelu jest związana z jego dokładnością (Abbassi i in., 2022; Chin i in., 2016; Humada i in., 2016;\nLim i in., 2015; Ortiz-Conde i García-Sánchez, 2018; Yıldıran i Tacer, 2016).\nZarówno w jednej, jak i drugiej grupie metod chodzi o wyznaczenie parametrów pracy w warunkach referencyjnych. Opracowanie odpowiedniego dla danej technologii modułów PV modelu komputerowego ściśle wiąże się ze znalezieniem kompromisu pomiędzy nakładem zasobów systemowych i czasem obliczeń, a dokładnością zaimplementowanych rozwiązań (Abbassi i in.,\n2018; Bhuvaneswari i Annamalai, 2011; Khezzar i in., 2014; Wang i in., 2016).\nNajprostszymi rozwiązaniami, które mogą być stosowane w przypadku modułów fotowoltaicznych wykonanych w technologii krzemu krystalicznego, są modele oparte na schemacie jednodiodowym (Ciulla i in., 2014; de Blas i in.,\n2002; Lineykin i in., 2014), a także modele analityczne (Zhang i in., 2017).\nPomimo istnienia bardziej złożonych modeli, umożliwiających odwzorowanie charakterystyki prądowo-napięciowej modułu PV, jednodiodowy model doskonale sprawdza się w analizach. Porównując modelowane krzywe I-V z krzywymi doświadczalnymi w tych samych warunkach, czteroparametrowy model jednodiodowy wykazał dużą dokładność w przypadku modułów w technologii hybrydowej (HIT). Różnica między wartością napięcia obwodu otwartego otrzymaną z modelu a wartością eksperymentalną nie przekroczyła 0,3%.\n\nW przypadku natężenia prądu zwarcia – 1,4%, natomiast mocy – 2,8%. Pomiary wykonano w szerokim zakresie natężenia promieniowania słonecznego\n(400 W∙m–2 – 1100 W∙m–2) (Gulkowski i in., 2019a).\nDługoterminowe badania przeprowadzone na modułach wykonanych w technologii krzemu polikrystalicznego potwierdziły wysoką zgodność pięcioparametrowego modelu jednodiodowego w zakresie prognozowania punktu mocy maksymalnej w zmiennych warunkach zewnętrznych (Gulkowski, 2023).\nPodejście polegające na zastosowaniu modelu jednodiodowego do odwzorowania charakterystyk prądowo-napięciowych otrzymanych doświadczalnie przedstawili autorzy kolejnej pracy (Kalliojärvi-Viljakainen i in., 2022).\nObliczone wartości parametrów modułu PV wykazały wysoką dokładność, zwłaszcza przy wysokich poziomach natężenia promieniowania słonecznego.\nW niedawnych badaniach (Ramesh i in., 2025) jednodiodowy model zastosowano do prognozowania uzysku energii w zmiennych warunkach pogodowych przez moduły cienkowarstwowe w technologii CIGS. Badania uwzględniają okresy o niskim natężeniu promieniowania słonecznego. Ich rezultaty porównano z wynikami pomiarów modułów wykonanych z krzemu monokrystalicznego, PERC (ang. passivated emitter and rear cell). Z porównania wynika, że technologia CIGS wykazuje niższą wydajność niż technologia krzemowa dla natężenia promieniowania słonecznego poniżej 700 W∙m–2 oraz temperatury modułu PV nie przekraczającej 40°C. Jednakże dla wartości natężenia promieniowania powyżej 700 W∙m–2 i temperatury modułu PV około\n27°C technologia CIGS osiąga porównywalną do c-Si wydajność, a powyżej tej temperatury wydajność technologii CIGS jest większa, co wynika z niższych współczynników temperaturowych w porównaniu do technologii krzemowych.\nPodobny efekt zaobserwowano w warunkach klimatycznych Polski porównując uzyski energii z instalacji w technologii CIGS i krzemu krystalicznego\n(Gulkowski i in., 2019b).\nNa module krzemowym przeprowadzono badania doświadczalne połączone z modelowaniem komputerowym (Garcia-Marrero i in., 2025). Zbadano elastyczny moduł złożony z ogniw monokrystalicznych typu back contact (oba kontakty znajdują się w nich na tylnej stronie ogniwa). Wyniki badań pokazały, że zmodyfikowany do siedmiu parametrów model jednodiodowy charakteryzuje się większą niezawodnością w estymacji parametrów w porównaniu\n\ndo standardowego modelu pięcioparametrowego. Jednakże wyraźne różnice w wartościach poszczególnych parametrów pojawiają się dopiero w przypadku istotnych odchyleń od typowych warunków pracy modułów spowodowanych np. częściowym zacienieniem, znacznym zabrudzeniem powierzchni modułu, nierównomiernym starzeniem się ogniw czy ich zbyt wysoką degradacją.\nW jednorodnych warunkach pracy nie zaobserwowano istotnych rozbieżności parametrów modelu.\nModel jednodiodowy został również zastosowany w badaniach przeprowadzonych na module fotowoltaicznym dwustronnym (Sohani i in., 2025).\nZastosowano połączenie dwóch modeli – elektrycznego oraz termicznego.\nW tym przypadku najdokładniejszą wartość mocy modułu PV otrzymano dla modelu termicznego opartego na parametrze NOCT oraz elektrycznym SAPM\n(ang. sandia array performance model). Wyniki uzyskane z wykorzystaniem modelu diodowego DeSoto (De Soto i in., 2006) wykazały porównywalną dokładność z modelem CEC (ang. California Energy Commission), a zarazem lepszą niż prosty model PVWatts.\nPięcioparametrowy model DeSoto (De Soto i in., 2006) został zastosowany w celu modelowania parametrów elektrycznych systemu fotowoltaicznego umieszczonego na wodzie, tzw. FPV – ang. floating photovoltaics (Rahaman i in., 2023). Równania modelu użyte zostały do prognozy produkcji energii przez ten system.\nZbadano również zastosowanie modelu jednodiodowego czteroparametrowego i pięcioparametrowego do prognozy mocy generowanej przez moduły fotowoltaiczne (Mayer i Gróf, 2021). Model diodowy stanowi w tym przypadku jeden z dziewięciu zastosowanych modeli w celu obliczenia energii padającej na moduły PV, temperatury modułów PV czy wpływu zacienienia na generowanie mocy. Modele te zastosowane zostały w różnych kombinacjach do prognozy produkcji energii przez system fotowoltaiczny na podstawie danych z numerycznych prognoz pogody. Analizę dokładności prognozowania przez zastosowane modele zweryfikowano na podstawie danych o produkcji energii przez 16 farm fotowoltaicznych zlokalizowanych na terenie Węgier. Dane eksperymentalne rejestrowano co 15 minut przez okres jednego roku. Autorzy zastosowali wskaźnik umożliwiający porównanie stopnia rozproszenia danych modelowych wokół wartości eksperymentalnej. Oba modele diodowe osiągnęły\n\nwartość współczynnika wynoszącą ok. 90%. Dla porównania, najmniejsza wartość wskaźnika wyniosła 83,4%, a średnia dla wszystkich analizowanych modeli wyniosła 91,9%.\nWśród opracowań pojawił się także kompleksowy przegląd metod modelowania matematycznego wykorzystywanego do symulacji wydajności modułów PV (Fahim i in., 2022). Autorzy potwierdzają, że modele analityczne oraz modele jednodiodowe są w dalszym ciągu powszechnie stosowane ze względu na minimalne obciążenie obliczeniowe i prostą implementację, a także dużą dokładność w określonych przypadkach.\nPowszechnie stosowane metody symulacji krzywych I-V oparte na modelu jednodiodowym zostały wybrane i przebadane (Bader i in., 2019). Badania przeprowadzono w warunkach wewnętrznych. Wykazano, że większość metod osiąga wysoką dokładność wyznaczania parametrów modelu (błąd nie przekroczył 3,3%) zarówno dla warunków natężenia promieniowania słonecznego wynoszących 1000 W∙m–2 jak i 200 W∙m–2.\nW literaturze znaleźć można również prace poświęcone ulepszeniom czy modyfikacjom modelu jednodiodowego. Wprowadzone modyfikacje podnoszą dokładność modelu, nie zwiększając przy tym stopnia jego skomplikowania oraz wymogów systemowych, co opisali np. Khezzar i inni (2014).\nDokładność modelu potwierdzono na przykładzie modułu PV w technologii\nHIT (Gulkowski i in., 2019a). Analizę dokładności metody testowano na modułach różnych technologii, tj. krzemu multikrystalicznego, monokrystalicznego oraz technologii cienkowarstwowej (Tifidat i Maouhoub, 2023). Zastosowanie modyfikacji modeli diodowych opisano też w innych pracach (AbdElminaam i in., 2022). Oceniono, że zmodyfikowane modele fotowoltaiczne cechują się większą precyzją i stabilnością prognozowania parametrów pracy modułu PV niż klasyczne wersje tych samych modeli.\nNa uwagę zasługują także metody analityczne, które relatywnie dobrze sprawdzają się w modelowaniu parametrów pracy modułów różnych technologii w zmiennych warunkach natężenia promieniowania słonecznego i temperatury. Jednym z takich rozwiązań jest metoda oparta na funkcji Lamberta-W, zastosowana również w niniejszym opracowaniu. Dla wygody będzie ona nazywana w dalszej części pracy metodą (modelem) Lamberta. Jej implementacja została pokazana w pracach (Piliougine i in., 2021; Yıldıran i Tacer, 2016).\n\nAutorzy pracy, w której metoda ta była stosowana (Batzelis i Papathanassiou,\n2016), wskazują na dużą dokładność obliczeniową przy jednoczesnej łatwości implementacji. Należy zwrócić uwagę na czas obliczeń, który w przypadku metod analitycznych jest znacznie, bo ponad 3000 razy krótszy niż w przypadku modeli numerycznych. Fakt ten ma ogromne znaczenie w analizie dużych zbiorów danych. Danymi wejściowymi są wyłącznie informacje dostępne w karcie katalogowej modułu PV. Wyniki prac potwierdzone zostały w badaniach doświadczalnych. Znormalizowany średni błąd kwadratowy obliczony z porównania doświadczalnych krzywych I-V z krzywymi modelowanymi mieści się w przedziale od 0,6% do 9,4% w zależności od technologii modułu\nPV i warunków pomiaru (natężenia promieniowania słonecznego i temperatury modułu).\nMetoda bazująca na algorytmie Newtona-Raphsona została zastosowana w celu obliczenia czterech parametrów modelu diodowego bazując wyłącznie na danych z karty katalogowej modułu PV (Mlazi i in., 2024). Wyniki badań były porównane z pomiarami doświadczalnymi z uwzględnieniem modułów\nPV różnych technologii. Zaproponowana metoda wykazała dużą zgodność z wynikami doświadczalnymi.\nSkuteczność i dokładność metod analitycznych, w tym stosowanej także w niniejszym opracowaniu metody Phanga (Chan i Phang, 1987), w odniesieniu do modelowania modułów PV w technologii monokrystalicznego krzemu, a także ogniw koncentratorowych CPV (ang. concentrator photovoltaics), technologii hybrydowych HIT, prezentowana była w publikacjach (Montes-Romero i in., 2018; Sevillano-Bendezú i in., 2024). Badania potwierdziły niską wartość średniego błędu kwadratowego (RMSE, ang. root mean squared error) we wszystkich analizowanych przypadkach modułów PV i wysoką zgodność z wynikami eksperymentalnych krzywych I-V. Największa zgodność wyników modelowania z pomiarami doświadczalnymi wystąpiła w dniach słonecznych, tj. w warunkach wysokiego natężenia promieniowania słonecznego (Sevillano-Bendezú i in., 2024).\n\n2.3. Ocena wydajności systemów fotowoltaicznych\nAnaliza parametrów pracy instalacji fotowoltaicznej, bez względu na jej rozmiar, polega najczęściej na wyliczeniu uzysków energii produkowanej przez system PV w przeliczeniu na jego jednos tkową moc. Wynik zazwyczaj podaje się w odniesieniu do dnia, miesiąca lub roku. Rejestrując natężenie promieniowania słonecznego za pomocą pyranometru lub ogniwa referencyjnego, bada się dodatkowo współczynnik wydajności (PR, ang. performance ratio), wskaźnik spadku wydajności (PLR, ang. performance loss rate) a także straty konwersji energii (ang. capture losses). Współczynnik PLR wskazuje na degradację modułów PV pracujących w systemach fotowoltaicznych (Häberlin,\n2012; Pearsall, 2017). Definicje poszczególnych wielkości wykorzystywanych w analizie parametrów pracy systemów fotowoltaicznych przedstawiono w kolejnym rozdziale.\nW ostatnich latach powstało wiele opracowań dotyczących analizy systemów fotowoltaicznych porównujących wydajność modułów różnych technologii, w tym technologii cienkowarstwowych drugiej generacji (Ali i Khan, 2023; Efaz i in., 2021; Fezzani i in., 2022; Karabulut i in., 2020; Lee i in., 2022; Najjar i in.,\n2019). Coraz większą uwagę środowiska naukowego zwracają instalacje oparte na technologii modułów dwustronnych (AL-Zoubi i in., 2024; Raina i in., 2022;\nYakubu i in., 2023; Zdyb i Sobczyński, 2024). Systemy takie były również przedmiotem badań w południowo-wschodniej części Polski, gdzie wykazano większe uzyski energii w porównaniu do modułów jednostronnych (Gulkowski, 2022).\nKompleksowe badania parametrów pracy modułów dwustronnych przeprowadzono również na Uniwersytecie w Jaén w Hiszpanii (Moreno-Buesa i in., 2024).\nAutorzy prac (Abd Elsadek i in., 2024; Cieślak, 2024; Krawczak, 2023; Shukla i in., 2024) posłużyli się specjalistycznymi narzędziami wspierającymi projektowanie i modelowanie pracy instalacji fotowoltaicznych, zarówno w celu prognozowania uzysków energii, jak i do oceny opłacalności inwestycji. Narzędzia takie okazują się pomocne w analizie parametrów pracy systemów PV.\nW literaturze wiele uwagi poświęca się również zagadnieniu wpływu temperatury na wydajność modułów fotowoltaicznych oraz możliwości ich efektywnego chłodzenia w celu zwiększenia sprawności (de la Parra i in., 2017; Kumar i in., 2024; Muttillo i in., 2020; Todorović i in., 2023). Badacze prezentowali wyniki\n\ndługoterminowych badań (10 lat), wskazując m.in. na zależność sprawności systemu od prędkości wiatru, który chłodzi moduły PV i tym samym przyczynia się do wzrostu ilości produkowanej energii (Todorović i in., 2023). Kompleksową analizę warunków pogodowych, w tym prędkości wiatru, wilgotności czy opadów oraz ich wpływu na uzyski energii przez instalację fotowoltaiczną na przestrzeni trzech lat przedstawili również Gulkowski i Krawczak (2024a). Wykorzystywano też kamerę termowizyjną do analizy temperatury powierzchni modułów PV w celu wykrycia potencjalnych uszkodzeń (Muttillo i in., 2020). W istocie obraz termowizyjny umożliwia identyfikację tzw. hot spotów, czyli obszarów modułu\nPV o podwyższonej temperaturze. Jak pokazały badania (Gulkowski i in., 2018), nawet pojedyncza roślina powodująca częściowe zacienienie ogniw w module PV potrafi podnieść jego temperaturę i spowodować obniżenie wydajności, a w skrajnych przypadkach nawet uszkodzenie.\nW celu porównania uzysku energii osiągniętego przez instalację PV zlokalizowaną w Polsce i instalacje działające w innych państwach europejskich, warto odnieść się do prac, w których przedstawiono wyniki dotyczące produkcji energii z 23944 instalacji PV działających w Niemczech w latach 2012–2018, oraz ponad 8500 systemów PV działających w latach 2015–2019 w takich państwach jak Belgia, Francja, Włochy czy Niderlandy (Schardt i te Heesen, 2021;\nte Heesen i in., 2019). Dane statystyczne dotyczące uzysków specyficznych energii (tj. energii w przeliczeniu na jednostkę mocy), jak i współczynnika wydajności tak dużej próby statystycznej są doskonałym wskaźnikiem określającym ilość energii możliwą do uzyskania z instalacji PV w danej lokalizacji.\nDla przykładu, mediana uzysków specyficznych systemów PV zlokalizowanych w Niemczech wyniosła 980 kWh·kW−1 z granicami przedziałów międzykwartylowych równych 898 kWh·kW−1 i 1061 kWh·kW−1. Jednakże, średnia wartość różni się w zależności od roku, co związane jest bezpośrednio z ilością energii słonecznej docierającej do powierzchni modułów. Największą wartość średnią dla całego kraju (Niemcy) w analizowanym przedziale czasu zarejestrowano w 2018 (1022 kWh·kW−1), najmniejszą zaś w 2013 (901 kWh·kW−1). Mediana współczynnika wydajności wahała się w przedziale od 0,72 do 0,78. Odnosząc się do analiz dotyczących kilkunastu systemów PV zainstalowanych w województwie lubelskim na szerokości geograficznej wynoszącej 51,2°N otrzymane wartości uzysków specyficznych są niemalże identyczne. Średni roczny uzysk\n\nspecyficzny z dziewięciu instalacji PV pracujących na przełomie 2020 i 2021 roku wynosi 990 kWh·kW−1 (Gulkowski, 2022). Instalacja złożona z modułów nowszej technologii (krzem monokrystaliczny, PERC) osiągnęła w latach 2020 i 2022 roczne uzyski specyficzne mieszczące się w przedziale od 1013 kWh·kW−1 do 1075 kWh·kW−1 w zależności od roku (Gulkowski i Krawczak, 2024a).\nIstotna jest także analiza współczynnika wydajności 246 instalacji PV zlokalizowanych na obszarze Niderlandów (Meng i in., 2022). Systemy PV pracowały w okresie od 2 do 5 lat między rokiem 2016 a 2020. Jak pokazały wyniki, większość z badanych instalacji osiągnęła współczynnik wydajności znajdujący się w przedziale od 0,7 do 0,8 (około 62%). Średnia wartość wynosi\n0,71, co jest wynikiem bardzo zbliżonym do danych uzyskanych w innych krajach. Dla przykładu, w badaniach przeprowadzonych na instalacjach w Belgii, we Francji oraz we Włoszech uzyskano średnią wartość współczynnika na poziomie 0,73 (Schardt i te Heesen, 2021).\nAnalizę uzysków energii przez moduły różnych technologii przedstawiono w pracy, na potrzeby której zbadano zarówno moduły pierwszej generacji, tj. w technologii krzemu monokrystalicznego i polikrystalicznego, jak i technologie drugiej generacji – CIS, CIGS i CdTe (Moldovan i in., 2023).\nBadany system znajduje się w mieście Braszów w Rumunii, położonym na szerokości geograficznej 45,67°N. Przedstawione analizy pokazują zależność ilości produkowanej energii od sprawności poszczególnych technologii modułów PV. Największe roczne uzyski energii w przeliczeniu na kW mocy zainstalowanej zaobserwowano dla technologii krzemowych, 1366 kWh·kW−1 i 1399 kWh·kW−1. Moduły te charakteryzują się także największą sprawnością spośród badanych, wynoszącą ok. 17% i 18%. Moduły drugiej generacji, CIS i CIGS, o sprawnościach rzędu 13%, wyprodukowały odpowiednio\n1232 kWh·kW−1 i 1298 kWh·kW−1. Technologia CdTe o sprawności na poziomie 12% pozwoliła na uzyskanie 1058 kWh·kW−1 energii. Jak zaznaczają autorzy pracy, w przypadku modułów CdTe, niska wydajność wynika ze zbyt wysokiej degradacji ogniw. Analogiczne obserwacje znaleźć można w innych źródłach. Odnotowana została na przykład degradacja modułów CdTe, która osiągnęła poziom −5,5%/r (Kichou i in., 2018). Analogiczne obniżenie sprawności systemu PV w technologii tellurku kadmu przedstawiono we wspomnianej już pracy (Zdyb i Gulkowski, 2020). Jak się okaże w dalszej\n\nczęści niniejszego opracowania, podwyższony stopień degradacji wystąpił już w pierwszych latach działania instalacji.\nInnym ciekawym z badawczego punktu widzenia aspektem analizowanych modułów jest umieszczenie ich na dwuosiowym układzie nadążnym w celu porównania produkcji energii. Dla każdej z technologii wartości te są znacznie wyższe niż w układzie stacjonarnym. Różnice wahają się w przedziale od 23%, w przypadku modułu CdTe do 34% w przypadku modułu CIGS (Moldovan i in., 2023).\nAnalizując zagadnienia związane z degradacją modułów PV, w pierwszej kolejności należy przywołać metodę wyznaczania współczynników degradacji, zwaną YoY (ang. year on year). W celu zobrazowania dokładności jej działania przygotowano sztucznie wygenerowany zestaw współczynników pseudowydajności dodając losowo „zakłócenia” w taki sposób, by dane jak najlepiej odzwierciedlały rzeczywiste współczynniki PR. Dodatkowo wymuszono stałą degradację na poziomie −1% rocznie w okresie 5 lat. Wyniki analiz potwierdziły, że metoda YoY nie wymaga rygorystycznej analizy danych i jest mniej wrażliwa na wartości odstające (Jordan D.C., Deceglie M.G., Kurtz S.R., 2016).\nZ analizy 11000 wartości współczynników degradacji modułów PV różnych technologii (Jordan D.C., Kurtz S.R., VanSant K., Newmiller J., 2016) wynika, że mediana wartości PLR technologii opartych na krzemie mieści się w zakresie od −0,5%/r do −0,6%/r, średnie wartości są nieco wyższe i znajdują się w przedziale od −0,8%/r do −0,9%/r. Technologie cienkowarstwowe charakteryzują się większymi wartościami, tj. mediana i średnia wartość współczynnika degradacji wynoszą odpowiednio −1,15 %/r i −1,38 %/r.\nW literaturze znajdujemy też odmienne podejście do analizy współczynnika degradacji (Malvoni i in., 2020). Autorzy zastosowali m.in. metodę CSD (ang. classical seasonal decomposition) polegającą na znalezieniu trendu szeregu czasowego miesięcznego współczynnika wydajności. Współczynnik degradacji modułów z krzemu krystalicznego, obliczony ze współczynnika prostej dopasowanej do wyznaczonego uprzednio trendu wynosi −1,57%/r. Dla porównania, jego wartość otrzymana innymi metodami mieści się w zakresie od −1,65 %/r do −2,13%/r.\nMetodę tę zastosowano również do analizy degradacji modułów w technologii krzemu mono- i polikrystalicznego, a także krzemu amorficznego (Ameur i in., 2022). Otrzymane wartości wynoszą odpowiednio −0,41%/r, −0,28%/r oraz −0,75%/r.\n\n3. Obiekty badawcze i metodyka badań\nW niniejszym rozdziale przedstawiono obiekty badawcze oraz metodykę badań.\nOmówiono specyfikację trzech eksperymentalnych systemów fotowoltaicznych, z których dwa zlokalizowane są na terenie Polski (Lublin oraz Bordziłówka), a jeden na południu Hiszpanii (Jaén). Wybór ostatniej lokalizacji (Uniwersytet w Jaén) wynika m.in. z występowania długich okresów bezchmurnych, co umożliwiło wykonanie pomiarów charakterystyk prądowo-napięciowych w warunkach natężenia promieniowania zbliżonego do standardowych warunków testowych.\nJest to szczególnie istotne w procesie charakteryzacji modułów fotowoltaicznych.\nPonadto zastosowanie układu nadążnego, znacząco zwiększyło liczbę pomiarów krzywych I-V dla wartości natężenia zbliżonego do 1000 Wm–2. Należy podkreślić znaczną różnicę uwarunkowań klimatycznych wybranych lokalizacji.\n∙\nŚrednie roczne napromieniowanie powierzchni płaskiej w Jaén w okresie 10 lat\n(2014–2023, wg danych PVGIS (Huld i in., 2017)) wynosi 1892 kWhm–2, podczas gdy w Lublinie wartość ta wynosi 1137 kWhm–2, a w lokalizacji farmy PV\n∙ w Bordziłówce − 1123 kWhm–2. Średnia dobowa temperatura powietrza w Jaén\n∙ to 15,9°C, podczas gdy w Lublinie i Bordziłówce wartość ta wynosi ok. 10,2°C.\n∙\nW odróżnieniu od systemu nadążnego zlokalizowanego w Hiszpanii, na Politechnice Lubelskiej przeprowadzono pomiary charakterystyk prądowo-napięciowych korzystając ze stacjonarnego systemu eksperymentalnego.\n\nPodobnie jak w przypadku eksperymentów prowadzonych na Uniwersytecie w Jaén, poza pomiarami krzywych I–V, rejestrowano natężenie promieniowania słonecznego, temperaturę modułów PV i inne wielkości pogodowe takie jak prędkość wiatru, temperaturę zewnętrzną, wilgotność czy ciśnienie.\nOdmienną metodykę badań przyjęto w przypadku trzeciej lokalizacji, tj. farmy\nPV w Bordziłówce. Parametry pracy takie jak moc, napięcie i natężenie prądu badanych modułów PV odczytane zostały z falowników. Podobnie jak w poprzednich systemach, jednocześnie z elektrycznymi parametrami pracy rejestrowane były warunki pogodowe.\nBadania charakterystyki przeprowadzono dla różnych technologii modułów fotowoltaicznych skupiając się na technologii z krzemu krystalicznego jako najczęściej występującej na rynku fotowoltaicznym. Analizy dotyczą krzemowych modułów monokrystalicznych, w tym jednej z najnowszych technologii\nPERC, jak i multikrystalicznych oraz polikrystalicznych modułów o różnych mocach, a tym samym i różnych rozmiarach. Zaznaczyć należy, że w przypadku badań wydajności poszczególnych technologii modułów PV posłużono się wielkościami odnoszącymi się do jednostkowej mocy (1 kW) zamiast powierzchni modułów. W przypadku technologii cienkowarstwowych przedmiotem zainteresowania były moduły CIGS, CdTe a także moduły PV z krzemu amorficznego.\nAnalizy dotyczyły również modułów PV w technologii heterozłączowej (HIT).\nSpecyfikę badanych modułów PV oraz urządzeń do rejestracji parametrów elektrycznych, jak i warunków pogodowych, przedstawiono w punkcie 3.1 niniejszego rozdziału. W punkcie 3.2 natomiast zebrane zostały równania, które wykorzystano w celu analizy parametrów pracy modułów fotowoltaicznych. Przedstawiono również modele matematyczne do prognozowania parametrów charakterystycznych oraz metryki dotyczące niepewności i błędów pomiarowych, za pomocą których oceniono dokładność zastosowanych metod badawczych i modeli komputerowych.\n\n3 .1. Obiekty badawcze\n3.1.1. System eksperymentalny I-DEA Uniwersytetu w Jaén\n(Hiszpania)\nRycina 3.1 przedstawia system pomiarowy, umożliwiający analizę modułów fotowoltaicznych w warunkach zewnętrznych, zlokalizowany na Uniwersytecie w Jaén, w Hiszpanii (szerokość geograficzna: 37°78’N, długość geograficzna:\n3°78’W). System badawczy został stworzony przez zespół I-DEA Solar Energy\nResearch Group (Fuentes i in., 2014; García-Domingo i in., 2015, 2014; Nofuentes i in., 2006)2.\nJednym z głównych elementów systemu badawczego jest dwuosiowy układ nadążny (ang. solar tracker) umieszczony na dachu budynku Uniwersytetu w Jaén charakteryzujący się możliwością obrotu zarówno w osi pionowej, jak i poziomej. Konstrukcja układu nadążnego umożliwia zamocowanie kilku modułów PV, co pozwala na ich jednoczesne badanie w identycznych warunkach atmosferycznych. Jego położenie jest kontrolowane przez komputer sterujący w taki sposób, by odchylenie kąta padania promieniowania słonecznego od normalnej do powierzchni modułów PV nie przekraczało 0,5%. Zastosowanie dwuosiowego mechanizmu nadążnego pozwala utrzymywać wysokie natężenie promieniowania słonecznego w trakcie charakteryzacji modułu PV, bliskie wartości 1000 W·m−2 przez większą część dnia.\n2 Badania naukowe, wykonane na prezentowanym stanowisku, są wynikiem długoletniej współpracy z naukowcami z grupy I-DEA Uniwersytetu w Jaén rozpoczętej w roku 2011 w ramach projektu PV’s in Bloom i kontynuowanej zarówno w ramach projektów naukowych, jak i dydaktycznych. Od 2019 roku autor uczestniczył w kilku krótkoterminowych stażach badawczych na Uniwersytecie w Jaén, które umożliwiły wykonanie pomiarów na potrzeby niniejszego opracowania. Pierwszy z nich, który odbył się w kwietniu 2019 został sfinansowany w ramach programu COST (ang. European\nCooperation in Science and Technology). Kolejne miały miejsce we wrześniu 2022, lipcu 2024 i marcu 2025 i zostały sfinansowane ze środków przyznanych z funduszu dyscypliny. Należy również wspomnieć, że każdego roku, począwszy od 2015, z przerwą w 2023 i w okresie pandemii Covid-19, autor prowadził zajęcia w ramach programu\nErasmus+ dla studentów i doktorantów Uniwersytetu w Jaén.\n\nRyc. 3.1. System pomiarowy grupy badawczej I-DEA Uniwersytetu w Jaén\nGłówną część systemu pomiarowego stanowią urządzenia do pomiaru charakterystyk prądowo-napięciowych modułów fotowoltaicznych metodą pojemnościową. Idea pomiaru została opisana po raz pierwszy w pracy z 1982 roku\n(Warner i Cox, 1982). Obwód pomiarowy w metodzie pojemnościowej zawiera, oprócz badanego modułu PV, kondensator, rezystor, zasilacz prądu stałego i serię włączników. Pomiar składa się z trzech etapów. W pierwszym kondensator jest ładowany wstępnie dzięki zasilaczowi (ang. negative pre-charge) w celu wyznaczenia wartości natężenia prądu zwarcia. W kolejnych dwóch etapach kondensator jest ładowany przez moduł PV i rozładowywany przez znajdujące się w obwodzie rezystory w celu rejestracji charakterystyki I-V badanego modułu.\nOpis pomiaru można znaleźć w kilku publikacjach (Magnetti, 2020;\nScaiola, 2019; Shlikhutka, 2020). W przedstawionym na rycinie 3.1 systemie, pomiar krzywych I-V odbywa się dzięki dwóm zsynchronizowanym ze sobą multimetrom AgilentTM 34411A, z których jeden mierzy napięcie, drugi natomiast natężenie prądu generowanego przez moduł PV. Wyniki pomiarów rejestrowane\n\nsą przez urządzenie do akwizycji danych (ang. datalogger) AgilentTM 34970.\nOprócz rejestracji charakterystyk I-V, datalogger rejestruje także warunki pogodowe w trakcie pomiarów, tj. natężenie promieniowania słonecznego, temperaturę zewnętrzną, wilgotność, ciśnienie, prędkość i kierunek wiatru. Mierzona jest również temperatura badanych modułów. System pomiarowy sterowany jest za pomocą oprogramowania zaprojektowanego i wykonanego w środowisku\nLabViewTM. Oprogramowanie umożliwia synchroniczną rejestrację mierzonych parametrów. Układ pomiarowy systemu badawczego przedstawiony został we wspomnianej już pracy (Gulkowski i in., 2019a).\nCelem pracy badawczej, prowadzonej z wykorzystaniem opisanego stanowiska, był pomiar charakterystyk prądowo-napięciowych modułów PV, a następnie, na podstawie krzywych I-V, analiza parametrów ich pracy w warunkach zewnętrznych. Główny nacisk położono nie na ocenę pracy konkretnego modułu, bo te szybko się zmieniają na dynamicznie rozwijającym się rynku, lecz na właściwości wynikające z jego technologii. Przeanalizowano moduły PV różnej mocy wykonane w różnych technologiach tj. technologii krzemowej krystalicznej, cienkowarstwowej oraz technologii heterozłączowej.\nAnalizowane moduły PV różnią się parametrami pracy. Technologia hybrydowa oraz cienkowarstwowa charakteryzują się mniejszą podatnością na oddziaływanie temperatury niż technologia z krzemu krystalicznego. Lokalizacja systemu badawczego w strefie o blisko dwukrotnie większej liczbie godzin słonecznych w porównaniu do Polski oraz wyższych średnich temperaturach otoczenia, umożliwiła zebranie dostatecznej ilości danych dotyczących badanych technologii fotowoltaicznych do zweryfikowania parametrów pracy w naturalnych warunkach pogodowych. Z uwagi na fakt, że charakteryzacja modułów PV wymaga natężenia promieniowania słonecznego powyżej wartości 700 W·m−2, istotny był wybór lokalizacji, gdzie występuje stosunkowo duża liczba dni, w których natężenie promieniowania słonecznego padającego prostopadle na powierzchnię modułów PV jest zbliżone do warunków STC\n(1000 W·m−2). Zastosowanie układu nadążnego dodatkowo zapewnia poziom\n700 W·m−2 przez większość dnia pomiarowego.\nDo grupy badanych modułów PV należą trzy monokrystaliczne krzemowe moduły pierwszej generacji o mocach 245 W, 100 W i 85 W oraz sprawnościach odpowiednio ok. 15%, 15,4% i 13,5%. W grupie tej zawarty został również\n\nmoduł złożony z ogniw z krzemu multikrystalicznego o mocy 87 W i sprawności ok. 16%. Szczegółowa specyfikacja badanych modułów PV przedstawiona została w tabeli 3.1.\nDo badań wybrano również dwa wysokiej klasy heterozłączowe moduły\nHIT wykonane z krzemu krystalicznego i krzemu amorficznego (ang. heterojunction with intrinsic thin layer) o mocy 330 W i sprawności 19,7% oraz mocy\n240 W i sprawności 17,3%. Z modułów II generacji – zbadano moduł cienkowarstwowy z tellurku kadmu o mocy 77,5 W i sprawności ok. 10,5%. Szczegółowe parametry wymienionych modułów przedstawiono w tabeli 3.2. Dane umieszczone w tabelach 3.1 oraz 3.2 pochodzą z kart charakterystyk dostarczonych przez producentów modułów PV. Podział technologii modułów PV na generacje można odnaleźć w literaturze (Dambhare i in., 2021).\nTabela 3.1. Parametry badanych modułów fotowoltaicznych I generacji\nPV #1 PV #2 PV #3 PV #4\nTyp modułu\n(sc-Si) (sc-Si) (sc-Si) (mc-Si)\n100 245\nMoc nominalna STC P (W) 85 87 m (0%/+5%) (+10%/−5%)\nNapięcie obwodu otwartego V (V) 21,6 37,5 22,1 21,7 oc\nNapięcie nominalne V (V) 18,7 30,5 18,0 17,4 m\nNatężenie prądu zwarcia I (A) 5,87 8,73 5,00 5,34 sc\nNatężenie nominalne I (A) 2,88 8,04 4,72 5,02 m\nSprawność w warunkach STC (%) 15,4 14,9 13,5 b.d.\nTemperaturowy współczynnik napięcia\n−0,35 −0,347 −0,36 −0,378 obwodu otwartego (%/°C) voc\nTemperaturowy wspβółczynnik natężenia\n0,05 0,053 0,065 0,04 prądu zwarcia α (%/°C)\nIsc\nTemperaturowy współczynnik mocy\nPm −0,49 −0,485 −0,50 −0,50\n(%/°C) γ\nNominalna temperatura pracy ogniwa b.d. 47,5 47 47\n(NOCT) (°C)\nPowierzchnia modułu PV A (m2) 0,65 1,64 0,63 0,66\nMasa modułu PV (kg) 7,8 16 7,7 8,3\nOpracowanie własne na podstawie kart charakterystyki modułów PV\n\nTabela 3.2. Parametry badanego modułu cienkowarstwowego PV II generacji oraz heterozłączowych modułów HIT\nPV #5 PV #6 PV #7\nTyp modułu\n(CdTe) (HIT) (HIT)\n77,5 330 240\nMoc nominalna STC P (W) m (±10%) (+10%/0%) (+10%/-5%)\nNapięcie obwodu otwartego V (V) 90,5 69,7 43,6 oc\nNapięcie nominalne V (V) 69,9 58,0 35,5 m\nNatężenie prądu zwarcia I (A) 1,22 6,07 7,37 sc\nNatężenie nominalne I (A) 1,11 5,70 6,77 m\nSprawność w warunkach STC (%) b.d. 19,7 17,3\nTemperaturowy współczynnik −0,25 (temp > 25°C) napięcia obwodu otwartego −0,20 −0,235 −0,25\n(%/°C) (−40°C do 25°C) voc\nTβemperaturowy współczynnik\n0,04 0,055 0,03 natężenia prądu zwarcia α (%/°C)\nIsc\nTemperaturowy współczynnik mocy\n−0,25 −0,258 −0,30\n(%/°C)\nPm\nγNominalna temperatura pracy\n45 44 b.d.\nogniwa (NOCT) (°C)\nPowierzchnia modułu PV A (m2) 0,72 1.67 0,78\nMasa modułu PV (kg) 12 19 16,5\nOpracowanie własne na podstawie kart charakterystyki modułów PV\nTabela 3.3. S pecyfikacja pyranometru CMP 11 do pomiaru natężenia promieniowania słonecznego w płaszczyźnie poziomej i w płaszczyźnie badanych modułów PV\nWłaściwość Jednostka Wartość\nZakres spektralny (nm) 285–2800\nCzułość pomiaru (μV/W/m2) 7–14\nMaksymalne natężenie promieniowania (W/m2) 4000\nNapięcie wyjściowe (0–1500 W/m2) (mV) 0–20\nCzas reakcji (63%) (s) < 1,7\nCzas reakcji (95%) (s) < 5\nTemperatura pracy (°C) od −40 do 80\nNapięcie wyjściowe (mV) 0–20\nNiestabilność (rocznie) (%) < 0,5\nNieliniowość (100 do 1000 W/m2) (%) < 0,2\n< 1 (od −10°C do\nZależność od temperatury (%)\n+40°C)\n\nWłaściwość Jednostka Wartość\nSelektywność widmowa (350 nm–1500 nm) (%) < 3\nZależność od kąta (0 – 90° dla 1000 W/m2) (%) < 0,2\nKlasa wzorcowa ISO 9060 A\nOpracowanie własne na podstawie karty charakterystyki urządzenia CMP11\nStanowisko badawcze wyposażone zostało w możliwość rejestracji warunków atmosferycznych w trakcie pomiaru charakterystyk prądowo-napięciowych. Pomiar natężenia promieniowania słonecznego odbywał się w dwóch płaszczyznach: w płaszczyźnie poziomej (GHI, ang. global horizontal irradiance) oraz w płaszczyźnie modułów PV (POA, ang. plane of array). Wykonywany był za pomocą dwóch pyranometrów CMP11 firmy Kipp&Zonen. Ich parametry przedstawione zostały szczegółowo w tabeli 3.3. Zestawienie sporządzone zostało na podstawie karty charakterystyki urządzenia. Jednakże z uwagi na fakt, że CMP11 nie jest dłużej produkowany, urządzeniem o zbliżonych parametrach jest CMP10, którego charakterystykę można znaleźć na stronie producenta, firmy\nKipp&Zonen (Kipp&Zonen, 2025). Bardzo istotnym zagadnieniem jest pomiar temperatury modułów (Caamaño i in., 1999; Coskun i in., 2017; Trinuruk i in.,\n2009). W tym celu zastosowano czujnik powierzchniowy Pt100 (α = 0,00385) o wymiarach 40 mm × 14 mm i grubości 7 mm. Zakres temperaturowy pracy czujnika wynosił od −50°C do 150°C. Niepewność pomiarowa wynosi 1%.\nPrędkość wiatru rejestrowana była za pomocą anemometru firmy Young TM\n05305VM, którego najważniejsze parametry przedstawia tabela 3.4.\nTabela 3.4. Specyfikacja anemometru do pomiaru prędkości wiatru\nWłaściwość Jednostka Wartość\nZakres pomiaru prędkości wiatru (m/s) 0–40\nZakres pomiaru kierunku wiatru (°) 0–360\nNiepewność pomiarowa prędkości (m/s) ±0,2\nNiepewność pomiarowa kierunku (°) ±3\nZakres napięć wyjściowych (V) 0-5\nWymiary (wysokość, długość, średnica wiatraka) (mm) 380 × 650 × 200\nMasa (kg) 0,7\nŹródło: Young, 2025\n\n3.1.3. System eksperymentalny KIOŹE Politechniki Lubelskiej\n(Polska)\nRycina 3.2 przedstawia stanowisko pomiarowe zlokalizowane na terenie\nWydziału Inżynierii Środowiska i Energetyki Politechniki Lubelskiej (szerokość geograficzna: 51°23’N, długość geograficzna: 22°55’E). Stanowisko, w ramach projektu, sfinansowanego przez Ministerstwo Edukacji i Nauki w 2023 roku3, a także w ramach środków przyznanych na działalność statutową i naukową, zostało wyposażone w specjalistyczne urządzenia pomiarowe.\nUkład pomiarowy umożliwia wykonanie pomiarów charakterystyk prądowo-napięciowych modułów PV zamocowanych w systemie stacjonarnym, tzn. z możliwością zmiany jedynie kąta nachylenia modułu PV względem płaszczyzny poziomej. Konstrukcję stołu wykonano w taki sposób, aby umożliwić swobodny dostęp do zamocowanego modułu PV oraz ustawienie kąta nachylenia modułu PV w zależności od wysokości kątowej Słońca. Odpowiednie nachylenie badanego modułu PV umożliwia uzyskanie optymalnej wartości natężenia promieniowania słonecznego w trakcie pomiarów charakterystyk I-V, co weryfikowane jest za pomocą inklinometru przedstawionego na rycinie 3.2. Badania przeprowadzono dla modułu skierowanego na południe i nachylonego pod kątem 34° (tyle samo wynosi kąt, pod którym zainstalowane zostały moduły PV systemu eksperymentalnego omówionego w następnym punkcie). W płaszczyźnie modułu PV (POA) zamocowany został pyranometr CMP10 firmy\nKipp&Zonen, zapewniający pomiar natężenia promieniowania słonecznego G\n(W·m−2). Urządzenie charakteryzuje się niewielką wrażliwością na zmiany temperatury (<1%) oraz wysoką czułością pomiaru. Ze względu na szybki czas reakcji umożliwia rejestrację natężenia promieniowania z wysoką częstotliwością próbkowania. Współczynnik kalibracji w 2023 roku wynosił 8,49 μV/kW/m2, niepewność pomiaru natomiast jest równa 1,44%. Parametry CMP10 są praktycznie\n3 Autor od wielu lat pełni funkcję opiekuna Studenckiego Koła Naukowego Energetyki\nOdnawialnej „Grupa Ogniwo” Politechniki Lubelskiej. Koło otrzymało w 2023 roku finansowanie na wykonanie stanowiska badawczego, gdzie wykonywane są pomiary parametrów pracy modułów fotowoltaicznych wraz z rejestracją warunków pogodowych występujących w trakcie pomiarów.\n\nidentyczne z parametrami charakteryzującymi CMP11 (w CMP10 zrezygnowano z osuszacza i zastosowano hermetyczne zamknięcie).\nRyc. 3.2. System pomiarowy znajdujący się na terenie Wydziału Inżynierii Środowiska i Energetyki Politechniki Lubelskiej\nNatężenie promieniowania słonecznego w płaszczyźnie poziomej (GHI) mierzone było za pomocą pyranometru SMP3 tej samej firmy. Czas reakcji jest nieznacznie większy od urządzenia CMP 10. Niepewność pomiaru nie\n\nprzekracza 4%. Szczegółową specyfikację zastosowanych pyranometrów przedstawiono w tabeli 3.5.\nTabela 3.5. Specyfikacja pyranometrów CMP 10 i SMP3 do pomiaru natężenia promieniowania słonecznego w płaszczyźnie poziomej i płaszczyźnie modułu PV\nWłaściwość Jedn. CMP10 SMP3\nZakres spektralny (nm) 285–2800 300-2800\nCzułość pomiaru (μV/W/m2) 7–14 b.d.\nMaksymalne natężenie prom. (W/m2) 4000 b.d.\nCzas reakcji (63%) (s) < 1,7 < 1,5\nCzas reakcji (95%) (s) < 1,5 < 12\nTemperatura pracy (°C) od −40 do 80 b.d.\nNapięcie wyjściowe (mV) 0–20 0–1000\nNiestabilność (rocznie) (%) < 0,5 < 1\nNieliniowość\n(%) < 0,2 < 3\n(100 do 1000 W/m2)\n< 3\n< 1\n(od −20°C do +50°C)\nZależność od temperatury (%) (od −10°C\n< 4 do +40°C)\n(od −40°C do +70°C)\nSelektywność widmowa\n(%) < 3 < 3\n(350 nm – 1500 nm)\n< 0,2 %\n± 20 W/m2\nZależność od kąta (0–90°\n(0–80° dla 1000 W/m2) dla 1000 W/m2)\nKlasa wzorcowa\nA C\nISO 9060\nŹródło: Kipp&Zonen, 2025\nDodatkowo w płaszczyźnie modułów zamocowano dwa ogniwa referencyjne rejestrujące natężenie promieniowania słonecznego podczas pomiaru charakterystyk I-V badanych modułów. Porównanie odczytów wskazań pyranometru i zastosowanych ogniw referencyjnych jest istotne pod kątem dokładności pomiaru natężenia promieniowania słonecznego z punktu widzenia trzeciej, opisanej w niniejszym opracowaniu lokalizacji, w której zastosowano jedynie skalibrowane ogniwo referencyjne. Właściwości zastosowanych ogniw referencyjnych przedstawione zostały w tabeli 3.6.\n\nOgniwa referencyjne zsynchronizowane są z urządzeniami do pomiaru krzywych I-V. Pierwsze ogniwo rejestruje wartość natężenia promieniowania słonecznego poprzez pomiar wartości napięcia w zakresie od 1,0 mV do 100,0 mV z rozdzielczością 0,1 mV i dokładnością do ± (1% + 0,5 mV).\nDokładność podana została przy spełnieniu następujących warunków: współczynnik AM = 1,5, zakres temperatury od −20°C do +50°C, zakres kąta padania promieniowania słonecznego 65°–115°. Podane zostały również dwa współczynniki kalibracji (2023) dla ogniwa z krzemu monokrystalicznego\n(24,09 mV/kW/m2) i multikrystalicznego (23,17 mV/kW/m2).\nDrugie ogniwo referencyjne bazuje na ogniwie monokrystalicznym.\nNiepewność pomiaru przy promieniowaniu słonecznym padającym prostopadle do powierzchni ogniwa (oraz współczynniku AM = 1,5) wynosi ±2%\n(±7 W·m−2). Ogółem niepewność pomiaru nie przekracza ±5%.\nTabela 3.6. Specyfikacja ogniw referencyjnych do pomiaru natężenia promieniowania słonecznego w płaszczyźnie badanego modułu PV\n23059797 SOZ-03\nWłaściwość Jednostka\n(HT IV500W) (PVPM2540C)\nZakres napięć (mV) 1,0–100,0 0–100,0\nRozdzielczość (mV) 0,1 bd\nMinimalne natężenie prom. (W/m2) 50 0\nMaksymalne natężenie prom. (W/m2) 1400 1300\n24,09 (mono-Si)\nWspółczynnik kalibracji mV/kW/m2 93,8 (mono-Si)\n23,17 (multi-Si)\nTemperatura pracy (°C) od −20 do 50 od 0 do 40\nZależność\n%/°C 0,05 0,06 od temperatury\nNiepewność pomiaru - ± (1,0 % + 0,5 mV) ± (2% +7 W/m2)\nŹródło: HT Instruments, 2025; PV-Engineering, 2025\nTemperatura modułu oraz ogniwa referencyjnego mierzona jest za pomocą czujników Pt100 lub Pt1000, zintegrowanych z urządzeniami do pomiaru krzywych I-V. Czujniki te przytwierdzone zostały do tylnej strony modułu PV.\nSzczegółowe dane dotyczące zastosowanych czujników przedstawia tabela 3.7.\n\nTabela 3.7. S pecyfikacja czujników do pomiaru temperatury modułu PV (HT Instruments, 2025;\nPV-Engineering, 2025)\nRTF4-2/\nWłaściwość Jednostka Pt100-OFS/10 Pt1000 HT\nNAH Pt100 od −20 od −50\nZakres pomiaru (°C) od −30 do 105 do 100 do 150\nRozdzielczość (°C) b.d. 0,1 b.d.\nNiepewność ± (0,15°C + 0,002 T*)\n- ± (1% + 1°C) 0,1–1,0°C pomiaru ± 0,5°C\n*T – wartość temperatury wskazywana przez czujnik (°C)\nŹródło: HT Instruments, 2025; PV-Engineering, 2025\nW celu rejestracji wyników pomiaru natężenia promieniowania i temperatury modułów PV zastosowano dwa rejestratory danych. Pierwszy, o nazwie\nMeteon2 firmy Kipp&Zonen jest urządzeniem współpracującym z pyranometrami CMP10 i SMP3. Alternatywnie, wyniki pomiaru natężenia promieniowania słonecznego, jak i temperatury modułu rejestrowane były przez rejestrator\nRIGOL M300 (RIGOL, 2025) wyposażony w moduł DMM oraz multiplekser\nMC3132. Urządzenie M300 oferuje wiele funkcji pomiarowych z wysoką rozdzielczością 61⁄2 cyfry, z czego najistotniejsze to pomiar napięcia oraz rezystancji metodą czteroprzewodową. Urządzenie wybrano ze względu na niewielki zakres napięć wyjściowych pyranometru wynoszący od 0 do 21 mV w zakresie natężenia promieniowania słonecznego do 1500 W∙m–2. Dodatkowo, rejestrator wyposażono w układ wspierający pomiar temperatury.\nDo rejestracji warunków atmosferycznych zastosowano stację pogodową\nFroggit WH1080SE zapewniającą pomiar temperatury zewnętrznej, prędkości i kierunku wiatru, ciśnienia, wilgotności oraz opadów deszczu. Stacja wyposażona jest w pamięć wewnętrzną pozwalającą na zapis danych pomiarowych.\nPomiar charakterystyki prądowo-napięciowej badanych modułów PV zgodnie ze standardem IEC 62446-1 wykonano za pomocą urządzenia marki\nHT IV500W posiadającego możliwość charakteryzacji modułu (lub łańcucha modułów) w zakresie napięć do 1500 V i natężeń do 15 A. Niepewność pomiaru mocy wynosi ± (1% + 6 W). Dokładność pomiarowa została określona dla temperatury 23°C ± 5°C oraz wilgotności względnej < 80%. Urządzenie posiada możliwość zapisu danych pomiarowych w pamięci wewnętrznej.\n\nAlternatywnym urządzeniem wykorzystanym do pomiaru charakterystyk prądowo-napięciowych modułów fotowoltaicznych był rejestrator PVPM2540 firmy PVE pracujący w zakresie napięć do 250 V oraz natężeń prądu do 40 A.\nJego zaletą jest możliwość prowadzenia pomiarów krzywych I-V w trybie ciągłym. Urządzenie charakteryzuje się również krótkim czasem pomiaru pojedynczej krzywej I-V w porównaniu z analogicznymi miernikami dostępnymi na rynku (Zhu i Xiao, 2020). Szczegółową specyfikację zastosowanych urządzeń pomiarowych przedstawiono w tabeli 3.8.\nTabela 3.8. Specyfikacja urządzeń do pomiaru charakterystyki prądowo-napięciowej modułów fotowoltaicznych\nWłaściwość Jednostka HT IV500W PVPM2540C\nZakres pomiaru napięcia (V) 15,0–1499,9 do 250,0 w zakresie do 99,9 V: 0,1 0,01–0,25\nRozdzielczość pomiaru napięcia (V) w zakresie od 100 V: w zależności od\n0,3 zakresu w zakresie do 99,9 V:\n± (0,5% + 0,2 V)\nNiepewność pomiaru napięcia (%) < 1% w zakresie od 99,9 V:\n± (0,5% + 0,6 V)\nZakres pomiaru natężenia prądu (A) 0,1–15,0 do 40,0\nRozdzielczość pomiaru natężenia\n(A) 0,01 0,005–0,01 prądu\nNiepewność pomiaru natężenia (%) ± (1% + 0,02 A) < 1%\nCzas trwania pomiaru (s) 5 0,02–2\nTemperatura pracy (°C) 0–40 0–50\nŹródło: HT Instruments, 2025; PV-Engineering, 2025\nWszystkie instrumenty składające się na system pomiarowy mają możliwość eksportu danych w celu ich późniejszej analizy. Umożliwiają także dostosowanie wewnętrznego zegara do czasu systemowego komputera, do którego są podłączone, co pozwala na synchronizację danych pomiarowych.\nZastosowano programową metodę zestawienia danych pochodzących z różnych urządzeń pomiarowych. Zaletą systemu jest możliwość jego instalacji w lokalizacji modułów PV w celu oceny ich parametrów pracy.\n\nMożliwości pomiarowe oraz dokładność zastosowanego systemu badawczego są analogiczne do opisanego w poprzednim punkcie systemu pomiarowego. Podobnie jak w poprzednim układzie, zastosowano pyranometr do pomiaru natężenia promieniowania słonecznego oraz czujniki do pomiaru temperatury modułu przymocowane do jego spodniej strony. Ponadto, do pomiaru krzywych I-V, wykorzystano urządzenie bazujące na metodzie pojemnościowej. Jedyną różnicę stanowi sposób mocowania modułów PV na stałe, bez możliwości podążania za pozornym ruchem Słońca. Fakt ten zawęża okres badań dotyczących charakteryzacji modułów PV do miesięcy wiosenno-letnich z uwagi na większą dostępność dni o natężeniu promieniowania słonecznego zbliżonym do 1000 W·m−2. Badania naukowe, wykonane na prezentowanym stanowisku na potrzeby niniejszego opracowania zostały przeprowadzone w okresie od kwietnia do października 2024 roku.\nW celu przeprowadzenia badań z wykorzystaniem urządzeń systemu pomiarowego wybrano trzy różne technologie modułów PV, w tym jedną z najnowszych technologii z krzemu monokrystalicznego PERC. Dwa pozostałe moduły PV to cienkowarstwowe technologie drugiej generacji (CIGS i CdTe).\nWybór różnych technologii wykonania modułów PV pozwala na ocenę wpływu rodzaju materiału półprzewodnikowego na efektywność konwersji energii promieniowania słonecznego w naturalnych warunkach pracy. Zdecydowano się na wybór technologii krzemowej PERC, która obecnie dominuje na rynku fotowoltaicznym. Dwie odmienne technologie cienkowarstwowe, oparte na kompletnie różnym materiale absorbera, wybrano z uwagi na mniejszą wrażliwość na temperaturę i wyższą efektywność pracy przy niskim natężeniu promieniowania. Szczegółowa specyfikacja badanych modułów przedstawiona została w tabeli 3.9.\n\nTabela 3.9. Parametry badanych modułów fotowoltaicznych\nTyp modułu PV #8 (PERC) PV #9 (CdTe) PV #10 (CIGS)\n330 75\nMoc nominalna STC P (W) 55,0 m (0 /+ 4,99 W) (± 5%)\nNapięcie obwodu otwartego V (V) 41,0 62,0 21,0 oc\nNapięcie nominalne V (V) 33,6 46,3 17,0 m\nNatężenie prądu zwarcia I (A) 10,36 1,95 3,7 sc\nNatężenie nominalne I (A) 9,84 1,65 3,2 m\nSprawność w warunkach STC (%) 21,8 10,6 14\nTemperaturowy współczynnik napięcia\n−0,30 −0,24 −0,28 obwodu otwartego (%/◦C) voc\nTemperaturowy wspβółczynnik natężenia\n+0,027 +0,02 +0,008 prądu zwarcia α (%/◦C)\nIsc\nTemperaturowy współczynnik mocy (%/◦C) −0,39 −0,25 −0,38\nPm\nNominalna temperatura pracy ognγiwa\n42 ± 2 b.d. b.d.\n(NOCT) (◦C)\nPowierzchnia modułu PV A (m2) 1,51 0,72 0,39\nOpracowanie własne na podstawie kart charakterystyki modułów PV\n3.1.3. System eksperymentalny farmy PV, Energia Dolina Zielawy\n(Polska)\nRycina 3.3 przedstawia instalację eksperymentalną będącą częścią farmy fotowoltaicznej o mocy 1,4 MW składającą się z czterech różnych technologii fotowoltaicznych dwóch generacji. W przeważającej części farmę stanowią moduły w technologii krzemu polikrystalicznego. Farma zlokalizowana jest w Polsce Wschodniej w miejscowości Bordziłówka, gmina Rossosz, w województwie lubelskim na obszarze 3,5 ha (szerokość geograficzna 51°51’N, długość geograficzna 23°10’E).\nElektrownia powstała w wyniku realizacji projektu finansowanego ze środków\nRegionalnego Programu Operacyjnego Województwa Lubelskiego. Wykonawcą inwestycji jest spółka Energia Dolina Zielawy Sp. z o.o. Farma PV została uruchomiona pod koniec 2014 roku (Dragan i Lubańska, 2016; Dragan i Zdyb, 2017)4.\n4 W ramach współpracy z przedstawicielami firmy Energia Dolina Zielawy autor prowadzi od\n2015 roku analizę parametrów pracy farmy PV, czego rezultatem są zarówno wyniki badań, jak i publikacje, z których znaczna część została przytoczona w niniejszym opracowaniu.\n\nRyc. 3.3. Instalacja eksperymentalna farmy fotowoltaicznej zawierająca moduły PV pierwszej i drugiej generacji\nW skład systemu eksperymentalnego pierwszej generacji o całkowitej mocy 21,25 kW wchodzą moduły z krzemu polikrystalicznego (pc-Si). Trzy kolejne systemy PV, należące do drugiej generacji, zawierają moduły cienkowarstwowe z krzemu amorficznego (a-Si), tellurku kadmu (CdTe) oraz di-selenku miedziowo-indowo-galowego (CIGS). Moc poszczególnych systemów wynosi odpowiednio 3,42 kW, 3,3 kW i 3,72 kW. Wybrane do badań moduły różnią się zarówno sprawnością, która mieści się w zakresie od 6% do 15,45%, jak i współczynnikami temperaturowymi. Zróżnicowanie badanych technologii pozwala na uzyskanie szerokiego spektrum danych porównawczych. Moduły różnią się również rozmiarami, jednakże do analizy uzysków specyficznych posłużono się jednostkową mocą, tj. 1 kWp instalacji i pod tym kątem dokonano analizy porównawczej. Szczegółowa specyfikacja badanych modułów PV przedstawiona została w tabeli 3.10. Specyfikację modułów dla technologii CdTe przedstawia natomiast tabela 3.9.\n\nModuły PV wchodzące w skład instalacji eksperymentalnej nachylone są pod kątem 34° do poziomu i skierowane na południe. Znajdują się na wysokości ok. 0,5 m nad ziemią, co pozwala na uniknięcie zacienienia dolnych rzędów przez niekontrolowany wzrost roślinności. Zrezygnowano z czyszczenia modułów. Jak wykazano bowiem, w miesiącach charakteryzujących się największą liczbą godzin słonecznych odnotowuje się również stosunkowo wysokie sumy opadów deszczu, które przyczyniają się do naturalnego czyszczenia powierzchni modułów PV, ograniczając wpływ zabrudzenia na wydajność instalacji fotowoltaicznej (Gulkowski i Krawczak, 2024a).\nUmieszczenie modułów PV w tej samej lokalizacji zapewnia porównywalne warunki pomiarowe, co zwiększa dokładność przeprowadzonej analizy porównawczej parametrów pracy poszczególnych technologii. Ponadto, wszystkie badane systemy PV podłączone są do sieci elektroenergetycznej za pomocą falowników tego samego producenta. Wykorzystano falowniki marki Delta Solivia 20TLS o sprawności maksymalnej 98% i sprawności Euro-eta nie mniejszej niż 97,8% oraz falowniki Delta Solivia 3.3TR o maksymalnej sprawności 96,2% i sprawności Euroeta 94,8%. Co więcej, w przypadku systemów cienkowarstwowych\n– falowniki są jednakowe. Szczegółowa specyfikacja znajduje się w tabeli 3.11.\nTabela 3.10. P arametry badanych modułów fotowoltaicznych wchodzących w skład eksperymentalnej części farmy fotowoltaicznej\nPV #11 PV #12 PV #13\nTyp modułu\n(pc-Si) (CIGS) (a-Si)\n250 155 95\nMoc nominalna STC P (W) m (0%/+2%) (+10%/-5%) (±5%)\nNapięcie obwodu otwartego V (V) 37,4 109 100 oc\nNapięcie nominalne V (V) 30,1 82,5 73 m\nNatężenie prądu zwarcia I (A) 8,83 2,2 1,62 sc\nNatężenie nominalne I (A) 8,31 1,88 1,3 m\nSprawność w warunkach STC (%) 15,4 12,6 6,0\nTemperaturowy współczynnik napięcia obwodu\n–0,3 −0,30 −0,34 otwartego (%/°C) voc\nTemperaturβowy współczynnik natężenia prądu zwarcia\n0,04 0,01 0,09\nα (%/°C)\nIsc\nTemperaturowy współczynnik mocy (%/°C) −0,40 −0,31 −0,2\nPm\nNominalna temperatura pracy ogniwaγ (NOCT) (°C) 45°C ± 2% 47°C 45°C\n\nPV #11 PV #12 PV #13\nTyp modułu\n(pc-Si) (CIGS) (a-Si)\nPowierzchnia modułu PV A (m2) 1,63 1,23 1,57\nMasa modułu PV (kg) 19 20 20,5\nOpracowanie własne na podstawie kart charakterystyki modułów PV\nNa terenie farmy fotowoltaicznej, w płaszczyźnie modułów, zainstalowane zostało ogniwo referencyjne do pomiaru natężenia promieniowania słonecznego.\nOgniwo wykonane jest z krzemu monokrystalicznego. Jego kalibracja zapewnia wiarygodny pomiar natężenia promieniowania słonecznego. Dodatkowo zastosowano czujnik do pomiaru temperatury modułów PV. Szczegółową specyfikację urządzenia przedstawia tabela 3.12.\nParametry pracy farmy PV, w tym także jej części eksperymentalnej, takie jak moc generowana, napięcie i natężenie prądu, wraz z danymi dotyczącymi natężenia promieniowania słonecznego i temperatury modułu rejestrowane są synchronicznie przez system rejestracji danych co 5 min i przechowywane w pamięci komputera w celu późniejszej analizy. W odróżnieniu od systemów eksperymentalnych omówionych w poprzednich punktach, w tym przypadku zarówno moc jak i napięcie oraz natężenie prądu pozyskiwane są bezpośrednio z falownika, który pracuje w punkcie mocy maksymalnej dzięki układowi śledzenia MPPT (ang. maximum power point tracking). Do analizy uzysków specyficznych oraz strat energii wybrano pełny rok po uruchomieniu farmy, tj. 2015. Ocenę degradacji przeprowadzono na podstawie współczynników wydajności obliczonych w kolejnych 3 latach pracy instalacji.\n\nTabela 3.11. Specyfikacja falowników eksperymentalnego systemu PV\nSystemy\nParametry falownika System pc-Si cienkowarstwowe\nMoc nominalna DC (kW) 21,4 3,6\nMoc nominalna AC (kVA) 21 3,3\nMaksymalne napięcie DC (V) 1000 600\nZakres napięć DC (V) 200-1000 125-600\nZakres pracy MPPT DC (V) 350-800 150-480\nZakres temperaturowy pracy (°C) −20–+60 −25–+70\nMaksymalna sprawność (%) 98 97\nOpracowanie własne na podstawie kart charakterystyki falowników, (Delta, 2025)\nTabela 3.12. Specyfikacja ogniwa referencyjnego do pomiaru natężenia promieniowania słonecznego oraz czujnika temperatury\nCzujnik natężenia promieniowania słonecznego Si-12-TC Parametry\nWymiary ogniwa referencyjnego 50 mm x 33 mm\nTemperaturowy zakres pracy od −20°C do 70°C\nZakres pomiaru natężenia promieniowania słonecznego 0 W/m2−1200 W/m2\nZakres napięć wyjściowych 0 V−10 V\nNatężenie prądu (zużycie) 0,3 mA\nNiepewność pomiaru (% wyniku końcowego) ±5%\nCzujnik temperatury\nZakres pomiaru temperatury od −20°C do 80°C\nSygnał wyjściowy 1,84 V + T (°C) 92 mV/°C\nDokładność pomiaru (w temp. 25 °C) ±1,5%\nMaksymalne odchylenie 2°C\nŹródło: meteocontrol, 2025\n\n3.2. Model matematyczny oraz metodyka badań parametrów charakterystycznych modułów PV i wydajności systemów fotowoltaicznych\n3.2.1. Parametry charakterystyczne modułu PV\nRycina 3.4 przedstawia przykładową charakterystykę prądowo-napięciową (I–V) modułu fotowoltaicznego PV. Najważniejsze parametry charakterystyczne krzywej I-V to: natężenie prądu zwarcia I (A), napięcie obwodu otwartego V (V) sc oc oraz punkt mocy maksymalnej P (W). Punktowi mocy maksymalnej odpowiam dają napięcie i natężenie prądu oznaczone odpowiednio V m\n(V) i I m\n(A).\nRyc. 3.4. Charakterystyka prądowo-napięciowa (I-V) modułu fotowoltaicznego z zaznaczonymi parametrami charakterystycznymi krzywej\nW celu porównania parametrów pracy modułów PV różnych producentów czy różnych technologii, charakterystykę I-V mierzy się w tzw. standardowych warunkach testowych (STC, ang. standard test conditions). Zgodnie z przyjętą w niniejszym opracowaniu konwencją, symbole odnoszące się do warunków testowych oznaczane są gwiazdką (*).\n\nStandardowe warunki testowe, w których badane są moduły PV, to: natężenie promieniowania słonecznego G* wynoszące 1000 W·m−2, temperatura modułu = 25°C i współczynnik AM = 1.5 (ang. air mass). Punkt mocy maksymalnej (P ) wyraża się równaniem (3.1):\nm\n(3.1) gdzie:\nV – napięcie w punkcie mocy maksymalnej (V), m\nI – natężenie prądu w punkcie mocy maksymalnej (A).\nm\nParametrem pozwalającym określić jakość modułu fotowoltaicznego jest bezwymiarowy współczynnik wypełnienia FF (ang. fill factor), zdefiniowany wzorem (3.2).\n(3.2) gdzie:\nV – napięcie obwodu otwartego (V), oc\nI – natężenie prądu zwarcia (A).\nsc\nIm większa jest wartość współczynnika FF tym mniejsze jest nachylenie krzywej I-V w obszarze natężenia prądu zwarcia oraz tym większy jest kąt nachylenia w obszarze napięcia obwodu otwartego, co jest bezpośrednio związane z wielkością rezystancji równoległej (R ) i szeregowej (R) w module PV (Petrone i in., 2017) sh s i tym samym z jego sprawnością. Można przyjąć, że moduły wysokiej jakości charakteryzują się współczynnikiem FF powyżej 0,75. Równania (3.3) i (3.4) pozwalają określić ich wartości na podstawie kształtu charakterystyki prądowo-napięciowej w pobliżu napięcia obwodu otwartego i natężenia punktu zwarcia.\n\n(3.3)\n(3.4) gdzie:\nR – rezystancja równoległa (Ω), sh\nR – rezystancja szeregowa (Ω), s\n– pochodna natężenia prądu I względem napięcia V, obliczona w punkcie, w którym prąd ma wartość równą Isc a napięcie wartość V .\noc\nNapięcie obwodu otwartego (V ) i natężenie prądu zwarcia (I ) określa oc sc się metodą ekstrapolacji, polegającą na aproksymacji fragmentów charakterystyki I-V liniami prostymi oraz ich przedłużeniu do punktów przecięcia z odpowiednimi osiami układu współrzędnych (Smith i in., 2012). W celu wyznaczenia wartości prądu zwarcia metodą regresji liniowej wybierane są te punkty pomiarowe (I, V), które znajdują się w przedziale napięć od 0 do\n20% . W przypadku napięcia obwodu otwartego wybierane są punkty (I, V) mieszczące się w zakresie między 0 i 20% . Zarówno , jak i odczytywane są z karty charakterystyki modułu.\nWartość punktu mocy maksymalnej (P ) wyznaczana jest na podstawie m krzywej P-V (krzywa mocy w funkcji napięcia). W tym celu do odpowiedniego fragmentu krzywej znajdującego się w otoczeniu maksymalnej mocy (P ) wyz znaczonej z punktów pomiarowych należy dopasować wielomian czwartego stopnia. Wyboru punktów P dokonuje się w oparciu o warunek P 0,85 P .\ni i z\nPunkt mocy maksymalnej P wyliczany jest na podstawie pierwszej p≥ochodnej m wielomianu zgodnie ze wzorem (3.5).\n(3.5.)\nIstotnym wskaźnikiem jest również sprawność η (%) modułu PV, którą można obliczyć wykorzystując wzór (3.6). Sprawność informuje, jaka część energii padającego promieniowania słonecznego zamieniana jest bezpośrednio w energię elektryczną.\n\n(3.6) gdzie:\nG – natężenie promieniowania słonecznego w płaszczyźnie modułu\nPV (W·m–2),\nA – sumaryczna powierzchnia ogniw w module PV (m2),\nFF – współczynnik wypełnienia.\nWartości charakterystycznych parametrów pracy modułu fotowoltaicznego są zależne od warunków atmosferycznych, głównie od natężenia promieniowania słonecznego, które ma również wpływ na temperaturę modułu PV.\nWarto w tym miejscu zaznaczyć, że w wyniku naturalnych procesów degradacyjnych zachodzących w ogniwach słonecznych wartości referencyjne parametrów pracy modułu PV zmieniają się w czasie w sposób nieodwracalny.\nW efekcie, po pewnym okresie eksploatacji w warunkach zewnętrznych, moduł PV nie osiąga już pierwotnych wartości parametrów elektrycznych w warunkach STC. Dlatego metody będące przedmiotem niniejszego opracowania, umożliwiające wyznaczenie parametrów pracy modułu w rzeczywistych warunkach zewnętrznych oraz ich monitoring w czasie, umożliwiają weryfikację, czy procesy degradacyjne modułów nie zachodzą zbyt szybko.\nZależność natężenia prądu zwarcia, napięcia obwodu otwartego i punktu mocy maksymalnej od natężenia promieniowania słonecznego i temperatury modułu wyrażają równania (3.7)–(3.9). Należy podkreślić, że równania te umożliwiają wyznaczenie wartości referencyjnych (STC) parametrów pracy modułu PV na podstawie parametrów wyznaczonych z krzywych I-V w dowolnych warunkach.\n(3.7)\n(3.8)\n(3.9)\n\ngdzie:\nα – temperaturowy współczynnik natężenia prądu zwarcia (1/°C),\nIsc\n– temperaturowy współczynnik napięcia obwodu otwartego (1/°C), voc\nβ – temperaturowy współczynnik mocy maksymalnej (1/°C),\nPm\nγI sc\n– natężenie prądu zwarcia w warunkach G oraz T m\n(A),\n– natężenie prądu zwarcia w warunkach STC (A),\nV – napięcie obwodu otwartego w warunkach G oraz T (V), oc m\n– napięcie obwodu otwartego w warunkach STC (V),\nP – moc maksymalna w warunkach G oraz T (W), m m\n– moc maksymalna w warunkach STC (W), n – bezwymiarowy współczynnik jakości złącza p-n w ogniwie PV\n(współczynnik diody), k – stała Boltzmana (1,381·10−23 J/K),\nB q – ładunek elementarny (1,6·10−19 C),\nG* – wartość G w warunkach STC, tj. 1000 W·m–2,\n– temperatura modułu PV w warunkach STC, tj. 25°C.\nRównanie (3.9), wykorzystywane jest do prognozowania mocy generowanej przez system PV w funkcji natężenia promieniowania słonecznego i temperatury\n(Osterwald, 1986). Wykorzystując model Osterwalda można wyznaczyć wartość referencyjną punktu mocy maksymalnej w warunkach STC na podstawie pomiarów przeprowadzonych w warunkach zewnętrznych. W tym celu wartości mocy teoretycznie osiągane w temperaturze referencyjnej ( = 25°C) można obliczyć na podstawie równania (3.10).\n(3.10) gdzie:\n– wartość mocy po przeliczeniu do temperatury 25°C,\n– temperaturowy współczynnik mocy (1/°C),\nPm\nγi – indeks wartości mocy zmierzonej dla temperatury modułu przy natężeniu promieniowania słonecznego G.\ni\n\nWartość referencyjną (STC) mocy maksymalnej wyznacza się metodą regresji liniowej ze współczynnika nachylenia prostej zgodnie z równaniem (3.11).\n(3.11)\nW przedstawionej metodzie istotne jest, by prosta dopasowana do zależności funkcyjnej przechodziła przez początek układu współrzędnych.\nSpełnienie tego warunku realizowane jest poprzez zastosowanie funkcji o nazwie polyfitZero znajdującej się w repozytorium środowiska MATLAB (Mikofski, 2025).\nInnym sposobem wyznaczenia parametrów referencyjnych badanego modułu jest translacja zmierzonych krzywych I-V do warunków standardowych, a następnie wyznaczenie wartości referencyjnych (STC) parametrów pracy modułu PV na podstawie otrzymanej krzywej. Metoda ta sprawdziła się, w odniesieniu do badania parametrów pracy modułów w technologii cienkowarstwowej (CdTe i CIGS) (Gulkowski i Krawczak, 2024b).\nW celu translacji krzywej I-V do standardowych warunków testowych zastosowano równania (3.12) i (3.13)\n(3.12)\n(3.13) gdzie:\n– n atężenie prądu po translacji do standardowych warunków testowych (STC) (A),\n– napięcie po translacji do standardowych warunków testowych\n(STC) (V),\nI – natężenie prądu zmierzone w warunkach rzeczywistych (OPC) (A), i\nV – napięcie zmierzone w warunkach rzeczywistych (OPC) (V), i\nI – natężenie prądu zwarcia krzywej I-V w warunkach OPC (A), sc\nG – natężenie promieniowania słonecznego podczas pomiaru krzywej\nI-V (W·m−2),\nα – współczynnik temperaturowy prądu zwarcia w warunkach OPC\nIsc\n(A/°C),\n\n– współczynnik temperaturowy napięcia obwodu otwartego (V/°C) voc\nβ w STC,\nT – temperatura modułu PV (°C), m\nR – rezystancja szeregowa modułu PV w warunkach OPC (Ω), s\nκ – współczynnik temperaturowy rezystancji szeregowej modułu PV\n(Ω/°C).\nWystępujący w równaniach (3.12) i (3.13) temperaturowy współczynnik natężenia prądu zwarcia oraz rezystancja szeregowa są wielkościami zależnymi odpowiednio od natężenia promieniowania słonecznego i temperatury modułu. Zależności te przedstawione zostały wzorami (3.14) i (3.15).\n(3.14)\n(3.15) gdzie:\nα – współczynnik temperaturowy prądu zwarcia w warunkach STC\nIsc,STC\n(A/°C),\nR – rezystancja szeregowa modułu PV w warunkach STC (Ω).\ns,STC\nZgodnie z podejściem polegającym na wprowadzeniu empirycznego współczynnika α , który odpowiada za efekty nieliniowej zależności I od G w przy-\n1 sc padku niższych wartości natężenia promieniowania słonecznego (Zhou i in.,\n2007), natężenie prądu zwarcia wyraża się wzorem (3.16).\n(3.16) gdzie:\n– natężenie prądu zwarcia w warunkach STC (A),\nG* – wartość G w warunkach STC, tj. 1000 W·m–2,\nα – współczynnik empiryczny wyznaczany wg wzoru (3.18).\n\nAnalogicznie można zdefiniować współczynnik α w przypadku natężenia prądu w punkcie mocy maksymalnej (wzór 3.17).\n(3.17) gdzie:\n– natężenie w punkcie mocy maksymalnej zmierzone w warunkach\nSTC,\nα – współczynnik empiryczny obliczany wg wzoru (3.19).\nWspółczynniki α i α wyznacza się doświadczalnie na podstawie dwóch\n1 2 krzywych zmierzonych w różnych warunkach natężenia promieniowania słonecznego (G* i G) korzystając z równań (3.18) i (3.19).\n(3.18)\n(3.19)\nW publikacjach zaproponowano empiryczną metodę wyznaczania napięcia obwodu otwartego (van Dyk i in., 2002; Zhou i in., 2007). Zgodnie z nimi napięcie obwodu otwartego V w danych warunkach natężenia promieniowania słoneczoc nego i temperatury modułów można obliczyć na podstawie równania (3.20).\n(3.20) gdzie:\n– napięcie obwodu otwartego w warunkach STC (V),\n= 25°C,\n– współczynnik empiryczny obliczany wg wzoru (3.21),\nβ – współczynnik empiryczny obliczany wg wzoru (3.22).\nγ\nWystępujące w równaniu (3.20) bezwymiarowe współczynniki ( i ) wy-\n1 1 znaczane są doświadczalnie na podstawie pomiarów krzywych I-Vβ w γdwóch\n\nróżnych natężeniach promieniowania słonecznego (G*, G) oraz dla dwóch różnych wartości temperatury modułu ( ). Do wyliczenia wartości współczynników stosuje się zależności (3.21) i (3.22)\n(3.21)\n(3.22)\nAnalogiczna procedura stosowana jest w przypadku napięcia w punkcie mocy maksymalnej V (3.23), gdzie współczynniki ( i ) opisane są równam 2 2 niami (3.24) i (3.25). Skuteczność metody potwierdzonβo nγa przykładzie modułu w technologii HIT (Gulkowski i in., 2019a).\n(3.23)\n(3.24)\n(3.25)\nStosując przedstawione metody wyznaczania parametrów pracy badanego modułu PV w warunkach zewnętrznych bazuje się na dużych zbiorach danych będących wynikiem długoterminowych pomiarów charakterystyk I-V modułów PV. Konieczne w tym przypadku staje się zastosowanie zaawansowanych metod filtrowania danych. Dużą skuteczność wykazała, co potwierdzono w dalszej części niniejszego opracowania, metoda statystyczna konsensusu losowej próby RANSAC (ang. random sample consensus). Jest to iteracyjna metoda, która dopasowuje model do danych zawierających wartości odstające. Funkcja działa poprzez losowy wybór podzbioru punktów, dopasowanie modelu oraz ocenę zgodności w oparciu o założone kryteria odległości. W analizie zastosowano funkcję środowiska MATLAB (fitPolynomialRANSAC). Dokładny opis metody jest dostępny w dokumentacji środowiska MATLAB (The MathWorks Inc., 2023).\n\n3.2.2. Czteroparametrowy model diodowy\nIstotną grupę parametrów modułu PV stanowią parametry modelu diodowego, które odgrywają kluczową rolę w odwzorowaniu charakterystyki I-V modułu\nPV. W modelu czteroparametrowym ogniwa PV charakterystyka prądowo-napięciowa jest modelowana za pomocą równoważnego schematu elektrycznego składającego się ze źródła prądu połączonego szeregowo z rezystorem, reprezentującym opory występujące w module PV (Ryc. 3.5).\nRyc. 3.5. Elektryczny schemat zastępczy modułu fotowoltaicznego w modelu jednodiodowym czteroparametrowym\nZależność natężenia prądu płynącego w obwodzie I (A) w funkcji napięcia V (V) przedstawia równanie (3.26).\n(3.26) gdzie:\nI – natężenie fotoprądu (A),\nL\nI – natężenie prądu nasycenia diody (A),\nR – rezystancja szeregowa (Ω), s n – współczynnik diody, q – ładunek elementarny (1,6·10–19C), k – stała Boltzmanna (1,381·10–23J/K),\nB\nT – temperatura modułu PV (K).\nm\n\nKształt krzywej można określić na podstawie równania (3.26) wyznaczając uprzednio poszczególne parametry modelu: I , I , R i n. Parametry te można\nL 0 s obliczyć na podstawie punktów charakterystycznych krzywej I-V w standardowych warunkach testowych, które podane są przez producenta w karcie charakterystyki modułu PV. Napięcie V oraz natężenie I w punktach charakterystycznych przyjmuje następujące wartości:\nÒ w punkcie I : I = I , V = 0, sc sc\nÒ w punkcie V : I = 0, V = V , oc oc\nÒ w punkcie mocy maksymalnej: I = I , V = V .\nm m\nUwzględniając równanie (3.26) oraz powyższe zależności można zdefiniować układ równań (3.27)–(3.30), którego rozwiązanie prowadzi do obliczenia wartości parametrów modelu (Celik i Acikgoz, 2007; De Soto i in., 2006;\nKhezzar i in., 2014).\n(3.27)\n(3.28)\n(3.29)\n(3.30)\nZgodnie z przedstawionym w literaturze podejściem (Khezzar i in., 2014;\nSera i in., 2008) prąd nasycenia diody I (A) może być wyznaczony na podstawie punktu charakterystyki I-V przedstawiającego napięcie obwodu otwartego\n(0, V ), w którym natężenie prądu wynosi zero, zgodnie z równaniem (3.32) oc przy założeniu, że natężenie fotoprądu jest w przybliżeniu równe wartości natężenia prądu zwarcia, co przedstawia równanie (3.31).\nI = I (3.31)\nL sc\n(3.32)\n\nRezystancję szeregową R (Ω), można wyliczyć w oparciu o natężenie i nas pięcie w punkcie mocy maksymalnej (I , V ), na podstawie równania (3.33).\nm m\n(3.33)\nWspółczynnik diody n może być również wyznaczony w oparciu o wartości natężenia i napięcia w punkcie mocy maksymalnej (Khezzar i in., 2014), zgodnie z równaniem (3.34).\n(3.34)\n3.2.3. Pięcioparametrowy model diodowy\nRównoważny schemat elektryczny ogniwa PV w jednodiodowym modelu pięcioparametrowym oprócz rezystora szeregowego zawiera jeszcze rezystor równoległy reprezentujący natężenie prądu upływu. Im większa wartość rezystancji równoległej, tym lepszej jakości moduł PV. Ryc. 3.6 przedstawia schemat elektryczny w modelu pięcioparametrowym.\nRównanie natężenia prądu I (A) w obwodzie przedstawionym na rycinie 3.6 przyjmuje postać (3.35)\n(3.35) gdzie:\nR – rezystancja równoległa (Ω).\nsh\n\nRyc. 3.6. Elektryczny schemat zastępczy modułu fotowoltaicznego w modelu jednodiodowym pięcioparametrowym\nAnalogicznie do modelu czteroparametrowego – na podstawie równania\n(3.35) oraz punktów charakterystycznych krzywej I-V otrzymuje się układ równań (3.36–3.40), którego rozwiązanie pozwala wyznaczyć pięć parametrów modelu, mianowicie I , I , R, R , n (De Soto i in., 2006).\nL 0 s sh\n(3.36)\n(3.37)\n(3.38)\n(3.39)\n(3.40)\nStosunkowo dokładnym rozwiązaniem układu równań (3.36–3.40) jest metoda analityczna (Chan i Phang, 1987). Jej niewątpliwą zaletą jest prosta implementacja. Nie występuje także konieczność stosowania metod rozwiązujących układ równań, co ma znaczenie przy dużych zbiorach charakterystyk ze względu na szybkość obliczeń. Zaproponowana metoda wymaga jedynie wyznaczenia podstawowych punktów charakterystyki, tj. natężenia prądu zwarcia, napięcia\n\nobwodu otwartego oraz natężenia i napięcia w punkcie mocy maksymalnej.\nRezystancję szeregową i równoległą modułu PV można wyznaczyć na podstawie kształtu charakterystyki I-V w obszarze punktów przecięcia z osią rzędnych i odciętych. Równania (3.41)–(3.44) pozwalają wyznaczyć parametry modelu diodowego metodą Phanga. Jej dokładność potwierdzono też w innych pracach\n(Montes-Romero i in., 2018; Sevillano-Bendezú i in., 2024).\n(3.41)\n(3.42)\n(3.43)\n(3.44) gdzie:\nR – rezystancja szeregowa wyznaczana na podstawie równania (3.4), s0\nR – rezystancja równoległa wyznaczana na podstawie równania (3.3), sh\nV = k T /q.\nT B m\nRównanie (3.35) może być również rozwiązane z wykorzystaniem funkcji specjalnej Lamberta-W, w której równanie postaci y = xex ma rozwiązanie zawierające wyrażenie x = W(y). W(y) oznacza funkcję Lamberta-W. Zaletą metody jest to, że do znalezienia parametrów modelu nie jest wymagana procedura iteracyjna, a jedynie obliczenie głównej gałęzi funkcji Lamberta, zgodnie z równaniem (3.52). Podobnie jak wcześniej, równania w metodzie Lamberta bazują na parametrach charakterystycznych modułu fotowoltaicznego, które mogą być zmierzone doświadczalnie lub pozyskane z karty charakterystyki dostarczonej przez producenta. Zastosowanie równań (3.45)–(3.54) prowadzi do obliczenia parametrów modelu diodowego (Accarino i in., 2013; Petrone i in., 2017; Piliougine i in., 2021).\n\n(3.45)\n(3.46)\n(3.47)\n(3.48)\n(3.49)\n(3.50)\n(3.51)\n(3.52)\n(3.53)\n(3.54) gdzie:\na – temperaturowy współczynnik natężenia prądu (A/K),\nIsc\n– temperaturowy współczynnik napięcia (V/K), voc\nβW {·} – główna gałąź funkcji Lamberta-W,\nE (T ) – przerwa energetyczna półprzewodnika w temperaturze T (eV), g m m\nE – przerwa energetyczna półprzewodnika w temperaturze 0K (eV), g0 a , b – stałe zależne od materiału półprzewodnikowego ogniwa.\nsi si\n\nW przypadku modułów wykonanych z ogniw z krzemu monokrystalicznego poszczególne stałe przyjmują następujące wartości: E = 1,16 eV, a = g0 si\n7×10−4 eV, b = 1100 K (Piliougine i in., 2021). Obliczenia funkcji Lamberta si dokonano z wykorzystaniem biblioteki PVLIB (Holmgren i in., 2018). Należy zauważyć, że podstawienie do wzorów (3.41)–(3.54) parametrów charakterystycznych zmierzonych w warunkach standardowych prowadzi do obliczenia referencyjnych parametrów modelu diodowego.\n3.2.4. Parametry modelu diodowego w zmiennych warunkach G i T\nNa podstawie parametrów referencyjnych jednodiodowego modelu\n( ) możliwe jest określenie ich wartości w dowolnych warunkach natężenia promieniowania słonecznego G oraz temperatury modułu T .\nm\nKolejne równania przedstawiają zależności parametrów modelu w funkcji odpowiednich warunków operacyjnych.\nZależność natężenia fotoprądu od G i T opisuje równanie (3.55).\nm\n(3.55) gdzie:\nI – natężenie fotoprądu w danych warunkach G i T (A),\nL m\n– natężenie fotoprądu w warunkach standardowych (A),\nα – temperaturowy współczynnik natężenia prądu zwarcia (A/°C).\nIsc\nNatężenie prądu nasycenia diody wyraża się równaniami (3.56)–(3.57) z uwzględnieniem wartości przerwy energetycznej półprzewodnika E (eV), g z którego wykonane są ogniwa słoneczne.\n(3.56)\n(3.57)\n\nW przypadku krzemu krystalicznego przerwa energetyczna w temperaturze referencyjnej ( ) wynosi 1,121 eV. Bazując na pracy (De Soto i in.,\n2006) przyjmuje się, że temperaturowy współczynnik przerwy energetycznej dla tego materiału wynosi −0,0002677 1/K. W przypadku tellurku kadmu współczynnik ten wynosi −0,0003 1/K, natomiast dla GaAs i CIS odpowiednio\n−0,000433 1/K i −0,00011 1/K (Holmgren i in., 2018).\nZależność współczynnika diody n od temperatury, po uwzględnieniu stałych ze wzoru (3.58), przedstawia równanie (3.59).\n(3.58)\n(3.59)\nZależność rezystancji szeregowej od temperatury wyrażona została za pomocą wzoru (3.15). Występujący w równaniu (3.15) współczynnik κ otrzymuje się doświadczalnie, co wymaga wykonania pomiarów w zmiennej temperaturze.\nZ tego powodu zazwyczaj przyjmuje się wartość rezystancji szeregowej jako stałą.\nBadania uwzględniły zależność rezystancji szeregowej zarówno od temperatury, jak i natężenia promieniowania słonecznego (Malgaroli i in., 2024).\nZależność tę można zapisać wzorem (3.60).\n(3.60) gdzie jest współczynnikiem proporcjonalności wyznaczonym doświadczalne.\nexp\nγ\nZależność rezystancji równoległej od natężenia promieniowania G przedstawia się równaniem (3.61).\n(3.61)\n\n3.2.5. Parametry pracy systemu fotowoltaicznego\nW celu analizy wydajności systemów fotowoltaicznych zgodnie ze standardem IEC 61724:2017-1 (IEC 61724, 2021) definiuje się następujące wielkości:\nuzysk referencyjny (Y, ang. reference yield, Wh·W−1), uzysk generatora PV (Y , r A ang. array yield, Wh·W-1), uzysk końcowy (Y, ang. final yield, Wh·W−1), straty f konwersji energii (L , ang. capture losses, Wh·W−1), straty systemowe (L, ang.\nc s system losses, Wh·W−1), współczynnik wydajności (PR, ang. performance ratio).\nUzysk referencyjny należy interpretować jako liczbę godzin, w których natężenie promieniowania słonecznego jest równe wartości referencyjnej w warunkach standardowych (tj. G* = 1000 W·m−2) w analizowanym okresie, np. w ciągu dnia, miesiąca lub roku (Ameur i in., 2022; Romero-Fiances i in., 2019). Wartość tę opisuje wzór (3.62)\n(3.62) gdzie H (Wh·m−2) jest napromieniowaniem (ang. irradiation) w płaszczyźnie modułów w analizowanym okresie, które oblicza się za pomocą równania (3.63).\n(3.63)\nG (W·m−2) we wzorze (3.63) oznacza k-tą wartość natężenia promiek niowania słonecznego zarejestrowaną w płaszczyźnie modułu PV (POA, ang.\nplane of array), N jest liczbą zarejestrowanych wartości G w analizowanym k okresie, τ (h) natomiast odstępem czasowym pomiędzy poszczególnymi pomiarami natężenia G . Przez analizowany okres należy rozumieć np. dzień, k miesiąc lub rok.\nEnergię generowaną przez moduły PV E (Wh) można obliczyć jako pole\nA powierzchni pod wykresem mocy P (W) po stronie prądu stałego (DC, ang.\nA direct current) w funkcji czasu w analizowanym okresie (Adaramola, 2015).\nOdpowiednie wyrażenie zapisano równaniem (3.64)\n\n(3.64) gdzie P (W) jest zarejestrowaną k-tą wartością mocy generowanej przez\nA,k moduł PV. Dzieląc wartość energii E przez moc nominalną P\nA 0 systemu PV otrzymuje się uzysk generatora Y (Wh·W−1) w ukła-\nA dzie prądu stałego, zgodnie ze wzorem (3.65)\n(3.65)\nNależy zwrócić uwagę, że jednostką uzysku Y danego wzorem (3.65) jest\nA godzina (h). Wielkość tę interpretuje się jako liczbę godzin w analizowanym przedziale czasu (np. w ciągu dnia), w którym moduły PV pracują z mocą nominalną P (W). Analogicznie oblicza się uzysk końcowy Y (Wh·W−1) jako iloraz\n0 f energii E (Wh) wyjściowej z falownika, tj. po stronie prądu przemiennego out\n(AC, ang. alternating current) i mocy nominalnej P systemu PV. Podobnie jak poprzednio, metryka ta wskazuje, ile godzin system PV pracuje z mocą nominalną (Adaramola i Vågnes, 2015; Ameur i in., 2022). Wartość uzysku końcowego oblicza się zgodnie z równaniem (3.66)\n(3.66) gdzie energię E (Wh) oblicza się ze wzoru (3.67):\nout\n(3.67)\nP (W) jest zarejestrowaną, k-tą wartością mocy na wyjściu falownika.\nout,k\nRóżnica pomiędzy uzyskiem referencyjnym i uzyskiem po stronie stałoprądowej, zapisana wzorem (3.68), oznacza znormalizowane straty L (Wh·W−1) wyc nikające najczęściej z pracy modułów w wyższej niż referencyjna temperaturze, częściowego ich zacienienia, zabrudzenia, a także degradacji (Ameur i in., 2022).\n\n(3.68) gdzie:\nY – uzysk referencyjny liczony na podstawie wzoru (3.62), r\nY – uzysk z systemu PV po stronie DC liczony na podstawie wzoru (3.65).\nA\nStraty wynikające z przesyłania energii oraz sprawności falownika definiuje się jako straty systemowe L (Wh·W−1). Wyraża się je równaniem (3.69).\nS\n(3.69) gdzie:\nY – uzysk końcowy liczony na podstawie wzoru (3.66).\nf\nNa podstawie uzysków referencyjnego i końcowego definiuje się bezwymiarowy współczynnik wydajności systemu fotowoltaicznego PR, który umożliwia ocenę pracy systemów fotowoltaicznych bez względu na wielkość mocy zainstalowanej, lokalizację czy technologię modułów PV (Malvoni i in.,\n2020). Współczynnik wydajności systemu PV można obliczyć posługując się wzorem (3.70).\n(3.70)\nWstawiając (3.63) i (3.67) do wzoru (3.70) otrzymuje się końcową postać równania pozwalającego wyliczyć współczynnik PR na podstawie danych mocy wyjściowej oraz natężenia promieniowania słonecznego. Odpowiednią zależność przedstawiono wzorem (3.71).\n(3.71) gdzie:\nP – zarejestrowana k-ta wartość mocy na wyjściu falownika (W), out,k\nP – moc nominalna systemu PV (W),\n\nG – zarejestrowana k-ta wartość natężenia promieniowania słoneczk nego w płaszczyźnie modułu PV (W·m–2),\nN – liczba zarejestrowanych wartości (pomiarów), tu: G i P .\nk out,k\nW analogiczny sposób, posługując się równaniami (3.72)–(3.73), oblicza się współczynnik wydajności systemu PV po stronie stałoprądowej (PR ).\nDC\n(3.72)\n(3.73) gdzie:\nP – zarejestrowana k-ta wartość mocy generatora w obwodzie po stro-\nA,k nie prądu stałego (W),\nG* – wartość G w warunkach STC, tj. 1000 W·m–2.\nNależy zauważyć, że obliczenie współczynnika wydajności na podstawie wzorów (3.71) i (3.73) wymaga synchronicznych pomiarów – mocy wyjściowej modułu oraz natężenia promieniowania słonecznego.\nW celu określenia współczynnika degradacji, a dokładniej współczynnika spadku wydajności (PLR, ang. performance loss ratio) modułów pracujących w systemach fotowoltaicznych stosuje się z reguły dwie metody analizy szeregów czasowych, tj. metodę rok-do-roku (YoY, ang. year-on-year), oraz metodę klasycznej dekompozycji sezonowej (CSD, ang. classical seasonal decomposition). Pierwsza z nich polega na określeniu stopnia zmian miesięcznej wartości współczynnika wydajności modułów PV po stronie stałoprądowej (PR )\nDC w kolejnych latach (Jordan D.C., Deceglie M.G., Kurtz S.R., 2016). Obliczenia te są powtarzane dla wszystkich wartości wydajności w badanym okresie w celu uzyskania rozkładu wartości PLR. W efekcie mediana rozkładu traktowana jest jako wartość reprezentująca metrykę degradacji modułów PV w systemie fotowoltaicznym. Dodatkowo, wykorzystanie metody ponownego próbkowania (ang. bootstrap) w analizie umożliwia wyznaczenie 95% przedziału ufności\n(CI, ang. 95% confidence of interval) (Jordan D.C., Deceglie M.G., Kurtz S.R.,\n2016; Jordan i in., 2018, Solís-Alemán i in., 2019).\n\nW metodzie klasycznej dekompozycji sezonowej analizowany jest szereg czasowy Y współczynnika wydajności (PR ) w celu znalezienia trendu Tr i DC mi danego równaniem (3.74):\n(3.74) gdzie:\nk = 12, mi – indeks miesiąca liczony od 7, dla którego wyliczana jest wartość trendu,\nY – tu: wartość współczynnika wydajności (PR lub PR ) w i-tym i DC miesiącu.\nParametry linii prostej (a oraz b) dopasowanej do trendu Tr z równami nia (3.75) umożliwiają obliczenie współczynnika degradacji (PLR, w %) zgodnie ze wzorem (3.76).\n(3.75)\n(3.76)\nJak pokazano w części badawczej niniejszego opracowania, metoda an alizy trendu z wykorzystaniem techniki analizy widma szczególnego SSA\n(ang. singular spectrum analysis) okazuje się równie użyteczna w zastosowaniach związanych z analizą wydajności systemów PV, co dwie dotychczas omówione. Metoda zakłada dekompozycję danych na długoterminowy trend\n(sezonowy lub oscylacyjny) oraz szum. W celu analizy trendu współczynnika wydajności wykorzystano pakiet funkcji do dekompozycji szeregu czasowego\n(trenddecomp) środowiska MATLAB (The MathWorks Inc., 2023). Zaletą metody SSA w porównaniu do CSD jest możliwość wykorzystania wszystkich wartości współczynników wydajności, tj. od pierwszego do ostatniego miesiąca badanego okresu. Dla porównania, w metodzie CSD, w pierwszych i ostatnich sześciu miesiącach nie wyznacza się wartości trendu, w związku z czym okresy te nie występują w danych linii trendu. Z tego względu, metoda CSD może wymagać dłuższych szeregów niż SSA w analizach krótkookresowych.\n\n3.2.6. Niepewności pomiarowe w analizie parametrów pracy modu łów i systemów PV\nWzory (3.77)–(3.81) przedstawiają wskaźniki zastosowane przy określaniu dokładności modeli oraz metod związanych z analizą parametrów pracy modułów\nPV (Drouiche i in., 2018; Polo i in., 2017; Senturk, 2020a; Torres-Ramírez i in.,\n2014). Zapis „model” w indeksie dolnym odnosi się do wielkości obliczonych metodą modelowania komputerowego, ogólnie oznaczonych symbolem X i reprezentujących np. moc lub energię produkowaną przez system PV. Natomiast zapis „pomiar” – do rzeczywistych wartości zmierzonych. Liczbę pomiarów przedstawiono symbolem N. Wzory (3.77)–(3.78) stosowane są jako wskaźniki dokładności modeli porównujące wartości otrzymane metodą modelowania oraz metodą doświadczalną. Znormalizowany pierwiastek średniego błędu kwadratowego NRMSE (ang. normalized root mean squared error) oraz znormalizowany średni błąd systematyczny NMBE (ang. normalized mean bias error) określają stopień zgodności wartości modelowanych (w szczególności parametrów pracy modułów PV, charakterystyk I-V) z wartościami doświadczalnymi.\nIm mniejszy NRMSE, tym lepsze dopasowanie modelu. NMBE pokazuje, czy model ma tendencję do przeszacowywania (w przypadku dodatnich wartości\nNME) lub niedoszacowania (w przypadku ujemnych wartości NME).\n(3.77)\n(3.78)\nDo oceny stopnia, w jakim dane pomiarowe lub modelowe układają się wzdłuż linii prostej, wykorzystano współczynnik korelacji oraz jego kwadrat, czyli współczynnik determinacji R2, opisany wzorami (3.79)–(3.80).\n(3.79)\n\ngdzie:\n(3.80)\nW przypadku analizy dokładności modeli pod kątem produkcji energii w określonym przedziale czasu (dzień, miesiąc, rok) zastosowano wzór (3.81).\n(3.81)\nNiepewność wyznaczenia współczynnika degradacji ( ) bazuje na wyznaczeniu dokładności dopasowania prostej do trendu szeregu czasowego T t i jest wyliczana ze wzoru (3.82).\n(3.82) gdzie i oznaczają wariancję współczynników dopasowania (Adaramola i Vågnes, 2015; Lindig i in., 2018). Wartości i odczytuje się z macierzy kowariancji (CM), której postać przedstawia równanie (3.83).\n(3.83)\nMacierz (3.83) obliczona została z wykorzystaniem pakietu Curve Fitting\nToolbox środowiska MATLAB (The MathWorks Inc., 2023).\n\n4. Wyniki badań i dyskusja\nW rozdziale przedstawiono wyniki badań i analiz uzyskanych na podstawie pomiarów charakterystyk prądowo-napięciowych modułów fotowoltaicznych oraz danych pozyskanych z falowników w przypadku systemów podłączonych do sieci elektroenergetycznej.\nWyniki badań wykonanych na Uniwersytecie w Jaén dotyczą analizy parametrów elektrycznych modułów PV wykonanych w technologii krzemu krystalicznego i tellurku kadmu. Pomiary przeprowadzono w warunkach zewnętrznych w systemie nadążnym. Do analizy wyników pomiarów zaproponowano dwie metody: metodę regresji liniowej i metodę translacji do warunków referencyjnych (standardowych warunków testowych). Metodą regresji wyznaczono także temperaturowe współczynniki mocy, napięcia obwodu otwartego i natężenia prądu zwarcia badanych modułów PV. Analizę parametrów temperaturowych wykonano dzięki specjalnie przeprowadzonemu eksperymentowi, w którym uzyskano znaczną różnicę temperatury modułu PV na początku i na końcu procesu pomiarowego przy relatywnie niezmiennym natężeniu promieniowania słonecznego. Zachowanie jednorodnych warunków napromieniowania możliwe było dzięki zastosowaniu układu nadążnego systemu badawczego Uniwersytetu w Jaén.\nEksperymentalne wartości parametrów porównane zostały do wartości\n\nz kart katalogowych modułów PV. Wyniki tej części badań przedstawiono w punkcie 4.1 rozdziału.\nKolejny punkt rozdziału (4.2) dotyczy badań parametrów charakterystycznych wybranych dwóch technologii modułów, tj. modułu krzemowego monokrystalicznego i modułu cienkowarstwowego na podstawie danych uzyskanych w perspektywie długoterminowej. Charakteryzację modułów PV wykonano na Uniwersytecie w Jaén. W tym przypadku zebrano i przeanalizowano większą liczbę krzywych I–V dla wartości natężenia promieniowania słonecznego niższej od wartości referencyjnej, jak i dla niższej wartości temperatury modułu PV. Nacisk w tym punkcie rozdziału położony został na zastosowanie zaawansowanych metod filtrowania danych, zarówno w celu usunięcia błędnych danych, które w pomiarach długoterminowych są trudne do uniknięcia, jak i w celu uzyskania wiarygodnych wyników. Szczegółowo przeanalizowano wpływ współczynnika odległościowego zastosowanego w metodzie konsensusu losowej próby (RANSAC) na dokładność wyznaczonych parametrów pracy modułów fotowoltaicznych.\nPunkt 4.3 przedstawia wyniki analizy parametrów elektrycznych modułu wykonanego w technologii krzemu krystalicznego (PERC). Charakteryzację modułu PV w tej części pracy przeprowadzono za pomocą stacjonarnego systemu badawczego opracowanego na Politechnice Lubelskiej. Do analizy wyników pomiarów zastosowano metodę regresji liniowej i translacji do warunków\nSTC. Pomiary wykonano w warunkach natężenia promieniowania słonecznego bliskiego wartości 1000 Wm–2.\nW części 4.4 rozdziału przedstawiono wyniki badań eksperymentalnych\n∙ przeprowadzonych zarówno na Politechnice Lubelskiej, jak i na Uniwersytecie w Jaén pod kątem analizy parametrów modelu diodowego. Celem prac było określenie dokładności modelu diodowego zastosowanego do prognozowania parametrów charakterystycznych modułu fotowoltaicznego w określonych warunkach natężenia promieniowania słonecznego i temperatury. Przedmiotem badań były moduły PV wykonane w trzech różnych technologiach, w tym w jednej z najnowszych technologii – PERC (Politechnika Lubelska) oraz moduły starszego typu wykonane w technologii krzemu monokrystalicznego i polikrystalicznego (Uniwersytet w Jaén). Zaproponowano metodę opartą na pomiarach doświadczalnych umożliwiającą opracowanie równań opisujących\n\nkorelację poszczególnych parametrów modelu diodowego modułu PV w warunkach zewnętrznych.\nOstatni punkt rozdziału (4.5) dotyczy oceny wydajności systemów fotowoltaicznych podłączonych do sieci elektroenergetycznej. Przedmiotem analizy była instalacja eksperymentalna w systemie stacjonarnym, zlokalizowana na terenie farmy fotowoltaicznej w miejscowości Bordziłówka. Składa się ona z modułów wykonanych w technologii krzemu polikrystalicznego oraz w trzech technologiach cienkowarstwowych: CIGS, CdTe (tellurku kadmu) i krzemu amorficznego. W kolejnych podpunktach przedstawiono wyniki uzysków i strat energii w poszczególnych systemach PV oraz miesięczne współczynniki wydajności poszczególnych technologii w okresie jednego roku.\nPrzedstawiono również wyniki analizy degradacji modułów poszczególnych technologii. Nacisk położono na możliwość zastosowania wybranych metod analizy, takich jak rok-do-roku (YoY) czy klasyczna dekompozycja sezonowa\n(CSD) do określenia stopnia degradacji modułów PV różnych technologii.\nZaproponowano alternatywną metodę wyznaczenia współczynnika degradacji\n(obniżenia wydajności) opartą na analizie widma szczególnego (SSA).\n4.1. Analiza parametrów pracy modułów fotowoltaicznych\n4.1.1. Analiza parametrów elektrycznych metodą regresji liniowej\nRycina 4.1 przedstawia charakterystyki prądowo-napięciowe (I-V) modułów\nPV zmierzone w warunkach zewnętrznych w laboratorium badawczym\nUniwersytetu Jaén w Hiszpanii. Pomiary wykonywano w okresie od 3 do 13 kwietnia 2019 roku w godzinach między 8.30 a 20.30. Łącznie zarejestrowano dane pozwalające wyznaczyć 319 krzywych I-V. Wartość natężenia promieniowania słonecznego G podczas pomiarów mieściła się w zakresie od ok. 230 W·m−2 w godzinach porannych i popołudniowych do 1200 W·m−2 w godzinach okołopołudniowych. Jednocześnie zarejestrowana temperatura modułów wynosiła od 20°C do 55°C. Pomiary przeprowadzono z wykorzystaniem dwuosiowego układu nadążnego (ang. solar tracker). Na wykresach\n\nzaznaczone zostały, za pomocą znaczników, punkty charakterystyczne poszczególnych krzywych I-V tj. natężenie prądu zwarcia (I ), napięcie obwodu sc otwartego (V ), moc maksymalna (P ). Punkty te zostały wyznaczone na podoc m stawie krzywych IV metodami omówionymi w poprzednim rozdziale.\nRyc. 4.1. Charakterystyki I-V modułu fotowoltaicznego badanych modułów zmierzone w warunkach zewnętrznych, PV #1 (a), PV #3 (b), PV #4 (c), PV #5 (d). Kolory oznaczają, że poszczególne krzywe I-V zostały zmierzone w różnych warunkach.\nRyciny 4.2–4.3 przedstawiają rozkłady wartości natężenia promieniowania słonecznego i temperatury modułów zarejestrowanych podczas pomiarów charakterystyk prądowo-napięciowych. Mediana G w analizowanych przypadkach jest bliska 1000 W·m−2, natomiast mediana zarejestrowanych wartości temperatury modułów PV przekracza 45°C. W przypadku natężenia promieniowania słonecznego warunki pomiaru są zatem zbliżone do wartości standardowej\n\n(1000 W·m−2). Z uwagi zaś na absorpcję promieniowania słonecznego temperatura modułów jest wyższa od wartości referencyjnej (25°C).\nRyc. 4.2. Rozkład natężenia promieniowania Ryc. 4.3. Rozkład temperatury modułów T m słonecznego G (W·m−2) podczas pomiaru (°C) podczas pomiarów krzywych I-V krzywych I-V\nZależności poszczególnych parametrów pracy modułu PV od warunków atmosferycznych przedstawiają kolejno ryc. 4.4–4.6. Ich analiza ma znaczenie zarówno w prognozowaniu produkcji energii przez systemy PV, jak i w ocenie parametrów pracy modułów PV w systemach fotowoltaicznych. Na ich podstawie możliwe jest wyznaczenie wartości parametrów charakterystycznych badanych modułów w standardowych warunkach testowych. Wysokie wartości natężenia promieniowania słonecznego (bliskie G*), przyczyniają się do uzyskania pomiarów natężenia prądu zwarcia zbliżonych do referencyjnych.\nPodobnie jest w przypadku punktu mocy maksymalnej, chociaż istotne znaczenie ma tutaj również wyższa temperatura modułu PV, która obniża jego moc.\nWyższa temperatura przyczynia się również do obniżenia wartości napięcia obwodu otwartego w porównaniu do wartości referencyjnej.\nRycina 4.4. przedstawia zależność prądu zwarcia I od natężenia promiesc niowania słonecznego G. Wartości odstające (ang. outliers) zostały wyeliminowane z analizy, bazując na rozkładzie normalnym wartości I /G oraz odchysc leniu standardowym. Dobór progów filtrowania danych oparty na odchyleniu standardowym uzależniony był w głównej mierze od współczynnika determinacji dopasowanej prostej. Wykresy przedstawiają zarówno punkty znajdujące się w zakresie wartości nieodstających, jak i punkty odstające. Dopasowanie\n\nprostej wykonane zostało tylko dla punktów nieodstających. Analogiczne podejście, polegające na filtrowaniu wyników poprzez porównanie wartości rzeczywistych z referencyjnymi, przedstawiono już w pracach (Tsafarakis i in.,\n2018; Tsafarakis i van Sark, 2023).\nRyc. 4.4. Zależność natężenia prądu zwarcia I (A) od natężenia promieniowania słonecznego sc\nG (W·m−2) modułów: PV #1 (a), PV #3 (b), PV #4 (c), PV #5 (d). Strzałką zaznaczono wyznaczoną z zależności liniowej wartość referencyjną natężenia prądu zwarcia\nJak pokazano na wykresach (ryc. 4.4(a)–4.4(d)), we wszystkich analizowanych przypadkach technologii modułów PV zaobserwowano liniową zależność pomiędzy parametrami I i G. Współczynnik determinacji R2 dopasowanej prosc stej mieści się w przedziale od 0,991 w przypadku modułu PV #1 do 0,997 w przypadku modułu PV #3. Wartość NRMSE nie przekroczyła 1,39%. Uwzględniając fakt, że temperatura modułu PV ma nieznaczny wpływ na natężenie prądu\n\nzwarcia, o czym świadczy jego niewielki współczynnik temperaturowy wahający się w granicach od 0,04 do 0,065 %/°C w zależności od technologii, można przyjąć, że wartości referencyjne wyznaczone z równań dopasowanych prostych wynoszą: 5,66 A (PV #1), 4,83 A (PV #3), 5,19 A (PV #4), 1,26 A (PV #5).\nUzyskane wyniki różnią się od wartości podanych przez producenta w karcie charakterystyki maksymalnie o 3,5%.\nW celu wyznaczenia napięcia obwodu otwartego , posłużono się metodą\nRANSAC (RANdom SAmple Consensus). Jej zastosowanie umożliwiło dopa-e sowanie optymalnej prostej poprzez losowy wybór punktów pomiarowych – nieodstających, które charakteryzują się trendem liniowym. Kryterium wyboru punktów stanowiła odległość dopasowanej prostej od wartości pomiarowych.\nOkreślenie parametru odległości wykonano w oparciu o rozkład normalny i odchylenie standardowe. Dokładna analiza wyboru kryterium i jej wpływ na współczynnik R2 przedstawione zostały na zbiorze danych zebranych w okresie długoterminowym w podrozdziale 4.2.\nZakłada się, że zależność napięcia obwodu otwartego od temperatury modułu PV ma charakter liniowy. Należy jednak zauważyć, że zgodnie z równaniem (3.8), dla wartości G mniejszych od 1000 W·m−2 istotny wpływ na wartość napięcia obwodu otwartego ma również natężenie promieniowania słonecznego. Z tego powodu, dokonując pomiaru w warunkach zewnętrznych, istotne jest zastosowanie metody niewrażliwej na wartości odstające. Ponadto zastosowanie zaawansowanej metody dopasowania prostej, uwzględniającej automatyczną selekcję punktów pomiarowych, umożliwia eliminację innych czynników mających wpływ na dokładność pomiaru, np. wiatru.\nRycina 4.5 przedstawia rezultaty dopasowania prostej zarówno w przypadku punktów wyselekcjonowanych metodą RANSAC, jak i całego zbioru danych pomiarowych badanych modułów PV. Porównując obie linie trendu stwierdzono, że wybór punktów pomiarowych ma duży wpływ na wyznaczoną wartość napięcia obwodu otwartego w warunkach STC z uwagi na fakt, że znaczna ich część odbiega od referencyjnej wartości temperatury 25°C.\nWyznaczone wartości napięcia obwodu otwartego w warunkach STC modułów PV #1 i PV #3 wynoszą odpowiednio 22,0 V i 20,8 V bez stosowania metody selekcji punktów oraz 22,4 V i 20,9 V z zastosowaniem funkcji RANSAC\n(ryc. 4.5a i 4.5b).\n\nRyc. 4.5. Zależność napięcia obwodu otwartego V (V) od temperatury T (°C) modułów:\noc m\nPV #1 (a), PV #3 (b), PV #4 (c), PV #5 (d)\nZaobserwowano istotną różnicę w wartości współczynnika determinacji R2, który w wyniku działania metody RANSAC wzrósł z 0,82 do 0,99 (moduł PV #1) oraz z 0,83 do 0,99 (moduł PV #3). W niektórych przypadkach (PV #4) zastosowanie metody wyboru punktów było koniecznością z uwagi na nieliniowy charakter zależności wynikający z niestabilnych warunków pomiarowych (ryc. 4.5c).\nWartość modułu PV #4 po zastosowaniu metody RANSAC wyniosła 21,6 V\n(R2 = 0,95). W przypadku cienkowarstwowego modułu PV #5 – ryc. 4.5(d) napięcie obwodu otwartego wyniosło 94 V (R2 = 0,98).\nAnalizując wartości referencyjne badanych modułów, znajdujące się w kartach katalogowych, stwierdzono, że po zastosowaniu metody selekcji danych różnica względem wartości podanych przez producenta mieści się w przedziale 0,5%–3,9% zarówno w przypadku modułów w technologii krzemu\n\nkrystalicznego, jak i modułu cienkowarstwowego CdTe. Wyjątkiem jest moduł monokrystaliczny PV #3, dla którego różnica ta jest większa. Podobny efekt zaobserwowano dla punktu mocy maksymalnej.\nRycina 4.6 przedstawia wykresy zależności mocy maksymalnej wyznaczonej z poszczególnych charakterystyk I-V w funkcji natężenia promieniowania słonecznego i temperatury modułu PV. W każdej z badanych technologii zaobserwowano spadek mocy wraz ze wzrostem temperatury modułów PV występującej w okresach charakteryzujących się wysokimi wartościami natężenia G (W·m−2). Wielkość tego spadku nie jest jednak jednakowa, co wskazuje na różnice w temperaturowym współczynniku mocy.\nRyc. 4.6. Zależność mocy w punkcie mocy maksymalnej P (W) od natężenia promieniowania m słonecznego G (W·m–2) modułów: PV #1 (a), PV #3 (b), PV #4(c), PV #5 (d). Strzałką zaznaczono wyznaczoną z zależności liniowej referencyjną wartość punktu mocy maksymalnej\n\nW celu wyeliminowania wpływu temperatury na wartość punktu mocy maksymalnej w warunkach referencyjnych ( ), wartości pomiarowe zostały w pierwszej kolejności przeskalowane do temperatury referencyjnej 25°C, zgodnie z równaniem (3.10). Następnie w oparciu o przeskalowane punkty mocy P (T = 25°C) dopasowano prostą przechodzącą przez początek układu m współrzędnych według wzoru (3.11). Na podstawie równania tej prostej wyznaczono referencyjną wartość punktu mocy maksymalnej badanych modułów PV.\nOtrzymane wartości wynoszą: 96,6 W (PV #1), 76,7 W (PV #3), 83,5 W (PV #4),\n72,9 W (PV #5). Współczynnik R2 zawiera się w granicach od 0,97 w przypadku modułów PV #1 i PV #5 do 0,99 w przypadku PV #3 i PV #4. Rozpatrując różnicę względem wartości podanych przez producenta zaobserwowano wartości w przedziale 3%–4% w porównaniu do modułów w technologii krzemowej.\nJeśli chodzi o moduł CdTe (PV #6) różnica ta jest większa i wynosi ok. 6%. Jak wynika z informacji podanych przez producenta modułu cienkowarstwowego, dopuszcza on nawet różnicę 10% w stosunku do karty katalogowej (tabela 3.2).\nWarto w tym miejscu wspomnieć, że przedstawiona metoda wyznaczania mocy maksymalnej (ang. effective peak power) znalazła również zastosowanie w badaniach dotyczących degradacji modułów PV pracujących w systemach podłączonych do sieci elektroenergetycznej. (Kichou i in., 2016; Silvestre i in., 2016; Solís-Alemán i in., 2019). W szczególności autorzy ostatniej pracy\n(Solís-Alemán i in., 2019) pokazują tendencję spadkową mocy referencyjnej modułów PV w dłuższym, kilkuletnim okresie (od 5,5 do 6,5 roku w zależności od technologii). Ponadto, moc maksymalna wyznaczana w tym przypadku w odniesieniu do danego miesiąca, charakteryzuje się wyraźną różnicą pomiędzy miesiącami zimowymi i letnimi. Efekt ten jest cykliczny i wynika z występowania efektów spektralnych (Nofuentes i in., 2017).\n4.1.2. Analiza parametrów temperaturowych metodą regresji liniowej\nW procesie analizy parametrów pracy modułów PV istotne są również współczynniki temperaturowe, głównie napięcia obwodu otwartego ( ) i mocy voc maksymalnej ( ). W celu zwiększenia zakresu temperatur badanβych modu-\nPm łów zostały onγe zakryte przed rozpoczęciem pomiarów. Pozwoliło to na\n\nuzyskanie niższej temperatury początkowej. Tuż po zdjęciu osłony rejestrowano krzywe I-V wraz z natężeniem promieniowania słonecznego, temperaturą modułów i pozostałymi warunkami pogodowymi. Procedurę tę przeprowadzono kilkukrotnie dla różnych wartości natężenia promieniowania słonecznego. Pomiary wykonano w wybrane dni słoneczne, w kwietniu, w godzinach porannych, tj. między godziną 8:40 a 10:20. Do analizy wybrano 114 krzywych\nI-V, odrębnych od tych omówionych w punkcie 4.1.1. Zmierzone krzywe I-V przedstawiono na rycinie 4.7. Każdej z nich odpowiadają wyznaczone punkty charakterystyczne, które zostały również zaznaczone na wykresach.\nRyc. 4.7. Charakterystyki I-V zmierzone w celu wyznaczenia współczynników temperaturowych modułów fotowoltaicznych PV #1 (a), PV #4 (b), PV #5 (c), PV #6 (d)\n\nW przypadku modułu cienkowarstwowego PV #5 (ryc. 4.7c) krzywe I-V zmierzono przy natężeniu G mieszczącym się w przedziale od 830 W·m−2 do\n994 W·m−2. Zbliżone zakresy G występują również podczas pomiarów charakterystyk modułu w technologii krzemu monokrystalicznego PV #1. W przypadku modułu polikrystalicznego PV #4 pomiary przeprowadzono w zakresie\nG od 620 W·m−2 do 996 W·m−2. Podobny zakres G występował w przypadku pomiarów modułu w technologii HIT (PV #6).\nZastosowanie osłony modułów PV przed rozpoczęciem pomiarów spowodowało, że początkowa temperatura modułów PV była zbliżona do wartości referencyjnej. Minimalna wartość mieściła się w zakresie od 17°C do 19°C w zależności od badanego modułu PV. Pomiary kontynuowano aż do osiągnięcia maksymalnej temperatury mieszczącej się w przedziale od 38°C do 41°C.\nMediana temperatury wszystkich pomiarów w przypadku modułów PV #4 oraz\nPV #6 wynosi 25,3°C oraz 25,9°C. W przypadku dwóch pozostałych modułów\nPV wartość ta wynosi około 30°C.\nRycina 4.8 ukazuje, w jaki sposób moc maksymalna i napięcie obwodu otwartego modułu PV #6 zależą od temperatury. Przedstawione zależności mają charakter liniowy. Współczynniki temperaturowe wyznaczono z nachylenia prostych dopasowanych do wartości eksperymentalnych zgodnie ze wzorami (3.8) i (3.9).\nRyc. 4.8. Z ależność pomiędzy ilorazem mocy maksymalnej i natężeniem promieniowania słonecznego a wyrażeniem z wartością doświadczalną temperatury modułu PV #6 (a) oraz pomiędzy napięciem obwodu otwartego a wyrażeniem z wartością doświadczalną temperatury modułu PV #6 (b)\n\nW przedstawionych na rycinach 4.8 przypadkach, współczynnik determinacji R2 wynosi 0,99. Współczynniki temperaturowe wynoszą odpowiednio\n−0,35%/°C w przypadku mocy oraz −0,26%/°C w przypadku napięcia obwodu otwartego. Zmierzone wartości są zbliżone do wartości deklarowanych przez producenta w karcie charakterystyki modułu (PV #6), zwłaszcza w przypadku współczynnika temperaturowego napięcia, który wynosi −0,24%/°C (współczynnik temperaturowy mocy zgodnie z kartą charakterystyki jest równy −0,26%/°C).\nNa rycinie 4.9 przedstawione zostały wyniki analiz współczynników temperaturowych modułu PV #4. Podobnie jak w poprzednim przypadku, zarówno zależność mocy maksymalnej, jak i napięcia obwodu otwartego od temperatury modułu PV, mają charakter liniowy. Świadczy o tym wysoka wartość współczynnika determinacji R2 wynosząca 0,99. Temperaturowy współczynnik mocy odczytany z nachylenia prostej wynosi −0,43%/°C (dla porównania z −0,5%/°C z karty charakterystyki), natomiast współczynnik jest równy −0,26%/°C voc\n(wartość deklarowana producenta wynosi −0,38%/β°C).\nRyc. 4.9. Zależność pomiędzy ilorazem mocy maksymalnej i natężeniem promieniowania słonecznego a wyrażeniem z wartością doświadczalną temperatury modułu PV #4 (a) oraz pomiędzy napięciem obwodu otwartego a wyrażeniem z wartością doświadczalną temperatury modułu PV #4 (b)\nRycina 4.10 przedstawia zależności temperaturowe napięcia obwodu otwartego i punktu mocy maksymalnej w przypadku modułu w technologii krzemu krystalicznego. W obu przypadkach współczynnik determinacji prostej jest wysoki i wynosi 0,99. Wyznaczone temperaturowe współczynniki wynoszą odpowiednio\n\n−0,36%/°C ( ) oraz −0,52%/°C ( ) i są zbliżone do wartości deklarowanych voc Pm przez producβenta, które wynoszą oγdpowiednio −0,35 %/°C oraz −0,49 %/°C.\nRyc. 4.10. Zależność pomiędzy ilorazem mocy maksymalnej i natężeniem promieniowania słonecznego a wyrażeniem z wartością doświadczalną temperatury modułu PV #1 (a) oraz pomiędzy napięciem obwodu otwartego a wyrażeniem z wartością doświadczalną temperatury modułu PV #1 (b)\nRyc. 4.11. Z ależność pomiędzy ilorazem mocy maksymalnej i natężeniem promieniowania słonecznego a wyrażeniem z wartością doświadczalną temperatury modułu PV #5 (a) oraz pomiędzy napięciem obwodu otwartego a wyrażeniem z wartością doświadczalną temperatury modułu PV #5 (b)\nPomiary parametrów cienkowarstwowego modułu PV #5 (ryc. 4.11) potwierdzają niskie wartości współczynnika napięcia obwodu otwartego, który wynosi\n−0,26%/°C, oraz współczynnika mocy równego −0,29%/°C. Jest to cecha charakterystyczna modułów drugiej generacji. Współczynniki determinacji R2 wynoszą\n\n0,98 w obu przypadkach. Jak podaje producent, wartość współczynnika napięcia obwodu otwartego wynosi w zależności od temperatury modułu między −0,2 %/°C i −0,25%/°C. W przypadku mocy współczynnik temperaturowy wynosi −0,25%/°C.\nAnalizując zgodność otrzymanych współczynników temperaturowych z danymi podawanymi przez producentów badanych modułów PV stwierdzono, że w przypadku pomiarów w warunkach zewnętrznych różnice sięgają od kliku do kilkunastu procent zarówno w przypadku , jak i . Uzyskane voc Pm wyniki należy uznać za zadowalające, biorąc pod uwβagę istotγne ograniczenia w zakresie kontroli stabilności warunków pomiarowych, która odgrywa kluczową rolę w badaniach współczynników temperaturowych. Największą zgodność wyników otrzymano dla modułu PV w technologii monokrystalicznej (PV #1). Różnica współczynników w stosunku do wartości teoretycznych wynosi 2,9% dla napięcia oraz 6% dla mocy. Dla porównania warto przytoczyć pracę, w której przedstawiono różnicę między współczynnikami temperaturowymi napięcia obwodu otwartego modułów PV różnych technologii wyznaczonymi na podstawie badań w warunkach laboratoryjnych oraz w warunkach zewnętrznych (Dubey i in., 2015). Różnica wartości współczynnika modułu krzemowego mono i multikrystalicznego wynosi ok. 10%. Najmniejszą różnicę\n, ok. 4% autorzy uzyskali dla modułu cienkowarstwowego (CIGS). Różnicę voc\nβ4% zaobserwowano również w odniesieniu do badanego, w ramach niniejszego opracowania, modułu cienkowarstwowego z tellurku kadmu (PV #5).\nW kontekście współczynników temperaturowych należy wymienić również pracę, w której autorzy zwracają uwagę na istotne znaczenie efektów spektralnych w pomiarach w warunkach zewnętrznych (Paudyal i Imenes,\n2021). Zastosowanie korekty uwzględniającej efekty spektralne do wartości mocy zmierzonych przy natężeniu wynoszącym 1000 Wm−2, pozwoliło uzyskać bardziej dokładne oszacowania współczynnika temperaturowego ,\n∙ Pm zbliżone do wartości katalogowych. Przykładowo, w przypadku modułów γmonokrystalicznych redukcja błędu nastąpiła z ok. 5–7% do niecałych 2%.\n\n4.1.3. Analiza parametrów elektrycznych metodą translacji krzywych I-V do warunków standardowych\nW celu wyznaczenia wartości natężenia prądu zwarcia ( ), napięcia obwodu otwartego ( ), natężenia i napięcia nominalnego (odpowiednio i ) i mocy maksymalnej ( ) wykorzystano metodę translacji krzywych z rzeczywistych warunków pomiarowych (OPC) do warunków standardowych (STC). Zastosowano do tego celu pakiet funkcji zawartych w bibliotece PVLIB (Holmgren i in., 2018).\nRyc. 4.12. Charakterystyki I-V badanych modułów po translacji do warunków standardowych;\nPV #1 (a), PV #4 (b), PV #5 (c), PV #6 (d)\nCharakterystyki prądowo-napięciowe badanych modułów po translacji do warunków STC, zgodnie z równaniami (3.12) i (3.13), przedstawia rycina\n4.12. Liczba krzywych I-V wybrana do analizy dla danej technologii mieści się\n\nw zakresie od 20 do 40. Pomiary wykonano w godzinach porannych ze względu relatywnie niższą niż w późniejszych porach dnia temperaturę otoczenia.\nNa rycinie 4.13 przedstawiono natomiast rozkłady parametrów wyznaczonych w rzeczywistych warunkach pomiarowych (OPC) oraz wartości po translacji do standardowych warunków testowych (STC) znormalizowane do parametrów producenta modułów PV. Wartość 1 oznacza w tym wypadku, że wyznaczony parametr (np. moc maksymalna, napięcie obwodu otwartego czy natężenie prądu zwarcia) jest równy wartości podanej w karcie charakterystyki modułu PV.\nŚrednie wartości parametrów charakterystycznych badanych modułów wyznaczone z krzywych I-V po translacji do warunków standardowych wraz z odchyleniami standardowymi przedstawione zostały w tabeli 4.1. Odchylenie standardowe dotyczy w tym przypadku parametrów wyznaczonych z krzywych\nI-V odniesionych do warunków STC. Niewielkie wartości odchyleń standardowych, do 1% w przypadku , 2% dla ok. 1,5% w przypadku , świadczą o wysokiej dokładności metody w odniesieniu do badanych technologii tj. krzemu monokrystalicznego i multikrystalicznego, tellurku kadmu czy technologii HIT.\nTabela 4.1. Parametry charakterystyczne badanych modułów po konwersji do warunków STC wraz z odchyleniem standardowym\nModuł PV (V) (A) (V) (A) (W)\nPV #1 22,4 ± 0,1 5,7 ± 0,1 17,8 ± 0,1 5,3 ± 0,1 95 ± 1,5\nPV #4 21,4 ± 0,1 5,3 ± 0,1 17.2 ± 0,1 4,8 ± 0,1 83 ± 1,1\nPV #5 93,4 ± 0,8 1,25± 0,02 68,2 ± 1,0 1,09 ± 0,02 74 ± 1,4\nPV #6 70,0 ± 0,2 6,1 ± 0,1 58,3 ± 0,3 5,7 ± 0,1 332 ± 3,9\nPorównując wyniki badanych modułów, parametry najbardziej zbliżone do wartości deklarowanej przez producenta uzyskano w przypadku modułu\nPV #6 w technologii HIT – ryc. 4.13(d). Wartości parametrów charakterystycznych są niemalże identyczne z wartościami znajdującymi się w karcie charakterystyki. Różnica w punkcie mocy maksymalnej wynosi ok. 0,6% (1,8 W).\nW przypadku napięcia obwodu otwartego i natężenia prądu zwarcia różnica ta wynosi odpowiednio 0,4% i 0,5%.\n\nNa uwagę zasługują również wąskie przedziały międzykwartylowe.\nDla przypomnienia — są to zakresy, w których mieści się środkowa połowa wyników. Ich szerokość świadczy także o dokładności zastosowanej metody.\nW szczególności dotyczy to napięcia , gdzie przedział wartości waha się w granicach od 69,85 V (pierwszy kwartyl) do 70,12 V (trzeci kwartyl) z medianą równą 69,99 V. Ostatnia wielkość jest niemalże identyczna z przedstawioną w tabeli 4.1. wartością średnią. W przypadku punktu mocy maksymalnej i natężenia prądu zwarcia szerokości przedziałów międzykwartylowych wynoszą odpowiednio 5 W i 0,11 A z medianami równymi 332,4 W i 6,1 A. Również w tym przypadku mediany pokrywają się z wartościami średnimi z tabeli 4.1.\nW przypadku modułów w technologii krzemu krystalicznego (PV #1 i PV #4) różnice wartości zmierzonej w stosunku do wartości producenta są podobne do tych, otrzymanych metodą regresji liniowej i wynoszą 5% i 4,6% odpowiednio dla modułu PV #1 i PV #4. W przypadku natężenia prądu zwarcia zanotowano różnice wynoszące odpowiednio 2,9% i 0,7%, natomiast w przypadku napięcia obwodu otwartego – 3,7% i 1,4%.\nPodobnie jak w przypadku technologii HIT, zaobserwowano wąskie przedziały międzykwartylowe poszczególnych parametrów, w szczególności napięcia obwodu otwartego. Szerokość przedziału równą zaledwie 0,09 V zaobserwowano w przypadku modułu PV #1 (sc-Si), natomiast 0,19 V w przypadku PV #4\n(pc-Si). Analogicznie wąskie przedziały wystąpiły w przypadku natężenia , tj. 5,26 A–5,34 A (PV #1) oraz 5,63 A–5,77 A (PV #4). Mediany napięcia obwodu otwartego, jak i natężenia prądu zwarcia są zbliżone do wartości średnich przedstawionych w tabeli 4.1. Szerokość przedziału międzykwartylowego mocy maksymalnej modułu PV #1 mieści się w granicach od 93,9 W do 96,2 W z medianą równą 95,5 W, podczas gdy dla modułu PV #4 waha się w granicach od\n82,7 W do 83,8 W z medianą równą 83,2 W.\nInteresujące wyniki otrzymano w przypadku modułu cienkowarstwowego\n(PV #5). Jak pokazano na ryc. 4.13c, zarówno wartości natężenia prądu zwarcia, jak i napięcia obwodu otwartego w wyniku translacji do warunków standardowych są większe od wartości producenta. Różnice te wynoszą ok. 3% w obu przypadkach. Jednakże moc maksymalna w warunkach STC jest niższa o 4,5% od wartości podanej w karcie charakterystyki. Sytuacja taka jest możliwa w przypadku, gdy w wyniku degradacji pojawią się większe opory\n\nwewnątrz struktury ogniw PV, co skutkuje obniżeniem mocy maksymalnej.\nŚwiadczą o tym nachylenia krzywych I-V zarówno w obszarze natężenia prądu zwarcia, jak i napięcia obwodu otwartego. Szerokości przedziałów międzykwartylowych poszczególnych parametrów wynoszą 2 W (moc), 1,3 V (napięcie) oraz 0,02 A (natężenie).\nRyc. 4.13. Znormalizowane parametry badanych modułów w warunkach rzeczywistych (OPC) i po translacji do warunków STC; PV #1 (a), PV #4 (b), PV #5 (c), PV #6 (d)\nPorównując obie metody wyznaczania parametrów pracy badanych modułów PV, tj. metodę regresji liniowej i translacji krzywych do warunków STC, zaobserwowano, że w przypadku modułów PV #1, PV #4 i PV #5, względna różnica otrzymanego dwiema metodami waha się w granicach od 0,1% w przypadku PV #1 do 0,9% dla PV #4. Próg 1% zaobserwowano również analizując wartości modułów PV #1 i PV #5. W przypadku modułu PV #4 wartość\n\nta wyniosła 2,1%. Różnice wartości mocy maksymalnej otrzymanych dwiema metodami mieściły się w przedziale między 0,6% a 1,7%. Uwzględniając powyższe stwierdzono, że zarówno metoda regresji liniowej, jak i metoda translacji krzywych I-V do warunków STC pozwalają wyznaczyć parametry pracy modułów PV różnych technologii w warunkach zewnętrznych.\n4.2. Długoterminowa analiza parametrów pracy modułów PV\nDługoterminowe pomiary krzywych prądowo-napięciowych umożliwiły analizę parametrów pracy modułów PV w szerokim zakresie warunków atmosferycznych, zbliżonych do rzeczywistych warunków użytkowania. Badania objęły rok rejestracji parametrów pracy modułu PV, przy czym, w pierwszej jego połowie (od stycznia do lipca) analizowano moduł cienkowarstwowy\n(PV #5), natomiast w drugiej (od lipca do grudnia) – moduł w technologii krzemu krystalicznego (PV #2). W przypadku tego ostatniego, eksperyment zaplanowano tak, by rejestrować jedynie kilka krzywych w ciągu dnia – rano, w okolicach południa i po południu.\nRyciny 4.14–4.15 przedstawiają rozkłady natężenia promieniowania słonecznego oraz temperatury modułów PV, jakie zarejestrowano podczas pomiaru krzywych I-V. Pomiary wykonano na Uniwersytecie w Jaén, w Hiszpanii.\nRyc. 4.14. Histogram natężenia promieniowania słonecznego zarejestrowanego podczas długoterminowych pomiarów krzywych I-V modułu PV #2 (a) oraz PV #5 (b)\n\nW przypadku modułu krzemowego (PV #2), zarejestrowano ponad 700 krzywych w zakresie G między 427 W·m−2 i 1192 W·m−2. Mediana zarejestrowanych wartości temperatury modułu wynosi 58°C, a zmierzone wartości mieszczą się w zakresie od 25°C do 78°C. W przypadku modułu cienkowarstwowego zarejestrowano ponad 6000 krzywych. Jak widać na rycinie 4.14b, dominujący przedział wartości G mieści się w granicach od 800 do 1000 W·m−2.\nWystępują również niższe wartości natężenia promieniowania słonecznego.\nJego dolna granica wynika z konstrukcji układu pomiarowego.\nPrzedział zarejestrowanych wartości temperatury modułu PV #5 wynosi od 25°C do 76°C z medianą równą 45°C.\nRyc. 4.15. Histogram temperatury zarejestrowanej w trakcie długoterminowych pomiarów krzywych I-V modułu PV #2 (a) oraz PV #5 (b)\nAnaliza danych długoterminowych wymaga użycia metod filtrujących, prowadzących do eliminacji nieprawidłowych lub zniekształconych danych, które mogłyby istotnie wpłynąć na wynik wyznaczanych wielkości. Wielu badaczy wskazuje, że procedura oceny jakości danych (DQR, ang. data quality routine) stanowi kluczowy etap, niezbędny do osiągnięcia wiarygodnych wyników oceny parametrów pracy systemów PV (Ascencio-Vásquez i in., 2020;\nJordan i in., 2018; Lindig i in., 2024; Livera i in., 2022).\nNa potrzeby analizy przeprowadzonej w ramach niniejszej pracy wykorzystano kilka metod filtrujących, które dotyczą:\n\nÒ detekcji i eliminacji krzywych I-V otrzymanych w wyniku pomiaru modułów zacienionych, lub w wyniku zacienienia urządzenia rejestrującego natężenie promieniowania słonecznego G,\nÒ detekcji i eliminacji krzywych I-V, dla których nie jest spełniony warunek\nI /G 2σ, gdzie σ, to szerokość rozkładu normalnego (Gaussa) zbioru I /G, sc sc\nÒ detek<cji i eliminacji krzywych I-V, dla których zmierzono V oraz I oraz oc sc zaobserwowano, że różnica pomiędzy tymi wartościami, a wartościami wyznaczonymi na podstawie kształtu krzywych przekracza 1%,\nÒ detekcji i eliminacji krzywych I-V, dla których różnica wartości temperatury modułu PV otrzymanych z pomiaru czujnikiem Pt100 i wartości obliczonej z napięcia obwodu otwartego jest większa niż kilka stopni\nCelsjusza (wielkość progu zależy od technologii).\nNa rycinie 4.16 przedstawiono rezultat działania wymienionych filtrów na zbiorze danych modułu PV w technologii krzemu krystalicznego (PV #2).\nZaprezentowano wykres zależności mocy maksymalnej od temperatury modułu PV i natężenia promieniowania słonecznego. Punkty pomiarowe niespełniające zdefiniowanych powyżej kryteriów filtrowania zaznaczono różnymi kształtami znaczników – ryc. 4.16(a). Odpowiadające im krzywe I-V oraz ich wielkości charakterystyczne zostały odrzucone. Zbiór danych po selekcji przedstawiono na rycinie 4.16(b). Analogiczną procedurę zastosowano w przypadku modułu cienkowarstwowego PV #5.\nRyc. 4.16. Zależność ilorazu mocy maksymalnej i natężenia promieniowania słonecznego\nPV #2 od wyrażenia zawierającego doświadczalną wartość temperatury modułu: dane przed zastosowaniem filtrów (a), dane wyselekcjonowane w wyniku działania filtrów (b)\n\nNatężenie prądu zwarcia w funkcji natężenia promieniowania słonecznego pozyskane z długoterminowych pomiarów charakterystyk prądowonapięciowych modułu krzemowego i cienkowarstwowego przedstawia rycina 4.17. Z otrzymanej zależności wyznaczono wartość dla G = 1000\nW·m−2, przy założeniu nieistotnego wpływu temperatury na wartość natężenia prądu. W obydwu przypadkach współczynnik determinacji dopasowanej prostej wynosi 0,99. Wartość NRMSE nie przekracza 1,9%. W przypadku modułu krzemowego wartość w warunkach STC wynosi 8,68 A. Różnica w stosunku do wielkości podanej przez producenta wynosi zaledwie 0,6%.\nRyc. 4.17. Zależność prądu zwarcia od natężenia promieniowania słonecznego na powierzchnię modułu PV #2 (a) oraz PV #5 (b). Strzałką zaznaczono wyznaczoną z zależności liniowej wartość referencyjną natężenia prądu zwarcia.\nW przypadku modułu w technologii cienkowarstwowej otrzymano natężenie prądu zwarcia równe 1,19 A. Wartość podana przez producenta to 1,22 A.\nZbliżone wartości otrzymano w wyniku pomiarów krótkoterminowych analizowanego modułu, opisanych w poprzednich częściach opracowania.\nRycina 4.18a przedstawia zależność temperaturową napięcia obwodu otwartego modułu krzemowego (PV #2). W celu zilustrowania wpływu natężenia promieniowania słonecznego na wartość napięcia obwodu otwartego wyróżniono dwa zakresy, które oddziela wartość 800 W·m−2, tj. zakres 1: G < 800 W·m−2, oraz zakres 2: G 800 W·m−2. Podobnie jak w przypadku natężenia I , dopasc sowana została p≥rosta, na podstawie której określone zostały wartości dla temperatury = 25°C. Z ryciny 4.18(a) wynika, jak istotne znaczenie ma w tym\n\nprzypadku natężenie promieniowania słonecznego. Niższe wartości skutkują również mniejszą wartością napięcia obwodu otwartego. Do poprawnego wyznaczenia zalecane jest zatem wykonanie pomiarów w zakresie wartości natężeń promieniowania słonecznego zbliżonych do 1000 W·m−2. Badania modułu PV #2 pokazały, że w przypadku zakresu pomiarów G >800 W·m−2 wyznaczona wartość , równa 37,2 V, różni się zaledwie o 0,8% od wartości podanej przez producenta. Współczynnik determinacji R2 wynosi 0,95. W przypadku zakresu o niższych wartościach natężenia G napięcie wynosi 36,3 V\n(R2 = 0,93), co stanowi różnicę 3,2% w stosunku do wartości producenta.\nRyc. 4.18. Zależność napięcia obwodu otwartego od temperatury modułu PV #2 (a) oraz\nPV #5 (b). W przypadku cienkowarstwowego modułu PV #5 zastosowano metodę RANSAC\nRycina 4.18(b) przedstawia zależność napięcia obwodu otwartego w funkcji temperatury modułu PV #5 wyłącznie w zakresie wyższych wartości natężenia promieniowania (G 800 W·m−2). Pomiary z tego zakresu natężenia G stanowią\n53% całego zbioru. Z≥astosowano metodę RANSAC w celu zwiększenia dokładności wyznaczenia . W rezultacie działania metody do dalszej analizy wybranych zostało ok. 39% pomiarów wykonanych w zakresie G 800 W·m−2. Wyniki przedstawiają się następująco: = 89,2 V (R2 = 0,96) bez≥ metody filtrowania oraz\n= 89,0 V (R2 = 0,99) w wyniku zastosowania metody RANSAC. W obu przypadkach różnica w stosunku do wartości deklarowanej przez producenta jest zbliżona i wynosi 1,7%. Podobnie jak w przypadku modułu krzemowego zaobserwowano mniejsze wartości w niższym zakresie natężeń G, tj. = 88,1 V (R2 = 0,95).\nRóżnica w stosunku do wartości deklarowanej przez producenta wynosi 2,6%.\n\nZależność mocy maksymalnej od natężenia promieniowania słonecznego i temperatury modułów przedstawiono na rycinie 4.19. Idea pomiaru jest analogiczna do pomiarów prowadzonych w okresie krótkoterminowym. Przed dopasowaniem prostej do punktów eksperymentalnych skorygowano punkty mocy względem temperatury = 25°C zgodnie z równaniem (3.10).\nRyc. 4.19. Moc maksymalna wyznaczona z krzywych I-V w funkcji natężenia promieniowania słonecznego G. PV #2 (a) oraz PV #5 (b). W obu przypadkach temperatura została przeliczona do wartości = 25°C. Strzałką zaznaczono wyznaczoną z zależności liniowej referencyjną wartość punktu mocy maksymalnej\nWartość punktu mocy maksymalnej w warunkach standardowych modułu krzemowego (PV #2), wyznaczona na podstawie prostej przechodzącej przez punkty eksperymentalne oraz początek układu współrzędnych wynosi\n241 W (R2 = 0,98). Otrzymana wielkość jest zbliżona do wartości deklarowanej przez producenta (245 W) i różni się od niej o 1,6%. W przypadku modułu cienkowarstwowego wyznaczona moc wynosi 67,0 W (R2 = 0,99) i różni się od wartości deklarowanej przez producenta o ok. 10 W (13,5%).\nRycina 4.20 przedstawia rezultat zastosowania metody RANSAC w celu selekcji punktów eksperymentalnych mocy, na podstawie których wyznaczono współczynnik temperaturowy . W przypadku modułu cienkowarstwowego\nPm\n(PV #5), wyboru punktów dokγonano spośród tych krzywych I-V, które zostały zmierzone dla natężeń G mieszczących się w przedziale między 900 W·m−2 i 1100 W·m−2 (31% punktów).\n\nWspółczynnik temperaturowy mocy modułu krzemowego wyznaczony na podstawie nachylenia prostej wpisanej w punkty eksperymentalne, bez użycia metody RANSAC, wynosi −0,475%/°C z wartością R2 = 0,957. Wynik ten można uznać za satysfakcjonujący. Zastosowanie metody RANSAC spowodowało jednak zwiększenie R2 do wartości 0,999 oraz wynik identyczny z danymi producenta (–0,485%/°C). Wynik otrzymano na podstawie 32% punktów, które zostały wyselekcjonowane metodą RANSAC.\nAnalogicznie, wynik zgodny z wartością deklarowaną przez producenta otrzymano w przypadku modułu PV #5 po zastosowaniu metody RANSAC (–0,255%/°C) uzyskując tym samym współczynnik R2 równy 0,99. Wyselekcjonowanych zostało\n24% punktów ze zbioru danych o natężeniu G między 900 W·m−2 i 1100 W·m−2.\nWartość współczynnika bez stosowania metody selekcji równa była –0,22%/°C przy stosunkowo niskim współczynniku determinacji R2 wynoszącym 0,69.\nNależy zaznaczyć w tym miejscu, że metoda RANSAC jest „wrażliwa” na wybór kryterium maksymalnej odległości między dopasowaną prostą a punktami eksperymentalnymi. Jako kryterium tej odległości posłużył wskaźnik oparty na wartości odchylenia standardowego rozkładu Gaussa. Rozkład ten został utworzony na podstawie różnic pomiędzy wartościami poszczególnych punktów doświadczalnych a odpowiadającymi im wartościami wyznaczonymi na podstawie dopasowanej linii prostej.\nRyc. 4.20. Rezultat działania metody RANSAC zastosowanej do wyznaczania temperaturowego współczynnika mocy modułu PV #2 (a) oraz PV #5 (b)\n\nTabele 4.2 i 4.3 pokazują, w jaki sposób zmienia się zarówno wartość współczynnika determinacji, jak i wyznaczony współczynnik temperaturowy w zależności od wielkości kryterium odległości. Należy podkreślić, że w celu wyboru najbardziej prawdopodobnej wartości, otrzymanej w wyniku zastosowania metody RANSAC, należy przeprowadzić od kilku od kilkunastu powtórzeń. Metoda nie zawsze prowadzi do dobrego wyboru punktów eksperymentalnych, szczególnie w przypadku ich dużej liczby.\nTabela 4.2. Zależność współczynnika temperaturowego mocy modułu krzemowego (PV #2) w zależności od parametru odległości zastosowanego w metodzie RANSAC\nParametr odległości R2 γ (%/°C)\nPm\n1,0 s 0,991 −0,476\n0,5 s 0,997 −0,478\n0,3 s 0,999 −0,485\nTabela 4.3. Zależność współczynnika temperaturowego mocy modułu cienkowarstwowego\n(PV #5) w zależności od parametru odległości zastosowanego w metodzie RANSAC\nParametr odległości R2 γ (%/°C)\nPm\n1,0 s 0,887 −0,238\n0,5 s 0,970 −0,245\n0,3 s 0,990 −0,255\nZależność napięcia obwodu otwartego od temperatury modułu PV przedstawia rycina 4.21. W celu sprawdzenia stabilności współczynnika temperaturowego uwzględniono wpływ natężenia promieniowania słonecznego.\nMetoda RANSAC zastosowana została oddzielnie dla punktów eksperymentalnych znajdujących się w dwóch zakresach wartości natężenia G. W rezultacie wyselekcjonowano od 36% do 39% punktów z całego zbioru danych, w zależności od technologii modułu i zakresu natężeń G.\nOtrzymane wyniki modułu PV #2 wynoszą −0,304%/°C (R2 = 0,95) dla obu zakresów G 800 W·m−2 i G < 800 W·m−2. Różnica w porównaniu do wartości deklaro≥wanej przez producenta wynosi 12,4%. Zastosowanie metody RANSAC zmieniło wartość współczynnika w zakresie wyższych G do voc\n−0,314%/°C (R2 = 0,997 z różnicą 9,5% w stosunβku do wartości producenta).\nW zakresie niższych G współczynnik ten wynosi −0,308%/°C (R2 = 0,99).\n\nW przypadku modułu cienkowarstwowego współczynnik , wyznaczony voc z pominięciem metody RANSAC, w obu zakresach mieści się βw przedziale podanym przez producenta modułu (0,2–0,25%/°C) i wynosi −0,238%/°C\n(R2 = 0,96) w zakresie G 800 W·m−2 oraz −0,246 %/°C (R2 = 0,94) w zakresie niższych wartości G. W w≥yniku zastosowania metody RANSAC (ryc. 4.21) wartości te wynoszą −0,221%/°C (R2 = 0,996) i −0,215%/°C (R2 = 0,991), odpowiednio dla wyższego i niższego zakresu natężenia promieniowania słonecznego.\nRyc. 4.21. Rezultat działania metody RANSAC zastosowanej do wyznaczania temperaturowego współczynnika napięcia obwodu otwartego modułu PV #2 (a) oraz PV #5 (b). W obu przypadkach uwzględniono dwa zakresy natężenia promieniowania słonecznego\nAnalogiczną zależność napięcia obwodu otwartego w funkcji temperatury oraz natężenia promieniowania słonecznego otrzymano w rezultacie badań modułów z krzemu krystalicznego i cienkowarstwowego (Dubey i in., 2015).\nStwierdzono, że wpływ natężenia promieniowania słonecznego na wartości współczynnika temperaturowego jest pomijalnie mały. Z przedstawionych w niniejszej pracy rezultatów badań można wysnuć analogiczne wnioski, choć należy zaznaczyć, że dolna granica G, zarówno w przytoczonej publikacji, jak i w niniejszym opracowaniu, jest nie mniejsza niż 400 W·m−2.\nW pracy z 2020 r. przeprowadzono badania współczynników temperaturowych modułów cienkowarstwowych (CIGS) oraz krzemowych monokrystalicznych (Senturk, 2020b). Wyniki prac pokazują, że wartości współczynników mogą odbiegać od tych deklarowanych przez producenta, w zależności od rodzaju zachmurzenia. Inną wartość współczynników temperaturowych\n\nuzyskano w warunkach bezchmurnych, a inną przy zachmurzeniu, gdzie dominują niskie wartości natężenia promieniowania. Przyczyną tego zjawiska może być fakt, że na uzyskane parametry wpływa także masa optyczna atmosfery, która zależy zarówno od szerokości geograficznej lokalizacji instalacji, jak i czasu wykonania pomiarów. Obserwacje te mają szczególne znaczenie dla działania systemów PV w warunkach klimatycznych Polski.\n4 .3. Analiza parametrów elektrycznych w systemie stacjonarnym\nBadania, których wyniki przedstawiono w niniejszej części opracowania, wykonane zostały w laboratorium Katedry Inżynierii Odnawialnych Źródeł Energii\n(KIOŹE), na terenie Politechniki Lubelskiej. Pomiary przeprowadzono na module PV #8 wykonanym w technologii krzemu krystalicznego PERC (ang.\npassivated emitter and rear cell), w trybie stacjonarnym. Badania prowadzone były w dniach słonecznych w okresie od kwietnia do października 2024 między godziną 10:30 a 14:00. Łącznie zmierzono 380 krzywych I-V.\nRycina 4.22 przedstawia rozkład natężenia promieniowania słonecznego zarejestrowanego podczas pomiarów krzywych I-V w płaszczyźnie badanego modułu PV #8. Z uwagi na zastosowanie systemu stacjonarnego, najbardziej korzystne warunki natężenia promieniowania słonecznego z uwagi na kąt padania, występowały w okolicach godziny 12:00. Weryfikacja tego kąta względem powierzchni modułu PV odbywała się za pomocą inklinometru. Jak widać na rycinie 4.22, zakres natężenia promieniowania słonecznego obejmuje wartość 1000 W·m−2 i waha się w granicach od 847 W·m−2 do 1200 W·m−2.\nW przedstawionym przypadku mediana wynosi 988 W·m−2.\nRozkład temperatury modułu PV zarejestrowanej przez czujnik Pt100, przytwierdzony od spodu do jednego z ogniw modułu PV, przedstawiony został na rycinie 4.23. Mediana wartości wynosi 40°C, zakres temperatur natomiast znajduje się w przedziale od 30°C do 44°C. Warto zauważyć, że stosunkowo niska temperatura modułu PV przy natężeniu G bliskim 1000 W·m−2 wynikała z niskiej temperatury otoczenia podczas przeprowadzania pomiarów. Jak pokazują przeprowadzone badania modułów PV w warunkach zewnętrznych,\n\ntemperatura takiego modułu może sięgać nawet 70°C w miesiącach letnich podczas dni słonecznych (Gulkowski, 2023).\nRyc. 4.22. Rozkład natężenia promieniowania Ryc. 4.23. Rozkład temperatury modułu słonecznego podczas pomiarów krzywych I-V PV #8 zarejestrowanej podczas pomiarów modułu PV #8 krzywych I-V\nWyniki pomiarów parametrów charakterystycznych, tj. natężenia prądu zwarcia, napięcia obwodu otwartego i mocy maksymalnej metodą prostej wpisanej w punkty eksperymentalne przedstawiają wykresy na ryc. 4.24a–c.\nNa ryc. 4.24d porównano parametry otrzymane metodą translacji do warunków standardowych z wartościami deklarowanymi przez producenta modułu PV.\nZaobserwowano wysoką wartość współczynnika determinacji w przypadku prostej wyznaczającej natężenie prądu zwarcia oraz napięcie obwodu otwartego w wyniku zastosowania metody RANSAC (R2 = 0,99 w obu przypadkach). Wartość wyznaczono na podstawie 37% wyselekcjonowanych punktów. Wartość wyniosła 10,08 A. Jest to satysfakcjonujący wynik, zbliżony do wartości podanej przez producenta (10,36 A). Różnica w tym przypadku wynosi 2,7%, natomiast NRMSE wynosi 0,75%. Wyznaczone napięcie jest równe 41,2 V (R2 = 0,85) lub 41,4 V (R2 = 0,99) w zależności od zastosowania metody RANSAC. W tym przypadku zastosowanie metody filtrowania danych zdecydowanie poprawiło współczynnik determinacji, ale zarazem zwiększyło błąd wyznaczenia wartości napięcia w stosunku do danych deklarowanych przez producenta z 0,6% do 1%. Zastosowanie metody RANSAC zmniejszyło wartość NRMSE (z 0,28% do 0,05%). Bardzo dobry wynik uzyskano także w przypadku mocy . Jej wartość wynosi 327,7 W i niewiele różni się\n\nod wartości deklarowanej przez producenta (0,7%). Współczynnik R2 w tym przypadku wynosi 0,98, natomiast NRMSE jest równy 0,34%.\nRyc. 4.24. Parametry charakterystyczne modułu PV #8 wyznaczone metodą równania regresji liniowej: natężenie prądu zwarcia (a), napięcie obwodu otwartego (b), moc maksymalna (c), oraz porównanie parametrów wyznaczonych metodą translacji do wartości deklarowanej przez producenta (d). Strzałkami zaznaczono wyznaczoną z zależności liniowej wartość referencyjną natężenia prądu zwarcia oraz punktu mocy maksymalnej\nWartości natężenia prądu zwarcia, napięcia obwodu otwartego oraz mocy maksymalnej, otrzymane metodą translacji parametrów uzyskanych w rzeczywistych warunkach pomiaru (OPC) do warunków referencyjnych (STC), wynoszą odpowiednio 10,03 A, 41,24 V i 324,3 W. Różnice procentowe w stosunku do wielkości producenta są równe odpowiednio 3,2%, 0,6% oraz 1,7%. Wysoki stopień zgodności zaobserwowano, porównując rezultaty obu zastosowanych metod.\nNajwiększe odchylenie procentowe zanotowano w przypadku mocy (1%).\n\nW przypadku napięcia oraz natężenia różnice procentowe wynosiły odpowiednio 0,1% i 0,5%.\nSzczegółowe zestawienie wartości średnich i median, a także odchyleń standardowych parametrów wyznaczonych w rzeczywistych warunkach pomiarowych (OPC) oraz po translacji do warunków STC, przedstawiono w tabeli 4.4.\nPrzytoczone wartości zgodności z danymi deklarowanymi przez producenta nie odbiegają od tych, przedstawionych we wcześniejszej części niniejszego opracowania. Ponadto, jak pokazują wyniki badań technologii cienkowarstwowych CdTe (PV #9) i CIGS (PV #10) (Gulkowski i Krawczak,\n2024b), charakteryzacja modułu omówionymi metodami umożliwia dokładną prognozę produkcji energii. W istocie w przypadku modułu CdTe (PV #9) względna różnica między prognozowaną i rzeczywistą energią nie przekracza\n0,5% stosując metodę regresji liniowej oraz 1,1% w przypadku metody translacji do STC. Analogicznie, w przypadku modułu CIGS (PV #10) uzyskano wartość poniżej 1%. Należy zatem stwierdzić, że charakteryzacja modułów PV w systemie stacjonarnym jest równie dokładna, co w systemie nadążnym, z zastrzeżeniem, że konieczna jest w tym celu weryfikacja kąta padania promieni słonecznych względem płaszczyzny badanego modułu PV. Ponadto, przedstawione wyniki potwierdzają, że zaproponowane metody analizy parametrów charakterystycznych mogą być stosowane także do modułów najnowszych technologii (PERC).\nTabela 4.4. Parametry charakterystyczne badanych modułów przed (OPC) i po translacji do warunków referencyjnych (STC)\nWarunki Wielkość (V) (A) (V) (A) (W)\nMediana 39,5 9,4 32,6 8,9 294,5\nOPC Średnia 39,5 9,5 32,5 8,9 290,9\nOdchylenie standardowe 0,3 0,2 0,3 0,2 9,9\nMediana 41,2 10,03 34,0 9,5 324,3\nSTC Średnia 41,2 10,03 34,0 9,5 323,5\nOdchylenie standardowe 0,11 0,07 0,13 0,02 1,6\n\n4.4. Analiza parametrów modelu diodowego modułu PV\n4.4.1. Model jednodiodowy pięcioparametrowy\nW niniejszym rozdziale przedstawiono sposoby wyznaczania parametrów modelu diodowego na przykładzie monokrystalicznego krzemowego modułu PV w technologii PERC (PV #8). W literaturze istnieją liczne opracowania weryfikujące działanie modelu diodowego na przykładzie modułów PV starszego typu o relatywnie małych mocach (Bader i in., 2019; Bana i Saini, 2016; Cuce i in., 2013; da Luz i in., 2018; Drouiche i in., 2018). Ograniczona jest jednak liczba badań związanych z modelowaniem parametrów pracy modułów nowych technologii, w tym prac dotyczących szybkich i prostych modeli opisujących charakterystyki modułów PV w zmiennych warunkach atmosferycznych. Z tego względu skoncentrowano się tu na ocenie dokładności modeli jednodiodowych w odniesieniu do modułu nowej generacji. Badania modułu\nPERC na potrzeby modelowania krzywych I-V wykonano za pomocą systemu laboratoryjnego na Politechnice Lubelskiej. Pomiary wykonano w październiku\n2024 roku w godzinach południowych.\nBazując na wynikach pomiarów modułów krzemowych monokrystalicznych i polikrystalicznych wykonanych na Uniwersytecie w Jaén, zbadano charakter zmian parametrów modelu w różnych warunkach natężenia promieniowania słonecznego i temperatury modułu PV. Pomiary na potrzeby niniejszej analizy wykonano w pierwszych dniach kwietnia 2019 roku w godzinach popołudniowych.\nNależy zaznaczyć, że parametry modelu diodowego są równie istotne, co omówione wcześniej parametry charakterystyczne, ponieważ definiują kształt krzywej I–V. Szczególnie ważna jest korelacja między tymi dwiema grupami parametrów. W przypadku dobrej jakości ogniw, głównie w technologii krzemowej, stosuje się pięcioparametrowy model jednodiodowy (SDM, ang.\nsingle-diode model). Do wyznaczanych parametrów modelu należą: natężenie fotoprądu I (A), natężenie prądu nasycenia diody I (A), bezwymiarowy\nL 0 współczynnik diodowy n, rezystancja szeregowa R (Ω) oraz rezystancja róws noległa R (Ω). Wyznaczenie ww. parametrów w warunkach standardowych sh\n\npozwala na obliczenie ich wartości dla dowolnego natężenia promieniowania słonecznego (G) i temperatury modułu (T ), a tym samym do odtworzenia m krzywej I-V w danych warunkach wraz z jej parametrami charakterystycznymi.\nRycina 4.25 przedstawia krzywe I-V otrzymane za pomocą modelu diodowego (SDM) w standardowych warunkach testowych. Do badań wykorzystano moduł w technologii krzemu krystalicznego PERC (PV #8). Zastosowano modele\nPhanga (Chan i Phang, 1987) oraz Lamberta (Ćalasan i in., 2021; Piliougine i in.,\n2021). Parametry każdego modelu obliczono na podstawie równań (3.41)–(3.44) w przypadku metody Phanga oraz (3.45)–(3.54) do metody Lamberta. Każdy wykres zawiera dwie krzywe I–V. Jedna wykonana została z zastosowaniem danego modelu wraz z parametrami charakterystycznymi podanymi przez producenta modułu, druga natomiast zawiera parametry modułu PV #8 wyznaczone metodą translacji (tabela 4.4). Wielkości charakterystyczne użyte w modelu zaznaczono na wykresach za pomocą znaczników. Należy podkreślić, że kształt krzywych wynika z zastosowania wymienionych metod modelowania dla przedstawionych parametrów, tzn. zaznaczone na wykresach wielkości charakterystyczne są danymi wejściowymi modelu SDM. Zgodność parametrów z kształtem krzywej oznacza miarę dokładności zastosowanego podejścia modelowego badanego modułu PV. W istocie, jeśli porówna się moc otrzymaną w modelu Phanga z wartością mocy deklarowanej przez producenta, to maksymalna wartość ARE (%) nie przekracza 0,22% w przypadku danych z karty charakterystyki, oraz 0,4% w przypadku danych eksperymentalnych. Analizując napięcie obwodu otwartego wielkość ARE (%) jest rzędu 0,00065% w obu przypadkach. Wartości natężenia prądu zwarcia również nie wykazały znaczącej różnicy.\nW przypadku modelu Lamberta różnice względem danych z karty charakterystyki wyniosły 0,02%, 0,014% oraz 0,2%, odpowiednio dla natężenia prądu zwarcia, napięcia obwodu otwartego i mocy maksymalnej. Niewielkie wartości ARE (%) otrzymano w przypadku parametrów wyznaczonych eksperymentalnie, tj. 0,04%, 0,32% oraz 0,038%, odpowiednio dla , oraz .\nWartości parametrów modelu SDM w standardowych warunkach testowych przedstawiono w tabeli 4.5. W obu przypadkach przeanalizowano zarówno wyniki otrzymane w oparciu o parametry producenta modułu, jak i parametry eksperymentalne. Należy zaznaczyć, że w modelu Phanga wymagane jest wyznaczenie wartości rezystancji równoległej R (Ω) na podstawie krzywej I-V sh\n\n(w warunkach STC). Wielkość ta zazwyczaj nie jest określona w karcie charakterystyki. Z tego powodu w tabeli 4.5 znajduje się wartość obliczona na podstawie nachylenia krzywej eksperymentalnej otrzymanej w wyniku translacji do warunków STC. Przy braku danych I-V można posłużyć się przybliżoną metodą określania zarówno rezystancji równoległej, jak i szeregowej (Şentürk, 2018;\nSenturk i Eke, 2017). Ostatni wiersz tabeli 4.5 przedstawia parametry modelu\nSDM otrzymane metodą De Soto (De Soto i in., 2006). Obliczenia wykonano z wykorzystaniem biblioteki PVLIB (Holmgren i in., 2018). W metodzie tej wyznaczenie parametrów przebiega w sposób sekwencyjny. W pierwszej kolejności obliczany jest współczynnik diody n, w oparciu o zależność napięcia obwodu otwartego od natężenia promieniowania słonecznego (G), a następnie obliczane są pozostałe cztery parametry modelu (tj. I , I , R i R) dla każdej krzywej eks-\nL 0 sh s perymentalnej I-V. Parametry referencyjne określane są metodą regresji liniowej\n(Hansen, 2015).\nRyc. 4.25. Charakterystyki I-V otrzymane za pomocą modelu diodowego (SDM) wraz z zaznaczonymi parametrami wejściowymi Phanga (a), Lamberta (b)\n\nTabela 4.5. Parametry modelu diodowego modułu fotowoltaicznego PERC (PV #8) w standardowych warunkach testowych (G = 1000 W·m−2 i T = 25°C).\nm\nMetoda (A) (A) (Ω) (Ω) n* (-)\nMetoda Phanga\n10,36 9,6∙10−10 0,204 1367 1,15\nParam. producenta\nMetoda Phanga\n10,03 7,6∙10−10 0,202 1367 1,15\nParam. eksperymentalne\nMetoda Lamberta\n10,36 2,5∙10−10 0,231 1109 1,09\nParam. producenta\nMetoda Lamberta\n10,03 2,3∙10−10 0,211 517 1,09\nParam. eksperymentalne\nMetoda De Soto 10,10 5,2∙10−10 0,175 3220 1,14\nW przypadku metody De Soto porównanie parametrów charakterystycznych wyznaczonych z krzywej otrzymanej metodą modelowania wykazało różnicę w stosunku do parametrów podanych przez producenta równą 0,74% w przypadku mocy , oraz 2,5% i 1,5% odpowiednio w przypadku napięcia i natężenia .\nPorównując uzyskane referencyjne parametry modelu modułu PERC z danymi literaturowymi dużą zgodność stwierdzono z wynikami przedstawionymi w innej pracy (Muhammadsharif i in., 2019). W szczególności wysoki stopień zgodności stwierdzono dla wartości współczynnika diody n, która mieści się w przedziale od 1,09 do 1,18 w zależności od technologii modułu. Autorzy zbadali moduły w technologii krzemu monokrystalicznego i multikrystalicznego.\nRezystancję szeregową uzyskano na poziomie od 0,27 Ω do 0,36 Ω, natomiast rezystancja równoległa mieści się w zakresie od 177 Ω do 1777 Ω. Niewielkie różnice występują również w przypadku prądu nasycenia diody. Wcześniejsze wyniki badań modułów (Yıldıran i Tacer, 2016) pokazują analogiczne wartości parametrów referencyjnych modelu SDM. Uzyskano nieco większe wartości współczynnika diody, rzędu 1,2–1,3 oraz podobne wartości rezystancji, tj. 0,2 Ω–0,3 Ω (szeregowa) i 298 Ω–462 Ω (równoległa). Warto również przytoczyć pracę, w której autorzy analizują parametry modelu diodowego kilku modułów w technologii krzemowej halfcut, stosując pomiary krzywych I-V w warunkach zewnętrznych (Schubert i in.,\n2024). We wszystkich analizowanych modułach otrzymano współczynnik diody rzędu 1,2; wartość rezystancji równoległej, mieszczącą się w zakresie od 145 Ω do\n465 Ω oraz relatywnie niewielką wartość rezystancji szeregowej – poniżej 0,1 Ω.\nPrzytoczone wyniki pokazują, że w technologii krzemu krystalicznego obserwuje\n\nsię zbliżone wartości parametrów modelu diodowego i technologia PERC nie jest wyjątkiem. Można zatem wysnuć wniosek, że model jednodiodowy sprawdza się w przypadku symulacji charakterystyk prądowo-napięciowych modułów nowej generacji. Wniosek ten potwierdzają kolejne wyniki, przedstawiające zarówno dokładność odwzorowania kształtu krzywych I-V, jak i dokładność prognozowania punktów charakterystycznych w warunkach różnych od STC.\nW dalszej części dokonano oceny dokładności wybranych metod modelowania (De Soto, Lamberta i Phanga). Wartości parametrów modelu, w warunkach różnych od STC, wyznaczono, korzystając z parametrów referencyjnych zamieszczonych w tabeli 4.5 oraz zależności funkcyjnych (3.55)–(3.60).\nWynik porównania przedstawiono na rycinie 4.26.\nRyc. 4.26. Porównanie charakterystyk I-V otrzymanych za pomocą modelu diodowego (SDM) z krzywymi eksperymentalnymi po przeliczeniu do następujących warunków G (W·m−2) i T (°C):\n977; 38(a), 937; 36 (b), 904; 42 (c), 947; 38 (d)\n\nParametry modelu SDM wybranych krzywych w warunkach zbliżonych do STC wraz z oceną dokładności ich wyznaczenia przedstawiają kolejno tabele 4.6 i 4.7.\nProcentowe wartości NRMSE, NMBE i ARE krzywych I-V otrzymanych na podstawie modelu SDM obliczone zgodnie ze wzorami (3.77), (3.78) i (3.81) oraz ich wielkości charakterystycznych, porównanych z wartościami eksperymentalnymi (tabela 4.7), ilustrują dokładność zastosowanych metod modelowania. W przypadku krzywych I-V wartość NRMSE nie przekracza 5%, natomiast NMBE nie przekracza 2%. Wysoką dokładność zaobserwowano również w przypadku punktów charakterystycznych krzywej. Punkty te określono na podstawie krzywych modelowych i porównano z wynikami pomiarów wykonanych w tych samych warunkach. Największą różnicę, 2,7%, zaobserwowano w przypadku punktu mocy maksymalnej. W przypadku napięcia obwodu otwartego oraz w przypadku natężenia prądu zwarcia wartość ta wynosi 1,5%.\nTabela 4.6. Parametry modelu diodowego modułu fotowoltaicznego PERC (PV #8) po przeliczeniu z STC do warunków G (W·m−2) i Tm (°C)\nG (W·m−2) T (°C) I (A) I (A) R (Ω) R (Ω) n (-) m L 0 s sh\n976,6 37,95 9,90 4,2∙10−9 0,175 3297 1,14\n937,2 35,74 9,49 3,9∙10−9 0,175 3436 1,14\nDe Soto\n904,5 41,64 9,18 7,3∙10−9 0,175 3560 1,14\n946,8 37,97 9,60 4,2∙10−9 0,175 3401 1,14\n976,6 37,95 9,83 1,8∙10−9 0,211 529 1,09\n937,2 35,74 9,43 1,3∙10−9 0,211 551 1,09\nLambert\n904,5 41,64 9,11 3,2∙10−9 0,211 571 1,09\n946,8 37,97 9,53 1,8∙10−9 0,211 546 1,09\n976,6 37,95 9,83 6,1∙10−9 0,202 1400 1,15\n937,2 35,74 9,43 4,3∙10−9 0,202 1459 1,15\nPhang\n904,5 41,64 9,11 1,08∙10−9 0,202 1511 1,15\n946,8 37,97 9,53 6,2∙10−9 0,202 1444 1,15\n\nTabela 4.7. Procentowe wartości błędów NRMSE, NMBE i ARE otrzymanych z porównania z wynikami pomiarów modułu fotowoltaicznego PERC (PV #8) w wybranych warunkach G (W·m−2) i T (°C) m\nG T NRMSE NMBE ARE ARE ARE m Isc Voc Pm\n(W·m−2) (°C) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)\n976,6 37,95 1,74 0,88 0,29 0,32 0,33\n937,2 35,74 1,49 0,78 0,78 0,55 0,02\nDe Soto\n904,5 41,64 2,03 1,28 1,52 0,63 0,29\n946,8 37,97 1,52 0,92 0,49 0,42 0,21\n976,6 37,95 3,06 −1,60 0,44 1,22 2,21\n937,2 35,74 4,20 −1,70 0,05 1,49 2,57\nLambert\n904,5 41,64 3,78 −0,90 0,78 1,42 2,04\n946,8 37,97 3,56 −1,57 0,24 1,32 2,29\n976,6 37,95 2,92 −1,49 0,41 1,16 2,40\n937,2 35,74 3,80 −1,49 0,07 1,36 2,66\nPhang\n904,5 41,64 4,30 −1,07 0,81 1,52 2,46\n946,8 37,97 3,47 −1,48 0,21 1,26 2,49\nRycina 4.27 przedstawia porównanie wyników eksperymentalnych i krzywych I-V otrzymanych z wykorzystaniem analizowanych modeli SDM. W odróżnieniu od poprzedniego przypadku, parametry modelu wyznaczone zostały na podstawie krzywych eksperymentalnych, tzn. danymi wejściowymi modelu są wielkości doświadczalne punktów charakterystycznych krzywych I-V.\nNa ich podstawie obliczono parametry I , I , R , R , n dla każdego z warunków\nL 0 sh S\n(G, T ). Podejście takie umożliwia opracowanie własnych równań (np. wielom mianowych) opisujących korelację poszczególnych parametrów modelu w warunkach oddziaływania czynników zewnętrznych, tj. głównie w funkcji natężenia promieniowania słonecznego i temperatury modułu. W przeciwieństwie do poprzednio opisanego podejścia, w tym przypadku konieczne jest wykonanie pomiarów krzywych w szerszym zakresie natężenia promieniowania słonecznego i temperatury modułu. Dokładniejszy opis tego wariantu przedstawiono w części 4.4.2 niniejszej pracy.\n\nRyc. 4.27. Porównanie charakterystyk I-V modelowych (SDM) z krzywymi eksperymentalnymi w następujących warunkach G (W·m−2) i T (°C): 977; 38 (a), 937; 36 (b), 904; 42 (c), 947; 38 (d)\nW tabeli 4.8 znajdują się parametry poszczególnych modeli SDM.\nWykazują one większą rozbieżność w porównaniu do wartości obliczonych z parametrów referencyjnych (porównaj z tabelą 4.6). Znaczną różnicę zaobserwowano w przypadku modelu Phanga, zarówno w przypadku natężenia prądu diodowego (I ), jak i współczynnika diody (n). Nie oznacza to bynajmniej mniejszej dokładności modelowania krzywej I-V w danych warunkach. W istocie, jak pokazano w tabeli 4.9, wartość NRMSE waha się w zakresie od 0,6% do 2,4% (Phang) i jest zbliżona do wartości otrzymanych pozostałymi metodami modelowania (De Soto i Lambert). Ponadto, osiąga mniejsze wartości niż w poprzednim przypadku (porównaj z tabelą 4.7). Podobnie przedstawia się wartość\nNMBE, mieszcząca się w zakresie 0,27%–1,15%.\n\nPorównując dokładność dopasowania eksperymentalnych i modelowych punktów charakterystycznych krzywych I–V, w przeważającej części wyników wartość ARE nie przekracza 0,1%, zarówno w przypadku mocy maksymalnej, jak i napięcia obwodu otwartego. Z uwagi na przybliżenie natężenia fotoprądu do wartości prądu zwarcia we wszystkich prezentowanych modelach, analiza błędu w tym przypadku nie miałaby większego sensu, dlatego została pominięta w tabeli 4.9.\nTabela 4.8. P arametry modelu diodowego modułu fotowoltaicznego PERC (PV #8) otrzymane w wybranych warunkach G (W·m−2) i T (°C) m\nG T I I R R n m L 0 S sh\n(W·m−2) (°C) (A) (A) (Ω) Ω) (-)\n976,6 37,95 9,87 3,9∙10−9 0,187 1659 1,14\n937,2 35,74 9,42 2,6∙10−9 0,171 5077 1,14\nDe Soto\n904,5 41,64 9,04 6,4∙10−9 0,159 7784 1,14\n946,8 37,97 9,55 3,8∙10−9 0,182 2182 1,14\n976,6 37,95 9,87 1,5∙10−9 0,195 541 1,09\n937,2 35,74 9,42 1,0∙10−9 0,199 241 1,09\nLambert\n904,5 41,64 9,04 2,5∙10−9 0,206 487 1,09\n946,8 37,97 9,55 1,5∙10−9 0,193 700 1,09\n976,6 37,95 9,88 1,7∙10−12 0,312 295 0,83\n937,2 35,74 9,42 6,6∙10−16 0,408 584 0,67\nPhang\n904,5 41,64 9,04 1,7∙10−15 0,424 963 0,66\n946,8 37,97 9,55 6,1∙10−13 0,327 317 0,81\nAnalizując wyniki dotyczące zastosowania modelu diodowego pod kątem prognozowania parametrów charakterystycznych, należy przytoczyć kolejną pracę\n(Salah i in., 2023). Autorzy wykorzystują pięcioparametrowy model SDM do prognozy produkcji mocy przez moduł PV, a wyniki symulacji porównują z rezultatem pomiarów w warunkach rzeczywistych. Przeanalizowano różne technologie modułów PV, tj. technologię mono- i multikrystalicznego krzemu oraz HIT.\nZaobserwowano nieznacznie większe niż w ramach niniejszej pracy, wartości współczynników diodowych, tj. 1,2–1,5, oraz porównywalne wartości rezystancji szeregowych, od 0,12 Ω do 0,27 Ω. Przy tych parametrach różnice między symulacyjną a doświadczalną wartością mocy maksymalnej badanych technologii nie przekraczają 3,5%, przy czym wartość ta zmienia się w zależności od pory dnia.\n\nW innej pracy uzyskany przez autorów błąd względny wartości mocy maksymalnej w warunkach STC kształtuje się w przedziale od 0% do 4%, w zależności od wielkości rezystancji szeregowej (da Luz i in., 2018). Jak pokazują wyniki przedstawione w tabelach 4.7 i 4.9, model SDM umożliwia z dużą dokładnością prognozę mocy maksymalnej modułu PV jednej z najnowszych krzemowych technologii (PERC).\nTabela 4.9. Procentowe wartości błędów NRMSE, NMBE, ARE otrzymane z porównania z wynikami pomiarów modułu fotowoltaicznego PERC (PV #8) w wybranych warunkach G (W·m−2) i T (°C) m\nG T NRMSE NMBE ARE ARE m Voc Pm\n(W·m−2) (°C) (%) (%) (%) (%)\n976,6 37,95 2,09 0,95 1∙10−5 5∙10−4\n937,2 35,74 2,36 0,99 6∙10−6 0,03\nDe Soto\n904,5 41,64 2,76 1,14 4∙10−6 0,07\n946,8 37,97 2,12 1,01 1∙10−5 0,002\n976,6 37,95 2,07 0,81 0,03 0,009\n937,2 35,74 1,78 0,75 6∙10−4 0,01\nLambert\n904,5 41,64 1,62 0,64 6∙10−4 0,39\n946,8 37,97 2,00 0,87 0,03 0,009\n976,6 37,95 0,60 −0,27 0,13 0,13\n937,2 35,74 2,33 −1,06 0,13 0,06\nPhang\n904,5 41,64 2,40 −1,10 0,13 0,07\n946,8 37,97 0,85 −0,32 0,13 0,13\n4.4.2. Analiza zależności parametrów modelu w funkcji natężenia promieniowania słonecznego i temperatury modułu PV\nKolejne wykresy (ryciny 4.28–4.32) przedstawiają wyniki korelacji poszczególnych parametrów modelu wyznaczonych na podstawie krzywych eksperymentalnych (wariant 1) oraz zależności funkcyjnych (wariant 2) opisanych równaniami\n(3.55)–(3.60). Zaznaczone linią przerywaną proste otrzymano, podstawiając do wzorów (3.55)–(3.60) parametry referencyjne modelu, przedstawione w tabeli 4.10. Znacznikami punktowymi natomiast oznaczono parametry modelu\nSDM wyodrębnione z krzywych eksperymentalnych zmierzonych w danych warunkach G i T (wariant 1). Ponieważ nie zaobserwowano istotnych różnic m\n\nw modelowaniu parametrów charakterystycznych przedstawionymi wcześniej metodami, do dalszych badań wybrano model Lamberta. Przeanalizowano moduły wykonane w technologii krzemu monokrystalicznego (PV #3) oraz polikrystalicznego (PV #4). Pomiary przeprowadzone zostały w szerokim zakresie natężenia promieniowania słonecznego i temperatury badanych modułów. Miejscem prowadzonych pomiarów był Uniwersytet w Jaén w Hiszpanii.\nTabela 4.10. Parametry referencyjne modelu diodowego modułu fotowoltaicznego sc-Si (PV #3) oraz mc-Si (PV #4) wyznaczone metodą Lamberta (wariant 2)\nMetoda (A) (A) (Ω) (Ω) n* (-)\nModuł PV sc-Si (#PV3) Model – wariant 2 4,8 1,3∙10−9 0,246 114 1,04\nModuł PV mc-Si (#PV4) Model – wariant 2 5,2 1,2∙10−9 0,250 76 1,04\nW przypadku obu technologii modułów PV wartość fotoprądu rośnie liniowo wraz z natężeniem promieniowania słonecznego (ryc. 4.28), zgodnie z równaniem (3.55). Wysoki stopień korelacji wykazuje również zależność prądu nasycenia diody w funkcji temperatury modułu PV (ryc. 4.29). Analizując krzywą obrazującą wartość I obliczoną na podstawie wzoru (3.56) (linia przerywana), istotne okazało się dostosowanie jej zgodności w punkcie odpowiadającym temperaturze referencyjnej równej 25°C.\nRyc. 4.28. Porównanie wartości natężenia fotoprądu I otrzymanego za pomocą modelu\nL\nLamberta na podstawie krzywych eksperymentalnych (wariant 1) oraz zależności funkcyjnych\n(wariant 2). Moduły w technologii krzemu monokrystalicznego (PV#3) (a) oraz krzemu multikrystalicznego (PV #4) (b)\n\nRyc. 4.29. P orównanie wartości prądu nasycenia diody I otrzymanego za pomocą modelu\nLamberta na podstawie krzywych eksperymentalnych (wariant 1) oraz zależności funkcyjnych\n(wariant 2). Moduły w technologii krzemu monokrystalicznego (PV#3) (a) oraz krzemu multikrystalicznego (PV #4) (b)\nInteresującą zależność rezystancji szeregowej w funkcji temperatury otrzymano w przypadku modułu wykonanego w technologii krzemu multikrystalicznego (PV\n#4). Jak wynika z ryciny 4.30(b), rezystancja R przyjmuje stałą wartość w wyższych s temperaturach modułu PV. W przypadku modułu monokrystalicznego stałą wartość\nR zaobserwowano dla całego zakresu temperatur – rycina 4.30 (a).\ns\nRyc. 4.30. P orównanie wartości rezystancji szeregowej R otrzymanej za pomocą modelu s\nLamberta na podstawie krzywych eksperymentalnych (wariant 1) oraz zależności funkcyjnych\n(wariant 2). Moduły w technologii krzemu monokrystalicznego (PV#3) (a) oraz krzemu multikrystalicznego (PV #4) (b)\n\nAnalizując rezystancję równoległą (ryc. 4.31) stwierdzono zgodny trend w obu przypadkach technologii modułów PV. Jeśli przeanalizuje się wartości rezystancji w funkcji natężenia promieniowania słonecznego, to stałą wartość\nR zaobserwowano powyżej 600 W·m−2. Podobny efekt przedstawiono dla mo-\nS dułu PV z krzemu krystalicznego, gdzie otrzymano stałą wartość R dla G\nS powyżej 400 W·m−2 (Montes-Romero i in., 2018). W toku wcześniejszych badań stwierdzono wyższe wartości zarówno rezystancji równoległej, jak i szeregowej dla niższych wartości natężenia promieniowania słonecznego (Fernández i in.,\n2016). Autorzy zastosowali klika różnych metod modelowania. Dla przykładu, w przedziale wartości G poniżej 600 W·m−2 wartość R mieści się w granicach\nS od 0,6 Ω do 1,8 Ω, natomiast wartość R od ok. 200 Ω do 500 Ω. Powyżej grash nicy 600 W·m−2 przedziały te wynoszą ok. 0,4 Ω–0,6 Ω, dla R i 150 Ω–200 Ω,\nS w przypadku R . Analogiczne, ekspotencjalne zależności rezystancji równosh ległej od natężenia promieniowania słonecznego stwierdzone zostały w innej, wspominanej już pracy (Fébba i in., 2018). Autorzy zaobserwowali również ekspotencjalną zależność rezystancji szeregowej od temperatury. Dla modułu w technologii krzemu monokrystalicznego zarejestrowano zaś relatywnie niewielki spadek wartości rezystancji szeregowej w funkcji temperatury (El\nAinaoui i in., 2023).\nRyc. 4.31. P orównanie wartości rezystancji równoległej R otrzymanej za pomocą modelu sh\nLamberta na podstawie krzywych eksperymentalnych (wariant 1) oraz zależności funkcyjnych\n(wariant 2). Moduły w technologii krzemu monokrystalicznego (PV#3) (a) oraz krzemu multikrystalicznego(PV #4) (b)\n\nPorównując współczynnik diody (ryc. 4.32) stwierdzono, że zachowana jest liniowa zależność od temperatury, jednakże parametry modelu wyodrębnione z krzywych eksperymentalnych (wariant 1) rosną wolniej niż parametry otrzymane z zależności funkcyjnej (wariant 2), opisanej wzorem (3.58).\nRyc. 4.32. P orównanie wartości współczynnika diody n otrzymanego za pomocą modelu\nLamberta na podstawie krzywych eksperymentalnych (wariant 1) oraz zależności funkcyjnych\n(wariant 2). Moduły w technologii krzemu monokrystalicznego (PV#3) (a) oraz krzemu multikrystalicznego(PV #4) (b)\nBazując na przedstawionych metodach symulacyjnych, w dwu różnych wariantach (wariant 1 i wariant 2), zbadano dokładność odwzorowania charakterystyk prądowo-napięciowych modułów PV oraz ich punktów charakterystycznych. Modelowanie krzywych I-V wykonano w różnych warunkach atmosferycznych. Wyniki modelowania porównano z danymi eksperymentalnymi i przedstawiono na rycinie 4.33. Zgodnie z wcześniejszymi obserwacjami, krzywe symulacyjne uzyskane z parametrów wyznaczonych na podstawie parametrów eksperymentalnych (wariant 1) dokładniej odzwierciedlają pracę modułów PV niż krzywe oparte na modelu funkcyjnym (wariant 2).\n\nRyc. 4.33. P orównanie krzywych eksperymentalnych z wynikami modelu (wariant 1 i wariant 2) modułów PV w technologii krzemu monokrystalicznego (PV#3) (a) oraz krzemu multikrystalicznego(PV#4) (b)\nW tabelach 4.11 i 4.12 przedstawiono różnice wartości modelowanych i doświadczalnych parametrów charakterystycznych analizowanych modułów oraz wartości NRMSE i NMBE krzywych I-V. W wariancie 1 (W-1), w przypadku obu technologii modułów PV wartość NRMSE nie przekracza 4% i jest wyraźnie niższa dla technologii krzemu monokrystalicznego. Porównując punkty charakterystyczne krzywych, różnica między modelem i wartościami doświadczalnymi (ARE) nie przekracza 0,35%. Oznacza to, że model SDM w wariancie pierwszym dobrze sprawdza się w przypadku technologii krzemowych, gdy możliwe jest wykonanie pomiaru krzywych I-V w szerokim zakresie warunków atmosferycznych. Uwzględniając przewidywany trend poszczególnych parametrów modelu, można dokonać precyzyjnego prognozowania parametrów pracy modułu PV w dowolnych warunkach.\nAnalizując przypadek, w którym parametry modelu diodowego określane są na podstawie wartości referencyjnych i odpowiednich równań (wariant 2), stwierdzono mniejszą dokładność w stosunku do wariantu 1. Obie technologie\nPV wykazały podobne różnice modelowanych wartości punktu mocy maksymalnej, natężenia prądu zwarcia czy napięcia obwodu otwartego w porównaniu do danych doświadczalnych.\n\nTabela 4.11. Procentowe wartości NRMSE, NMBE, ARE otrzymane po porównaniu z wynikami pomiarów modułu z krzemu monokrystalicznego (PV #3) w wybranych warunkach\nG (W·m−2) i T (°C) m\nG T NRMSE NMBE ARE ARE ARE m Isc Voc Pm\n(W·m−2) (°C) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)\n1010,0 35,9 1,59 −1,17 0,20 0,16 0,02\nW-1 682,6 26,6 1,74 −1,21 0,14 0,16 0,01\n434,4 22,3 1,93 −0,65 0,10 0,25 0,002\n1010,0 35,9 9,15 −5,91 0,20 1,25 1,06\nW-2 682,6 26,6 6,10 −4,72 1,46 0,67 1,77\n434,4 22,3 5,28 −0,35 2,05 0,65 2,44\nTabela 4.12. Procentowe wartości NRMSE, NMBE, ARE otrzymane po porównaniu z wynikami pomiarów modułu z krzemu multikrystalicznego (PV #4) w wybranych warunkach\nG (W·m−2) i T (°C) m\nG T NRMSE NMBE ARE ARE ARE m Isc Voc Pm\n(W·m−2) (°C) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)\n1021,9 40,4 3,23 −2,85 0,29 0,27 0,01\nW-1 720,7 34,0 3,80 −3,33 0,21 0,25 0,008\n421,7 28,4 3,73 −3,07 0,18 0,33 0,003\n1021,9 40,4 18,0 −9,49 0,82 2,59 2,25\nW-2 720,7 34,0 15,7 −7,33 0,93 2,43 1,67\n421,7 28,4 10,1 −2,00 3,49 1,84 3,28\n4.4.3. Model diodowy czteroparametrowy\nRycina 4.34 przedstawia porównanie charakterystyk I-V otrzymanych w wyniku pomiarów doświadczalnych oraz z wykorzystaniem modelu diodowego czteroparametrowego, opisanego w punkcie 3.2.2, w danych warunkach natężenia promieniowania słonecznego i temperatury modułu PV. Model sprawdził się w przypadku modułu PV #7 w technologii heterozłączowej HIT (Gulkowski i in., 2019a).\nW przypadku modułów wykonanych w technologii krzemu monokrystalicznego (PV#3) i multikrystalicznego (PV#4) badania wykonano na Uniwersytecie w Jaén, w Hiszpanii. Pomiary modułu (PV#8) w technologii PERC wykonano na Politechnice Lubelskiej.\n\nRyc. 4.34. P orównanie krzywych eksperymentalnych z wynikami czteroparametrowego modelu modułów PV w technologii krzemu monokrystalicznego (PV#3) (a) oraz krzemu multikrystalicznego (PV#4) (b)\nRyc. 4.35. Porównanie krzywych eksperymentalnych z wynikami czteroparametrowego modelu modułów PV w technologii krzemu monokrystalicznego PERC (PV#8)\nW ramach niniejszego opracowania zastosowano czteroparametrowy model SDM do symulacji krzywych I–V badanych modułów PV wykonanych w technologii krzemu monokrystalicznego PV #3 – ryc. 4.34(a) oraz multikrystalicznego PV #4 – ryc. 4.34(b). Na rycinie 4.35 przedstawiono również wynik działania modelu dla modułu PV nowej generacji PERC (PV #8). We wszystkich prezentowanych przypadkach zaobserwowano relatywnie wysoki stopień zgodności modelu z wynikami badań doświadczalnych.\nTabela 4.13 przedstawia bezwymiarowe współczynniki otrzymane na podstawie danych charakterystycznych modułów PV w warunkach STC oraz na\n\npodstawie danych pomiarowych krzywych I-V, zgodnie z procedurą opisaną w rozdziale dotyczącym metodyki (Gulkowski i in., 2019a).\nTabela 4.13. Bezwymiarowe współczynniki zastosowane w modelu diodowym badanych modułów PV\nα α β β γ γ\n1 2 1 2 1 2 sc-Si (PV #3) 0,93 0,92 0,105 0,067 2,29 2,63 mc-Si (PV #4) 0,97 0,96 0,055 0,030 1,05 1,12\nPERC (PV #8) 1,25 1,35 0,023 −0,035 0,78 0,80\nTabela 4.14. P arametry czteroparametrowego modelu diodowego modułu fotowoltaicznego w technologii monokrystalicznego krzemu (PV #3)\nG T I I R n m L 0 s\n(W·m−2) (°C) (A) (A) (Ω) (-)\n1039,1 38,0 4,97 1,2∙10−5 0,05 1,61\n863,6 31,2 4,18 1,0∙10−5 0,01 1,70\n699,9 27,3 3,44 6,9∙10−6 0,08 1,71\nTabela 4.15. P arametry czteroparametrowego modelu diodowego modułu fotowoltaicznego w technologii multikrystalicznego krzemu (PV #4)\nG T I I R n m L 0 s\n(W·m−2) (°C) (A) (A) (Ω) (-)\n1004,8 40,9 5,21 2,7∙10−5 0,03 1,73\n889,3 38,3 4,63 2,2∙10−5 0,02 1,74\n812,7 36,3 4,24 1,8∙10−5 0,01 1,74\nWartości czterech parametrów modelu diodowego obliczone z wykorzystaniem współczynników z tabeli 4.13 przedstawiają tabele 4.14–4.16.\nW przypadku modułów PV #3 i PV #4 otrzymano wartości prądu nasycenia diody mieszczące się w przedziale od 10–5 A do 10–6 A. Uzyskane wartości są porównywalne z wynikami modelu pięcioparametrowego. Większe różnice zaobserwowano w przypadku współczynnika diody oraz rezystancji szeregowej. Parametry modułu PV #8 wykazują większe podobieństwo do wyników uzyskanych z modelu pięcioparametrowego. W modelu czteroparametrowym wpływ rezystancji równoległej jest pomijany. Zgodność parametrów obu modeli\n\nw przypadku modułu PV nowej generacji (PV #8) oznacza, że zastosowane przybliżenie braku R nie wpływa istotnie na dokładność wyznaczania parash metrów charakterystycznych.\nTabela 4.16. P arametry czteroparametrowego modelu diodowego modułu fotowoltaicznego w technologii monokrystalicznego krzemu PERC (PV #8)\nG T I I R n m L 0 s\n(W·m−2) (°C) (A) (A) (Ω) (-)\n909,1 41,6 9,20 1,3∙10−8 0,17 1,18\n913,3 40,7 9,25 1,1∙10−8 0,18 1,18\n946,8 38,0 9,67 2,3∙10−9 0,21 1,11\nPorównując wartości natężenia prądu zwarcia, napięcia obwodu otwartego i punktu mocy maksymalnej otrzymane w wyniku modelowania z wartościami doświadczalnymi (tabela 4.19) różnica nie przekracza 1%. Również wartości NRMSE oraz NMBE są relatywnie niskie, co potwierdza dokładność dopasowania wszystkich punktów krzywej I–V modułu PV #8. Nieznacznie niższą dokładność ilustrują wartości NRMSE i NMBE w przypadku pozostałych dwóch modułów krzemowych\n(PV#3 i PV#4). Wartość NRMSE modułu z krzemu multikrystalicznego PV #4 nie przekracza 5%. Zachowana jest wysoka dokładność określenia parametrów charakterystycznych. Różnica w stosunku do wartości eksperymentalnych nie przekroczyła 1,5% (tabela 4.17). W przypadku modułu w technologii krzemu monokrystalicznego różnica ta nie przekroczyła 1,8% (tabela 4.18).\nDla porównania, w pracy z 2014 roku (Khezzar i in.) zastosowanie modelu czteroparametrowego pozwoliło wyznaczyć wartość mocy z względną różnicą w stosunku do wartości doświadczalnej wynoszącą od ok. 0,4% do 2,6% w zależności od warunków pomiaru.\nTabela 4.17. Procentowe wartości błędów NRMSE, NMBE, ARE otrzymanych z porównania z wynikami pomiarów modułu fotowoltaicznego w technologii krzemu monokrystalicznego (PV #3) w wybranych warunkach G (W·m−2) i T (°C) m\nG T NRMSE NMBE m ARE (%) ARE (%) ARE (%)\n(W·m−2) (°C) (%) (%) Isc Voc Pm\n1039,1 38,0 5,60 −3,18 0,59 1,11 1,63\n863,6 31,2 12,8 9,79 0,76 0,60 0,75\n699,9 27,3 9,81 7,13 0,20 0,85 1,76\n\nTabela 4.18. Procentowe wartości błędów NRMSE, NMBE, ARE otrzymanych z porównania z wynikami pomiarów modułu fotowoltaicznego w technologii krzemu multikrystalicznego (PV #4) w wybranych warunkach G (W·m−2) i T (°C) m\nG T NRMSE NMBE m ARE (%) ARE (%) ARE (%)\n(W·m−2) (°C) (%) (%) Isc Voc Pm\n1004,8 40,9 3,13 2,41 0,004 0,04 0,02\n889,3 38,3 2,75 −1,41 0,08 0,32 0,66\n812,7 36,3 4,25 −3,00 0,27 0,52 1,50\nTabela 4.19. Procentowe wartości błędów NRMSE, NMBE, ARE otrzymanych z porównania z wynikami pomiarów modułu fotowoltaicznego w technologii monokrystalicznego krzemu PERC (PV #8)\nG T NRMSE NMBE m ARE (%) ARE (%) ARE (%)\n(W·m−2) (°C) (%) (%) Isc Voc Pm\n909,1 41,6 2,82 1,53 0,07 0,23 0,07\n913,3 40,7 1,73 0,81 0,09 0,06 0,41\n946,8 38,0 2,11 1,93 1,00 0,06 0,98\nPodsumowując, należy stwierdzić, że wyniki otrzymane za pomocą obu modeli (cztero- i pięcioparametrowego) pod kątem symulacji krzywych I-V, jak i prognozowania punktów charakterystycznych modułów PV wykazują znaczne podobieństwo bez względu na technologię. Przedziały wartości NRMSE krzywych I-V wynoszą 1,7%–2,8% dla modelu czteroparametrowego oraz 0,6%–2,8% i 1,5%–4,3% w przypadku modelu pięcioparametrowego odpowiednio w wariancie 1 i wariancie 2. Wysoka zbieżność występuje w przypadku punktu mocy maksymalnej. Najlepszy wynik w porównaniu z pomiarami doświadczalnymi otrzymano metodą pięcioparametrową w wariancie 1 (0,0005%–0,4%). Niemniej dokładny rezultat uzyskano metodą czteroparametrową (0,07%–1,0%) oraz metodą pięcioparametrową w wariancie 2 (0,02%–2,7%). Dla dwóch pozostałych technologii (krzem mono- i multikrystaliczny) zaobserwowano większe różnice, przy czym model SDM z pięcioma parametrami w wariancie 1 zachowuje dużą dokładność prognozy mocy (ARE < 0,1%). W pozostałych metodach modelu\nSDM wartość ARE nie przekracza 2%–3%. W świetle powyższych rozważań można stwierdzić, że wykorzystanie modelu jednodiodowego (SDM) stwarza możliwość dokładnego prognozowania mocy modułów PV wykonanych w technologii krzemu krystalicznego, w tym technologii PERC.\n\n4.5. Ocena wydajności systemów fotowoltaicznych różnych technologii\n4.5.1. Analiza uzysków energii. Współczynnik wydajności PR\nAnaliza parametrów pracy modułów PV różnych technologii wchodzących w skład farmy fotowoltaicznej zlokalizowanej w miejscowości Bordziłówka obejmuje rok 2015, następujący po uruchomieniu farmy PV. W celu zapewnienia jakości danych przeprowadzono weryfikację poprawności zarejestrowanych wartości mocy oraz innych parametrów pracy modułów fotowoltaicznych. Skorygowano oczywiste błędy, takie jak nieuzasadnione, wysokie lub niskie wartości mocy, nagłe skoki lub spadki rejestrowanych wartości oraz okresy braku odczytów.\nRycina 4.36a przedstawia rozkład dziennego napromieniowania płaszczyzny modułów (POA, ang. plane of array) w poszczególnych miesiącach.\nNajwiększe wartości napromieniowania zaobserwowano w miesiącach półrocza letniego. Jak przedstawiono w pracach (Gulkowski, 2022; Gulkowski i in.,\n2019c), ok. 80% wartości energii produkowanej przez systemy PV przypadało na 6 miesięcy półrocza letniego, co związane jest bezpośrednio z ilością energii słonecznej docierającej do powierzchni modułów PV.\nRyc. 4.36. Rozkład dziennych wartości napromieniowania zarejestrowany przez ogniwo referencyjne w płaszczyźnie modułów PV (a), Rozkład średnich dziennych wartości temperatury modułu PV i temperatura zewnętrzna w lokalizacji instalacji PV (b)\n\nW analizowanym roku, w szczególności w miesiącach od czerwca do sierpnia, średnie dzienne wartości napromieniowania oraz mediany są największe i mieszczą się w granicach od 5,8 do 6,5 kWh·m−2·d−1. Wskazane miesiące charakteryzują się stosunkowo wąskimi przedziałami międzykwartylowymi w porównaniu do pozostałych miesięcy. Roczny uzysk referencyjny w płaszczyźnie modułów PV zarejestrowany przez ogniwo referencyjne, po zastosowaniu metod filtrowania danych, jest rzędu 1260 kWh·kW−1.\nRyc. 4.37. Rozkład dziennych uzysków specyficznych Y modułów PV zarejestrowanych\nA w poszczególnych miesiącach przez moduły w technologii pc-Si (PV #11) (a), rozkład strat L na s falowniku (b), miesięczne uzyski końcowe Y wraz ze stratami L i L (c), rozkład współczynników f s c wydajności PR w poszczególnych miesiącach (d)\nDC\nRycina 4.36(b) przedstawia porównanie średniej temperatury modułu PV oraz temperatury zewnętrznej w lokalizacji instalacji. Średnią temperaturę zewnętrzną w analizowanym roku, otrzymano z bazy PVGIS (Huld i in., 2017).\n\nW przypadku temperatury zewnętrznej oraz temperatury modułu PV uwzględniono dane zarejestrowane przez całą dobę (również w nocy). W miesiącach o mniejszym napromieniowaniu (półrocze zimowe) wartości średniej temperatury zewnętrznej i modułów nie różnią się znacznie. Widoczne różnice wystąpiły w miesiącach o dużym napromieniowaniu. W tym okresie bowiem temperatura modułów jest wyższa z uwagi na absorpcję promieniowania słonecznego.\nNa rycinie 4.36(b) pokazano również rozkład średnich dziennych wartości temperatury modułu PV, wykluczając dane zarejestrowane w nocy. W tym przypadku odrzucone zostały pomiary temperatury, dla których wartość natężenia promieniowania była niższa niż 5 W∙m−2. Zarówno natężenie promieniowania słonecznego, jak i temperatura, rejestrowane były synchronicznie. Jak pokazano we wspomnianej pracy (Gulkowski i in., 2019c), maksymalna wartość temperatury modułów PV może sięgać 60°C w analizowanej lokalizacji. Wartość tę potwierdzają również wyniki zarejestrowane w przypadku modułów cienkowarstwowych wykonanych w technologii CIGS i CdTe (Gulkowski i Krawczak,\n2024b). Maksymalne wartości temperatury w dniu słonecznym wyniosły 55°C i 65°C odpowiednio w przypadku modułu CdTe i CIGS.\nRycina 4.37 przedstawia parametry pracy systemu PV złożonego z modułów wykonanych w technologii krzemu krystalicznego (pc-Si). Zarówno rozkłady dziennych uzysków specyficznych, obliczonych ze wzoru (3.65) w poszczególnych miesiącach – ryc. 4.37(a), jak i miesięczne uzyski końcowe obliczone ze wzoru (3.66) – ryc. 4.37(c) odwzorowują profil nasłonecznienia z ryc. 4.36(a).\nNajwiększe dzienne wartości uzysków energii Y wystąpiły w miesiącach od f czerwca do sierpnia. Maksymalna mediana wynosi 5,95 kWh·kW−1 (sierpień).\nCałkowita produkcja energii z PV wynosi w tym miesiącu 173,5 kWh·kW−1 oraz\n166,5 kWh·kW−1, odpowiednio w przypadku Y i Y. Całkowity roczny uzysk spe-\nA f cyficzny Y po stronie generatora PV wynosi 1180 kWh·kW−1, natomiast uzysk\nA końcowy Y = 1140 kWh·kW−1. Należy w tym miejscu zaznaczyć, że wprowaf dzenie filtrowania danych pod kątem ich poprawności spowodowało niewielkie odchylenia, w granicach od 0,5% do 5%, względem wcześniejszych wyników\n(Dragan i Zdyb, 2017; Zdyb i Gulkowski, 2020). Miesiące letnie charakteryzują się także wąskimi przedziałami międzykwartylowymi, co świadczy o relatywnie wysokiej produkcji energii przez większość dni w miesiącu ze względu na dobre warunki słoneczne. Najwęższy przedział międzykwartylowy zaobserwowano\n\nw sierpniu (5,3 kWh·kW−1–6,3 kWh·kW−1). W najgorszych pod względem nasłonecznienia miesiącach mediana dziennych uzysków spada poniżej 1 kWh·kW−1.\nObserwuje się wówczas znacznie szersze przedziały międzykwartylowe, co oznacza występowanie zarówno dni o efektywnej produkcji energii z PV jak i dni, w których produkcja energii z PV jest niewielka (w dniach częściowo lub całkowicie pochmurnych). Przykładowo, w październiku przedział międzykwartylowy wahał się w granicach od 0,75 kWh·kW−1 do 4,9 kWh·kW−1. Szerokie przedziały zaobserwowano również w marcu, kwietniu oraz maju – ryc. 4.37(a).\nRozkład miesięcznych uzysków końcowych, strat systemowych\n(wzór 3.69) oraz strat związanych z konwersją energii L (wzór 3.68) przedstac wiono na rycinie 4.37(c) oraz w tabeli 4.20. Ze względu na większą produkcję energii w miesiącach letnich zaobserwowano również większe straty energii na falowniku (L). Maksymalna wartość L, w stosunku do ilości wyprodukowanej s s energii końcowej (Y), wynosi 3,5%, (sierpień). W skali całego roku otrzymano f podobną wartość, tj. 3,7%, w samym zaś okresie półrocza letniego (od kwietnia do września) − 3,3%. Maksymalna wartość strat L wynosi 8% (sierpień).\nc\nTabela 4.20. Miesięczne straty energii L oraz L instalacji złożonej z modułów w technologii pc-Si c s\n(kWh∙kW−1)\nPółrocze letnie IV V VI VII VIII IX\nL (kWh∙kW−1) 3,5 4,0 4,9 5,5 7,0 3,9 s\nL (kWh∙kW−1) 8,4 10,8 12,8 13,7 16,4 5,9 c\nPółrocze zimowe I II III X XI XII\nL (kWh∙kW−1) 2,7 1,5 3,3 3,5 2,3 1,7 s\nL (kWh∙kW−1) 0,8 6,5 6,8 2,9 3,4 6,2 c\nPrzedstawione na rycinie 4.37(d) rozkłady dziennych współczynników wydajności PR , obliczonych ze wzoru (3.73), w poszczególnych miesiącach\nDC charakteryzują się stosunkowo wysokimi wartościami z wąskimi przedziałami międzykwartylowymi w okresie półrocza letniego. Mediana PR w tym okre-\nDC sie mieści się w przedziale od 0,90 do 0,93. Zakres przedziału międzykwartylowego w sierpniu wynosi 0,89–0,92 z medianą równą 0,9. Wąskie przedziały międzykwartylowe w okresie letnim świadczą o wysokiej dokładności wyznaczenia współczynnika wydajności. W półroczu zawierającym miesiące zimowe\n\nprzedział ten jest szerszy. Przykładowo, w styczniu waha się w od 0,80 do 0,99 z medianą równą 0,94. Z uwagi na niższe temperatury w półroczu zimowym, współczynnik wydajności powinien być wyższy. Niemniej jednak, niewielka liczba dni słonecznych, jak i zalegający na modułach śnieg znacząco obniżają jego wartość. Problem zalegania śniegu na modułach PV został już szeroko przedyskutowany (Øgaard i in., 2021, 2020).\nRyc. 4.38. Rozkład dziennych uzysków specyficznych Y modułów PV zarejestrowanych\nA w poszczególnych miesiącach przez moduły w technologii a-Si (PV #13) (a), rozkład strat L na falowniku (b), miesięczne uzyski końcowe Y wraz ze stratami L i L (c), rozkład s f s c współczynników wydajności w poszczególnych miesiącach (d)\nZ uwagi na fakt, że wszystkie cztery analizowane instalacje fotowoltaiczne znajdują się w tej samej lokalizacji i są jednakowo zorientowane, charakteryzują się podobnym profilem miesięcznych rozkładów uzysków energii (ryc. 4.38–\n4.40). W przypadku systemu w technologii krzemu amorficznego (a-Si) mediana\n\ndziennych uzysków największa jest w czerwcu i wynosi 5,89 kWhkW−1.\nPodobnie jak w przypadku technologii pc-Si, w miesiącach zimowych wartość\n∙ ta spada poniżej 1 kWhkW−1. Najmniejszy zakres międzykwartylowy półrocza letniego zanotowano w sierpniu, od 5,0 kWhkW−1 do 6,2 kWhkW−1.\n∙\nW miesiącach od marca do maja oraz w październiku wartości przedziałów są\n∙ ∙ większe. Dla przykładu, w październiku jego granice wyznaczają wartości od\n0,6 kWhkW−1 do 4,9 kWhkW−1 – ryc. 4.38(a). Maksymalny uzysk końcowy energii wynosi ok. 158 kWhkW−1 (w sierpniu) i jest o ok. 10 kWhkW−1 niższy\n∙ ∙ od ilości energii wyprodukowanej przez generator PV (po stronie prądu stałego).\n∙ ∙\nCałkowita produkcja energii Y przez generator PV (po stronie prądu sta-\nA łego) w ciągu roku wynosi 1090 kWh·kW−1. Uzysk końcowy Y jest równy f\n1010 kWh·kW−1. Odnotowano również większe niż w przypadku systemu pc-Si, straty L i L (ryc. 4.38(c) i tabela 4.21). Maksymalna wartość L w stos c c sunku do końcowego uzysku energii wyniosła 13,7% (największa wartość ze wszystkich czterech analizowanych systemów). Maksymalna wartość L była s równa 6,6%, w skali roku natomiast w półroczu letnim wyniosła odpowiednio 7,1% oraz 5,9%. Analizując współczynniki wydajności przedstawione na ryc. 4.38(d) stwierdzono, że w miesiącach półrocza letniego wartość PR waha\nDC się w granicach od 0,82 do 0,92, zachowując stosunkowo wąskie przedziały międzykwartylowe. W czerwcu współczynnik PR mieści się w zakresie 0,89–0,93\nDC z medianą równą 0,92. W miesiącach półrocza zimowego wartość współczynnika wydajności jest znacznie niższa i mieści się w zakresie od 0,57 do 0,81.\nTabela 4.21. Miesięczne straty energii L oraz L instalacji złożonej z modułów w technologii a-Si c s\n(kWh∙kW−1)\nPółrocze letnie IV V VI VII VIII IX\nL (kWh∙kW−1) 7,4 7,9 8,6 9,8 10,2 5,6 s\nL (kWh∙kW−1) 17,0 17,8 12,9 14,0 22,1 15,4 c\nPółrocze zimowe I II III X XI XII\nL (kWh∙kW−1) 3,2 4,4 7,5 6,1 3,6 3,0 s\nL (kWh∙kW−1) 2,3 14,2 19,0 17,9 11,3 10,9 c\n\nWysokimi parametrami pracy charakteryzuje się instalacja złożona z modułów CIGS. Największą wartość mediany dziennego uzysku energii równą\n6,2 kWh·kW−1 otrzymano w sierpniu – ryc. 4.39(a). Granice przedziału międzykwartylowego wynoszą, w tym miesiącu, od 5,6 kWh·kW−1 do 6,8 kWh·kW−1.\nMaksymalny miesięczny uzysk końcowy wynosi 173,5 kWh·kW−1 – ryc. 4.39(c).\nRoczna produkcja energii przez generator PV po stronie prądu stałego wynosi\n1190 kWh·kW−1. Uzysk końcowy Y jest równy 1120 kWh·kW−1.\nf\nRyc. 4.39. Rozkład dziennych uzysków specyficznych Y modułów PV zarejestrowanych\nA w poszczególnych miesiącach przez moduły w technologii CIGS (PV #12) (a), rozkład strat L na falowniku (b), miesięczne uzyski końcowe Y wraz ze stratami L i L (c), rozkład s f s c współczynników wydajności w poszczególnych miesiącach (d)\n\nNa uwagę zasługują stosunkowo niewielkie wartości strat L w poszczec gólnych miesiącach (tabela 4.22), co związane jest z wysokim współczynnikiem wydajności. Powodem jest także większe niż w przypadku pozostałych systemów cienkowarstwowych przewymiarowanie generatora względem mocy falownika. Jak pokazuje rycina 4.39(d), w miesiącach półrocza letniego wartość\nPR mieści się w zakresie 0,94–0,98. W okresie tym również zaobserwowano\nDC niewielkie przedziały międzykwartylowe. W lipcu granice przedziału wynoszą od 0,97 do 0,99 z medianą 0,98. W miesiącach półrocza zimowego wartość współczynnika wydajności spada do 0,78 z tych samych przyczyn, o których wspomniano wcześniej (śnieg, duża liczba dni pochmurnych). Maksymalna wartość strat L wyniosi 4,0%. Maksymalna wartość L natomiast jest zbliżona c s do wartości rocznej i wynosi 6,5%. W półroczu letnim natomiast wynosi 5,9%.\nTabela 4.22. Miesięczne straty energii L oraz L instalacji złożonej z modułów w technologii CIGS c s\n(kWh∙kW−1)\nPółrocze letnie IV V VI VII VIII IX\nL (kWh∙kW−1) 8,0 8,4 9,2 10,4 11,9 5,8 s\nL (kWh∙kW−1) 6,7 6,0 4,7 3,0 6,0 4,7 c\nPółrocze zimowe I II III X XI XII\nL (kWh∙kW−1) 2,2 4,7 7,0 6,9 2,9 2,3 s\nL (kWh∙kW−1) 6,0 4,3 9,0 4,2 3,8 3,0 c\nProdukcja energii przez instalację wykorzystującą technologię tellurku kadmu w analizowanym roku nie odbiega istotnie od wyników uzyskiwanych przez pozostałe technologie (ryc. 4.40). Maksymalną miesięczną produkcję zanotowano w sierpniu. Uzysk Y wynosi 171,1 kWh·kW−1, natomiast\nA w przypadku uzysk Y jest równy 163,3 kWh·kW−1. Największą wartość średf niego dziennego uzysku końcowego (6 kWh·kW−1) zarejestrowano w czerwcu.\nRoczny uzysk energii Y wynosi około 1080 kWh·kW−1. Uzysk końcowy Y jest\nA f równy 1040 kWh·kW−1.\n\nRyc. 4.40. Rozkład dziennych uzysków specyficznych Y modułów PV zarejestrowanych\nA w poszczególnych miesiącach przez moduły w technologii CdTe (PV #9) (a), rozkład strat\nL na falowniku (b), miesięczne uzyski końcowe Y wraz ze stratami L i L (c), rozkład s f s c współczynników wydajności w poszczególnych miesiącach (d)\nWspółczynnik PR w miesiącach letnich mieści się w przedziale między\nDC\n0,91 i 0,93. W tym okresie szerokość przedziałów międzykwartylowych jest najniższa. Przykładowo, w czerwcu granice przedziału wynoszą od 0,91 do 0,95\n(mediana 0,93). W miesiącach zimowych współczynnik PR zmniejszył się\nDC nawet do 0,4. Maksymalne wartości współczynników strat L i L (tabela 4.23) c s wyniosły odpowiednio 9,8% i 4,8%. Wartość L w okresie rocznym była równa s\n4,8% (4,2% w półroczu miesięcy letnich).\n\nTabela 4.23. Miesięczne straty energii L oraz L instalacji złożonej z modułów w technologii CdTe\nC s\n(kWh∙kW−1)\nPółrocze letnie IV V VI VII VIII IX\nL (kWh∙kW−1) 5,4 6,3 6,6 7,2 7,8 3,4 s\nL (kWh∙kW−1) 10,2 9,9 10,3 12,8 18,9 12,8 c\nPółrocze zimowe I II III X XI XII\nL (kWh∙kW−1) 0,9 2,9 5,6 3,8 1,8 1,3 s\nL (kWh∙kW−1) 11,2 9,5 12,5 14,0 8,8 6,4 c\nAnaliza pracy farmy PV była tematem rozprawy doktorskiej (Dragan, 2018), a także publikacji (Dragan i Zdyb, 2017; Zdyb i Gulkowski, 2020). Uz yskane wyniki należy również odnieść do danych dotyczących produkcji energii przez systemy PV w omawianej instalacji fotowoltaicznej lub do innych systemów PV pracujących w pobliskiej lokalizacji (Gulkowski, 2023, 2022; Gulkowski i in.,\n2019c; Gulkowski i Krawczak, 2024a; Krawczak, 2023). Okres analizy w przypadku instalacji PV przedstawionych w wymienionych pracach przypada na lata 2015–2022.\nRoczny uzysk energii systemów wykonanych z modułów w technologii krzemu krystalicznego mieści się w przedziale od ok. 870 kWh·kW−1 do\n1100 kWh·kW−1, przy czym większość zarejestrowanych wartości uzysku przekracza 1000 kWh·kW−1. Mediana z kilkunastu instalacji, z różnych okresów pracy w latach 2 015 – 2022, wynosi ok. 1030 kWh·kW−1. W miesiącach o najlepszych warunkach do produkcji energii z fotowoltaiki, od maja do sierpnia, miesięczne uzyski mieszczą się w granicach od 120 kWh·kW−1 do 180 kWh·kW−1, a w niektórych przypadkach (moduł dwustronny) przekraczają 180 kWh·kW−1.\nPrzedstawione w niniejszym opracowaniu wyniki dotyczące uzysków energii są zgodne z opublikowanymi rezultatami, zarówno w przypadku modułów w technologii z krzemu krystalicznego, jak i technologii cienkowarstwowych.\nWarto w tym miejscu zaznaczyć, że uzysk końcowy zależy od wielu czynników, takich jak napromieniowanie w danym roku, kąt nachylenia modułów czy azymut, a także czy instalacja jest wolnostojąca czy zintegrowana z budynkiem, co ma wpływ na temperaturę modułów. Nie bez znaczenia jest również technologia wykonania modułów PV oraz ich sprawność. Z analizy\n466 mikroinstalacji PV o średniej wielkości 3,5 kW wynika nieznaczna różnica między współczynnikiem wydajności systemów w technologii krzemu\n\nmonokrystalicznego (PR = 0,73) i polikrystalicznego (PR = 0,75) i to w dodatku na korzyść tej drugiej (Tsafarakis i in., 2017). Ogólnie wiadomo, że moduły w technologii krzemu monokrystalicznego charakteryzują się wyższą sprawnością, stąd wyniki badań są dość zaskakujące. Oczywiście trzeba mieć świadomość, że mowa tu o statystycznym rozkładzie danych i czynniki wymienione wyżej mogą istotnie wpływać na końcowy wynik.\nZaprezentowane w niniejszej pracy wyniki są także spójne z danymi przedstawionymi w literaturze naukowej dotyczącej uzysków energii oraz wydajności systemów fotowoltaicznych pracujących w krajach leżących na podobnej szerokości geograficznej, co omawiany system PV. Kompleksowe analizy, przedstawione w pracach dotyczących systemów PV zlokalizowanych w kilku europejskich krajach (Schardt i te Heesen, 2021; te Heesen i Herbort,\n2016), omówione zostały w przeglądzie literatury niniejszego opracowania i nie ma potrzeby ich ponownego przytaczania. Wyniki badań wykonanych w krajach położonych na północ od Polski charakteryzują się niższą roczną wartością napromieniowania oraz niższą temperaturą, która z kolei działa korzystnie na wydajność modułów PV. Dla przykładu, w pracy Adaramoli i Vågnesa (2015) przedstawiono uzysk energii oraz wydajność instalacji zlokalizowanej w Norwegii, w pobliżu Oslo (59,65°N). Jego wartość dla modułów w technologii krzemu krystalicznego wynosi w przybliżeniu 930 kWh·kW−1.\nCiekawym przykładem jest również praca, w której autorzy analizują parametry pracy modułów PV w warunkach Arktyki (Frimannslund i in., 2021). Roczny uzysk energii, jaki osiągnęła instalacja PV, wyniósł ok. 670 kWh·kW−1, natomiast roczny współczynnik wydajności 0,92. Wysoka wartość współczynnika PR jest dowodem na pozytywny wpływ niskiej temperatury modułów PV na produkcję energii. Jak pokazują autorzy, na podstawie rejestracji temperatury modułów PV z częstotliwością 5 min, przez większość roku moduły PV pracują w temperaturze poniżej 25°C, a zakres mieści się w granicach od ok. −30°C do ok. 40°C.\nPorównanie uzysków z instalacji badawczej z wartościami otrzymanymi w innych krajach, nawet o zupełnie odmiennych warunkach klimatycznych, umożliwia ocenę wpływu szerokości geograficznej oraz warunków atmosferycznych na ilość energii produkowanej przez systemy PV. Jak pokazują kolejne przykłady, istotne znaczenie ma także technologia modułów.\nPorównując uzysk energii z instalacji złożonych z modułów jednostronnych\n\ni dwustronnych, pracujących w jednakowej lokalizacji (w tym przypadku jest to południowa Brazylia), otrzymano wartości mieszczące się w przedziale od\n1187 kWh·kW−1 do 1228 kWh·kW−1 w przypadku technologii jednostronnej oraz od 1241 kWh·kW−1 do 1301 kWh·kW−1 w przypadku modułów dwustronnych. Roczny współczynnik wydajności waha się w granicach od 0,74 do 0,77\n(moduły jednostronne) oraz od 0,72 do 0,74 (moduły dwustronne). Różnice w wartościach zarówno uzysku energii, jak i współczynnika wydajności wynikają z zastosowania różnych rodzajów podłoża pod instalacjami PV (Dias i in., 2025). Analizując wydajność modułów dwustronnych, nie tylko podłoże, ale także rodzaj czujników ma znaczenie. W celu zbadania współczynnika PR systemu przedstawiono różne sposoby pomiaru natężenia promieniowania słonecznego (Moreno-Buesa i in., 2024). Jego wartość oscyluje w granicach od 0,84 do 0,95. Pomiary przeprowadzono w południowej Hiszpanii. Autorzy dokonali analizy współczynnika bifacjalności (ang. bifaciality coefficient) mierząc wydajność modułów dwustronnych (Muñoz-Cerón i in., 2024). Wartość\nPR w przypadku dni słonecznych (0,83) jest większa w porównaniu do dni pochmurnych (0,82). W odniesieniu do dni pochmurnych przyjęto taki zbiór danych pomiarowych, w których ok. 50% zmierzonych wartości natężenia promieniowania mieści się w przedziale od 400 W·m−2 do 1000 W·m−2. W przypadku dni słonecznych wartość ta nie spada poniżej 800 W·m−2. Warto również wskazać kompleksowe badania, w których analizowano współczynnik spadku wydajności (PLR, ang. performance loss ratio) modułów dwustronnych. Z analiz przeprowadzonych różnymi metodami wynika, że roczny współczynnik\nPLR modułów dwustronnych wynosi −1,46% ± 0,03% (Karttunen i in., 2023).\n4.5.2. Analiza spadku wydajności systemów PV. Współczynnik PLR\nW niniejszym podrozdziale przedstawiono wyniki analizy współczynnika spadku wydajności (PLR) modułów PV pracujących w instalacji fotowoltaicznej. Zaletą przedstawionych metod jest możliwość oceny współczynnika PLR na podstawie danych zarejestrowanych przez falowniki bez rozłączania instalacji czy przenoszenia modułów do laboratorium pomiarowego. Analizę wykonano w oparciu o miesięczne współczynniki wydajności PR, obliczone bez procesu filtrowania, na podstawie uzysków energii przedstawionych w pracy Piotra Dragana (2018).\n\nUzysk referencyjny wyznaczono z danych PVGIS w analizowanym okresie i lokalizacji badanych systemów PV.\nRycina 4.41 przedstawia rozkład median współczynnika PLR obliczonych metodą YoY (ang. year on year) dla instalacji cienkowarstwowych z krzemu amorficznego (a-Si) i tellurku kadmu (CdTe). W pierwszym przypadku granice przedziału ufności (95%) wynoszą −0,036 oraz −0,117. Roczny współczynnik spadku sprawności (współczynnik degradacji), wyznaczony na ich podstawie, wynosi −7,7%/r, zaś niepewność jest równa ± 4,0%. W przypadku modułów\nPV w technologii CdTe średnia roczna wartość współczynnika PLR przekracza\n−31%/r. Przedziały ufności w tym przypadku są równe −0,147 oraz −0,457.\nNiepewność wyznaczenia PLR wyniosła 16,4%.\nRyc. 4.41. Histogramy median współczynnika PLR w metodzie YoY modułów PV w technologii a-Si, PV #13 (a) CdTe, PV #9 (b)\nWydajność modułów w technologii krzemu polikrystalicznego oraz CIGS nie zmniejszyła się w analizowanym okresie na tyle znacząco, żeby udało się to zarejestrować za pomocą metody YoY. Nie oznacza to bynajmniej złego doboru metody analizy. Głównym powodem jest brak filtrowania danych pod kątem zalegania śniegu, zabrudzeń oraz innych problemów wynikających z funkcjonowania instalacji PV.\nRycina 4.42 przedstawia linie trendu wyznaczone na podstawie miesięcznych współczynników wydajności metodą CSD, opisaną równaniami (3.74)–(3.76).\nWartość PLR wyznaczona metodą regresji liniowej z trendu współczynników PR modułu w technologii krzemu amorficznego wynosi −5,6%/r. Niepewność\n\nwyznaczenia PLR jest równa 1%, natomiast współczynnik determinacji R2 jest równy 0,86. Współczynniki a, b prostej z równania (3.75) wynoszą odpowiednio\n−0,0030 oraz 0,64, natomiast ich niepewności wyznaczone na podstawie 95% przedziału ufności wynoszą 0,00054 oraz 0,011, odpowiednio w przypadku a i b.\nOstatnie wartości wynikają wyłącznie z zastosowania metody regresji liniowej do punktów trendu wyznaczonych metodą CSD.\nRyc. 4.42. Metoda regresji liniowej zastosowana do linii trendu współczynników PR otrzymanej metodą CSD dla modułów a-Si, PV #13 (a), CdTe, PV #9 (b)\nW przypadku technologii CdTe współczynnik PLR wyznaczony metodą\nCSD wynosi –27,8%/r z niepewnością równą ±2,2%. Współczynnik R2 prostej wynosi 0,97. Współczynniki a i b wraz z niepewnościami (określonymi w nawiasach) wynoszą odpowiednio –0,019 (0,0014) oraz 0,817 (0,027). Z przedstawionych rezultatów wynika, że wyznaczone metodą CSD wartości nie odbiegają od tych, które otrzymano metodą YoY. W tym przypadku, również metoda\nCSD nie wykazała spadku wydajności w przypadku technologii z krzemu krystalicznego oraz modułu cienkowarstwowego CIGS.\nRycina 4.43 przedstawia wyniki analizy trendu z wykorzystaniem metody analizy widma szczególnego SSA. Wartości współczynników PLR otrzymanych metodą SSA dla modułów PV w technologiach a-Si i CdTe nie odbiegają od tych, zmierzonych metodą CSD i wynoszą odpowiednio −6,6%/r (R2 = 0,65) oraz −26,0%/r (R2 = 0,96). W przypadku metody SSA możliwe było również wyznaczenie wartości PLR modułów w technologii pc-Si i CIGS. Wynoszą one\n−0,83%/r (pc-Si) oraz −0,67%/r (CIGS). Otrzymane współczynniki są zbliżone\n\ndo wartości uzyskanych przy zastosowaniu metody regresji liniowej w odniesieniu do uzysków energii poszczególnych systemów PV w latach 2015–2017\n(Dragan, 2018). Stopień degradacji technologii cienkowarstwowych, tj. krzemu amorficznego i tellurku kadmu, wynosi odpowiednio −7,3%/r i −26,1%/r.\nW przypadku pozostałych dwu technologii (krzem krystaliczny i CIGS) współczynnik ten nie przekracza −0,5%/r.\nRyc. 4.43. Metoda regresji liniowej zastosowana do linii trendu współczynników PR otrzymanej metodą SSA dla modułów pc-Si, PV #11 (a) CIGS, PV #12 (b), aSi, PV #13 (c), CdTe, PV #9 (d)\nAnalizując otrzymane w ramach niniejszego opracowania wielkości współczynników PLR i porównując je z wynikami literaturowymi warto przytoczyć pracę, w której autorzy również zaobserwowali relatywnie wysoki stopień degradacji modułów wykonanych w technologii z tellurku kadmu (PLR = −17,2%/r)\n(Adrada Guerra i in., 2017). Przeanalizowano okres trzech lat. W porównaniu do technologii z krzemu polikrystalicznego (pc-Si), dla której PLR = −3%/r,\n\nrelatywnie duży spadek współczynnika wydajności, wynoszący −7,2%/r, zarejestrowano dla modułów z selenku miedziowo-indowego (CIS, ang. copper indium selenide). Roczny uzysk energii w przypadku technologii pc-Si w trzech kolejnych latach mieści się w przedziale od 1445 kWhkW−1 do 1548 kWhkW−1, podczas gdy w tym samym okresie jednostkowa produkcja energii z systemu PV w tech-\n∙ ∙ nologii z tellurku kadmu (CdTe) zauważalnie zmniejszyła się, z wartości 1219,4 kWhkW−1 do 696,0 kWhkW−1. Badania przeprowadzono w Madrycie (szerokość geograficzna 40,4°). Warto zauważyć również, że zarówno w przypadku\n∙ ∙ instalacji z krzemu polikrystalicznego, jak i CIS, otrzymano wysokie wartości współczynnika wydajności w badanym okresie, mieszczące się w przedziałach od 0,90 do 0,93 (pc-Si) oraz od 0,91 do 0,98 (CIS). Wydajność systemu w technologii tellurku kadmu zmniejszyła się z wartości 0,80 do 0,63.\nUwagę zwrócił znaczny spadek mocy cienkowarstwowych modułów\nPV w pierwszym roku działania instalacji (Schweiger i in., 2017). W przypadku niektórych systemów PV, wykonanych w technologii tellurku kadmu i krzemu amorficznego, spadek mocy referencyjnej (STC) osiągnął poziom ponad −11%/r, a w przypadku technologii CIS nawet −12%/r. Dla porównania, moc maksymalna modułów z krzemu monokrystalicznego zmieniła się maksymalnie o –2%/r. Kompleksowe badania degradacji modułów PV wykonano w różnych lokalizacjach (Włochy, Cypr, Australia) (Ingenhoven i in., 2019).\nUzyskane roczne współczynniki PLR, w zależności od lokalizacji i technologii, mieszczą się w przedziałach od –1,09%/r do –2,43%/r (CdTe), od –1,37%/r do\n–4,37%/r (CIS) oraz od –0,6%/r do –1,23%/r (krzem multikrystaliczny, m-Si).\nPrzeprowadzono badania współczynnika na modułach różnych technologii i opublikowano dane pochodzące z ponad 6000 instalacji PV (Louwen i in., 2024). Mediana (PLR w przypadku modułów w technologii CIGS wynosi\n–1,42%/r, natomiast w przypadku modułów w technologii krzemu krystalicznego –0,75%/r.\n\n5. Podsumowanie i wnioski\nCelem niniejszego opracowania była analiza i modelowanie parametrów pracy modułów fotowoltaicznych różnych technologii w warunkach zewnętrznych.\nW świetle dynamicznie rozwijającego się sektora PV, rosnącej liczby zarówno instalacji prosumenckich, jak i farm fotowoltaicznych, kluczowy staje się monitoring działania systemów PV oraz ocena ich wydajności. Zarówno analiza eksperymentalna parametrów pracy, jak i metody modelowania komputerowego pozwalają na weryfikację wydajności systemów PV oraz wykrywanie wszelkich nieprawidłowości w ich działaniu, w tym zbyt szybką degradację modułów PV.\nW ramach badań przeprowadzono analizę parametrów pracy modułów lub instalacji fotowoltaicznych w trzech różnych lokalizacjach w Polsce i Hiszpanii.\nPomiary przeprowadzono w trybie stacjonarnym, jak również nadążnym.\nZbadano moduły PV należące zarówno do pierwszej, jak i drugiej generacji, w tym moduły najnowszych technologii takich jak PERC (ang. passivated emitter rear cell) i HIT (ang. heterojunction with intrinsic thin layer). Zaprezentowano metodykę pomiaru charakterystyk prądowo-napięciowych z uwzględnieniem wysokiej klasy urządzeń pomiarowych oraz metody modelowania krzywych I-V.\nPrzedstawiono tak analizę danych pomiarowych, jak i wyniki modelowania komputerowego w okresie krótkoterminowym oraz długoterminowym. Zastosowano równania regresji oraz metodę translacji pomiarów z warunków rzeczywistych\n\ndo warunków standardowych w celu analizy parametrów elektrycznych i temperaturowych modułów PV. Bazując na dużych zbiorach danych, zaproponowano metodę konsensusu próby losowej RANSAC (ang. random sample concensus) do analizy danych doświadczalnych. Wykorzystano różne warianty zastosowania modelu jednodiodowego (SDM, ang. single diode model) do symulacji kształtu charakterystyki prądowo-napięciowej modułu PV w rzeczywistych warunkach pracy. Modelowanie przeprowadzono na modułach pierwszej generacji, uwzględniając najnowsze technologie. Zbadano korelację wyników modelowania z pomiarami doświadczalnymi.\nDokonano analizy parametrów pracy systemów fotowoltaicznych pod kątem uzysków i strat energii, współczynników wydajności, a także degradacji modułów PV pracujących w tych systemach. Przeprowadzenie analiz możliwe było dzięki opracowanym przez autora programom komputerowym wykonanym w środowisku do obliczeń naukowych MATLAB. Wykorzystano wbudowane funkcje środowiska MATLAB oraz udostępnione zewnętrzne biblioteki przeznaczone do analizy systemów PV (PVLIB).\nPrzeprowadzone badania pozwoliły na sformułowanie poniższych wniosków:\n1. Dokładność przedstawionych metod charakteryzacji modułów PV w warunkach zewnętrznych potwierdzają wyniki analizy parametrów elektrycznych modułów najnowszych technologii, które wykazują niewielkie odchylenia od wartości deklarowanych przez producenta. W przypadku technologii HIT różnica ta wynosi 0,6% dla , 0,4% dla oraz 0,5% dla . W przypadku modułu PERC wartości te przedstawiają się następująco: 0,7% i 1,0% oraz\n2,7% odpowiednio dla , oraz .\n2. Przedstawione metody analizy parametrów termicznych umożliwiają również dokładne wyznaczenie współczynników temperaturowych w warunkach zewnętrznych. W przypadku modułu HIT odchylenie wartości współczynnika temperaturowego napięcia obwodu otwartego od wartości podanych przez producenta nie przekracza 0,02%/°C.\n3. Analiza parametrów elektrycznych modułów PV, wykonana metodą równań regresji oraz translacji do warunków STC, wykazała zbliżone wyniki. Względne różnice parametrów w warunkach standardowych mieszczą się w zakresie 0,1%–1,7% w przypadku technologii z krzemu\n\nmonokrystalicznego, 0,6%–2,1% w przypadku technologii z krzemu multikrystalicznego oraz 0,2%–1,5% w przypadku technologii cienkowarstwowej (moduły PV z tellurku kadmu).\n4. Zastosowanie metod filtrowania danych w celu wyznaczenia parametru pozwala uzyskać wysoki współczynnik determinacji (R2) w metodzie regresji liniowej wynoszący 0,99 w przypadku wszystkich badanych technologii modułów PV.\n5. Zastosowanie metody RANSAC w celu wyznaczania parametru prowadzi do zwiększenia współczynnika determinacji prostej (R2) do wartości mieszczącej się w przedziale od 0,9 do 0,99, zwiększając tym samym dokładność metody opartej o równania regresji.\n6. Wykorzystanie metody RANSAC w analizie danych długoterminowych zwiększa dokładność uzyskanych wyników dzięki automatycznej eliminacji odstających punktów wynikających z niestabilnych warunków atmosferycznych podczas pomiarów.\n7. Zastosowanie metody RANSAC do analizy współczynników temperaturowych wyznaczonych z pomiarów długoterminowych prowadzi do wzrostu współczynnika R2 z wartości 0,991 do 0,999 (krzem monokrystaliczny) oraz z 0,887 do 0,99 (tellurek kadmu) i uzyskania współczynników\nPm identycznych z parametrami deklarowanymi przez producenta. γ\n8. W przypadku analizy mocy maksymalnej metodą regresji liniowej niezbędne jest wykonanie korekty temperatury modułu do wartości 25°C, co podnosi współczynnik R2 do poziomu 0,97–0,99 i tym samym zwiększa dokładność metody.\n9. Różnice parametru wyznaczonego metodą regresji i translacji do warunków STC względem danych producenta w przypadku modułów starszych technologii są podobne i wynoszą 3,4%–5% (krzem monokrystaliczny), 4%–\n4,6% (krzem multikrystaliczny) oraz 4,5%–5,9% (tellurek kadmu).\n10. Przedstawione metody symulacji krzywej I-V modułu nowej generacji (PERC) w warunkach standardowych prowadzą do uzyskania zbliżonych parametrów modelu diodowego, tj. w zakresie 10,03–10,36 A, w zakresie 2,3∙10−10\nA– 9,6∙10−10 A, w zakresie 0,175 Ω–0,231 Ω, w zakresie 517 Ω–3220 Ω, oraz n* w zakresie 1,09–1,15.\n\n11. Stwierdzono wysoką dokładność odwzorowania krzywych I-V w modelu diodowym modułów z krzemu krystalicznego, w tym najnowszych technologii typu PERC. Wartość NRMSE mieści się w przedziale 1,49%–\n4,3% w przypadku zastosowania zależności funkcyjnych oraz 0,6%–2,76% w przypadku zastosowania parametrów z krzywych eksperymentalnych.\n12. Wyniki modelowania parametrów charakterystycznych modułu PV w technologii PERC z wykorzystaniem krzywych eksperymentalnych zmniejszyły błąd względny do wartości nieprzekraczającej 0,13% w przypadku i 0,39% w przypadku . W przypadku wariantu bazującego na zależnościach funkcyjnych (3.55)–(3.60) wartości te nie przekroczyły\n1,6% i 2,7%, odpowiednio dla i .\n13. Względna różnica między parametrami charakterystycznymi uzyskanymi z modelu a wynikami pomiarów dla modułu monokrystalicznego, analizowanego w szerokim zakresie natężenia promieniowania i temperatury, waha się w przedziale 0,002%–0,25% (wariant 1) oraz 0,2%–2,5% (wariant 2).\nNieznacznie większe wartości uzyskano dla modułu w technologii krzemu polikrystalicznego, tj. 0,003%–0,33% (wariant 1) oraz 0,8%–3,5% (wariant 2).\n14. Analiza uzysków energii systemów PV różnych technologii wykazała wartości Y f zbliżone do danych literaturowych dla instalacji zlokalizowanych na podobnej szerokości geograficznej, tj. 1040 kWh·kW−1–1140 kWh·kW−1.\n15. Miesięczne współczynniki wydajności analizowanych technologii modułów PV kształtują się w następujących przedziałach: 0,80–0,93 (pc-Si),\n0,57–0,92 (a-Si), 0,78–0,98 (CIGS) oraz 0,40–0,93 (CdTe).\n16. Otrzymane wartości współczynników PLR w zależności od metody wynoszą −7,5%/r (YoY) i −5,6%/r (CSD) w przypadku a-Si oraz −31%/r (YoY) i −27,8%/r (CSD) w przypadku CdTe.\n17. Analiza trendu z wykorzystaniem zaproponowanej metody SSA umożliwiła wyznaczenie współczynników PLR poszczególnych technologii.\nOtrzymano następujące wartości PLR: −0,83%/r (pc-Si), −0,67%/r (CIGS),\n−6,6%/r (a-Si) oraz −26%/r (CdTe).\nCharakteryzacja modułów fotowoltaicznych różnych technologii w warunkach zewnętrznych, pomimo zmiennych wartości natężenia promieniowania słonecznego oraz temperatury modułu, umożliwia – dzięki metodom\n\nprzedstawionym w niniejszym opracowaniu – wyznaczenie referencyjnych\n(STC) wartości parametrów elektrycznych i temperaturowych.\nPrzedstawione modele diodowe, pozwalające na odwzorowanie kształtu krzywej I–V, a tym samym parametrów charakterystycznych modułu PV w określonych warunkach atmosferycznych, stanowią skuteczne narzędzie do analizy oraz porównawczej oceny funkcjonowania rzeczywistych systemów fotowoltaicznych. Dzięki ich zastosowaniu możliwe jest zarówno monitorowanie jakości pracy poszczególnych modułów, jak i identyfikacja odchyleń wynikających z procesów degradacyjnych lub niekorzystnych warunków eksploatacyjnych.\nAnaliza parametrów pracy systemu PV podłączonego do sieci elektroenergetycznej umożliwia wyznaczenie specyficznych uzysków energii w rzeczywistych warunkach eksploatacji. Prowadzenie takich analiz w ujęciu długoterminowym pozwala natomiast na określenie stopnia degradacji modułów\nPV oraz ocenę stabilności ich pracy w czasie. Należy w tym miejscu wspomnieć o ograniczeniach zastosowanych metod. Nie uwzględniają one wpływu znacznego zabrudzenia powierzchni modułów PV ani częściowego ich zacienienia. Uwzględnienie tych zjawisk w procesie charakteryzacji wymaga opracowania dodatkowych metod, które mogłyby być uwzględnione w przyszłych badaniach. 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Solar Energy, 196, 346–357. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2019.12.020", "token_count": 107817} -{"added": "2026-09-08", "author": "Kłosowski, Grzegorz", "created": "2025", "id": "rock_pollub_pl_032a14e5-5c8e-4153-9cf7-2dfd9e361e6d", "license": "CC-BY-SA-4.0", "source": "rock_pollub_pl", "text": "Zastosowanie uczenia maszynowego do obrazowania stanu zawilgocenia murów z wykorzystaniem tomografii impedancyjnej\n\nM O N O G R A F I E\nRada Naukowa Wydawnictwa Politechniki Lubelskiej\nPrzewodnicząca:\nAgnieszka Rzepka\nDyrektor CINT:\nKatarzyna Weinper\nPrzedstawiciele Dyscyplin Naukowych Politechniki Lubelskiej:\nMarzenna Dudzińska\nMałgorzata Franus\nArkadiusz Gola\nBeata Kowalska\nGrzegorz Komarzyniec\nJarosław Latalski\nTomasz Lipecki\nZbigniew Łagodowski\nLucjan Pawłowski\nNatalia Przesmycka\nHalina Rarot\nMagdalena Rzemieniak\nArkadiusz Syta\nWydawnictwo Politechniki Lubelskiej:\nMagdalena Chołojczyk\nKarolina Famulska-Ciesielska\nKatarzyna Pełka-Smętek\nP O L I T E C H N I K I L U B E L S K I E J\n\nZastosowanie uczenia maszynowego do obrazowania stanu zawilgocenia murów z wykorzystaniem tomografii impedancyjnej\nGrzegorz Kłosowski\nLublin 2025\n\nR E C E N Z E N C I :\ndr hab. inż. Mariusz Rząsa, prof. OP (Politechnika Opolska) dr hab. inż. Radosław Wajman, prof. PŁ (Politechnika Łódzka)\nA U T O R :\ndr inż. Grzegorz Kłosowski, ORCID: 0000-0001-7927-3674\nPolitechnika Lubelska – ROR: https://ror.org/024zjzd49\nRedaktor prowadzący: Magdalena Chołojczyk\nKorekta językowa: Natalia Witek-Dąbrowska\nSkład i łamanie: Łukasz Maj\nProjekt graficzny serii: Łukasz Maj\nZdjęcie na okładce i stronie przedtytułowej pochodzi ze strony internetowej www.freepik.com.\nJeśli nie wskazano źródła ilustracji, stanowi ona opracowanie własne autora.\nPublikacja wydana za zgodą Rektora Politechniki Lubelskiej\nISBN: 978-83-7947-627-5 (wersja drukowana)\nISBN: 978-83-7947-628-2 (wersja elektroniczna)\nDOI: 10.35784/9788379476282\nWydawca: Wydawnictwo Politechniki Lubelskiej www.wpl.pollub.pl ul. Nadbystrzycka 36C, 20-618 Lublin tel. (81) 538-46-59\nKsiążka udostępniona jest na licencji Creative Commons Uznanie autorstwa – na tych samych warunkach\n4.0 Międzynarodowe (CC BY-SA 4.0)\nNakład: 50 egz.\n\nSpis treści\nWykaz ważniejszych skrótów i symboli 9\n1. Wstęp 11\n1.1. Metody tomograficzne 13\n1.2. Pomiary zawilgocenia murów 14\n1.3. Cel i zakres pracy 20\n2. Tomografia elektryczna w obrazowaniu wilgoci 23\n2.1. ETI na tle innych typów tomografii 23\n2.2. Matematyczne podstawy elektrycznej tomografii impedancyjnej 26\n2.3. Problem prosty vs. problem odwrotny 27\n2.4. Elektryczna tomografia impedancyjna 34\n3. Wybrane metody modelowania problemu odwrotnego 43\n3.1. Metoda Gaussa–Newtona 44\n3.2. Regularyzacja Tikhonova 45\n3.3. Metoda Total Variation 46\n3.4. Maszyna wektorów nośnych (SVM) 47\n3.5. Lasso i elastic net 49\n3.6. Regresja liniowa i regresja logistyczna 50\n4. Wykorzystanie sztucznych sieci neuronowych do rozwiązania problemu odwrotnego 53\n4.1. Perceptron wielowarstwowy 55\n4.2. Konwolucyjne sieci neuronowe 57\n4.3. Rekurencyjne sieci LSTM 59\n4.4. Wielokrotne sztuczne sieci neuronowe 63\n5. Laboratoryjne badania wilgotności muru ceglanego 65\n5.1. Mur ceglany jako obiekt badań 66\n5.2. Tomograf hybrydowy 69\n5.3. Elektrody ETI 77\n5.4. Modelowanie fragmentu muru metodą elementów skończonych 81\n5.5. Protokół pomiarowy 86\n5.6. Generowanie syntetycznych danych uczących 87\n5.7. Preprocessing – przygotowanie danych do trenowania, walidacji i testowania 91\n5.7.1. Normalizacja danych 91\n5.7.2. Zaszumianie danych pomiarowych 93\n5.7.3. Odszumianie pomiarów rzeczywistych z wykorzystaniem autoenkoderów 94\n5.7.4. Redukcja wzajemnie skorelowanych zmiennych wejściowych 96\n5.7.5. Analiza wpływu zmiennych wejściowych na wyniki modelu 98\n\n5.8. Warianty architektury sieci neuronowej 100\n5.8.1. Sieć neuronowa z warstwą konwolucyjną 100\n5.8.2. Sieć neuronowa z warstwą LSTM 106\n5.8.3. Sieć neuronowa o strukturze wielogałęziowej 110\n5.8.4. Wielokrotna sztuczna sieć neuronowa 118\n5.9. Dobór metody uczenia maszynowego 128\n5.10. Rekonstrukcje obrazów uzyskane dzięki danym symulacyjnym 133\n5.11. Rekonstrukcje rozkładu zawilgoceń obiektu rzeczywistego 157\n6. Badania wilgotności murów Złotej Bramy w Gdańsku 173\n6.1. Modelowanie wielogałęziowej sieci neuronowej LSTM+CNN 175\n6.2. Pomiary wilgotności zrealizowane na stanowisku nr 1 185\n6.3. Pomiary wilgotności zrealizowane na stanowisku nr 2 192\n6.4. Pomiary wilgotności zrealizowane na stanowisku nr 3 197\n7. Uwagi końcowe i wnioski 203\n7.1. Badania laboratoryjne muru ceglanego 204\n7.2. Badania terenowe obiektu Złota Brama w Gdańsku 205\n7.3. Kierunki dalszych badań 206\nLiteratura 209\n\nS T R E S Z C Z E N I E / A B S T R A C T\nZastosowanie uczenia maszynowego do obrazowania stanu zawilgocenia murów z wykorzystaniem tomografii impedancyjnej\nPrzedmiotem rozważań zawartych w niniejszym opracowaniu jest porównanie i weryfikacja skuteczności wybranych metod transformacji pomiarów tomograficznych na obrazy. Badania koncentrują się na elektrycznej tomografii impedancyjnej (ETI) wykorzystanej jako metoda obrazowania rozkładów wilgoci wewnątrz ścian budynków. Zastosowano w nich zarówno metody deterministyczne, jak również nowoczesne metody oparte na uczeniu maszynowym. Badania prowadzone były w warunkach laboratoryjnych oraz w obiekcie historycznym Złota Brama w Gdańsku. Opracowano model hybrydowej, wielogałęziowej sieci neuronowej, za której pomocą dokonano transformacji pomiarów wilgotności zrealizowanych na trzech stanowiskach badawczych. Wykazano, że zastosowanie modelu wielogałęziowej sieci neuronowej LSTM+CNN w połączeniu z techniką tomografii ETI cechuje wysoka skuteczność. Pomiary walidacyjne potwierdziły dokładność rekonstrukcji tomograficznych, co jest dowodem efektywności i potencjału utylitarnego opisywanej metody.\nSłowa kluczowe: b adanie zawilgocenia, kontrola nieniszcząca, uczenie maszynowe, elektryczna tomografia impedancyjna, sieci neuronowe\nApplication of machine learning to masonry moisture condition imaging using impedance tomography\nThe subject of the considerations contained in this study is the comparison and verification of the effectiveness of selected methods of transforming tomographic measurements into images.\nThe research centers on the application of electrical impedance tomography (ETI) as a technique for imaging moisture distributions within building walls. Both deterministic methods and modern methods based on machine learning were used in the research. The research was conducted in laboratory conditions and in the historical building of the Golden Gate in Gdańsk. A hybrid, multi-branch neural network model was developed, which was used to transform moisture measurements taken at three research stations. The research showed that the use of the multi-branch LSTM+CNN neural network model in combination with the ETI tomography technique is characterized by high effectiveness. Validation measurements confirmed the high accuracy of tomographic reconstructions, which is proof of the effectiveness and utilitarian potential of the described method.\nKeywords: m oisture testing, non-destructive inspection, machine learning, electrical impedance tomography, neural networks\n\nWykaz ważniejszych skrótów i symboli\nCNN – konwolucyjna sieć neuronowa (ang. convolutional neural network)\nETI – elektryczna tomografia impedancyjna\nETP – elektryczna tomografia pojemnościowa\nFEM – siatka elementów skończonych (ang. finite element mesh)\nGN – metoda Gaussa–Newtona\nLARS – ang. least angle regression\nLasso – ang. least absolute shrinkage and selection operator\nLSTM – sieć LSTM (ang. long short-term memory)\nMES – metoda elementów skończonych\nMSE – błąd średniokwadratowy (ang. mean squared error)\nPSNR – stosunek maksymalnej mocy sygnału do mocy szumu zakłócającego ten sygnał (ang. peak signal-to-noise ratio)\nRMSE – pierwiastek błędu średniokwadratowego (ang. root mean squared error)\nSSIM – wskaźnik podobieństwa strukturalnego (ang. structural similarity index)\nSSN – sztuczna sieć neuronowa\nSVM – maszyna wektorów nośnych (ang. support vector machine)\nTV – całkowita regularyzacja wariacyjna (ang. total variation)\nUST – tomografia ultrasonograficzna (ang. ultrasound tomography) b – obciążenie, czyli tzw. bias\nƐ – szerokość pasma „bez kary” wokół funkcji regresji\nC – parametry regularyzacji\nλ, – wartości elementów skończonych macierzy przewodnictwa\nL1 – regularyzacja Lasso\nL2 – regularyzacja grzbietowa\n– rozkład przewodności\n[UNREADABLE_GLYPH] – średnia wartość danej cechy w zbiorze danych\nμ – wskaźnik korelacji Pearsona\n– wektor zrekonstruowanych wartości przewodności elektrycznej rec\nσ – przewodność elektryczna [S/m]\nσT – rzeczywista (wzorcowa) wartość i-tego elementu skończonego i\nT – operator transformacji wektora lub macierzy\nU – pomiarowy wektor napięcia [V]\n– rozkład potencjału elektrycznego [V]\nψŷ – zrekonstruowana wartość i-tego elementu skończonego i\n– częstotliwość kątowa [rad/s]\n– region\nΩ\n\n1. Wstęp\nZawilgocenia murów to poważny problem, który jest związany z eksploatacją budynków i budowli. Jednocześnie diagnostyka stanu zawilgocenia murów od wielu lat stanowi wyzwanie dla naukowców i inżynierów [50]. Wilgoć obecna wewnątrz ścian może być powodem wielu niekorzystnych zjawisk o charakterze techniczno-konstrukcyjnym, ekonomicznym i społecznym [74]. Zawarta w ścianach woda w temperaturach ujemnych zamarza, co powoduje przyspieszoną erozję murów i osłabia parametry wytrzymałościowe konstrukcji budynku [127]. Taka sytuacja przyczynia się do skrócenia okresów eksploatacji budynków między remontami, a w skrajnym przypadku może być powodem katastrofy budowlanej. Innym negatywnym skutkiem zawilgoceń budynków jest przyspieszony rozwój pleśni, drobnoustrojów i roztoczy, które mogą być przyczyną dyskomfortu, alergii, infekcji i innych chorób układu oddechowego u osób przebywających wewnątrz pomieszczeń [67, 126]. Wilgoć pogarsza termoizolacyjność budynków, co negatywnie wpływa na energooszczędność.\nProblem wilgoci gromadzącej się w ścianach budynków istnieje od czasów, gdy zaczęły powstawać budynki mieszkalne i gospodarcze [30]. Jednak potrzeba skutecznego zarządzania problemem wody penetrującej mury budynków wyraźnie zyskała na znaczeniu dopiero w ostatnich dekadach [30].\nPowstało wiele norm i kodów budowlanych mających na celu wspieranie projektowania i procesu realizacji robót budowlanych w taki sposób, aby zminimalizować potencjalne problemy związane z wilgocią [7].\n\nMonitoring murów jest nieodłącznym elementem diagnostyki budynków, gdyż dostarcza aktualnych danych na temat stanu zawilgocenia konstrukcji [51]. Stały nadzór nad tym parametrem umożliwia skuteczną interwencję w przypadku wykrycia wilgoci, co jest kluczowe dla utrzymania integralności i trwałości struktury [42, 54].\nMetody badania wilgotności murów można podzielić na niszczące i nieniszczące. Do metod niszczących zalicza się między innymi próbki rdzeniowe i chemiczne analizy materiału. Choć są one dokładne, ich główną wadą jest konieczność uszkodzenia badanej struktury. Metody nieniszczące obejmują termografię, pomiar wilgotności za pomocą czujników dielektrycznych, mikrofalowych i innych, oraz metody akustyczne [15, 60, 146]. Wśród metod wykorzystujących czujniki wyróżnia się tomografia elektryczna jako nowoczesna, nieniszcząca metoda diagnostyczna, umożliwiająca obrazowanie dużych fragmentów murów, a nie pojedynczych punktów. Ta technika polega na pomiarze potencjału elektrycznego na powierzchni muru i rekonstrukcji obrazu wnętrza struktury, co pozwala na identyfikację obszarów zawilgocenia [139].\nW tomografii kluczowe jest rozwiązanie problemu odwrotnego, polegającego na transformacji pomiarów na obrazy. Powyższy problem można rozwiązać matematycznymi metodami deterministycznymi, jednak w ostatnich latach są one coraz częściej wypierane przez modele oparte na uczeniu maszynowym [93, 98]. Sztuczne sieci neuronowe, jako pewna kategoria modeli opartych na sztucznej inteligencji, posiadają duży potencjał w zakresie skutecznego przetwarzania danych tomograficznych [52]. Dzięki zdolnościom modelowania złożonych zależności modele neuronowe są w stanie efektywnie radzić sobie z problemami źle postawionymi (ang. ill-posed problems), które są charakterystyczne dla problemów odwrotnych, pełniących kluczową rolę w tomografii [6, 34].\nBiorąc pod uwagę upływ czasu i stale rosnącą liczbę murowanych obiektów dziedzictwa kulturowego w Europie i na świecie, problem diagnozowania wilgotności murów jest ważnym i koniecznym elementem procesu ratowania zabytków. W odniesieniu do budynków i budowli niebędących obiektami zabytkowymi zbadanie stopnia zawilgocenia i rozkładu wilgoci w murach umożliwia prawidłowy dobór metody usunięcia zawilgoceń, co w konsekwencji zapewnia efektywność ekonomiczną procesów konserwacyjnych, remontowych i modernizacyjnych, a także zapobiega zbędnym wydatkom podczas przyszłej eksploatacji. Zastosowanie nowoczesnych technik tomograficznych w połączeniu z zaawansowanymi algorytmami uczenia maszynowego może znacząco zwiększyć efektywność i dokładność diagnostyki murów, co jest niezbędne dla efektywnego zarządzania i utrzymania\n\ninfrastruktury budowlanej w dobrej kondycji, ze szczególnym uwzględnieniem budynków historycznych [24, 53].\n1.1. Metody tomograficzne\nSłowo „tomografia” pochodzi od greckich słów tomos (cięcie, przekrój) i graphia\n(opis, obraz). Tomografia jest techniką badań obrazowych, która rewolucjonizuje zarówno medycynę, jak i wiele innych dziedzin – od przemysłu po ochronę środowiska [14, 71].\nTomografia umożliwia szczegółową analizę wnętrza badanych obiektów bez konieczności ingerencji w ich fizyczną strukturę. Tym samym pomiary tomograficzne nie zakłócają przebiegu procesów produkcyjnych. Jest to możliwe dzięki zastosowaniu różnorodnych technik, które pozwalają na rekonstrukcję obrazu i wewnętrznych szczegółów badanego obiektu, bazując na zewnętrznych pomiarach jego właściwości fizycznych. Metody tomograficzne wykorzystują zaawansowane algorytmy matematyczne do tworzenia obrazów przekrojów poprzecznych lub trójwymiarowych modeli, które odwzorowują strukturę wewnętrzną i stan badanego obiektu.\nTomografia znajduje zastosowanie w wielu sektorach przemysłu: chemicznym, farmaceutycznym, spożywczym, rafineryjnym, a także w geologii, archeologii i innych obszarach [124]. W medycynie pozwala na dokładną diagnozę i monitorowanie różnych stanów organizmu oraz chorób – od wczesnego wykrywania ciąży po badanie aktywności kory mózgowej [90]. W przemyśle tomografia znajduje zastosowanie w kontroli jakości produktów, monitorowaniu procesów produkcyjnych, a także w detekcji uszkodzeń infrastruktury.\nW ochronie środowiska pozwala na ocenę stanu zbiorników wodnych, analizę struktury wałów przeciwpowodziowych i zapór wodnych, kontrolę zanieczyszczeń gruntów czy planowanie bezpiecznych tras gazociągów.\nW kontekście rosnących wymagań dotyczących monitorowania i kontroli procesów przemysłowych szczególnie istotne staje się wykorzystanie elektrycznej tomografii pojemnościowej (ETP, ang. ECT – electrical capacitance tomography), która może być stosowana do monitorowania przemian zachodzących we wnętrzu reaktorów przemysłowych oraz rurociągów [160]. Tomografia elektryczna, zarówno impedancyjna, jak pojemnościowa, jako technika nieinwazyjna umożliwia dwu- lub trójwymiarową wizualizację rozkładu parametrów elektrycznych badanego medium bez konieczności ingerencji w badany obiekt czy proces [113, 148]. Otwiera to nowe możliwości w badaniach\n\nprzepływu i koncentracji cieczy w materiale porowatym oraz rozkładu właściwości elektrycznych, szczególnie w sytuacjach, gdzie inne metody – jak tomografia optyczna, radiowa, ultradźwiękowa czy rentgenowska – okazują się niewystarczające [115, 141, 149, 151, 152].\n1.2. P omiary zawilgocenia murów\nWszystkie budynki i budowle są poddawane działaniu różnych czynników, które powodują ich erozję. Woda jest jedną z głównych przyczyn degradacji materiałów wchodzących w skład konstrukcji budowlanych. Mokre ściany i zawilgocone fundamenty są przyczyną nadmiernego rozwoju pleśni i grzybów. Zawilgocenia wpływają negatywnie na estetykę budynków. Przykładami są przebarwienia na ścianach i elewacjach, odpadające tynki oraz łuszczące się powłoki malarskie.\nDotyczy to zwłaszcza konstrukcji budowanych według przestarzałych zasad.\nJedną z głównych przyczyn zawilgoceń jest brak izolacji przeciwwodnej fundamentów, anachroniczna technologia i złej jakości materiały stosowane w budownictwie. Wilgoć w ścianach obniża ich trwałość [26, 167]. Zawilgocenie cegieł i zaprawy murarskiej znacznie obniża parametry wytrzymałościowe [32]. Jest to szczególnie istotne w przypadku zaprawy wapiennej, która na skutek wymywania węglanu wapnia przez wodę kruszy się i rozpada [32, 159]. W efekcie pogarszają się zarówno warunki eksploatacji, jak i bezpieczeństwo konstrukcyjne budynku [137, 164]. Innym istotnym problemem związanym z zawilgoceniem ścian jest negatywny wpływ na zdrowie mieszkańców [76]. Mikroklimat, który tworzy się w pomieszczeniach o dużej wilgotności, często prowadzi do rozwoju grzybów pleśniowych, które mogą powodować zaburzenia oddychania, alergie i zatrucia [2, 104].\nW połączeniu z dziennymi wahaniami temperatury wilgoć ma największy wpływ na ogólną wytrzymałość i trwałość konstrukcji budowlanych [35].\nWoda przenikająca z otoczenia do murów może mieć różne stany skupienia:\nstan stały (lód, śnieg), stan ciekły (deszcz, wilgoć kapilarna) lub stan gazowy\n(para wodna) [112]. Podsiąkanie kapilarne to zjawisko, w którym wilgoć wnika w głąb materiału poprzez małe kanaliki zwane kapilarami [8]. Powyższe zjawisko jest wykorzystywane przez rośliny do pobierania wody z gleby, ale może również determinować problemy zawilgoceń w budynkach lub infrastrukturze takiej jak mosty lub fundamenty. Większość wad konstrukcyjnych powstałych pod wpływem wilgoci, do których należą nieregularności w ułożeniu cegieł lub pęknięcia, nasila się z upływem czasu.\n\nBadania wilgotności budynków mają na celu zmniejszenia zagrożeń związanych z wodą zalegającą wewnątrz murów. Badania tego rodzaju mogą pomóc w określeniu wpływu opadów atmosferycznych i wód gruntowych, wycieków i wilgoci pochodzącej z sieci wodociągowych i kanalizacyjnych oraz kondensacji pary wodnej.\nMateriały budowlane – zarówno naturalne, jak i sztuczne (np. cegła lub beton) – są porowate, co zwiększa ich podatność na wchłanianie wody. Hydrofilowość materiałów porowatych przyczynia się do rozprzestrzeniania wody w ich wnętrzu. Migracja wilgoci często występuje w wyniku przenikania wody w ścianach i fundamentach obiektów zabytkowych, które mają bezpośredni kontakt z gruntem. Powodem jest brak poziomej lub pionowej przegrody oddzielającej ściany od wody w gruncie. Skutkuje to przemieszczaniem się soli rozpuszczonych w wodzie, które są przyczyną wielu problemów budowlanych. Na rysunku 1.1 przedstawiono najczęstsze źródła powstawania wilgoci wewnątrz ścian murowanych i ceglanych.\nRys. 1.1. Typowe źródła powstawania wilgoci w murach budynków\nOpracowanie własne na podstawie koester.pl\nProblem wilgoci w murach jest zagadnieniem złożonym, które wymaga rozpatrzenia wielu różnorodnych przyczyn powstawania tego zjawiska oraz skutków, jakie ono wywołuje. Wilgoć w murach może pochodzić zarówno ze źródeł zewnętrznych, jak i wewnętrznych, co znacząco komplikuje proces diagnostyki.\n\nWśród źródeł zewnętrznych dominujące miejsce zajmuje woda opadowa, która wpływa na powierzchnię muru poprzez bezpośrednie oddziaływanie deszczu. Woda może wnikać do murów przez nieszczelności w dachach. Może być efektem nasiąkliwości materiałów budowlanych, nieprawidłowego orynnowania oraz błędów przy realizacji obróbek blacharskich. Kolejnym źródłem zewnętrznym jest woda rozbryzgowa. Spadające krople, uderzając o powierzchnię ziemi w pobliżu budynku, mogą prowadzić do zawilgocenia dolnych partii ścian. Nie można także pominąć wilgoci pochodzącej z gruntu, która jest szczególnie problematyczna w przypadku wysokiego poziomu wód gruntowych lub gdy izolacja przeciwwilgociowa budynku jest uszkodzona. Woda przesiąkająca przez fundamenty i ściany piwnic z nieodpowiednio drenowanych terenów oraz wody gruntowe wywierające ciśnienie hydrostatyczne na konstrukcje budowlane stanowią kolejne przykłady zewnętrznych źródeł zawilgoceń.\nWewnętrznym źródłem wilgoci w murach jest przede wszystkim kondensacja wilgoci gromadzącej się na powierzchniach ścian pomieszczeń. Jest to zjawisko powstające w wyniku ochładzania powietrza do temperatury poniżej punktu rosy, co powoduje skraplanie wody zawartej w powietrzu. Kondensacją wilgoci szczególnie zagrożone są miejsca o zwiększonej wilgotności powietrza oraz pomieszczenia słabo wentylowane, takie jak łazienki, kuchnie lub piwnice.\nSzczególną uwagę należy zwrócić na kondensację wody w kapilarach, która odnosi się do zjawiska kondensacji pary wodnej wewnątrz mikroskopijnych porów materiału budowlanego. Kondensacja kapilarna może zachodzić, gdy para wodna z powietrza wnika do mikroporów materiału, a następnie kondensuje się w wyniku różnic temperatur. To zjawisko może przyczyniać się do zwiększenia zawartości wody w murze, co prowadzi do degradacji struktury oraz rozwoju szkodliwych mikroorganizmów.\nSkuteczna ochrona przed wilgocią wymaga zastosowania kompleksowych rozwiązań, które uwzględniają zarówno izolacje przeciwwilgociowe i przeciwwodne, jak i systemy wentylacyjne zapobiegające kondensacji. Rozwiązania te powinny być dostosowane do specyfiki danego obiektu, z uwzględnieniem lokalnych warunków klimatycznych i hydrologicznych oraz charakterystyki zastosowanych materiałów budowlanych. Warunkiem skutecznego usunięcia wilgoci ze ścian jest jej właściwa identyfikacja. Badanie wilgotności murów jest więc kluczowym elementem diagnostyki stanu budynków, mającym na celu identyfikację obecności oraz rozkładu wilgoci w strukturach konstrukcji budowlanych. Istnieje wiele metod wykrywania i oceny stanu zawilgocenia, które najogólniej można podzielić na dwie kategorie. Pierwszą kategorią są metody niszczące, zwane inaczej destrukcyjnymi lub inwazyjnymi. Do drugiej\n\nkategorii zaliczamy metody nieniszczące, czyli nieinwazyjne. Z uwagi na większą wartość aplikacyjną w praktyce preferowane są metody nieniszczące. Nieinwazyjność zyskuje na znaczeniu zwłaszcza w odniesieniu do budynków i budowli o wartości historycznej [65]. Badania wymagające wykonywania wierceń, które w oczywisty sposób naruszają obiekt badań, wymagają uzyskania formalnej zgody konserwatora zabytków lub innej osoby odpowiedzialnej.\nRównież z tego powodu preferowane są takie metody badania wilgoci, które nie degradują obiektu badań. Zważywszy na fakt, że problem zawilgoceń w większości przypadków dotyczy budynków historycznych, będących pod ochroną konserwatora zabytków, wszelkie metody charakteryzujące się inwazyjnością są niedopuszczalne z przyczyn formalno-prawnych. Biorąc pod uwagę czynniki ekonomiczne, istnieje wyraźna potrzeba rozwoju metod w zakresie optymalizacji nieniszczących technik pomiarów i identyfikacji wilgoci w murach [47, 49].\nCelem jest minimalizacja kosztów i skrócenie czasu wykonywania pomiarów przy jednoczesnym dążeniu do maksymalizacji skuteczności procesu pomiarowego. Na rysunku 1.2 przedstawiono klasyfikację metod wykorzystywanych w badaniach zawartości wilgoci w murach z podziałem na metody niszczące i nieniszczące [128].\nRys. 1.2. Podstawowe metody pomiaru wilgotności murów\n\nAby dokładnie określić procentową zawartość wody w badanej próbce muru, należy użyć inwazyjnej metody suszarkowo-wagowej. Metoda ta polega na pomiarze różnicy masy próbki muru przed odparowaniem i po odparowaniu wody z użyciem specjalnej suszarki. Pobraną próbkę należy zważyć na wadze laboratoryjnej o dużej dokładności. Następnie próbka jest umieszczana w specjalnej suszarce, która realizuje proces suszenia z zadaną temperaturą i określonym czasem suszenia. Suszenie polega na usunięciu wilgoci z próbki poprzez podgrzewanie powietrza. Po zakończeniu procesu suszenia próbka jest ponownie ważona na wadze laboratoryjnej. Różnica masy próbki przed wysuszeniem i po wysuszeniu jest równa masie wody zawartej wewnątrz próbki.\nAby obliczyć wilgotność, można zastosować następującą formułę:\nwilgotność = (masa wilgoci/masa próbki) × 100% (1.1)\nPoważną wadą tej metody, prócz jej inwazyjności, jest punktowy charakter pomiaru [66, 86]. Dokładną, określoną w procentach wilgotność można określić jedynie w pobranej próbce, która w istocie i tak nie jest już elementem badanego muru. Jedynie przez domniemanie można założyć, że w niewielkiej odległości od pobranej próbki wilgotność muru będzie do niej zbliżona.\nChcąc określić wilgotność większego fragmentu ściany, należy dokonać wielu odwiertów, co jest w zasadzie niemożliwe w przypadku obiektów o historycznym znaczeniu kulturowym [48, 50].\nDrugą metodą destrukcyjną jest metoda karbidowa (ang. carbid mess).\nJest to tzw. metoda pośrednia, która wykorzystuje reakcję chemiczną karbidu wapnia z wilgocią zawartą w materiale w zamkniętej komorze. Za pomocą manometru dokonywany jest pomiar ciśnienia wydzielającego się acetylenu.\nNa tej podstawie obliczana jest wilgotność masowa badanego materiału budowlanego [86].\nWśród metod nieinwazyjnych wyróżniamy jeszcze metodę odczynników chemicznych (metoda Fischera), która należy do metod chemicznych, oraz metodę wskaźników papierowych zmieniających kolor w reakcji z wilgocią.\nObie metody są łatwe w użyciu, ale podobnie jak inne metody, z wyjątkiem tomografii, mogą dostarczać jedynie informacji o lokalnej (punktowej) obecności wilgoci.\nWśród metod fizycznych znajdują się metody elektrooporowe, mierzące zmianę oporu elektrycznego materiału w zależności od ilości zawartej w nim wody, oraz dielektryczne, opierające się na pomiarze pojemności elektrycznej materiału, który zmienia się wraz ze zmianą zawartości wilgoci. Elektryczna\n\ntomografia impedancyjna (ETI, ang. EIT – electrical impedance tomography) jest metodą wykorzystującą zależność opisaną prawem Ohma, czyli korelacją między napięciem i rezystancją prądu elektrycznego [4, 97, 121, 166]. Wzrost wilgotności materiału przewodzącego prąd powoduje wzrost jego konduktywności [3, 103].\nMetoda mikrofalowa bazuje na absorpcji fal elektromagnetycznych przez wodę obecną w materiale, co umożliwia określenie wilgotności poprzez analizę zmiennych charakterystyk fal odbitych lub przenikających przez mur.\nCzęstotliwościowa dyspersja przenikalności dielektrycznej jest metodą opartą na pomiarze przenikalności dielektrycznej materiału przy różnych częstotliwościach. Powyższa metoda umożliwia określenie zawartość wilgoci oraz związanej z nią porowatości materiału, jednak z uwagi na prawdopodobne zasolenie zalegającej wody wymaga kalibracji przed każdym pomiarem in situ.\nWideografia pozwala na obserwację migracji wilgoci w materiale w czasie rzeczywistym, podczas gdy termowizja wykorzystuje kamery termowizyjne do wykrywania różnic temperatur, które mogą wskazywać na obecność wilgoci.\nMetoda sondy λ (lambda), znana również jako pomiar przewodzenia ciepła, wykorzystuje fakt, że wilgotne materiały mają inne właściwości termiczne niż suche. Metoda prześwietlania promieniowaniem i neutronowa opierają się na absorpcji promieniowania przez wodę zawartą w badanym materiale, co pozwala na identyfikację obszarów zawilgoconych. W przypadku metody magnetycznego rezonansu jądrowego (ang. nuclear magnetic resonance) wykorzystuje się zdolność jąder atomowych w wodzie do absorpcji i reemisji energii elektromagnetycznej w polu magnetycznym, co pozwala na określenie rozkładu wilgoci wewnątrz materiału.\nKażda z wymienionych metod ma swoje specyficzne zastosowania, zalety i ograniczenia. Wybór odpowiedniej metody badawczej zależy od wielu czynników, w tym od celu badania, rodzaju i stanu materiału, a także od dostępności sprzętu i warunków zastanych w miejscu dokonywania pomiarów.\nMetody nieinwazyjne są preferowane z powodu szybkości zastosowania i braku konieczności ingerencji w strukturę badanego obiektu. Ich wadą jest niska dokładność i punktowy charakter pomiarów. Natomiast metody destrukcyjne, mimo swojej inwazyjności i punktowości, dostarczają pewnych i dokładnych informacji o zawartości wilgoci, co jest niezbędne do wykonania precyzyjnej diagnostyki badanego obiektu. Warto zauważyć, że spośród wyżej wymienionych metod jedynie tomografia elektryczna umożliwia obrazowanie przekroju ściany 2-D lub przestrzennego fragmentu muru 3-D. Wszystkie pozostałe metody mają charakter jedynie punktowy.\n\n1.3. C el i zakres pracy\nPodstawowym celem badań opisanych w niniejszym opracowaniu jest porównanie i weryfikacja wybranych metod transformacji pomiarów na obrazy tomograficzne [12]. Badania koncentrują się na elektrycznej tomografii impedancyjnej (ETI) wykorzystanej jako metoda obrazowania rozkładów wilgoci wewnątrz ścian budynków [19, 95]. W kontekście utylitarnym metodyka badań jest ukierunkowana na opracowanie metody algorytmicznej umożliwiającej zwiększenie dokładności i efektywności diagnostyki stanu zawilgocenia murów, co ma istotne znaczenie zarówno w obszarze ochrony zabytków, jak i codziennej eksploatacji budynków [16, 99].\nSkładająca się z siedmiu rozdziałów praca rozpoczyna się wstępem, który stanowi wprowadzenie w tematykę zawilgocenia murów. Omówiono w nim negatywne skutki tego zjawiska oraz znaczenie diagnostyki wilgotności dla utrzymania integralności konstrukcji budowlanych. W tej części opracowania przedstawiono również metody pomiarowe, podkreślając rosnące znaczenie nieniszczących technik diagnostycznych, do których zalicza się ETI.\nRozdział drugi poświęcono problematyce zastosowania elektrycznej tomografii impedancyjnej w obrazowaniu wilgoci. Opisano w nim podstawy teoretyczne ETI, umiejscawiając tę metodę na tle innych technik tomograficznych. Wskazano na unikalne zalety ETI w kontekście obrazowania wilgotności, omówiono matematyczne podstawy tej metody oraz zdefiniowano problemy prosty i odwrotny, które są kluczowe dla procesu rekonstrukcji obrazów tomograficznych [28, 110].\nW rozdziale trzecim opisano sposób działania najbardziej popularnych metod rozwiązywania problemu odwrotnego w tomografii elektrycznej, z wyjątkiem sztucznych sieci neuronowych. Zaprezentowano zarówno podejścia matematyczne, jak również algorytmiczne, w szczególności takie jak metoda\nGaussa–Newtona, regularyzacja Tikhonova, metoda Total Variation, maszyna wektorów nośnych (SVM), Lasso i elastic net, oraz regresja liniowa i logistyczna. Omówiono ich zastosowanie i przydatność w kontekście rozwiązywania problemów odwrotnych w ETI.\nRozdział czwarty opisuje wykorzystanie sztucznych sieci neuronowych do rozwiązania problemu odwrotnego w ETI. Przedstawiono tutaj różne architektury sieci neuronowych, takie jak perceptrony wielowarstwowe, konwolucyjne sieci neuronowe (CNN) oraz rekurencyjne sieci LSTM. Omówiono także sposób ich zastosowania w rekonstrukcji obrazów tomograficznych.\n\nRozdział piąty ma znaczenie szczególne, ponieważ opisuje laboratoryjne badania wilgotności muru ceglanego sztucznie zawilgoconego w warunkach laboratoryjnych. W badaniach wykorzystano prototypowy tomograf hybrydowy opracowany w Centrum Badawczo-Rozwojowym Netrix S.A. oraz specjalnie zaprojektowany do badań wilgotności murów, opatentowany zestaw 32 elektrod ETI. Omówiono proces modelowania fragmentu muru metodą elementów skończonych, zastosowany w badaniach protokół pomiarowy, generowanie syntetycznych danych uczących oraz przygotowanie danych do trenowania, walidacji i testowania. Szczególną uwagę poświęcono normalizacji danych pomiarowych, zaszumianiu i odszumianiu pomiarów rzeczywistych oraz analizie wpływu zmiennych wejściowych na wyniki modelu. Przedstawiono również różne architektury sieci neuronowych oraz dobór metody uczenia maszynowego. Wyniki rekonstrukcji obrazów uzyskane na podstawie danych symulacyjnych i rzeczywistych wykazały skuteczność proponowanej metody w diagnostyce zawilgocenia murów.\nRozdział szósty opisuje badania in situ w obiekcie historycznym Złota\nBrama w Gdańsku. W tym celu opracowano model hybrydowej, wielogałęziowej sieci neuronowej LSTM+CNN, za której pomocą dokonano transformacji pomiarów wilgotności zrealizowanych na trzech stanowiskach badawczych zlokalizowanych na terenie Złotej Bramy. Opisano znaczenie pomiarów walidacyjnych, które są kluczowe dla potwierdzenia dokładności i wiarygodności rekonstrukcji obrazów wilgotności przeprowadzonych w warunkach rzeczywistych. Pomiary walidacyjne pozwoliły na ocenę skuteczności proponowanych algorytmów w praktyce, co jest istotnym krokiem w kierunku ich wdrożenia w obszarze diagnostyki wilgotnościowej obiektów zabytkowych.\nOpracowanie kończy rozdział siódmy, zawierający uwagi końcowe, w których podsumowano realizację badań oraz wskazano kierunki dalszych prac badawczych, podkreślając potencjał zastosowania zaawansowanych technik tomograficznych i algorytmów bazujących na uczeniu maszynowym w tomograficznej diagnostyce i konserwacji budynków.\n\n2. Tomografia elektryczna w obrazowaniu wilgoci\nW niniejszym rozdziale przedstawione zostaną najważniejsze aspekty elektrycznej tomografii impedancyjnej w kontekście obrazowania wilgoci. Część pierwsza umiejscawia ETI na tle innych technik tomograficznych, co pozwala na lepsze zrozumienie unikalnych zalet i ograniczeń tej techniki. Następnie omawiane są matematyczne podstawy tej metody, w tym między innymi takie pojęcia jak: przewodność, przenikalność i potencjał elektryczny oraz różnice między odmianami tomografii elektrycznej. Kolejnym krokiem jest szczegółowe omówienie problemów prostego i odwrotnego, które stanowią rdzeń procesu rekonstrukcji obrazów w ETI. Na koniec zaprezentowano praktyczne zastosowania elektrycznej tomografii impedancyjnej, podkreślając jej znaczenie w obrazowaniu wilgoci. Przedstawiono zależności między zawilgoceniem i rezystywnością, omówiono protokoły pomiarowe ETI oraz zaprezentowano graficzną interpretację problemu prostego i odwrotnego.\n2.1. E TI na tle innych typów tomografii\nElektryczna tomografia impedancyjna (ETI) jest metodą o szczególnym potencjale w kontekście obrazowania rozkładów wilgotności murów [136].\nIstnieje kilka powodów, które czynią tę metodę wyjątkowo przydatną w kontekście analizy materiałów budowlanych i diagnozowania problemów\n\nzwiązanych z wilgocią. Przewaga ETI wynika z ograniczenia elektrycznej tomografii pojemnościowej (ETP) związanego z niskim kontrastem dielektrycznym, który występuje w przypadku niewielkich różnic wilgotności. Może to skutkować mniejszą dokładnością w lokalizacji i kwantyfikacji obszarów zawilgoconych [159]. ETP opiera się na rekonstrukcji rozkładu przenikalności elektrycznej materiałów na podstawie pomiarów pojemności elektrycznej\n[140]. Ten rodzaj tomografii sprawdza się szczególnie w badaniach przemysłowych, zwłaszcza podczas monitorowania przepływów wielofazowych.\nETI, wyznaczając konduktywność elektryczną na podstawie pomiarów napięcia, jest bardziej czuła na zmiany wilgotności, ponieważ woda znacząco wpływa na przewodnictwo elektryczne materiału. Inną przewagą ETI jest możliwość przeprowadzenia pomiarów nawet w przypadku, kiedy dostępna jest tylko jedna strona badanego obiektu. Innymi słowy: elektrody mogą być umieszczone z jednej strony ściany, co jest niemożliwe w przypadku tomografii pojemnościowej. ETP wymaga rozmieszczenia elektrosensorów naprzeciw siebie, co oznacza, że obiekt badań musi być dostępny co najmniej z dwóch stron. Stanowi to poważne ograniczenie, ponieważ w warunkach terenowych, podczas badania zawilgocenia zewnętrznych ścian budynków i piwnic, pomiary są możliwe jedynie od strony pomieszczeń.\nPrawdopodobnie najbardziej popularną odmianą tomografii jest tomografia rentgenowska, znana także jako tomografia komputerowa. Ten rodzaj tomografii wykorzystuje promienie X jako czynnik penetrujący wnętrze badanego obiektu. Niewątpliwie tomografia promieni X swoją popularność zawdzięcza zastosowaniom medycznym, jednak ta technika znajduje zastosowanie również w sferze przemysłowej [163]. Jednocześnie ten rodzaj tomografii nie nadaje się do wykorzystania w zakresie detekcji rozkładów zawilgocenia w murach. Istnieją ku temu istotne powody, do których należą przede wszystkim: szkodliwość dla zdrowia, słaba zdolność promieniowania\nX do różnicowania poziomu wilgoci w materiałach budowlanych, wysoki koszt pomiarów oraz duże gabaryty systemu tomograficznego, co utrudnia lub uniemożliwia badania terenowe z powodu braku dostępu do miejsc wymagających pomiarów. Bardzo podobne powody sprawiają, że tomografia promieni γ (gamma), choć stosowana także w przemyśle, nie jest metodą wykorzystywaną w obrazowaniu wilgoci ścian budynków. Dodatkowym problemem są bardzo restrykcyjne regulacje prawne dotyczące wykorzystania źródeł promieniowania gamma. Powyższe wymogi oraz opisane wcześniej ograniczenia sprawiają, że stosowanie tomografii gamma w praktyce budowlanej jest nieefektywne i mało użyteczne [27].\n\nTomografia ultradźwiękowa (ang. UST – ultrasound tomography) jest skuteczna w wykrywaniu nieciągłości w strukturach, takich jak pęknięcia czy pustki [73]. Zasada działania tej metody jest oparta na fizycznych właściwościach fal dźwiękowych. W przypadku wilgotności murów metoda ta może być mniej efektywna, ponieważ rozprzestrzenianie się ultradźwięków nie jest bezpośrednio związane z obecnością wody w strukturze materiału. Ponadto\nUST wymaga bezpośredniego i bardzo dobrego kontaktu przetwornika dźwiękowego z badaną powierzchnią, co może być utrudnione w przypadku nierównych, porowatych powierzchni budynków.\nZasada działania tomografii indukcji magnetycznej (TIM, ang. magnetic induction tomography) opiera się na zmianach w polu magnetycznym spowodowanych zmianami przewodności materiału wewnątrz badanego obiektu\n[61]. Wilgoć wpływa głównie na właściwości elektryczne, takie jak przewodność i przenikalność materiałów budowlanych, a TIM nie jest tak czuła na te zmiany jak choćby ETI, która bezpośrednio mierzy bardziej skorelowane z poziomem wilgoci napięcie elektryczne.\nKolejną odmianą tomografii jest tomografia optyczna (ang. OT – optical tomography). Ten rodzaj tomografii opiera się na pomiarze absorpcji światła w badanym materiale, co może być skutecznie realizowane w powierzchniowych badaniach tkanek biologicznych. Penetracja światła w obrębie gęstych materiałów budowlanych jest jednak znacznie ograniczona, co obniża przydatność tej metody w diagnozowaniu wilgotności murów.\nW świetle powyższych informacji elektryczna tomografia impedancyjna\n(ETI) okazuje się być najbardziej odpowiednią metodą do badania wilgotności murów. Głównym powodem jest jej wysoka czułości na obecność wody w badanym materiale. Woda, będąc dobrym przewodnikiem elektrycznym, znacząco wpływa na zmiany konduktywności, co pozwala na precyzyjne wykrywanie i kwantyfikowanie obszarów zawilgoconych. Jak już wcześniej wspomniano,\nETI umożliwia uzyskanie przestrzennego obrazu rozkładu wilgotności w strukturze muru bez konieczności ingerencji w jego fizyczną formę. Jest to cecha kluczowa, zwłaszcza w przypadku budowli zabytkowych. Nieinwazyjność tej metody umożliwia przeprowadzanie wielokrotnych pomiarów bez ryzyka uszkodzenia badanego obiektu, a także pozwala na monitorowania zmian wilgotności w czasie. W porównaniu z innymi technikami tomograficznymi,\nETI zapewnia optymalny kompromis między dokładnością, bezpieczeństwem użytkowania oraz kosztami, co czyni ją metodą pierwszego wyboru spośród tomograficznych metod badania wilgotności murów.\n\n2.2. M atematyczne podstawy elektrycznej tomografii impedancyjnej\nTomografia elektryczna stanowi metodę wizualizacji, która opiera się na wykorzystaniu różnic w elektrycznych właściwościach poszczególnych materiałów.\nW ramach tej techniki do badanego obiektu przyłączane jest źródło prądu, co prowadzi do stworzenia specyficznego rozkładu napięcia na jego powierzchni, a także stymuluje natężenie pola elektrycznego we wnętrzu obiektu. Dane zebrane w ten sposób poddawane są przekształceniu przez specjalistyczny algorytm, którego zadaniem jest rekonstrukcja obrazu wnętrza badanej struktury. Jednym z wyzwań związanych z tomografią elektryczną jest relatywnie niska rozdzielczość przestrzenna tworzonych obrazów [5]. Problemy z osiągnięciem lepszej rozdzielczości wynikają przede wszystkim z ograniczonej ilości dostępnych danych pomiarowych, nieliniowej natury przepływu prądu przez niejednorodny materiał oraz z niedostatecznej czułości urządzeń pomiarowych na zmiany przewodności w badanym obszarze [138]. Ponadto proces rekonstrukcji obrazu jest szczególnie podatny na różnorodne błędy modelowania, które często są efektem niedoskonałego odwzorowania lub nieprecyzyjnego określenia dodatkowych zmiennych modelu pomiarowego. W praktyce nawet niewielkie nieścisłości w zakresie odwzorowania kształtu badanego obiektu mogą prowadzić do znaczących błędów w rekonstruowanym obrazie, co dodatkowo komplikuje wykorzystanie tej techniki.\nTomografia elektryczna ma swoje teoretyczne podstawy w teorii Maxwella.\nRównania Maxwella stanowią fundament, na którym oparta jest konstrukcja projektowanych urządzeń wykorzystywanych w różnych odmianach tomografii elektrycznej. W tym kontekście wprowadza się pojęcie zespolonej admitancji, znanej również jako przewodność zespolona, którą można definiować wzorem:\n(2.1) gdzie oznacza przewodnictwo elektryczne, czyli konduktancję, jest częstotliwością kątową, a – przenikalnością elektryczną. Model matematyczny,\nσ będący odwrotnością problemu przewodnictwa elektrycznego wprowadzonego przez Calderona, ma następującą postać:\n(2.2) gdzie reprezentuje potencjał elektryczny. W zależności od tego, czy dominuje składnik pojemnościowy, czy oporowy, co wyraża stosunek , równanie (2.2)\nψ\n\nmoże zostać uproszczone. Jeżeli przeważa składnik oporowy, to znaczy, kiedy\n, równanie (2.2) przyjmuje postać:\n(2.3)\nNatomiast gdy dominuje składnik pojemnościowy, czyli , równanie (2.2) sprowadza się do:\n(2.4)\nW kontekście tomografii elektrycznej tomografia rezystancyjna (ETR) wykorzystuje składnik oporowy, podczas gdy elektryczna tomografia pojemnościowa (ETP) bazuje na składniku pojemnościowym. Elektryczna tomografia impedancyjna (ETI) łączy w sobie obie powyższe składowe – oporową i pojemnościową. Zatem EIT stanowi sposób na uwzględnienie zarówno oporu elektrycznego, jak i pojemności elektrycznej badanego obiektu, co pozwala na uzyskanie bardziej kompleksowego obrazu jego właściwości elektrycznych. W związku z powyższym, utożsamianie\nETR z ETI jest podejściem błędnym, choć spotykanym w niektórych publikacjach.\n2.3. P roblem prosty vs. problem odwrotny\nZadaniem elektrycznej tomografii impedancyjnej jest stworzenie obrazu dystrybucji potencjału elektrycznego wewnątrz analizowanego obiektu, z uwzględnieniem specyficznych warunków granicznych oraz właściwości materiału, z którego składa się struktura badanego fragmentu. Ten proces może być skutecznie zrealizowany przez zastosowanie metody elementów skończonych\n(MES), stanowiącej podstawę wielu algorytmów deterministycznych wykorzystywanych do rozwiązania problemu prostego i odwrotnego w tomografii\nETI. W omawianym przypadku kluczową rolę odgrywa równanie:\n(2.5) z uwzględnieniem warunków granicznych Dirichleta i Neumanna, tj.\noraz [64]. Przez podstawienie do równania (2.5) wartości oraz w dalszej części uzyskuje się zależność pomiędzy dystrybucją potencjału w polu elektrycznym analizowanego obiektu a przewodnością .\nPowyższą zależność wyraża formuła (2.6)\n\n(2.6) w której jest dywergencją gradientu , czyli tzw. operatorem Laplace’a . Wyrażenie jest gradientem impedancji punktu o współrzędnych (x, y, z) w przestrzeni. Tak sformułowane równanie, razem z warunkami granicznymi, definiuje elektrodynamiczny problem prosty. Zależność (2.6) łączy charakterystyki przewodzenia oraz przenikalności dielektrycznej badanego medium z potencjałem elektrycznym , biorąc przy tym pod uwagę także wpływ częstotliwości prądu elektrycznego . odnosi się tutaj do przewodności elektrycznej materiału.\nSkładnik reprezentuje część urojoną równania, związaną z przenikalnością dielektryczną oraz pulsacją prądu mierzoną w radianach na sekundę, gdzie jest częstotliwością oscylacji mierzoną w hercach [Hz], a i jest jednostką urojoną. Sugeruje to, typowe dla elementów reaktancyjnych, przesunięcie fazowe między prądem a napięciem. Rozwinięta postać formuły (2.6) opisuje sposób, w jaki zespolona impedancja ośrodka wpływa na rozkład pola potencjalnego . Pierwszy składnik, , odnosi się do efektu samej zespolonej impedancji na Laplasjan potencjału. Drugi składnik, , opisuje wpływ gradientu impedancji na gradient potencjału. W kontekście fizycznym powyższe równanie może być używane do opisu propagacji zmieniających się w przestrzeni fal elektromagnetycznych w ośrodkach, które mają zarówno przewodność, jak i przenikalność elektryczną. Zespolona impedancja determinuje zarówno sposób tłumienia fal, jak również zmianę ich fazy podczas przechodzenia przez różne materiały.\nWarto zauważyć, że w tej sytuacji zarówno przewodnictwo , jak i spadki napięcia między elektrodami są zależne od częstotliwości. Gradient potencjału elektrycznego wskazuje na zmiany potencjału w przestrzeni, ukazując kierunek i wielkość największej zmiany, co pozwala na ustalenie charakterystyki pola elektrycznego [158]. Równanie (2.6) odgrywa ważną rolę w zrozumieniu sposobu, w jaki impedancja (obejmująca przewodność i przenikalność dielektryczną) wpływa na propagację pola elektrycznego w analizowanym ośrodku.\nW elektrycznej tomografii impedancyjnej (ETI) równanie (2.6) opisuje sposób, w jaki pole elektryczne penetruje badany obiekt, umożliwiając rekonstrukcję jego wewnętrznej struktury na podstawie zmierzonego rozkładu potencjału na powierzchni badanego obiektu. Rozwiązanie powyższego równania pozwala na ustalenie rozkładu funkcji stanu w badanym obszarze. Warto zauważyć, że równanie (2.6) można przekształcić do postaci zależności (2.2) γ.\n\nPrzypuśćmy, że wektor reprezentuje zbiór potencjałów zarejestrowanych na zewnętrznej granicy analizowanego obiektu, natomiast symbolizuje zbiór parametrów charakteryzujących wewnętrzną strukturę obiektu, czyli jego rozkład przewodności. Powyższe dwa zbiory danych można ze sobą powiązać za pomocą pewnej nieliniowej funkcji transformacji . Macierz generowana przez tę transformację określa rozwiązania równania Laplace’a, które można przedstawić w formie .\nW tym kontekście celem elektrycznej tomografii impedancyjnej (ETI) jest ustalenie takiej funkcji odwrotnej do , która umożliwiałaby przekształcenie wartości wektora z powrotem na wektor :\n(2.7)\nRównanie (2.7) jest określane mianem problemu odwrotnego pola elektrycznego. Zazwyczaj rozmiar wektora jest mniejszy niż rozmiar wektora , stąd uzyskanie jednoznacznego rozwiązania tego problemu nie jest możliwe.\nAnaliza pola elektrycznego w kontekście ETI wymaga rozwiązania określonego równania charakteryzującego to pole w danej przestrzeni. Problem prosty odnosi się do wyznaczenia rozwiązań równania Laplace’a dla zadanych granic i warunków brzegowych, co jest równoważne z odnalezieniem minimum funkcji:\n(2.8)\nAby rozwiązać problem prosty metodą elementów skończonych, konieczne jest obliczenie wartości potencjałów w poszczególnych węzłach, co odpowiada punktowi stacjonarnemu funkcji I( ). Punkt ten jest osiągany, gdy wartości węzłowe doprowadzają do zerowania się wariacji funkcji, co można wyra-\nψ zić jako\n(2.9) gdzie n to liczba węzłów siatki elementów skończonych. Równanie (2.9) jest prawdziwe pod warunkiem, że\n(2.10)\n\nNa skutek dyskretyzacji obszaru za pomocą metody elementów skończonych funkcję I( ) można przedstawić jako sumę n osobnych funkcji, z których każda jest przypisana do jednego elementu skończonego:\nψ\n(2.11)\nRównanie, które uwzględnia powyższą dyskretyzację w ramach MES, można zapisać jako\n(2.12) gdzie zmienność zależy wyłącznie od wartości potencjałów w węzłach przypisanych do elementu e. Równanie (2.12) demonstruje, że pochodna funkcjonału względem dla każdego elementu równa się zero, czyli .\nCałość metody elementów skończonych przekłada się na zestawienie pochodnych funkcjonału dla całej siatki elementów skończonych\n(2.13) co odpowiada równaniu\n(2.14)\nJako wynik otrzymujemy układ równań, które łącznie opisują wartości węzłowych. W formie macierzowej, przy założeniu spełnienia warunków brzegowych, powyższy układ równań przyjmuje postać , gdzie jest wektorem pomiarów.\nMacierz , w większości przypadków, jest macierzą symetryczną, pasmową i rzadką. Wynika to z faktu, że tylko elementy będące w kontakcie z węzłem i będą miały swój udział w wyrażeniu . Jeśli i-ty węzeł nie jest częścią e-tego elementu, wtedy wkład tego elementu w wyrażeniu jest równy zero. Zgodnie z powyższymi założeniami funkcja zdefiniowana dla dowolnego elementu ma postać\n\n(2.15)\nPo zróżniczkowaniu funkcji w stosunku do wartości funkcji w węzłach elementu, otrzymuje się następujące wyrażenie:\n(2.16)\nMając zależność\n(2.17) oraz\n(2.18)\n(2.19) i podstawiając (2.16) i (2.19) do równania (2.17), otrzymuje się następującą formułę:\n(2.20)\nW formułach (2.17–2.20) reprezentuje funkcje kształtu w metodzie elementów skończonych (MES). W formule (2.20), odnoszą się do funkcji kształtu dla poszczególnych węzłów elementu skończonego. Funkcje te są używane do interpolacji wartości pola wewnątrz elementu na podstawie wartości w jego węzłach. Oznaczając\n\n(2.21) otrzymujemy następującą zależność:\n(2.22)\nRównanie (2.13) zapisane w ogólnej formie macierzowej ma postać\n(2.23) gdzie reprezentuje wartości elementów skończonych macierzy przewodnictwa. Dla płaskiego elementu trójkątnego i, j-ty element macierzy stanu można opisać wzorem\n(2.24) gdzie b i b, a także c i c są współczynnikami związanymi z pochodnymi funkcji i j i j kształtu względem współrzędnych przestrzennych. Funkcje kształtu N służą i do reprezentacji wartości rozwiązania w obrębie elementu na podstawie jego wartości węzłowych. Pochodne tych funkcji po współrzędnych x i y (dla 2-D) są kluczowe do obliczania gradientów i innych właściwości fizycznych elementów skończonych.\nDla przestrzennego elementu czworobocznego równanie (2.24) przyjmuje postać\n(2.25)\nPonieważ macierz stanu jest symetryczna względem głównej przekątnej, to dla całego obszaru stosuje się następujące równanie\n\n(2.26) gdzie . Macierz odzwierciedla relacje między potencjałami elektrycznymi w węzłach a przewodnictwem elektrycznym badanego obszaru.\nH\nElementy macierzy są konstruowane na podstawie równań różniczkowych determinujących dystrybucję pola elektrycznego i zależą od geometrii ob-\nH szaru, rodzaju materiału oraz warunków brzegowych. Wektor reprezentuje zbiorcze wartości potencjału elektrycznego w węzłach sieci MES. W analizie\nETI powyższe wartości potencjału są wielkościami szukanymi, które chcemy ostatecznie ustalić w celu uzyskania rekonstrukcji obrazu przewodnictwa wewnętrznego badanego obiektu.\nAgregacja wszystkich elementów prowadzi do utworzenia macierzy wielu równań o rozmiarach n × n. W rozpatrywanym problemie zaimplementowano warunki brzegowe Dirichleta oraz Neumanna. Implementacja warunków brzegowych Dirichleta wymaga usunięcia z układu równań tych wartości potencjałów w węzłach, które są już znane. Przy wprowadzeniu do układu równań (2.26) zmiennych węzłowych zdefiniowanych przez warunki brzegowe wartości znajdujące się na głównej przekątnej macierzy muszą zostać odpowiednio dostosowane. Elementy na głównej przekątnej macierzy ,\nH odpowiadające konkretnym węzłom na krawędzi, są skalowane dużą warto-\nH ścią, natomiast odpowiedni składnik wektora współczynników b jest zastępowany przez wartość zmiennej w węźle krawędziowym, skalowaną tym samym współczynnikiem o dużej wartości oraz wartością na przekątnej. Procedura ta jest powtarzana dla każdego węzła położonego na krawędzi. W rezultacie elementy macierzy , które nie zostały zmodyfikowane, mają wartości znacząco mniejsze w porównaniu z tymi, które przeszły modyfikację. Taka modyfikacja\nH macierzy utrzymuje jej pierwotne charakterystyki, tj. strukturę pasmową, rzadkość i symetrię, jednak wpływa negatywnie na jej uwarunkowanie.\nH\nWarunki Dirichleta polegają na ustaleniu wartości funkcji (np. potencjału elektrycznego) na brzegu analizowanego obszaru. Oznacza to, że dla określonych punktów położonych na granicy domeny wartość poszukiwanego rozwiązania (np. potencjału elektrycznego) jest znana. W kontekście fizycznym może to odpowiadać sytuacji, w której wartość potencjału na brzegach przewodnika jest znana, a obliczenia dotyczą rozkładu potencjału wewnątrz badanego obiektu. Przykładami mogą być sytuacje, w których badany obiekt jest podłączony do źródła o stałym napięciu na określonej parze elektrod.\n\nWarunki Neumanna dotyczą ustalenia wartości pochodnej funkcji normalnej do granicy obszaru, czyli odpowiadają określeniu strumienia fizycznej wielkości (np. przepływu prądu elektrycznego) przez granicę obiektu. W tym przypadku wartości funkcji bezpośrednio na brzegu nie jest znana. Znany jest natomiast gradient (pochodna) tej funkcji względem normalnej do powierzchni. Przykładowo, w elektryczności warunki Neumanna mogą oznaczać, że znamy gęstość prądu przepływającego przez krawędź obszaru, ale nie znamy wartości potencjału elektrycznego na tej krawędzi.\nObecnie modele matematyczne umożliwiające precyzyjne rozwiązanie problemu prostego w tomografii impedancyjnej są wykorzystywane do symulacyjnego generowania przypadków pomiarowych składających się z pomiarów i odpowiadających im obrazów (tomogramów). Tomogramy powstają dzięki przypisaniu kolorów do wartości konduktywności poszczególnych elementów skończonych. Dzięki pomiarom syntetycznym można w krótkim czasie uzyskać wiele przypadków uczących potrzebnych do trenowania modeli algorytmicznych opartych na uczeniu maszynowym. Zadaniem tych modeli jest rozwiązanie tomograficznego problemu odwrotnego, czyli transformacja pomiarów elektrycznych na obrazy rekonstruujące wnętrza badanych obiektów.\nIstnieją metody klasyczne, które umożliwiają rozwiązanie problemu odwrotnego w sposób matematyczny, jednak dają one gorsze rezultaty w porównaniu z metodami algorytmicznymi wykorzystującymi uczenie nadzorowane.\n2.4. E lektryczna tomografia impedancyjna\nProwadzone wcześniej badania wykazały, że oporność elektryczną można wykorzystać do określenia wilgotności ścian betonowych i murowanych. W badaniach potwierdzono istnienie korelacji między różnymi poziomami wilgoci zalegającej wewnątrz porowatych materiałów budowlanych a wartością wskaźnika określającego rezystancję. Ściana wykonana z cegły i ściana z lekkiego bloczka betonowego mają podobne własności elektryczne. W takich materiałach wraz ze spadkiem poziomu wilgoci spada również opór elektryczny.\nNiewielka zmiana rezystancji może być skutkiem zmiany poziomu zawilgocenia wewnątrz badanego obiektu. Istniejące metody wykrywania wilgoci w ścianach betonowych i ceglanych są obarczone wadami. Jak już wcześniej wspomniano, podstawową wadą jest punktowy charakter pomiarów. Kolejną niedogodnością jest konieczność uszkodzenia muru w celu pobrania próbek\n(metody niszczące). Metody nieniszczące mają również charakter punktowy\n\ni nie są w stanie sondować głębiej niż na kilka centymetrów w głąb muru. Skuteczny zasięg elektrycznej tomografii impedancyjnej jest wielokrotnie większy.\nChoć trudno jest to jednoznacznie określić, może on wynosić nawet 50 cm.\nNa rysunku 2.1 przedstawiono zależności między rezystywnością elektryczną a procentowym zawilgoceniem czterech próbek betonu. Próbki różniły się składem mieszanki betonowej wykorzystanej do ich wykonania, a w szczególności stosunkiem wody do cementu wyrażonym współczynnikiem w/c. Jak widać, we wszystkich czterech przypadkach istnieje wyraźna zależność między zawilgoceniem a rezystywnością. Prócz tego można zauważyć, że wraz ze wzrostem współczynnika w/c rezystywność betonu maleje.\nZasada działania tomografu wiąże się nierozerwalnie z koniecznością rozwiązania problemu odwrotnego. W przypadku tomografii elektrycznej powyższy problem jest opisany funkcją pola elektrycznego. Mówiąc precyzyjniej, pole, o którym mowa, dotyczy problemu odwrotnego identyfikacji, optymalizacji lub syntezy, w którym parametry opisujące pole elektryczne są ustalane na podstawie posiadania pewnych informacji specyficznych dla tego pola. Problemy odwrotne charakteryzują się trudnością i niepewnością, ponieważ z reguły nie posiadają jednoznacznych rozwiązań i są źle uwarunkowane\n(inaczej – źle postawione). Przyczyną jest zazwyczaj niedostateczna ilości informacji wejściowych (zmiennych niezależnych, argumentów funkcji), które dodatkowo mogą być wzajemnie sprzeczne lub liniowo zależne (skorelowane).\nRys. 2.1. Zależności między rodzajem betonu, jego zawilgoceniem i rezystywnością [33]\n\nJeżeli ilość danych wejściowych jest niewystarczająca do uzyskania jednoznacznego rozwiązania problemu odwrotnego, mówi się o zadaniach niedookreślonych, natomiast w przypadku nadmiaru informacji – o zadaniach nadokreślonych. Z problemem odwrotnym mamy do czynienia w sytuacji, gdy brakuje pewnych informacji dotyczących rozpatrywanego obszaru, np.\ngdy nieznane są warunki brzegowe. Deficyt informacji uniemożliwia zastosowanie modelu matematycznego rozwiązującego problem prosty. Aby uzyskać jednoznaczne rozwiązanie, tym samym rozwiązać problem prosty, potrzebna jest dodatkowa informacja, np. dotycząca rozkładu potencjału pola elektrycznego. Rodzaj brakujących informacji często wykorzystuje się jako kryterium podziału problemów odwrotnych. Podział ten uwzględnia fizyczne parametry badanego obiektu. Przykładowy problem odwrotny może być tak nazwany z uwagi na brak następujących składowych modelu: warunków brzegowych, funkcji źródłowej, geometrii obszaru lub czynników materiałowych. Przedstawiona systematyka wskazuje na złożoność i wielowymiarowość problemów odwrotnych w kontekście pola elektromagnetycznego, ujawniając szerokie spektrum aspektów, które należy wziąć pod uwagę przy ich rozwiązywaniu.\nW analizie numerycznej tomograficznego problemu odwrotnego zazwyczaj wykorzystuje się metodę elementów skończonych (MES) lub metodę elementów brzegowych (MEB) [143]. W języku angielskim metoda elementów skończonych określana jest skrótem FEM (finite element method). Tym samym skrótem określa się także siatkę elementów skończonych (ang. FEM – finite element mesh).\nChoć obie metody mają za zadanie przekształcenie danych pomiarowych na obrazy przedstawiające rozkład konduktywności wnętrza obiektu badań, różnią się one zasadniczo zarówno pod względem teoretycznym, jak i praktycznym. Metoda elementów skończonych (MES) polega na dyskretyzacji całego obszaru badanego obiektu na mniejsze, łatwiejsze do analizy elementy – piksele lub woksele. Ta metoda wymaga określenia tzw. parametru materiałowego dla każdego z tych elementów, co pozwala na szczegółową analizę rozkładu pola elektrycznego wewnątrz całego obszaru badanego. MES jest szczególnie użyteczna w przypadkach, gdy heterogeniczność właściwości elektrycznych badanego obiektu jest znacząca i gdzie zmiany w tych właściwościach są rozłożone w całej jego objętości.\nZ kolei metoda elementów brzegowych (MEB) skupia się na dyskretyzacji jedynie powierzchni badanego obiektu. W przypadku analizy przestrzennej takie podejście umożliwia zredukowanie problemu trójwymiarowego do dwóch wymiarów. W MEB obliczenia są przeprowadzane tylko na zewnętrznej\n\npowierzchni obiektu, co znacząco redukuje liczbę wymaganych obliczeń w porównaniu z MES. Metoda ta jest efektywna, gdy rozkład impedancji wewnątrz obiektu jest relatywnie jednorodny, a zainteresowanie badacza koncentruje się na zmianach zachodzących na jego obrzeżach.\nRóżnice między MES a MEB mają zasadnicze znaczenie dla aplikacji tych metod w ETI. MES, ze względu na swoją zdolność do modelowania złożonych heterogeniczności wewnątrz obiektu, jest preferowana w aplikacjach wymagających wysokiej rozdzielczości i dokładności w całej objętości, jak na przykład w zastosowaniach medycznych do monitorowania funkcji płuc czy też diagnozowania nowotworów, a także w zastosowaniach ETI obejmujących obrazowanie wilgoci wewnątrz murów. Z kolei MEB znajduje zastosowanie w sytuacjach, gdzie obliczenia muszą być przeprowadzane szybko i gdy zainteresowanie koncentruje się na zmianach powierzchniowych, niesięgających głęboko do wnętrza obiektu.\nZ uwagi na dynamiczny rozwój technologii informatycznych obniżających koszt operacji obliczeniowych MES jest obecnie jednym z najbardziej wszechstronnych narzędzi w analizie numerycznej i inżynierii. W kontekście elektrycznej tomografii impedancyjnej MES odgrywa kluczową rolę zarówno w rozwiązywaniu problemów prostych, jak i odwrotnych. Problem prosty w ETI dotyczy obliczenia rozkładu potencjału elektrycznego wewnątrz obiektu na podstawie znanych wartości przewodności i określonego rozkładu prądów na jego powierzchni. Natomiast problem odwrotny polega na odtworzeniu rozkładu przewodności wewnętrznej obiektu na podstawie pomiarów potencjału na jego powierzchni.\nModel FEM w połączeniu z ETI umożliwia bardzo dokładne symulowanie rzeczywistych pomiarów napięcia z urządzeń ETI, biorąc pod uwagę efekty elektrod [18]. Matematyczny model symulacyjny uwzględnia efektywną impedancję kontaktową między elektrodami a ścianą budynku. Kluczowym elementem jest uwzględnienie zarówno warunków brzegowych, jak i prawa\nKirchhoffa dotyczącego przepływu prądu. W praktyce oznacza to, że wykorzystując siatkę elementów skończonych, można precyzyjnie symulować sposób, w jaki prąd wprowadzany przez parę elektrod rozprzestrzenia się w badanym obiekcie, a następnie, na podstawie rozkładu przewodności wewnętrznej, obliczać spodziewane napięcia na pozostałych elektrodach.\nFEM pozwala na dyskretyzację przekroju 2-D lub fragmentu 3-D badanego obiektu na bardzo małe elementy. W przypadku obrazów 2-D elementy siatki mają kształt trójkątów równobocznych, natomiast dla fragmentów 3-D są to czworościany. Każdy z elementów skończonych ma przypisaną lokalną\n\nwartość przewodności. Następnie, rozwiązując sformułowany w ten sposób problem wariacyjny, możliwe jest uzyskanie przybliżonego rozkładu potencjału w całym obszarze elementów skończonych objętych siatką. Takie podejście jest szczególnie użyteczne w kontekście ETI, gdzie rozkład przewodności wewnątrz obiektu jest nieznany i musi być odtworzony na podstawie pomiarów zewnętrznych.\nWykorzystanie FEM w ETI umożliwia opracowanie metod umożliwiających odtwarzanie rozkładu przewodności wewnątrz obiektu na podstawie zewnętrznych pomiarów napięcia[38]. Problem odwrotny ETI jest skomplikowany i źle postawiony. Niewielkie zmiany w danych wejściowych mogą prowadzić do dużych różnic w wynikach. Pomimo tego FEM umożliwia stosowanie różnych strategii regularyzacji, metod deterministycznych i modeli uczenia maszynowego w celu stabilizacji rozwiązania.\nNa rysunku 2.2 przedstawiono protokół pomiarowy wykorzystany w niniejszym opracowaniu. Dla 16 elektrod (n = 16) można uzyskać 12 niezależnych pomiarów napięcia (V). Istnieje 16 możliwości podłączenia źródła zasilania, ale ze względu na symetrię systemu akceptuje się tylko połowę z nich\n(n/2 = 8).\n(a) (b)\nRys. 2.2. Protokół pomiarowy ETI dla 16 elektrod: (a) poprzedni krok pomiarowy w cyklu,\n(b) następny krok pomiarowy w cyklu [21, 129]\nDanymi wejściowymi do algorytmu rekonstrukcji obrazu są pomiary napięcia zmierzone między sąsiadującymi parami elektrod. Pomija się przy tym\n\npomiary wykonane przy użyciu elektrod z przyłączonym źródłem zasilania z powodu nieznanych wartości spadków napięcia między tymi elektrodami a badanym obiektem. Dla systemu n = 16 z elektrodami i dowolnym protokołem pomiarowym można uzyskać n – 4 = 12 niezależnych pomiarów. Tym samym pełna liczba mierzalnych napięć między sąsiadującymi elektrodami napięciowymi przy n/2 = 8 parach elektrod wynosi (n – 4) · (n/2) = 12 · 8 = 96.\nMetoda pomiaru napięć międzyelektrodowych przedstawiona na rysunku 2.1 odpowiada pierwszemu i drugiemu pomiarowi w cyklu 96 pomiarów. Dla kolejnych kroków pomiarowych następuje sekwencyjne przełączanie obwodu zasilającego i pomiarowego na sąsiadujące elektrody.\nDla systemu z n = 32 elektrodami można uzyskać n – 4 = 28 niezależnych pomiarów. Stąd pełna liczba możliwych do uzyskania niezależnych pomiarów napięć między sąsiadującymi elektrodami napięciowymi przy n/2 = 16 parach elektrod wynosi (n – 4) · (n/2) = 28 · 16 = 448.\nRozwiązanie problemu prostego umożliwia dokładne obliczenie wartości pomiarów zarejestrowanych na poszczególnych parach elektrod. Dzięki temu, rozwiązując problem prosty, można stosunkowo szybko wygenerować duże zbiory danych uczących dla modeli predykcyjnych, które mogą być następnie trenowane w celu rozwiązania problemu odwrotnego. Dane uczące składają się więc z wejść i wyjść dla modelu predykcyjnego. Zarówno wejścia, jak i wyjścia są wektorami liczb. Wejścia są pomiarami, stąd zwykle są to liczby rzeczywiste lub zespolone. Wyjścia są wartościami przewodnictwa elektrycznego poszczególnych elementów skończonych siatki FEM (ang. finite element mesh).\nW zależności od potrzeb wartości wektora wyjściowego mogą być binarne lub liczbowe – naturalne, rzeczywiste lub zespolone.\nRysunek 2.3 przedstawia graficzną interpretację problemu prostego i odwrotnego dla przykładowego pomiaru symulacyjnego. Siatka elementów skończonych obejmuje fragment muru o wymiarach 50 × 20 × 100 cm (długość\n× szerokość × wysokość). Przedstawiona na rysunku siatka składa się z 5102 elementów skończonych. Ponieważ jest to siatka przestrzenna, elementami są czworościany, które określa się także mianem wokseli. Dobór elektrod, do których przyłożone jest źródło prądu, i ich kolejność podczas realizacji cyklu pomiarowego określa się mianem protokołu pomiarowego. Po lewej stronie widzimy fragment muru wpisany w siatkę FEM. Woksele przeźroczyste odzwierciedlają obszary suche, natomiast woksele ciemne – obszary mokre. Do czoła ściany przyłożono 16 elektrod, które wykorzystano do zgromadzenia 96 pomiarów napięcia (sekwencja pomiarowa).\n\nRys. 2.3. Graficzna interpretacja problemu prostego i odwrotnego w ETI\nTak więc według rysunku 2.3 problem prosty jest transformacją , gdzie jest wektorem 5102 wartości konduktywności poszczególnych wokseli\nFEM, natomiast jest 96 elementowym wektorem pomiarów napięć. Problem odwrotny jest zatem transformacją , podczas której na podstawie pomiarów elektrycznych generowany jest zrekonstruowany wektor konduktywności . Miarą jakości odwzorowania może być sumaryczne odchylenie\n, gdzie jest licznikiem wokseli w siatce FEM. Wartości konduktywności można powiązać z odpowiednią paletą kolorów, co po nałożeniu na siatkę FEM skutkuje uzyskaniem obrazu rozkładu wilgoci wewnątrz analizowanego fragmentu muru.\nRysunek 2.4 przedstawia proces generowania syntetycznych danych uczących wraz z ich weryfikacją. W tym celu można zastosować dwie siatki FEM\n– gęstą dla problemu prostego i rzadszą dla problemu odwrotnego.\nProblem prosty można rozwiązać z dużą dokładnością, dlatego zwiększenie ilości argumentów funkcji nie zmniejsza jakości wyników.\nPrzeciwnie, podział obiektu badań, którym jest fragment muru, na większą liczbę elementów skończonych umożliwia dokładniejsze oszacowanie pomiarów napięcia na elektrodach. Z kolei zastosowanie rzadszej siatki FEM w celu wygenerowania rozkładu konduktywności jako rezultatu rozwiązania problemu odwrotnego zmniejsza poziom złożoności i niedookreśloności, a także ułatwia wytrenowanie sieci neuronowej [31].\nOstatecznie zalecane jest, aby ponownie wykorzystać algorytm generujący pomiary syntetyczne, podstawiając na jego wejściu zrekonstruowane rozkłady konduktancji . W ten sposób, obliczając różnicę między pomiarami uzyskanymi pierwotnie a pomiarami uzyskanymi na podstawie\n\nrekonstrukcji , można obiektywnie zweryfikować zarówno wytrenowany model, jak i deterministyczny algorytm generujący pomiary syntetyczne. Rysunek 2.5. przedstawia porównanie gęstej i rzadszej siatki FEM tego samego fragmentu muru [127].\nRys. 2.4. Proces generowania syntetycznych danych uczących umożliwiający jednoczesną weryfikację algorytmów problemu prostego i odwrotnego\n\nRys. 2.5. Przykładowe siatki FEM dla tego samego obiektu badań:\n(a) siatka o dużej gęstości elementów skończonych, odpowiednia do problemu prostego,\n(b) siatka o mniejszej gęstości, odpowiednia do problemu odwrotnego [127]\nPomimo wyzwań, dzięki swojej zdolności do nieinwazyjnego sondowania wnętrza obiektów na podstawie ich elektrycznych właściwości, tomografia elektryczna oferuje unikalną perspektywę do badań różnorodnych materiałów, otwierając nowe możliwości zarówno w diagnostyce przemysłowej, jak i w obszarze badań naukowych.\n\n3. Wybrane metody modelowania problemu odwrotnego\nJak już wcześniej wspomniano, rozwiązanie problemu odwrotnego jest głównym wyzwaniem w procesie tomograficznej rekonstrukcji obrazu. Ogół metod umożliwiających rozwiązanie problemu odwrotnego można podzielić na cztery podstawowe grupy: metody deterministyczne, stochastyczne, topologiczne i metody oparte na uczeniu maszynowym. Należy zaznaczyć, że jest to podział ogólny i nie w pełni obiektywny. Pomimo tego może być uznany za uprawniony, ponieważ systematyzuje znane metody wg zrozumiałego klucza, a w literaturze nie ma jednoznacznie ustalonych kryteriów, które są uznawane za kanon obowiązujący. W tabeli 3.1 przedstawiono zestawienie metod umożliwiających rozwiązanie tomograficznego problemu odwrotnego z podziałem na grupy.\nTab. 3.1. Systematyka metod używanych w tomografii do rozwiązania problemu odwrotnego\n[25, 119]\nGrupa metod Przykłady metod\n• metoda Gaussa–Newtona [55, 58, 59]\n• regularyzacja Tikhonova [10, 62, 156]\n• regularyzacja Total Variation [147]\n• liniowa projekcja wsteczna (ang. linear back projection) [36]\n• metoda D-bar [107]\nMetody deterministyczne\n• metoda perturbacyjna [113]\n• metoda warstwowa [29]\n• algorytm Kaczmarza [92]\n• algorytm Wexlera [150]\n• gradientowe metody optymalizacyjne [158]\n\nTab. 3.1. Systematyka metod używanych w tomografii do rozwiązania problemu odwrotnego\n[25, 119]\nGrupa metod Przykłady metod\n• algorytmy ewolucyjne [170]\n• algorytmy rojowe [171]\nMetody stochastyczne\n• algorytmy mrówkowe [45]\n• optymalizacja wielokryterialna [108]\n• metoda zbiorów poziomicowych (ang. level set method) [93]\n• pochodna materiałowa [155]\nMetody topologiczne\n• pochodna kształtu [138]\n• pochodna topologiczna [118]\n• sztuczne sieci neuronowe, w tym:\n○ perceptron wielowarstwowy [120]\n○ sieci głębokiego uczenia (ang. deep learning) [11, 41, 70]\n○ sieci konwolucyjne (ang. convolutional neural networks) [153]\n○ sieci rekurencyjne, np. LSTM (ang. long short-term memory)\n[69, 169]\n○ autoenkodery [37]\n○ uczenie transferowe (ang. transfer learning) [68]\nMetody oparte na uczeniu maszynowym • metody statystyczne, w tym:\n○ k-najbliższych sąsiadów (ang. k-nearest neighbors) [81]\n○ maszyna wektorów nośnych (SVM, ang. support vector machine) [56]\n○ Lasso (ang. least absolute shrinkage and selection operator) [154]\n○ elastic net [122]\n○ LARS (ang. least angle regression) [20, 133]\n○ regresja liniowa [57]\n○ regresja logistyczna [83, 84]\nW dalszej części tego rozdziału opisano wybrane metody, które następnie zostały wykorzystane w badaniach stanowiących przedmiot niniejszego opracowania.\n3.1. Metoda Gaussa–Newtona\nW tomografii impedancyjnej do rekonstrukcji obrazu można stosować deterministyczną metodę Gaussa–Newtona, która wykorzystuje uogólnioną regularyzację Tikhonova [109]. W literaturze przedmiotu metoda ta znana jest również jako algorytm Gaussa–Newtona w formie uogólnionej. Podczas przeprowadzania analiz ilościowych można założyć, że badany obiekt jest polaryzowany prądem o niskiej częstotliwości. Wówczas właściwości elektryczne materiału można opisać za pomocą funkcji o wartościach rzeczywistych. W przypadku uogólnionego równania Laplace’a, składowa proporcjonalna do częstotliwości jest pomijana, a wspomniana funkcja może być utożsamiana z rzeczywistym przypadkiem admitancji izotropowej.\n\nRekonstrukcja wewnętrznego obrazu badanego obiektu wiąże się z określeniem globalnego minimum funkcji celu, które w rozpatrywanym przypadku definiowane jest następująco:\n(3.1) gdzie: jest wektorem przewodności, jest przyjętym a priori wektorem przewodnictwa reprezentującym znane właściwości elektryczne obiektu,\nU jest wektorem napięć uzyskanych podczas pomiarów, U (σ) jest wektom s rem napięć otrzymanych za pomocą obliczeń numerycznych przy użyciu MES,\nL jest macierzą kwadratową, L jest macierzą regularyzacji, zwykle jednost-\n1 2 kową, której zadaniem jest dyskretne przybliżenie wybranego operatora różniczkowego, a λ jest parametrem regularyzacji, przy czym λ > 0.\n3.2. Regularyzacja Tikhonova\nWynikiem równania poddanego regularyzacji za pomocą deterministycznej metody Tikhonowa jest wektor transformacji , który minimalizuje wyrażenie (3.2) [106]\n(3.2) w którym A jest macierzą, która przekształca model T (u) na rekonstruowane\nλ wyniki, u jest wektorem danych pomiarowych (napięć), T (u) jest estymowa-\nλ nym rozwiązaniem problemu odwrotnego (wektor konduktywności), λ jest parametrem regularyzacji, a ||·|| oznacza normę euklidesową (L -normę). Re-\n2 2 gularyzacja Tikhonowa może być rozumiana jako kompromis między dwoma postulatami. Postulat pierwszy dotyczy minimalizacji wyrażenia AT (u) – u.\nλ\nPostulat drugi określa potrzebę minimalizacji normy L dla T (u).\n2 λ\nZastosowanie regularyzacji Tikhonova do rozwiązania problemu odwrotnego w ETI łagodzi typowe mankamenty związane z tego rodzaju problemami, a mianowicie niestabilność rozwiązań oraz złe postawienie problemu w sensie matematycznym. Regularyzacja Tikhonova pozwala na uzyskanie bardziej stabilnego i „wygładzonego” rozwiązania, co jest możliwe dzięki wprowadzeniu dodatkowego terminu kary, który penalizuje rozwiązania o dużej normie.\nRozważmy model liniowy, w którym określamy zależność między wektorem wejściowym X a wektorem wyjściowym Y za pomocą macierzy\n\ntransformacji A. W problemach odwrotnych często jest więcej parametrów do estymacji niż dostępnych obserwacji, co może prowadzić do niestabilności rozwiązania. Aby temu zaradzić, stosuje się regularyzację Tikhonova.\nDla danych wejściowych X, które są macierzą projektowania systemu zawierającą przykładowe prądy generowane przez elektrody i dla wektora napięć zmierzonych na powierzchni badanego obiektu Y, macierz transformacji A jest szacowana z wykorzystaniem regularyzacji Tikhonova w następujący sposób:\n(3.3) gdzie λ jest parametrem regularyzacji określającym wpływ kary. W kontekście problemu odwrotnego ETI oznacza to konieczność poszukiwania takiej macierzy przekształcenia A, która najlepiej przybliża dane wejściowe do wyjściowych poprzez minimalizację pewnej funkcji kosztu. Po dalszym przekształceniu otrzymujemy funkcję\n(3.4) gdzie XTX jest macierzą kowariancji wejść, I jest macierzą jednostkową odpowiedniej wielkości, a XTY jest macierzą kowariancji między wejściem a wyjściem. W równaniu (3.4), parametr λ2 jest mnożony przez macierz jednostkową I, co dodaje dodatkową wartość na głównej przekątnej macierzy XTX .\nDzięki temu macierz XTX + λ2 I staje się lepiej uwarunkowana, co ułatwia jej odwracanie i pomaga uzyskać bardziej stabilne rozwiązania.\n3.3. Metoda Total Variation\nZałóżmy, że analizowany obiekt można podzielić na ograniczoną liczbę podobszarów o stałej przewodności, a każdy z tych obszarów jest zdefiniowany przez pewną funkcję. Total Variation jest deterministyczną techniką regularyzacji wykorzystywaną do rekonstrukcji obrazu wewnętrznego obiektu, który jest podzielony na skończoną liczbę niewielkich obszarów o stałej przewodności za pomocą metody elementów skończonych [23]. Standardowe metody, takie jak regularyzacja Tikhonova, często prowadzą do powstania rozmytego obrazu, który nie pozwala na dokładne określenie granic pomiędzy obszarami o różnych przewodnościach. Zastosowanie regularyzacji z wykorzystaniem metody Total Variation może skutecznie zapobiec temu\n\nefektowi. Funkcję celu dla tak przedstawionego problemu można zdefiniować w następujący sposób:\n(3.5) gdzie: σ jest wektorem przewodności elektrycznej (M +1), U(σ) jest obliczos nym numerycznie wektorem napięć (P + 1), U jest wektorem napięć uzyskam nym za pomocą tomografu (P + 1), N jest liczbą krawędzi siatki elementów skończonych (bez granic krawędzi), M jest liczbą elementów skończonych,\nP jest liczbą elementów w tabeli testowych napięć U , R jest wektorem liniom i wym w i-tej iteracji reprezentującym dyskretną aproksymację operatora gradientu. Gdy dana krawędź należy do dwóch różnych elementów skończonych, wektor R jest określony wzorem:\ni\n(3.6) gdzie d jest długością i-tej krawędzi. Wektor R składa się z M elementów, i i z których tylko dwie składowe przyjmują wartości różne od zera. Należy zauważyć, że termin regularyzacji zdefiniowany w ten sposób nie jest różniczkowalny w punktach, gdzie wyrażenie pod wartością bezwzględną wynosi zero.\nW rozważanym przypadku idea rekonstrukcji obrazu opiera się na zastosowaniu metody pierwotno-wtórnej punktu wewnętrznego. Problem pierwotny definiowany jest jako:\n(3.7) gdzie macierz L jest typu N × M i zawiera elementy niezerowe tylko w i-tym wieri szu, natomiast , gdzie jest symbolem (deltą) Kroneckera.\n3.4. M aszyna wektorów nośnych (SVM)\nMaszyna wektorów nośnych (ang. SVM – support vector machine) należy do grupy statystycznych metod uczenia maszynowego. SVM używa funkcji jądra, aby przekształcić dane wejściowe w przestrzeń o wyższym wymiarze, co ułatwia ich linearną separację. Algorytm SVM zaimplementowany w Matlabie\n\n(funkcja „fitrsvm”) umożliwia wybór spośród trzech popularnych funkcji jądra: liniowej, wielomianowej i radialnej funkcji bazowej (ang. RBF – radial basis function). Funkcja jądra liniowego opisana jest wzorem\n(3.8) gdzie x i y są wektorami danych. Funkcja jądra wielomianowego opisana jest jako\n(3.9) gdzie c to stała, a d jest stopniem wielomianu. Funkcja RBF opisana jest wzorem\n(3.10) w którym γ jest parametrem skalującym. Problem optymalizacji w SVM polega na minimalizacji funkcji straty (ang. loss),\n(3.11) gdzie w – wektor wag, ξ i ξ* – zmienne pomocnicze, C – parametr regularyzacji, a n jest liczbą próbek. Model SVM po optymalizacji reprezentowany jest przez funkcję\n(3.12) gdzie wT – transponowany wektor wag, jest funkcją mapującą cechy, a b symbolizuje obciążenie, czyli stałą (ang. bias). Dla kolejnego pomiaru x', predykcja modelu SVM jest określona zależnością\n(3.13) w której α to mnożnik Lagrange’a, a K jest funkcja jądra. W implementacji oprogramowania Matlab dopasowanie parametrów modelu SVM wykorzystuje kilka kluczowych parametrów, takich jak BoxConstraint, KernelScale i Epsilon ε. Celem SVM jest skonstruowanie takiej funkcji f(x), która jak najdokładniej przewiduje rzeczywistą wartość y dla wejścia x, minimalizując błąd predykcji i pozwalając na odchylenia mniejsze niż ε. Epsilon określa szerokość\n\npasma „bez kary” wokół funkcji regresji, w którym błędy nie są penalizowane.\nParametr ten bezpośrednio wpływa na elastyczność modelu w kontekście dopasowywania danych treningowych. BoxConstraint C określa kompromis między utrzymaniem marginesu ε, a maksymalizacją marginesu między różnymi punktami danych. Wyższa wartość C skłania model do dokładniejszego dopasowania do danych uczących, co może jednak prowadzić do przeuczenia.\nInnymi słowy: C określa „twardość” marginesu błędu w modelu SVM. KernelScale (γ dla RBF) wpływa na funkcję jądra, umożliwiając modelowi obsługę nieliniowości. Dla jądra RBF, γ kontroluje „szerokość” dzwonu funkcji\nGaussa, wpływając na złożoność modelu i jego zdolność do uchwycenia zależności w danych. SVM często wykorzystuje funkcje jądra do rzutowania danych wejściowych na przestrzeń o wyższym wymiarze, co ułatwia znalezienie liniowego separatora, którym dla regresji jest linia najlepszego dopasowania.\nFunkcja straty dla jądra RBF jest zdefiniowana jako\n(3.14) gdzie: y jest wyjściowym wektorem wartości referencyjnych, f(x) jest wektorem wartości zrekonstruowanych, natomiast ε jest z góry określonym progiem tolerancji błędu.\n3.5. Lasso i elastic net\nObie metody, elastic net i Lasso, należą do grupy metod statystycznych wykorzystujących uczenie maszynowe. Elastic net jest techniką regresji z regularyzacją, która łączy w sobie zalety dwóch innych metod: Lasso (ang. least absolute shrinkage and selection operator) oraz regresji grzbietowej (ang. ridge regression) [135, 168].\nMetoda ta stosuje jednocześnie kary L oraz L , które są charakterystyczne odpo-\n1 2 wiednio dla Lasso i metody grzbietowej [89, 132]. Technika Lasso, będąca jedną z metod regularyzacji, umożliwia redukcję liczby predyktorów w modelu regresyjnym oraz wybór spośród predyktorów, które mogą być redundantne względem siebie [105]. W przypadku wybranej wartości parametru Lambda (λ), który jest parametrem nieujemnym, Lasso rozwiązuje problem opisany formułą\n(3.15)\n\ngdzie: N – liczba obserwacji, y – odpowiedź na obserwację i, x – dane pomiai i rowe w postaci wektora wartości p przy obserwacji j, λ – dodatni parametr regularyzacji odpowiadający jednej wartości Lambda.\nParametry β i β są odpowiednio skalarne i p-wektorowe. Dla α o wartości ściśle między 0 a 1 i dodatniego λ elastic net rozwiązuje problem regularyzacji określony zależnością\n(3.16) gdzie\n(3.17)\nJeżeli α = 1, metoda elastic net działa identycznie jak Lasso. Gdy α zbliża się do 0, metoda elastic net upodabnia się do regresji grzbietowej. Dla innych wartości α składnik kary interpoluje między normą L parametru β a normą kwadratową L parametru β.\n3.6. R egresja liniowa i regresja logistyczna\nDo grupy statystycznych metod uczenia maszynowego zaliczamy regresję liniową i regresję logistyczną. Zastosowany w niniejszym opracowaniu model regresji liniowej wykorzystany do rozwiązania problemu odwrotnego ETI można opisać zależnością\n(3.18) gdzie: β jest wektorem współczynników p, x jest wektorem wejściowym (zbiorem obserwacji) p, a b jest skalarnym odchyleniem modelu (czyli obciążeniem, ang. bias). Algorytm iteracyjny implementuje funkcję straty w postaci błędu średniokwadratowego (MSE, ang. mean squared error). Funkcja straty jest minimalizowana przy pomocy technik obliczeniowych takich jak np. stochastyczny spadek gradientu i jest określona zależnością\n\n(3.19) gdzie: y reprezentuje wartość rzeczywistą, a jest prognozowaną wartością modelu.\nRegresja logistyczna różni się od regresji liniowej głównie mechanizmem predykcji. Podczas gdy regresja liniowa modeluje bezpośrednio wartości ciągłe za pomocą liniowej kombinacji wejść, regresja logistyczna jest wykorzystywana do przewidywania prawdopodobieństwa przynależności do określonej kategorii (klasy), przez co jest odpowiednia dla problemów klasyfikacyjnych.\nTypową formułę matematyczną stosowaną w regresji logistycznej przedstawia wzór (3.20)\n(3.20) w którym: σ(x) jest funkcją logistyczną, β jest wektorem współczynników dla zmiennych predykcyjnych x, natomiast b oznacza wyraz wolny (ang. bias) [134].\nW odróżnieniu od zależności liniowej y = x β + b, występującej w regresji liniowej, regresja logistyczna stosuje funkcję sigmoidalną σ, która ogranicza wynik do przedziału (0,1), interpretowanego jako prawdopodobieństwo. Ponieważ regresja logistyczna, w odróżnieniu od liniowej, generuje na wyjściu klasyfikatory, w tomografii elektrycznej badającej zawilgocenie murów można za jej pomocą wyznaczać binarne wartości elementów skończonych siatki FEM [85]. Badania realizowane w ramach niniejszego opracowania wykazały, że lepsze rezultaty w ETI przynosi generowanie wartości elementów skończonych w postaci liczb rzeczywistych, co jest domeną problemów regresyjnych.\n\n4. Wykorzystanie sztucznych sieci neuronowych do rozwiązania problemu odwrotnego\nSzczególną grupą metod zaliczaną do uczenia maszynowego są sztuczne sieci neuronowe (SSN) [123, 142]. Sieci neuronowe są strukturami, które modelują funkcjonowanie ludzkiego mózgu, umożliwiając rozwiązywanie złożonych problemów o różnym charakterze [131]. Zainteresowanie strukturą mózgu i procesami zachodzącymi w jego wnętrzu doprowadziło do rozwoju modeli obliczeniowych znanych jako SSN. Za ich pomocą można między innymi rozpoznawać wzorce, prognozować, dokonywać segmentacji danych i obrazów, klasyfikować elementy zbiorów, wspomagać decyzje, tworzyć reprezentacje zbiorów danych itp. [13, 87, 111, 144].\nWczesne prace nad sieciami neuronowymi sięgają lat 40. XX wieku.\nW tamtym czasie McCulloch i Pitts zbadali możliwości interkoneksji podstawowych komponentów modelu neuronu. W kolejnych latach naukowcy tacy jak Hebb zajmowali się badaniem praw adaptacji w systemach neuronowych.\nW 1958 roku amerykański psycholog Frank Rosenblatt wprowadził nazwę\n„perceptron” i opracował architekturę, która zyskała znaczną popularność.\nW roku 1960 Widrow i jego student Hoff przedstawili istotne uogólnienie algorytmu trenowania perceptronu znane jako metoda najmniejszych kwadratów (ang. least mean square).\nW latach 70. XX wieku prace Grossberga, oparte na dowodach biologicznych i psychologicznych, przyczyniły się do wprowadzenia nowych architektur nieliniowych systemów dynamicznych. W roku 1982 John Hopfield zastosował\n\noryginalną, nieliniową strukturę dynamiczną ukierunkowaną na rozwiązywanie problemów optymalizacyjnych.\nBadania nad SSN znacznie przyspieszyły w 1986 roku po opublikowaniu artykułu autorstwa Rumelharta, Hintona i Williamsa pt. Learning Internal Representations by Error Propagation, w którym opisano algorytm wstecznej propagacji błędów. Algorytm ten jest wciąż chętnie wykorzystywany do trenowania sieci neuronowych [116]. W tym samym okresie fiński profesor Teuvo Kohonen opisał architekturę SSN, która jest trenowana za pomocą nienadzorowanej procedury SOM (ang. self-organizing map). Algorytm SOM był szeroko stosowany w tzw. sieciach Kohonena, które zyskały popularność zarówno w zastosowaniach badawczych, jak i praktycznych.\nW późnych latach 80. zyskały popularność sieci radialne (ang. radial basis function networks). Sieci te, wraz z perceptronami wielowarstwowymi MLP\n(ang. multilayer perceptron – MLP), miały wpływ na pojawienie się maszyn wektorów nośnych (SVM).\nFascynacja morfologią i sposobem funkcjonowania ludzkiego mózgu doprowadziły do powstania modeli obliczeniowych określanych jako SSN. Szczególną rolę w powstaniu tych systemów odegrał sztuczny neuron, wzorowany na strukturze neuronu ludzkiego (rysunek 4.1).\nRys. 4.1. Model ludzkiego neuronu\nOpracowanie własne na podstawie pixabay.com\n\n4.1. Perceptron wielowarstwowy\nSztuczny neuron jest podstawową jednostką obliczeniową sztucznej sieci neuronowej w warstwowej strukturze klasycznego perceptronu wielowarstwowego. Rysunek 4.2 przedstawia budowę matematycznego modelu neuronu\nMcCullocha–Pittsa, który jest podstawowym elementem SSN.\nRys. 4.2. Model sztucznego neuronu McCullocha–Pittsa [44]\nSztuczny neuron składa się z n wejść oznaczonych przez φ , φ , ..., φ\n1 2 n które mają przypisane wagi w , w , ..., w . Każde wejście φ jest mnożone przez\n1 2 n 1 odpowiadającą mu wagę w , a następnie wszystkie iloczyny są sumowane.\nNa koniec dodawana jest pewna stała b (tzw. obciążenie, ang. bias). W ten sposób powstaje wektor x, będący sumą iloczynów wejść i wag oraz biasu.\nUzyskana suma ważona jest przekształcana przez funkcję aktywacji f(x), generując zbiór wyjściowy y.\nBias b nie musi być indeksowany jak wagi w , ponieważ jest on dodatkową stałą wartością, która przesuwa całą funkcję aktywacji w przestrzeni.\nW tradycyjnym modelu neuronu, który jest pokazany na rysunku 4.2, bias jest jednolity dla całego neuronu, niezależnie od liczby wejść.\nPojedyncze neurony mogą być ze sobą łączone, tworząc bardziej złożone struktury sieci neuronowych. Na rysunku 4.3 przedstawiono architekturę perceptronu wielowarstwowego złożonego z trzech warstw. Perceptron\n\nwielowarstwowy jest jedną z podstawowych struktur jednokierunkowych sieci neuronowych. W tego rodzaju sieciach informacja przemieszcza się od wejść ku wyjściom.\nRys. 4.3. Struktura perceptronu wielowarstwowego\nWarstwa wejściowa odróżnia się od pozostałych warstw, ponieważ nie zawiera neuronów, a jedynie neurony są zdolne przekształcać informacje, wykorzystując funkcje transferowe. Ostatnia warstwa (warstwa 3) jest warstwą wyjściową, zaś warstwy pomiędzy wejściami a warstwą wyjściową nazywane są warstwami ukrytymi. Sieci jednokierunkowe nie posiadają sprzężeń zwrotnych. Neurony w tej samej warstwie nie komunikują się między sobą, a każda z warstw ma własną funkcję aktywacji. Oprócz zastosowań badawczych SSN wykorzystywane są w wielu dziedzinach przemysłu i usług. W szczególności znajdują zastosowania w takich obszarach jak: modelowanie i sterowanie procesami, aproksymacja funkcji, rozpoznawanie wzorców i znaków, klasyfikacja i segmentacja obrazów, ocena kredytowa, kategoryzacja zbiorów, wykrywanie oszustw, ubezpieczenia, prognozowanie giełdowe, wspomaganie decyzji, predykcja kursów walut, przewidywanie awarii, rozpoznawanie twarzy itp.\nObecnie, w najnowszych strukturach sieci neuronowych, na wyjściu często stosuje się warstwę zawierającą neurony działające jak w perceptronie wielowarstwowym. Tego rodzaju warstwy są określane mianem gęstych, czyli dense (w języku Python) lub w pełni połączonych, czyli fully connected (w języku Matlab).\n\n4.2. K onwolucyjne sieci neuronowe\nGłównym zastosowaniem konwolucyjnych sieci neuronowych (CNN) jest klasyfikacja obrazów, gdzie ich zdolność do wydobywania i analizowania cech wizualnych sprawdza się w różnorodnych aplikacjach: od rozpoznawania twarzy, poprzez identyfikację usterek materiałowych, po analizę medycznych obrazów diagnostycznych [69, 72]. Jednak elastyczność tych sieci pozwala na dostosowanie ich architektury do specyficznych potrzeb, w tym do skutecznego rozwiązywania tomograficznych problemów regresyjnych [117]. Modyfikując architekturę sieci, na przykład przez implementację warstw jednowymiarowych (1-D) różnych rodzajów, takich jak konwolucyjne, pulingowe, czy w pełni połączone, możliwe jest dostosowanie procesu uczenia do specyfiki problemu regresyjnego. W ETI sieć neuronowa nie służy do klasyfikowania obrazów. Jej celem jest predykcja konduktancji dla poszczególnych elementów skończonych siatki FEM. Wartości te mogą być liczbami rzeczywistymi lub liczbami zespolonymi. Konwolucyjne modele regresyjne mogą być wykorzystywane do generowania obrazów rekonstrukcyjnych, co świadczy o wszechstronności i adaptacyjności CNN do zastosowań wykraczających poza tradycyjną klasyfikację obrazów.\nCNN są szczególnym rodzajem głębokich sieci neuronowych, które wyróżniają się wykorzystaniem tzw. konwolucji (splotów) zamiast ogólnych operacji macierzowych w przynajmniej jednej z warstw [157]. W kontekście ETI konwolucja pozwala na efektywną analizę danych pomiarowych w kierunku poszukiwania ukrytych cech, co jest kluczowe dla dokładnej identyfikacji zmian konduktywności wewnątrz obiektu [22].\nRysunek 4.4 przedstawia przykładową architekturę sieci CNN przeznaczoną dla ETI. Pierwszą warstwą w omawianej architekturze CNN jest warstwa wejściowa, która przyjmuje wektor pomiarów napięć zmierzonych między elektrodami. Wektor wejściowy ma wymiar 96 × 1. Zadaniem tej warstwy jest sprecyzowanie formatu danych wejściowych. Następnie dane przechodzą przez pierwszą warstwę konwolucyjną (Conv1D) z 32 filtrami o rozmiarze\n3 × 1 każdy, której aktywacja dokonuje się za pomocą funkcji ReLU (ang. rectified linear unit). Funkcja ReLU, którą można zapisać jako f(x) = (0, x), jest powszechnie stosowana ze względu na swoje właściwości pozwalające na efektywne uczenie się i redukcję problemu zanikającego gradientu. Jej zadaniem jest także wprowadzenie nieliniowości do modelu.\nPo warstwie konwolucyjnej ma miejsce normalizacja wsadowa (ang. batch normalization), która stabilizuje i przyspiesza proces uczenia poprzez\n\nnormalizowanie wyjść z poprzedniej warstwy w taki sposób, aby wariancja była równa jeden, a średnia zero. Po warstwie normalizującej dane są przekazywane do warstwy MaxPooling1D, która z rozmiarem okna 2 × 1 redukuje wymiarowość danych, pozwalając na wychwycenie dominujących cech z wcześniejszych operacji konwolucji, tym samym zmniejszając ryzyko przeuczenia.\nKolejne warstwy Conv1D, zawierające odpowiednio 64 i 128 filtrów, również korzystają z funkcji aktywacji ReLU i są oddzielone warstwami normalizacji wsadowej. Te warstwy pozwalają na dalsze wydobywanie bardziej złożonych cech z danych, przygotowując grunt pod dokładniejszą rekonstrukcję konduktywności.\nPo drugiej warstwie konwolucyjnej i kolejnej warstwie MaxPooling1D dane trafiają do warstw w pełni połączonych (Dense), gdzie pierwsza zawiera\n1024 neurony, a druga 2048 neuronów. Obie wzmiankowane warstwy korzystają z funkcji aktywacji ReLU, normalizacji wsadowej oraz mechanizmu Dropout z prawdopodobieństwem 0,5.\nDropout jest techniką regularyzacyjną, która pomaga w zapobieganiu przeuczeniu przez losowe wyłączanie neuronów podczas treningu. Takie działanie utrudnia utrwalanie wzorców podczas uczenia. Ostatnia warstwa, zwana warstwą wyjściową, składa się z 3050 neuronów. Posiada ona liniową funkcję aktywacji. Warstwa wyjściowa ma za zadanie przekształcić wszystkie wyuczone cechy na ostateczny wektor wartości konduktywności, które następnie są interpretowane w kontekście rekonstrukcji obrazu za pomocą metody elementów skończonych (MES).\nW złożonym, nieliniowym problemie odwrotnym ETI przedstawiona architektura CNN demonstruje sposób, w jaki tego rodzaju techniki przetwarzania informacji mogą być efektywnie wykorzystane do analizy i interpretacji danych pomiarowych. Dzięki takim strukturom możliwe jest osiąganie znacznych postępów w zakresie dokładności i rozdzielczości rekonstrukcji obrazów tomograficznych.\n\nRys. 4.4. Architektura przykładowej sieci CNN przeznaczonej do tomografii elektrycznej\n4.3. R ekurencyjne sieci LSTM\nSieci LSTM (ang. long-short term memory) należą do nowszych struktur sieci neuronowych, jednak z uwagi na swój potencjał są szeroko opisywane w literaturze naukowej [39, 77, 96]. Jednym z kluczowych źródeł na ich temat jest praca Hochreitera i Schmidhubera z 1997 roku, która formalnie zainicjowała ten oryginalny model sieci neuronowych [46]. Wspomniana publikacja, zatytułowana Long Short-Term Memory, ukazała się w czasopiśmie „Neural\nComputation” i stanowi fundamentalne źródło na temat teoretycznych podstaw LSTM. Przez lata badania nad LSTM rozszerzyły ich zastosowania oraz pozwoliły na rozwój bardziej zaawansowanych technik, które kontynuują rozwój i optymalizację tego modelu, adaptując go do różnorodnych zastosowań i kontekstów badawczych.\n\nSieci LSTM są szczególnym rodzajem rekurencyjnych sieci neuronowych\n(RNN – ang. recurrent neural networks), które zostały zaprojektowane głównie z myślą o problemach uwzględniających zależności występujące w dłuższych sekwencjach danych niż tradycyjne RNN. Ponadto sieci LSTM są przystosowane do wejść składających się z wielu sekwencji. Sieci te są stosowane do zadań, w których konieczne jest modelowanie złożonych zależności czasowych i sekwencyjnych, takich jak przetwarzanie języka naturalnego, analiza szeregów czasowych, identyfikacja wzorców w sekwencjach danych czy generowanie muzyki. Z uwagi na charakter wektora pomiarowego ETI, uporządkowanego według protokołu pomiarowego i stanowiącego wejście tomografu elektrycznego, można założyć, że stanowi on sekwencję danych. Ten fakt powoduje, że wykorzystanie sieci LSTM w ETI jest w pełni uprawnione, co potwierdzają liczne badania [66, 67, 69, 77, 78, 86].\nRysunek 4.5 przedstawia architekturę warstwy sieciowej LSTM z wyróżnionym fragmentem wykorzystywanym w opisywanych badaniach dotyczących ETI.\nRys. 4.5. Architektura przykładowej sieci LSTM przeznaczonej do tomografii elektrycznej [67]\nCzerwona linia otacza sekcję LSTM, która została zaadaptowana jako pojedynczy (pierwszy i jedyny) krok czasowy. Szereg czasowy mający C cech (kanałów) o długości S jest oznaczony przez X. Dane binarne zawierające zarówno stan ukryty, jak i stan komórki w kroku czasowym t są oznaczone symbolami h i c.\nt t\nCechy (x , x , ..., x ) w tym przypadku oznaczają wektor pomiarowy składający\n1 2 C się z C pomiarów. Długość szeregu czasowego wynosi S = 1. W każdym bloku\n\nwarstwy LSTM znajduje się D jednostek ukrytych. Wektor pomiarowy może być uznany za sekwencję, czyli za uporządkowany zbiór wartości pojedynczych pomiarów napięcia między poszczególnymi parami elektrod, wykonywanych w regularnych odstępach czasu, według określonego protokołu pomiarowego [86].\nW przypadku ETI D jest liczbą pixeli, czyli liczbą elementów skończonych siatki\nFEM, a ponieważ S = 1 to h = h .\ns D1\nStan ukryty (alternatywnie nazywany stanem wyjściowym) i stan komórki to dwa stany, które składają się na stan warstwy LSTM. Na przykład dane wyjściowe warstwy dla kroku czasowego t są ukryte. W każdym kroku czasowym stan komórki zawiera informacje zebrane z poprzednich kroków czasu (t – 1).\nTak więc, w zależności od wektora wejściowego, warstwa dodaje lub odejmuje informacje od stanu komórki w każdym kroku czasowym. Warstwa LSTM jest odpowiedzialna za zarządzanie tymi zmianami za pośrednictwem bramek.\nStanem komórki i stanem ukrytym warstwy zarządzają następujące bramki:\nbramka wejściowa (i) steruje poziomem aktualizacji stanu komórki, bramka zapominająca (f) steruje poziomem resetowania stanu komórki, kandydat na komórkę (g) dodaje informacje do stanu komórki, a bramka wyjściowa (o) steruje poziomem stanu komórki, który ma zostać dodany do stanu ukrytego.\nRysunek 4.6 przedstawia strukturę bloku LSTM, z której wynika sposób przetwarzania informacji realizowany dla danego kroku czasowego. Grafika ilustruje, w jaki sposób bramki zapamiętują, aktualizują i wyprowadzają stany komórek i stany ukryte, a także ich interakcje.\nRys. 4.6. Struktura bloku LSTM [77]\n\nDla sieci neuronowych nie opracowano jednoznacznych kryteriów doboru parametrów, które można stosować w zależności od typów problemów, do rozwiązywania których projektowana jest sieć LSTM. W rezultacie parametry struktury sieci, takie jak np. liczba warstw, liczba modułów ukrytych, liczba warstw normalizacyjnych, wartości wag początkowych lub rodzaje funkcji aktywacji, należy dobrać subiektywnie. Również hiperparametry określające proces uczenia, takie jak np. wielkość minipartii danych „minibatch”, rodzaj algorytmu optymalizacyjnego, sposób zatrzymania procesu uczenia, dobierane są empirycznie. Wzory (3.21) mogą być stosowane do obliczania wartości wektora wag W, wag rekurencyjnych R, a także obciążeń (biasów) b [80].\n(3.21)\nSymbole i, f, o i g oznaczają odpowiednio bramki: wejściową, zapominającą, wyjściową oraz bramkę kandydata na komórkę. Stan komórki w określonym kroku czasowym t jest oznaczony jako c = f c + i g, gdzie t t t – 1 t t oznacza mnożenie elementów wektorowych. W kroku⊙ cz asowym ⊙ t stan ukry⊙ty jest zdefiniowany jako h = o σ (c) σ, gdzie σ jest funkcją aktywacji stanu.\nt t c t c c\nRównania (3.22) definiują skł⊙ad owe warstwy LSTM w kroku czasowym t:\n(3.22) gdzie σ oznacza funkcję aktywacji bramki. W problemach regresyjnych często g stosowaną funkcją aktywacji warstwy sieci neuronowej jest funkcja sigmoidalna, która może być przedstawiona jako σ(x) = (1 + e–x)–1.\n\n4.4. W ielokrotne sztuczne sieci neuronowe\nWielokrotne sztuczne sieci neuronowe (WSSN) to oryginalna koncepcja opisana po raz pierwszy w roku 2018 [120, 130]. Idea ta opiera się na założeniu, że łatwiej jest wytrenować efektywne sieci neuronowe z jednym wyjściem niż z wieloma. Metoda WSSN, zwana także metodą trenowanie piksel po pikselu\n(ang. pixel by pixel), zakłada wytrenowanie nie jednej, lecz wielu SSN, z których każda ma za zadanie obsługę pojedynczego piksela obrazu wyjściowego.\nWarto zauważyć, że do wytrenowania różnych pikseli obrazu tomograficznego wykorzystywany jest ten sam zbiór uczący pomiarów (wejść). Z uwagi na fakt, że trenowanie SSN polega na dopasowaniu wag i biasów, nie ma w tym podejściu sprzeczności.\nRysunek 4.7 przedstawia algorytm procesu uczenia nie jednej, lecz wielu sieci neuronowych stanowiących system, mający na celu rekonstrukcję obrazu tomograficznego za pomocą WSSN. Algorytm rozpoczyna się od zainicjowania dwóch liczników i oraz j, gdzie i jest indeksem przechodzącym przez zbiór pomiarów wejściowych, a j przez zbiór wyjściowy odzwierciedlający wartości pikseli obrazu tomograficznego. Zbiór x o wymiarach k na n zawiera macierz pomiarów wejściowych, gdzie k to liczba przypadków uczących, a n to liczba pomiarów w pojedynczej sekwencji. Z kolei macierz y o wymiarach k na N to zbiór wzorców obrazów tomograficznych, gdzie N to liczba pikseli na siatce obrazu rekonstruowanego, równoznaczna z liczbą elementów skończonych siatki FEM. Dla każdego przypadku uczącego reprezentowanego przez i oraz dla każdego piksela obrazu wyjściowego reprezentowanego przez j algorytm przeprowadza trening sieci neuronowej SSN z wektorem wejściowym x(i, :) oraz pikselem wyjściowym y(i, j). Po uwzględnieniu wszystkich przypadków uczących i wytrenowaniu sieci dla danego piksela j algorytm sprawdza, czy zostały uwzględnione wszystkie piksele, testując warunek „czy j = N” Jeśli warunek nie jest spełniony, algorytm zwiększa wartość j o jeden i kontynuuje trening kolejnej SSN przeznaczonej dla kolejnego piksela. Gdy wszystkim\nJ + 1 pikselom obrazu zostaną przypisane osobne sieci neuronowe, algorytm zostaje zatrzymany. W rezultacie uzyskujemy zmienną strukturalną zawierającą N wytrenowanych SNN.\n\ni=1; 1 ik j=1; 1 jN start x(k × n) – zbiór pomiarów wejściowych w postaci macierzy k × n, gdzie k – liczba przypadków uczących, j=j+1 n – liczba pomiarów w pojedynczej sekwencji pomiarowej, y(k × N) – zbiór wzorców obrazów tomograficznych, i=i+1 gdzie N to liczba elementów skończonych (pikseli) na siatce obrazu rekonstrukcyjnego.\ntrenuj SSNj dla wektora wejściowego x(i, :) i piksela wyjściowego y(i, j)\nSSNj  x(i, :) tak y(i, j) nie tak i=k i=1 nie j=N tak stop\nRys. 4.7. Algorytm trenowania wielokrotnych sieci neuronowych (WSSN)\n\n5. Laboratoryjne badania wilgotności muru ceglanego\nNiniejszy rozdział opisuje sposób badania wilgotności muru ceglanego w warunkach laboratoryjnych wykorzystujący zaawansowane techniki elektrycznej tomografii impedancyjnej (ETI). Omówiono fizyczny model zawilgoconego muru ceglanego, tradycyjnego i popularnego materiału budowlanego, stosowanego w budynkach historycznych. Charakterystyka obiektu obejmuje wymiary muru, strukturę wewnętrzną, materiały i sposób wymuszonego zawilgocenia. Kolejna część rozdziału poświęcona jest opisowi tomografu ETI\n– kluczowego urządzenia wykorzystywanego w badaniach. Tomograf umożliwia wykonanie pomiarów elektrycznych, na podstawie których generowane są obrazy wewnętrznej struktury badanego obiektu. Szczegółowo omówiono także elektrody, ich konstrukcję oraz rolę w procesie pomiarowym.\nW dalszej części rozdziału przedstawiono algorytmy i metody obliczeniowe stosowane do rekonstrukcji obrazów, w tym metody deterministyczne, statystyczne oraz metody oparte na uczeniu maszynowym. Ostatnia część rozdziału zawiera analizę i porównanie wyników uzyskanych za pomocą różnych metod rekonstrukcyjnych, co umożliwia wyciągnięcie wniosków dotyczących efektywności i wiarygodności poszczególnych technik w kontekście badania wilgotności murów ceglanych. Celem jest znalezienie optymalnych rozwiązań algorytmicznych, które mogłyby być zastosowane w praktyce inżynierskiej i konserwatorskiej, przyczyniając się do lepszego poznania badanej problematyki i skuteczniejszej ochrony zabytkowej substancji murów ceglanych.\n\n5.1. Mur ceglany jako obiekt badań\nObiektem badań był specjalnie zaprojektowany i wykonany w laboratorium Netrix\nS.A. mur ceglany widoczny na rysunku 5.1. Mur ustawiono w płytkiej wannie wykonanej z nieprzemakalnej folii otoczonej burtami, co umożliwiło zalanie dolnej części muru wodą. Woda, na skutek podsiąkania kapilarnego, przemieszczała się w górę muru poprzez porowate struktury cegieł i zaprawy murarskiej. Dodatkowo na szczycie muru dobudowano ceglaną nieckę o pojemności około 18 litrów (rysunek 5.1b). W ten sposób umożliwiono wnikanie wody w głąb muru także od góry.\nMur poddawany był działaniu wody przez 48 godzin. Po tym czasie stwierdzono, że rozkład zawilgocenia ustabilizował się, ponieważ dynamika wzrostu zawilgocenia została zrównoważona przez odparowywanie (wysychanie) muru. Można to było stwierdzić między innymi na podstawie obrazów termograficznych, a także organoleptycznie.\na b\nRys. 5.1. Sztucznie zawilgocony mur ceglany w warunkach laboratoryjnych:\n(a) widok całego stanowiska badawczego, (b) górna część muru\nRysunek 5.2 przedstawia zdjęcie stanowiska badawczego, które obejmowało mur ceglany, elektrody, tomograf oraz komputer z oprogramowaniem umożliwiającym ustrukturyzowany zapis danych pomiarowych w odpowiednim formacie, a także uruchomienie algorytmu przetwarzającego pomiary na obrazy rekonstrukcyjne.\n\nRys. 5.2. Stanowisko badawcze\nRysunek 5.3 przedstawia obrazy uzyskane w podczerwieni, wykonane za pomocą kamery termowizyjnej FLIR-T540 (FLIR Systems, Inc., Wilsonville,\nOR, USA). Obrazy termowizyjne ilustrują dwa różne widoki sztucznie zawilgoconego muru ceglanego. Rysunek 5.3a przedstawia mur z elektrodami umieszczonymi na jego powierzchni. Elektrody zostały wykorzystane do generowania i odbierania parametrów elektrycznych, które zostały użyte do mapowania rozkładu konduktywności w strukturze muru, co ma kluczowe znaczenie dla wizualizacji obszarów zawilgocenia.\nRysunek 5.3b przedstawia ten sam mur, lecz bez elektrod. Na tym obrazie nie ma widocznych narzędzi pomiarowych, co pozwala na ocenę obrazu cieplnego muru bez wpływu obecności elektrod. Różnice w kolorach na obu obrazach odpowiadają różnicom temperatury powierzchni, co jest bezpośrednio związane z wilgotnością muru, zwłaszcza na jego powierzchni. Wilgotniejsze obszary charakteryzują się inną zdolnością do przewodzenia ciepła, przez co mają inny profil temperaturowy. Inna jest także ich konduktywność.\nAnaliza obrazów w podczerwieni, w ograniczonym zakresie, może być wykorzystana do weryfikacji skuteczności metody ETI w lokalizacji i kwantyfikacji zawilgocenia w murach ceglanych. W szczególności porównanie rozkładu temperatury na obrazach z danymi uzyskanymi z ETI może dostarczyć informacji o zgodności i skuteczności tej techniki pomiarowej w diagnozowaniu stanu zawilgocenia struktur budowlanych.\n\na b\nRys. 5.3. Zdjęcia termowizyjne sztucznie zawilgoconego muru ceglanego:\n(a) widok z elektrodami, (b) widok bez elektrod\nŹródło: materiały Netrix S.A.\nPrecyzyjne zweryfikowanie dokładności odwzorowania wilgoci na obrazie tomograficznym w przypadku obiektów rzeczywistych jest w zasadzie niemożliwe. Wynika to z braku bezpośredniego odniesienia do wzorca zawilgoconego wnętrza badanego fragmentu muru (ang. ground truth). Badanie zawilgoconego muru za pomocą elektrycznej tomografii impedancyjnej w kontrolowanych warunkach laboratoryjnych jest skuteczną metodą oceny jakości ETI w warunkach zbliżonych do rzeczywistych. Aby móc dokładnie ocenić jakość i precyzję obrazów rekonstrukcyjnych, często stosuje się różne wskaźniki ilościowe, takie jak błąd średniokwadratowy (MSE), wskaźnik korelacji Pearsona, strukturalny indeks podobieństwa (SSIM – ang. structural similarity index measure) oraz stosunek sygnału do szumu (PSNR – ang. peak signal to noise ratio). Jednak wykorzystanie tych wskaźników wymaga dostępności obrazu referencyjnego, który można uzyskać metodami symulacyjnymi. Jak już wspomniano, w warunkach rzeczywistych uzyskanie obrazów referencyjnych badanego fragmentu muru jest niemożliwe. Stanowi to zasadniczą przeszkodę utrudniającą weryfikację ETI jako skutecznej metody identyfikacji wilgoci. Pomimo tego klasyczne, punktowe metody badania zawilgoceń murów mogą w pewnym stopniu uzupełnić tę lukę.\n\n5.2. Tomograf hybrydowy\nW badaniach będących przedmiotem niniejszego opracowania wykorzystano prototypowy tomograf hybrydowy, zaprojektowany i wykonany w laboratoriach\nNetrix S.A. Jest to zaawansowane urządzenie pomiarowe, które wykorzystuje tomografię elektryczną do analizy obiektów dwoma metodami – elektrycznej tomografii impedancyjnej (ETI) oraz elektrycznej tomografii pojemnościowej\n(ETP) [17, 102]. Rysunek 5.4. przedstawia schemat blokowy tomografu hybrydowego ETI/ETP.\nMultiplekser 32 kanałowy\nRegulacja\nFiltry Układ Howlanda wzmocnienia\nDDS generator\nCDC ADC ADC sygnału\nKontroler pomiaru\nLCD + touchpad\nEthernet Kontroler danych\nUSB\nRys. 5.4. Schemat blokowy tomografu hybrydowego ETI/ETP\nŹródło: opracowanie własne na podstawie materiałów Netrix S.A.\nKluczową rolę w tomografie hybrydowym pełni układ Howlanda. Jego zadaniem jest generowanie stabilnego sygnału prądowego niezbędnego do precyzyjnych pomiarów metodą impedancyjną. Z punktu widzenia efektywności i dokładności systemu tomograficznego ma to znaczenie fundamentalne, szczególnie w aplikacjach medycznych i przemysłowych, w których niezawodność i stabilność sygnału są priorytetem. Centralnym elementem układu Howlanda jest moduł DDS (ang. direct digital synthesis). Moduł ten umożliwia precyzyjne modulowanie i stabilizowanie sygnału prądowego.\nTechnologia DDS pozwala na szybkie i precyzyjne generowanie sygnałów\n\nprądowych o zdefiniowanych parametrach. Do ww. parametrów zaliczamy częstotliwość, amplitudę i fazę, przy czym zmiana parametrów odbywa się w sposób elektroniczny. Cyfrowe podejście do syntezy sygnału znacznie zwiększa efektywność układu Howlanda, jednocześnie oferując dużą dokładność i powtarzalność wyników. Do zalet DDS należy łatwe, dynamiczne i automatyczne dostosowanie parametrów sygnału za pomocą oprogramowania.\nPozwala to na elastyczne zarządzanie procesem pomiarowym i akomodację do specyficznych potrzeb użytkownika bez potrzeby fizycznej ingerencji w układ. Dodatkowo technologia DDS minimalizuje ryzyko powstawania szumów i zakłóceń. Zakłócenia mają negatywny wpływ na jakość sygnału, a co za tym idzie, także na dokładność pomiarów.\nZadaniem przetworników analogowo-cyfrowych (ADC) jest przekształcanie sygnałów analogowych pochodzących z różnych modułów urządzenia na dane cyfrowe. Tego rodzaju dane stanowią podstawę do dalszej analizy i rekonstrukcji obrazów. Zastosowane w tomografie moduły ADC charakteryzują się wysoką rozdzielczością, dzięki czemu urządzenie dokładnie odwzorowuje sygnały analogowe w ich cyfrowej formie. Wysoka, 16-bitowa rozdzielczość przetwornika jest szczególnie przydatna w aplikacjach medycznych i inżynieryjnych. Precyzja i szczegółowość pomiarów mają bezpośredni wpływ na jakość obrazowania.\nIstotnym parametrem ADC jest również szybkość pomiaru. Krótki czas przetwarzania umożliwia szybką akwizycję danych, co jest szczególnie ważne w środowiskach dynamicznych, gdzie zmiany stanu badanego obiektu mogą następować w szybkim tempie. Dzięki krótkim czasom przetwarzania przetworników ADC tomograf może rejestrować dane w czasie rzeczywistym. Ta cecha jest istotna zwłaszcza podczas monitorowania przepływów cieczy, reakcji chemicznych czy funkcji fizjologicznych w badaniach biomedycznych.\nSzybkość przetworników w opisywanym tomografie wynosi 500 kSps1 na kanał.\nKolejnym aspektem pracy ADC, oprócz rozdzielczości i szybkości, jest minimalizacja interferencji sygnału. Tomograf wykorzystuje zaawansowane techniki filtracji i tłumienia zakłóceń, aby zminimalizować wpływ szumów i innych zewnętrznych zakłóceń na sygnał. Redukcja zakłóceń ma duże znaczenie dla utrzymania wysokiego poziomu czystości sygnału. Ma to bezpośrednie przełożenie nie tylko na pomiary, lecz przede wszystkim wpływa na dokładność i wiarygodność wyników, dla których podstawą są pomiary.\nModuł regulacji wzmocnienia ma na celu zapewnienie optymalnej jakości sygnału przed jego digitalizacją realizowaną za pośrednictwem przetwornika\n1 kSps – ang. kilosamples per second, czyli tysiąc próbek na sekundę.\n\nanalogowo-cyfrowego (ADC). Regulacja wzmocnienia pozwala na dostosowanie amplitudy sygnału pomiarowego do różnych warunków operacyjnych.\nJest to niezbędne w różnorodnych zastosowaniach, a zwłaszcza w sytuacjach, kiedy sygnały wykazują znaczne różnice w poziomie mocy. Funkcja regulacji wzmocnienia umożliwia precyzyjne dostosowanie poziomu sygnału wejściowego do zakresu pracy ADC. Ma to duże znaczenie dla utrzymania pełnej dynamiki sygnału i uniknięcia zniekształceń, takich jak przesterowanie lub zbyt niska rozdzielczość pomiaru. Opisywany moduł charakteryzuje się cyfrowym sterowaniem. To sprawia, że wszystkie ustawienia wzmocnienia mogą być realizowane za pośrednictwem oprogramowania sterującego urządzeniem. Oprogramowanie sterujące zawarte w układzie umożliwia dokonywanie szybkich zmian konfiguracji wzmocnienia w odpowiedzi na zmieniające się warunki pomiarowe, a także na specyficzne wymagania związane z realizowanym eksperymentem. Ponadto cyfrowe sterowanie wzmocnieniem umożliwia automatyzację procesów kalibracji i dostosowywanie parametrów operacyjnych.\nDzięki temu tomograf uzyskuje większą efektywność i niezawodność w zróżnicowanych warunkach pracy.\nCyfrowo sterowane wzmocnienie sprawia, że tomograf można zaadaptować do szerokiej gamy scenariuszy pomiarowych, od sygnałów o niskiej amplitudzie, po sygnały o wysokiej mocy. Tego rodzaju elastyczność jest istotna w zastosowaniach badawczych i przemysłowych, w których warunki pomiarowe mogą się znacznie różnić.\nPrzetwornik ADC może generować surowe, bezpośrednie dane dla wartości pomiarów tomograficznych, ale w przypadku opisywanych badań ADC odpowiednio konwertuje wartości, tj. normalizuje je do efektywnej rozdzielczości 16-bitowej oraz dokonuje kwantyzacji analogowego sygnału wejściowego, dzieląc go na 65 536 możliwych poziomów. Cyfryzacja sygnału normalizuje dane wejściowe do ustalonego zakresu wartości, biorąc pod uwagę wartości wzmocnienia, upraszczając porównanie i analizę.\nCharakter procesu akwizycji danych i późniejsze metody ich przetwarzania zastosowane w badaniach przyczyniły się do tego, aby wartości pomiarów były podawane w jednostkach umownych (ang. arbitrary units). Sposób wyrażania wartości pomiarów w jednostkach umownych, zamiast w woltach, wynika z kilku przesłanek. Powyższe przesłanki są rezultatem specyfiki metodologii\nETI, jej zastosowań oraz kwantyfikacji i specyfiki procesu obrazowania wilgoci w ścianach. ETI polega na iniekcji prądu elektrycznego przez elektrody umieszczone na powierzchni badanego obiektu. Następnie dokonuje się pomiarów różnic potencjałów pomiędzy różnymi parami elektrod. W rezultacie uzyskane\n\nwartości pomiarowe mogą się różnić w zależności od kalibracji urządzenia, normalizacji i zastosowanego algorytmu rekonstrukcji obrazu. Zmiany te wpływają na korelację względnych wartości potencjałów z bezwzględnymi jednostkami fizycznymi wyrażonymi w woltach. Zastosowanie jednostek umownych pozwala na bardziej uogólnioną reprezentację pomiarów, ułatwiając porównywanie uzyskanych rekonstrukcji w różnych konfiguracjach i eksperymentach bez konieczności powiązania kolorów z określoną skalą wyrażoną w woltach.\nInnym argumentem przemawiającym za wprowadzeniem jednostek umownych jest proces kalibracji ETI. Kalibracja jest niezbędnym elementem procesu dostosowania pomiarów. Ma ona na celu uwzględnienie zmiennych specyficznych dla systemu, takich jak impedancja elektrody, charakterystyka wzmacniacza sygnału i inne czynniki, które mogą wpływać na pomiary. Ponieważ proces ten dostosowuje skalę wartości pomiarów, wynikowe dane mogą nie odpowiadać napięciom w sposób bezpośredni, co sprawia, że jednostki umowne są bardziej praktycznym wyborem.\nDo zobrazowania wilgoci w ścianach za pomocą ETI wystarczy informacja na temat rozkładu względnych zmian konduktancji elektrycznej. Nie chodzi więc o uzyskanie bezwzględnych wartości konduktywności. Tego rodzaju podejście ułatwia interpretację obrazów tomograficznych, uwidoczniając rozkład wilgoci wewnątrz badanego obiektu, nie zaś dokładne wartości parametrów fizycznych. Zastosowanie jednostek umownych upraszcza porównywanie danych z różnych pomiarów, urządzeń i warunków eksperymentalnych.\nPonieważ specyficzna konfiguracja i kalibracja systemu ETI może znacząco zmieniać wartości bezwzględne pomiarów elektrycznych, jednostki umowne oferują znormalizowaną skalę nadającą się do zastosowania w różnych badaniach, zwiększając w ten sposób porównywalność i powtarzalność wyników.\nW obrazowaniu wilgotności ścian głównym przedmiotem zainteresowania jest rozkład i względne zmiany zawartości wilgoci, a nie ilościowe określenie dokładnych właściwości elektrycznych badanej struktury. Jednostki umowne są odpowiednie do tego zadania, ponieważ pozwalają na skuteczną wizualizację i analizę wzorców zawilgoceń bez znajomości bezpośredniej korelacji z określonymi jednostkami fizycznymi.\nInnym kluczowym komponentem, który odpowiada za koordynowanie procesu akwizycji danych jest kontroler pomiaru. Jego główne funkcje obejmują zarządzanie pracą przetworników analogowo-cyfrowych (ADC), sterowanie procesem zbierania danych oraz ich wstępne przetwarzanie.\nKontroler pomiaru jest więc centralnym elementem systemu pomiarowego odpowiedzialnym za zapewnienie spójności i precyzji zbieranych danych.\n\nMa to fundamentalne znaczenie dla prowadzonych analiz i interpretacji wyników. Kontroler pomiaru zapewnia optymalny sposób rejestrowania zmieniających się sygnałów. Wspomniany moduł umożliwia szybką zmianę parametrów pomiarowych, takich jak częstotliwość próbkowania, zakres wzmocnienia sygnału czy parametry filtracji. Sterowanie ADC realizowane przez kontroler pomiaru obejmuje między innymi zarządzanie czasem próbkowania oraz precyzją, z jaką sygnały analogowe są konwertowane na format cyfrowy. Kontroler zapewnia, że każdy sygnał jest przetwarzany z odpowiednią dokładnością, co jest istotne dla zachowania integralności danych. Ma to szczególnie znaczenie w aplikacjach, gdzie nawet małe błędy pojawiające się w rejestrowanych danych mogą prowadzić do znacznych błędów w interpretacji wyników. Kontroler pomiaru posiada również funkcje wstępnego przetwarzania sygnałów. Należą do nich filtracja, wzmocnienie oraz ewentualna korekcja sygnałów przed ich cyfryzacją. Dzięki zaawansowanym algorytmom przetwarzania sygnałów, kontroler jest w stanie minimalizować wpływ zakłóceń oraz poprawiać jakość danych wejściowych.\nRysunek 5.5 przedstawia schemat karty pomiarowej, która jest integralną częścią modułu kontrolera pomiaru. Karta pomiarowa przetwarza sygnały otrzymane z wielu elektrod. Przetwarzanie obejmuje filtrację, regulację wzmocnienia oraz przekształcenie pomiarów analogowych na cyfrowe przy użyciu przetworników ADC.\n\nRys. 5.5. Schemat blokowy karty pomiarowej\nŹródło: materiały Netrix S.A.\nNa rysunku 5.6. przedstawiono kartę pomiarową konstrukcji Netrix S.A.\nPłytka drukowana zawiera wiele elementów elektronicznych, takich jak zintegrowane obwody (IC), rezystory, kondensatory i złącza. Cztery złącza koaksjalne typu SMA znajdujące się w górnej części układu świadczą o tym, że karta jest wykorzystywana do obsługi sygnałów wysokiej częstotliwości – nawet do\n500 kHz. Na płytce umieszczono wiele drobnych komponentów pasywnych i aktywnych, które są integralnymi częściami obwodów elektronicznych wspierających funkcje karty. Karta realizuje takie zadania jak filtracja, wzmacnianie sygnałów, a także ich konwersja i przetwarzanie. Złącza widoczne na dolnej krawędzi karty pozwalają na jej połączenie z głównym systemem pomiarowym.\n\nRys. 5.6. Karta pomiarowa tomografu hybrydowego konstrukcji Netrix S.A.\nŹródło: materiały Netrix S.A.\nInnym istotnym elementem systemu tomograficznego są filtry aktywne.\nIch rola polega na redukcji składowych sygnału o częstotliwości 50 Hz. Ta wartość częstotliwości jest typowa dla zakłóceń pochodzących z sieci elektrycznej.\nFiltry aktywne wykorzystują skomplikowane konfiguracje elektroniczne do selektywnego tłumienia określonych częstotliwości, jednocześnie zachowując integralność pożądanych części sygnału. Ich prawidłowe zaprojektowanie i implementacja są kluczowe dla efektywnej separacji użytecznych danych od szumów i zakłóceń. Korzyści wynikające z użycia filtrów aktywnych obejmują nie tylko eliminację zakłóceń o częstotliwości 50 Hz, ale również ogólną poprawę stosunku sygnału do szumu (PSNR). Zwiększa to zdolność systemu do wykrywania subtelnych kontrastów w badanych obiektach. Ma to szczególne znaczenie w sytuacji, kiedy niewielkie różnice w wartościach pomiarowych mogą powodować duże zmiany na wyjściu układu.\nZadania tomografu polegające na przetwarzaniu, analizie oraz zarządzaniu zebranymi danymi pomiarowymi realizuje kontroler danych. Pełni on priorytetową rolę w procesie transformacji surowych danych wejściowych na użyteczne informacje, które mogą być wykorzystane do dalszej analizy, diagnozy czy monitoringu. Kontroler danych przetwarza sygnały otrzymywane z modułu ADC. Do jego zadań należy filtracja, dekodowanie oraz przekształcanie sygnałów do odpowiednich formatów danych. Przetwarzanie, o którym mowa, obejmuje również algorytmy do identyfikacji anomalii, korekcji błędów oraz optymalizacji danych do dalszego wykorzystania. Zadaniem kontrolera danych jest także zarządzanie pamięcią. Wymaga to skutecznego gospodarowania przestrzenią pamięciową\n\nzarówno wewnętrzną, jak i zewnętrzną. Celem jest zapewnienie odpowiedniej przepustowość i dostępności danych dla różnych procesów systemowych. Kontroler danych koordynuje zapis danych na lokalnych nośnikach oraz ich backup w celu zapewnienia bezpieczeństwa i integralności. Podlegający kontrolerowi danych interfejs użytkownika pozwala na interakcję systemu tomograficznego z operatorem. Z kontrolerem zintegrowane są takie elementy jak ekran dotykowy oraz graficzny panel kontrolny, który zarządza ich funkcjonalnością i wydajnością.\nKontroler danych posiada opcje zapisu i przesyłania danych. Możliwość zapisu danych na zewnętrznych nośnikach, takich jak dyski USB, jest konieczna w kontekście mobilności danych i ich archiwizacji. Ponadto kontroler zapewnia funkcje przesyłania danych poprzez interfejsy takie jak USB i Ethernet, co umożliwia wymianę danych pomiędzy tomografem a innymi systemami komputerowymi. Przyspiesza to procesy badawcze i diagnostyczne oraz umożliwia integrację systemu tomograficznego z większymi sieciami badawczymi, gdzie dane mogą być zdalnie analizowane i przetwarzane.\nRysunek 5.7 przedstawia schemat blokowy jednostki sterowania i przetwarzania danych, wykorzystujący zintegrowane układy FPGA oraz ARM\nCyclone V. Centralnym elementem układu jest moduł zawierający FPGA oraz mikroprocesor ARM Cortex-A9 umożliwiający efektywne przetwarzanie danych oraz realizujący procesy zarządzania logiką operacyjną systemu.\nRys. 5.7. Schemat jednostki sterowania i przetwarzania danych\nŹródło: materiały Netrix S.A.\n\nW omawianej architekturze FPGA (ang. field-programmable gate array) służy do realizacji specyficznych funkcji związanych z przetwarzaniem sygnałów, logiką cyfrową czy operacjami na danych w czasie rzeczywistym. Możliwości konfiguracji FPGA pozwalają na elastyczne dostosowanie do zmiennych wymagań aplikacji. Mikroprocesor ARM Cortex-A9 zapewnia ogólną kontrolę nad systemem i obsługę tzw. zadań wyższego poziomu. W szczególności do jego zadań należy obsługa interfejsu użytkownika, zarządzanie siecią oraz komunikacja z urządzeniami zewnętrznymi. W opisywanym układzie znajdują się także bloki obsługujące pamięć ROM i RAM, które są wykorzystywane odpowiednio do przechowywania danych i oprogramowania tylko do odczytu (ROM\n– ang. read-only memory) oraz danych operacyjnych i tymczasowych (RAM\n– ang. random-access memory). Na schemacie widoczne są również interfejsy komunikacyjne, takie jak USB Host i 1000BASE-T Ethernet, które umożliwiają łączność z innymi urządzeniami i sieciami. Ponadto schemat uwzględnia zewnętrzną pamięć DDR RAM (DDR – ang. double data rate), która zapewnia dodatkową przestrzeń dla danych wymagających szybkiego dostępu i dużych zasobów, oraz moduł „Ekran + TP (Touchpad)”. Całość jest zintegrowana za pośrednictwem magistrali, która zapewnia komunikację i przesył danych między wszystkimi elementami systemu.\n5.3. Elektrody ETI\nElektrody wykorzystane w badaniach wilgotności murów zostały zaprojektowane w laboratoriach Netrix S.A. Stanowią one odrębny system, który współpracuje z właściwym urządzeniem tomograficznym ETI/ETC. Podstawowym zadaniem elektrod jest umożliwienie przepływu prądu elektrycznego między obiektem badań a tomografem. W związku z powyższym elektrody mają kluczowy wpływ na jakość i dokładność rekonstrukcji obrazu. W przypadku obrazowania wilgotności murów powierzchnia styku z elektrodami może być nierówna. Ta okoliczność stanowi poważne wyzwanie techniczno-konstrukcyjne, ponieważ zapewnienie kontaktu elektrod ze ścianą budynku jest niezbędne do niezakłóconego przepływu prądu elektrycznego.\nZ myślą o zapewnieniu efektywnego kontaktu z nierównymi powierzchniami, w laboratorium Netrix S.A. zaprojektowano i wykonano prototypy elektrod ETI wraz z systemem metalowych listew do ich mocowania. Elektrody zostały wykonane z elastycznych materiałów, które umożliwiają dostosowanie do nierówności badanej powierzchni. Ich głównym celem jest zapewnienie\n\nstałego i niezawodnego kontaktu elektrycznego tomografu z obiektem badań.\nW elektrodach zastosowano innowacyjne rozwiązania konstrukcyjne, które zwiększają obszar kontaktu z nierówną powierzchnią.\nZarówno pojedyncze elektrody, jak również metalowe listwy, do których elektrody są przytwierdzone, chroni patent (PAT.239542). Uchwyt elektrody składa się z płyty montażowej z centralnym otworem, w którym umieszczony jest tulejowy korpus z kołnierzem. Konstrukcja ta ma na celu maksymalizację stopnia dopasowania do nierówności murów. Istotnym elementem zapewniającym prawidłowy styk każdej elektrody ETI z murem jest elastyczny pierścień gumowy. Wspomniane pierścienie zapewniają dodatkową amortyzację i pozwalają na zachowanie stałego nacisku, niezbędnego do utrzymania ciągłości pomiaru.\nElementy konstrukcyjne elektrod, w tym płyta montażowa i tulejowy korpus, zostały wytworzone przy użyciu technologii druku 3-D. Dzięki wykorzystaniu druku 3-D uzyskano wysoką precyzję, trwałość oraz dobre dopasowanie wszystkich części składowych. Syntetyczne materiały, które zostały użyte do wydrukowania elektrod, zapewniają wysoką trwałość i odporność na zmienne warunki środowiskowe mogące występować w warunkach rzeczywistych.\nNa płycie laminowanej PCB znajduje się gniazdo połączeniowe SMB, co ułatwia podłączanie elektrod do systemu pomiarowego ETI. Dodatkowo pierścień z pianki poliuretanowej zabezpiecza złącze przed uszkodzeniami mechanicznymi i wpływem wilgoci. Innym zadaniem pierścienia jest zapewnienie równomiernego rozkładu nacisku na elektrodę. Dzięki powyższym rozwiązaniom techniczno-konstrukcyjnym elektrody ETI mogą być efektywnie wykorzystywane w różnorodnych aplikacjach – od monitoringu zawilgoceń w budynkach zabytkowych po zastosowania w badaniach przemysłowych.\nBadania ETI wymagają precyzji i niezawodności na każdym etapie procesu obrazowania, począwszy od pomiarów, poprzez transformację danych pomiarowych na dane wyjściowe, kalibrację kolorów i generowanie rekonstrukcji.\nDlatego w technologii ETI nie powinno się dokonywać kompromisów, polegających na obniżeniu kosztów produkcji w zamian za obniżenie parametrów technicznych systemu tomograficznego. Rysunek 5.8 przedstawia półwidok – półprzekrój elektrody ETI.\n\nRys. 5.8. Półwidok – półprzekrój elektrody ETI\nŹródło: materiały Netrix S.A.\nKonstrukcja elektrody obejmuje kilka kluczowych elementów:\n1. Korpus elektrody – element zapewniający sztywność konstrukcji, wykonany z tworzywa w technologii 3-D.\n2. Płyta mocująca – element konstrukcyjny elektrody, w którego środkowej części znajduje się otwór o przekroju okrągłym. Przedmiotowa płyta jest wykonana w technologii druku 3-D, co pozwala na precyzyjne dopasowanie do specyfikacji technicznych.\n3. Tuleja z kołnierzem – umieszczona w otworze płyty mocującej tuleja, przylega do wewnętrznej części korpusu elektrody, zapewniając stabilność i trwałość montażu. Kołnierz tulei pomaga w utrzymaniu elektrody w odpowiedniej pozycji względem powierzchni przylegania.\n4. Elastyczny pierścień – znajdujący się pomiędzy płytą mocującą a korpusem elektrody, wykonany z gumy, zapewnia dodatkową amortyzację i elastyczność, umożliwiając dokładne dostosowanie do nierówności muru.\n5. Płytka z gniazdem przyłączeniowym – na powierzchni tej płytki znajduje się tuleja wykonana z gąbki, co dodatkowo zabezpiecza połączenie.\nPłytka została wykonana z dwustronnego laminatu PCB z gniazdem przyłączeniowym SMB.\n\n6. Powierzchnia stykająca się z murem – wykonana z gumy elektroprzewodzącej, zapewniająca skuteczny i stabilny kontakt. Wewnętrzna strona gumowej powierzchni jest pokryta galwaniczną warstwą miedzi, do której przytwierdzony jest spiralny drut. Drut ukryty jest pod gąbką. Jego zadaniem jest połączenie elektryczne powierzchni stykowej elektrody ze złączem na tylnej ściance elektrody, do którego zamocowany jest przewód elektryczny.\n7. Tuleja wykonana z gąbki – zapewnia elastyczność amortyzującą nierówności powierzchni badanej ściany.\nNa rysunku 5.9 przedstawiono zdjęcia kompletnej elektrody ETI. Zdjęcia umożliwiają ogląd elektrody ze wszystkich stron. Wyraźnie widać zewnętrzną powierzchnię tulei wykonanej z gąbki (rysunek 5.9a), tylną ściankę z przytwierdzonym złączem (rysunek 5.9b) oraz powierzchnię styku wykonaną z gumy elektroprzewodzącej (rysunek 5.9c).\na b c\n(a) Rys. 5.9. Elektr(obd)a tomografu ETI: (c)\n(a) widok strony tylnej, (b) strona przednia, (c) widok z boku\nŹródło: materiały Netrix S.A.\nRysunek 5.10 przedstawia elektrody ETI zamocowane na ścianie badanego obiektu. Elektrody są przymocowane do metalowych listew, z możliwością regulacji. Pozwala to na ich równomierne rozmieszczenie wzdłuż badanej powierzchni. Na rysunku 5.9a widoczne są obie listwy z elektrodami. Elektrody są rozmieszczone w równych odstępach, co jest kluczowe dla zapewnienia jednolitego pola pomiarowego i dokładności pomiarów. Każda elektroda posiada elastyczny przewód, który jest połączony z systemem akwizycji danych.\nPrzewody są dobrze zorganizowane i zabezpieczone, co jest ważne dla utrzymania stabilności połączeń oraz ochrony przed mechanicznymi uszkodzeniami. Rysunek 5.9b prezentuje górną część lewej listwy, co pozwala na dokładniejszy ogląd sposobu montażu elektrod. Widać sposób, w jaki elektrody\n\nsą mocowane do listwy – co ma na celu zapewnienie zarówno stabilności, jak i niezbędnej elastyczności, umożliwiającej dobry kontakt elektrod z nierówną powierzchnią muru.\na b\nRys. 5.10. Widok elektrod przyłożonych do powierzchni muru ceglanego:\n(a) widok obu listew z elektrodami, (b) widok górnej części lewej listwy\nŹródło: materiały Netrix S.A.\n5.4. M odelowanie fragmentu muru metodą elementów skończonych\nAby wykorzystać metodę elementów skończonych do modelowania rozkładu konduktywności wewnątrz murów, potrzebny jest model siatki. Tworzenie siatek FEM 3-D stanowi fundamentalny aspekt zaawansowanych aplikacji tomografii, w szczególności w dziedzinie tomografii impedancji elektrycznej i tomografii optycznej rozproszonej. Współpracujące z Matlabem oprogramowanie\nEidors (ang. electrical impedance and diffuse optical tomography reconstruction software) jest popularnym narzędziem wykorzystywanym w badaniach tomograficznych, a odpowiednia siatka 3-D jest kluczowym składnikiem obrazowania tomograficznego [1]. Model FEM badanego obiektu można wykonać, korzystając z wbudowanych funkcji pakietu Eidors, jednak nie jest to jedyna\n\nopcja. Dostępne są specjalistyczne programy komputerowe, które umożliwiają efektywne tworzenie siatek kompatybilnych z biblioteką Eidors. Ich wykorzystanie zapewnia elastyczność i precyzję w modelowaniu złożonych struktur\n3-D. Jednym z uznanych i powszechnie stosowanych pakietów oprogramowania do tworzenia siatek jest Gmsh. Wzmiankowane oprogramowanie wyróżnia się intuicyjnym interfejsem użytkownika, który ułatwia proces tworzenia i edycji siatek FEM. Za jego pomocą można opracowywać siatki zarówno płaskie 2-D, jak również przestrzenne 3-D. Oprogramowanie Gmsh oferuje dość szeroki zakres funkcji. Należą do nich: automatyczne i ręczne tworzenie siatek, możliwość wyboru różnych kształtów elementów skończonych (trójkąty, czworościany i heksagony) oraz możliwość definiowania złożonych geometrii.\nJedną z kluczowych zalet Gmsh jest bezpośrednia kompatybilność z Eidors.\nDzięki temu pliki zawierające sparametryzowane siatki FEM wygenerowane w Gmsh mogą być odczytane i wykorzystane w symulacjach realizowanych za pomocą Matlaba wyposażonego w pakiet narzędziowy Eidors.\nKolejny zaawansowany generator siatek FEM to Netgen. Wspomniany pakiet zyskał popularność wśród naukowców i inżynierów z uwagi na możliwość generowania plików w formacie CGNS (CFD General Notation System).\nCGNS jest szeroko stosowanym standardem w obliczeniach dynamiki płynów.\nOprogramowanie jest kompatybilne z Eidors. Netgen umożliwia tworzenie siatek 3-D z różnymi typami elementów, koncentrując się na czworościanach i heksagonach.\nSpośród pakietów oprogramowania umożliwiających tworzenie siatek FEM, na uwagę zasługuje TetGen. Jest to specjalistyczne narzędzie ukierunkowane na tworzenie siatek czworościennych (ang. tetrahedron). TetGen zyskał uznanie z powodu wysokiej jakości i dokładności. Siatki czworościenne są szczególnie przydatne w metodzie elementów skończonych, ponieważ zapewniają elastyczność i dokładność w modelowaniu złożonych kształtów 3-D. TetGen oferuje szerokie spektrum funkcjonalności, w tym obsługę różnych typów danych wejściowych, takich jak chmury punktów, powierzchnie i objętości. Pliki wyjściowe\nTetGen można konwertować na formaty kompatybilne z Matlab/Eidors, co czyni go cennym narzędziem w procesie przygotowywania siatek do symulacji.\nW przypadku bardziej złożonych wymagań dotyczących tworzenia siatek\nFEM, takich jak obszerne projekty inżynieryjne lub badania naukowe, odpowiednim narzędziem jest komercyjne oprogramowanie ANSYS Mesh. Pakiet\nANSYS Mesh umożliwia tworzenie siatek 3-D, w tym siatek heksagonalnych\n(układ plastra miodu) i czworościennych. Oprogramowanie posiada spory zakres opcji umożliwiających dostosowanie siatek do konkretnych uwarunkowań\n\ni ograniczeń związanych z obiektem badań. Z uwagi na to, że pakiet ANSYS\nMesh jest komercyjnym oprogramowaniem, jego wszechstronność i szeroki zakres funkcji sprawiają, że jest on powszechnie stosowany w branży i badaniach akademickich. Pliki zawierające parametry FEM wygenerowane przez oprogramowania ANSYS można konwertować na formaty kompatybilne z Matlab/\nEidors przy użyciu odpowiednich narzędzi konwersji.\nKolejnym narzędziem przeznaczonym do tworzenia siatek FEM jest IT-\nK-SNAP. Oprogramowania jest stosowane głównie do segmentacji obrazów, jednak oferuje również możliwości tworzenia siatek 3-D. ITK-SNAP umożliwia ręczne lub półautomatyczne tworzenie siatek na podstawie obrazów medycznych, takich jak MRI (rezonans magnetyczny) lub CT (tomografia komputerowa). Powyższa funkcjonalność jest szczególnie przydatna w aplikacjach medycznych i biologicznych, gdzie istnieje potrzeba dokładnego odwzorowania ludzkiej anatomii. Wygenerowane siatki można wyeksportować do formatów plików kompatybilnych z Matlab/Eidors, co pozwala na integrację z zaawansowanymi możliwościami symulacyjnymi tego oprogramowania.\nPodczas tworzenia siatek 3-D dla Eidors lub innych aplikacji tomograficznych należy zwrócić uwagę, że gęstość i kształt elementów siatki powinny być dobrane w zależności od specyfiki problemu. Projektując siatkę FEM do generowania pomiarów symulacyjnych, należy wziąć pod uwagę konkretne wymagania związane z symulowanym procesem pomiarowym. W szczególności są to: wzorzec stymulacji elektrod, warunki brzegowe, parametry materiałowe i właściwości fizyczne obiektu badań.\nNa rysunku 5.11 przedstawiono model FEM muru opisanego na początku tego rozdziału (rysunek 5.1). Siatka modelu składa się z 3050 czworościennych elementów skończonych. Warto zauważyć, że gęstość wokseli (przestrzennych elementów skończonych) nie jest jednolita w całej objętości modelowanego muru. Obszary wokół elektrod są podzielone na większą liczbę wokseli niż obszary od nich oddalone. Wynika to z faktu, że gęstość pola elektrycznego maleje wraz z odległością od źródła prądu. Dlatego najlepszą rozdzielczość obrazu można uzyskać w obszarach leżących bliżej elektrod. Rozdzielczość obrazu spada wraz z odległością od elektrod.\nW tabeli 5.1 przedstawiono szczegółowy opis pól zmiennej strukturalnej zawierającej pełną informację określającą model siatki FEM widoczny na rysunku 5.11. Głównym komponentem modelu jest zmienna strukturalna fwd_model, służąca do opisu i symulacji przepływu prądu elektrycznego przez badany obiekt. W skład zmiennej fwd_model wchodzi kilka elementów.\nWśród nich kluczowa jest informacja o typie modelu, który może być prosty lub\n\nodwrotny, zdefiniowany jako ciąg znaków w polu type. Nazwa modelu może być dowolna i jest przechowywana w polu name. Informacje o geometrii modelu zawarte są w polu nodes, które przedstawia współrzędne węzłów w trzech wymiarach, oraz w polu elems, gdzie przez indeksy węzłów zdefiniowane są elementy siatki. Taki zapis pozwala na dokładne określenie kształtu i struktury badanego obiektu. Granice modelu są określone, również przez indeksy węzłów, w polu boundary. Indeksy określają, które z węzłów tworzą zewnętrzną powierzchnię modelu. Pole gnd_node to węzeł uziemiający, kluczowy dla określenia punktu odniesienia dla potencjałów elektrycznych.\na b c\nRys. 5.11. Model FEM muru z elektrodami:\n(a) widok aksonometryczny, (b) widok ortogonalny ściany z elektrodami,\n(c) widok boczny, w którym elektrody znajdują się po lewej stronie\nElektrody, które są niezbędnym komponentem systemu do generowania i odbierania sygnałów w modelu ETI, zostały parametrycznie opisane w strukturze electrode. Każda elektroda ma przypisane indeksy węzłów, które wskazują jej położenie, oraz wartość z_contact, która opisuje opór styku elektrody mający wpływ na pomiar impedancji. Do obliczeń numerycznych wykorzystywane są specjalne funkcje. Macierz systemowa obliczana jest za pomocą funkcji system_mat. Funkcja solve służy do rozwiązywania równań modelu, a jacobian do obliczenia macierzy Jacobiego, która jest wymagana w iteracyjnym procesie optymalizacji do rozwiązania problemu odwrotnego.\nPole binarne normalize_measurements to flaga decydująca o tym, czy pomiary mają być znormalizowane. Powyższa cecha wpływa na dokładność i stabilność wyników. Pola T_subdomain i T_subdomain_unique zawierają\n\ninformacje o subdomenach elementów, co jest używane w zaawansowanych technikach modelowania do zdefiniowania różnych regionów modelu z unikalnymi właściwościami. Protokół pomiarowy, czyli tzw. stymulacja w modelu\nETI, jest zdefiniowana w strukturze stimulation, która zawiera typ stymulacji, wzory stymulacji dla elektrod (stim_pattern) oraz wzory pomiarów odpowiedzi na stymulację (meas_pattern). Te informacje są niezbędne do sterowania przebiegiem procesu pomiarowego.\nOstatnie pole, elem_data, przechowuje wartości elementów skończonych siatki modelu. Jak już wcześniej wspominano, w przypadku ETI są to wartości konduktywności elektrycznej, które są obliczane w wyniku rozwiązania problemu odwrotnego (wyjścia). Wejściami (argumentami funkcji) są tzw.\njednostki umowne, czyli wartości odczytane z przetwornika, mocno skorelowane z napięciami.\nTabela. 5.1. Opis zmiennej strukturalnej modelu FEM dla pakietu Eidors\nTyp danych\nNazwa elementu Opis i wymiary struct [1×1] fwd_model Główna struktura modelu prostego type char [1×9] Typ modelu (prosty lub odwrotny)\n├─ name char [1×13] Nazwa modelu (dowolna nazwa)\n├─ nodes double [1113×3] Współrzędne węzłów modelu (x, y, z)\n├─ Elementy siatki zdefiniowane przez elems double [3050×4] indeksy węzłów\n├─\nGranice modelu zdefiniowane przez boundary uint32 [2016×3] indeksy węzłów\n├─ gnd_node double [1×1] Węzeł uziemiający w modelu\n├─ Elektrody użyte w modelu, każda electrode struct [1×32] z dodatkowymi parametrami\n├─ nodes double [1×12] Indeksy węzłów danej elektrody\n├─ z_contact double [1×1] Wartość oporu styku elektrody\n└─ function_handle Uchwyt funkcji do obliczania macierzy system_mat\n[1×1] systemowej\n├─ function_handle Uchwyt funkcji do rozwiązywania solve\n[1×1] równań modelu\n├─ function_handle Uchwyt funkcji do obliczenia macierzy jacobian\n[1×1] Jacobiego\n├─\nFlaga określająca, czy pomiary mają logical [1×1]\n├no─rmalize_measurements być znormalizowane\nT_subdomain double [3050×1] Informacje o subdomenach elementów\n├─ T_subdomain_unique double [1×3] Unikalne wartości subdomen\n├─\n\nTabela. 5.1. Opis zmiennej strukturalnej modelu FEM dla pakietu Eidors\nTyp danych\nNazwa elementu Opis i wymiary stimulation struct [1×32] Informacje o stymulacji w modelu\n└ ─ stimulation char [1×3] Typ stymulacji\n├─ stim_pattern double [32×1] Wzór stymulacji dla elektrod\n├─ Wzór pomiarowy odpowiedzi na meas_pattern double [28×32] stymulację\n└─\nDane elementów modelu, takie jak elem_data double [3050×1] konduktywność elektryczna\n5.5. Protokół pomiarowy\nRysunek 5.12. przedstawia trzy początkowe subsekwencje protokołu pomiarowego dla 32 elektrod rozmieszczonych w dwóch równoległych rzędach (2×16).\nPanel (a) przedstawia pierwszy krok z szesnastu, w którym zasilanie przyłączono do elektrod 1 i 17. Ponieważ elektrody 1 i 17 są elektrodami zasilającymi, nie uczestniczą one w pomiarach. Na czerwono zaznaczono elektrodę wzbudzającą, natomiast kolorem niebieskim oznaczono elektrodę masową.\nPozostałe elektrody zostają wykorzystane do pomiarów napięcia. Jak wynika z rysunku 5.12, dla każdej pary elektrod zasilających można dokonać 28 pomiarów napięć. Panele (b) i (c) przedstawiają kolejne kroki odpowiadające zmianom par elektrod zasilających. Taki protokół pomiarowy został wykorzystany we wszystkich pomiarach opisanych w niniejszym opracowaniu. Jego skuteczność została potwierdzona empirycznie.\n\na b c\n1 I 17 1 17 1 17\nV V\n2 18 V 2 I 18 V 2 18\nV V\n3 19 3 19 V 3 I 19 V\nV V V V\n4 20 4 20 4 20\nV V V V V V\n5 21 5 21 5 21\nV V V V V V\n6 22 6 22 6 22\nV V V V V V\n7 23 7 23 7 23\nV V V V V V\n8 24 8 24 8 24\nV V V V V V\n9 25 9 25 9 25\nV V V V V V\n10 26 10 26 10 26\nV V V V V V\n11 27 11 27 11 27\nV V V V V V\n12 28 12 28 12 28\nV V V V V V\n13 29 13 29 13 29\nV V V V V V\n14 30 14 30 14 30\nV V V V V V\n15 31 15 31 15 31\nV V V V V V\n16 32 16 32 16 32\n(a) (b) (c)\nRys. 5.12. Trzy początkowe subsekwencje protokołu pomiarowego dla 32 elektrod rozmieszczonych w dwóch równoległych rzędach 2 × 16:\n(a) subsekwencja pierwsza, (b) subsekwencja druga, (c) subsekwencja trzecia\n5.6. Generowanie syntetycznych danych uczących\nProblemy odwrotne, w przeciwieństwie do problemów prostych, nie mają jednoznacznych rozwiązań. Często są to problemy źle uwarunkowane (ang. ill-posed) w sensie Hadamarda, co oznacza, że nie spełniają wszystkich warunków dla dobrze postawionych problemów matematycznych. Dla problemów źle postawionych nie zawsze istnieje rozwiązanie, które dokładnie odpowiada obserwacjom [63]. Zgodnie z drugim kryterium, istnieje wiele różnych parametrów lub konfiguracji, które mogą prowadzić do tych samych wyników obserwacji.\nOstatnie kryterium stwierdza, że małe zmiany w danych wejściowych mogą prowadzić do dużych zmian w rozwiązaniu. Powyższe wady dotyczą głównie metod deterministycznych rozwiązywania problemów odwrotnych. Aby poprawić jakość rozwiązań problemów źle postawionych, z powodzeniem stosuje się modele oparte na uczeniu maszynowym.\nWśród metod uczenia maszynowego najskuteczniejsze jest tzw. uczenie nadzorowane. Ta technika wymaga jednak dysponowania zbiorem uczącym,\n\nw którym każda próba (obserwacja) zawiera zarówno dane wejściowe (np. pomiary lub cechy), jak i odpowiadające im etykiety wyjściowe (tzw. cele lub wzorce). Tego rodzaju zbiory uczące są wykorzystywane w procesie trenowania modeli, aby nauczyć je przewidywania wyników na podstawie nowych, nieznanych wcześniej danych. Dane wejściowe (cechy) to różne atrybuty lub właściwości, które opisują każdy przypadek. Mogą to być liczby, wartości kategoryczne, dane tekstowe, obrazy lub inne formy reprezentujące kluczowe cechy obiektu lub zjawiska.\nEtykiety wyjściowe (cele) to wartości, które trenowany model ma za zadanie przewidzieć. Dla problemów klasyfikacyjnych są to konkretne klasy/ kategorie (np. nazwa rozpoznanego przedmiotu, identyfikator stanu procesu).\nW problemach regresyjnych wyjściami są wartości liczbowe (np. wartość konduktywności, cena nieruchomości, prawdopodobieństwo). Zarówno wejścia, jak i wyjścia mogą być pojedynczymi wartościami (skalarami) lub zbiorami wartości (wektorami). W przypadku sieci LSTM wejściami mogą być nawet zbiory sekwencji, czyli struktury macierzowe. Modele mające za zadanie predykcję złożonych problemów, w których zależności między wejściem a wyjściem są nieliniowe, a wejścia i wyjścia są wektorami, wymagają dużej liczby obserwacji.\nPrzed rozpoczęciem procesu uczenia dane są zazwyczaj dzielone na trzy zbiory: uczący, walidacyjny i testowy. Zbiór uczący jest wykorzystywany do trenowania modelu. Zadaniem zbioru walidacyjnego jest dostrojenia hiperparametrów i ocena wydajności podczas trenowania. Metoda wczesnego zatrzymania (ang. early stopping), która zatrzymuje proces uczenia po zadanej liczbie następujących po sobie epok, w których błąd walidacyjny nie maleje, również wykorzystuje zbiór walidacyjny [114]. Zbiór testowy służy do ostatecznej oceny wydajności po zakończeniu całego procesu trenowania modelu. Proporcje podziału danych na poszczególne zbiory mogą się różnić, ale typowe wartości to 70% danych uczących, 15% danych walidacyjnych i 15% danych testowych.\nMiarą jakości sieci neuronowej jest jej zdolność do generalizowania wyników. Zdolność do generalizacji sieci neuronowej polega na umiejętności poprawnego przewidywania wyników dla nowych, niewykorzystanych w trakcie uczenia danych. Mała liczba przypadków uczących z dużym prawdopodobieństwem doprowadzi do przeuczenia modelu (ang. overfitting), co będzie skutkowało brakiem zdolności do generalizacji. W konsekwencji, nawet jeśli model uzyska wysoki wskaźnik zgodności predykcji na zbiorze uczącym i walidacyjnym, to na skutek zbyt małej liczby przypadków nie sprawdzi się w praktyce.\nW celu umożliwienia trenowania modelu symulacyjnie wygenerowano zbiór danych obejmujący wektory pomiarów napięcia i wektory konduktywności.\n\nAlgorytm generujący dane uczące ETI, odpowiednie do wytrenowania sieci neuronowej lub innego modelu bazującego na uczeniu maszynowym, został opracowany w języku Matlab z wykorzystaniem pakietu Eidors. Algorytm rozpoczyna się od wczytania dwóch zmiennych. Pierwsza zmienna zawiera strukturę modelu z siatką FEM. Jest to ta sama zmienna, która została szczegółowo opisana w rozdziale 5.4., w tabeli 5.1. Model struktury zawiera informacje geometryczne, węzły i elementy siatki, natomiast dane o stymulacji definiują, w jaki sposób do badanego fragmentu muru zostanie zaaplikowany prąd i jak będzie przebiegał pomiar napięć poprzez system elektrod. Zmienna druga dotyczy konfiguracji procesu stymulowania elektrod w trakcie cyklu pomiarowego, co zostało szeroko opisane w rozdziale 5.5.\nPo wczytaniu powyższych zmiennych algorytm inicjalizuje nową zmienną zawierającą liczbę elektrod, konfigurację stymulacji oraz oblicza środki elementów czworościennych w siatce FEM. Następnie rozpoczyna tworzenie zbioru danych uczących poprzez dodanie dwóch scenariuszy bazowych: referencyjnego stanu obiektu, w którym wszystkie woksele mają wartość 1 oznaczającą brak wilgoci, oraz stanu całkowitego zawilgocenia, kiedy wszystkie woksele mają wartość 10. Dla stanu referencyjnego algorytm oblicza wartości konduktywności elementów, uwzględniając tzw. parametr materiałowy, czyli przewodność właściwą badanego ośrodka. Następnie algorytm oblicza odpowiedzi pomiarowe przy użyciu funkcji fwd_solve, czyli rozwiązując problem prosty. Uzyskane w ten sposób dane są zapisane jako pierwszy zestaw danych uczących. W przypadku stanu całkowitego zawilgocenia algorytm ustawia wartości przewodności wszystkich elementów na jednolitą wartość reprezentującą zawilgocenie i ponownie rozwiązuje problem prosty, transformując konduktywności na pomiary napięcia w modelu, zapisując przewodności elementów skończonych i odpowiedzi pomiarowe jako drugi zestaw danych.\nPo zapisaniu danych dla dwóch pierwszych stanów bazowych algorytm przechodzi do pętli głównej, w której generuje losowe konfiguracje zawilgoceń wewnątrz obiektu. Każda iteracja generuje losowe położenie centrum obszaru wilgotnego oraz losowe rozmiary elipsoidy. Następnie algorytm definiuje różne wartości progowe w celu zmiany przewodności w tych obszarach modelu, w których znajdują się elementy (woksele) zawilgocone. Dla każdego elementu FEM przewodność jest ustawiana na wyższą wartość, jeśli znajduje się on w wyznaczonej elipsoidzie. Rysunek 5.13 przedstawia przykładowe zawilgocenie wygenerowane przez powyższy algorytm.\n\nRys. 5.13. Symulacyjnie wygenerowany przypadek uczący, obrazujący losowe zawilgocenie:\n(a–c) widoki obszaru zawilgoconego z różnych stron,\n(d) wykres 448 pomiarów napięcia wyrażony w jednostkach umownych\nPoszczególne obrazy na rysunku oraz wykres pokazują, jak wygląda obszar zawilgocenia oraz jak zmieniają się pomiary napięcia w odpowiedzi na to zawilgocenie. Panele (a), (b) i (c) przedstawiają model muru z elektrodami, gdzie obszar zawilgocenia jest zaznaczony jako ciemnoczerwony. Trzy różne perspektywy dają lepszy ogląd modelu. Widoki aksonometryczne (a) i (c) pozwalają zobaczyć głębokość i położenie zawilgocenia względem elektrod. Widok ortogonalny (b) ściany z elektrodami przedstawia rozkład zawilgocenia od frontu, wyraźnie pokazując umiejscowienie elektrod w dwóch rzędach na ścianie.\nWykres (d) przedstawia wyniki 448 pomiarów napięcia wyrażone w jednostkach umownych. Wahania napięcia pokazują reakcje na zawilgocenie z uwzględnieniem wpływu losowych elementów modelu. Linie przedstawiają różnice w pomiarach między elektrodami, co sugeruje, jak zmiany przewodności wpływają na rozkład potencjału na powierzchni muru. Dodatnie i ujemne wartości napięcia (jednostek umownych) odzwierciedlają kierunek różnicy potencjałów między elektrodami, co ma związek z kierunkiem przepływu prądu. W kontekście konduktywności badanego materiału, a tym samym zawilgocenia, istotna jest przede wszystkim wielkość bezwzględna zmierzonego napięcia, ponieważ to ona wskazuje na zmiany w przewodności materiału.\nZerowa wartość napięcia oznacza, że obszar między elektrodami jest suchy.\n\nRysunek 5.12 kompleksowo przedstawia model zawilgocenia muru z różnymi widokami oraz pomiarami, co umożliwia zrozumienie problemu odwrotnego w kontekście elektrycznej tomografii impedancyjnej.\nPo przetworzeniu wszystkich elementów algorytm analizuje, czy dana konfiguracja przewodności nie jest jednorodna, co jest objawem zawilgocenia.\nJeśli tak, algorytm oblicza odpowiedzi pomiarowe dla tej konfiguracji przy użyciu funkcji fwd_solve i zapisuje wyniki w zbiorze danych uczących. Proces ten jest wielokrotnie powtarzany w kolejnych iteracjach, generując szerokie spektrum losowych zawilgoceń. Różnorodne odpowiedzi pomiarowe stanowią podstawę do skutecznego trenowania modeli ETI o dużej efektywności utylitarnej.\nKońcowym krokiem algorytmu jest zapisanie wynikowego zbioru danych uczących w postaci pliku. Symulując różne scenariusze i rozkłady przewodności elektrycznej w badanym obiekcie, algorytm jest w stanie generować reprezentatywne zestawy danych uczących dla modelu algorytmicznego, transformującego pomiary na obrazy w ramach systemu tomograficznego.\n5.7. Preprocessing – przygotowanie danych do trenowania, walidacji i testowania\nProces przygotowania danych jest jednym z kluczowych elementów skutecznego opracowania i oceny modeli ETI. Obejmuje on gromadzenie/generowanie, przetwarzanie i podział danych na zbiory uczący, walidacyjny i testowy.\nPierwszym krokiem jest zgromadzenie danych tomograficznych, które zostaną wykorzystane do trenowania, walidacji i testowania modeli uczenia maszynowego. Dane mogą być zarówno rzeczywiste, pochodzące z pomiarów\nETI, jak i syntetyczne, wygenerowane symulacyjnie przy użyciu algorytmu.\nW kolejnym kroku dane mogą zostać poddane wstępnemu przetwarzaniu\n(ang. preprocessing). Powyższe działania mogą obejmować w szczególności normalizację wartości, uwzględnienie szumu pomiarowego, redukcję zmiennych wejściowych wzajemnie skorelowanych i inne operacje.\n5.7.1. Normalizacja danych\nNormalizacja danych to proces przekształcania pierwotnych wartości do określonego przedziału. Celem jest usunięcie różnic w skalach danych i ustandaryzowanie ich do porównywalnego zakresu. Poprzez normalizację dane są skalowane w taki sposób, aby miały zbliżone wartości lub rozkłady, co eliminuje\n\npotencjalne problemy związane z różnicami w jednostkach miar lub skalach wartości. Dzięki normalizacji zazwyczaj uzyskuje się poprawę wydajności algorytmów uczenia maszynowego. Eliminacja różnic w skalach cech ułatwia porównywanie danych poprzez ustandaryzowanie ich do wspólnego zakresu.\nDo innych korzyści należy zwiększenie stabilności numerycznej obliczeń, szczególnie w przypadku algorytmów opartych na gradientach. W rezultacie normalizacja danych przyczynia się do lepszej generalizacji modelu, ułatwia analizę danych oraz zapewnia stabilność i skuteczność obliczeń. Normalizację można stosować nie tylko na wejściu modelu, lecz także po każdej warstwie, która przekształca wejścia na nowe wartości.\nWśród najczęściej stosowanych metod normalizacji należy wymienić normalizację Min-Max, normalizację Z-Score oraz normalizację logarytmiczną.\nPierwsza z nich opiera się na skalowaniu wartości do przedziału [0, 1], co polega na odjęciu od każdej wartości danych wartości minimalnej i podzieleniu wyniku przez różnicę wartości maksymalnej i minimalnej. Znormalizowaną wartość danej cechy metodą Min-Max można obliczyć jako:\n(5.1) gdzie: X to wartość danej cechy, X to minimalna wartość danej cechy w zbiomin rze danych, X to maksymalna wartość danej cechy w zbiorze danych.\nmax\nDruga metoda, oparta na odchyleniu standardowym, polega na odjęciu od każdej wartości danych średniej i podzieleniu wyniku przez odchylenie standardowe. Wyraża to formuła\n(5.2) gdzie: μ to średnia wartość danej cechy w zbiorze danych, s to odchylenie standardowe danej cechy w zbiorze danych. Normalizacja logarytmiczna opiera się na zastosowaniu funkcji logarytmicznej do każdej wartości danych i może być wyrażona formułą X = log X. Domyślną metodą normalizacji stosowaną norm w oprogramowaniu Matlab jest metoda centroidowa (ang. zerocenter). Polega ona na odjęciu od każdej wartości średniej wartości ze zbioru danych. W rezultacie wszystkie wartości danych zostają przesunięte tak, aby ich średnia wynosiła zero. Podczas procesu uczenia maszynowego, w algorytmach takich jak regresja liniowa i sieci neuronowe, zastosowanie normalizacji typu centroid zwykle poprawia konwergencję. Dzieje się tak, ponieważ normalizacja\n\nzapewnia wszystkim cechom podobną skalę. Ułatwia to algorytmowi identyfikację i naukę zależności między cechami a celem. W niektórych modelach uczenia maszynowego, do których zalicza się także regresja liniowa, interpretacja parametrów modelu jest łatwiejsza, gdy dane są znormalizowane wokół zera (średnia wynosi zero). Stanowi to kolejną zaletę tej metody. Normalizację centroidową można wyrazić formułą X = X – μ. Trzeba zauważyć, że norm normalizacja centroidowa może nie być odpowiednia dla wszystkich typów danych. W niektórych przypadkach normalizacja może prowadzić do utraty informacji lub utrudniać interpretację wyników. Dlatego przed zastosowaniem normalizacji ważne jest, aby rozumieć zarówno specyfikę problemu, jak i użytych danych.\nWybór odpowiedniej metody normalizacji zależy od wielu czynników, takich jak rozkład danych, obecność wartości ekstremalnych oraz wymagania konkretnego algorytmu uczenia maszynowego. W przypadku typów danych innych niż liczbowe, stosuje się inne metody, takie jak kodowanie one-hot lub kodowanie binarne. Celem jest przekształcenie innych typów danych w dane numeryczne, które można następnie znormalizować. Normalizacja jest ważnym krokiem w procesie analizy danych: umożliwia poprawę wydajności algorytmów, ułatwia porównywanie danych oraz zwiększa stabilność numeryczną obliczeń.\n5.7.2. Zaszumianie danych pomiarowych\nW celu uwzględnienia realistycznych warunków i zwiększenia odporności modelu na szum zawarty w danych pomiarowych dane syntetyczne można symulacyjnie zaszumiać. Zazwyczaj proces sztucznego zaszumiania odbywa się poprzez dodanie szumu Gaussa o określonym poziomie. Szum ten symuluje różnice między danymi rzeczywistymi a danymi uzyskanymi z symulacji.\nSzum w pomiarach ETI stanowi istotny problem, negatywnie wpływający na jakość uzyskiwanych obrazów oraz utrudniający poprawną interpretację wyników. Źródła szumu można podzielić na wewnętrzne i zewnętrzne. Wewnętrzne źródła obejmują szum termiczny, wynikający z chaotycznego ruchu elektronów w przewodniku, szum elektrolityczny, związany z ruchem jonów w elektrolicie, szum kontaktowy, pochodzący z niestabilnych połączeń elektrycznych między elektrodami a badanym obiektem, oraz szum polaryzacyjny, wynikający z procesów polaryzacji i depolaryzacji elektrod. Zewnętrzne źródła szumu obejmują szum elektromagnetyczny, generowany przez pola elektromagnetyczne urządzeń elektronicznych, szum mechaniczny, wynikający z wibracji lub ruchów obiektu\n\nbadanego lub elektrod, oraz szum cyfrowy, związany z kwantyzacją sygnałów analogowych na cyfrowe. Szum negatywnie wpływa na dokładność diagnoz i utrudnia śledzenie zmian w czasie, dlatego kluczowe jest identyfikowanie i redukowanie szumu w celu uzyskania wiarygodnych wyników ETI. Skoro nie można całkowicie uniknąć szumu w trakcie pomiarów rzeczywistych, wskazane jest, aby w warunkach symulacyjnych nie pomijać tego zjawiska.\nSymulacyjne dodanie szumu do danych pomiarowych umożliwia ocenę odporności modelu na zakłócenia i niestabilności w danych. Ponadto sprawia, że model będzie w stanie generalizować na nowe, nieznane dane wejściowe.\nDodanie syntetycznego zaszumienia przybliża model symulacyjny do rzeczywistych warunków pomiarowych, które mogą być obarczone pewnym poziomem szumu. Nie ma podstaw by twierdzić, że sztuczne zaszumianie danych symulacyjnych jest zawsze potrzebne, ale jest to opcja, która powinna być analizowana przed planowaniem procesu uczenia każdego modelu ETI.\n5.7.3. Odszumianie pomiarów rzeczywistych z wykorzystaniem autoenkoderów\nZ uwagi na charakterystyki prądów elektrycznych i zakłóceń występujących w badanych obiektach rzeczywistych, dane pomiarowe pozyskiwane z ETI zawierają szum utrudniający prawidłową rekonstrukcję obrazów [43, 75, 100].\nW tym kontekście jednym z nowocześniejszych podejść do odszumiania surowych danych są autoenkodery [79, 94]. Autoenkodery są rodzajem sieci neuronowych, które uczą się reprezentacji wejściowych danych w bardziej skompresowanej formie [125]. Składają się one z dwóch głównych części: enkodera, sieci neuronowej, która przekształca dane wejściowe na zredukowaną reprezentację wewnętrzną warstwy latentnej, oraz dekodera, który próbuje odtworzyć oryginalne dane na podstawie tej reprezentacji [9, 162]. Warstwa latentna (ukryta) w autoenkoderze to warstwa, która znajduje się głęboko wewnątrz struktury pomiędzy warstwą wejściową a warstwą wyjściową i reprezentuje skompresowaną wersję danych wejściowych. Jest to wewnętrzna, abstrakcyjna reprezentacja, która zawiera najważniejsze cechy danych w zredukowanej formie. Warstwa latentna odgrywa kluczową rolę w kodowaniu informacji, umożliwiając modelowi naukę istotnych cech, które mogą zostać wykorzystane do rekonstrukcji (dekodowania) danych wyjściowych z minimalną utratą informacji. W procesie uczenia autoenkoder uczy się odwzorowywać dane wyjściowe, minimalizując różnice pomiędzy własnym wejściem a wyjściem [165]. Ten proces jest kluczowy w kontekście odszumiania, ponieważ\n\nautoenkoder uczy się ignorować szum w danych wejściowych i generować czyste, zrekonstruowane dane wyjściowe. Na rysunku 5.14 przedstawiono przykładową strukturę autoenkodera odszumiającego dane pomiarowe.\nWejścia wektor 448 pomiarów rzeczywistych (zaszumionych) warstwy ukryte\nWarstwa latentna wektor reprezentacji warstwy ukryte\nWyjścia wektor 448 zrekonstruowanych (odszumionych) pomiarów\nRys. 5.14. Przykładowa struktura autoenkodera odszumiającego\nWarstwa wejściowa i wyjściowa są wektorami składającymi się z 448 pomiarów. Warstwa ukryta (latentna) składa się z 64 neuronów. Dzięki takiej strukturze neurony warstwy latentnej zmuszane są do skompresowania 448-elementowego wektora pomiarowego do 64-wartościowej reprezentacji. Jest to sposób na pozbycie się zbędnych informacji, w tym także szumu pomiarowego.\nAutoenkodery można trenować na dużych zbiorach danych symulacyjnych.\nDzięki temu mogą się one nauczyć charakterystyki szumu i odpowiednich wzorców danych pomiarowych. Na etapie trenowania autoenkodera zbiór uczący składa się z danych zaszumionych oraz odpowiadających im danych niezaszumionych. Sieć neuronowa uczy się na tych parach, jak odseparować szum od wartościowych informacji. Po zakończeniu procesu trenowania autoenkoder może być zastosowany do przetwarzania nowych danych zaszumionych. W ten sposób wyniki uzyskane na jego wyjściu są pozbawione szumu. Ponieważ mamy do czynienia z problemem regresyjnym, nie jest możliwe całkowite odszumienie pomiarów. W zależności od struktury autoenkodera, parametrów procesu uczenia, jakości i ilości posiadanych danych uczących, specyfiki problemu i wielu innych czynników poziom redukcji szumu może się znacząco wahać.\n\nPo zakończeniu procesu odszumiania dane mogą być użyte do rekonstrukcji obrazu tomograficznego. Odszumione dane pomiarowe są podstawą do uzyskania obrazów rekonstrukcyjnych o wyższej jakości niż w przypadku danych surowych. Dzięki temu wizualizacja funkcji wewnętrznych organizmu jest dokładniejsza, co umożliwia lepszą diagnozę i monitorowanie stanu zawilgocenia badanego fragmentu muru.\nW trakcie prac badawczych nad modelami wykorzystanymi w niniejszym opracowaniu sprawdzono skutki, jakie przyniesie odszumianie danych autoenkoderem. Stwierdzono, że zarówno w przypadku obrazowania murku w warunkach laboratoryjnych, jak również w przypadku Złotej Bramy w Gdańsku zastosowanie odszumiania danych nie poprawia jakości rekonstrukcji. Przyczyną jest fakt, że sieci neuronowe wytrenowane na danych wysokiej jakości, dzięki swoim właściwościom uogólniającym, mają zdolność do radzenia sobie z szumem. Dodatkowe odszumianie może być zbędne, a nawet szkodliwe, jeśli sieć została nauczona, aby radzić sobie z pomiarami o pewnym poziomie zaszumienia.\nOdszumianie danych pomiarowych w elektrycznej tomografii impedancyjnej z wykorzystaniem autoenkoderów stanowi obiecujące podejście do problemu zniekształceń wynikających z zakłóceń podczas wykonywania pomiarów. Mimo wyzwań, jakie niesie za sobą ten proces, autoenkodery mogą poprawić jakość obrazów ETI, umożliwiając dokładniejsze diagnozy oraz lepsze monitorowanie badanych obiektów. Pomimo faktu, że to rozwiązanie wymaga dalszych badań i ulepszeń, to już teraz otwiera nowe perspektywy w obrazowaniu ETI.\n5.7.4. Redukcja wzajemnie skorelowanych zmiennych wejściowych\nW elektrycznej tomografii impedancyjnej, podobnie jak w przypadku innych modeli predykcyjnych opartych na uczeniu maszynowym, istnieje potencjalny problem skorelowanych zmiennych wejściowych. Wspomniana korelacja może wynikać z samej natury pomiarów. Zmiany natężenia pola elektrycznego w jednym regionie badanego obszaru wpływają na zmierzone napięcia w różnych punktach układu elektrod, prowadząc do sytuacji, w której pomiary zawierają informacje częściowo redundantne. Skorelowane zmienne wejściowe mogą prowadzić do nadmiarowości informacji, a także wprowadzać szumy i błędy, co negatywnie wpływa na dokładność rekonstrukcji.\nJedną z najbardziej znanych metod redukcji wzajemnie skorelowanych zmiennych jest analiza głównych składowych (PCA, ang. principal component\n\nanalysis), która pozwala na przekształcenie skorelowanych zmiennych w zestaw głównych składowych o niższym stopniu korelacji. Dzięki temu procesowi możliwe jest zmniejszenie wymiaru danych wejściowych bez znaczącej utraty informacji.\nInnym podejściem do tego problemu jest wykorzystanie selekcji cech (ang.\nfeature selection), gdzie spośród dostępnych pomiarów wybiera się tylko te, które są najbardziej informatywne. W metodzie selekcji cech chodzi więc o wybór podzbioru zmiennych najbardziej istotnych dla danego zadania analitycznego spośród dostępnych danych wejściowych. Głównym celem tej metody jest zwiększenie efektywności modelowania poprzez redukcję wymiarów danych, która polega na eliminacji zmiennych nadmiarowych lub mało istotnych, które mogłyby wprowadzać niepotrzebny szum lub złożoność. Określenie „najbardziej informatywne” odnosi się do tych cech, które dostarczają najwięcej wartościowej informacji w kontekście konkretnego zadania, takiego jak klasyfikacja czy regresja. Takie cechy mają silny związek z przewidywaną wartością i zawierają unikalną informację, niepowielającą się z innymi cechami. Wybierając zmienne najbardziej informatywne, można zredukować ilość danych wejściowych, zachowując jednocześnie lub nawet poprawiając jakość przewidywań modelu.\nAlgorytmy selekcji, takie jak Lasso (ang. least absolute shrinkage and selection operator) czy metody opierające się na drzewach decyzyjnych, potrafią efektywnie zidentyfikować zbędne zmienne, pozwalając na ich eliminację.\nIstnieje możliwość stworzenia rankingu zmiennych wejściowych w kolejności od najmniej skorelowanych do najbardziej redundantnych, dzięki czemu można dowolnie ustawić granicę odcięcia/odrzucenia zmiennych o zbyt dużym stopniu skorelowania.\nW odniesieniu do problemu skorelowanych zmiennych wejściowych coraz częściej stosuje się techniki uczenia maszynowego. Modele regresji wielowymiarowej, sieci neuronowe, autoenkodery czy algorytmy typu „ensemble” są trenowane w taki sposób, aby uwzględniały zależności między różnymi pomiarami. Rolą algorytmu jest także minimalizacja poziomu zaszumienia danych w sekwencji pomiarowej, a także tzw. nadmiarowości. Nadmiarowość dotyczy sytuacji, kiedy wartości wektora pomiarowego są wzajemnie skorelowane, redundantne lub niezmienne.\nProblem skorelowanych zmiennych wejściowych w ETI można rozwiązać poprzez stosowanie zaawansowanych technik analizy danych. Metody takie jak PCA, selekcja cech czy modele uczenia maszynowego przyczyniają się do usprawnienia procesu rekonstrukcji obrazów, umożliwiając uzyskanie lepszych rezultatów obrazowania.\n\n5.7.5. Analiza wpływu zmiennych wejściowych na wyniki modelu\nProblem nieskorelowanych zmiennych wejściowych z wyjściami dotyczy sytuacji, w której pomiary napięć uzyskane z układu elektrod wykazują słabą lub znikomą zależność z wyjściami, czyli konduktywnością elementów skończonych siatki FEM badanego obiektu. Jest to zjawisko szczególnie problematyczne, gdy celem jest precyzyjne odtworzenie dystrybucji przewodności w badanym obiekcie, ponieważ brak wyraźnych korelacji ogranicza dokładność rekonstrukcji obrazu. Nieskorelowane z tomogramem dane pomiarowe mogą prowadzić do powstania niejednoznacznych map przewodności, co utrudnia interpretację wyników oraz identyfikację rozkładów zawilgocenia.\nAnaliza wrażliwości w kontekście ETI polega na badaniu, w jakim stopniu zmiany w poszczególnych pomiarach napięć wpływają na wyniki rekonstrukcji konduktywności. Metody lokalne, takie jak metoda różnic skończonych, analizują wpływ małych modyfikacji napięcia na określony obszar przewodności, co umożliwia zrozumienie efektów lokalnych. Natomiast metody globalne, do których należy analiza Monte Carlo, obejmują szerokie spektrum zmian dotyczących wielu pomiarów jednocześnie. Wymieniona metoda polega na wykorzystaniu symulacji losowych do oceny wpływu zmienności różnych parametrów wejściowych na wyniki modelu.\nMetoda Monte Carlo umożliwia sprawdzenie wpływu różnych konfiguracji pomiarów wejściowych na wektor wyjściowy modelu. Stanowi to element tzw. analizy wrażliwości, polegającej na ustaleniu procentowego wpływu poszczególnych wartości wejściowych na wygląd tomogramu. Powyższe podejście umożliwia uzyskanie całościowego obrazu zależności między wejściami a wyjściami, a także identyfikację tych pomiarów, które są najbardziej istotne dla odwzorowania rozkładu konduktywności w obrębie siatki elementów skończonych. Eliminując pomiary nieistotne, można zmniejszyć złożoność obliczeniową modelu, co ułatwia jego trenowanie.\nInną grupą metod służących do podnoszenia jakości danych wejściowych poprzez ich redukcję jest analiza istotności. Analiza istotności zmiennych wejściowych w uczeniu maszynowym pozwala zidentyfikować te cechy, które mają największy wpływ na dokładność rekonstrukcji obrazów. Wśród metod stosowanych w analizie istotności zmiennych wejściowych w uczeniu maszynowym wyróżnić można testy statystyczne, które określają wpływ danej cechy na wynik, oceniając procentowo korelację między zmienną wejściową a zmienną docelową. Popularne są testy takie jak analiza wariancji (ANOVA) czy test chi-kwadrat, które dostarczają metryk porównawczych dla zmiennych\n\nkategorycznych. Te metody dostarczają cennych informacji na temat wpływu poszczególnych cech, choć nie są w stanie uchwycić pełnego, nieliniowego charakteru interakcji między zmiennymi.\nDla zmiennych regresyjnych (liczb rzeczywistych) najczęściej stosowane są metody oceniające istotność zmiennych poprzez analizę korelacji czy regresji. Adekwatną metodą regresyjną jest korelacja Pearsona. Wspomniana metoda umożliwia pomiar liniowej zależności między zmiennymi ciągłymi. Współczynnik korelacji Pearsona określa siłę i kierunek związku między zmienną wejściową a zmienną docelową. Inną skuteczną metodą jest Lasso. Jest to technika regularyzacji, która nakłada dodatkowe ograniczenia na współczynniki regresji, wymuszając zerowe wartości dla mniej istotnych zmiennych. Jest to pomocne w trakcie procesu selekcji cech.\nInnym podejściem do oceny istotności zmiennych jest wykorzystanie modeli uczenia maszynowego. Na przykład algorytm lasów losowych, ze swoją zdolnością do losowego próbkowania cech i agregowania wyników wielu drzew decyzyjnych, oferuje naturalną metodę oceny istotności zmiennych poprzez badanie wpływu każdej z nich na dokładność klasyfikacji lub regresji. Gdy zmienna jest losowo modyfikowana lub usuwana, wpływ tej zmiany na wynik modelu pozwala ocenić jej znaczenie dla procesu decyzyjnego. Lasy losowe, poprzez agregację wielu drzew decyzyjnych, dają dokładniejsze wyniki w zakresie istotności. Podobne podejście stosuje się w technice zwanej rekurencyjną eliminacją cech (ang. recursive feature elimination), która polega na iteracyjnym trenowaniu modelu, eliminując najmniej istotne cechy w każdym kroku, aż do uzyskania optymalnego podzbioru.\nModele oparte na uczeniu głębokim również oferują narzędzia do oceny istotności cech [91]. W przypadku sieci neuronowych z wieloma warstwami analiza gradientów wstecznych pozwala na śledzenie wpływu każdej zmiennej wejściowej na końcowy wynik modelu. Dzięki tej technice można wykrywać subtelne wzorce w danych, których klasyczne metody statystyczne nie są w stanie zidentyfikować.\nW metodzie regresji liniowej oraz regresji wielokrotnej analizowany jest wpływ zmiennych wejściowych na zmienną docelową, szacując wartości współczynników. Wielkość współczynników i ich istotność statystyczna (p-value) pomagają zidentyfikować najważniejsze zmienne.\nW kontekście tomografii ETI analiza istotności zmiennych wejściowych pozwala określić, które wartości wejściowe z wektora pomiarowego mają największy wpływ na rekonstrukcję obrazów. Dzięki temu procesowi można zoptymalizować strukturę sekwencji wejściowej modelu uczenia maszynowego,\n\nzwiększając efektywność obrazowania i zdolność do generowania obrazów o wysokiej rozdzielczości.\nW elektrycznej tomografii impedancyjnej problem nieskorelowanych lub nieistotnych zmiennych wejściowych może obniżać jakość odwzorowań dystrybucji konduktywności, co utrudnia uzyskanie wartościowych wyników. Analizy wrażliwości i istotności pomagają zidentyfikować pomiary napięć, które są kluczowe dla jakości rekonstrukcji, umożliwiając zaprojektowanie skuteczniejszego modelu transformującego pomiary na obrazy tomograficzne.\nAnalizy wrażliwości i istotności są elementami selekcji cech (ang. feature selection), która ma na celu usunięcie zbędnych zmiennych wejściowych. Oba typy analizy działają w synergii, dostarczając różnorodnych, a zarazem komplementarnych spojrzeń na proces selekcji cech. Analiza wrażliwości, skupiając się na elastyczności modelu, pozwala określić, które zmienne są stabilne i wpływowe, natomiast analiza istotności, oparta na miarach statystycznych, umożliwia skonstruowanie minimalnego zbioru cech wejściowych o maksymalnym wpływie na wynik. Obie metody umożliwiają podniesienie jakości modeli predykcyjnych opartych na uczeniu maszynowym.\n5.8. Warianty architektury sieci neuronowej\nW tym rozdziale przedstawiono kilka modeli sieci neuronowych, które zostały zastosowane w ramach eksperymentów badawczych dotyczących pomiaru wilgotności murów przy użyciu metody elektrycznej tomografii impedancyjnej. Opracowanie kilku wariantów modeli pozwoliło na przeprowadzenie porównań kluczowych różnic, zalet oraz ograniczeń poszczególnych architektur, umożliwiając pełniejsze zrozumienie ich efektywności i adaptacyjności w specyficznym kontekście badawczym.\n5.8.1. Sieć neuronowa z warstwą konwolucyjną\nRysunek 5.15 i tabela 5.2 przedstawiają strukturę sieci neuronowej z warstwą konwolucyjną, której zadaniem jest konwersja wektora 448 pomiarów napięć wygenerowanych przez elektrody na obraz składający się z 3050 elementów przestrzennej siatki FEM. Pomimo faktu, że obraz jest przestrzenny, warstwy sieci są jednowymiarowe (1-D). Jest to podyktowane wektorowym (sekwencyjnym) formatem danych wejściowych i regresyjnym charakterem problemu.\n\nPierwszą warstwą, która przyjmuje dane sekwencyjne o określonym rozmiarze, jest sequenceInputLayer. Zmienna inputSize określa liczbę cech każdego elementu w sekwencji. Warstwa ta nosi nazwę „feature”, co jest istotne dla identyfikacji i odwołań w bardziej złożonych architekturach sieciowych.\nTabela. 5.2. Lista warstw sieci CNN\nLp. Typ warstwy Opis\n1 Sequence Input 448-elementowe wejście sekwencyjne\n112 filtrów 4-elementowych z krokiem 1 i dopełnieniem\n2 1-D Convolution\n(ang. padding) [4 4]\n3 ReLU Funkcja transferowa ReLU\n4 Dropout 30% deaktywowanych neuronów\n5 Batch Normalization Normalizacja partii\n6 1-D Global Max Pooling Redukcja złożoności, wyróżnienie najbardziej istotnych cech\n7 Fully Connected 3050-elementowa warstwa w pełni połączona\nRys. 5.15. Struktura warstw modelu sieci CNN\nNastępną warstwą jest convolution1dLayer. Jej parametry wskazują, że konwolucja 1-D będzie wykonywana za pomocą 112 filtrów z rozmiarem filtra równym 4. Parametr Padding ustawiony na [4, 4] pozwala na dodanie zer na\n\nkońcach sekwencji. Umożliwia to filtrowi zachowanie wymiarów wyjściowych zbliżonych do wymiarów wejściowych.\nWarstwa aktywacji reluLayer stosuje funkcję fransferową ReLU (ang. rectified linear unit), która wprowadza nieliniowość do modelu, przepuszczając tylko dodatnie wartości sygnału. Warstwa ReLU jest standardem w uczeniu głębokim. Zwiększa ona dynamikę uczenia i umożliwia uniknięcie problemu z zanikającym gradientem.\nWarstwa dropoutLayer z parametrem równym 0,3 realizuje proces losowej dezaktywacji 30% neuronów. „Dropout” jest techniką regularyzacji używaną do zapobiegania nadmiernemu dopasowaniu poprzez zmuszenie sieci do tworzenia bardziej odpornych i zrównoważonych reprezentacji cech.\nKolejna warstwa, batchNormalizationLayer, normalizuje aktywacje poprzedzającej warstwy na każdym etapie procesu uczenia. Przyczynia się to do stabilizacji tego procesu, przyspiesza konwergencję i umożliwia stosowanie wyższych szybkości uczenia. W praktyce oznacza to, że dzięki zastosowaniu odpowiednich technik, takich jak normalizacja wsadowa (ang. batch normalization), można bezpiecznie zwiększyć współczynnik uczenia w procesie trenowania sieci neuronowej. Współczynnik uczenia, inaczej nazywany szybkością uczenia, to parametr w algorytmie optymalizacyjnym, który określa, jak dużą zmianą wag sieci neuronowej może być odpowiedź na błąd funkcji straty\n(ang. loss function) wykryty w pojedynczej iteracji procesu uczenia.\nWarstwa globalMaxPooling1dLayer redukuje wymiary danych poprzez wybranie maksymalnej wartości z każdego kanału cech w ramach całej długości sekwencji. Działanie tej warstwy rozpoczyna się od przeglądania każdego kanału cech w danej sekwencji i wyboru największej cechy z całego zestawu wartości. To działanie sprowadza informacje z całej sekwencji do pojedynczego zestawu wartości maksymalnych dla każdego kanału.\nSelekcja maksymalnych wartości z sekwencji znacząco redukuje liczbę wymiarów danych, co pomaga w zmniejszeniu złożoności modelu i redukuje liczbę parametrów. Jest to szczególnie korzystne w przypadku, gdy dane wejściowe mają długie sekwencje lub duże wymiary. Ponieważ opisywana warstwa redukuje ilość danych, ograniczone zostaje ryzyko przeuczenia.\nModel pozbawiony przez warstwę globalMaxPooling1dLayer wielu potencjalnych nośników informacji automatycznie skupia się na najbardziej istotnych cechach sekwencji.\nOstatnią warstwą jest fullyConnectedLayer. Jest to klasyczna warstwa w pełni połączona, która agreguje cechy z całej sekwencji do postaci, która może być użyta do dalszej klasyfikacji lub regresji, zależnie od zastosowania\n\nsieci. W tym przypadku liczba neuronów w warstwie fullyConnectedLayer jest równa liczbie elementów skończonych siatki FEM, czyli 3050.\nKażda z wyżej opisanych warstw odgrywa istotną rolę w przetwarzaniu i analizie danych sekwencyjnych, gdzie kolejne warstwy transformują dane wejściowe na coraz bardziej abstrakcyjne reprezentacje, pozwalając modelowi na naukę złożonych i trudnych do uchwycenia zależności ukrytych w danych pomiarowych. Algorytm 5.1 przedstawia sposób zakodowania struktury sieci neuronowej i konfiguracji procesu trenowania modelu w języku Matlab.\nAlgorytm. 5.1. Matlab R2024a – kodowanie architektury modelu CNN i procesu uczenia\n% Parametry wejść i wyjść inputSize = 448; % długość sekwencji wejściowej numResponses = 3050; % wektor wyjściowy\n% struktura sieci neuronowej layers = [ sequenceInputLayer(inputSize,”Name”,”sequence”) convolution1dLayer(4,112,”Name”,”conv1d_1”,”Padding”,[4 4]) reluLayer(“Name”,”relu_1”) dropoutLayer(0.3,”Name”,”dropout”) batchNormalizationLayer(“Name”,”batchnorm”) globalMaxPooling1dLayer(“Name”,”gmpool1d”) fullyConnectedLayer(numResponses,”Name”,”fc_1”)];\n% konfiguracja procesu uczenia sieci neuronowej options = trainingOptions(’adam’, ... % algorytm optymalizacji\n’ExecutionEnvironment’,’auto’, ... % wybór: CPU lub GPU\n’MaxEpochs’,500, ... % maksymalna liczba epok\n’ValidationData’,{ValidInput,ValidPattern}, ... % ustawienie walidacji\n’ValidationFrequency’,100, ... % częstość walidacji\n’ValidationPatience’,8, ... % maks. liczba epok z niemalejącą stratą\n’MiniBatchSize’, 128, ... % wielkość mini-partii\n’Shuffle’,’every-epoch’, ... % tasuje dane przed każdą epoką\n’Metrics’,”rmse”); % używa błędu RMSE do walidacji modelu\nProces trenowania sieci neuronowej ma zasadniczy wpływ na jakość predykcyjną modelu. Parametry trenowania określają sposób, w jaki sieć jest iteracyjnie aktualizowana podczas procesu uczenia w oparciu o dostarczone\n\ndane. Powyższy fragment kodu ma na celu skonfigurowanie procesu uczenia sieci neuronowej w środowisku MATLAB. Do tego celu wykorzystywana jest biblioteka Deep Learning Toolbox. Ustawienie „adam” jako metody optymalizacji pozwala skorzystać z algorytmu adaptacyjnego szacowania momentu\n(ang. adaptive moment estimation), znanego z adaptacyjnego dostosowywania tempa uczenia i efektywności w problematyce trenowania głębokich sieci neuronowych. Parametr „ExecutionEnvironment” ustawiony na „auto” umożliwia automatyczny wybór wykorzystywanego sprzętu (CPU lub GPU) dostępnego w systemie. Dzięki ustawieniu „MaxEpochs” na 500 sieć będzie trenowana przez maksymalnie 500 pełnych cykli, z uwzględnieniem wszystkich danych uczących. Opcja „ValidationData” pozwala na wskazanie zbiorów danych (pomiarów i wzorców obrazów), które będą używane do walidacji modelu w trakcie uczenia, co jest kluczowe dla monitorowania i zapobiegania przeuczeniu. Wartość „ValidationFrequency” ustawiona na\n100 oznacza, że walidacja modelu będzie przeprowadzana co 100 iteracji, a „ValidationPatience” równa 8 wskazuje, że proces trenowania zostanie przerwany, jeśli przez 8 kolejnych epok nie zaobserwuje się poprawy wyników wskazanej metryki, jaką w tym przypadku jest RMSE (formuła 5.4) na zbiorze walidacyjnym. Parametr „MiniBatchSize” ustawiony na poziomie 128 określa liczbę próbek danych przetwarzanych jednocześnie w jednej iteracji.\nUstawienie parametru „Shuffle” na „every-epoch” sprawia, że dane są tasowane, czyli ich kolejność jest losowo zmieniana przed każdą nową epoką.\nLosowe zmiany kolejności wektora danych są pomocne w zapobieganiu nadmiernemu dopasowaniu sieci do danych uczących. Metryka „rmse” (root mean square error) jest używana do oceny jakości modelu na zbiorze walidacyjnym.\nKażdy z powyższych parametrów wpływa na efektywność procesu uczenia, umożliwiając dostosowanie modelu w trakcie jego tworzenia.\nNa rysunku 5.15 przedstawiono wykres błędu RMSE w trakcie trenowania wyżej opisanej sieci neuronowej. Łączna liczba iteracji wynosiła 2600. Ponieważ wielkość minipartii (ang. minibatch) została ustalona na 128, a liczba przypadków w zbiorze uczącym wynosiła N = 30678, to jednokrotne przeliczenie wszystkich przypadków uczących, czyli jedna epoka, obejmowała\n239 minipartii.\n\nRys. 5.16. Wykres funkcji błędu RMSE w procesie trenowania sieci CNN\nWynika to z podzielenia wielkości zbioru uczącego przez wielkość minipartii 30678/128 239 . Linią jasnoniebieską zaznaczono błąd RMSE dla poszczególnych iterac≈ji. Linią ciemnoniebieską oznaczono uśrednioną (wygładzoną) wartość RMSE. Linią czerwoną oznaczono wartości błędu RMSE dla zbioru walidacyjnego. Błąd walidacyjny był obliczany co 100 iteracji. Zielonym trójkątem oznaczono iterację, która uzyskała najmniejszy błąd RMSE wg kryterium wczesnego zatrzymania (ang. early stopping). Jak wcześniej wspomniano, proces trenowania miał się zakończyć w dwóch przypadkach. Przypadek pierwszy dotyczył stanu, w którym po ośmiu kolejnych walidacjach błąd walidacji modelu nie spadał. Drugie kryterium zatrzymania określało maksymalną wartość parametru ograniczającego liczbę epok do 500. W rozpatrywanym przypadku uczenie sieci neuronowej zakończyło się automatycznie po spełnieniu pierwszego kryterium. Na rysunku 5.16 zielony trójkąt nie jest umiejscowiony na końcu wykresu, lecz właśnie 8 przeliczeń walidacyjnych wcześniej. Minimalny błąd walidacji\nRMSE = 2,2479 został uzyskany w 1800 iteracji. Metoda wczesnego zatrzymania jest skutecznym rozwiązaniem zapobiegjącym przeuczeniu sieci. Zapewnia także automatyczne zatrzymanie procesu uczenia w odpowiednim momencie.\nCharakterystyczny, hiperboliczny i asymptotyczny kształt linii błędu uczącego, brak dużych i sporadycznych fluktuacji oraz wyraźna współbieżność linii błędu uczącego i walidacyjnego świadczą o braku przeuczenia modelu. Również fakt, że błąd walidacyjny jest nieco większy niż błąd uczący (linia czerwona znajduje się ponad linią niebieską) jest zrozumiałym zjawiskiem. Powodem jest dążenie dopasowania modelu do danych zawartych w zbiorze uczącym, ponieważ to one stanowią podstawę wyliczenia funkcji straty. Zbiór walidacyjny służy jedynie do\n\ntestowania warunku wczesnego zatrzymania. Dane zawarte w zbiorze walidacyjnym są więc większym wyzwaniem dla modelu, niż znane mu i po wielokroć przeliczane w iteracjach dane uczące.\nFunkcja straty (ang. loss) wykorzystana w opisywanym modelu wylicza błąd średniokwadratowy między generowanymi wynikami sieci a wartościami wzorcowymi. Z uwagi na to, że wektor wyjściowy składa się z liczb rzeczywistych, mamy do czynienia z problemem regresyjnym. Funkcja straty jest obliczana według wzoru:\n(5.3) gdzie N oznacza całkowitą liczbę obserwacji w zbiorze uczącym, M jest całkowitą liczbą odpowiedzi do każdej obserwacji i jednocześnie rozdzielczością siatki FEM. W opisywanym przypadku N = 30678, natomiast M = 3050.\nY oznacza wygenerowaną przez model wartość predykcyjną i-tego woksela i obrazu tomograficznego, natomiast T jest wartością referencyjną (wzorcową) i i-tego woksela. Analogicznie błąd RMSE przyjmuje postać wzoru: (5.4).\n(5.4)\n5.8.2. Sieć neuronowa z warstwą LSTM\nKolejnym modelem wytrenowanym w oparciu o te same dane, które zostały wykorzystane do wytrenowania modelu CNN, był model głębokiej sieci neuronowej wykorzystującej warstwę LSTM. Tabela 5.3 i rysunek 5.17 przedstawiają architekturę modelu. Szczegółowe informacje na temat działania sieci LSTM zostały zawarte w rozdziale 4.4. Rekurencyjne sieci LSTM.\nStruktura sieci LSTM składa się z ośmiu głównych warstw. Pierwszą warstwą jest Sequence Input. Jest to wejście sekwencyjne, które przyjmuje dane w postaci wektora o długości 448. Ta warstwa nie posiada parametrów uczenia\n(ang. learnable parameters), co oznacza, że jest jedynie pasywnym elementem wejściowym dla danych, który nie dokonuje żadnych przekształceń.\nDruga warstwa to LSTM z 1024 jednostkami ukrytymi. Rozmiary parametrów uczenia dla tej warstwy to 4096 × 448 dla wag wejściowych,\n4096 × 1024 dla wag rekurencyjnych i 4096 × 1 dla biasów. Wymiary stanów\n\nto 1024 × 1 dla stanu ukrytego oraz 1024 × 1 dla stanu komórki, co wskazuje na dużą pojemność tej warstwy w zakresie przechowywania informacji sekwencyjnych.\nWarstwa trzecia, Batch Normalization, czyli normalizacja partii, ma na celu stabilizację i przyspieszenie uczenia poprzez normalizację aktywacji.\nWarstwa ta posiada parametry uczenia offset (1024 × 1) oraz scale (1024 × 1), które są dostosowywane podczas trenowania.\nCzwartą warstwą jest dropout z 50% prawdopodobieństwem wyłączenia losowych neuronów. Ta warstwa funkcjonuje jak mechanizm regularyzacji.\nNie posiada ona parametrów uczenia, co jest charakterystyczne dla warstw typu dropout.\nPiąta warstwa to warstwa w pełni połączona, Fully Connected, z 500 neuronami, które transformują dane z poprzednich warstw do wyjścia o niższej wymiarowości. Parametry uczenia to wagi (500 × 1024) i biasy (500 × 1).\nSzósta warstwa, tangens hiperboliczny, jest warstwą aktywacji. Ta warstwa również nie posiada parametrów uczenia. Jej główną funkcją jest wprowadzenie nieliniowości do przetwarzanych danych.\nKolejna warstwa dropout również ma 50% prawdopodobieństwo dezaktywacji neuronów i nie posiada parametrów uczenia, pełniąc rolę regularyzacji. Ostatnia, ósma warstwa to kolejna warstwa Fully Connected, w pełni połączona, z 3050 neuronami. Warstwa ta finalizuje przetwarzanie danych do postaci ostatecznych odpowiedzi sieci. Parametry uczenia to wagi (3050 × 500) i biasy (3050 × 1).\nTabela. 5.3. Lista warstw sieci LSTM\nLp. Typ warstwy Opis\n1 Sequence Input 448-elementowe wejście sekwencyjne\n2 LSTM LSTM z 1024 jednostkami ukrytymi\n3 Batch Normalization Normalizacja partii\n4 Dropout 50% deaktywowanych neuronów\n5 Fully Connected 500-elementowa warstwa w pełni połączona\n6 Tanh Warstwa aktywacji z funkcją tangens hiperboliczny\n7 Dropout 50% deaktywowanych neuronów\n8 Fully Connected 3050-elementowa warstwa w pełni połączona\nNa rysunku 5.17 znajduje się schemat blokowy poszczególnych warstw sieci neuronowej. Warto zauważyć, że w środek sieci wstawiono warstwę w pełni połączoną, liczącą jedynie 500 neuronów, która znajduje się między warstwą LSTM z 1024 jednostkami a warstwą wyjściową liczącą 3050 neuronów.\n\nNadaje to sieci kształt przypominający autoenkoder, gdzie warstwa latentna działa jak filtr, który odsiewa nieistotne informacje. Ten zamysł towarzyszył koncepcji projektowej niniejszego modelu.\nRys. 5.17. Struktura warstw modelu sieci LSTM\nAlgorytm. 5.2. przedstawia kodowanie architektury modelu LSTM i procesu uczenia. Parametr layers odzwierciedla architekturę i parametry warstw modelu. Z kolei zbiór parametrów procesu uczenia options jest tworzony za pomocą specjalnej funkcji trainingOptions. Proces trenowania modelu został sparametryzowany analogicznie jak do uczenia modelu CNN.\n\nAlgorytm. 5.2. Matlab R2024 – kodowanie architektury modelu LSTM i procesu uczenia\n% Parametry wejść i wyjść inputSize = 448; % długość sekwencji wejściowej numResponses = 3050; % wektor wyjściowy\n% struktura sieci neuronowej layers = [ sequenceInputLayer(inputSize,”Name”,”sequence”) lstmLayer(1024,”Name”,”lstm”,”OutputMode”,”last”) batchNormalizationLayer(“Name”,”batchnorm_1”) dropoutLayer(0.5,”Name”,”dropout”) fullyConnectedLayer(500,”Name”,”fc_1”) tanhLayer(“Name”,”tanh”) dropoutLayer(0.5,”Name”,”dropout1”) fullyConnectedLayer(numResponses,”Name”,”fc_2”)];\n% konfiguracja procesu uczenia sieci neuronowej options = trainingOptions(’adam’, ... % algorytm optymalizacji\n’ExecutionEnvironment’,’auto’, ... % wybór: CPU lub GPU\n’MaxEpochs’,500, ... % maksymalna liczba epok\n’ValidationData’,{ValidInput,ValidPattern}, ... % ustawienie walidacji\n’ValidationFrequency’,100, ... % częstość walidacji\n’ValidationPatience’,8, ... % maks. liczba epok z niemalejącą stratą\n’MiniBatchSize’, 128, ... % wielkość mini-partii\n’Shuffle’,’every-epoch’, ... % tasuje dane przed każdą epoką\n’Metrics’,”rmse”); % używa błędu RMSE do walidacji modelu\nNa rysunku 5.18 prezentowany jest wykres funkcji błędu RMSE (Root\nMean Square Error) w procesie trenowania sieci LSTM. Wykres zawiera dane z całego procesu uczenia, obejmującego 7000 iteracji. Jak widać na wykresie, błąd RMSE dla zbioru uczącego (oznaczony jasnoniebieską linią) oraz dla zbioru uczącego wygładzonego (oznaczony ciemnoniebieską linią) spada gwałtownie w początkowej fazie uczenia, a następnie stabilizuje się, osiągając asymptotyczny kształt. Linia czerwona, reprezentująca błąd RMSE dla zbioru walidacyjnego, pokazuje podobną tendencję, co świadczy o dobrej generalizacji modelu dla danych walidacyjnych.\n\nRys. 5.18. Wykres funkcji błędu RMSE w procesie trenowania sieci LSTM\nZielony trójkąt wskazuje na iterację o numerze 5600. Ta iteracja zgodnie z kryterium wczesnego zatrzymania osiągnęła najmniejszy błąd wynoszący RMSE = 1,3809. Proces uczenia sieci został zakończony przed osiągnięciem maksymalnej liczby iteracji z powodu braku dalszej poprawy błędu walidacyjnego przez określoną liczbę epok, co jest zgodne z zastosowanym kryterium wczesnego zatrzymania. Takie zakończenie procesu uczenia ma na celu zapobieganie przeuczeniu, umożliwiając sieci zachowanie zdolności do generalizacji podczas analizowania nowych, nieprzetwarzanych wcześniej danych.\nAnaliza wykresu RMSE pozwala zauważyć, że sieć efektywnie nauczyła się złożonych zależności występujących w danych bez nadmiernego dopasowania, co jest potwierdzone przez stabilny i niski poziom błędu na zbiorze walidacyjnym. Ponadto brak dużych fluktuacji w wartościach błędu RMSE świadczy o wysokiej stabilności procesu uczenia, co także stanowi pozytywną rekomendację dla jakości modelu.\n5.8.3. Sieć neuronowa o strukturze wielogałęziowej\nKolejnym modelem wytrenowanym na potrzeby rozwiązania tomograficznego problemu odwrotnego jest sieć neuronowa o strukturze trójgałęziowej, zawierająca warstwy LSTM. Struktura modelu zastała opisana w tabeli 5.4 i na rysunku 5.19. Pierwszą warstwą opisywanego modelu wielogałęziowego jest warstwa wejściowa o nazwie „sequence”, będąca wektorem o długości 448 jednostek.\n\nTabela. 5.4. Lista warstw sieci wielogałęziowej\nLp. Typ warstwy Opis\n1 Sequence Input 448-elementowe wejście sekwencyjne\n2 biLSTM LSTM z 1024 jednostkami ukrytymi\n3 Batch Normalization Normalizacja partii\n4 Dropout 50% deaktywowanych neuronów\n5 Fully Connected 256-elementowa warstwa w pełni połączona\n6 Tanh Warstwa aktywacji z funkcją tangens hiperboliczny\n7 Batch Normalization Normalizacja partii\n8 Dropout 50% deaktywowanych neuronów\n9 Fully Connected 256-elementowa warstwa w pełni połączona\n10 Tanh Warstwa aktywacji z funkcją tangens hiperboliczny\n11 Batch Normalization Normalizacja partii\n12 Dropout 50% deaktywowanych neuronów\n13 Fully Connected 256-elementowa warstwa w pełni połączona\n14 Tanh Warstwa aktywacji z funkcją tangens hiperboliczny\n15 Batch Normalization Normalizacja partii\n16 Dropout 50% deaktywowanych neuronów\n768-elementowy wektor konkatenacji łączący trzy wejścia\n17 Concat z warstw 256-elementowych\n18 biLSTM LSTM z 1024 jednostkami ukrytymi\n19 Batch Normalization Normalizacja partii\n20 Fully Connected 3050-elementowa warstwa w pełni połączona\nNastępnie przetwarzanie danych kontynuowane jest przez warstwę bidirectional LSTM (biLSTM_1), która zawiera 1024 jednostki ukryte. Powyższa warstwa umożliwia efektywne przetwarzanie danych sekwencyjnych z uwzględnieniem kontekstu zarówno poprzedzającego, jak i następującego.\nPorównując diagram przedstawiony na rysunku 5.19 z algorytmem 5.3.\nzawierającym kodowanie architektury modelu wielogałęziowego można zauważyć pewną różnicę w opisie warstwy biLSTM. Wg algorytmu opis warstwy jest następujący: bilstmLayer(1024,”Name”,”bilstm_1”,”OutputMode”,”last”). Jak widać, argument informujący o liczbie elementów ukrytych wynosi 1024. Z kolei na rysunku 5.18 opis bloków warstw bilstm_1 i bilstm_2 informuje, że obie te warstwy mają na wyjściu wektory złożone z 2048 jednostek.\nW strukturze przedstawionej na rysunku 5.19, opisy „None” odnoszą się do nieokreślonych wymiarów tensorów w warstwach sieci neuronowej, które\n\nmogą zmieniać się w zależności od konkretnego zestawu danych. W zależności od rodzaju warstwy i miejsca występowania „None” może np. reprezentować liczbę próbek (batch size) lub odnosić się do zmiennych wymiarów sekwencji czasowych lub przestrzennych, jeśli takowe są obecne w danych wejściowych. Przykładowo dla warstwy „InputLayer” z wyjściem opisanym jako „[(None, None, 448)]” pierwsze „None” oznacza nieokreśloną liczbę próbek, drugie „None” oznacza zmienną długość sekwencji, a 448 to liczba cech (wymiar przestrzeni cech). Taki sposób zapisu sprawia, że diagram jest elastyczny w stosunku do liczby przetwarzanych próbek oraz długości danych wejściowych.\nDyskrepancja pomiędzy informacją w kodzie a tym, co pokazuje diagram, wynika z natury warstwy Bidirectional LSTM (biLSTM). Warstwa Bidirectional LSTM w rzeczywistości składa się z dwóch warstw LSTM, z których każda przetwarza dane wejściowe w przeciwnym kierunku: jedna przetwarza dane od początku do końca, a druga – od końca do początku. W kodzie argument bilstmLayer(1024,...) oznacza, że każda z warstw LSTM wewnątrz biLSTM ma\n1024 jednostki. Wynika z tego, że każda z tych dwóch warstw LSTM generuje wektor o długości 1024 dla każdej sekwencji. Natomiast argument „Output-\nMode”,”last” oznacza, że z każdej warstwy LSTM (w ramach bidirectional) zwracany jest tylko ostatni wyjściowy wektor z sekwencji, co jest typowe dla wielu zadań przetwarzania sekwencji, gdzie interesuje nas wynik na końcu przetwarzanej sekwencji.\n\nRys. 5.19. Struktura sieci neuronowej o strukturze wielogałęziowej\n\nAlgorytm. 5.3. Matlab: kodowanie architektury modelu wielogałęziowego lgraph = layerGraph(); % Inicjalizacja grafu warstw\n% Definicja i dodawanie pierwszej (centralnej) grupy warstw tempLayers = [ sequenceInputLayer(inputSize,”Name”,”sequence”) bilstmLayer(1024,”Name”,”bilstm_1”,”OutputMode”,”last”) batchNormalizationLayer(“Name”,”batchnorm_1”) dropoutLayer(0.5,”Name”,”dropout_1”)];\nlgraph = addLayers(lgraph,tempLayers); % Dodanie warstw do grafu\n% Definicja i dodawanie drugiej (lewej) grupy warstw tempLayers = [ fullyConnectedLayer(256,”Name”,”fc_1”) tanhLayer(“Name”,”tanh_1”) batchNormalizationLayer(“Name”,”batchnorm_2”) dropoutLayer(0.5,”Name”,”dropout_2”)];\nlgraph = addLayers(lgraph,tempLayers); % Dodanie warstw do grafu\n% Definicja i dodawanie trzeciej (centralnej) grupy warstw tempLayers = [ fullyConnectedLayer(256,”Name”,”fc_2”) tanhLayer(“Name”,”tanh_2”) batchNormalizationLayer(“Name”,”batchnorm_3”) dropoutLayer(0.5,”Name”,”dropout_3”)];\nlgraph = addLayers(lgraph,tempLayers); % Dodanie warstw do grafu\n% Definicja i dodawanie czwartej (prawej) grupy warstw tempLayers = [ fullyConnectedLayer(256,”Name”,”fc_3”) tanhLayer(“Name”,”tanh_3”) batchNormalizationLayer(“Name”,”batchnorm_4”) dropoutLayer(0.5,”Name”,”dropout_4”)];\nlgraph = addLayers(lgraph,tempLayers); % Dodanie warstw do grafu\n% Definicja i dodawanie piątej (centralnej i łączącej) grupy warstw tempLayers = [ concatenationLayer(1,3,”Name”,”concat”) bilstmLayer(1024,”Name”,”bilstm_2”,”OutputMode”,”last”) batchNormalizationLayer(“Name”,”batchnorm_5”) fullyConnectedLayer(numResponses,”Name”,”fc_4”)];\nlgraph = addLayers(lgraph,tempLayers); % Dodanie warstw do grafu\n\nAlgorytm. 5.3. Matlab: kodowanie architektury modelu wielogałęziowego\n% usunięcie zmiennych pomocniczych clear tempLayers;\n% Łączenie grup/gałęzi warstw w jeden model sieciowy lgraph = connectLayers(lgraph,”dropout_1”,”fc_1”);\nlgraph = connectLayers(lgraph,”dropout_1”,”fc_2”);\nlgraph = connectLayers(lgraph,”dropout_1”,”fc_3”);\nlgraph = connectLayers(lgraph,”dropout_2”,”concat/in1”);\nlgraph = connectLayers(lgraph,”dropout_3”,”concat/in2”);\nlgraph = connectLayers(lgraph,”dropout_4”,”concat/in3”);\nPonieważ model ma dwie warstwy biLSTM (przetwarzające sekwencję w przeciwnych kierunkach), każda z nich zwraca wektor o długości 1024, zaś wyjście całej warstwy biLSTM jest konkatenacją tych dwóch wektorów. Stąd na diagramie widnieje wartość wyjściowa 2048 (1024 z jednej strony + 1024 z drugiej strony). To wyjaśnia, dlaczego wyjście warstwy na diagramie jest podane jako 2048, mimo że każda pojedyncza LSTM ma 1024 jednostki. Po warstwie „bilstm_1” znajduje się warstwa normalizacji partii (batchnorm_1), która stabilizuje uczenie przez normalizację wyjść z poprzedniej warstwy, a po niej umieszczono warstwę „dropout_1”, która losowo dezaktywuje 50% neuronów, co zapobiega przeuczeniu sieci.\nDalej struktura rozgałęzia się na trzy niezależne ścieżki, każda z nich składa się z trzech warstw: w pełni połączonej (fc_1, fc_2, fc_3), warstwy aktywacji tangens hiperboliczny (tanh_1, tanh_2, tanh_3) oraz kolejnej normalizacji partii\n(batchnorm_2, batchnorm_3, batchnorm_4). Każda z tych gałęzi zawiera również warstwę typu dropout (dropout_2, dropout_3, dropout_4), ponownie dezaktywującą 50% neuronów. Wyjścia o długości wektora 256 z tych trzech gałęzi są następnie łączone w jedną warstwę przez operację konkatenacji (concat), tworząc wektor o długości 768 (256 + 256 + 256 = 768) jednostek.\nŁączenie gałęzi w sieciach neuronowych może być realizowane przez konkatenację lub sumowanie. Są to dwie różne metody fuzji informacji pochodzących z wielu gałęzi lub warstw. Każda z wymienionych metod ma swoje specyficzne zastosowania i efekty oddziałujące na wyniki działania sieci, co jest decydujące w kontekście architektury i celu danego modelu.\nKonkatenacja polega na połączeniu wyjść z różnych gałęzi poprzez ich dosłowne złączenie w jeden dłuższy wektor. Jeśli gałąź A generuje wektor o długości , a gałąź B wektor o długości , to po konkatenacji otrzymujemy n m\n\nwektor o długości n + m. Taka metoda zachowuje wszystkie informacje z obu gałęzi, nie dochodzi do ich zmieszania w sensie matematycznym. Konkatenacja jest szczególnie przydatna w sytuacji, gdy model powinien nauczyć się, jakie cechy z poszczególnych gałęzi są najbardziej istotne i jak je różnicować.\nSumowanie polega na dodaniu do siebie odpowiadających sobie elementów wektorów wyjściowych z różnych gałęzi. Aby to umożliwić, wszystkie łączone wektory powinny mieć tę samą długość. Jeśli wektory mają długość , to wynik sumowania również będzie miał długość . Metoda sumowannia warstw prowadzi do bezpośredniego połączenia infornmacji z różnych źródeł.\nSumowanie może być przydatne, gdy celem jest wzmocnienie określonych cech sygnału lub gdy różne gałęzie sieci są wyspecjalizowane w detekcji różnych, ale równie ważnych cech danej próbki. Wybór metody łączenia gałęzi sieci neuronowej zależy od specyficznych wymagań zadania i charakterystyki przetwarzanych przez model danych. Każda z dwóch wymienionych metod łączenia gałęzi sieci ma swoje zalety i może być bardziej odpowiednia w różnych scenariuszach.\nScalany w warstwie konkatenacji wektor jest poddawany przeliczeniom realizowanym przez kolejną warstwę biLSTM (bilstm_2). Jest to warstwa posiadająca 1024 jednostki ukryte. Duża liczba jednostek ukrytych zapewnia złożone przetwarzanie sekwencyjne, co zazwyczaj przekłada się na dokładniejsze identyfikowanie ukrytych zależności między wejściami a wyjściami.\nPo warstwie biLSTM dane przechodzą przez kolejną normalizację partii\n(batchnorm_5), a następnie trafiają do końcowej warstwy w pełni połączonej\n(fc_4), która generuje wektor wyjściowy o długości 3050 jednostek. Taka architektura pozwala na złożone przetwarzanie danych uzyskanych z różnych przypadków wzorcowych. Jest to szczególnie użyteczne w zadaniach wymagających rozumienia i integracji różnorodnych cech wejściowych w kontekście sekwencyjnym.\nRysunek 5.20 przedstawia wykres funkcji błędu RMSE, czyli podstawowego średniego błędu kwadratowego, w procesie trenowania sieci wielogałęziowej.\n\nRys. 5.20. Wykres funkcji błędu RMSE w procesie trenowania sieci wielogałęziowej\nCały cykl procesu uczenia obejmuje 5300 iteracji. Wykres błędu RMSE dla zbioru uczącego zarówno wygładzony, jak i uwzględniający wszystkie przypadki (niebieska linia) w początkowej fazie gwałtownie spadał, by następnie ustabilizować się na niskim poziomie. W końcowej fazie wykres ma przebieg asymptotyczny. Wykres świadczy o stabilizacji RMSE, co jest dowodem zdolności modelu do generalizacji nowych danych wejściowych. Linia czerwona, reprezentująca błąd RMSE dla zbioru walidacyjnego, jest współbieżna z linią błędu zbioru uczącego, co jest dowodem braku przeuczenia modelu.\nNajniższy błąd walidacyjny RMSE = 1,0809, oznaczony zielonym trójkątem, został osiągnięty w iteracji numer 4500. Proces uczenia sieci został zaprojektowany, aby jednocześnie zapobiegać przeuczeniu i umożliwić sieci zachowanie zdolności do generalizacji. Kompromisem było ustawienie parametru określającego maksymalną liczbę odczytów błędu walidacyjnego na 8, co oznacza automatyczne zatrzymanie procesu uczenia, w przypadku gdy osiem kolejnych błędów walidacyjnych nie przyniesie poprawy. W rezultacie, pomimo że cały cykl procesu uczenia obejmował 5300 iteracji, iteracja 4500 została uznana za najlepszą i to sieć sparametryzowana właśnie po tej iteracji została zachowana.\nStabilny i niski poziom błędu RMSE na zbiorze walidacyjnym pokazuje, że sieć dobrze nauczyła się skomplikowanych zależności zawartych w danych.\nPonadto brak znacznych wahań wartości RMSE wskazuje na wysoką stabilność procesu uczenia, co dobrze rokuje w kontekście jakości zaprojektowanego modelu.\n\n5.8.4. Wielokrotna sztuczna sieć neuronowa\nKoncepcja wielokrotnych sztucznych sieci neuronowych (WSSN) została opisana w rozdziale 4.2. Wielokrotne sztuczne sieci neuronowe. WSSN to struktura składająca się z wielu osobno wytrenowanych sieci neuronowych (SSN) z pojedynczym wyjściem. Struktura zawiera tyle SSN, ile wynosi rozdzielczość siatki FEM. W opisywanym przypadku rozdzielczość jest równa 3050 wokseli, tak więc struktura WSSN zawiera 3050 sieci neuronowych, przy czym SSN dla każdego woksela był wytrenowany przy użyciu tego samego 448-elementowego wektora pomiarowego. Trenowanie polegało więc na dostosowaniu wag i biasów do danej wartości woksela (rys. 5.21).\nRys. 5.21. Zasada działania modelu WSSN\nRysunek 5.22 przedstawia porównanie dwóch podejść do modelowania sieci neuronowych w kontekście elektrycznej tomografii impedancyjnej (ETI) stosowanej do detekcji wilgoci w murach. Na rysunku zilustrowano dwa modele: tradycyjny model sztucznej sieci neuronowej (SSN) oraz koncepcję WSSN\n(wielokrotnej SSN), która zakłada trenowanie wielu sieci SSN z pojedynczymi wyjściami. W modelu tradycyjnym, przedstawionym na rysunku 5.22 (a), pojedyncza sieć neuronowa przekształca wejściowy wektor złożony z 448 pomiarów napięć bezpośrednio na wektor wyjściowy składający się z 3050 przestrzennych elementów skończonych (wokseli), które reprezentują obraz rekonstrukcyjny.\nStruktura tej sieci jest prosta w koncepcji, choć może być złożona obliczeniowo ze względu na dużą liczbę parametrów do nauczenia (ang. learnables) oraz wysoką wymiarowość danych wejściowych i wyjściowych.\n\na b\nRys. 5.22. Porównanie koncepcji WSSN na tle tradycyjnej sieci neuronowej:\n(a) tradycyjny model SSN, (b) koncepcja WSSN, zakładająca trenowanie wielu SSN\nWidoczna na rysunku 5.22 (b) koncepcja WSSN wprowadza istotne modyfikacje poprzez zastosowanie wielu jednowyjściowych sieci SSN, gdzie każda z nich, oznaczona jako SNN, jest odpowiedzialna za przetwarzanie tych sai mych 448 pomiarów napięć, ale każda przewiduje tylko jedną wartość wyjściową y, odpowiadającą pojedynczemu wokselowi. W rezultacie przedmioi towy model składa się z 3050 sieci z pojedynczym neuronem na wyjściu, gdzie każda wartość określa jeden woksel. Łączna liczba wokseli odpowiada rozdzielczości siatki FEM (ang. finite element method) używanej do rekonstrukcji obrazu tomograficznego.\nKażda jednowyjściowa SSN jest prostsza w strukturze i wymaga mniej zasobów obliczeniowych niż sieć typu „sekwencja sekwencja” z wektorem na wyjściu. Prócz tego mniejsze modele są łatwiejsz→e do trenowania, co może przyspieszyć proces nauki i zwiększyć stabilność modelu. Redukcja złożoności i wymiarowości może również przyczynić się do większej precyzji i efektywności modelu w praktycznych zastosowaniach. Koncepcja WSSN, polegająca na przypisywaniu poszczególnych sieci pojedynczym wokselom, umożliwia lepsze dostosowanie modelu do specyficznych, lokalnych właściwości obrazu.\nStanowi to dużą zaletę, zwłaszcza w przypadku zastosowań modelu do zadań takich jak detekcja wilgoci w murach, gdzie celem jest wychwycenie różnic wilgotności w obrębie wybranego fragmentu muru.\n\nWadą WSSN jest konieczność trenowania wielu modeli, co zwiększa całkowity czas i koszt obliczeniowy procesu uczenia maszynowego, zwłaszcza przy dużej liczbie wokseli. Tego rodzaju sieć jest dość wolna podczas rekonstrukcji obrazów tomograficznych, co ma znaczenie w środowiskach dynamicznych.\nAkurat badanie zawilgocenia ścian budynków nie jest nacechowane dynamizmem, więc ten problem tu nie występuje.\nRysunek 5.23 przedstawia schemat zastosowanego modelu sieci neuronowej. Sieć ma 448 wejść, 10 neuronów w warstwie ukrytej i 1 neuron w warstwie wyjściowej. Warstwa ukryta wykorzystuje logistyczną funkcję transferową.\nW warstwie wyjściowej funkcja transferowa ma przebieg liniowy.\nRys. 5.24. Diagram pojedynczej sieci neuronowej wykorzystanej w modelu WSSN\nWykres przedstawiony na rysunku 5.24 ilustruje przebieg procesu uczenia modelu sieci WSSN dla pojedynczego woksela. Na osi poziomej oznaczonej jako „epoki” pokazano liczbę epok, czyli pełnych cykli uczenia modelu, natomiast na osi pionowej znajduje się średni błąd kwadratowy (MSE), który jest miarą błędu modelu.\nNa wykresie widoczne są cztery linie reprezentujące poszczególne zbiory danych. Linią niebieską oznaczono średni błąd kwadratowy na zbiorze danych uczących. Widać wyraźny trend malejący, co oznacza, że model z każdą\n\nepoką poprawia swoje dopasowanie do danych uczących. Linią zieloną oznaczono błąd dla zbioru walidacyjnego. Ten zbiór danych nie jest używany bezpośrednio do uczenia modelu. Służy on do monitorowania momentu zatrzymania procesu uczenia, wykorzystując do tego funkcję wczesnego zatrzymania\n(ang. early stopping). Wykres dla zbioru testowego oznaczono linią czerwoną.\nDane należące do tego zbioru służą do ostatecznej oceny jakości modelu po zakończeniu procesu uczenia.\nRys. 5.24. Przebieg procesu uczenia modelu WSSN. Najmniejszy błąd walidacyjny wyniósł\nMSE = 1,7935 w epoce 12\nPrzecięcie linii przerywanych (zielony punkt) oznacza moment, w którym uzyskano najmniejszy błąd walidacyjny. W prezentowanym przypadku, w 12. epoce błąd MSE osiągnął najmniejszą wartość MSE = 1,7935. W początkowych iteracjach/epokach błędy na wszystkich zbiorach są stosunkowo wysokie, co jest typowe dla wczesnych etapów uczenia sieci neuronowej, gdy model jeszcze nie zdołał nauczyć się istotnych wzorców z danych. Z biegiem czasu, w miarę jak model uczy się na danych uczących, błąd ten znacząco spada, co jest widoczne szczególnie w przypadku linii niebieskiej odnoszącej się do zbioru uczącego.\nW 12. epoce błąd walidacyjny osiąga minimum, a następnie zaczyna nieznacznie rosnąć lub pozostaje na stałym poziomie. Ten fakt może wskazywać na wystąpienie zjawiska nadmiernego dopasowania, czyli tzw. przeuczenia\n(ang. overfitting), kiedy model zaczyna nadmiernie dopasowywać się do danych\n\nuczących kosztem zdolności do generalizacji. Objawia się to również tym, że błąd dla zbioru uczącego (niebieska linia) nadal maleje, podczas gdy błędy walidacyjny i testowy (zielona i czerwona linia) pozostają na wyższym poziomie i są do siebie zbliżone, co świadczy o dobrej generalizacji do momentu minimum błędu walidacyjnego.\nRozbieżność między błędem uczącym a walidacyjnym/testowym po 12.\nepoce wskazuje na nadmierne dopasowanie, które jest typowym problemem w uczeniu modeli maszynowych. Nadmierne dopasowanie oznacza, że model nauczył się specyficznych wzorców z danych uczących, które niekoniecznie będą obecne w nowych, nieznanych danych. Metoda wczesnego zatrzymania\n(ang. early stopping) jest techniką stosowaną w celu zapobiegania nadmiernemu dopasowaniu. Polega ona na przerwaniu treningu, gdy błąd walidacyjny przestaje się poprawiać przez określoną liczbę epok. W przypadku przedstawionego wykresu najlepszy moment zatrzymania to 12. epoka, gdzie błąd walidacyjny był najniższy.\nW kontekście tomografii ETI zdolność modelu do generalizacji jest kluczowa, ponieważ zadaniem modelu jest skuteczne przewidywanie rozkładu przewodnictwa elektrycznego w nowych, nieznanych próbkach na podstawie ograniczonej liczby pomiarów powierzchniowych. Zatem utrzymanie niskiego błędu walidacyjnego i testowego jest istotne dla praktycznej użyteczności modelu w warunkach rzeczywistych. Model prezentowany na wykresie rokuje dobrze, tym bardziej że trening został zatrzymany w optymalnym momencie\n(12. epoka). Odpowiedni dobór momentu zatrzymania procesu uczenia przyczynił się do uzyskania najlepszego kompromisu między dokładnością na zbiorze uczącym a zdolnością do generalizacji na nowych danych.\nTabela 5.5 przedstawia rezultaty trenowania modelu sieci neuronowej\nWSSN dla losowo wybranego woksela. Zawiera ona informacje na temat liczby obserwacji, średniego błędu kwadratowego MSE oraz współczynnika korelacji R dla trzech różnych zbiorów danych: uczącego, walidacyjnego i testowego.\nTabela. 5.5. Rezultaty trenowania modelu WSSN dla losowo wybranego woksela\nParametry\nLiczba obserwacji MSE R\nZbiory\nUczący 22876 0,1125 0,9967\nWalidacyjny 4901 1,7935 0,9443\nTestowy 4901 1,0273 0,9689\n\nŁączna liczba wygenerowanych symulacyjnie obserwacji wynosiła\nN = 32 678. Zbiór uczący składa się z 22 876 obserwacji, dla których model osiągnął MSE = 0,1125 oraz bardzo wysoką wartość wskaźnika korelacji wynoszącą R = 0,9967. Niski MSE, a zarazem wysoki wskaźnik R wskazują na bardzo dobre dopasowanie modelu do danych uczących. Na tej podstawie można wnioskować, że model skutecznie nauczył się wzorców obecnych w danych.\nWskaźnik korelacji R , znany również jako współczynnik korelacji Pear-\nTŷ sona, jest miarą liniowej zależności pomiędzy dwoma zbiorami danych. Dla danych rzeczywistych (wzorcowych) T oraz przewidywanych przez model i\n(rekonstrukcji) T wskaźnik korelacji R można wyrazić za pomocą następui Tŷ jącego wzoru:\n(5.5) gdzie: T – rzeczywiste wartości, ŷ – przewidywane wartości, – średnia wari i tość rzeczywistych wartości, – średnia wartość przewidywanych wartości,\nN – liczba obserwacji. Powyższa formuła określa stopień, w jakim zmienne y i ŷ są liniowo skorelowane. Wartość R mieści się w przedziale od –1 do 1,\nTŷ gdzie: R = 1 oznacza doskonałą dodatnią korelację liniową, R = –1 oznacza\nTŷ Tŷ doskonałą ujemną korelację liniową, R = 0 oznacza brak korelacji liniowej.\nTŷ\nW praktyce wysoka wartość R (bliska 1 lub –1) wskazuje na silną zależność\nTŷ liniową między wartościami rzeczywistymi a przewidywanymi, co jest pożądane w kontekście oceny wydajności modelu predykcyjnego, takiego jak model używany w elektrycznej tomografii impedancyjnej.\nWracając do analizy tabeli 5.5 – zbiór walidacyjny zawiera 4901 obserwacji, a uzyskane dla niego wartości MSE i R wynoszą odpowiednio 1,7935\nTŷ i 0,9443. Znacznie wyższy MSE w porównaniu ze zbiorem uczącym oraz niższy współczynnik korelacji wskazują na to, że model, pomimo dobrego dopasowania do danych uczących, zaczyna przejawiać symptomy nadmiernego dopasowania, co prowadzi do gorszej wydajności na nowych danych, które nie były używane podczas treningu. Zbiór testowy, podobnie jak walidacyjny, składa się z 4901 obserwacji. Dla tego zbioru uzyskano MSE wynoszące 1,0273 oraz wskaźnik korelacji R na poziomie 0,9689. Wyniki te\nTŷ są lepsze niż dla zbioru walidacyjnego. Świadczy to o wysokiej zdolności modelu do generalizacji i to pomimo tego, że różnice pomiędzy MSE dla\n\nzbiorów uczącego, walidacyjnego i testowego wciąż wskazuje na pewien poziom nadmiernego dopasowania.\nWysoki współczynnik korelacji R dla zbioru uczącego wskazuje, że mo-\nTŷ del jest bardzo dobrze dopasowany do danych, na których był trenowany. Jednakże różnica w wartościach MSE i R dla zbiorów walidacyjnego i testowego\nTŷ podkreśla konieczność stosowania technik regularyzacji oraz wczesnego zatrzymania (early stopping) w celu poprawy zdolności modelu do generalizacji na nowe, nieznane dane. Przedstawione wyniki trenowania WSSN wskazują, że model ma potencjał do skutecznego zastosowania w tomografii ETI, jednak z uwagi na tendencje do przeuczenia podczas procesu trenowania wymagane jest stosowanie technik zapobiegającym nadmiernemu dopasowaniu.\nRysunek 5.25 przedstawia trzy wykresy ilustrujące przebiegi procesu uczenia wielokrotnej sztucznej sieci neuronowej (WSSN) w kontekście elektrycznej tomografii impedancyjnej (ETI). Każda z trzech części rysunku odzwierciedla kluczowe parametry i miary związane z optymalizacją modelu w trakcie kolejnych epok uczenia.\nRys. 5.25. Najmniejszy błąd walidacyjny wyniósł 1,7935 w epoce 12\nPierwsza część rysunku ukazuje zmiany gradientu w kolejnych epokach.\nGradient jest miarą nachylenia funkcji błędu w przestrzeni parametrów modelu. Dzięki gradientowi znany jest kierunek i wielkość korekt, które należy\n\nzastosować w stosunku do wag w procesie uczenia. Na omawianym wykresie, wraz z kolejnymi iteracjami widoczny jest ogólny trend spadkowy, co jest symptomem, że wartość funkcji błędu trenowanego modelu stopniowo zbliża się do minimum. W 18. epoce gradient osiąga wartość 0,012538. Oznacza to, że proces uczenia zmierza ku stabilizacji, a zmiany wag są coraz mniejsze.\nDruga część rysunku przedstawia zmianę wartości momentum w trakcie uczenia. Momentum jest parametrem, który pomaga w przyspieszeniu procesu uczenia poprzez uwzględnienie poprzednich kierunków zmian wag. Umożliwia to szybsze pokonywanie dolin i wzniesień widocznych na wykresie funkcji błędu. Duże fluktuacje momentu mogą wskazywać na poszukiwanie optymalnego rozwiązania w złożonej przestrzeni parametrów. W 18. epoce moment wynosi 1e-06, co jest bardzo małą wartością, sugerującą, że model zbliża się do punktu, w którym dalsze zmiany są minimalne.\nTrzecia część rysunku ilustruje kryterium maksymalnej liczby testów walidacyjnych przeprowadzanych w poszczególnych epokach. Jest to de facto obraz metody wczesnego zatrzymania uczenia modelu. Na wykresie można zauważyć, że do 12. epoki liczba testów walidacyjnych jest stosunkowo stała, co odpowiada etapowi, w którym model jeszcze się uczy i dopasowuje do danych uczących.\nPo 12. epoce, gdzie najmniejszy błąd walidacyjny wynosił 1,7935, liczba testów walidacyjnych zaczyna gwałtownie rosnąć, co może świadczyć o próbach modelu w dalszej optymalizacji i dopasowywaniu do danych walidacyjnych, mimo że główny proces uczenia już się zakończył. Zmniejszający się gradient i stabilizujące wartości momentum wskazują, że model zbliża się do optymalnego rozwiązania. Natomiast rosnąca liczba testów walidacyjnych po 12. epoce podkreśla znaczenie ciągłej walidacji i adaptacji modelu w celu zapewnienia jego zdolności do generalizacji i skutecznego działania w warunkach rzeczywistych.\nRysunek 5.26 przedstawia histogram błędu, który odzwierciedla rozkład odchyleń między obrazami wzorcowymi (wejściami) a rekonstrukcjami\n(wyjściami) WSSN. Oś pozioma, oznaczona jako „Odchylenia”, przedstawia liczbowe wartości różnic między rzeczywistymi wartościami a wartościami przewidywanymi przez model. Odchylenia zostały podzielone na 20 równych przedziałów. Oś pionowa reprezentuje liczbę instancji, czyli częstość występowania poszczególnych odchyleń mieszczących się w określonych przedziałach.\nHistogram zawiera cztery różne zbiory danych: zbiór uczący (niebieskie słupki), zbiór walidacyjny (zielone słupki), zbiór testowy (czerwone słupki) oraz linię oznaczającą błąd zerowy (pomarańczowa linia pionowa). Słupki reprezentują liczbę przypadków, w których różnica między wzorcami a wyjściami sieci mieściła się w określonym przedziale wartości.\n\nRys. 5.26. Histogram błędu z 20 przedziałami\nKształt wykresu jest asymetryczny, lecz skoncentrowany wokół wartości bliskiej zeru. Taki kształt sugeruje, że większość przewidywań modelu WSSN jest bardzo bliska rzeczywistym wartościom. Niebieskie słupki zbioru uczącego dominują w centralnej części histogramu. To z kolei świadczy o dobrym dopasowaniu modelu do danych uczących. Zielone słupki zbioru walidacyjnego i czerwone słupki zbioru testowego również są skupione wokół linii oznaczającej wartość zerową, chociaż z nieco większym rozproszeniem. Jest to typowe w przypadku walidacji i testowania, ponieważ dotyczy predykcji danych, które dla modelu są zupełnie nieznane.\nMożna przyjąć, że rozkład odchyleń na histogramie jest zbliżony kształtem do krzywej rozkładu normalnego. Pomimo że kształt histogramu nie jest idealnie symetryczny, błędy predykcji mają tendencję do kształtowania się zgodnie z rozkładem normalnym. Większość odchyleń na wykresie jest niewielka, a większe błędy MSE występują rzadziej. Jest to pozytywny prognostyk odnośnie do jakości modelu, wskazujący na jego potencjał do generalizacji wyników. Skoncentrowanie odchyleń wokół zera wskazuje na wysoką dokładność modelu. Pomimo pewnych rozproszeń w zbiorach walidacyjnym i testowym, ogólny rozkład błędów jest zgodny z oczekiwaniami dla dobrze funkcjonującej sieci neuronowej, co potwierdza skuteczność zastosowanego podejścia w analizie tomograficznej.\nRysunek 5.27 ilustruje statystykę regresyjną dla zbioru testowego, przedstawiając relację pomiędzy wzorcowymi wartościami wokseli a wartościami\n\nprzewidywanymi przez model WSSN w kontekście obrazowania ETI. Na wykresie znajdują się trzy elementy: punkty oznaczone kółkami, czerwona linia regresji oraz przerywana linia wzorcowa. Kółka reprezentują indywidualne wartości wokseli w zbiorze testowym, pokazując, jak rzeczywiste wartości są mapowane przez model. Oś pozioma („wzorzec”) reprezentuje wzorcowe wartości wokseli, czyli rzeczywiste wartości przewodnictwa elektrycznego, natomiast oś pionowa przedstawia wartości przewidywane przez model.\nRys. 5.27 Statystyka regresyjna dla zbioru testowego. Korelacja R = 0,96891\nW rozpatrywanym przypadku wszystkie wartości przyjmują 1 lub 10. Są to umowne wartości konduktywności, które dla obszarów suchych wynoszą „1”, a dla obszarów wilgotnych „10”. „Wyjście” odpowiada wartościom przewidzianym przez sieć neuronową. Oś pionowa na przedstawionym wykresie opisana jest zależnością: wyjście = 0,95 · wzorzec + 0,18. Jest to formuła linii regresji, która najlepiej dopasowuje wyjścia i wejścia widoczne na wykresie w postaci rozproszonych punktów. Wartość 0,95 jest współczynnikiem nachylenia linii regresji. Współczynnik wskazuje, że każda jednostka wzorca przekłada się na 0,95 jednostki na osi wyjścia. Wartość (+0,18) jest stałą (przesunięcie y-intercept) linii regresji, która informuje, że kiedy wartość wzorca wynosi zero, linia regresji przecina oś pionową w punkcie 0,18. Tak więc formuła na osi\n\npionowej opisuje sposób, w jaki model regresji przekształca wartości wzorca do wartości wyjściowych. W powyższej formule wartość początkowa wynosi\n0,18, a stosunek zmiany jest równy 0,95.\nAnaliza przebiegu linii widocznych na wykresie dostarcza istotnych informacji o jakości modelu. Czerwona linia regresji przebiega blisko przerywanej linii wzorcowej. Oznacza to, że model dobrze przewiduje wartości wokseli.\nWspółczynnik korelacji R = 0,96891 dla zbioru testowego potwierdza wysoką zgodność między wartościami przewidywanymi a rzeczywistymi. To z kolei stanowi dowód dużej precyzji modelu w zakresie przewidywania rozkładu przewodnictwa elektrycznego wewnątrz muru. Choć widoczne są pewne odchylenia od linii wzorcowej, szczególnie na końcach zakresu wartości, jednak są one minimalne i nie wpływają znacząco na ogólną ocenę modelu.\n5.9. Dobór metody uczenia maszynowego\nPoniżej przedstawiono przykład umożliwiający dobór metody uczenia maszynowego do konkretnych danych. Nie jest to jednak dobór nieograniczony, lecz wybór spośród dwóch metod – metody najmniejszych kwadratów lub maszyny wektorów nośnych (SVM). Obie metody nogą być zastosowane w ramach regresji liniowej.\nW regresji liniowej metodą najmniejszych kwadratów (ang. least squares) funkcja celu składa się z dwóch części: błędu kwadratowego oraz terminu regularyzacji, którym może być L1 (Lasso) lub L2 (Ridge). Ogólna postać funkcji celu jest następująca:\n(5.6) gdzie: y jest rzeczywistą wartością (wzorcem) dla i-tej obserwacji, f(y, w) to wari i tość przewidywana przez model dla i-tej obserwacji, w jest wektorem wag modelu,\nλ (Lambda) to parametr regularyzacji, R(w) to funkcja regularyzacji (L1 lub L2).\nMetoda najmniejszych kwadratów minimalizuje sumę kwadratów różnic między obserwowanymi wartościami a wartościami przewidywanymi przez model. Dla metody najmniejszych kwadratów termin regularyzacji R(w) jest regularyzacją typu L2 (ang. ridge regression), która penalizuje duże wartości wag:\n\n(5.7)\nFunkcja celu z regularyzacją L2 przyjmuje więc postać:\n(5.8)\nW kontekście regresji liniowej SVM znajduje płaszczyznę hiperprzestrzeni, która najlepiej oddziela różne klasy danych lub przewiduje wartości ciągłe. Dla metody SVM termin regularyzacji R(w) jest regularyzacją typu L1 (ang. Lasso regression), która prowadzi do rzadkich wag, czyli wielu wag równych zero:\n(5.9)\nFunkcja celu z regularyzacją L1 (Lasso) może być zapisana jako:\n(5.10)\nW regresji SVM funkcja celu również składa się z dwóch części: błędu epsilon-niewrażliwego oraz terminu regularyzacji, który również może być\nL1 lub L2. Funkcja celu dla regresji SVM z regularyzacją L2 przyjmuje postać:\n1⁄2 (5.11) gdzie: C – parametr regularyzacji, który określa kompromis między błędem a regularyzacją, ε – szerokość marginesu epsilon-niewrażliwego. Minimalizacja funkcji celu jest realizowana w procesie optymalizacji. Istnieje możliwość wyboru metody optymalizacji, jednak w tym przypadku została zastosowana popularna metoda stochastycznego spadku gradientu (ang. stochastic gradient descent) [88, 145].\nRysunek 5.28 przedstawia trójwymiarowy wykres optymalizacji funkcji celu w modelu regresji liniowej dla różnych parametrów Lambda i dwóch metod uczenia (metody najmniejszych kwadratów, czyli leastsquares, oraz SVM) w kontekście dopasowywania danych wokselowych.\nPunkty obserwacji (niebieskie punkty) to zaobserwowane wartości funkcji celu dla różnych kombinacji parametrów. Średnia modelu (żółta powierzchnia) przedstawia wartość funkcji celu oszacowaną na podstawie modelu predykcyjnego. Kolejny punkt (czarna kropka) to kolejny punkt podlegający ocenie w procesie optymalizacji. Minimalna wartość modelu (czerwona gwiazdka) oznacza minimalną możliwą wartość funkcji celu, która została oszacowana\n\nprzez model. Najmniejsza wartość funkcji celu została osiągnięta metodą najmniejszych kwadratów (leastsquares).\nRys. 5.28. D obór metody trenowania, leastsquares lub SVM, z wykorzystaniem regresji liniowej\nW tabeli 5.6 przedstawiono formuły funkcji straty wykorzystane w zależności od metody regresji liniowej – leastsquares lub SVM.\nTabela. 5.6. Funkcja celu w zależności od metody uczenia\nMetoda Zakres\nAlgorytm Funkcja straty uczenia odpowiedzi\nRegresja liniowa leastsquares metodą najmniejszych kwadratów\nRegresja z użyciem\nSVM maszyny wektorów nośnych\nElementem funkcji straty jest f(x) = x β + b, gdzie: β jest wektorem współczynników, x jest obserwacją z p-zmiennych predykcyjnych, b jest skalarnym wyrazem wolnym. W funkcji straty dla SVM ε to wartość progowa, poniżej której błędy przewidywań nie są uwzględniane.\nOptymalizowana funkcja celu różni się w zależności od wybranej metody i rodzaju regularyzacji. W przypadku leastsquares funkcja celu minimalizuje błąd kwadratowy z dodatkowym terminem regularyzacji L1 lub L2. W przypadku regresji\nSVM funkcja celu minimalizuje błąd ε z dodatkowym terminem regularyzacji L2.\n\nWykres 5.29 ilustruje minimalną wartość funkcji celu w zależności od liczby ewaluacji funkcji. Przedstawia on zarówno minimalne wartości obserwowane\n(czerwone kropki), jak i minimalne wartości estymowane (zielone trójkąty).\nNa osi poziomej znajdują się kolejne ewaluacje funkcji celu, a na osi pionowej przedstawiono wartości minimalne funkcji celu. Na wykresie można zaobserwować, że początkowo, w pierwszych pięciu ewaluacjach, wartość funkcji celu gwałtownie spada z poziomu około 2,8 do około 1,4. Po tej fazie wartości minimalne funkcji celu stabilizują się wokół 1.4 dla pozostałych ewaluacji.\nRys. 5.29 Wykres minimalnej funkcji celu względem liczby ewaluacji\nPowiązana z rysunkiem 5.29 tabela 5.7 przedstawia szczegółowy przebieg procesu doboru metody uczenia, uwzględniając iteracje, ocenę wyniku, wartość funkcji celu, najlepszy dotychczasowy wynik z obserwacji, najlepszy wynik estymowany, parametr Lambda oraz najlepszą dla danej iteracji metodę\n(leastsquares lub SVM). Analizując tabelę w kontekście rysunku 5.29, można zauważyć, że w pierwszych pięciu iteracjach wartości funkcji celu i metody treningowe są zróżnicowane. Odpowiada to gwałtownemu spadkowi wartości funkcji celu na wykresie. Iteracje oznaczone jako „Best” (np. iteracje 1, 3,\n6, 25) wskazują na osiągnięcie najlepszych wyników wśród wcześniejszych iteracji. Jest to zgodne z punktami oznaczonymi na wykresie. Od około szóstej iteracji, kiedy funkcja celu osiąga wartość około 1.4, zauważalna jest stabilizacja minimalnej wartości funkcji celu, co odzwierciedla stabilne wartości na wykresie od tej iteracji. Minimalne wartości obserwowane i estymowane\n(czerwone kropki i zielone trójkąty) są do siebie bardzo zbliżone. Dowodzi to\n\nwysokiej zgodności między wartościami rzeczywistymi a przewidywanymi przez model estymacjami.\nTabela. 5.7. Przebieg procesu doboru metody uczenia\nNajlepszy Najlepszy\nFunkcja\nIteracja Ocena dotąd wynik dotąd wynik Lambda Metoda celu z obserwacji estymowany\n1 Best 2,753 2,753 2,753 8,6612E-08 svm\n2 Accept 2,934 2,753 2,7643 0,018824 svm\n3 Best 1,503 1,503 1,5266 1,1348E-07 leastsquares\n4 Accept 2,7478 1,503 1,5031 20,288 leastsquares\n5 Accept 1,5781 1,503 1,503 0,000014183 leastsquares\n6 Best 1,4077 1,4077 1,4085 6,4557E-07 leastsquares\n7 Accept 1,419 1,4077 1,4108 1,2686E-06 leastsquares\n8 Accept 2,9345 1,4077 1,4112 551,37 svm\n9 Accept 1,4079 1,4077 1,4094 7,5644E-07 leastsquares\n10 Accept 1,409 1,4077 1,4093 7,5615E-07 leastsquares\n11 Accept 1,4109 1,4077 1,4096 7,5279E-07 leastsquares\n12 Accept 2,7337 1,4077 1,4096 0,025916 leastsquares\n13 Accept 2,7479 1,4077 1,4097 552,3 leastsquares\n14 Accept 2,9345 1,4077 1,4098 4,3636 svm\n15 Accept 2,8281 1,4077 1,4099 0,000065613 svm\n16 Accept 2,3694 1,4077 1,4097 0,00058997 leastsquares\n17 Accept 2,7473 1,4077 1,4098 0,7334 leastsquares\n18 Accept 2,9338 1,4077 1,4098 2,5608E-06 svm\n19 Accept 2,9344 1,4077 1,4098 0,30841 svm\n20 Accept 2,9345 1,4077 1,4099 64,741 svm\n21 Accept 2,9341 1,4077 1,4098 0,0010708 svm\n22 Accept 1,8659 1,4077 1,4095 0,000079049 leastsquares\n23 Accept 2,7477 1,4077 1,4095 120,94 leastsquares\n24 Accept 1,4858 1,4077 1,4094 4,7274E-06 leastsquares\n25 Best 1,4065 1,4065 1,4089 6,9154E-07 leastsquares\n26 Accept 2,6654 1,4065 1,4089 0,0041134 leastsquares\n27 Accept 1,5756 1,4065 1,4089 5,5266E-08 leastsquares\n28 Accept 2,8865 1,4065 1,409 4,297E-07 svm\n29 Accept 1,4215 1,4065 1,4082 3,2098E-07 leastsquares\n30 Accept 2,7453 1,4065 1,4083 0,15002 leastsquares\n\nNa podstawie analizy informacji zawartych w tabeli 5.7 można stwierdzić, że optymalizacja została zakończona, osiągając maksymalną liczbę 30 ewaluacji funkcji celu. Najlepszy zaobserwowany wykonalny punkt został osiągnięty dla wartości parametru Lambda wynoszącej 6,6223e-07 przy użyciu metody leastsquares. Wartość funkcji celu dla tego punktu wyniosła 1,2754, podczas gdy oszacowana wartość funkcji celu wyniosła 1,2769. Najlepszy oszacowany wykonalny punkt, zgodnie z modelami leastsquares i SVM, został uzyskany dla wartości parametru Lambda wynoszącej 6,4829e-07 również przy użyciu metody leastsquares. Oszacowana wartość funkcji celu dla tego punktu wyniosła\n1,2769. Uzyskane wyniki wskazują na wysoką zgodność między wartościami zaobserwowanymi a oszacowanymi. W kontekście minimalizacji funkcji celu świadczy to o dobrej efektywności zarówno zastosowanego modelu, jak również wykorzystanej metody optymalizacji.\n5.10. Rekonstrukcje obrazów uzyskane dzięki danym symulacyjnym\nTabela 5.8 przedstawia obrazy wzorcowe (referencyjne) dla czterech przypadków pomiarowych oraz rekonstrukcje ETI wykonane następującymi metodami: Gaussa–Newtona, regularyzacji Tikhonova, Total Variation, maszyna wektorów nośnych (SVM), elastic net, regresji liniowej, wielokrotnej sieci neuronowej (WSSN), konwolucyjnej sieci neuronowej (CNN), sieci LSTM, sieci LSTM+CNN, sieci wielogałęziowej LSTM.\nAnaliza rekonstrukcji dla każdego z czterech przypadków umożliwia ocenę skuteczności i dokładności poszczególnych metod. W przypadku nr 1 obrazy rekonstrukcyjne wykonane metodami Gaussa–Newtona oraz regularyzacji Tikhonova wydają się dobrze odwzorowywać strukturę wzorca, choć w niektórych miejscach zauważalne są rozmycia i artefakty. Metoda Total Variation lepiej zachowuje krawędzie, co może być korzystne w rekonstrukcji szczegółowych struktur. SVM generuje obrazy o wyraźnych konturach, jednak z nieco większym poziomem szumów w porównaniu z metodami opartymi na regularyzacji. Metoda elastic net, choć skuteczna w prostszych przypadkach, może nieco gorzej radzić sobie z bardziej złożonymi rozkładami zawilgoceń.\nRegresja liniowa, ze względu na swoją prostotę, często nie radzi sobie ze złożonymi obrazami, co jest widoczne w przypadkach nr 2 i nr 3, gdzie rekonstrukcje są mniej wyraźne. Wielokrotna sztuczna sieć neuronowa (WSSN), mimo że trenuje sieci dla pojedynczych wokseli, a każda z sieci ma na wyjściu nie wektor,\n\nlecz tylko jedną wartość skalarną, osiąga wysoką jakość rekonstrukcji. Dzięki temu, mimo że jest to zwykła gęsta warstwa typu „dense” zawierająca 10 neuronów ukrytych, zwielokrotniona do rozdzielczości obrazu wyjściowego, jakością dorównuje nowoczesnym architekturom sieciowym. WSSN poprawia wyniki szczególnie w przypadkach z bardziej skomplikowaną geometrią, gdzie obserwujemy lepsze odwzorowanie szczegółów w porównaniu z prostszymi metodami.\nKonwolucyjna sieć neuronowa (CNN) daje bardzo dobre rezultaty, szczególnie w przypadku nr 4, gdzie złożoność struktury jest najlepiej odzwierciedlona. Sieć LSTM, zaprojektowana do przetwarzania sekwencyjnego, może nieco mniej efektywnie radzić sobie z pojedynczymi obrazami w porównaniu z CNN, jednak połączenie LSTM z CNN (sieć LSTM+CNN) wykazuje znaczną poprawę. Widać to zwłaszcza w odwzorowywaniu dynamicznych aspektów obrazu, czyli złożoności i zmienności strukturalnych. Sieć wielogałęziowa\nLSTM, która łączy zalety obu podejść, daje najbardziej zadowalające wyniki w większości przypadków. Zachowuje przy tym zarówno szczegółowość, jak i dynamikę obrazów wzorcowych.\nZ przedstawionych rezultatów wynika, że najlepsze odzwierciedlenie obrazów wzorcowych uzyskano za pomocą sieci wielogałęziowej LSTM. Sugeruje to, że połączenie różnych podejść do analizy obrazu może prowadzić do lepszych wyników w rekonstrukcji ETI. Metody bazujące na sieciach neuronowych, szczególnie CNN i kombinacje LSTM+CNN, wykazują widoczną przewagę nad tradycyjnymi metodami w zakresie zachowania szczegółowości i dokładności rekonstrukcji.\nTabela. 5.8. Porównanie rekonstrukcji uzyskanych różnymi metodami\nPrzypadek Przypadek Przypadek Przypadek\nMetoda nr 1 nr 2 nr 3 nr 4\nWzorzec\nMetoda\nGaussa–Newtona\n\nTabela. 5.8. Porównanie rekonstrukcji uzyskanych różnymi metodami\nRegularyzacja\nTikhonova\nMetoda Total\nVariation\nMaszyna wektorów nośnych (SVM) elastic net\nPrzypadek Przypadek Przypadek Przypadek\nMetoda nr 20 nr 40 nr 110 nr 320\nRegresja liniowa\nWSSN\n\nTabela. 5.8. Porównanie rekonstrukcji uzyskanych różnymi metodami\nCNN\nLSTM\nLSTM+CNN\nWielogałęziowa\nLSTM\nTabela 5.9 przedstawia wskaźniki jakości rekonstrukcji dla przypadku nr 1, obejmujące Root Mean Square Error (RMSE), Peak Signal-to-Noise Ratio\n(PSNR), Structural Similarity Index Measure (SSIM) oraz współczynnik Pearsona R . Metoda Gaussa–Newtona charakteryzuje się wartością RMSE równą\nTŷ\n4,141, co wskazuje na stosunkowo wysoką średnią wartość błędu. Wskaźnik\nPSNR wynosi 7,6578, co sugeruje umiarkowany poziom szumu w zrekonstruowanym obrazie. SSIM, wynoszący 0,0279, wskazuje na niską jakość strukturalną rekonstrukcji, a R na poziomie 0,9024 świadczy o wysokiej korelacji\nTŷ rekonstrukcji z obrazami wzorcowymi. Warto przy tym nadmienić, że SSIM to miara, która ocenia, jak dobrze zrekonstruowany obraz zachowuje lokalne i globalne cechy oryginału, takie jak krawędzie, tekstury i inne elementy strukturalne. Z kolei stabilność metody w kontekście rekonstrukcji obrazu odnosi się do jej zdolności do generowania spójnych i niezawodnych wyników. Ma to szczególne znaczenie w przypadku niewielkich zmian wartości danych\n\npomiarowych. Innymi słowy, stabilność metody ocenia, jak bardzo wyniki rekonstrukcji są wrażliwe na drobne perturbacje lub szumy w danych wejściowych. Wskaźnik R jest miarą tej stabilności.\nTŷ\nTabela. 5.9. Wskaźniki jakości rekonstrukcji dla przypadku nr 1\nMetoda RMSE PSNR SSIM R\nTŷ\nGaussa–Newtona 4,1410 7,6578 0,0279 0,9024\nRegularyzacja Tikhonova 1,3540 17,369 0,6965 0,9527\nTotal Variation 4,4890 6,9579 0,0804 0,7653\nSVM 2,7680 11,156 0,3875 0,6894 elastic net 9,7300 0,2377 -0,4230 0,8059\nRegresja liniowa 7,7920 2,1676 -0,3400 0,7123\nWSSN 0,5450 25,277 0,8250 0,9888\nCNN 1,9300 14,289 0,5016 0,9303\nLSTM 1,1760 18,591 0,7226 0,9501\nLSTM+CNN 0,9730 20,238 0,7443 0,9662\nWielogałęziowa LSTM 0,8070 21,858 0,7764 0,9765\nKolejną analizowaną metodą jest regularyzacja Tikhonova. Metoda ta wykazuje znacznie niższe RMSE, równe 1,3540. Oznacza to mniejsze odchylenie rekonstrukcji od wartości wzorcowych. PSNR wynoszący 17,369 sugeruje, że rekonstrukcja jest mniej zaszumiona w porównaniu z metodą Gaussa–Newtona.\nWartość SSIM wynosząca 0,6965 oznacza, że strukturalna jakość obrazu jest znacznie lepsza, a R na poziomie 0,9527 wskazuje na bardzo dobrą korelację\nTŷ wzorców i rekonstrukcji.\nMetoda Total Variation charakteryzuje się RMSE równym 4,4890, co jest porównywalne z metodą Gaussa–Newtona, ale PSNR na poziomie 6,9579 sugeruje wyższy poziom zaszumienia rekonstrukcji. Wskaźnik SSIM wynoszący\n0,0804 jest niski, a korelacja R na poziomie 0,7653 wskazuje na niższą sta-\nTŷ bilność metody. SVM (ang. support vector machine) osiąga RMSE na poziomie 2,7680, co jest umiarkowaną wartością błędu. PSNR wynoszący 11,156 wskazuje na umiarkowany poziom zaszumienia rekonstruowanych obrazów tomograficznych, natomiast SSIM równy 0,3875 sugeruje umiarkowaną jakość strukturalną rekonstrukcji. Wskaźnik korelacji Pearsona R na poziomie\nTŷ\n0,6894 wskazuje na niższą jakość metody SVM od TV.\nElastic net wykazuje bardzo wysokie RMSE, równe 9,7300, co jest dużą średnią wartością błędu. PSNR wynoszący 0,2337 wskazuje na wysoki poziom zaszumienia rekonstrukcji, a SSIM równy -0,4230 sugeruje bardzo niską jakość\n\nstrukturalną. Wartość wskaźnika korelacji R na poziomie 0,8059 wskazuje\nTŷ na średnią stabilność modelu.\nRegresja liniowa charakteryzuje się najwyższym RMSE równym 7,7920 oraz bardzo niskim PSNR, wynoszącym 2,1670. SSIM na poziomie -0,3400 również wskazuje na niską jakość strukturalną, a R wynoszący 0,7123 sugeruje\nTŷ niskie skorelowanie rekonstrukcji z obrazami wzorcowymi. Regresja liniowa zakłada liniową zależność między zmiennymi wejściowymi a wyjściowymi.\nW przypadku skomplikowanych struktur i wzorców w obrazach zależności te są często nieliniowe, co skutkuje słabym rezultatem tej metody. Metoda WSSN osiąga najniższe RMSE równe 0,5450, co wskazuje na bardzo niski błąd rekonstrukcji. PSNR wynoszący 25,277 oznacza niski poziom zaszumienia rekonstruowanego tomogramu, a SSIM równy 0,8250 świadczy o wysokiej jakości strukturalnej rekonstrukcji. R na poziomie 0,9888 sugeruje bardzo wysoką\nTŷ korelację rekonstruowanych obrazów z wzorcami.\nMetoda CNN (convolutional neural network) charakteryzuje się RMSE równym 1,9300. PSNR wynoszący 14,280 świadczy o niskim poziomie zaszumienia obrazu wyjściowego. Wskaźnik SSIM równy 0,5016 oznacza dobrą jakość strukturalną, a R na poziomie 0,9303 sugeruje wysoką jakość oce-\nTŷ nianego modelu. Sieć LSTM (long short-term memory) osiąga RMSE równy\n1,1760 oraz PSNR wynoszący 18,591, co jest niskim poziomem zaszumienia obrazów rekonstrukcyjnych. Wskaźnik SSIM równy 0,7226 wskazuje na dobrą jakość strukturalną modelu, a R na poziomie 0,9501 daje wysoką ocenę\nTŷ odnośnie do jakości modelu. Metoda LSTM+CNN charakteryzuje się RMSE równym 0,9730 oraz PSNR na poziomie 20,283, co świadczy o niskim poziomie szumu w rekonstrukcji. Wskaźnik SSIM wynoszący 0,7443 oznacza dobrą jakość strukturalną, a R równe 0,9662 zapewnia wysoką korelację obrazów,\nTŷ a tym samym i ich jakość. Z kolei wielogałęziowa sieć LSTM osiąga RMSE równy 0,8070 oraz PSNR wynoszący 21,858. Również te wartości wskaźników sugerują niski poziom szumu zawartego w rekonstruowanych obrazach.\nWskaźnik SSIM równy 0,7764 oznacza wysoką jakość strukturalną, a R na\nTŷ poziomie 0,9765 sugeruje bardzo wysoką korelację uzyskiwanych na wyjściu obrazów z wzorcami.\nAnaliza przedstawionych wskaźników jakości rekonstrukcji dla przypadku nr 1 sugeruje, że metody oparte na sieciach neuronowych, takie jak WSSN,\nCNN, LSTM, LSTM+CNN oraz wielogałęziowa LSTM, osiągają lepsze wyniki pod względem RMSE, PSNR, SSIM i R w porównaniu z tradycyjnymi me-\nTŷ todami takimi jak metoda Gaussa–Newtona, regularyzacja Tikhonova, Total\nVariation, SVM, elastic net i regresja liniowa. W szczególności metoda WSSN\n\nwyróżnia się najniższym błędem rekonstrukcji i najwyższą jakością strukturalną obrazu, co czyni ją najbardziej efektywną spośród analizowanych metod.\nPodczas interpretacji wyników analizy należy mieć na uwadze, że wskaźnik RMSE jest miarą odchylenia rekonstrukcji od wartości wzorcowych, co jest odległe od ludzkiej percepcji obrazu. Ponieważ tomografia polega na wizualizacji różnic w zawilgoceniu poszczególnych obszarów wnętrza badanego obiektu, możliwe jest, że pomimo różnic wartości bezwzględnych obraz będzie prawidłowo odzwierciedlał miejsca wilgoci. Przykładowo, jeżeli pomnożymy pierwotne wartości wokseli obrazu zrekonstruowanego przez 10 i przedstawimy je jako nowy obraz rekonstrukcyjny, to rekonstrukcja pierwotna i nowa będą wyglądać bardzo podobnie, ale błąd RMSE rekonstrukcji nowej będzie znacznie większy niż pierwotnej.\nTabela 5.10 analizuje podobne do powyższych wskaźniki dla przypadku nr 2. Metoda Gaussa–Newtona charakteryzuje się wartością RMSE wynoszącą 5,3418, co ponownie wskazuje na wysoki średni błąd rekonstrukcji. Wartość PSNR na poziomie 5,4462 sugeruje, że zrekonstruowany obraz zawiera dużo szumu w porównaniu z obrazem wzorcowym. Wskaźnik SSIM równy\n0,0156 oznacza bardzo niską jakość strukturalną rekonstrukcji. Oceniana metoda nie jest więc efektywna w odtwarzaniu pierwotnych wzorców obrazu.\nWskaźnik korelacji Pearsona dla analizowanej metody, określony wskaźnikiem\nR = 0,8152 jest na poziomie umiarkowanym. Świadczy to o niskiej odpor-\nTŷ ności rekonstruowanych obrazów tomograficznych na zmiany w sygnałach pomiarowych.\nTabela. 5.10. Wskaźniki jakości rekonstrukcji dla przypadku nr 2\nMetoda RMSE PSNR SSIM R\nTŷ\nGaussa–Newtona 5,3418 5,4462 0,0156 0,8152\nRegularyzacja Tikhonova 4,0900 7,7654 0,2257 0,8837\nTotal Variation 5,5123 5,1733 0,2407 0,6758\nSVM 3,1711 9,9758 0,3224 0,6904 elastic net 8,7513 1,1586 -0,3136 0,6831\nRegresja liniowa 7,9919 1,9470 -0,0565 0,5441\nWSSN 1,4811 16,5882 0,6377 0,9395\nCNN 3,1913 9,9206 0,3669 0,7796\nLSTM 2,4343 12,2725 0,4896 0,8362\nLSTM+CNN 2,0364 13,8226 0,5435 0,8855\nWielogałęziowa LSTM 1,9721 14,1014 0,5634 0,9061\n\nW porównaniu z metodą Gaussa–Newtona regularyzacja Tikhonova wykazuje niższy RMSE, równy 4,0900, co wskazuje na mniejszy błąd rekonstrukcji. Lepsza jakość obrazu w połączeniu z mniejszym poziomem szumu jest potwierdzona przez PSNR = 7,7654. Wskaźnik SSIM wynoszący 0,2257 oznacza wyższą jakość strukturalną rekonstrukcji, a R na poziomie 0,8837 wskazuje\nTŷ na dobre skorelowanie obrazów referencyjnych z uzyskiwanymi tomogramami.\nKolejna metoda, Total Variation, charakteryzuje się RMSE równym 5,5123, co jest zbliżone do metody Gaussa–Newtona, ale PSNR wynoszący 5,1733 sugeruje wyższy poziom szumu w rekonstrukcji. Wskaźnik SSIM wynoszący 0,2407 oznacza lepszą jakość strukturalną niż metoda Gaussa–Newtona, ale stabilność określona wskaźnikiem R na poziomie 0,6758 jest niższa, co wskazuje na ni-\nTŷ ską odporność obrazów rekonstrukcyjnych na zmiany w danych pomiarowych.\nMetoda SVM osiąga RMSE na poziomie 3,1711, co wskazuje na umiarkowaną wartość błędu rekonstrukcji. PSNR wynoszące 9,9758 jest dowodem na lepszą jakość obrazu z mniejszym poziomem szumu, natomiast SSIM równy 0,3224 wskazuje na lepszą jakość strukturalną rekonstrukcji. Wskaźnik korelacji metody R wynoszący 0,6904 jest niższy w porównaniu z regularyzacją Tikho-\nTŷ nova. Elastic net wykazuje bardzo wysokie RMSE = 8,7513, co wskazuje na duży błąd rekonstrukcji. PSNR wynoszące 1,1586 wskazuje na bardzo wysoki poziom szumu, a SSIM równy -0,3136 sugeruje bardzo niską jakość strukturalną. Korelacja Pearsona R na poziomie 0,6831 jest również niska, co jest\nTŷ przejawem dużej wrażliwości rekonstruowanych obrazów tomograficznych na zmiany w sygnałach pomiarowych. W świetle uzyskanych wskaźników należy stwierdzić, że w analizowanym przypadku pomiarowym metoda elastic net wyraźnie zawiodła.\nMetoda regresji liniowej charakteryzuje się najwyższym RMSE równym\n7,9919. Podobnie jak w przypadku elastic net, oznacza to duży błąd rekonstrukcji. PSNR wynoszące 1,9470 sugeruje wysoki poziom szumu, a SSIM równy\n-0,0565 oznacza niską jakość strukturalną rekonstrukcji. Korelacja R wyno-\nTŷ sząca 0,5441 jest najniższa spośród wszystkich metod, co wskazuje na niską odporność obrazów rekonstrukcyjnych na zmiany w danych pomiarowych.\nMetoda rekonstrukcji „woksel po wokselu”, jaką jest WSSN, osiąga najniższe\nRMSE wynoszące 1,4811 i jest to bardzo niski błąd rekonstrukcji. PSNR wynoszące 16,5882 jest dowodem na niski poziom zaszumienia, a SSIM równy\n0,6377 oznacza wysoką jakość strukturalną rekonstrukcji. Wartość wskaźnika korelacji R wynosząca 0,9395 jest najwyższa, co jest przejawem dużej odpor-\nTŷ ności rekonstruowanych obrazów tomograficznych na zmiany w sygnałach pomiarowych.\n\nWskaźnik RMSE dla metody CNN wynosi 3,1913 oraz PSNR = 9,9206.\nPowyższe wskaźniki świadczą o niskim zaszumieniu tomogramów uzyskiwanych tą metodą. SSIM równy 0,3669 wskazuje na dobrą jakość strukturalną rekonstrukcji, a wskaźnik korelacji R wynoszący 0,7796 jest umiarkowanie\nTŷ wysoki. Sieć LSTM osiąga wskaźnik RMSE = 2,4343 oraz PSNR = 12,2725, co świadczy o niskim poziomie szumu w rekonstrukcjach. Wskaźnik SSIM równy 0,4896 wskazuje na dobrą jakość rekonstrukcji, a R równy 0,8362 su-\nTŷ geruje dobrą korelację i stabilność metody. Dla metody LSTM+CNN wskaźnik\nRMSE = 2,0364 natomiast PSNR = 13,8226. Interpretacja wzmiankowanych wskaźników prowadzi do pozytywnej oceny modelu pod względem wierności odwzorowań uzyskiwanych rekonstrukcji. SSIM równy 0,5435 wskazuje na dobrą jakość strukturalną otrzymywanych obrazów, a współczynnik korelacji\nPearsona R = 0,8855 jest dowodem na dość wysoką jakość opisywanej metody.\nTŷ\nWielogałęziowa sieć LSTM osiąga wskaźnik RMSE = 1,9721 oraz PSNR wynoszący 14,1014. Stanowi to przesłankę do pozytywnej oceny modelu, z uwagi na dobrą jakość rekonstrukcji. SSIM równy 0,5634 oznacza wysoką jakość strukturalną rekonstrukcji, a korelacja R wynosząca 0,9061 jest bardzo wysoka.\nTŷ\nAnaliza wskaźników jakości rekonstrukcji dla przypadku nr 2 pokazuje, że zaawansowane metody oparte na sieciach neuronowych, takie jak WSSN, CNN,\nLSTM oraz kombinacje LSTM+CNN, osiągają lepsze wyniki w porównaniu z tradycyjnymi metodami, do których zalicza się metoda Gaussa–Newtona, regularyzacja Tikhonova, Total Variation, SVM, elastic net i regresja liniowa.\nW szczególności metoda WSSN wyróżnia się najniższym błędem rekonstrukcji i wysoką jakością strukturalną, co czyni ją najbardziej efektywną dla przypadku pomiarowego nr 2 spośród analizowanych metod.\nW tabeli 5.11 zaprezentowano wskaźniki jakości rekonstrukcji dla przypadku nr 3. Metoda Gaussa–Newtona charakteryzuje się wartością RMSE wynoszącą 3,3213, co wskazuje na umiarkowanie wysoki średni błąd rekonstrukcji. Wartość PSNR wynosząca 9,5739 sugeruje, że zrekonstruowany obraz zawiera umiarkowany poziom szumu lub zbędnych artefaktów.\nTabela. 5.11. Wskaźniki jakości rekonstrukcji dla przypadku nr 3\nMetoda RMSE PSNR SSIM R\nTŷ\nGaussa–Newtona 3,3213 9,5739 0,0119 0,8219\nRegularyzacja Tikhonova 1,2075 18,362 0,4842 0,9472\nTotal Variation 3,5184 9,0731 0,1756 0,6245\nSVM 1,1160 19,051 0,6625 0,9355 elastic net 9,2622 0,6657 -0,2269 0,6185\n\nTabela. 5.11. Wskaźniki jakości rekonstrukcji dla przypadku nr 3\nMetoda RMSE PSNR SSIM R\nTŷ\nRegresja liniowa 6,8100 3,3370 -0,2863 0,8594\nWSSN 0,6661 23,5287 0,6327 0,9747\nCNN 1,7984 14,9022 0,3156 0,8981\nLSTM 1,1705 18,6324 0,4723 0,9241\nLSTM+CNN 1,0069 19,9400 0,4976 0,9450\nWielogałęziowa LSTM 0,9874 20,1098 0,5133 0,9455\nWskaźnik SSIM równy 0,0119 oznacza bardzo niską jakość strukturalną rekonstrukcji, co sugeruje, że metoda nie jest efektywna w odtwarzaniu pierwotnych wzorców obrazu. Wartość wskaźnika korelacji metody, określona wskaźnikiem R wynoszącym 0,8219, jest umiarkowana, co świadczy o raczej\nTŷ niewielkiej odporności obrazów rekonstrukcyjnych na zmiany w danych pomiarowych. Regularyzacja Tikhonova wykazuje znacznie niższe RMSE, równe\n1,2075, co wskazuje na mniejszy błąd rekonstrukcji w porównaniu z metodą\nGaussa–Newtona. PSNR wynoszące 18,362 sugeruje znacznie lepszą jakość obrazu z mniejszym poziomem szumu w rekonstrukcji. Wskaźnik SSIM wynoszący 0,4842 oznacza wyższą jakość strukturalną rekonstrukcji, a R na\nTŷ poziomie 0,9472 wskazuje na dobrą korelację generowanych obrazów z referencjami. Metoda Total Variation charakteryzuje się RMSE równym 3,5184, co jest zbliżone do metody Gaussa–Newtona, ale PSNR wynoszący 9,0731 sugeruje wyższy poziom szumu w rekonstrukcji. Wskaźnik SSIM wynoszący\n0,1756 oznacza lepszą jakość strukturalną niż metoda Gaussa–Newtona, ale stabilność określona wskaźnikiem R na poziomie 0,6245 jest niższa, co wska-\nTŷ zuje na bardzo niską odporność rekonstruowanych obrazów tomograficznych na zmiany wartości wektorów pomiarowych. Maszyna wektorów nośnych\n(SVM) osiąga RMSE = 1,1160, co należy uznać za niski błąd rekonstrukcji.\nWskaźnik PSNR wynoszący 19,051 sugeruje dobrą jakość obrazu, w którym poziom szumu jest niewielki. Wskaźnik strukturalny SSIM wynoszący 0,6625 również wskazuje na wysoką jakość rekonstrukcji. Wskaźnik korelacji Pearsona R = 0,9335 jest wysoki, co jest dowodem na dużą odporność obrazów\nTŷ rekonstrukcyjnych na zmiany w sygnałach pomiarowych.\nMetoda elastic net wykazuje RMSE = 9,2622, co jest bardzo wysokim odchyleniem od obrazów wzorcowych. Wskaźnik PSNR wynoszący 0,6659 sugeruje bardzo wysoki poziom szumu, a SSIM równy -0,2269 świadczy o bardzo niskiej jakości strukturalnej obrazu wynikowego. Wskaźnik korelacji Pearsona\nR na poziomie 0,6185 jest niska, co jest przejawem bardzo słabej odporności\nTŷ\n\nrekonstrukcji na zmiany w wektorach pomiarowych. Metoda regresji liniowej charakteryzuje się wysokim RMSE równym 6,8100. PSNR wynoszące 3,3370 sugeruje wysoki poziom szumu, a SSIM równy -0,2863 oznacza bardzo niską jakość strukturalną rekonstrukcji. Korelacja wygenerowanych i wzorcowych obrazów, wyrażona wskaźnikiem R = 0,8594 jest umiarkowana. Oznacza\nTŷ to akceptowalną odporność rekonstruowanych obrazów tomograficznych na zmiany w danych pomiarowych, choć mniejszą niż w przypadku bardziej zaawansowanych metod. WSSN osiąga bardzo niskie RMSE wynoszące 0,6661, co jest bardzo niskim błędem rekonstrukcji. PSNR wynoszące 23,5287 sugeruje bardzo niski poziom szumu, a SSIM równy 0,6327 oznacza wysoką jakość strukturalną rekonstrukcji. Wskaźnik korelacji metody R wynoszący 0,9747\nTŷ jest najwyższy, co jest dowodem na bardzo dużą odporność obrazów rekonstrukcyjnych na zmiany wartości wektorów pomiarowych.\nMetoda CNN charakteryzuje się RMSE równym 1,7984 oraz PSNR wynoszącym 14,9022, co oznacza niski poziom zaszumienia rekonstruowanych obrazów tomograficznych. SSIM równy 0,3156 wskazuje na umiarkowaną jakość strukturalną rekonstrukcji, a wskaźnik korelacji Pearsona R równy 0,8981\nTŷ należy uznać za wysoki. Sieć LSTM osiąga wskaźnik RMSE równy 1,1705 oraz\nPSNR wynoszące 18,6324. Poziom szumu w rekonstrukcjach w przypadku tej metody jest więc niski. Wskaźnik SSIM równy 0,4723 wskazuje na wysoką jakość strukturalną rekonstrukcji, a R wynoszący 0,9213 potwierdza dobrą\nTŷ jakość metody. Metoda LSTM+CNN charakteryzuje się RMSE równym 1,0069 oraz PSNR wynoszącym 19,9400, co oznacza bardzo niski poziom zaszumienia rekonstrukcji. SSIM równy 0,4976 wskazuje na wysoką jakość strukturalną rekonstrukcji, a R wynoszące 0,9457 sugeruje wysoką korelację rekonstru-\nTŷ owanych tomogramów z odpowiadającymi im wzorcami. Wielogałęziowa sieć neuronowa LSTM uzyskała RMSE równy 0,9874 oraz PSNR wynoszący 20,1098, co wskazuje na bardzo niski poziom zaszumienia obrazów rekonstrukcyjnych.\nSSIM równy 0,5133 oznacza wysoką jakość strukturalną rekonstrukcji, a korelacja R wynosząca 0,9455 jest bardzo wysoka. Analiza wskaźników jakości re-\nTŷ konstrukcji dla przypadku nr 3 potwierdza wnioski z poprzednich przypadków, że zaawansowane metody oparte na sieciach neuronowych, takie jak WSSN,\nCNN, LSTM oraz kombinacje LSTM+CNN, osiągają lepsze wyniki w porównaniu z metodami tradycyjnymi. W szczególności metoda WSSN ponownie wyróżnia się najniższym błędem rekonstrukcji i wysoką jakością strukturalną.\nTabela 5.12 przedstawia wskaźniki jakości rekonstrukcji dla przypadku nr 4, oceniając różne metody przy użyciu wskaźników takich jak RMSE, PSNR,\nSSIM oraz R . Metoda Gaussa–Newtona charakteryzuje się wartością RMSE\nTŷ\n\nwynoszącą 5,8843, co wskazuje na dość wysoki średni błąd rekonstrukcji.\nWartość PSNR wynosząca 4,6061 sugeruje, że zrekonstruowany obraz zawiera znaczny poziom szumu lub artefaktów. Wskaźnik SSIM równy 0,0306 oznacza bardzo niską jakość strukturalną rekonstrukcji, co wskazuje na słabą zdolność metody do wiernego odtwarzania oryginalnych struktur obrazu. Stabilność metody, określona wskaźnikiem R wynoszącym 0,8050, jest umiarkowana,\nTŷ co jest równoznaczne z ograniczoną odpornością rekonstrukcji na zmiany w sygnałach pomiarowych.\nTabela. 5.12. Wskaźniki jakości rekonstrukcji dla przypadku nr 4\nMetoda RMSE PSNR SSIM R\nTŷ\nGaussa–Newtona 5,8843 4,6061 0,0306 0,8050\nRegularyzacja Tikhonova 4,0573 7,8353 0,2036 0,9268\nTotal Variation 6,1230 4,2607 0,0187 0,7218\nSVM 1,7222 15,2785 0,8531 0,9229 elastic net 9,6394 0,3190 -0,6009 0,7755\nRegresja liniowa 6,7134 3,4611 -0,3831 0,9072\nWSSN 1,1970 18,4381 0,9030 0,9634\nCNN 2,4215 12,3185 0,7142 0,9163\nLSTM 1,6459 15,6721 0,8453 0,9319\nLSTM+CNN 1,5779 16,0387 0,8514 0,9370\nWielogałęziowa LSTM 1,4974 16,4931 0,8718 0,9447\nW przypadku regularyzacji Tikhonova wskaźnik RMSE jest niższy i wynosi 4,0573. Jest to mniejszy błąd rekonstrukcji w porównaniu z metodą\nGaussa–Newtona. Wskaźnik PSNR wynoszący 7,8353 sugeruje lepszą jakość obrazu z mniejszym poziomem szumu w rekonstrukcji. Wskaźnik SSIM wynoszący 0,2036 oznacza wyższą jakość strukturalną rekonstrukcji, a R wy-\nTŷ noszący 0,9268 wskazuje na wysoką korelację, co jest zaletą. Metoda Total\nVariation charakteryzuje się RMSE równym 6,1230, co jest wyższe od wartości dla metody Gaussa–Newtona, a PSNR wynoszące 4,2607 sugeruje wysoki poziom szumu w rekonstrukcji. Wskaźnik SSIM wynoszący 0,0187 jest niski, co oznacza niską jakość strukturalną rekonstrukcji. Regresja Pearsona, określona wskaźnikiem R na poziomie 0,7218, jest niższa, co wskazuje na większą\nTŷ wrażliwość rekonstruowanych obrazów na zmiany w danych pomiarowych.\nDla metody SVM wskaźnik RMSE wynosi 1,7222, co dobrze świadczy o jakości tej metody. PSNR wynoszące 15,2785 również sugeruje dobrą jakość obrazu z niewielkim poziomem szumu, natomiast SSIM równy 0,8531 wskazuje na\n\nbardzo wysoką jakość strukturalną rekonstrukcji. Wskaźnik korelacji metody\nR = 0,9229 jest wysoki, co świadczy o dużej odporności rekonstruowanych\nTŷ obrazów tomograficznych na zmiany wartości wektorów pomiarowych. Elastic net wykazuje bardzo wysokie RMSE, równe 9,6394, co oznacza duży błąd rekonstrukcji. PSNR wynoszące 0,3190 wskazuje na bardzo wysoki poziom szumu, a SSIM równy -0,6009 wskazuje na bardzo niską jakość strukturalną.\nWskaźnik korelacji Pearsona R na poziomie 0,7755 jest niski, co świadczy\nTŷ o wrażliwości obrazów rekonstrukcyjnych na zmiany w pomiarach.\nRegresja liniowa charakteryzuje się wysokim RMSE równym 6,7134, co podobnie jak w innych przypadkach pomiarowych wskazuje na duży błąd rekonstrukcji. PSNR wynoszące 3,4611 sugeruje wysoki poziom szumu, a SSIM równy -0,3831 oznacza bardzo niską jakość strukturalną rekonstrukcji. Wskaźnik Pearsona R wynoszący 0,9072 jest umiarkowany, co oznacza pewną od-\nTŷ porność rekonstrukcji na zmiany w sygnałach pomiarowych, choć mniejszą niż w przypadku bardziej zaawansowanych metod. Metoda WSSN osiąga bardzo niskie RMSE wynoszące 1,1970, co wskazuje na bardzo niski błąd rekonstrukcji. PSNR wynoszące 18,4331 wskazuje na bardzo niski poziom szumu, a SSIM równy 0,9030 oznacza wysoką jakość strukturalną rekonstrukcji. Wskaźnik korelacji Pearsona R równy 0,9634 jest najwyższy, co oznacza dużą odporność\nTŷ rekonstrukcji na zmiany w danych pomiarowych.\nMetoda CNN charakteryzuje się RMSE równym 2,4215 oraz PSNR wynoszącym 12,3186, co wskazuje na niski poziom zaszumienia rekonstrukcji. SSIM równy 0,7142 wskazuje na dobrą jakość strukturalną rekonstrukcji, a korelacja R wynosząca 0,9163 jest wysoka. Sieć LSTM osiąga RMSE równy 1,6459\nTŷ oraz PSNR wynoszące 15,6721, co świadczy o niskim poziomie zaszumienia rekonstruowanych obrazów tomograficznych. Wskaźnik SSIM równy 0,8453 wskazuje na bardzo wysoką jakość strukturalną rekonstrukcji, a R wynoszący\nTŷ\n0,9319 wskazuje na dobrą jakość metody. Metoda LSTM+CNN charakteryzuje się RMSE równym 1,5779 oraz PSNR wynoszącym 16,0387, co oznacza bardzo niski poziom zaszumienia rekonstrukcji. SSIM równy 0,8514 wskazuje na wysoką jakość strukturalną rekonstrukcji, a wysoka wartość współczynnika\nR = 0,9370 świadczy o wysokiej jakości metody. Wielogałęziowa LSTM osiąga\nTŷ\nRMSE równy 1,4974 oraz PSNR wynoszący 16,4931, co wskazuje na bardzo niski poziom zaszumienia obrazów rekonstrukcyjnych. SSIM równy 0,8718 oznacza wysoką jakość strukturalną rekonstrukcji, a korelacja R wynosząca\nTŷ\n0,9447 jest bardzo wysoka. Analiza wskaźników jakości rekonstrukcji dla przypadku nr 4 potwierdza, że zaawansowane metody oparte na sieciach neuronowych, takie jak WSSN, CNN, LSTM oraz kombinacje LSTM+CNN, osiągają\n\nlepsze wyniki w porównaniu z metodami tradycyjnymi, których przykładami są: metoda Gaussa–Newtona, regularyzacja Tikhonova, Total Variation, SVM, elastic net i regresja liniowa. Ponownie metoda WSSN wyróżnia się najniższym błędem rekonstrukcji i wysoką jakością strukturalną, co czyni ją najbardziej efektywną spośród analizowanych metod.\nAnaliza metod rekonstrukcji obrazów ETI w oparciu o cztery załączone tabele (5.9, 5.10, 5.11 i 5.12) umożliwia uzyskanie wstępnej oceny porównawczej danej metody na tle innych metod. Metoda Gaussa–Newtona we wszystkich przypadkach wykazuje stosunkowo wysokie wartości RMSE. Wartość wskaźnika PSNR dla tej metody jest niska, wskazując na obecność znacznego poziomu szumu w zrekonstruowanych obrazach. Wskaźnik SSIM jest bardzo niski, co świadczy o słabej jakości strukturalnej rekonstrukcji, a model nie odtwarza poprawnie pierwotnych wzorców obrazu. Wskaźnik korelacji Pearsona R metody Gaussa–Newtona jest umiarkowany, co oznacza, że wyniki\nTŷ rekonstrukcji są do pewnego stopnia odporne na niewielkie zmiany w danych wejściowych. Ogólna ocena jakości rekonstrukcji pozostaje jednak niska.\nRegularyzacja Tikhonova osiąga znacznie lepsze wyniki niż metoda Gaussa–\nNewtona. Wartości RMSE są niskie, co wskazuje na mniejszy błąd rekonstrukcji.\nWysokie wartości PSNR sugerują lepszą jakość obrazu z mniejszym poziomem szumu w rekonstrukcji. Wskaźniki SSIM są znacznie wyższe, co oznacza lepszą jakość strukturalną rekonstrukcji, wskazując, że analizowana metoda dobrze odtwarza pierwotne wzorce obrazu. Stabilność metody regularyzacji Tikhonova jest wysoka, co czyni ją bardziej niezawodną i mniej podatną na zmiany w danych pomiarowych.\nMetoda Total Variation charakteryzuje się umiarkowanymi wartościami\nRMSE i PSNR. Na podstawie analizy ww. wskaźników można ocenić, że analizowana metoda jest mniej efektywna niż regularyzacja Tikhonova, ale lepsza od metody Gaussa–Newtona. Wskaźniki SSIM dla badanych przypadków są niskie, co oznacza słabą jakość strukturalną rekonstrukcji. Korelacja Pearsona\nR jest także niższa, co wskazuje na niską odporność rekonstruowanych ob-\nTŷ razów tomograficznych na zmiany wartości wektorów pomiarowych.\nDla metody SVM wartości RMSE są umiarkowane. Z kolei wartości PSNR należy uznać za stosunkowo wysokie. Interpretacja wskaźników określa analizowaną metodę jako przeciętną zarówno pod względem jakości uzyskiwanych rekonstrukcji, jak również szumu widocznego na tomogramach. Wartości SSIM dla poszczególnych przypadków przyjmują wartości od umiarkowanych do wysokich. Świadczą one o lepszej jakość strukturalnej niż w przypadku takich metod jak metoda Gaussa–Newtona i Total Variation. Korelacja Pearsona R\nTŷ\n\njest zmienna, ale ogólnie wyższa niż w przypadku Total Variation, co sugeruje, że metoda SVM jest bardziej niezawodna.\nElastic net cechuje się bardzo wysokimi wartościami RMSE i bardzo niskimi wartościami PSNR we wszystkich przypadkach, co wskazuje na dużą obecność szumu i słabą jakość rekonstrukcji. Wartości SSIM są bardzo niskie, co oznacza bardzo słabą jakość strukturalną. Wartość wskaźnika korelacji R jest\nTŷ zmienna, ale ogólnie niska, co czyni tę metodę jedną z najmniej efektywnych.\nRegresja liniowa charakteryzuje się bardzo wysokimi wartościami RMSE i bardzo niskimi wartościami PSNR we wszystkich przypadkach. Stanowi to przesłankę do niskiej oceny tej metody, mającej odzwierciedlenie w bardzo słabej jakości rekonstrukcji i wyraźnej obecności szumu na generowanych przez model obrazach. Wskaźniki SSIM są ujemne lub bliskie zeru, co oznacza bardzo słabą jakość strukturalną. Wartość wskaźnika korelacji R jest zmienna,\nTŷ ale ogólnie niska, co czyni tę metodę jedną z najmniej niezawodnych.\nMetoda WSSN we wszystkich przypadkach osiąga najniższe wartości RMSE i najwyższe wartości PSNR. Wskazuje to na bardzo dobrą jakość rekonstrukcji i niski poziom zaszumienia rekonstrukcji. Wartości SSIM są wysokie, co oznacza dobrą jakość strukturalną rekonstrukcji. Korelacja Pearsona uzyskiwana z rekonstrukcji tą metodą jest bardzo wysoka, co czyni ją jedną z najbardziej niezawodnych i efektywnych. Tego rodzaju wniosek może zaskakiwać, ponieważ warstwa w pełni połączona jest klasycznym, znanym od dawna elementem sztucznych sieci neuronowych. Czynnikiem, który wpływa na wysoką skuteczność struktury WSSN jest jednowymiarowe wyjście i łatwość uczenia się.\nMetoda CNN wykazuje niskie wartości RMSE i wysokie wartości PSNR we wszystkich przypadkach, co wskazuje na dobrą jakość rekonstrukcji i niski poziom zaszumienia obrazu wyjściowego. Poziomy wskaźnika SSIM są umiarkowane do wysokich. Oznacza to dobrą jakość strukturalną rekonstrukcji.\nRegresja modelu wyrażona wskaźnikiem R jest wysoka, co czyni tę metodę\nTŷ niezawodną.\nSieć złożona z warstw LSTM osiąga niskie wartości RMSE i wysokie wartości PSNR, co wskazuje na dobrą jakość rekonstrukcji i niski poziom zaszumienia obrazów rekonstrukcyjnych. Wskaźniki SSIM są wysokie, co oznacza bardzo dobrą jakość strukturalną rekonstrukcji. Wysoka korelacja R czyni\nTŷ tę metodę niezawodną.\nMetoda LSTM+CNN charakteryzuje się bardzo niskimi wartościami RMSE i wysokimi wartościami PSNR, co wskazuje na bardzo dobrą jakość rekonstrukcji i niski poziom zaszumienia rekonstruowanych obrazów tomograficznych. Wartości SSIM są wysokie, co jest dowodem na bardzo dobrą jakość strukturalną.\n\nKorelacja Pearsona R jest bardzo wysoka, co czyni tę metodę jedną z najbar-\nTŷ dziej efektywnych i niezawodnych.\nWielogałęziowa LSTM osiąga najniższe wartości RMSE i najwyższe wartości PSNR we wszystkich przypadkach, co wskazuje na najlepszą jakość rekonstrukcji i najniższy poziom szumu. Wartości SSIM są najwyższe, co wskazuje na bardzo dobrą jakość strukturalną rekonstrukcji. Wskaźnik korelacji R jest\nTŷ najwyższy, co czyni tę metodę najbardziej efektywną i niezawodną spośród wszystkich analizowanych metod.\nAnaliza wszystkich czterech przypadków pomiarowych wskazuje, że zaawansowane metody oparte na sieciach neuronowych, takie jak WSSN, CNN,\nLSTM oraz kombinacje LSTM+CNN, osiągają najlepsze wyniki pod względem\nRMSE, PSNR, SSIM i stabilności wyrażonej za pomocą wskaźnika regresji R .\nTŷ\nW szczególności wielogałęziowa LSTM wyróżnia się jako najbardziej efektywna i niezawodna metoda rekonstrukcji obrazów ETI, przewyższając tradycyjne metody takie jak Gaussa–Newtona, regularyzacja Tikhonova, Total Variation,\nSVM, elastic net i regresja liniowa.\nWysokie wartości PSNR i SSIM oraz niskie wartości RMSE zazwyczaj przekładają się na wizualnie lepsze odwzorowanie obrazów wzorcowych. Trzeba przy tym pamiętać, że zastąpienie ludzkiej percepcji za pomocą miar liczbowych zawsze stanowiło wyzwanie [82, 161]. W szczególności metody WSSN,\nLSTM+CNN oraz wielogałęziowa LSTM, które osiągają najwyższe wskaźniki jakości, także wizualnie prezentują najwyższą zgodność z obrazami wzorcowymi. Stanowi to potwierdzenie, że wskaźniki jakości rekonstrukcji są dobrym miernikiem skuteczności metod rekonstrukcyjnych.\nNa rysunku 5.30 przedstawiono wykres pudełkowy, ilustrujący wartości błędu rekonstrukcji RMSE. Każde pudełko (tzw. box) reprezentuje międzykwartylowy rozstęp (IQR), czyli zakres wartości od pierwszego (Q1) do trzeciego kwartylu (Q3), co oznacza, że 50% obserwacji znajduje się w zakresie pudełka. Linia wewnątrz pudełka przedstawia medianę danych, czyli wartość środkową. Wąsy rozciągają się od końca pudełka do najmniejszej i największej wartości w granicach 1,5 IQR od Q1 i Q3. Wartości leżące poza tym zakresem są uznawane za odległe (tzw. outliers), co sugeruje istnienie obserwacji oddalonych od reszty danych. Wykres pokazuje, że metoda elastic net ma najwyższe wartości RMSE, co wskazuje na największy błąd rekonstrukcji, podczas gdy\nWSSN i wielogałęziowa LSTM osiągają najniższe wartości RMSE.\n\nRys. 5.30. Wykres pudełkowy średniego wskaźnika RMSE dla poszczególnych metod\nWykres przedstawiony na rysunku 5.31 przedstawia rozkład wartości\nPSNR, które oceniają jakość obrazu przez pryzmat stosunku sygnału do szumu.\nMetody WSSN, LSTM+CNN i wielogałęziowa LSTM osiągają najwyższe wartości PSNR, co wskazuje na najlepszą jakość rekonstrukcji z najmniejszym poziomem szumu w obrazie. Metody elastic net i regresja liniowa mają najniższe wartości PSNR, co świadczy o wysokim poziomie szumu w rekonstrukcjach.\nRys. 5.31. Wykres pudełkowy średniego wskaźnika PSNR dla poszczególnych metod\n\nRysunek 5.32 prezentuje rozkład wartości SSIM, które oceniają jakość strukturalną rekonstrukcji obrazu. Metody SVM, WSSN, LSTM, LSTM+CNN oraz wielogałęziowa LSTM mają najwyższe wartości SSIM, co oznacza najlepszą jakość strukturalną rekonstrukcji. Metody Gaussa–Newtona, regresja liniowa i elastic net mają najniższe wartości SSIM, co wskazuje na słabą jakość strukturalną.\nRys. 5.32. Wykres pudełkowy średniego wskaźnika SSIM dla poszczególnych metod\nNa rysunku 5.33 przedstawiono wartości wskaźnika Pearsona R , który\nTŷ pokazuje rozkład wartości stabilności rekonstrukcji dla każdej metody. Metody WSSN, LSTM, LSTM+CNN oraz wielogałęziowa LSTM osiągają najwyższe wartości R , co oznacza, że są najbardziej stabilne i odporne na zmiany\nTŷ w sygnałach pomiarowych. Pozostałe metody wykazują większą zmienność, co świadczy o ich niższej jakości w zakresie generowania rekonstrukcji ETI.\n\nRys. 5.33. Wykres pudełkowy średniego wskaźnika R-Pearsona dla poszczególnych metod\nAnaliza powyższych rysunków potwierdza, że zaawansowane metody oparte na sieciach neuronowych, takie jak WSSN, LSTM, LSTM+CNN oraz wielogałęziowa LSTM, wykazują najlepsze wyniki pod względem wszystkich wskaźników jakości rekonstrukcji. Metody te charakteryzują się niskimi wartościami RMSE, wysokimi wartościami PSNR i SSIM, a także wysokim poziomem współczynnika korelacji R . Tradycyjne techniki, takie jak Total Varia-\nTŷ tion, regresja liniowa, regularyzacja Tikhonova i metoda Gaussa–Newtona, są znacząco gorsze, zwłaszcza w odniesieniu do jakości strukturalnej i stabilności rekonstrukcji. Metody elastic net i regresja liniowa osiągają najgorsze wyniki we wszystkich wskaźnikach, co sprawia, że są najmniej skuteczne w rekonstrukcji obrazów ETI.\nTabela 5.13 przedstawia wskaźniki jakości rekonstrukcji dla dużej próby, obejmującej 1000 przypadków testowych. Analiza umożliwia ocenę spójności wyników metod rekonstrukcji obrazów ETI w kontekście wcześniejszych analiz, które obejmowały cztery pojedyncze przypadki pomiarowe.\nTabela. 5.13. Wskaźniki jakości rekonstrukcji dla dużej próby przypadków testowych\nMetoda RMSE PSNR SSIM R\nTŷ\nGaussa–Newtona 4,5355 7,9832 0,0239 0,7576\nRegularyzacja Tikhonova 2,1020 15,195 0,4458 0,8544\nTotal Variation 4,7103 7,6323 0,1220 0,6028\nSVM 5,2430 5,8278 0,0547 0,0935\n\nTabela. 5.13. Wskaźniki jakości rekonstrukcji dla dużej próby przypadków testowych\nMetoda RMSE PSNR SSIM R\nTŷ elastic net 9,5757 0,3846 -0,2595 0,5612\nRegresja liniowa 7,0204 3,0815 -0,1434 0,7017\nWSSN 0,8922 21,4309 0,6185 0,9119\nCNN 2,3030 13,1962 0,3552 0,7752\nLSTM 1,3462 17,8076 0,4946 0,8395\nLSTM+CNN 1,2904 18,1421 0,5009 0,8470\nWielogałęziowa LSTM 1,0764 19,6988 0,5348 0,8853\nNa dużej próbie danych testowych Metoda Gaussa–Newtona wykazuje stosunkowo wysokie wartości RMSE. Podobnie jak w poprzednich przypadkach, błąd rekonstrukcji w przypadku tej metody jest znaczący. Wartości PSNR są niskie, co wskazuje na obecność wysokiego zaszumienia w zrekonstruowanych obrazach. Wskaźnik SSIM również jest niski, co jest dowodem słabej jakości strukturalnej rekonstrukcji. Korelacja wyrażona za pomocą wskaźnika\nPearsona R jest umiarkowana, podobnie jak w analizowanych wcześniej\nTŷ przypadkach. Ten fakt stanowi potwierdzenie, że metoda Gaussa–Newtona charakteryzuje się niewielką efektywnością i należy ją uznać za nieprzydatną.\nRegularyzacja Tikhonova, podobnie jak w poprzednich analizach, wykazuje lepsze wyniki niż Gaussa–Newtona. RMSE jest niskie, co oznacza mniejszy błąd rekonstrukcji, a wartości PSNR są znacznie wyższe, wskazując na lepszą jakość obrazów rekonstrukcyjnych z mniejszym poziomem szumu. Wartości\nSSIM są wyższe, co świadczy o lepszej jakości strukturalnej rekonstrukcji.\nKorelacja metody R jest wysoka, co potwierdza wcześniejsze obserwacje, że\nTŷ regularyzacja Tikhonova jest bardziej niezawodna.\nMetoda Total Variation wykazuje umiarkowane wartości RMSE i PSNR, co sugeruje, że jest mniej efektywna niż regularyzacja Tikhonova, ale lepsza niż\nGaussa–Newtona. Wskaźniki SSIM są niskie, co jest przesłanką słabej jakości strukturalnej rekonstrukcji testowych. Wskaźnik Pearsona R jest niższy, co\nTŷ świadczy o niewielkiej odporności rekonstruowanych obrazów tomograficznych na zmiany w danych pomiarowych, co jest potwierdzeniem wcześniejszych wyników.\nMetoda SVM, w wyniku analizy obejmującej 1000 przypadków testowych, wykazuje wyższe wartości RMSE i niskie wartości PSNR. Sugeruje to słabą jakość rekonstrukcji i wysoki poziom szumu. Wartości SSIM są niskie, co wskazuje na niską jakość strukturalną. Wskaźnik korelacji R jest bardzo\nTŷ niski, co jest zgodne z wcześniejszymi obserwacjami, sugerującymi relatywnie\n\ngorszą niezawodność metody SVM. Metoda elastic net ponownie wykazuje bardzo wysokie wartości RMSE i bardzo niskie wartości PSNR, co potwierdza duży błąd rekonstrukcji i wysoki poziom szumu. Wartości SSIM są bardzo niskie, co oznacza bardzo słabą jakość strukturalną. Wskaźnik korelacji\nR jest niski, co potwierdza, że metoda ta jest jedną z najmniej efektywnych\nTŷ i niezawodnych. Metoda regresji liniowej wykazuje bardzo wysokie wartości\nRMSE i bardzo niskie wartości PSNR, co wskazuje na bardzo słabą jakość rekonstrukcji i dużą obecność artefaktów. Wskaźniki SSIM są ujemne lub bliskie zeru, co oznacza bardzo słabą jakość strukturalną. Korelacja R jest zmienna,\nTŷ ale ogólnie niska, co czyni tę metodę jedną z najmniej niezawodnych, zgodnie z wcześniejszymi wynikami.\nMetoda WSSN osiąga najniższe wartości RMSE i najwyższe wartości\nPSNR, co wskazuje na bardzo dobrą jakość rekonstrukcji i niski poziom zaszumienia obrazu wyjściowego. Wartości SSIM są wysokie, co wskazuje na dobrą jakość strukturalną rekonstrukcji. Korelacja wyrażona przez R jest bardzo\nTŷ wysoka, co czyni tę metodę jedną z najbardziej niezawodnych i efektywnych, potwierdzając wcześniejsze obserwacje.\nMetoda CNN wykazuje niskie wartości RMSE i wysokie wartości PSNR, co wskazuje na dobrą jakość rekonstrukcji i niski poziom zaszumienia rekonstrukcji. Wskaźniki SSIM są umiarkowane do wysokich, co świadczy o dobrej jakości strukturalnej. Korelacja wyrażona wskaźnikiem R jest wysoka, co jest\nTŷ zgodne z wcześniejszymi obserwacjami.\nLSTM osiąga niskie wartości RMSE i wysokie wartości PSNR, co wskazuje na dobrą jakość rekonstrukcji i niski poziom zaszumienia obrazów rekonstrukcyjnych. Wskaźniki SSIM są wysokie, co oznacza bardzo dobrą jakość strukturalną rekonstrukcji. Wskaźnik R jest wysoki, co potwierdza, że metoda ta\nTŷ jest niezawodna. Metoda LSTM+CNN charakteryzuje się bardzo niskimi wartościami RMSE i wysokimi wartościami PSNR, co wskazuje na bardzo dobrą jakość rekonstrukcji i niski poziom zaszumienia rekonstrukcji. Wartości SSIM są wysokie, co wskazuje na bardzo dobrą jakość strukturalną. Korelacja R jest\nTŷ bardzo wysoka, co czyni tę metodę jedną z najbardziej efektywnych i niezawodnych. Ostatnią z analizowanych metod jest metoda wielogałęziowa LSTM.\nTa metoda uzyskała najniższe wartości RMSE i najwyższe wartości PSNR, co wskazuje na najlepszą jakość rekonstrukcji i najniższy poziom artefaktów.\nWartości SSIM są najwyższe, co oznacza bardzo dobrą jakość strukturalną rekonstrukcji. Korelacja R jest najwyższa, co czyni tę metodę najbardziej efek-\nTŷ tywną i niezawodną spośród wszystkich analizowanych metod. Analiza tabeli dla dużej próby potwierdza oceny metod zawarte w poprzednich tabelach.\n\nMetody oparte na sieciach neuronowych, takie jak WSSN, LSTM, LSTM+CNN oraz wielogałęziowa LSTM, wykazują najlepsze wyniki pod względem RMSE,\nPSNR, SSIM i R . Tradycyjne metody, takie jak Gaussa–Newtona, regularyza-\nTŷ cja Tikhonova i Total Variation, wypadają gorzej, szczególnie pod względem jakości strukturalnej i stabilności rekonstrukcji. Metody elastic net i regresja liniowa osiągają najgorsze wyniki we wszystkich wskaźnikach, co czyni je najmniej efektywnymi w kontekście rekonstrukcji obrazów ETI.\nRysunki 5.34–5.37 są wizualizacją tabeli 5.13. Na rysunku 5.34 przedstawiono wykresy RMSE dla poszczególnych metod rekonstrukcji dla dużej próby.\nTradycyjnie metoda Gaussa–Newtona wykazuje wysokie wartości RMSE, co wskazuje na znaczny błąd rekonstrukcji. W ten sam sposób metoda Total Variation i SVM mają wysokie wartości RMSE, co wskazuje na istnienie większych błędów rekonstrukcji. Metoda elastic net osiąga najwyższe wartości\nRMSE spośród innych metod, co świadczy o tym, że generuje największy błąd rekonstrukcji spośród wszystkich analizowanych. W przeciwieństwie do tego metody WSSN i wielogałęziowe LSTM osiągają najniższe wartości RMSE, co wskazuje na najniższy błąd rekonstrukcji i tym samym największą dokładność.\nRys. 5.34. Wykres średniego wskaźnika RMSE dla dużej próby\nRysunek 5.35 prezentuje wartości wskaźnika PSNR dla dużej próby.\nNa jego podstawie można wnioskować, że w zrekonstruowanych obrazach istnieje znaczny poziom zaszumienia obrazu wyjściowego, ponieważ metody\nGaussa–Newtona, jak i Total Variation wykazują stosunkowo niskie wartości\n\nPSNR. Potwierdza się, że obrazy zrekonstruowane za pomocą metody elastic net mają największy poziom szumu, ponieważ ta metoda osiąga najniższe wartości PSNR. Metody WSSN, LSTM+CNN i wielogałęziowe LSTM wykazują najwyższe wartości PSNR, co wskazuje na najlepszą jakość rekonstrukcji z najmniejszym poziomem zaszumienia.\nRys. 5.35. Wykres średniego wskaźnika PSNR dla dużej próby\nRysunek 5.36 przedstawia wykres słupkowy dla wskaźnika SSIM, który odzwierciedla jakość strukturalną rekonstrukcji obrazów. Lepsza zgodność strukturalna między zrekonstruowanym obrazem a obrazem pierwotnym jest reprezentowana przez wyższe wartości SSIM. Zarówno metody Gaussa–Newtona, jak i Total Variation wykazują bardzo niskie wartości SSIM. Metoda elastic net ma najniższe wartości SSIM, a nawet ujemne, co wskazuje na niską jakość rekonstrukcji strukturalnej. Metody WSSN, LSTM i LSTM+CNN osiągają najwyższe wartości SSIM, co sugeruje, że są one najbardziej efektywne w zachowywaniu struktury oryginalnego obrazu.\n\nRys. 5.36. Wykres średniego wskaźnika SSIM dla dużej próby\nWykres słupkowy dla wskaźnika Pearsona R , widoczny na rysunku 3.37,\nTŷ ilustruje stabilność rekonstrukcji. Większa stabilność i odporność rekonstruowanych obrazów tomograficznych na zmiany wartości wektorów pomiarowych są odzwierciedlane przez wyższe wartości R .\nTŷ\nRys. 5.37. Wykres średniego wskaźnika R-Pearsona dla dużej próby\n\nMetoda Gaussa–Newtona i regularyzacja Tikhonova mają umiarkowane wartości korelacji Pearsona. Regularyzacja Tikhonova jest jednak nieco bardziej stabilna. Większa wrażliwość rekonstrukcji na zmiany w sekwencjach pomiarowych wynika z niższych wartości wskaźnika regresji zarówno metody\nTotal Variation, jak i SVM. Metoda elastic net ma najniższe wartości regresji\nPearsona, co oznacza niską odporność obrazów rekonstrukcyjnych wygenerowanych tą metodą na zmiany w sygnałach pomiarowych. Metody WSSN,\nLSTM+CNN i wielogałęziowe LSTM osiągają najwyższe wskaźniki regresji\nPearsona, co potwierdza ich wysoką niezawodność.\n5.11. Rekonstrukcje rozkładu zawilgoceń obiektu rzeczywistego\nWytrenowane i zweryfikowane w oparciu o dane symulacyjne modele algorytmiczne można zastosować do rekonstrukcji obrazów tomograficznych, których źródłem są pomiary wykonane w obiektach rzeczywistych. Dzięki zastosowaniu technik symulacyjnych możliwe jest wygenerowanie dużych zbiorów danych, które odzwierciedlają różnorodne scenariusze rozkładu wilgoci. Takie podejście pozwala na stworzenie kompleksowych modeli, które są w stanie przekształcić zebrane pomiary impedancji na obrazy tomograficzne.\nKluczową zaletą tego podejścia jest możliwość trenowania modeli na danych syntetycznych, co znacząco obniża koszty i czasochłonność procesu, zwłaszcza w porównaniu z uciążliwym i długotrwałym zbieraniem danych rzeczywistych.\nJednym z głównych wyzwań związanych z rekonstrukcją obrazów w obiektach rzeczywistych jest utrudniona weryfikacja ich jakości. Brak obrazów referencyjnych, które mogłyby posłużyć jako wzorce do oceny dokładności rekonstrukcji, stanowi istotny problem. W praktyce dokładność rekonstrukcji często ocenia się poprzez porównanie wyników z oczekiwanymi rozkładami wilgoci, co jest subiektywne i może prowadzić do błędów oceny. Kolejnym wyzwaniem jest zmienność wartości wektorów pomiarowych zgromadzonych w warunkach rzeczywistych. Wartości te mogą znacząco różnić się od tych, które były wykorzystywane podczas trenowania modeli. Powyższe różnice mogą wynikać z wielu czynników, takich jak zmienne warunki atmosferyczne, różnorodność materiałów budowlanych wykorzystanych do budowy badanego fragmentu muru czy niejednorodność struktury ściany. Taka zmienność może prowadzić do błędów rekonstrukcji, jeśli model nie jest wystarczająco elastyczny i nie posiada zdolności do generalizacji.\n\nDobrze wytrenowane modele neuronowe mają duży potencjał do generalizacji, który pozwala im na tworzenie poprawnych rekonstrukcji nawet wtedy, gdy bezwzględne wartości pomiarów rzeczywistych odbiegają od wartości pomiarów symulacyjnych, na których dany model był trenowany. Modele te, dzięki swojej złożonej architekturze i zdolności do uczenia się zależności nieliniowych, mogą efektywnie adaptować się do nowych, nieznanych wcześniej danych. Ważne jest przy tym, aby proces trenowania modeli obejmował szeroki zakres scenariuszy symulacyjnych. Jakość danych uczących ma zasadniczy i decydujący wpływ na zdolność modeli do prawidłowego odtwarzania rzeczywistych rozkładów wilgoci w ścianach budynków.\nImpedancyjna tomografia elektryczna nie jest metodą pomiarów wielkości bezwzględnych. Oznacza to, że nie pozwala ona na bezpośrednie określenie absolutnych, procentowych wartości wilgoci w badanym materiale. Takie informacje można uzyskać przy użyciu metod bezwzględnych, jak metoda suszarkowo-wagowa, która polega na pomiarze masy próbki przed wysuszeniem i po jej wysuszeniu, co pozwala na precyzyjne, procentowe określenie zawartości wody. Tomogramy uzyskane za pomocą ETI umożliwiają względne zobrazowanie rozkładów wilgoci opartych na różnicach w zawilgoceniu poszczególnych obszarów wewnątrz badanego fragmentu muru. Względność ta polega na umownym założeniu, które elementy skończone siatki FEM będą uważane za mokre, a które za suche. Proces ten bazuje na różnicach konduktywności elektrycznej poszczególnych wokseli, które to różnice są interpretowane jako różnice w zawilgoceniu.\nBadany obiekt rzeczywisty został sztucznie zawilgocony w warunkach laboratoryjnych, dzięki czemu można było przewidzieć spodziewany rozkład jego zawilgocenia. Badany mur ceglany opisany w rozdziale 5.1. był od spodu zanurzony w wodzie o głębokości kilku centymetrów, a na górze obiektu znajdował się otoczony cegłami zbiornik z wodą. Górny zbiornik został zalany wodą poprzedniego dnia około godziny 14:00, natomiast pomiary wykonano około godziny 10 dnia następnego. Pomiędzy napełnieniem górnego zbiornika a pomiarami minęło więc około 20 godzin. W chwili pomiaru górny zbiornik nie zawierał już wody, która w większości wniknęła do wnętrza muru poprzez pory w materiale, z którego był wykonany. Drugim czynnikiem braku wody w górnym zbiorniku było jej odparowanie.\nRysunek 5.38 przedstawia walidacyjne zdjęcie muru w chwili pomiarów\nETI, wykonane za pomocą kamery termowizyjnej FLIR-T540 (FLIR Systems,\nInc., Wilsonville, OR, USA). Termografia jest czuła na różnice temperatur, co umożliwia identyfikację obszarów o podwyższonej wilgotności. Zawilgocone\n\nfragmenty muru zazwyczaj mają inną temperaturę niż obszary suche, co jest widoczne na zdjęciach termowizyjnych.\nRys. 5.38. Termowizyjny obraz obiektu rzeczywistego\nŹródło: materiały Netrix S.A.\nZdjęcia termowizyjne mają także swoje wady. Główną wadą termowizji jest jej powierzchowność. Wspomniana metoda bada jedynie powierzchnię obiektu, nie dostarczając informacji o stanie wnętrza muru. W praktyce oznacza to, że termografia może wykazać różnice temperatur na powierzchni, które mogą być związane z wilgocią, ale nie daje pełnego obrazu zawilgocenia wewnątrz struktury. W rezultacie możliwe jest przeoczenie głębszych problemów z wilgocią, które nie znajdują swojego odzwierciedlenia na powierzchni.\nInnym ograniczeniem termowizji jest wpływ warunków zewnętrznych na wyniki pomiarów. Czynniki takie jak nasłonecznienie, wiatr czy różnice temperatur w ciągu dnia mogą wpływać na dokładność i wiarygodność zdjęć termowizyjnych. Na przykład nasłoneczniona ściana może wydawać się sucha na termogramie, mimo że w rzeczywistości jest zawilgocona. Dlatego konieczne jest przeprowadzanie pomiarów w odpowiednich warunkach, co nie zawsze jest możliwe. Termografia nie dostarcza bezpośrednich informacji o stopniu zawilgocenia. Zdjęcia termowizyjne pokazują jedynie różnice temperatur, które mogą być związane z wilgocią, ale nie określają dokładnej ilości wody\n\nzawartej w murze. Prócz tego interpretacja zdjęć termowizyjnych wymaga doświadczenia i wiedzy specjalistycznej.\nPomimo wad, zdjęcia termowizyjne mogą posłużyć jako uzupełniająca metoda walidacji dla obrazów tomograficznych uzyskanych z pomiarów rzeczywistych. Na rysunku 5.39 przedstawiono przestrzenną rekonstrukcję obiektu rzeczywistego wykonaną na siatce 3-D za pomocą modelu WSSN. Górna część rysunku przedstawia dwa widoki izometryczne, lewy i prawy, które prezentują trójwymiarowy model badanego obiektu. Kolory i ich natężenie reprezentują różnice w wartościach mierzonych parametrów mających bezpośredni wpływ na rozkład wilgoci. Wyższe wartości na skali kolorów oznaczają wyższy poziom zawilgocenia. Kolor przezroczysty oznacza brak zawilgocenia lub obszary mniej wilgotne w porównaniu z zawilgoconymi. Skala barw po prawej stronie pokazuje zakres wartości od -40 do 40, gdzie kolory od czerwonego do niebieskiego obrazują stopień zawilgocenia. Z uwagi na to, że ETI nie jest metodą pomiaru absolutnych wartości konduktywności, nie można traktować tomogramu jako obrazu przewodnictwa elektrycznego poszczególnych elementów skończonych, którego wartości można odczytać ze skali kolorów. Zamiast tego mamy tu do czynienia z tak zwaną rekonstrukcją różnicową (ang. difference imaging), w której za pomocą modelu matematycznego można generować dodatnie, ujemne lub zerowe wartości elementów siatki MES. W tym kontekście im niższe są wartości wygenerowane przez model, nawet ujemne, tym niższa jest konduktywność. Fizycznie konduktywność jest wielkością nieujemną, dlatego wartości elementów siatki FEM na tomogramie są z nią jedynie skorelowane.\nWidok z góry, umieszczony poniżej widoków izometrycznych, pokazuje rozkład wilgoci na powierzchni poziomej obiektu. Strona elektrod jest oznaczona, co pomaga w zorientowaniu się w przestrzeni pomiarowej. Dolna część obrazu zawiera trzy widoki: widok z przodu, z prawej i z lewej strony. Widok z przodu przedstawia rozkład wilgoci na przedniej ścianie obiektu, z zaznaczonymi pozycjami elektrod (czarne kropki). Widok z prawej i widok z lewej pokazują obiekt z różnych kątów widzenia, umożliwiając ocenę zmian wilgoci z innych perspektyw.\nPomimo oczywistych zalet, analiza rozkładu wilgoci na podstawie widoków trójwymiarowych może być utrudniona z powodu zasłaniania wokseli położonych głębiej przez nieprzezroczyste woksele położone bliżej powierzchni badanego obiektu. Dlatego analiza obrazów przestrzennych nie powinna być ograniczona do pojedynczego widoku, lecz powinna obejmować wiele widoków. Każdy z tych widoków dostarcza informacji o różnym aspekcie zawilgocenia badanego obiektu, umożliwiając kompleksową analizę rozkładu\n\nwilgoci wewnątrz muru. Kolorystyka na wszystkich widokach jest skorelowana z wcześniej wspomnianą skalą barw, co pozwala na łatwą interpretację wyników pomiarów.\nRys. 5.39. Rekonstrukcja obiektu rzeczywistego wykonana metodą WSSN – różne widoki\nNa rysunku 5.40 przedstawiono izometryczną rekonstrukcję rzeczywistą badanego obiektu w powiększeniu oraz duże powiększenie siatki FEM wokół elektrod. Jak widać gęstość siatki FEM nie jest jednorodna. Wokół elektrod, gdzie natężenie pola elektrycznego jest największe, większa jest także ilość wokseli, co przekłada się na ich mniejsze rozmiary. Im dalej od elektrod, tym mniejsze jest natężenie pola elektrycznego, a tym samym rozdzielczość rekonstrukcji spada, rosną wymiary wokseli.\nNa rysunkach 5.41–5.50 przedstawiono rekonstrukcje obiektu rzeczywistego wykonane pozostałymi metodami: Gaussa–Newtona, regularyzacji Tikhonova,\nTotal Variation, maszyna wektorów nośnych (SVM), elastic net, regresji liniowej, konwolucyjnej sieci neuronowej (CNN), sieci LSTM, sieci LSTM+CNN oraz sieci wielogałęziowej LSTM. Kolor niebieski na rysunkach oznacza obszary zawilgocone. Rekonstrukcje różnią się w zależności od zastosowanej metody, co można zauważyć, analizując rozkład wilgoci w obrębie muru. Dla metody Gaussa–Newtona (rys. 5.41) widoczne są wyraźne, ale niejednolite obszary zawilgocenia.\n\na b\nRys. 5.40. Rekonstrukcja obiektu rzeczywistego: (a) widok aksonometryczny,\n(b) siatka FEM wokół elektrod w powiększeniu\nRys. 5.41. Rekonstrukcja obiektu rzeczywistego metodą Gaussa–Newtona – różne widoki\nMetoda regularyzacji Tikhonova (rysunek 5.42) charakteryzuje się bardziej rozmytymi granicami obszarów wilgoci od innych metod. Pomimo tego, rekonstrukcja jest czytelna i wiarygodna w kontekście spodziewanych wyników.\nMetoda rekonstrukcji obrazów tomograficznych ETI oparta na regularyzacji\nTikhonova posiada zarówno mocne strony, jak i słabości. Jedną z głównych zalet metody Tikhonova jest jej matematyczna prostota i dobra stabilność,\n\nrozumiana jako tolerancja na szum pomiarowy. Formuła regularyzacji Tikhonova wprowadza dodatkowy człon do funkcji kosztu, który penalizuje duże wartości wybranych parametrów. Prowadzi to do uzyskania stabilnych i wygładzonych rozwiązań nawet w przypadku obecności szumu w danych pomiarowych. Jest to szczególnie ważne w kontekście ETI, gdzie dane mogą być obarczone znacznymi błędami, a jakość pomiarów może być obniżona przez zaszumienie.\nKolejną zaletą metody Tikhonova jest jej względna łatwość implementacji i interpretacji. Parametry regularyzacji można intuicyjnie dostosować do specyfiki problemu, co ułatwia kontrolę nad procesem rekonstrukcji. Omawiana metoda jest dobrze ugruntowana w teorii i ma szerokie zastosowanie w różnych dziedzinach nauki i techniki.\nMetoda regularyzacji Tikhonova ma także ograniczenia i pewne wady.\nJedną z wad jest tendencja modelu do wygładzania ostrych krawędzi. Z tego powodu drobne szczegóły nie są widoczne na zrekonstruowanych obrazach.\nWprowadzenie dodatkowego członu regularyzacji sprawia, że obrazy mogą być nadmiernie wygładzone. Może to być powodem utraty istotnych informacji i powstawania zniekształceń strukturalnych. Dzięki zdolności do nieliniowego przetwarzania informacji i ekstrakcji cech, sieci neuronowe, zwłaszcza głębokie i/lub konwolucyjne, mogą lepiej rekonstruować drobne szczegóły i krawędzie.\nKolejną wadą metody Tikhonova jest jej ograniczona adaptacyjność do różnych typów danych i zadań rekonstrukcji. Algorytm wymaga ręcznego dostrojenia parametrów regularyzacji, co w przypadku złożonych problemów może być czasochłonne i skomplikowane. Na tym tle wyraźniej rysuje się przewaga sieci neuronowych. Sieci mogą być trenowane na dużych zbiorach danych, co pozwala im automatycznie dostosowywać się do specyficznych uwarunkowań danego problemu i zapewnia większą elastyczność.\nMetoda Tikhonova jest również bardziej ograniczona pod względem szybkości obliczeniowej w porównaniu z podejściami opartymi na sieciach neuronowych. Proces iteracyjnego rozwiązywania równań liniowych w metodzie\nTikhonova może być czasochłonny, zwłaszcza dla dużych zbiorów danych.\nSieci neuronowe, po odpowiednim wytrenowaniu, mogą rekonstruować obrazy znacznie szybciej dzięki efektywnym algorytmom inferencji i wykorzystaniu akceleracji sprzętowej.\n\nRys. 5.42. Rekonstrukcja obiektu rzeczywistego metodą regularyzacji Tikhonova – różne widoki\nWidoczna na rysunku 5.43 rekonstrukcja metodą Total Variation (TV) charakteryzuje się ostrzejszymi granicami między obszarami wilgotnymi a suchymi, jednak, biorąc pod uwagę uzyskaną rekonstrukcję, należy uznać, że jakość tej metody w badanym przypadku jest nieakceptowalna. Najprawdopodobniej ma to związek z niską zdolnością modelu do generalizacji. Jednym z głównych problemów metody TV jest jej duża wrażliwość na szum obecny w danych pomiarowych. Ponieważ TV minimalizuje gradient obrazu, staje się podatna na zakłócenia. W następstwie metoda może generować artefakty i inne błędy rekonstrukcji, szczególnie w przypadku danych pomiarowych o niskiej jakości. Sieci neuronowe, zwłaszcza nowoczesne struktury głębokie i konwolucyjne, są w stanie lepiej radzić sobie z szumem dzięki zdolności do uczenia się reprezentacji cech bezpośrednio z danych. Pozwala to uzyskiwać bardziej odporne i dokładne rekonstrukcje. Inną słabością metody TV jest jej ograniczona zdolność do identyfikowania złożonych struktur w obrazach. Metoda TV jest skuteczna w wygładzaniu i zachowywaniu ostrych krawędzi. Nie radzi sobie jednak z bardziej skomplikowanymi wzorcami i strukturami, które mogą występować właśnie w obrazach tomograficznych. Sieci neuronowe, dzięki swojej architekturze i zdolności do modelowania nieliniowych zależności, są w stanie lepiej odwzorować skomplikowane struktury przestrzenne i tekstury w danych obrazowych.\n\nRys. 5.43. Rekonstrukcja obiektu rzeczywistego metodą Total Variation – różne widoki\nMetoda TV jest również stosunkowo ograniczona pod względem adaptacyjności do różnych typów danych i zadań rekonstrukcji. Proces regularyzacji oparty na wariacji całkowitej wymaga dobrania odpowiednich parametrów, co jest trudne i czasochłonne. W porównaniu z deterministyczną metodą TV, sieci neuronowe potrafią automatycznie dobierać i optymalizować własne parametry. Wytrenowanie sieci neuronowej o wysokiej jakości i zdolności do generalizacji trwa krócej niż opracowanie efektywnego modelu TV.\nMetoda SVM (rysunek 5.44) generuje obrazy z wyraźnie zaznaczonymi i stosunkowo jednorodnymi obszarami wilgoci. Zdolność do skutecznego radzenia sobie z małymi i średnimi zbiorami danych jest jedną z głównych zalet metody SVM. Jest to szczególnie ważne w przypadku ograniczonej ilości dostępnych danych uczących. Funkcje jądrowe umożliwiają SVM znalezienie optymalnej granicy decyzyjnej między różnymi klasami. Tak więc metoda SVM pozwala na modelowanie nieliniowych zależności w danych. Ponadto ma solidną teoretyczną podstawę i silne podstawy matematyczne, co ułatwia zrozumienie i interpretację wyników modelu. Regularyzacja SVM jest korzystna dla zapewnienia stabilności i generalizacji wyników, ponieważ pomaga kontrolować złożoność modelu i unikać zjawiska przeuczenia.\n\nRys. 5.44. Rekonstrukcja obiektu rzeczywistego wykonana metodą SVM – różne widoki\nMetoda SVM ma również ograniczenia. Jednym z głównych problemów jest jej skalowalność. Przy dużych zbiorach danych i wysokowymiarowych przestrzeniach cech, trenowanie modelu SVM może być bardzo czasochłonne i może wymagać dużych zasobów obliczeniowych. W przeciwieństwie do nowoczesnych modeli sieci neuronowych, które mogą być efektywnie trenowane równolegle przy użyciu kart graficznych GPU (ang. graphics processing unit), wielordzeniowych CPU (ang. central processing unit) oraz TPU\n(ang. tensor processing unit), metoda SVM często staje się niewydajna w takich warunkach.\nKolejną słabością metody SVM jest jej ograniczona zdolność do automatycznej ekstrakcji cech z surowych danych. W przeciwieństwie do sieci neuronowych, zwłaszcza posiadających warstwy konwolucyjne i LSTM, które potrafią automatycznie uczyć się złożonych reprezentacji cech z danych surowych, SVM często wymaga ręcznej inżynierii cech, co może być czasochłonne i wymaga specjalistycznej wiedzy.\nRysunek 5.45 przedstawia różne widoki rekonstrukcji ETI uzyskanej z wykorzystaniem metody elastic net. Konfrontacja tomogramów z przewidywaniami wynikającymi z kontrolowanego w warunkach laboratoryjnych procesu zawilgacania muru nie pozwala uznać tej metody za dokładną. Zawilgocenia znajdują się wprawdzie w górnej i dolnej części badanego fragmentu, jednak\n\nlokują się niesymetrycznie, po lewej stronie, co jest niezrozumiałe, mało wiarygodne i trudne do wyjaśnienia.\nZdolność do łączenia zalet regularyzacji L1 (Lasso) i regularyzacji L2\n(grzbietowej) jest jedną z głównych zalet metody elastic net. Dzięki tej funkcjonalności metoda elastic net jest skuteczna w procesie selekcji cech i skutecznie rozwiązuje problem kolinearności danych. W rezultacie można osiągnąć bardziej stabilne i interpretowalne modele nadające się do rekonstrukcji obrazów tomograficznych. Ponadto metoda elastic net jest atrakcyjna dla wielu zastosowań w dziedzinie obrazowania medycznego ze względu na jej solidną, teoretyczną podstawę i stosunkowo prostą implementację.\nPodobnie jak inne metody, elastic net ma również ograniczenia. Jednym z głównych problemów jest słaba zdolność do modelowania nieliniowych i złożonych zależności w danych. Podczas gdy elastic net może efektywnie radzić sobie z liniowymi zależnościami i redukcją wymiarowości, możliwości tej metody są ograniczone w kontekście złożonych wzorców i struktur, które często występują w danych tomograficznych. W przeciwieństwie do elastic net, nowoczesne modele sieci neuronowych, takie jak konwolucyjne sieci neuronowe (CNN), są zaprojektowane z myślą o automatycznym wykrywaniu i modelowaniu skomplikowanych zależności nieliniowych, co czyni je bardziej efektywnymi w rekonstrukcji obrazów o wysokiej złożoności.\nRys. 5.45. Rekonstrukcja obiektu rzeczywistego wykonana metodą elastic net – różne widoki\n\nSłabą stroną metody elastic net jest także jej podatność na dobór parametrów regularyzacji. Aby osiągnąć najlepsze wyniki, konieczne jest optymalne dostrojenie parametrów L1 i L2, co jest wyzwaniem. Sieci neuronowe, choć również wymagają dostrajania hiperparametrów, oferują narzędzia takie jak uczenie transferowe (ang. transfer learning) i zaawansowane algorytmy optymalizacji, które automatycznie dostosowują trenowane modele do specyfiki danych, co najczęściej prowadzi do lepszych wyników w zastosowaniach utylitarnych.\nRekonstrukcja uzyskana za pomocą regresji liniowej widoczna na rysunku 5.46 jest prawie nieczytelna. Główną słabością tej metody jest jej zdolność do modelowania tylko liniowych zależności między zmiennymi. W kontekście rekonstrukcji obrazów tomograficznych, gdzie dane często zawierają złożone i nieliniowe wzorce, regresja liniowa nie jest wystarczająca do uzyskania dokładnych i wiarygodnych rekonstrukcji. Innym problemem regresji liniowej jest jej ograniczona zdolność do radzenia sobie z dużymi zbiorami danych i wysoką wymiarowością. Chociaż model jest obliczeniowo efektywny dla małych i średnich zbiorów danych, jego wydajność może się pogorszyć w przypadku bardzo dużych zbiorów danych. Opracowując model elastic net, należy więc spodziewać się problemów ze skalowalnością. Sieci neuronowe, dzięki swojej architekturze i możliwościom wykorzystania obliczeń równoległych na jednostkach CPU, GPU i TPU, mogą przetwarzać ogromne ilości danych znacznie szybciej i efektywniej.\nRys. 5.46. Rekonstrukcja obiektu rzeczywistego metodą regresji liniowej – różne widoki\n\nRegresja liniowa ma również ograniczenia w zakresie automatycznej ekstrakcji cech z surowych danych. Wymaga to ręcznej inżynierii cech, która może być żmudna i czasochłonna. Nowoczesne struktury sieci neuronowych posiadają zdolność do automatycznej ekstrakcji cech, co eliminuje potrzebę ręcznego przetwarzania danych i pozwala na bardziej wszechstronne i adaptacyjne podejście do rekonstrukcji obrazów.\nZaprezentowana na rysunku 5.47 rekonstrukcja wygenerowana za pomocą metody CNN wskazuje na obszary zawilgocone, które są zlokalizowane w dolnej części muru. Górne partie badanego obiektu, według wskazań rekonstrukcji, są suche. Nie jest to prawdą, choć porównując zawilgocenie górnej i dolnej części fragmentu ściany, z pewnością dolna część zawiera więcej wody. Obraz rekonstrukcyjny został kolorystycznie skalibrowany w sposób zakładający binarność, która polega na zidentyfikowaniu jako wilgotny jedynie obszaru najbardziej nasyconego wodą spośród wszystkich wokseli siatki FEM. Model pomija zróżnicowane, pośrednie poziomy wilgoci, poza ekstremalnymi.\nRys. 5.47. Rekonstrukcja obiektu rzeczywistego wykonana metodą CNN – różne widoki\nSieć LSTM, z której rekonstrukcja jest widoczna na rysunku 5.48, daje wyniki z dość wyrafinowanymi wzorcami wilgoci, które lepiej oddają rzeczywiste rozkłady zawilgocenia, niż ma to miejsce w przypadku cieci CNN. Wilgoć sięga tu znacznie wyżej niż na rysunku 5.46. Prócz tego, rozkład zawilgoceń\n\njest bardziej zgodny z logiką i subiektywnym prognozowaniem rozkładu wilgoci wynikającym ze sposobu sztucznego zawilgocenia zrealizowanego w warunkach laboratoryjnych.\nRys. 5.48. Rekonstrukcja obiektu rzeczywistego wykonana metodą LSTM – różne widoki\nPrzedstawione na rysunku 5.49 rekonstrukcje, wykonane za pomocą hybrydowej sieci neuronowej zawierającej zarówno warstwy LSTM, jak i CNN, wskazują, że miejsca gromadzenia się wilgoci wewnątrz badanego muru są zlokalizowane głównie w jego dolnej części. Ma to swoje uzasadnienie, ponieważ u dołu muru wciąż znajdowała się woda, podczas gdy w górnym zbiorniku wody już nie było, jednak obraz uzyskany jedynie przy użyciu warstw LSTM wydaje się wierniejszy.\nZ dużą dozą pewności można prognozować, że dolne obszary muru zawierają więcej wilgoci niż górne. Ponieważ obraz tomograficzny przedstawia różnice w stopniu zawilgocenia między różnymi obszarami muru, istotna staje się tzw. kalibracja kolorów. Prócz oczywistych czynników mających wpływ na dokładność obrazowania, jak choćby czułość urządzenia, od kalibracji kolorów zależy szczegółowość odzwierciedlania niewielkich różnic konduktywności w poszczególnych elementach skończonych siatki FEM. Kalibracja jest więc kompromisem pomiędzy potrzebą identyfikacji maksymalnej liczby poziomów zawilgoceń a czytelnością obrazu tomograficznego.\n\nRys. 5.49. Rekonstrukcja obiektu rzeczywistego wykonana metodą LSTM+CNN – różne widoki\nRys. 5.50. Rekonstrukcja obiektu rzeczywistego wykonana metodą wielogałęziową\nLSTM – różne widoki\n\nMetoda wielogałęziowa LSTM (rysunek 5.50 prezentuje najbardziej zaawansowaną rekonstrukcję, z dobrze zdefiniowanymi obszarami zawilgocenia, co może wskazywać na jej wyższą skuteczność w porównaniu z innymi metodami.\nPorównując powyższe rekonstrukcje z obrazami wygenerowanymi metodą WSSN, można zauważyć, że metoda WSSN również pokazuje wyraźne obszary zawilgocenia w murze.\nUwzględniając przewidywania wynikające ze sposobu sztucznego zawilgocenia muru, należy stwierdzić, że rekonstrukcje o najwyższym poziomie wierności uzyskano metodami WSSN i wielogałęziową LSTM. Mur był poddany intensywnemu zawilgoceniu poprzez kontakt z wodą u jego podstawy oraz poprzez dodatkowy zbiornik z wodą umieszczony na górze. Takie warunki eksperymentalne pozwoliły na dość dokładną predykcję obszarów zawilgoconych, co jest wyraźnie widoczne w wynikach uzyskanych wspomnianymi metodami.\nW porównaniu z innymi technikami, metody WSSN i wielogałęziowa LSTM wykazały się największą precyzją w identyfikacji obszarów zawilgoconych, co świadczy o ich zaawansowanej zdolności do modelowania rzeczywistych warunków zawilgocenia muru. Niniejsze obserwacje potwierdzają wysoką jakość tych metod wynikającą z uprzedniej analizy przeprowadzonej w oparciu o dane syntetyczne.\n\n6. Badania wilgotności murów\nZłotej Bramy w Gdańsku\nW celu weryfikacji prototypowego systemu elektrycznej tomografii impedancyjnej, złożonego z tomografu ETI oraz algorytmów opartych na uczeniu maszynowym, transformujących pomiary elektryczne na obrazy, przeprowadzono badania murów Złotej Bramy w Gdańsku. Złota Brama, znana również jako\nBrama Długouliczna, jest budowlą historyczną, która w świetle obowiązujących przepisów prawnych jest wpisana do rejestru zabytków, co świadczy o jej istotnym znaczeniu historycznym i kulturowym. Budowla ta, będąca jednym z kluczowych elementów miejskiej architektury Gdańska, ma długą i bogatą historię sięgającą XVII wieku. Brama została wybudowana w latach 1612–1614 według projektu Abrahama van den Blockego, a jej fundatorem było Bractwo św. Jerzego. Jest to konstrukcja o charakterze historycznym, której celem było podkreślenie prestiżu i zamożności Gdańska w okresie jego największego rozkwitu. Struktura murów Złotej Bramy jest solidna i masywna, z niektórymi fragmentami osiągającymi grubość zbliżoną do 2 metrów. Mury zostały wykonane z cegły ceramicznej, co było typowym materiałem budowlanym w tamtym czasie. Cegły są pokryte warstwą tynku, który nadaje budowli jej charakterystyczny wygląd. Ponadto fasady bramy są bogato zdobione rzeźbami i dekoracjami, które determinują jej znaczenie historyczne i stanowią przykład doskonałego rzemiosła artystycznego tamtej epoki.\nW związku z wiekiem budowli oraz jej znaczeniem historycznym szczególnie istotne jest regularne monitorowanie stanu technicznego Złotej Bramy.\n\nJednym z kluczowych zagrożeń dla tego typu konstrukcji jest zawilgocenie murów, które może prowadzić do ich osłabienia, pęknięć oraz rozwoju pleśni i grzybów [40]. Zaniedbania w tej dziedzinie mogą skutkować trwałym uszkodzeniem struktury murów, elewacji, cennych rzeźb oraz dekoracji. Aby zidentyfikować i ocenić zakres zawilgocenia, Złota Brama została poddana badaniom tomograficznym przy użyciu tomografu ETI (elektryczna tomografia impedancyjna). Jak już wielokrotnie wspomniano, tomografia umożliwia nieinwazyjne badanie struktury murów, co jest szczególnie ważne w przypadku zabytków, gdzie minimalizacja ingerencji w oryginalną strukturę jest kluczowa. Badania miały na celu nie tylko ocenę obecnego stanu zawilgocenia, ale również dostarczenie danych do opracowania skutecznych strategii konserwacji i ochrony zabytku. Regularne badania stopnia zawilgocenia murów przyczyniają się do długotrwałego zachowania Złotej Bramy w dobrym stanie i jej przetrwania dla przyszłych pokoleń. Rysunek 6.1 przedstawia widoki Złotej Bramy w Gdańsku od strony Targu Węglowego i od ul. Długiej.\na b\n(a) (b)\nRys. 6.1. Złota Brama w Gdańsku: (a) widok od strony Targu Węglowego,\n(b) widok od ul. Długiej\nFot. (a) Maciej Szczepańczyk, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=3417027, (b) Anna Hoła\n\nRys. 6.2. Rzut przyziemia Złotej Bramy z zaznaczonymi miejscami wykonania pomiarów\nOpracowanie własne na podstawie [66]\nRysunek 6.2 przedstawia przyziemie Złotej Bramy z zaznaczonymi trzema stanowiskami wykonania pomiarów. Przykładowo czerwona kropka z opisem\n1P oznacza miejsce przyłożenia do ściany prawej listwy zawierającej 16 elektrod. Analogicznie 1L i niebieska kropka oznaczają miejsce przyłożenia listwy lewej. Stosując powyższą analogię do pozostałych miejsc pomiarów, czerwony kolor kropek przypisano do listwy prawej, natomiast kolor niebieski oznacza listwę lewą. Warto zwrócić uwagę, że grubość murów mierzona prostopadle do osi listew z elektrodami ETI wynosi dla stanowiska pierwszego 150 cm, dla stanowiska drugiego 38 cm dla listwy prawej i 165 cm dla listwy lewej oraz aż\n195 cm dla stanowiska trzeciego.\n6.1. Modelowanie wielogałęziowej sieci neuronowej\nLSTM+CNN\nW celu uzyskania obrazu tomograficznego o dużej rozdzielczości zastosowano przestrzenną siatkę FEM składającą się z 11 458 elementów skończonych (wokseli). W badaniach wykorzystano opisany w rozdziale 5.5. protokół pomiarowy wraz z zestawem 32 elektrod. Algorytm 6.1 przedstawia kod zapisany\n\nw języku Matlab, który tworzy model trójgałęziowej sieci neuronowej zawierającej warstwy LSTM i CNN.\nAlgorytm 6.1. M atlab R2024a – kodowanie architektury modelu wielogałęziowej sieci neuronowej LSTM+CNN inputSize = 448; % definiowanie wielkości wektora wejściowego numResponses = 11458; % definiowanie wielkości wektora wyjściowego\n% Utworzenie pustego obiektu net z wykorzystaniem funkcji dlnetwork net = dlnetwork;\n% Dodawanie poszczególnych warstw sieci do obiektu net...\n% ...z wykorzystaniem zmiennej tymczasowej tempNet tempNet = sequenceInputLayer(inputSize,”Name”,”sequence”, ...\n“Normalization”,”zerocenter”,”SplitComplexInputs”, true);\nnet = addLayers(net,tempNet);\ntempNet = [ bilstmLayer(1024,”Name”,”bilstm_1”,”OutputMode”,”last”) batchNormalizationLayer(“Name”,”batchnorm_1”) dropoutLayer(0.5,”Name”,”dropout_1”)];\nnet = addLayers(net,tempNet);\ntempNet = [ fullyConnectedLayer(256,”Name”,”fc_1”) tanhLayer(“Name”,”tanh_1”) batchNormalizationLayer(“Name”,”batchnorm_2”) dropoutLayer(0.5,”Name”,”dropout_2”)];\nnet = addLayers(net,tempNet);\ntempNet = [ fullyConnectedLayer(256,”Name”,”fc_2”) tanhLayer(“Name”,”tanh_2”) batchNormalizationLayer(“Name”,”batchnorm_3”) dropoutLayer(0.5,”Name”,”dropout_3”)];\nnet = addLayers(net,tempNet);\ntempNet = [ fullyConnectedLayer(256,”Name”,”fc_3”) tanhLayer(“Name”,”tanh_3”) batchNormalizationLayer(“Name”,”batchnorm_4”) dropoutLayer(0.5,”Name”,”dropout_4”)];\nnet = addLayers(net,tempNet);\n\nAlgorytm 6.1. M atlab R2024a – kodowanie architektury modelu wielogałęziowej sieci neuronowej LSTM+CNN tempNet = [ convolution1dLayer(4,112,”Name”,”conv1d_1”,”Padding”,[4 4]) batchNormalizationLayer(“Name”,”batchnorm_1_1”) reluLayer(“Name”,”relu_1”) dropoutLayer(0.3,”Name”,”dropout_5”) convolution1dLayer(4,112,”Name”,”conv1d_2”,”Padding”,[4 4]) batchNormalizationLayer(“Name”,”batchnorm_1_2”) reluLayer(“Name”,”relu_2”) dropoutLayer(0.3,”Name”,”dropout_6”) convolution1dLayer(4,112,”Name”,”conv1d_3”,”Padding”,[4 4]) batchNormalizationLayer(“Name”,”batchnorm_1_3”) reluLayer(“Name”,”relu_3”) dropoutLayer(0.3,”Name”,”dropout_7”) globalMaxPooling1dLayer(“Name”,”gmpool1d”) fullyConnectedLayer(512,”Name”,”fc_4”)];\nnet = addLayers(net,tempNet);\ntempNet = [ concatenationLayer(1,4,”Name”,”concat”) bilstmLayer(1280,”Name”,”bilstm”) batchNormalizationLayer(“Name”,”batchnorm_5”) fullyConnectedLayer(numResponses,”Name”,”fc_5”)];\nnet = addLayers(net,tempNet);\nclear tempNet; % usunięcie zmiennej tymczasowej\n% Połączenie wszystkich gałęzi sieci w jedną strukturę net net = connectLayers(net,”sequence”,”bilstm_1”);\nnet = connectLayers(net,”sequence”,”conv1d_1”);\nnet = connectLayers(net,”dropout_1”,”fc_1”);\nnet = connectLayers(net,”dropout_1”,”fc_2”);\nnet = connectLayers(net,”dropout_1”,”fc_3”);\nnet = connectLayers(net,”dropout_2”,”concat/in1”);\nnet = connectLayers(net,”dropout_3”,”concat/in2”);\nnet = connectLayers(net,”dropout_4”,”concat/in3”);\nnet = connectLayers(net,”fc_4”,”concat/in4”);\nnet = initialize(net); % inicjalizacja sieci net\n\nPowyższy kod tworzy strukturę wielogałęziowej sieci neuronowej, która łączy warstwy LSTM oraz konwolucyjne. Na wstępie definiowane są wymiary wektorów wejściowego (inputSize = 448) oraz wyjściowego (numResponses = 11458).\nNastępnie tworzona jest zmienna dlnetwork o nazwie net, która będzie zawierać warstwy sieci. Pierwszą dodaną warstwą jest warstwa wejściowa sequence-\nInputLayer, która przetwarza sekwencyjne dane wejściowe o wymiarze wektora\n448-elementowego. Dane, o których mowa, są poddane procesowi normalizacji.\nW dalszych krokach algorytm dodaje kolejne warstwy sieci. Pierwsza warstwa to dwukierunkowa warstwa LSTM (BiLSTM) z 1024 jednostkami ukrytymi, która jest odpowiedzialna za dwukierunkową analizę danych sekwencyjnych.\nZastosowanie tej warstwy ma na celu identyfikację zależności ukrytych między elementami wektorów pomiarowych, czyli między pojedynczymi pomiarami wchodzącymi w skład sekwencji pomiarowej. Po niej kolejną warstwą jest normalizacja wsadowa (Batch Normalization), która stabilizuje i przyspiesza uczenie się, oraz warstwa Dropout, która redukuje ryzyko przetrenowania sieci poprzez losowe wyłączanie neuronów z sieci. Kolejne trzy bloki to warstwy w pełni połączone (Fully Connected) z 256 neuronami, z funkcjami aktywacji tangens hiperboliczny, normalizacją wsadową oraz warstwami Dropout. Te warstwy są odpowiedzialne za transformację i obróbkę danych z wyższych poziomów abstrakcji.\nPo warstwach w pełni połączonych dodawane są jednowymiarowe (wektorowe) warstwy konwolucyjne 1D, które przetwarzają sekwencje danych, wychwytując lokalne wzorce w sekwencjach. Każda warstwa konwolucyjna składa się z filtrów o rozmiarze 4 i głębokości 112, z normalizacją wsadową, funkcją aktywacji ReLU oraz warstwą Dropout. Na końcu grupy warstw znajduje się globalna warstwa typu „max pooling” (Global Max Pooling), która redukuje wymiary danych. Zwieńczeniem tej grupy jest warstwa w pełni połączona z 512 neuronami.\nCentralnym elementem omawianej sieci wielogałęziowej jest warstwa concatenationLayer, która łączy wyjścia z różnych gałęzi sieci wzdłuż pierwszego wymiaru. Istnieją dwa główne sposoby łączenia warstw – „concatenation” (łączenie) i „add” (dodawanie). Warstwa typu concatenation różni się od warstwy add tym, że zamiast sumowania wartości wyjściowych z różnych warstw, konkatenacja łączy je, tworząc jeden dłuższy wektor. To umożliwia przekazanie bardziej złożonych i bogatszych informacji do dalszych warstw.\nPo połączeniu danych za pomocą warstwy concatenate, informacje trafiają do kolejnej dwukierunkowej warstwy LSTM z 1280 jednostkami ukrytymi. Dane przechodzą przez normalizację wsadową oraz warstwę w pełni połączoną z liczbą neuronów równą liczbie odpowiedzi (numResponses) i jednocześnie\n\nrozdzielczości siatki FEM, czyli 11458. Na końcu kodu wszystkie gałęzie są połączone w jedną wspólną strukturę za pomocą funkcji connectLayers, po czym sieć jest inicjalizowana. Tak zaprojektowana sieć jest gotowa do trenowania na danych sekwencyjnych, wykorzystując zalety zarówno warstw LSTM, jak i warstw konwolucyjnych. Złożona architektura sieci ma na celu ułatwienie analizy i identyfikacji złożonych wzorców ukrytych wewnątrz wektorowych struktur danych.\nRys. 6.3. Struktura wielogałęziowej sieci neuronowej LSTM+CNN\nRysunek 6.3 przedstawia schemat struktury wielogałęziowej sieci neuronowej LSTM+CNN opisanej algorytmem 6.1. Tego typu sieć neuronowa o skomplikowanej, wielogałęziowej architekturze ma wiele potencjalnych zalet, które mogą przyczynić się do lepszej wydajności podczas realizacji zadań związanych z przetwarzaniem danych sekwencyjnych i szeregów czasowych.\nWielogałęziowa architektura pozwala na równoczesne przetwarzanie danych przez różne typy warstw, takich jak warstwy LSTM, konwolucyjne oraz w pełni połączone. Każda z gałęzi sieci może identyfikować inne aspekty danych wejściowych, co pozwala jej skuteczniej identyfikować złożone wzorce i zależności ukryte w danych. Integracja warstw konwolucyjnych i LSTM umożliwia synergiczne wykorzystanie mocnych stron obu typów warstw.\nWarstwy LSTM są skuteczne w modelowaniu zależności czasowych i sekwencyjnych, podczas gdy warstwy konwolucyjne potrafią efektywnie wykrywać\n\nlokalne wzorce i cechy w danych sekwencyjnych. Wykorzystanie warstw typu\nDropout w różnych miejscach struktury modelu zmniejsza ryzyko przetrenowania, co jest kluczowe dla uzyskania systemu, który dobrze generalizuje zarówno dane testowe, jak i nowe, nieznane dane. Warstwy normalizacji wsadowej przyczyniają się do stabilizacji procesu uczenia, przyspieszając konwergencję i poprawiając wydajność sieci.\nNormalizacja pozwala na utrzymanie danych w odpowiednim zakresie, co zmniejsza ryzyko problemów związanych z zanikającym gradientem [101].\nWielogałęziowa struktura umożliwia łatwiejszą modyfikację i skalowanie sieci.\nMożna dodawać lub usuwać gałęzie w zależności od potrzeb konkretnego zadania, co daje dużą elastyczność w projektowaniu sieci. Warstwa konkatenacji umożliwia połączenie informacji z różnych gałęzi, zachowując bogactwo cech wyekstrahowanych przez każdą z nich. Dzięki temu końcowe warstwy sieci mogą operować na bardziej złożonym i wszechstronnym zbiorze cech, co zwykle prowadzi do dokładniejszych przewidywań. Dwukierunkowe warstwy\nLSTM (BiLSTM) mogą efektywnie identyfikować odległe zależności w danych wektorowych. Warstwy BiLSTM analizują sekwencje zarówno w przód, jak i w tył. Jest to szczególnie ważne w zadaniach, gdzie do poprawnego zrozumienia danych istotny jest kontekst całej sekwencji, a nie tylko jej fragment.\nWarstwa globalnego max-pooling oraz warstwy w pełni połączone pomagają w redukcji wymiarowości danych, jednocześnie koncentrując się na najważniejszych cechach. Zwiększa to efektywność obliczeniową i redukuje złożoność obliczeniową modelu. Tego rodzaju architektura sieci neuronowej jest szczególnie przydatna w trudnych zadaniach transformacji danych, takich jak tomograficzne problemy odwrotne, analizy sekwencji czasowych, rozpoznawanie wzorców, predykcja szeregów czasowych oraz w zadaniach związanych z przetwarzaniem języka naturalnego (NLP – ang. natural language processing).\nZłożoność i multimodalność tej struktury umożliwiają lepsze modelowanie skomplikowanych zjawisk i uzyskiwanie bardziej precyzyjnych wyników.\nW tabeli 6.1 przedstawiono uzupełniające informacje na temat poszczególnych warstw wielogałęziowej sieci neuronowej LSTM+CNN, łączącej warstwy\nLSTM i konwolucyjne. Tabela jest podzielona na trzy kolumny: „Nazwa i opis warstwy”, „Aktywacje” oraz „Parametry uczące się”. Każda z kolumn pełni określoną rolę, a oznaczenia (C), (B) i (T) w kolumnie „Aktywacje” odnoszą się do poszczególnych wymiarów danych przetwarzanych przez sieć neuronową.\nKolumna „Nazwa i opis warstwy” zawiera nazwy oraz opisy poszczególnych warstw sieci neuronowej. Warstwy te obejmują różne typy, takie jak warstwy wejściowe, dwukierunkowe LSTM, warstwy normalizacji wsadowej, warstwy\n\ndropout, warstwy w pełni połączone, warstwy aktywacyjne, warstwy konwolucyjne, globalne warstwy max-pooling oraz warstwy konkatenacji. Każda z wymienionych warstw pełni specyficzną rolę w przetwarzaniu danych wejściowych i ekstrakcji cech.\nKolumna „Aktywacje” tabeli 6.1 opisuje rozmiary aktywacji dla każdej warstwy w sieci. Litery (C), (B) i (T) oznaczają odpowiednio kanały (Channels), partie danych (Batch) oraz czas (Time). Na przykład zapis 896(C)×1(B)×1(T) oznacza, że dana warstwa przetwarza 896 kanałów, jedną partię danych oraz jeden krok czasowy. Podobnie zapis 2048(C)×1(B) oznacza, że warstwa przetwarza 2048 kanałów i jedną partię danych, bez specyfikacji kroku czasowego.\nTe oznaczenia pomagają zrozumieć sposób, w jaki dane są przekształcane i przepływają przez sieć.\nKolumna „Parametry uczące się” zawiera informacje o liczbie i typach parametrów, które są aktualizowane podczas procesu uczenia sieci (ang. learnables).\nParametry te obejmują wagi wejściowe, wagi rekurencyjne, biasy, offsety oraz skale. Ofsety i skale są parametrami stosowanymi w warstwach normalizacji wsadowej (Batch Normalization). Odgrywają one istotną rolę w stabilizacji i przyspieszaniu procesu uczenia się sieci neuronowych. Skala (ang. scale) jest parametrem uczącym się, przez który mnożone są znormalizowane wartości aktywacji. W połączeniu z offsetem skala umożliwia sieci neuronowej adaptację znormalizowanych aktywacji do różnych zakresów wartości, które mogą być bardziej optymalne dla danej warstwy lub problemu.\nZ tabeli 6.1 wynika, że dla warstwy `bilstm_1`, parametry uczące się obejmują wagi wejściowe o wymiarach 8192 × 896, wagi rekurencyjne o wymiarach 8192 × 1024 oraz biasy o wymiarach 8192 × 1. W przypadku wag wejściowych liczba 896 odpowiada rozmiarowi wektora wejściowego dla tej warstwy.\nW BiLSTM każda jednostka LSTM posiada zestaw wag, które są stosowane do wejścia. Ponieważ są 1024 jednostki w każdym kierunku (do przodu i do tyłu), a każda jednostka LSTM ma cztery zestawy wag (dla bramki wejściowej, zapominania, wyjściowej oraz wewnętrznego stanu pamięci), liczba wag wynosi 4 × 1024 × 2 = 8192. Stąd wymiar wag wejściowych wynosi 8192 × 896.\nWymiary wag rekurencyjnych to 8192 × 1024. W warstwie LSTM wagi rekurencyjne są stosowane do poprzedniego stanu ukrytego (hidden state). Każda jednostka LSTM ma również cztery zestawy wag rekurencyjnych, a ponieważ w omawianym przypadku są 1024 jednostki LSTM w każdym kierunku, liczba wag rekurencyjnych również wynosi 4 × 1024 × 2 = 8192. Wymiar wag rekurencyjnych wynosi zatem 8192 × 1024, gdzie 1024 to rozmiar wektora stanu ukrytego.\n\nOstatnim podanym parametrem uczącym się dla warstwy bilstm_1 są biasy o wymiarach 8192 × 1. Biasy są dodatkowymi parametrami, które pozwalają modelowi na lepsze dopasowanie funkcji aktywacji do danych. W warstwie typu BiLSTM każda jednostka posiada zestaw biasów odpowiedni dla bramki wejściowej, bramki zapominania, bramki wyjściowej oraz stanu pamięci, co daje 4 × 1024 × 2 = 8192, dlatego wymiar biasów wynosi 8192 × 1. Powyższe parametry są kluczowe dla dostosowania sieci do danych uczących i optymalizacji jej wydajności.\nTabela. 6.1. S zczegółowe informacje o strukturze wielogałęziowej sieci neuronowej LSTM+CNN\nParametry\nNazwa i opis warstwy Aktywacje uczące się sequence\nSekwencja wejściowa, 448 896(C)×1(B)×1(T) — wymiarów\nWagi wejściowe:\n8192×896 bilstm_1\n2048(C)×1(B) Wagi rekurencyjne:\nBiLSTM z 1024 jednostkami ukrytymi\n8192×1024\nBiasy: 8192×1 batchnorm_ 1 Ofset: 2048×1\n2048(C)×1(B)\nNormalizacja partii 2048 kanałów Skala: 2048×1 dropout_1\n2048(C)×1(B) —\n50% dropout fc_1 Wagi: 256×2048\n256(C)×1(B)\n256 warstwa w pełni połączona Biasy: 256×1 tanh_1\n256(C)×1(B) —\nHyperbolic tangent batchnorm_2 Ofset: 256×1\n256(C)×1(B)\nNormalizacja partii 256 kanałów Skala: 256×1 dropout_2\n256(C)×1(B) —\n50% dropout fc_2 Wagi: 256×2048\n256(C)×1(B)\n256 warstwa w pełni połączona Biasy: 256×1 tanh_2\n256(C)×1(B) —\nTangens hiperboliczny batchnorm_3 Ofset: 256×1\n256(C)×1(B)\nNormalizacja partii 256 kanałów Skala: 256×1 dropout_3\n256(C)×1(B) —\n50% dropout fc_3 Wagi: 256×2048\n256(C)×1(B)\n256 warstwa w pełni połączona Biasy: 256×1 tanh_3\n256(C)×1(B) —\nTangens hiperboliczny\n\nTabela. 6.1. S zczegółowe informacje o strukturze wielogałęziowej sieci neuronowej LSTM+CNN\nParametry\nNazwa i opis warstwy Aktywacje uczące się batchnorm_ 4 Ofset: 256×1\n256(C)×1(B)\nNormalizacja partii 256 kanałów Skala: 256×1 dropout_4\n256(C)×1(B) —\n50% dropout conv1d_1\nWagi: 4×896×112\n112 4×896 konwolucja z krokiem 1 112(C)×1(B)×6(T)\nBiasy: 1×112 i dopełnieniem [4 4] batchnorm_1_1 Ofset: 112×1\n112(C)×1(B)×6(T)\nNormalizacja partii 112 kanałów Skala: 112×1 relu_l\n112(C)×1(B)×6(T) —\nReLU dropout_5\n112(C)×1(B)×6(T) —\n30% dropout conv1d_2\nWagi: 4×112×112\n112 4×112 konwolucja z krokiem 1 112(C)×l(B)×11(T)\nBiasy: 1×112 i dopełnieniem [4 4] batchnorm_ 1_2 Ofset: 112×1\n112(C)×l(B)×11(T)\nNormalizacja partii 112 kanałów Skala: 112×1 relu_2\n112(C)×1(B)×11(T) —\nReLU dropout_6\n112(C)×1(B)×11(T) —\n3096 dropout conv1d_3\nWagi: 4×112×112\n112 4×112 konwolucja z krokiem 1 112(C)×1(B)×16(T)\nBiasy: 1×112 i dopełnieniem [4 4] batchnorm_1_3 Ofset: 112×1\n112(C)×1(B)×16(T)\nNormalizacja partii 112 kanałów Skala: 112×1 relu_3\n112(C)×1(B)×16(T) —\nReLU dropout_7\n112(C)×1(B)×16(T) —\n3096 dropout gmpool1d\n112(C)×1(B) —\n1-D qlobal maxpoolinq fc_4 Wagi: 512×112\n512(C)×1(B)\n512 warstwa w pełni połączona Biasy: 512×1 concat\nPołączenie 4 wejść 1280(C)×1(B) — jednowymiarowych\nWagi wejściowe: 10240×1280 bilstm Wagi rekurencyjne:\n2560(C)×1(B)\nBiLSTM z 1280 jednostkami ukrytymi 10240×1280\nBiasy: 10240×1\n\nTabela. 6.1. S zczegółowe informacje o strukturze wielogałęziowej sieci neuronowej LSTM+CNN\nParametry\nNazwa i opis warstwy Aktywacje uczące się batchnorm_5 Ofset: 2560×1\n2560(C)×1(B)\nNormalizacja partii 2560 kanałów Skala: 2560×1 fc_5 Wagi: 11458×2560\n11458(C)×1(B)\n11458 warstwa w pełni połączona Biasy: 11458×1\nW tabeli 6.1 znajdują się także szczegółowe informacje dotyczące warstw konwolucyjnych, takich jak conv1d_1, które mają wagi o wymiarach\n4 × 896 × 112 i biasy o wymiarach 1 × 112. Warstwy te są kluczowe dla przetwarzania sekwencji danych poprzez ekstrakcję lokalnych cech i wzorców.\nDodatkowo informacje o normalizacji wsadowej, takie jak offsety i skale, są podane dla warstw batchnorm, co wskazuje na stosowanie tej techniki w celu stabilizacji i przyspieszenia procesu uczenia. Tak więc tabela 6.1 daje szczegółowy wgląd w strukturę i parametry sieci neuronowej, umożliwiając zrozumienie mechanizmów współpracy między warstwami modelu. Celem jest maksymalizacja efektywności procesów przetwarzania danych i uczenia się złożonych zależności ukrytych w zbiorach danych wejściowych, a także w ich reprezentacjach (współczynnikach) generowanych przez kolejne warstwy modelu. Dzięki zastosowaniu różnych typów warstw i technik, takich jak\nLSTM, konwolucje, normalizacja wsadowa i dropout, sieć jest w stanie skutecznie modelować złożone, nieliniowe zależności głęboko ukryte w danych sekwencyjnych.\nW celu wygenerowania rekonstruowanych obrazów tomograficznych wykorzystano siatkę FEM o dużej gęstości zawierającą 11458 elementów skończonych. Dla porównania, rekonstrukcje muru opisane w rozdziale 5.11. zostały wykonane na siatce FEM o rozdzielczości 3050 wokseli, czyli niespełna czterokrotnie mniejszej. W celu lepszego zobrazowania różnic w dokładności pomiędzy siatkami o tak odmiennych rozdzielczościach na rysunku 6.4. przedstawiono porównanie obrazu rekonstrukcyjnego wykonanego przy użyciu siatek FEM o różnej gęstości. W obu przypadkach wektor pomiarowy był ten sam, jednak z uwagi na różne wektory wyjściowe obrazy zostały wykonane przy użyciu różnych sieci neuronowych. Stąd dostrzegalne są subtelne różnice w rozkładach zawilgoceń, jednak rysunki dobrze prezentują korzyści, jakie niesie ze sobą wyższa rozdzielczość obrazu przestrzennego.\n\na b\nRys. 6.4. Porównanie obrazów rekonstrukcyjnych dla tego samego rozkładu zawilgocenia, wykonane przy użyciu siatek FEM o różnej gęstości:\n(a) siatka o gęstości 3050 wokseli, (b) siatka o gęstości 11458 wokseli\nWymiary gęstej siatki FEM (x × y × z) podane w centymetrach wynosiły odpowiednio 60 × 50 × 122, natomiast wymiary siatki rzadkiej to 77 × 38 × 130.\nRóżne wymiary siatek nie mają istotnego znaczenia na jakość rekonstrukcji.\nW tomografii ETI natężenie pola elektrycznego zmienia się w zależności od odległości od elektrod, zgodnie z prawem Coulomba i zasadami elektrostatyki.\nW bliskiej odległości od elektrod natężenie pola jest najwyższe, a następnie maleje wraz z odległością. W związku z powyższym wraz z odległością od elektrod maleje również rozdzielczość rekonstrukcji. Nie sposób jednoznacznie odpowiedzieć na pytanie, jaka jest maksymalna głębokość obrazowania muru w tomografii ETI. Jest to uzależnione od wielu czynników, które można podzielić na niezależne i zależne. Do czynników niezależnych należą własności struktury materiałowej badanej ściany i stopień zawilgocenia muru. Do parametrów zależnych zaliczamy liczbę elektrod w zestawie pomiarowym, zastosowany protokół pomiarowy, parametry prądowo napięciowe oraz częstotliwość prądu elektrycznego. W przybliżeniu można oszacować, że skuteczna głębokość obrazowania systemu tomograficznego wykorzystanego w badaniach opisanych w niniejszym opracowaniu oscylowała w granicach 50 cm.\n6.2. Pomiary wilgotności zrealizowane na stanowisku nr 1\nRysunek 6.5 przedstawia zdjęcie prototypowego tomografu ETI, który został wykorzystany do badania wilgotności murów metodą elektrycznej tomografii impedancyjnej. Na zdjęciu, w głębi, widać ceglaną strukturę ściany, która\n\npojawia się w miejscach uszkodzonej elewacji. Szczegółowa konstrukcja tomografu została opisana w rozdziale 5.2. Prócz tomografu w skład systemu tomograficznego wchodzi zestaw 32 elektrod przyłożonych do ściany Złotej\nBramy w Gdańsku. Na zdjęciu widoczny jest także laptop, który służy do kontrolowania procesu pomiarowego i rejestrowania danych. Pomiary wychodzące z tomografu są przetwarzane za pomocą wytrenowanych modeli opartych na uczeniu maszynowym. Dzięki temu można łatwo zmieniać modele transformujące pomiary na obrazy. 32 elektrody są rozmieszczone w dwóch pionowych rzędach po 16 elektrod każda, przytwierdzonych bezpośrednio do ściany. Specjalnie zaprojektowane elektrody zapewniają styczność z murem, absorbując nierówności. Aparatura pomiarowa jest umieszczona na wózku, co ułatwia jej transport i ustawienie w odpowiedniej pozycji.\nNa rysunku 6.6 przedstawiono fotografie porównawcze punktu pomiarowego nr 1. Zdjęcie 6.6 (b) przedstawia widok badanej ściany w podczerwieni.\nNa skutek parowania obszary zawilgocone mają niższą temperaturę, co powoduje, że ich kolor staje się niebieski. Jest to zgodne z paskiem kolorów widocznym po prawej stronie termogramu. Zdjęcie termograficzne zostało wykonane w celu porównania go z rekonstrukcją tomograficzną. Jest to jeden ze sposobów walidacji tomogramów ETI.\nRys. 6.5. Stanowisko pomiarowe nr 1 – tomograf z elektrodami\nŹródło: materiały Netrix S.A.\n\na b\nRys. 6.6. Stanowisko pomiarowe nr 1:\n(a) fotografia porównawcza ściany, (b) obraz termowizyjny\nŹródło: materiały Netrix S.A.\nNa rysunku 6.7 przedstawiono zwymiarowane miejsce usytuowania elektrod na ścianie stanowiska pomiarowego nr 1. Numery elektrod są zgodne z tabelą 6.2. Z rysunku wynika, że punkty pomiarów dielektrycznych są tożsame z miejscami styku elektrod ETI. Pionowe listwy z elektrodami są od siebie oddalone o 45 cm. Dolna krawędź elektrod znajduje się na wysokości 24 cm, a górna 118 cm nad poziomem posadzki. Odległość między filarem a prawą listwą elektrod wynosi 16,5 cm.\nRys. 6.7. Zwymiarowane miejsce usytuowania elektrod na ścianie stanowiska pomiarowego nr 1\nOpracowanie własne na podstawie materiałów Netrix S.A. autorstwa A. Hoła\nDo weryfikacji rzeczywistych pomiarów ETI, tj. do celów walidacji, została wykorzystana metoda dielektryczna. Stosując metodę dielektryczną, uzyskujemy\n\npomiary punktowe. Metoda grawimetryczna zapewniłaby dokładniejsze pomiary uwzględniające bezwzględną (procentową) zawartość wody w badanych próbkach muru, jednak jest to metoda niszcząca, której nie można było zastosować z uwagi na historyczną wartość badanego obiektu. Za pomocą zależności korelacyjnej przekształcono bezwymiarowe wartości pomiarów dielektrycznych X na procentowe\nD wartości zawilgocenia U [%]. Na rysunku 6.8 przedstawiono fotografie miernika m dielektrycznego GANN UNI 2 (GANN Mess- u. Regeltechnik GmbH, Stuttgart,\nGermany), którym wykonano pomiary walidacyjne dla stanowisk o numerach\n1, 2 i 3. Miernik dielektryczny GANN UNI 2 służy do pomiaru wilgotności materiałów budowlanych, takich jak mur, beton, drewno czy gips. Jest on szeroko stosowany w budownictwie, konserwacji zabytków i inżynierii lądowej do monitorowania stanu wilgotności obiektów. GANN UNI 2 działa na zasadzie pomiaru stałej dielektrycznej materiału, która zmienia się w zależności od zawartości wody.\nUrządzenie generuje pole elektryczne i mierzy jego oddziaływanie z materiałem.\nNa podstawie tych pomiarów miernik jest w stanie określić zawartość wilgoci w badanym materiale. Pojedyncza sonda stykowa miernika GANN UNI 2 jest wystarczająca do uzyskania pomiaru, ponieważ działa ona na zasadzie zmiany pojemności elektrycznej w polu generowanym przez sondę. Kiedy sonda zostaje przyłożona do powierzchni muru, pole elektryczne wnika w ścianę na określoną głębokość, a miernik rejestruje zmianę pojemności w zależności od wilgotności materiału. Sonda jest w stanie wychwycić te zmiany i na tej podstawie miernik oblicza wilgotność. Proces ten jest szybki i pozwala na uzyskanie precyzyjnych wyników bez potrzeby stosowania wielu sond stykowych.\na b\nRys. 6.8. Miernik dielektryczny GANN UNI 2: (a) miernik z sondą,\n(b) sposób wykonywania pomiaru\nŹródło: materiały Netrix S.A.\n\nGłębokość pomiaru za pomocą miernika GANN UNI 2 zależy od właściwości badanej powierzchni oraz specyfiki urządzenia. Standardowo głębokość pomiaru w przypadku materiałów budowlanych może wynosić od kilku milimetrów do kilku centymetrów. Jest to wystarczające do uzyskania wiarygodnych wyników w kontekście powierzchniowych badań wilgotności materiałów budowlanych.\nW tabeli 6.2 zaprezentowano zestawienie rezultatów badań wilgotności muru ceglanego ściany zewnętrznej w przyziemiu budynku Złotej Bramy na stanowisku pomiarowym nr 1. Oznaczenia 1L i 1P korespondują z rysunkiem 6.7 i oznaczają odpowiednio lewą i prawą pionową serię pomiarów punktowych, które wykonano w miejscach przylegania elektrod ETI. W następnej kolumnie podano odległości punktów pomiarowych od poziomu gruntu. W kolumnie zatytułowanej „X – wskazanie miernika dielektrycznego Gann Uni\nD\n2” znajdują się bezwymiarowe wartości pomiarów walidacyjnych. W ostatniej kolumnie zamieszczono procentowe wartości zawilgoceń uzyskane za pomocą funkcji transformującej zamieszczonej pod tabelą y = 0,4309e0,0238x. Formuła przekształca pomiary dielektryczne na procentową wilgotność muru, co pozwala na lepsze zrozumienie i ocenę stanu zawilgocenia. W celu dopasowania powyższej formuły do danych została wykorzystana metoda najmniejszych kwadratów, zapewniając, że model dokładnie odzwierciedla zależność między odczytami dielektrycznymi a rzeczywistą wilgotnością. Wartość współczynnika determinacji R2 = 0,7755 wskazuje na dobrą jakość dopasowania, co czyni tę metodę wiarygodną i użyteczną w praktyce.\n\nTabela. 6.2. Z estawienie rezultatów badań wilgotności muru ceglanego ściany zewnętrznej w przyziemiu budynku Złotej Bramy na stanowisku pomiarowym nr 1. Opracowanie własne na podstawie materiałów Netrix S.A. autorstwa A. Hoła\nOznaczenie elektrod i położenia U [%] – wilgotność\nX – wskazanie miernika m punktów pomiarowych. D masowa określona na dielektrycznego\nOdległości zostały zmierzone podstawie zależności\nGann Uni 2 od poziomu gruntu. korelacyjnej*\n118 cm (elektroda 1) 141,8 12,59\n112 cm (elektroda 2) 138,5 11,64\n105 cm (elektroda 3) 139,3 11,86\n99 cm (elektroda 4) 130,6 9,64\n93 cm (elektroda 5) 129,5 9,40\n87 cm (elektroda 6) 136,6 11,13\n80 cm (elektroda 7) 135,6 10,86\n74 cm (elektroda 8) 140,0 12,06\n1L\n68 cm (elektroda 9) 135,3 10,79\n62 cm (elektroda 10) 143,2 13,02\n55 cm (elektroda 11) 139,7 11,98\n49 cm (elektroda 12) 139,3 11,86\n43 cm (elektroda 13) 141,3 12,44\n37 cm (elektroda 14) 145,4 13,72\n30 cm (elektroda 15) 149,7 15,20\n24 cm (elektroda 16) 144,6 13,46\n118 cm (elektroda 32) 145,3 12,45\n112 cm (elektroda 31) 137,3 11,31\n105 cm (elektroda 30) 141,3 12,44\n99 cm (elektroda 29) 140,0 12,05\n93 cm (elektroda 28) 132,6 10,11\n87 cm (elektroda 27) 147,5 14,42\n80 cm (elektroda 26) 150,4 15,45\n74 cm (elektroda 25) 150,4 15,45\n1P\n68 cm (elektroda 24) 136,2 11,02\n62 cm (elektroda 23) 136,4 11,07\n55 cm (elektroda 22) 139,5 11,92\n49 cm (elektroda 21) 136,4 11,07\n43 cm (elektroda 20) 144,2 13,34\n37 cm (elektroda 19) 146,6 14,11\n30 cm (elektroda 18) 147,5 14,42\n24 cm (elektroda 17) 139,0 11,78\n*Równanie dla metody dielektrycznej: y = 0,4309e0,0238x, R2 = 0,7755\n\nNa rysunku 6.9 przedstawiono wykresy zawilgocenia U [%] dla stanowim ska nr 1 w funkcji odległości od poziomu gruntu z podziałem na strony lewą\n(1L) i prawą (1P). Rysunek 6.9 (b) jest de facto graficzną prezentacją prawej kolumny tabeli 6.2. i powinien być traktowany jako rezultat dielektrycznych pomiarów walidacyjnych dla ETI. Rysunek 6.9 (a) przedstawia punkty pomiarów dielektrycznych na tle termogramu badanego stanowiska.\na b\nRys. 6.9. Wykres wilgotności dla poszczególnych punktów pomiarowych stanowiska nr 1:\n(a) termogram z naniesionymi punktami pomiarów,\n(b) wartości wilgoci w poszczególnych punktach\nŹródło: opracowanie własne na podstawie materiałów Netrix S.A.\nZ tego powodu analiza rysunku 6.9 bazuje na konfrontacji z rysunkiem 6.10, na którym przedstawiono tomograficzną rekonstrukcję rozkładu zawilgoceń dla stanowiska nr 1. Porównując oba rysunki, należy mieć na uwadze, że pomiar dielektryczny, podobnie jak obraz termowizyjny, przedstawia jedynie poziom zawilgocenia powierzchni badanego fragmentu murów. Nie odzwierciedla on obszarów zawilgoceń ulokowanych w substancji ściany, głębiej niż kilka centymetrów od jej powierzchni.\n\nRys. 6.10. Rekonstrukcja rozkładu zawilgoceń dla stanowiska nr 1\nAnalizując oba rysunki, widzimy pewną zgodność. Na rysunku 6.9 istniej anomalia dla pomiarów 1P, ponieważ w okolicy 80 cm od poziomu gruntu wilgotność niespodziewanie wzrasta. Znajduje to potwierdzenie na tomogramie widocznym na rysunku 6.10. Wynika z niego, że prawa strona badanego fragmentu muru jest mniej wilgotna od strony lewej, jednak na wysokości około 80 cm nad poziomem gruntu, po prawej stronie, blisko powierzchni ściany, do której przylegają elektrody, znajduje się zawilgocony obszar oznaczony kolorem niebieskim. Obszary po lewej stronie są bardziej wilgotne niż po prawej, jednak są zlokalizowane w głębi badanego fragmentu muru, przez co nie zostały uchwycone miernikiem dielektrycznym. Warto zwrócić uwagę, że analiza przestrzennej rekonstrukcji tomograficznej jest w zasadzie niemożliwa przy pomocy pojedynczego obrazu. Dopiero widoki z wielu perspektyw umożliwiają prawidłowe zrozumienie rozkładu zawilgoceń rozlokowanych we wnętrzu badanego fragmentu muru.\n6.3. Pomiary wilgotności zrealizowane na stanowisku nr 2\nNa rysunku 6.11 przedstawiono fotografie stanowiska pomiarowego nr 2. Rysunek 6.11 (c) obrazuje termograficzny widok badanej ściany. Na podstawie\n\ntermogramu można wyciągnąć wniosek, że badany fragment ściany jest zawilgocony w sposób równomierny.\na b c\nRys. 6.11. Stanowisko pomiarowe nr 2:\n(a) tomograf z elektrodami, (b) fotografia porównawcza ściany, (c) obraz termowizyjny\nŹródło: materiały Netrix S.A.\nNa rysunku 6.12 przedstawiono zwymiarowane miejsce usytuowania elektrod na ścianie stanowiska pomiarowego nr 2. Numery elektrod są zgodne z tabelą 6.3. Z rysunku wynika, że punkty pomiarów dielektrycznych są tożsame z miejscami styku elektrod ETI. Dolna krawędź listew z elektrodami została umieszczona na wysokości 24 cm, natomiast krawędź górna jest oddalona od posadzki o 118 cm. Rozstaw listew wynosi 45 cm. Lewa listwa jest oddalona od filaru o 17 cm.\nRys. 6.12. Zwymiarowane miejsce usytuowania elektrod na ścianie stanowiska pomiarowego nr 2.\nOpracowanie własne na podstawie materiałów Netrix S.A. autorstwa A. Hoła\n\nTabela 6.3 zawiera pomiary wykonane metodą dielektryczną ze stanowiska nr 2. Struktura zamieszczonych informacji, w tym nagłówki kolumn, są analogiczne do tabeli 6.2. Równanie transformacji wskazań miernika X na bez-\nD względne wartości procentowe U [%] jest również takie samo jak w tabeli 6.2.\nm\nTabela. 6.3. Z estawienie rezultatów badań wilgotności muru ceglanego ściany zewnętrznej w przyziemiu budynku Złotej Bramy na stanowisku pomiarowym nr 2. Opracowanie własne na podstawie materiałów Netrix S.A. autorstwa A. Hoła\nOznaczenie elektrod i położenia X – wskazanie U [%] – wilgotność\nD m punktów pomiarowych. miernika masowa określona na\nOdległości zostały zmierzone dielektrycznego podstawie zależności od poziomu gruntu. Gann Uni 2 korelacyjnej*\n118 cm (elektroda 1) 94,4 4,07\n112 cm (elektroda 2) 91,9 3,84\n105 cm (elektroda 3) 86,3 3,36\n99 cm (elektroda 4) 104,2 5,15\n93 cm (elektroda 5) 121,9 7,84\n87 cm (elektroda 6) 139,3 11,86\n80 cm (elektroda 7) 145,7 13,82\n74 cm (elektroda 8) 141,8 12,59\n2L\n68 cm (elektroda 9) 143,8 13,20\n62 cm (elektroda 10) 144,1 13,30\n55 cm (elektroda 11) 146,2 13,98\n49 cm (elektroda 12) 142,2 12,71\n43 cm (elektroda 13) 136,3 11,05\n37 cm (elektroda 14) 120,1 7,51\n30 cm (elektroda 15) 127,0 8,85\n24 cm (elektroda 16) 127,7 9,00\n\nTabela. 6.3. Z estawienie rezultatów badań wilgotności muru ceglanego ściany zewnętrznej w przyziemiu budynku Złotej Bramy na stanowisku pomiarowym nr 2. Opracowanie własne na podstawie materiałów Netrix S.A. autorstwa A. Hoła\nOznaczenie elektrod i położenia X – wskazanie U [%] – wilgotność\nD m punktów pomiarowych. miernika masowa określona na\nOdległości zostały zmierzone dielektrycznego podstawie zależności od poziomu gruntu. Gann Uni 2 korelacyjnej*\n118 cm (elektroda 32) 57,5 1,69\n112 cm (elektroda 31) 54,4 1,57\n105 cm (elektroda 30) 62,7 1,92\n99 cm (elektroda 29) 72,7 2,43\n93 cm (elektroda 28) 68,4 2,19\n87 cm (elektroda 27) 74,2 2,52\n80 cm (elektroda 26) 89,3 3,61\n74 cm (elektroda 25) 82,6 3,08\n2P\n68 cm (elektroda 24) 98,2 4,46\n62 cm (elektroda 23) 103,3 5,04\n55 cm (elektroda 22) 82,2 3,05\n49 cm (elektroda 21) 81,1 2,97\n43 cm (elektroda 20) 97,0 4,33\n37 cm (elektroda 19) 97,6 4,40\n30 cm (elektroda 18) 126,9 8,84\n24 cm (elektroda 17) 124,9 8,42\n*Równanie dla metody dielektrycznej: y = 0,4309e0,0238x, R2 = 0,7755\nRysunek 6.13 (b) przedstawia liniowe przebiegi zawilgocenia U [%] dla m stanowiska nr 2 w relacji do odległości poszczególnych punktów pomiarowych od poziomu gruntu. Zachowano podział na strony lewą (2L) i prawą (2P).\nOmawiany rysunek reprezentuje prawą kolumnę tabeli 6.3 i, podobnie jak w przypadku stanowiska pomiarowego nr 1, celem jest walidacja pomiarów tomograficznych ETI. Na rysunku 6.13 (a) zobrazowano punkty pomiarów na tle termogramu.\n\na b\nRys. 6.13. Wykres wilgotności dla poszczególnych punktów pomiarowych stanowiska nr 2:\n(a) termogram z naniesionymi punktami pomiarów,\n(b) wartości wilgoci w poszczególnych punktach\nŹródło: opracowanie własne na podstawie materiałów Netrix S.A.\nAnalizując wykres widoczny na rysunku 6.13 z rysunkiem 6.14, przedstawiającym rekonstrukcje ETI, można zauważyć wyraźną analogię. Z obu rysunków wynika, że wilgoć jest skoncentrowana po lewej stronie badanego fragmentu muru. Według wykresu dielektrycznego wzrost zawilgocenia pod lewą listwą zaczyna się około 40 cm nad poziomem gruntu i kończy około\n90 cm nad posadzką. Z kolei rekonstrukcje ETI wskazują na wilgoć skoncentrowaną po lewej stronie, nieprzerwanie od poziomu posadzki do wysokości prawie 50 cm. Z widoków izometrycznych i bocznych można wywnioskować, że wraz z odległością od elektrod w głąb ściany poziom zawilgocenia maleje.\nKoncentrację wilgoci po lewej stronie badanego fragmentu widać wyraźnie na widoku z góry (rysunek 6.14). Potwierdza to zgodność obu metod – tomograficznej i dielektrycznej. Dodatkowym pomiarem walidacyjnym był obraz termowizyjny widoczny na rysunku 6.11 (c). Analizując go, należy wziąć pod uwagę, że obraz termograficzny obrazuje temperaturę powierzchni muru.\nW przypadku bardzo dużego kontrastu między nagrzaną słońcem posadzką a zacienioną, zimną ścianą, co widać na rysunkach 6.11 (b) i (c), różnice w tonacji odcieni mogą zostać zatarte. Przy bardziej wnikliwej analizie termogramu można zauważyć, że lewy dolny róg na prawo od filaru jest ciemniejszy, co jest zgodne z rekonstrukcją tomograficzną.\n\nRys. 6.14. Rekonstrukcja rozkładu zawilgoceń dla stanowiska nr 2\n6.4. Pomiary wilgotności zrealizowane na stanowisku nr 3\nOstatnim badanym miejscem pomiarowym było stanowisko nr 3. Na rysunku\n6.15 widać, że jest to filar przylegający do ściany. Rysunek 6.16 (b) przedstawia obraz termowizyjny badanego stanowiska, z którego wynika, że powierzchnia prawej strony filaru ma wyższą temperaturę od innych elementów badanego fragmentu muru. Sugeruje to, że strona lewa, znajdująca się w cieniu i schowana we wnęce obok sąsiadującego filaru, jest bardziej wilgotna niż strona prawa.\n\nRys. 6.15. Stanowisko pomiarowe nr 3 – tomograf z elektrodami\nŹródło: materiały Netrix S.A.\na b\nRys. 6.16. Stanowisko pomiarowe nr 3:\n(a) – fotografia porównawcza badanego filaru, (b) – obraz termowizyjny filaru\nŹródło: materiały Netrix S.A.\nNa rysunku 6.17 zamieszczono schemat filaru będącego jednocześnie obiektem pomiarów w ramach stanowiska pomiarowego nr 3. Zarówno numery elektrod, jak i odległości między listwami są identyczne jak w przypadku poprzednich dwóch miejsc pomiarowych. Odległości dielektrycznych punktów pomiarowych i zarazem elektrod są zgodne z informacjami zawartymi w tabeli 6.4. Punkty pomiarów dielektrycznych są tożsame z miejscami styku elektrod ETI. Dolna krawędź listew z elektrodami została umieszczona na wysokości 40 cm od posadzki. Krawędź górna jest oddalona od posadzki o 134 cm.\nSzerokość badanego filaru wynosi 6 + 45 + 7 = 58 cm.\n\nRys. 6.17. Zwymiarowane miejsce usytuowania elektrod na ścianie stanowiska pomiarowego nr 3\nOpracowanie własne na podstawie materiałów Netrix S.A. autorstwa A. Hoła\nTabela 6.4 zawiera zestawienie pomiarów wykonanych metodą dielektryczną na stanowisku nr 3. Struktura zawartych w tabeli informacji, w tym nagłówki kolumn, są analogiczne do tabel 6.2 i 6.3. Równanie transformacji wskazań miernika X na bezwzględne wartości procentowe U [%] jest rów-\nD m nież takie samo jak dla pomiarów na stanowiskach 1 i 2.\n\nTabela. 6.4. Zestawienie rezultatów badań wilgotności filaru z piaskowca i z wtrąceniami cegły w przyziemiu budynku Złotej Bramy na stanowisku pomiarowym nr 3. Opracowanie własne na podstawie materiałów Netrix S.A. autorstwa A. Hoła\nOznaczenie elektrod i położenia U [%] – wilgotność\nX – wskazanie miernika m punktów pomiarowych. D masowa określona na dielektrycznego Gann\nOdległości zostały zmierzone podstawie zależności\nUni 2 od poziomu gruntu. korelacyjnej*\n134 cm (elektroda 1) 157,7 18,38\n128 cm (elektroda 2) 148,7 14,84\n121 cm (elektroda 3) 157,2 18,16\n115 cm (elektroda 4) 157,5 18,29\n109 cm (elektroda 5) 155,6 17,49\n103 cm (elektroda 6) 154,6 17,07\n96 cm (elektroda 7) 132,0 9,97\n90 cm (elektroda 8) 147,3 14,36\n3L\n84 cm (elektroda 9) 147,4 14,39\n78 cm (elektroda 10) 150,6 15,52\n71 cm (elektroda 11) 143,2 13,02\n65 cm (elektroda 12) 141,6 12,53\n59 cm (elektroda 13) 124,0 8,24\n53 cm (elektroda 14) 100,3 4,69\n46 cm (elektroda 15) 114,8 6,62\n40 cm (elektroda 16) 129,6 9,42\n134 cm (elektroda 32) 139,9 12,03\n128 cm (elektroda 31) 143,1 12,99\n121 cm (elektroda 30) 142,1 12,68\n115 cm (elektroda 29) 132,4 10,07\n109 cm (elektroda 28) 143,0 12,96\n103 cm (elektroda 27) 138,3 11,58\n96 cm (elektroda 26) 147,2 14,32\n90 cm (elektroda 25) 146,0 13,91\n3P\n84 cm (elektroda 24) 142,8 12,89\n78 cm (elektroda 23) 138,0 11,50\n71 cm (elektroda 22) 142,9 12,92\n65 cm (elektroda 21) 140,2 12,12\n59 cm (elektroda 20) 132,3 10,04\n53 cm (elektroda 19) 139,9 12,03\n46 cm (elektroda 18) 141,3 12,44\n40 cm (elektroda 17) 150,5 15,49\n*Równanie dla metody dielektrycznej: y = 0,4309e0,0238x, R2 = 0,7755\n\nRysunek 6.18 (b) przedstawia wykresy wilgotności U [%] wszystkich punkm tów pomiarowych stanowiska nr 3, które zostały wymienione w tabeli 6.4.\nAnalogicznie do wykresów dla dwóch poprzednich punktów pomiarowych 1 i 2, tu również widoczne są dwie linie odpowiadające lewej i prawej linii punktów pomiarowych zgodnych z punktami styku elektrod rozmieszczonych na metalowych listwach wchodzących w skład systemu tomograficznego ETI.\nNa rysunku 6.18 (a) zwizualizowano punkty pomiarów na tle termogramu badanej powierzchni muru.\nAnaliza przebiegu obu linii widocznych na wykresie 6.18 (b) nie pozwala wyciągnąć jednoznacznych wniosków. Pomiary dielektryczne wskazują, że dla najniżej położonych punktów prawa strona zawiera więcej wilgoci niż lewa. W miarę oddalania się od posadzki różnica w zawilgoceniu pomiędzy stroną lewą i prawą spada, aby w okolicy 100 cm od poziomu gruntu zrównać się, a dla punktów położonych wyżej – więcej wilgoci zawiera strona lewa.\nNie potwierdza tego zdjęcie termowizyjne (rysunek 6.16 (b)), co dodatkowo komplikuje analizę.\na b\nRys. 6.18. Wykres wilgotności dla poszczególnych punktów pomiarowych stanowiska nr 3:\n(a) termogram z naniesionymi punktami pomiarów,\n(b) wartości wilgoci w poszczególnych punktach\nŹródło: opracowanie własne na podstawie materiałów Netrix S.A.\nW sytuacji niepewności spowodowanej sprzecznymi lub niejednoznacznymi wynikami pomiarów walidacyjnych wykonanych metodą termowizyjną i dielektryczną rysunek 6.19 przedstawia interesujący obraz tomograficzny rekonstruujący rozkład wilgoci wewnątrz badanego filaru.\n\nRys. 6.19. Rekonstrukcja rozkładu zawilgoceń dla stanowiska nr 3\nAnaliza tomogramu przestrzennego z różnych perspektyw pozwala zauważyć, że najbardziej zawilgocone obszary są zlokalizowane w dolnych, stykających się ze ścianą, rogach filaru. Kolejną obserwacją jest fakt, że strona filaru przylegająca do ściany jest bardziej zawilgocona niż strona, do której przyłożono elektrody. Widać również, że prawa strona filaru zawiera więcej obszarów suchych niż strona lewa. Zwłaszcza między 50 cm a 100 cm po prawej stronie badanego fragmentu muru widać żółtopomarańczowe zabarwienia, świadczące o mniejszym zawilgoceniu. Zrekonstruowany rozkład zawilgoceń jest w dużej mierze zgodny z pomiarami walidacyjnymi. Prócz tego wydaje się logiczny i prawdopodobny. Filar przyległy do ściany budowli ma trzy odkryte ściany boczne, co sprawia, że woda może łatwiej parować. Lewa ściana filaru jest schowana we wnęce, obok sąsiedniego filaru, przez co znajduje się w cieniu i jest bardziej wilgotna. Potwierdza to fotografia termowizyjna. Uzasadnione jest także gromadzenie się wilgoci w dolnych partiach filaru od strony ściany budowli, skąd również woda odparowuje wolniej. Powyższe argumenty z dużym prawdopodobieństwem dowodzą, że uzyskane rekonstrukcje obrazów tomograficznych wiernie odzwierciedlają rzeczywisty rozkład wilgoci wewnątrz badanego fragmentu muru.\n\n7. Uwagi końcowe i wnioski\nW niniejszym opracowaniu zaprezentowano dwa projekty badawcze dotyczące obrazowania rozkładów wilgoci wewnątrz murów z wykorzystaniem elektrycznej tomografii impedancyjnej (ETI). Badania koncentrowały się na problematyce doboru optymalnego algorytmu transformującego pomiary na rekonstrukcyjne obrazy tomograficzne. Rozdział 1 porusza tematy opisujące znaczenie problemu, jakie stanowi wilgoć zawarta w ścianach budynków i budowli, zwłaszcza tych o znaczeniu historycznym. Kolejną omawianą kwestią są metody wykorzystywane do pomiarów zawilgoceń budynków, w tym także tomografii elektrycznej. Osobną część rozdziału 1 stanowi opis celu i zakresu niniejszej pracy badawczej. Rozdział 2 dotyczy teoretycznych aspektów elektrycznej tomografii impedancyjnej, w tym znaczenia problemu odwrotnego i protokołu pomiarowego w ETI. W rozdziale 3 opisano wybrane metody modelowania problemu odwrotnego, takie jak metoda Gaussa–Newtona, regularyzacja Tikhonova oraz metoda Total Variation, maszyna wektorów nośnych\n(SVM), Lasso i elastic net oraz regresja liniowa i regresja logistyczna. W rozdziale 4 opisano kilka wybranych nowoczesnych struktur sztucznych sieci neuronowych.\n\n7.1. Badania laboratoryjne muru ceglanego\nW rozdziale 5 opisano pierwszy projekt badawczy dotyczący pomiarów wilgotności muru ceglanego, sztucznie zawilgoconego w warunkach laboratoryjnych.\nW trakcie badań porównano i zweryfikowano wybrane metody transformacji pomiarów na obrazy tomograficzne, w tym metody deterministyczne oraz oparte na uczeniu maszynowym, co pozwoliło na dość dokładne odtworzenie rozkładu wilgoci w badanym fragmencie muru. Przedstawiono również analizę porównawczą uzyskanych wyników, co umożliwiło ocenę efektywności i wiarygodności zastosowanych technik logarytmicznych. W sensie utylitarnym badania umożliwiły lepsze zrozumienie mechanizmów związanych z rozkładem wilgoci wewnątrz muru ceglanego, który jest tradycyjną strukturą budowlaną, często spotykaną w budynkach historycznych. W pierwszej części rozdziału 5 opisano fizyczny model zawilgoconego muru ceglanego, uwzględniając jego wymiary, strukturę wewnętrzną, użyte materiały oraz sposób sztucznego zawilgocenia. Mur został ustawiony w płytkiej wannie z nieprzemakalnej folii, co pozwoliło na zalanie dolnej części muru wodą. Dodatkowy zbiornik umieszczony na szczycie porowatego muru umożliwił wnikanie wody od góry.\nDalsza część rozdziału opisuje kluczowe urządzenie użyte w badaniach – tomograf ETI. Urządzenie to pozwala na wykonywanie pomiarów elektrycznych, na podstawie których generowane są obrazy wewnętrznej struktury muru.\nOpisano również konstrukcję systemu elektrod użytych podczas pomiarów.\nZ uwagi na konieczność zapewnienia styku z nierównym murem, elektrody są newralgicznym elementem w procesie akwizycji danych. W dalszej części omówiono różne algorytmy i metody obliczeniowe zastosowane do rekonstrukcji obrazów. Zastosowano metody deterministyczne oraz oparte na uczeniu maszynowym. Przedstawiono również analizę porównawczą uzyskanych wyników, co umożliwiło ocenę efektywności i dokładności poszczególnych technik. Na zakończenie rozdziału przeanalizowano wyniki badań, które wykazały zróżnicowaną przydatność poszczególnych metod w ETI. Porównując wyniki poszczególnych metod, można zauważyć, że w porównaniu z innymi metodami metody Gaussa–Newtona i Tikhonova mają niższe wartości korelacji Pearsona i jakości rekonstrukcji. Regresja liniowa daje najgorsze rezultaty. Z powodu słabej zdolności do wychwytywania nieliniowych zależności ta metoda w zasadzie nie nadaje się do rekonstrukcji obrazów tomograficznych.\nMetody Total Variation i SVM lepiej zachowują szczegóły, ale są bardziej podatne na szumy. Elastic net, choć użyteczna w prostszych przypadkach, ujawnia problemy z bardziej złożonymi rozkładami zawilgoceń. Metody uczenia\n\nmaszynowego, zwłaszcza WSSN, LSTM oraz hybrydowe sieci LSTM+CNN, osiągają najwyższe wartości wskaźników jakości rekonstrukcji, takich jak\nSSIM i korelacja Pearsona. To pokazuje, że powyższe metody są niezawodne i skuteczne w odtwarzaniu struktury oryginalnych obrazów referencyjnych.\nNa podstawie powyższych obserwacji należy wnioskować, że metody oparte na uczeniu maszynowym, szczególnie hybrydowe sieci LSTM+CNN, są skuteczniejsze w rekonstrukcji rozkładu zawilgoceń muru ceglanego, oferując wysoką jakość rekonstrukcji, stabilność oraz zdolność do uchwycenia szczegółowych struktur. Metody deterministyczne, choć użyteczne, wykazują istotne ograniczenia w porównaniu z zaawansowanymi technikami uczenia maszynowego.\n7.2. Badania terenowe obiektu Złota Brama w Gdańsku\nRozdział 6 niniejszego opracowania opisuje badania wilgotności murów Złotej Bramy w Gdańsku, przeprowadzone w celu weryfikacji prototypowego systemu elektrycznej tomografii impedancyjnej (ETI) oraz metody algorytmicznej wykorzystującej wielogałęziową, hybrydową sieć neuronową LST-\nM+CNN. Pomiary miały za zadanie ocenę stanu zawilgocenia murów, co jest szczególnie istotne ze względu na wiek budowli i jej znaczenie historyczne.\nPrócz tomografu ETI oraz algorytmu opartego na uczeniu maszynowym, transformującego pomiary elektryczne na obrazy, w badaniach wykorzystano również miernik dielektryczny do punktowych pomiarów wilgoci oraz kamerę termowizyjną. Dwie ostatnie metody pomiarowe zostały wykorzystane do walidacji pomiarów ETI.\nModelowanie wielogałęziowej sieci neuronowej LSTM+CNN (ang. long short-term memory + convolutional neural network) było istotnym elementem opisywanego zadnia badawczego. Sieć neuronowa została opracowana w celu poprawy dokładności rekonstrukcji obrazów wilgotności. Dzięki zaawansowanej architekturze sieci możliwe było precyzyjne odwzorowanie złożonych zależności pomiędzy pomiarami elektrycznymi a rzeczywistym stanem wilgotności murów.\nBadania były zrealizowane na trzech stanowiskach pomiarowych. Do wszystkich pomiarów wykorzystano zestaw 32 elektrod umieszczonych w dwóch pionowych rzędach po 16 elektrod każda, przytwierdzonych bezpośrednio do ściany\nZłotej Bramy. Aparatura pomiarowa umieszczona na wózku umożliwiała łatwe przemieszczenie i ustawienie w odpowiedniej pozycji. W trakcie badań wykonano zdjęcia termograficzne, które porównano z rekonstrukcjami tomograficznymi.\n\nW przypadku porównania tomografów ETI z fotografiami termowizyjnymi dla stanowiska nr 1 zdjęcia wykazały, że obszary zawilgocone mają niższą temperaturę, co potwierdziło wyniki uzyskane za pomocą tomografii ETI. Pomiary walidacyjne przeprowadzone za pomocą miernika dielektrycznego GANN UNI 2 wykazały dobrą zgodność z rekonstrukcjami tomograficznymi, co potwierdziło dokładność i wiarygodność zastosowanej metody.\nW badaniach zrealizowanych na stanowisku nr 2 wykorzystano podobną konfigurację elektrod i sprzętu pomiarowego jak na stanowisku nr 1. Podobnie jak poprzednio, wykonano zdjęcia termograficzne w celu walidacji wyników uzyskanych za pomocą tomografii ETI. Rekonstrukcje tomograficzne wykazały zróżnicowane poziomy wilgotności w różnych częściach muru, co było zgodne z obserwacjami termograficznymi. Dielektryczne, punktowe pomiary walidacyjne potwierdziły wiarygodność wyników, wykazując podobną zgodność rozkładu wilgotności co w przypadku stanowiska nr 1.\nStanowisko nr 3, podobnie jak dwa poprzednie, zostało wyposażone w zestaw 32 elektrod i sprzęt pomiarowy umieszczony na wózku. Pomiary przeprowadzono w różnych warunkach atmosferycznych, co pozwoliło na ocenę wpływu wilgotności zewnętrznej na stan murów. Rekonstrukcje tomograficzne były zgodne z wynikami termograficznymi, ukazując wyraźne różnice w zawilgoceniu muru. Pomiary walidacyjne, podobnie jak na innych stanowiskach, wykazały wysoką zgodność z wynikami tomograficznymi, potwierdzając skuteczność zastosowanych metod.\nBadania wykazały, że zastosowanie modelu wielogałęziowej sieci neuronowej LSTM+CNN w połączeniu z techniką tomografii ETI cechuje wysoka skuteczność w diagnostyce wilgotnościowej murów zabytkowych. Pomiary walidacyjne potwierdziły dokładność i wiarygodność rekonstrukcji tomograficznych, co potwierdza wartość utylitarną opisywanych metod, szczególnie w kontekście monitorowania, konserwacji i ochrony zabytków.\n7.3. Kierunki dalszych badań\nObecnie elektrycznej tomografii impedancyjnej (ETI) nie można zaliczyć do popularnych metod obrazowania rozkładów wilgoci w murach. Z drugiej strony, naukowo udowodniony potencjał tej metody determinuje szanse jej rozwoju jako techniki o szerokim zastosowaniu w przyszłości. ETI może stać się popularną metodą diagnostyczną wykorzystywaną w budownictwie pod warunkiem spełnienia określonych kryteriów.\n\nPodstawowym warunkiem jest konieczność osiągnięcia wysokiej precyzji obrazowania, co wymaga opracowania zaawansowanych algorytmów rekonstrukcji obrazu oraz dokładnych metod pomiarów napięć na elektrodach.\nWierne odwzorowanie rozkładu wilgoci w badanym fragmencie ściany jest kluczowe dla oceny stanu technicznego konstrukcji budowlanych oraz planowania działań naprawczych.\nDrugim istotnym kryterium upowszechnienia tomografii elektrycznej jako metody pomiaru zawilgocenia jest uniwersalność. Ta cecha systemu tomograficznego umożliwia skuteczne obrazowanie obiektów o zróżnicowanej strukturze materiałowej. Różnorodność materiałów stosowanych w budownictwie, takich jak cegła, beton czy kamień, wymaga, aby systemy ETI miały zdolności adaptacyjne i skutecznie radziły sobie z różnorodnymi strukturami w terenowych warunkach pomiarowych.\nŁatwa obsługa systemów tomograficznych jest kolejnym ważnym aspektem, który zadecyduje o ich powszechnym stosowaniu. Intuicyjne interfejsy użytkownika oraz automatyzacja procesu pomiarowego przyczynią się do zwiększenia dostępności tej technologii dla szerokiego grona użytkowników, w tym inżynierów budowlanych i konserwatorów zabytków.\nTrwałość i niezawodność urządzeń wchodzących w skład systemu ETI to kolejne kryterium, które musi być spełnione, aby technologia ta mogła być stosowana w praktyce. Systemy tomograficzne muszą być odporne na warunki środowiskowe panujące na placach budowy oraz wykazywać niezawodność podczas długotrwałego użytkowania w trudnych warunkach pogodowych.\nInnym wymogiem są niewielkie rozmiary i niska masa systemów tomograficznych. W tym wypadku chodzi o możliwość transportu tomografu za pomocą samochodu osobowego. Mobilność urządzeń sprawi, że przedsiębiorstwa wykorzystujące tomografy wilgotnościowe w celach komercyjnych będą w stanie świadczyć usługi ETI z dojazdem do klienta. Ta cecha ma zasadnicze znaczenie z uwagi na konkurencyjność i ekonomikę prowadzenia biznesu.\nOstatnim, lecz nie mniej ważnym, kryterium są niskie koszty zakupu i konserwacji systemów ETI. Niskie koszty, wysoka rentowność usług i opłacalność korzystania z tej technologii zadecyduje o jej upowszechnieniu, szczególnie w sektorze budowlanym, gdzie budżety przeznaczone na monitoring i diagnostykę są ściśle nadzorowane.\nAby spełnić powyższe warunki, konieczne są dalsze badania, które skoncentrują się na rozwoju technologii pomiarowej, algorytmów przetwarzania danych oraz optymalizacji kosztów produkcji i eksploatacji systemów ETI. Interdyscyplinarne podejście oraz ścisła współpraca naukowców, inżynierów i praktyków\n\numożliwi rozpowszechnienie elektrycznej tomografii impedancyjnej jako metody diagnostycznej wykorzystywanej do monitoringu i obrazowania rozkładów wilgoci w murach.\nZainteresowania naukowe autora koncentrują się na rozwoju algorytmów opartych na uczeniu maszynowym, umożliwiających efektywne przetwarzanie danych. Tego rodzaju algorytmy, mają szczególne znaczenie w poszukiwaniach optymalnych rozwiązań problemu odwrotnego, który ma fundamentalne znaczenie w tomografii. W związku z powyższym przyszłe badania będą skoncentrowane na poszukiwaniu nowych metod algorytmicznych opartych na uczeniu maszynowym i metodach sztucznej inteligencji, które umożliwią zwiększenie rozdzielczości i wierności obrazowania rekonstrukcji tomograficznych.\n\nLiteratura\n[1] Adler A, Lionheart WRB (2006) Uses and abuses of EIDORS: an extensible software base for EIT. 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J Biomed Eng Med Imaging 10. doi: 10.14738/\nBJHMR.102.14427.", "token_count": 140836} -{"added": "2026-09-08", "author": "Montusiewicz, Jerzy; Dziedzic, Krzysztof; Barszcz, Marcin; Urzędowski, Arkadiusz", "created": "2023", "id": "rock_pollub_pl_a257b1ce-1af7-4dfc-ae38-ec67ef877689", "license": "CC-BY-SA-4.0", "source": "rock_pollub_pl", "text": "Komputerowa grafika inżynierska\nĆwiczenia do programu AutoCAD 2023\n\nPodręczniki – Politechnika Lubelska\nPOLITECHNIKA\nLUBELSKA\nWYDZIAŁ MATEMATYKI\nI INFORMATYKI TECHNICZNEJ\n\nJerzy Montusiewicz, Krzysztof Dziedzic, Marcin Barszcz,\nArkadiusz Urzędowski\nKomputerowa grafika inżynierska\nĆwiczenia do programu AutoCAD 2023\nLublin 2023\n\nRecenzenci:\ndr hab. inż. Jacek Skwarcz, Uniwersytet Przyrodniczy w Lublinie prof. dr hab. inż. Ludwik Kania, Politechnika Częstochowska\nWydanie 2, zmienione i poprawione\nPublikacja wydana za zgodą Rektora Politechniki Lubelskiej\nISBN: 978–83–7947–568–1\nWydawca: Wydawnictwo Politechniki Lubelskiej www.wpl.pollub.pl ul. Nadbystrzycka 36C, 20–618 Lublin tel. (81) 538–46–59\nDruk: Drukarnia Akapit sp. z o.o.\ndrukarniaakapit.pl\nElektroniczna wersja książki dostępna w Bibliotece Cyfrowej PL www.bc.pollub.pl\nKsiążka udostępniona jest na licencji Creative Commons Uznanie autorstwa – na tych samych warunkach 4.0 Międzynarodowe (CC BY-SA 4.0)\nNakład: 50 egz.\n\nSpis treści\nStreszczenie .........................................................................................................7\nAbstract ...............................................................................................................7\nWstęp ...................................................................................................................9\n1. Wprowadzenie do programu AutoCAD 2023............................................11\nArkusz ćwiczeniowy .............................................................................................17\n2. Praca z warstwami ......................................................................................21\nArkusz przykładów ................................................................................................23\nArkusz ćwiczeniowy ..............................................................................................25\n3. Lokalizacja precyzyjna ...............................................................................33\nArkusz przykładów ................................................................................................34\nArkusz ćwiczeniowy ..............................................................................................37\n4. Rysowanie: LINIA, POLILINIA, PROSTOKĄT, WIELOBOK,\nPROSTA, PÓŁPROSTA ........................................................41\nArkusz przykładów ................................................................................................44\nArkusz ćwiczeniowy ..............................................................................................46\n5. Rysowanie: OKRĄG, ELIPSA, PIERŚCIEŃ ...........................................49\nArkusz przykładów ................................................................................................50\nArkusz ćwiczeniowy ..............................................................................................52\n6. Rysowanie: ŁUK, POLILINIA z łukowymi segmentami,\nMULTILINIA ...........................................................................55\nArkusz przykładów ................................................................................................56\nArkusz ćwiczeniowy ..............................................................................................58\n7. Modyfikacje: PRZESUŃ, LUSTRO, KOPIUJ, WYMAŻ, OBRÓT,\nSKALA, WYRÓWNAJ .......................................................63\nArkusz przykładów ................................................................................................65\nArkusz ćwiczeniowy ..............................................................................................68\n8. Modyfikacje: UTNIJ, WYDŁUŻ, PRZERWIJ, ROZCIĄGNIJ,\nZAOKRĄGLIJ, FAZUJ, BLOK .......................................73\nArkusz przykładów ................................................................................................76\nArkusz ćwiczeniowy ..............................................................................................79\n\n9. Modyfikacje: SZYK BIEGUNOWY, SZYK PROSTOKĄTNY, SZYK\nWZDŁUŻ ŚCIEŻKI, ODSUŃ, ROZBIJ ..........................85\nArkusz przykładów ................................................................................................86\nArkusz ćwiczeniowy ..............................................................................................90\n10. Kreskowanie obiektów ..............................................................................97\nArkusz przykładów ................................................................................................98\nArkusz ćwiczeniowy ............................................................................................101\n11. Operacje na tekstach ................................................................................105\nArkusz przykładów ..............................................................................................106\nArkusz ćwiczeniowy ............................................................................................107\n12. Wymiarowanie obiektów ........................................................................109\nArkusz przykładów ..............................................................................................110\nArkusz ćwiczeniowy ............................................................................................119\n13. Przygotowanie rysunku do druku ..........................................................127\nArkusz przykładów ..............................................................................................130\nArkusz ćwiczeniowy ............................................................................................131\n14. Rysowanie obiektów złożonych ...............................................................139\nArkusz ćwiczeniowy ............................................................................................139\nZakończenie ....................................................................................................149\nLiteratura ........................................................................................................151\n\nKomputerowa grafika inżynierska.\nĆwiczenia do programu AutoCAD 2023\nStreszczenie\nTworzenie dokumentacji technicznych i projektowych z użyciem programów do komputerowego wspomagania projektowania od wielu lat uznawane jest za rozwiązanie standardowe. Opracowany podręcznik ma na celu umożliwienie czytelnikom zdobycie wiedzy i praktycznych umiejętności z zakresu przygotowania dokumentacji rysunkowej przy pomocy programu AutoCAD 2023. Dobór prezentowanych przykładów oraz zadań ćwiczeniowych powoduje, że podręcznik dedykowany jest przede wszystkim studentom kierunków Elektrotechnika, Edukacja techniczno-informatyczna i Budownictwo. W podręczniku ograniczono opis poleceń i dostępnych opcji, skupiając się na zaprezentowaniu ich działania i praktycznych zastosowań. Sposób użycia poleceń pokazano na przykładach oraz w zadaniach ćwiczeniowych. Do wszystkich przykładów i ćwiczeń przygotowano pliki dyskowe, które wprowadzone do programu przez użytkowników pozwolą im doskonalić umiejętności modelowania, edytowania i przygotowania do druku dokumentacji rysunkowej.\nSłowa kluczowe: AutoCAD, CAD, ćwiczenia praktyczne, komputerowa grafika inżynierska\nComputer engineering graphics.\nExercises for AutoCAD 2023\nAbstract\nCreating technical and design documentation using computer-aided design programs has been considered a standard solution for many years. The developed manual is intended to enable users to gain knowledge and practice in the preparation of drawing documentation using the AutoCAD 2023 program. Through the selection of presented examples and exercise tasks, the manual is dedicated primarily to students of Electrical Engineering, Technical and IT Education and Construction. The manual limits the description of commands and available options, focusing on presenting their operation and practical applications. How to use the commands is shown in examples and in practice tasks. Disk files have been developed for all examples and exercises, which, when entered into the program by users, will allow them to improve their skills in creating, editing and preparing drawing documentation for printing.\nKeywords: AutoCAD, CAD, practical exercises, computer engineering graphics\n\nWstęp\nTworzenie dokumentacji technicznych i projektowych przy użyciu technik komputerowych już od kilkudziesięciu lat uznaje się za rozwiązanie standardowe.\nPrzygotowanie nowej wersji podręcznika uzasadnia ewolucja programu AutoCAD, w ramach której zwiększona została szybkość generowania rysunków, precyzja kreślenia poszczególnych obiektów składowych, możliwość ich wielokrotnego przetwarzania oraz generowania, przechowywania i współdzielenia z innymi użytkownikami programu dokumentacji z wykorzystaniem zasobów chmurowych.\nHistoria programu AutoCAD rozpoczęła się w 1982 r. Mimo upływu tak wielu lat firma Autodesk ciągle unowocześnia swój produkt, zatrudniając kreatywnych programistów i tworząc narzędzia, które znacząco ułatwiają pracę inżynierom różnych branż. Prezentowany podręcznik to poprawiona, rozszerzona i zaktualizowana do najnowszej wersji programu z 2023 roku edycja podręcznika Komputerowa grafika inżynierska. Ćwiczenia do programu AutoCAD 2013. Po dziesięciu latach funkcjonowania wcześniejszej edycji w przestrzeni edukacyjnej Politechniki\nLubelskiej (z ponad 6500 pobraniami w wersji cyfrowej), autorzy postanowili powrócić do tej tematyki i przedstawić opis dostępnych narzędzi dla wersji z bieżącego roku. Podręcznik ten jest w pewnym stopniu praktycznym rozwinięciem książki Jerzego Montusiewicza Modelowanie 2D w programie AutoCAD z 2011 roku, która doczekała się ponad 100 tys. pobrań przez studentów z wielu uczelni z całej\nPolski, a nawet spoza jej granic.\nPrzedstawiony podręcznik ma umożliwić czytelnikom zdobycie wiedzy i praktyki z zakresu przygotowania dokumentacji rysunkowej za pomocą programu\nAutoCAD 2023. Poprzez dobór prezentowanych przykładów oraz zadań ćwiczeniowych podręcznik przeznaczony jest głównie dla studentów kierunków takich jak: elektrotechnika, inżynierskie zastosowania informatyki w elektrotechnice, edukacja techniczno-informatyczna, budownictwo, a także kierunków związanych z szeroko rozumianą inżynierią mechaniczną. Autorzy są przekonani, że język komputerowego zapisu konstrukcji jest uniwersalny dla inżynierów wszystkich branż (mimo pewnych różnic), stąd prezentowane grupy narzędzi, polecenia oraz ich opcje będą zrozumiałe i przydatne odbiorcom reprezentującym różne specjalności zawodowe.\nW podręczniku do minimum ograniczono opisy poleceń i dostępnych opcji, skupiając się na zaprezentowaniu ich działania i na ich praktycznych zastosowaniach. Sposób użycia poleceń pokazano na licznych przykładach oraz w zadaniach ćwiczeniowych, które opatrzono komentarzami. Do przykładów i ćwiczeń opracowano pliki dyskowe, które wczytane do programu pozwolą na szybkie doskonalenie swoich umiejętności.\n\nAutorzy mają nadzieję, że podręcznik będzie przydatny studentom Politechniki Lubelskiej w zdobyciu umiejętności biegłego posługiwania się programem\nAutoCAD w wersji z 2023 r. i ułatwi im sprawne przygotowywanie dokumentacji technicznych. Pliki do wykonywania przykładów i ćwiczeń są dostępne pod adresem: https://wmit.pollub.pl/studenci/skrypt-cad\n\n1. Wprowadzenie do programu AutoCAD 2023\nW celu uruchomienia programu AutoCAD 2023 należy wskazać ikonę programu na pulpicie lub wybrać ją z menu: START > WSZYSTKIE PROGRAMY >\nAUTODESK > AutoCAD 2023. Widok okna głównego programu AutoCAD w wersji\n2023 przedstawia rysunek 1.1.\nRys. 1.1. Okno programu AutoCAD 2023\nOBSZAR ROBOCZY – centralna część okna głównego programu AutoCAD 2023.\nRysowanie 2D i 3D odbywa się w zakładce Model. Pozostałe zakładki (np. Układ 1) służą do przygotowania rysunku do wydruku.\nSZEŚCIAN WIDOKU – opcjonalne narzędzie (View Cube) służące do sterowania wyświetlaniem widoku. Stosowany najczęściej podczas modelowania 3D. Wybierając poszczególne wierzchołki, krawędzie i powierzchnie sześcianu, sterujemy widokiem. Wyświetla orientację osi układu współrzędnych.\nZAKŁADKI – umożliwiają przełączenie się z obszaru modelu do obszaru papieru w rzutni układu.\nUKŁAD WSPÓŁRZ. – wyświetlanie orientacji osi układu współrzędnych.\nElementy składowe menu górnego pokazano i opisano na rysunku 1.2.\n\nRys. 1.2. Górne elementy okna programu AutoCAD 2023\nMENU APLIKACJI – umożliwia dostęp do głównych operacji na plikach, takich jak:\nNowy, Otwórz, Zapisz, Drukuj itd. Daje również możliwość dostępu do okna dialogowego Opcje służącego do zmiany opcji i dostosowania programu do użytkownika. Jest to menu rozwijalne. Obok ikony programu znajdują się także ikony najczęściej używanych głównych poleceń, w tym bardzo przydatne ikony poleceń Cofaj i Odtwórz. Polecenie Cofaj pozwala cofnąć dowolną liczbę poleceń programu do pierwszego polecenia po otwarciu pliku rysunku. Polecenie Odtwórz umożliwia przywrócenie kolejnych operacje cofniętych poleceniem Cofaj. Strzałka przed ikoną Udostępnij pozwala na wybór odpowiednich poleceń, co pokazano na rysunku 1.3.\nRys. 1.3. Dolne elementy okna programu AutoCAD 2023\n\nMENU – tzw. wstążka, organizuje polecenia w logiczne grupy. Udostęp-\nWSTĄŻKOWE nia paletę narzędzi do utworzenia i zmodyfikowania rysunku.\nWstążka składa się z paneli zgrupowanych na kartach oznaczonych według zadania (Narzędzia główne, Wstaw, Układ, Parametryczne, Widok, Zarządzaj, Wyniki pracy, Dodatki itd.). Panele wstążki zawierają ikony poleceń (np. panel Rysuj), które we wcześniejszych wersjach programu znajdowały się na paskach narzędzi lub w oknach dialogowych. Panele są najczęściej rozwijalne z możliwością ich zakotwiczenia (ikona pinezki).\nPASEK MENU – pasek menu jest pozostałością po starszych wersjach programu, zawiera dostęp do szeregu poleceń, można go wyłączyć, gdyż wszystkie potrzebne polecenia znajdują się we wstążce (rys. 1.2).\nCENTRUM – do uzyskiwania pomocy podczas pracy z programem.\nINFORMACYJNE Pomoc włączamy również skrótem F1.\nKARTY – zawierają grupy wielu paneli wstążki należących do jednego procesu roboczego.\nPANELE – zawierają przyciski i kontrolki związane z danym zadaniem.\nElementy składowe umieszczone na dole okna programu pokazano na rysunku 1.4.\nRys. 1.4. Dolne elementy okna programu AutoCAD 2023\nWSPÓŁRZĘDNE – obszar wyświetlający wartości współrzędnych X, Y kursora\nRYSUNKOWE w trakcie przesuwania go po ekranie. Wyświetlane są po włączeniu trybu Wprowadzania dynamicznego (przycisk funkcyjny\nF12) i wywołaniu polecenia.\nPRZEŁĄCZNIKI – znajdują się na pasku stanu. Umożliwiają włączanie bądź wyłączanie najczęściej wykorzystywanych narzędzi pomocniczych podczas pracy oraz do ich ustawiania.\nWIERSZ POLECEŃ – pole do wprowadzania poleceń, a także wyświetlania informacji od programu. Podczas wpisywania nazw lub skrótów poleceń w pasku stanu klawisz Spacja pełni rolę klawisza Enter.\nPASEK STANU – rozbudowany zestaw ustawień programu oraz informacji o wybranych wariantach pracy programu.\n\nPasek stanu (rys. 1.5) jest obiektem bardzo rozbudowanym i na etapie pierwszych prac z użyciem programu AutoCAD nie wszystkie jego elementy są nam potrzebne.\nDlatego wyjaśniono tylko wybrane z nich.\nRys. 1.5. Pasek stanu programu AutoCAD 2023\nDo najważniejszych elementów paska stanu można zaliczyć:\nSKOK – przycisk włącza/wyłącza tryb skokowego ruchu kursora (F9).\nZazwyczaj używany jest z opcją SIATKA.\nSIATKARYS – przycisk włącza/wyłącza tryb siatki pomocniczej, która może służyć jako wizualna wskazówka pomocna w lokalizacji i pomiarze obiektów podczas rysowania (F7).\nORTO – przycisk włącza/wyłącza tryb rysowania ortogonalnego (F8). Przy włączonym trybie ortogonalnym ruch kursora ograniczony jest do ruchów poziomych i pionowych.\nSZEROKOŚĆ LINII – przycisk włącza/wyłącza na ekranie grubości linii predefiniowane w poszczególnych warstwach.\nOBIEKT – przycisk lokalizacja, włącza/wyłącza automatyczne śledzenie wybranych punktów lokalizacji (F3).\nSZEROKOŚĆ – przycisk włącza/wyłącza wyświetlanie szerokości obiektów.\nDYN – wprowadzanie dynamiczne, przycisk włącza/wyłącza możliwość wprowadzania danych w oknie dynamicznym wyświetlanym przy kursorze myszy (F12).\nNawigacja w obszarze roboczym\nW obszarze roboczym poruszamy się za pomocą kursora myszy. W zależności od zastosowanego powiększenia ZOOM w oknie widać fragment lub cały rysunek.\nZmianę powiększenia rysunku można uzyskać, obracając kółko myszy, natomiast naciśnięcie kółka pozwala na przemieszczanie rysunku w polu ekranu (wyświetlana jest ikona dłoni).\nPrzydatnym rozwiązaniem jest wstępne ustawienie zakresu współrzędnych obszaru roboczego. Należy w tym celu określić zakres współrzędnych za pomocą polecenia\nGRANICE i użyć polecenia ZOOM z opcją GRANICE. Oczywiście nie zmienia to możliwości dowolnych zmian wyświetlanego obszaru rysunku.\nDostosowywanie obszaru roboczego\nProgram AutoCAD jest programem o bardzo elastycznym interfejsie, który można indywidualnie dostosowywać do swoich potrzeb, przyzwyczajeń i specyfiki dokumentacji, jaka jest przygotowywana w danym biurze projektowym. Oczywiście na\n\npoczątkowym etapie pracy nie należy zbytnio manipulować przy ustawieniach firmowych, aby nie popsuć tego, co było efektem doświadczenia i pracy wielu programistów oraz użytkowników programu. Program może pracować przy skonfigurowaniu z dwoma monitorami, jeden z nich służy do pokazywania tworzonych obiektów graficznych, drugi zaś do komunikacji z programem.\nProgram AutoCAD w wersji 2023 posiada kilka zdefiniowanych obszarów roboczych. Przełączamy się pomiędzy nimi, rozwijając pole Obszar roboczy. W ten sposób ustawiany jest bieżący obszar roboczy. Standardowo do wyboru mamy zdefiniowane obszary robocze, takie jak: Rysowanie i opis, Podstawy 3D, Modelowanie 3D\n(rys. 1.6). Obszar AutoCAD – wersja standardowa (który nie jest wyświetlony na tym rysunku) dostępny był w wersjach oprogramowania starszych niż 2015.\nRys. 1.6. Pole wyboru obszaru roboczego\nUżytkownicy pracujący wcześniej w starszych wersjach programu lub preferujący pracę z paskami narzędzi nie mają możliwości domyślnego przełączenia się do obszaru roboczego AutoCAD – wersja standardowa. Jednak obszary te można pobrać z Internetu i przeprowadzić import z poziomu CUI. Istnieje również możliwość włączenia paska menu głównego, znanego z wcześniejszych wersji programu (rys. 1.3).\nZaawansowani użytkownicy mają możliwość dostosowywania obszaru roboczego do własnych preferencji i następnie jego zapisywania. Umożliwia to rozwiązanie kłopotliwego problemu, gdy na jednym komputerze pracuje wielu użytkowników modyfikujących wygląd obszaru roboczego podczas pracy. Dostosowanie obszaru roboczego do swoich potrzeb i następnie jego zapisanie umożliwia szybki powrót do ustawień preferowanych przez danego użytkownika.\nZmienne systemowe\nAutoCAD przechowuje nastawy (lub wartości) swojego środowiska operacyjnego i niektórych swoich poleceń w zmiennych systemowych. Zmienne systemowe wprowadzamy, wpisując ich nazwę w wierszu poleceń. Przykładowe zmienne systemowe przedstawiono poniżej:\n\nCLAYER – ustala aktualną warstwę.\nGRIDMODE – określa, czy wyświetlana jest siatka, czy nie (można posłużyć się klawiszem funkcyjnym F7 lub kliknąć ikonę SIATKA w Pasku stanu).\nMIRRTEXT – steruje sposobem odbijania tekstu przez polecenie LUSTRO\n(wartość 1 oznacza odbijanie tekstu, zaś w przypadku wartości\n0 tekst przechodzi na drugą stronę symetrii osiowej bez odbicia).\nPELLIPSE – steruje typem elipsy tworzonej przez polecenie ELIPSA.\nTILEMODE – steruje dostępem do obszaru papieru oraz zachowaniem się rzutni AutoCAD-a.\nKlawisze funkcyjne\nKlawisze funkcyjne pozwalają na zastąpienie niektórych poleceń. Znaczenie wybranych klawiszy funkcyjnych pokazano poniżej:\n– F1 – klawisz pomocy,\n– F2 – włączanie/wyłączanie okna tekstowego z historią zawartości wiersza poleceń,\n– F3 – włączanie/wyłączanie automatycznego śledzenia punktów charakterystycznych,\n– F6 – włączanie/wyłączanie dynamicznego śledzenia współrzędnych,\n– F7 – włączanie/wyłączanie siatki pomocniczej,\n– F8 – włączanie/wyłączanie trybu ortogonalnego,\n– F9 – włączanie/wyłączanie skoku kursora,\n– F12 – włączanie/wyłączanie dynamicznego wprowadzania współrzędnych.\n–\nW praktyce projektowej dość przydatne jest użycie zdefiniowanych kombinacji klawisza Ctrl:\n– Ctrl+1 – uruchamia paletę Właściwości,\n– Ctrl+2 – uruchamia paletę Design center,\n– Ctrl+3 – uruchamia paletę Narzędzi,\n– Ctrl+8 – uruchamia Kalkulator geometryczny,\n– Ctrl+9 – wyłączanie wiersza poleceń przy dynamicznym trybie poleceń (F12).\nWydawanie poleceń\nDo uruchamiania poleceń służy klawiatura, mysz komputerowa lub inne urządzenie wskazujące lub sterujące (np. manipulator). Najczęściej realizowane jest to poprzez wskazanie lewym przyciskiem myszy odpowiednich ikon poleceń znajdujących się na Panelach w Menu wstążkowym. Od wersji 2006 możliwe jest wprowadzanie parametrów poleceń w tak zwanym trybie dynamicznym, włączanym na pasku stanu przyciskiem DYN. Podczas wprowadzania wartości, np. długości linii i kąta, przełączamy się pomiędzy nimi klawiszem TAB (rys. 1.7).\n\nRys. 1.7. Wprowadzanie dynamiczne\nOtwieranie i zapisywanie plików\nPodczas rozpoczęcia pracy można wczytać parametry początkowe z rysunku prototypowego, czyli szablonu. Można utworzyć dowolną liczbę rysunków prototypowych.\nPliki zawierające rysunki prototypowe mają standardowe rozszerzenie .dwt. Program\nAutoCAD 2023 posiada bibliotekę zdefiniowanych wcześniej szablonów Menu aplikacji > Nowy > Rysunek. Standardowo wybieramy do pracy szablon acadiso.dwt.\nSzablon zdefiniowany przez użytkownika zapisujemy poleceniem Menu aplikacji >\nZapisz jako > Szablon rysunku.\nPo zakończonej pracy należy zapisać plik, korzystając z polecenia Menu aplikacji >\nZapisz jako > Rysunek. Domyślnym rozszerzeniem plików jest .dwg. Istnieje możliwość ustawienia w Opcjach programu automatycznego zapisywania. Jest to korzystne w przypadku „zawieszenia się” lub wyłączenia programu podczas pracy.\nArkusz ćwiczeniowy\nCel ćwiczenia\nCelem ćwiczenia jest nabycie umiejętności panowania nad wyglądem ekranu podstawowego, aby właściwie przygotować środowisko, w którym tworzone będą rysunki.\nĆwiczenie 1.1. Automatyczne zapisywanie plików\n1. Uruchom program AutoCAD 2023.\n2. Wybierz szablon acadiso.dwt. Menu aplikacji > Nowy > Rysunek.\n3. Ustaw automatyczne zapisywanie Menu aplikacji > Opcje > Otwórz i zapisz >\nŚrodki ochrony > Automatyczny zapis.\n4. Podaj liczbę minut 5 w polu Liczba między zapisami.\n5. Zapisz plik Menu aplikacji > Zapisz jako > Rysunek. Nadaj nazwę k.01.dwg., gdzie: k – nazwisko, 01 – numer ćwiczenia.\n\nĆwiczenie 1.2. Zmiana koloru obszaru roboczego\n1. Uruchom program AutoCAD 2023.\n2. Wybierz szablon acadiso.dwt. Menu aplikacji > Nowy > Rysunek.\n3. Wybierz Menu aplikacji > Opcje > Wyświetl > Kolory. Zmień kolor Obszaru modelu 2D z białego na czarny lub odwrotnie.\n4. Zastosuj i zamknij.\nĆwiczenie 1.3. Zmiana obszaru roboczego na AutoCAD – Modelowanie 3D, import obszaru AutoCAD – wersja standardowa\n1. Uruchom program AutoCAD 2023.\n2. Wybierz szablon acadiso.dwt. Menu aplikacji > Nowy > Rysunek.\n3. Rozwiń pole Obszar roboczy i wybierz AutoCAD – Modelowanie 3D.\n4. Rozwiń ponownie pole Obszar roboczy i wybierz Dostosuj...\n5. W obszarze Dostosuj interfejs użytkownika (CUI) wybierz zakładkę Przenoszenie.\n6. Z kolumny z prawej strony rozwiń obszar i wybierz Otwórz.\n7. Z folderu Pliki do ćwiczeń wybierz plik: AutoCAD – wersja standardowa.\n8. Wybierz zaimportowany obszar i przeciągnij do kolumny z lewej strony\nPrzenoszenie > Obszary robocze.\n\n9. W obszarze Dostosowywanie wybierz zaimportowany obszar, wybierz PPM\n(prawy przycisk mysz) > Ustaw bieżący.\n10. Zapisz zmiany, wybierając ikonę dyskietki, zamknij CUI.\n11. Zamknij i uruchom ponownie program.\n12. Otwórz szablon acadiso.dwt.\n13. Rozwiń pole Obszar roboczy i wybierz AutoCAD – wersja standardowa.\nĆwiczenie 1.4. Wyświetlenie Paska menu głównego\n1. Rozwiń pole Dostosuj pasek szybkiego dostępu.\n2. Wybierz Pokaż pasek menu.\n3. Ukryj Pasek menu.\nĆwiczenie 1.5. Zmiana wyświetlania widoku\n1. Otwórz plik CW_1–5.dwg, wybierając kolejno Menu aplikacji > Otwórz > Rysunek.\n2. Wybierając wierzchołki, krawędzie i powierzchnie na sześcianie widoku, tzw. View\nCube, zmień widok na Tył, Lewo, Dół.\n\n2. Praca z warstwami\nKażdy obiekt rysunkowy jest przypisany do jednej warstwy. Warstwy mają swoje nazwy oraz cechy, takie jak: kolor, rodzaj linii, szerokość linii, stan (Widoczność, Blokada, Zamknięcie, Drukuj) oraz styl wydruku. Widocznością obiektów rysunkowych przypisanych do poszczególnych warstw sterują atrybuty widoczność, zamrażanie oraz blokada. Istnieje możliwość rysowania na warstwie niewidocznej, ale nie można już tego robić na zablokowanej. Obiekty znajdujące się na zablokowanej warstwie są niewidoczne i niedostępne dla jakiejkolwiek operacji. Atrybut zamknięcie określa dostępność warstwy do edycji obiektów – na warstwie zamkniętej można rysować, ale nie można dokonywać zmian. W rysunku zawsze istnieje warstwa o nazwie „0”, nie da się jej ani usunąć, ani zmienić jej nazwy.\nObiekt zawsze jest przypisywany do tej warstwy, która była aktualna podczas jego tworzenia. Wszystkie nowe obiekty przyjmują właściwości warstwy, np. kolor, rodzaj linii itd. Właściwości te noszą wtedy nazwę JakWarstwa. Zmiana właściwości warstwy powoduje zmianę właściwości obiektów, obiekty przeniesione na inną warstwę przyjmują właściwości tej warstwy. Wyboru warstwy aktualnej dokonuje się w panelu\nWarstwy przez wybór z listy rozwijalnej (rys. 2.1). Lista ta służy do zmiany stanu warstwy, a także do przeniesienia obiektów z jednej warstwy na drugą. W tym ostatnim przypadku wybiera się najpierw obiekty, a następnie ze wspominanej listy warstwę, na którą mają one być przeniesione.\nRys. 2.1. Panel Warstwy\nOkno Menedżer właściwości warstw (rys. 2.2) umożliwia tworzenie i modyfikację warstw, wybór warstwy bieżącej oraz zmianę własności wybranych warstw.\nW przypadku użycia większej liczby warstw można stosować filtry wyświetlania\n(lewa część okna). Poszczególne elementy okna umożliwiają zarządzanie warstwami:\n– utworzenie nowej warstwy,\n– utworzenie nowej warstwy i jej zablokowanie we wszystkich rzutniach,\n– usunięcie warstwy (warstwa nie może zawierać żadnych elementów),\n– ustawienie warstwy jako aktualnej.\n\nRys. 2.2. Wywołanie i wygląd okna Menedżer właściwości warstw\nOkno Menedżer właściwości warstw umożliwia również zarządzanie właściwościami warstw (operacje wykonuje się przez kliknięcie na dowolnej z zaznaczonych warstw w odpowiedniej kolumnie):\n– warstwa widoczna/warstwa niewidoczna,\n,\n– warstwa odblokowana/warstwa zablokowana,\n,\n– warstwa otwarta/warstwa zamknięta,\n,\n– warstwa będzie drukowana/warstwa nie będzie drukowana,\n,\n– warstwa nie będzie blokowana/będzie blokowana w nowej\n, rzutni,\n– wybór koloru danej warstwy (w oknie pomocniczym),\n– wybór rodzaju linii, którym będą rysowane obiekty na danej warstwie (w oknie pomocniczym, w którym może być konieczność wczytania dodatkowych rodzajów linii do rysunku). Segmenty linii nieciągłych i przerwy między nimi są rysowane w pewnej skali (o wartości domyślnej 1). Zależnie od wielkości rysunku linie mogą być niezbyt czytelne. Lokalnie – dla zaznaczonego obiektu skalę linii można wtedy zmienić w oknie Właściwości (Ctrl+1) i dopasować do rozmiarów rysunku. Globalnie dla wszystkich obiektów rysunkowych można wykonać zmianę skali linii z poziomu menu standardowego, wybierając i zmieniając wartość: Format > Rodzaj linii... > Globalny wsp. skali,\n\n– określenie szerokości linii obiektów danej warstwy,\n– określenie przezroczystości obiektu (0–90%), wartość standardowa\n0 oznacza obiekt nieprzezroczysty,\n– określenie stylu wydruku – w stylach wydruku zależnych od koloru (szablon acadISO.dwt i pochodne) nie ma możliwości zmiany stylu (opcja nieaktywna), dla tzw. stylów nazwanych (szablon acadISO_NamedPlotStyles.dwt) można wybrać styl danej warstwy z listy stylów dostępnych w aktywnym pliku stylów wydruku.\nArkusz przykładów\nPrzykład 2.1. Definiowanie nowych warstw na nowym rysunku\n1. Utwórz nowy plik rysunkowy .\n2. Kliknij na ikonie Menedżer właściwości warstw w panelu Warstwy.\n3. Wybierz przycisk Nowa warstwa (Alt+N), wpisz nazwę warstwy: Osie, wprowadź kolor czerwony, rodzaj linii CENTER2 (musisz ją wczytać), wybierz pozycję inne... i wybierz ten rodzaj linii, szerokość linii ustaw na wartość 0.2.\n4. Powtórnie wybierz przycisk Nowa warstwa (Alt+N), wpisz nazwę warstwy: Wymiary, wprowadź kolor niebieski, rodzaj linii: continuous (czyli linia ciągła), szerokość ustaw na wartość 0.2.\nKOMENTARZ! Powtórne wybranie pozycji Nowa warstwa powoduje przeniesienie atrybutów warstwy, która była podświetlona. Można więc świadomie wybierać warstwę, która będzie prototypem kolejnej warstwy.\n5. Ponownie wybierz Alt+N, wpisz nazwę warstwy Kontur, wprowadź kolor czarny, rodzaj linii: continuous, szerokość ustaw na wartość 0.5\n6. Wyjdź z okna Menadżera właściwości warstw – przycisk x (zamknij okno).\nPrzykład 2.2. Definiowanie nowej warstwy i redefiniowanie warstw istniejących.\nPrzeniesienie obiektów rysunku z warstwy „0” na inne warstwy.\nOtwórz plik P_2–2.dwg, uzyskany rezultat zapisz pod nową nazwą\n1. Wykonaj redefinicję istniejących warstw tak jak na rysunku. Należy zmienić nazwę warstwy, kolor, rodzaj linii (w jednym przypadku) oraz jej szerokość.\n\nKOMENTARZ! Dobrą praktyką jest nadawanie takich nazw, które niosą w sobie informację.\n2. Zdefiniuj nową warstwę o nazwie RAMKA, kolor: zielony, szerokość: 0.5, rodzaj linii: continuous.\n3. Przenieś na kolejne warstwy elementy rysunku, które odpowiadają właściwym nazwom warstw. W tym celu kliknij na obiekt (możesz klikać na wiele obiektów i przenieść od razu kilka obiektów), rozwiń listę istniejących warstw w panelu\nWarstwy i wybierz właściwą nazwę warstwy.\n4. Zaznacz linie osi na rysunku, włącz Właściwości (Ctrl+1), zmień Skalę rodzaju linii na 0.5\nRysunek po wczytaniu pliku\nRysunek po wykonaniu przykładu\n\nPrzykład 2.3. Przefiltruj obiekty, korzystając z polecenia: Wybierz podobne i przenoś je między warstwami. Otwórz plik P_2–3.dwg, uzyskany rezultat zapisz pod nową nazwą.\n1. Zmień ustawienia filtrowania elementów narzędzia Wybierz podobne, wpisując w wierszu poleceń zmienną SELECTSIMILAR i wybierając UST.\n2. W oknie dialogowym zostaw włączone Podobne na podstawie: Kolor, Rodzaj linii, Skala rodzaju linii, Szerokość linii, Styl obiektu. Wybierz OK.\n3. Zaznaczaj dowolne obiekty reprezentujące wybraną grupę obiektów, wyróżnione kolorami.\n4. Wybieraj PPM > Wybierz podobne.\n5. Przenoś zaznaczone grupy obiektów na dostępne, opisujące je warstwy.\nRysunek po wczytaniu pliku\nArkusz ćwiczeniowy\nCel ćwiczenia\nCelem ćwiczenia jest doskonalenie umiejętności korzystania z warstw podczas rysowania, tworzenia nowych warstw, przypisywania warstwom elementów rysunkowych, sterowania warstwami.\nĆwiczenie 2.1. Wszystkie obiekty wyłącznika przeciwporażeniowego różnicowoprądowego [7] znajdują się na warstwie „0”. Popraw cechy zdefiniowanych warstw, a następnie przenieś wybrane elementy schematu na te warstwy. Wczytaj plik o nazwie CW_2–1.dwg. Rezultat działań należy zapisać pod własną nazwą.\n\nRysunek po wczytaniu pliku\nRysunek po wykonaniu ćwiczenia\n1. Uruchom Menedżer właściwości warstw (karta Narzędzia główne, panel Warstwy, lewa górna ikona, lub z klawiatury polecenie – warstwa). Okno menadżera można rozciągnąć lub przełączać widoczny fragment (>> lub <<).\n2. Zdefiniuj warstwę o nazwie LINIA_0–25, kolor: szary, Rodzaj linii: Continuous,\nSzerokość linii: 0.25.\n3. W warstwie o nazwie LINIA KRES-KROP ustaw: Szerokość linii na 0.3; Kolor na czerwony (kliknij 2 razy na pole oznaczające kolor tej warstwy, po włączeniu okna wybierz właściwy kolor i zatwierdź), Rodzaj linii: DASHDOT (gdyby tej linii nie było, to musisz skorzystać z zakładki Wczytaj...).\n4. Zmień kolor warstwy o nazwie RAMKA na niebieski, a szerokość na 0.5.\n5. Przenieś wszystkie opisy schematu i odnośniki na warstwę OPISY. W tym celu klikaj na poszczególne opisy, a następnie rozwiń listę warstw i wybierz nazwę warstwy.\n6. Na warstwę ELEMENTY przenieś elementy oznaczające obiekty układu.\n7. Na warstwę LINIA_0–25 przenieś linie będące przewodami.\n8. Na warstwę LINIA KRES-KROP przenieś kontury otaczające elementy składowe schematu.\nKOMENTARZ! Aby zobaczyć zmianę szerokości linii, włącz przycisk SZEROKOŚĆ w Pasku stanu.\n\n9. Ramkę rysunku oraz napis przenieś na warstwę RAMKA.\n10. Wykonaj samokontrolę przeprowadzonych działań. W tym celu wybierz warstwę „0” jako bieżącą i wyłącz widoczność warstw, na które przenosiłeś obiekty rysunku. Jeśli dobrze wykonałeś zadanie, to rysunek powinien zniknąć.\nĆwiczenie 2.2. Zdefiniować nowe warstwy na arkuszu rysunkowym i przenieść wybrane elementy rysunku na utworzone warstwy. Wczytać plik\nCW_2–2.dwg. Rezultat działań należy zapisać pod nową nazwą.\n1. Utwórz cztery nowe warstwy:\n– Prostokąty: kolor – niebieski, rodzaj linii – continuous, szerokość = 0.13;\n– Kontur: kolor – czarny, rodzaj linii – continuous, szerokość = 0.5;\n– Wymiar: kolor – czerwony, rodzaj linii – continuous, szerokość = 0.15;\n– Okrąg: kolor – zielony, rodzaj linii – continuous, szerokość = 0.15.\n2. Zewnętrzny prostokąt przypisz warstwie Kontur.\n3. Wewnętrzne prostokąty przypisz warstwie Prostokąty.\n4. Wewnętrzne ćwiartki okręgu, łuki przypisz warstwie Okrąg.\n5. Wymiary przypisz warstwie Wymiar.\nRysunek po wczytaniu pliku\n\nĆwiczenie 2.3. Zdefiniować nowe warstwy na arkuszu rysunkowym schematu zastępczego obwodu zwarciowego i przenieść wybrane elementy schematu na utworzone warstwy. Wczytać plik CW_2–3.dwg.\nRezultat działań należy zapisać pod swoją nazwą.\n1. Utwórz trzy nowe warstwy:\n– Rezystancja: kolor – niebieski, rodzaj linii – continuous, szerokość = 0.3;\n– Przewody: kolor – czarny, rodzaj linii – continuous, szerokość = 0.5;\n– Opisy: kolor – zielony, rodzaj linii – continuous, szerokość = 0.13.\n2. Przenieś elementy schematu na właściwe warstwy.\n3. Zaznacz obiekty, rozwiń okno pokazujące warstwy i kliknij na odpowiednią nazwę warstwy.\n4. Włącz w Pasku stanu przycisk SZEROKOŚĆ.\nRysunek po wczytaniu pliku\nĆwiczenie 2.4. Zdefiniować nowe warstwy na arkuszu rysunkowym przedstawiającym złącze dwuzakładkowe i przenieść wybrane elementy rysunku na utworzone warstwy. Wczytać plik o nazwie CW_2–4.dwg, a wynik prac zapisać pod własną nazwą.\n1. Utwórz sześć nowych warstw:\n– Kontur: kolor – czarny, rodzaj linii – continuous, szerokość = 0.5;\n– Wymiar: kolor – czerwony, rodzaj linii – continuous, szerokość = 0.15;\n– Nity: kolor – niebieski, rodzaj linii – continuous, szerokość = 0.15;\n– Osie: kolor – żółty, rodzaj linii – CENTER2, szerokość = 0.13;\nwybierz opcję Wczytaj i odszukaj nazwę linii;\n– Kreskowanie: kolor – szary, rodzaj linii – continuous, szerokość = 0.13;\n– Tekst: kolor – zielony, rodzaj linii – continuous, szerokość = 0.13.\n2. Kreskowanie przypisz warstwie Kreskowanie.\n3. Główki i rdzenie nitów (A, B) przypisz warstwie Nity.\n4. Płaskownik (C, D) przypisz warstwie Kontur.\n\n5. Wymiary przypisz warstwie Wymiar.\n6. Osie nitów przypisz warstwie Osie.\n7. Opisy przypisz warstwie Tekst.\nRysunek po wczytaniu pliku\nĆwiczenie 2.5. Stworzyć nowe warstwy i wykonać ich filtrowanie z podziałem na branże, wczytać plik o nazwie CW_2–5.dwg, a wynik prac zapisać pod własną nazwą.\n1. Utwórz dwanaście nowych warstw i przypisz im właściwości z listy poniżej, z uwzględnieniem podziału branżowego stosowanego w budownictwie:\n– A – architektoniczna,\n– D – drogowa,\n– E – elektryczna,\n– S – sanitarna,\n– PZT – projekt zagospodarowania terenu.\nLista warstw do utworzenia\n\n2. W Menadżerze właściwości warstw w oknie Filtry stwórz nowy filtr: architektoniczna.\n3. W oknie Definicja filtru w kolumnie Nazwa wpisz literę A. Warstwy zostaną przefiltrowane wyłącznie do tych z przedrostkiem A.\n4. Analogicznie utwórz pozostałe 4 filtry warstw branżowych.\n5. Ustaw jako bieżący filtr: Wszystkie używane warstwy.\nTworzenie filtrów warstw\n6. Wykorzystując znane narzędzia zaznaczania obiektów, wybieraj i przenoś elementy rysunkowe na utworzone warstwy zgodnie ze wzorem poniżej. Samodzielnie decyduj, które elementy w obrębie danej branży znajdą się na warstwach z numerami: 1, 2, 3.\n7. Przejdź do Menadżera właściwości warstw.\n8. W Filtrze warstw ustaw PZT jako filtr bieżący, a jako warstwę bieżącą PZT-1.\n9. Wybierz Odwróć filtr.\n10. Zaznacz dowolną warstwę, wybierz Ctrl+A, włącz zamrożenie i wyłącz odwrócenie filtra.\n11. Zamknij Menadżer właściwości warstw i przejrzyj efekty wykonanych prac na obszarze rysunkowym i po rozwinięciu przeglądarki warstw. Powinny być dostępne wyłącznie elementy na warstwie PZT.\n12. Rozwiń panel Warstwy i w przeglądarce wybierz Niezapisany stan warstwy >\nNowy stan warstwy, nadaj nazwę: PZT.\n13. Wykonaj analogiczne operację, tworząc stany warstw odpowiadające zaimplementowanym filtrom. Przełączaj się między utworzonymi stanami, sprawdzając mechanizm działania filtrów.\n14. Zapisz rysunek pod zmienioną nazwą.\n\nUWAGA! Pamiętaj o konieczności odwracania filtra warstw przy ich zamrażaniu.\nPrzykład po przeniesieniu elementów rysunkowych na utworzone warstwy\nFiltrowanie warstw z wykorzystaniem filtru i stanu warstw:\nPZT\n\n3. Lokalizacja precyzyjna\nAutoCAD jest programem rysowania precyzyjnego. Narzędzie do precyzyjnego przyciągania kursora do charakterystycznych punktów obiektów rysunkowych (lokalizacji kursora) może być użyte na dwa sposoby. Jednym z nich jest jednorazowy wybór punktu lokalizacji z podręcznego menu włączanego kombinacją SHIFT+PPM. Punkty charakterystyczne dostępne z tego menu pokazuje rysunek 3.1.\nNazwa polecenia* Opis\nNajbliższy punkt końcowy odcinka,\nKONiec łuku, półprostej.\nŚrodek odcinka, łuku, splajnu lub\nSYMetria multilinii.\nŚrodek łuku, okręgu, elipsy (punkt\nCENtrum przecięcia dużej i małej osi).\nŚrodek\nŚrodek geometryczny polilinii.\ngeometryczny\nPUNkt Najbliższy obiekt typu Punkt.\nNajbliższy punkt rozpoczynający\nKWAdrant ćwiartkę okręgu elipsy lub łuku (0°,\n90°, 180°, 270°).\nPunkt przecięcia się obiektów\nPRZecięcie\n(punkt wspólny).\nLokalizuje dowolny punkt na przedłu-\nPrzedłużenie żeniu obiektu.\nWstawienie Punkt wstawienia, np.: bloku, napisu.\nRysowanie linii prostopadłych do\nPROstopadły wybranych obiektów.\nOkno tymczasowych punktów\nRysowanie linii stycznych do wskazalokalizacji. Otwierane za pomocą STYczny nych obiektów.\nSHIFT+PPM\nLokalizuje do najbliższego punktu na\nNajbliższy punkt obiektach.\nLokalizuje dowolny punkt leżący na\nBLIski obiekcie inny niż pozostałe lokalizacje.\nPozorne\nWizualne przecięcie dwóch obiektów.\nprzecięcie\nRysowanie linii równoległych do\nRównoległy wybranych obiektów.\nWłącza okno do automatycznego\n*litery wielkie oznaczają skrót Ustawienia... poszukiwania punktów polecenia charakterystycznych.\nRys. 3.1. Zawartość przycisku ŚLEDZENIE wraz z wyjaśnieniem\n\nDrugim praktycznym sposobem jest wybór kilku charakterystycznych punktów śledzenia, który będzie realizowany automatycznie pod warunkiem, że włączony zostanie przycisk ŚLEDZENIE w Pasku stanu. Wyboru dokonuje się z takiego samego menu jak na rysunku 3.1 po najechaniu kursorem na przycisk ŚLEDZENIE i użyciu PPM.\nMożna również włączyć okno z rozszerzonym menu lokalizacji, wybierając pozycję\nUstawienia lokalizacji względem obiektów (rys. 3.2).\nRys. 3.2. Okno wyboru Trybu lokalizacji względem obiektu\nGdy chcemy zrezygnować z procesu śledzenia punktów istniejących obiektów, należy wyłączyć przycisk OBIEKT. W przypadku rezygnacji ze śledzenia na jedno kliknięcie kursora należy wpisać polecenie BRAk (skrót BRA) lub wybrać je z okna tymczasowych punktów lokalizacji. Znalezienie poszukiwanego punktu jest widoczne na rysunku poprzez pojawienie się właściwego symbolu identyfikacyjnego. Każdy punkt charakterystyczny ma inną geometryczną wizualizację (jest to istotne, gdy na rysunku znajduje się wiele obiektów obok siebie i włączona jest opcja śledzenia automatycznego wielu różnych punktów jednocześnie). Praktycznym poleceniem jest zastosowanie lokalizacji OD, która pozwala na pokazanie nowego punktu oddalonego od wcześniej wskazanego (np. KONiec). Dane punktu oddalonego podawane są oczywiście jako współrzędne względne.\nArkusz przykładów\nPrzykład 3.1. Połącz odcinkami następujące punkty lokalizowane przez korzystanie z jednorazowej lokalizacji. Wybierz plik P_3–1.dwg. Plik wynikowy zapisać pod nową nazwą.\n1. Do rysowania odcinków wybierz polecenie LINIA .\n2. Na pasku stanu Rozwiń okno dialogowe Lokalizacja względem obiektów.\n3. Z listy wybieraj każdorazowo tylko narzędzia, których opisy znajdują się pod kolejnymi zadaniami.\n4. W przykładzie pierwszym włącz Środek i Punkt końcowy.\n\n5. Kliknij na środek okręgu.\n6. Kliknij na jeden koniec linii.\n7. Zakończ rysowanie klawiszem ESC.\n8. Korzystając z powyższych instrukcji, wykonaj resztę przykładów.\nNarysować odcinek ze środka okręgu do dolnego lewego końca odcinka.\nNarysować odcinek ze środka górnego odcinka prostopadle do odcinka dolnego.\nNarysować odcinek od punktu przecięcia się odcinków do lewego kwadrantu okręgu.\nNarysować dwa odcinki styczne między okręgami.\nNarysować odcinek od środka symetrii kwadratu do prawego wierzchołka trójkąta.\n\nNarysować odcinek od punktu wstawienia napisu do punktu przecięcia oznaczonego znacznikiem „x”.\nNarysować odcinek równoległy do dolnego boku trójkąta przechodzący przez środek symetrii odcinka.\nNarysować odcinek od środka geometrycznego wieloboku do punktu symetrii pomiędzy dwoma punktami\n(należy wykorzystać tymczasowe punkty lokalizacji wywoływane\nShift + PPM).\nPrzykład 3.2. Dokończ schematy zastępcze impedancji ciała człowieka [7] według wzoru. Pobierz plik P_3–2.dwg.\n1. Do rysowania odcinków zastosuj polecenie linia . Wywołaj okno Trybu lokalizacji względem obiektu i zaznacz odpowiednie punkty śledzenia.\nRysunek do poprawy\nRysunek wzorcowy\n\nArkusz ćwiczeniowy\nCel ćwiczenia\nCelem ćwiczenia jest doskonalenie umiejętności precyzyjnego lokalizowania punktów, wykorzystywania punktów charakterystycznych obiektów podczas rysowania oraz rozwiązanie arkusza ćwiczeniowego.\nĆwiczenie 3.1. Stożek ścięty ukośną płaszczyzną został przedstawiony na trzech prostopadłych rzutniach. Dorysuj brakujące linie, używając lokalizacji precyzyjnej. Wczytaj plik o nazwie CW_3–1.dwg. Plik przed rozpoczęciem pracy zapisz pod nazwą pochodzącą od swojego nazwiska.\nRysunek po wczytaniu pliku\nRysunek gotowy\nUWAGA! Przy wyznaczaniu niektórych punktów narysuj linię znacznie dłuższą, a następnie wykorzystaj aktywny uchwyt i zlokalizuj powstały punkt przecięcia.\n1. Do rysowania odcinków zastosuj polecenie LINIA . Rysuj na warstwie\nGRUBA-RYS.\n2. Wywołaj okno Trybu lokalizacji względem obiektu i zaznacz odpowiednie punkty śledzenia: KONiec, SYMetria, PPRzecięcie, Środek i najbliższy punkt.\n3. Włącz tryb ORTO (F8).\n\nĆwiczenie 3.2. Przenieś brakujące elementy układu przepływowego oraz wstaw je w schemat tak, aby otrzymać kompletny układ jak na rysunku wzorcowym. Zastosuj narzędzia do śledzenia. Wczytaj plik CW_3–2.\ndwg, a wynik prac zapisz pod nową nazwą.\n1. Do wykonania ćwiczenia zastosuj polecenie PRZESUŃ .\n2. Wywołaj okno Trybu lokalizacji względem obiektu i zaznacz odpowiednie punkty śledzenia: KONiec, SYMetria, PPRzecięcie, CENtrum, PROstopadły,\nKWAdrant.\nĆwiczenie 3.3. Uzupełnij schemat włączenia wyłącznika przeciwporażeniowego różnicowoprądowego w układzie sieciowym TN-C-S [7]. Wczytaj plik CW_3–3.dwg, a wynik prac zapisz pod nową nazwą.\n1. Do rysowania odcinków zastosuj polecenie LINIA . Rysuj na warstwie\nGRUBA-RYS.\n2. Wywołaj okno Trybu lokalizacji względem obiektu i zaznacz odpowiednie punkty śledzenia: KONiec, SYMetria, PPRzecięcie.\n\nRysunek po wczytaniu pliku\nRysunek gotowy\n\n4. Rysowanie: LINIA, POLILINIA, PROSTOKĄT,\nWIELOBOK, PROSTA, PÓŁPROSTA\nIkony poleceń do rysowania dostępne są w panelu Rysuj. Ze względu na ich dużą liczbę na panelu wyświetlonych zostało kilka ikon reprezentujących wybrane narzędzia.\nPrzy niektórych z nich strzałki umożliwiają ich rozwinięcie i uzyskanie bezpośredniego dostępu do pokrewnych poleceń, natomiast strzałka przy nazwie panelu daje dostęp do pozostałych poleceń (rys. 4.1).\nRys. 4.1. Panel Rysuj\nW procesie rysowania obiektów podstawowym zagadnieniem jest kreślenie odcinków, łuków, okręgów i innych figur geometrycznych o konkretnych parametrach wprowadzanych przez użytkownika. Do tego celu doskonale nadają się względne współrzędne kartezjańskie: @ x,y oraz względne współrzędne biegunowe: @ r < α.\nMożna również stosować współrzędne bezwzględne, ale wtedy trudniej jest sterować rysowanymi obiektami.\nWzględne Pozwalają rysować odcinki o określonej długości i kierunku.\nwspółrzędne\n@ – oznacza, że wpisujemy współrzędne względne, kartezjańskie x – współrzędna wzdłuż osi X,\n@x,y y – współrzędna wzdłuż osi Y.\nPrzykład linii rysowanych od znaku x zgodnie (a) i przeciwnie\n(b) do osi 0X.\nWzględne Pozwalają rysować odcinki o określonej długości i zdefiniowspółrzędne wanym kątowym położeniu względem osi X.\nbiegunowe @ – oznacza, że wpisujemy współrzędne względne,\n@r < α r – długość odcinka,\nα – kąt między osią X a rysowanym odcinkiem.\n\nLinia rysowana od znaku x.\nLokalny układ współrzędnych umieszcza się automatycznie w początku rysowanej linii.\nUWAGA! Pierwszy punkt wskazujemy kursorem myszy, klikamy na elektronicznym arkuszu (monitorze) lub korzystamy ze ŚLEDZENIA, drugi podajemy z klawiatury @x,y albo @ r < α.\nLINIA Polecenie służy do kreślenia odcinków bez definiowania szerokości linii. Odcinki kreślone tym poleceniem podczas jednej sesji rysunkowej są osobnymi obiektami w znaczeniu programu AutoCAD.\nPOLILINIA Polecenie służy do kreślenia odcinków (lub łuków) o zadeklarowanej szerokości stanowiących ciąg segmentów liniowych lub łukowych połączonych ze sobą i tworzących jeden element rysunkowy w sensie AutoCAD-a.\nW wierszu poleceń pojawiają się następujące funkcje służące do rysowania polilinii: ŁUk/Półszerokości/Długość/Cofaj/\nSzerokość.\nŁUk – włącza tryb rysowania segmentów łukowych,\nPółszerokości – określenie połowy szerokości polilinii\n(od osi do krawędzi zewnętrznej),\nCofaj – kasuje ostatnio narysowany odcinek,\nSzerokość – określa szerokość polilinii, z możliwością definiowania różnej szerokości początkowej i końcowej segmentu.\nUWAGA! Wielka litera w nazwie opcji polecenia oznacza skrót klawiaturowy tej opcji (np. gdy chcemy narysować polilinię o zdefiniowanej szerokości, wpisujemy literę s, a następnie wciskamy klawisz Enter).\nPROSTOKĄT Polecenie służy do kreślenia polilinii w kształcie prostokąta z możliwością wykonania automatycznego fazowania lub zaokrąglenia naroży. W wierszu poleceń pojawiają się dostępne opcje tego polecenia: Fazuj/Poziom/Zaokrąglij/Grubość/\nSzerokość.\nFazuj – określa długości fazowania rysowanego prostokąta,\n\nPoziom – określa poziom rysowanego prostokąta, dotyczy obiektów 3D,\nZaokrąg lij – określa promień zaokrąglenia narożników rysowanego prostokąta,\nGrubość – określa grubość rysowanego prostokąta,\nSzerokość – określa szerokość polilinii rysowanego prostokąta.\nUWAGA! Zastosowanie polecenia ROZBIJ do obiektów wykreślonych za pomocą poleceń POLILINIA oraz PROSTOKĄT powoduje ich dezintegrację i redukuje je do obiektów typu LINIA, a w przypadku występowania zaokrągleń – do obiektów typu LINIA i ŁUK.\nWIELOBOK Polecenie służy do rysowania wieloboków foremnych o podanej liczbie boków na podstawie znajomości promienia okręgu wpisanego w wielokąt, promienia okręgu opisanego na wieloboku lub długości boku.\nBok – definiuje wielobok przez podanie końców jednego boku,\nWpisany – rysuje wielobok, gdy znana jest odległość pomiędzy w okrąg środkiem okręgu i jego wierzchołkami (promień okręgu opisanego na wieloboku),\nOpisany – rysuje wielobok, gdy znana jest odległość pomiędzy na okręgu środkiem okręgu i punktem symetrii każdego boku\n(promień okręgu wpisanego w wielobok).\nPROSTA Polecenie pozwala na rysowanie nieskończenie długiej linii, która nie ma początku oraz końca. Opcje polecenia to: Poziom pIon Kąt Dwusieczna Odsuń.\nPoziom – rysuje linie równoległe do osi X, pIon – rysuje proste równoległe do osi Y,\nKąt – kreśli prostą pod podanym kątem do osi X,\nDwusieczna – rysuje linię będącą dwusieczną kąta określonego przez ramiona kąta,\nOdsuń – rysuje prostą równoległą do wskazanego obiektu liniowego oddaloną o podaną wartość.\nKOMENTARZ! Osie wprowadzonego układu współrzędnych nie muszą być poziome i pionowe.\nPÓŁPROSTA Polecenie służy do rysowania linii, której jeden koniec jest określony, a drugi biegnie w nieskończoność.\n\nKOMENTARZ! Właściwą szerokość obiektów kreślonych uzyskujemy przez rysowanie ich na odpowiedniej warstwie, po włączeniu przycisku SZEROKOŚĆ w Pasku stanu. Przeniesienie obiektów rysunkowych na nową warstwę także powoduje nadanie im szerokości zdefiniowanej na tej warstwie. W przypadku zdefiniowania indywidualnej szerokości linii w poleceniach POLILINIA oraz PROSTOKĄT obiekty są kreślone zgodnie z tą deklaracją.\nArkusz przykładów\nDo wykonania przykładów pobierz plik P_4.dwg, na koniec zapisz wyniki pod swoją nazwą.\nPrzykład 4.1. Narysować poleceniem LINIA strzałkę ABCDEFG o długości 60 jednostek i szerokości początkowej grotu 30 jednostek.\nZacznij rysowanie od wierzchołka oznaczonego przez A.\n1. Rysowanie do punktu B: @40,0.\n2. Rysowanie do punktu C: @0,-10.\n3. Rysowanie do punktu D: @20,15.\n4. Rysowanie do punktu E: @-20,15.\n5. Rysowanie do punktu F: @0,-10.\n6. Rysowanie do punktu G: @-40,0.\nRysowanie do punktu A: z (opcja Zamknij). Potwierdzanie działań klawiszem Enter.\nPrzykład 4.2.Stosując polecenie POLILINIA , narysować strzałkę o długości\n80 jednostek.\nPrzed rozpoczęciem pracy włącz tryb ORTO [F8].\nZacznij rysowanie od końca oznaczonego przez A.\n1. Określ punkt A – kliknij na ekranie.\n2. Wybierz opcję S (Szerokość).\n3. Wprowadź szerokość początkową 0.\n4. Wprowadź szerokość końcową.\n5. Skieruj kursor w prawą stronę, wprowadź wartość 50.\n6. Wybierz opcję S (Szerokość).\n7. Wprowadź szerokość początkową 15.\n8. Wprowadź szerokość końcową 0.\n9. Skieruj kursor w prawą stronę, wprowadź wartość 30.\nPotwierdzanie działań klawiszem Enter.\n\nPrzykład 4.3. Stosując polecenie PROSTOKĄT , narysować prostokąt o długości boków: 30 i 15 jednostek:\na) o narożach ostrych, b) o narożach zaokrąglonych o promieniu r = 7.\nUWAGA! Wartość dziesiętną szerokości wprowadzamy, wpisując kropkę z klawiatury głównej, a nie numerycznej (wtedy uzyskujemy przecinek).\na) Zacznij rysowanie od wierzchołka oznaczonego przez A.\n1. Najpierw wybierz opcję s (Szerokość).\n2. Wprowadź wartość 0.8.\n3. Wprowadź wierzchołek A (kliknij na ekranie).\n4. Wprowadź punkt B: @30,-15.\nPotwierdzanie działań klawiszem Enter.\nZacznij rysowanie od końca oznaczonego przez A. b)\n1. Najpierw wybierz opcję z (Zaokrąglij).\n2. Wprowadź wartość 7.\n3. Podaj współrzędne punktu B: @30,-15.\nPotwierdzanie działań klawiszem Enter.\nPrzykład 4.4. Stosując polecenie WIELOBOK , narysować figury foremne:\na) pięciokąt wpisany w okrąg o średnicy 35 jednostek, b) siedmiokąt o boku równym 13 jednostek.\na)\nProgram 1. Wprowadź liczbę boków: 5.\noczekuje 2. Wskaż środek okręgu (kliknij na ekranie).\nna podanie\n3. Wybierz tryb rysowania w (Wpisany...).\npromienia,\n4. Wprowadź wartość promienia: 17.5.\na nie średnicy\nPotwierdzanie działań klawiszem Enter.\nb)\n1. Wprowadź liczbę boków: 7.\n2. Wprowadź opcję b (Bok).\n3. Wprowadź punkt E boku (kliknij na ekranie).\n4. Podaj współrzędne punktu F: @13,0.\nPotwierdzanie działań klawiszem Enter.\n\nPrzykład 4.5. Stosując polecenie PROSTA (jest również nazywana onstrukcyjną) oraz PÓŁPROSTA , narysować:\na) dwusieczną kąta trójkąta przy wierzchołku C, b) pęk półprostych z punktu A przechodzących przez wierzchołki pięciokąta.\na)\n1. Wybierz opcję d (Dwusieczna).\n2. Wskaż wierzchołek C (śledzenie).\n3. Wskaż bok CA.\n4. Wskaż bok CB.\nPotwierdzanie działań klawiszem Enter.\nb)\n1. Wskaż punkt A (śledzenie).\n2. Wskazuj kolejne wierzchołki pięciokąta.\n3. Zakończ działanie polecenia klawiszem Enter.\nArkusz ćwiczeniowy\nCel ćwiczenia\nCelem ćwiczenia jest doskonalenie umiejętności korzystania z narzędzi rysunkowych: LINIA, POLILINIA, PROSTOKĄT, WIELOBOK rysowania odcinków i polilinii z wykorzystaniem względnych współrzędnych biegunowych i kartezjańskich, rysowania polilinii i prostokątów o różnej szerokości oraz rozwiązanie arkusza ćwiczeniowego.\nĆwiczenie 4.1. Wykreśl następujący rysunek, stosując polecenia LINIA .\nWczytaj plik CW_4–1.dwg, a wynik zapisz pod nową nazwą.\n1. Rysuj na warstwie o nazwie Kontur linii.\n2. Kreślenie zacznij od końca grotu strzałki z napisem START.\n3. Wymiary służą tylko do odczytania długości boków lub ich wyliczenia.\n4. Stosuj współrzędne względne kartezjańskie @x,y i biegunowe @ r < α\n\nNie wymiaruj rysunku\nĆwiczenie 4.2. Korzystając z polecenia LINIA , wykreśl przykładowy schemat obwodów SELV [7]. Wczytaj plik CW_4–2.dwg. Zapisz rysunek pod własną nazwą.\nSchemat po wczytaniu pliku\nKońcowy wygląd schematu\n\nSchematy obwodów elektrycznych nie są rysunkami rzeczywistych obiektów, dlatego nie muszą być kreślone w skali, stąd brak wymiarów na tym rysunku.\n1. Rysuj na warstwie o nazwie SCHEMAT.\n2. Kreślenie zacznij od końców istniejących elementów.\n3. Dobierz właściwe wymiary elementów schematu.\n4. Skorzystaj z możliwości rysowania przy włączonej opcji ORTO – klawisz F8\n(kreślenie linii poziomych albo pionowych).\n5. Stosuj współrzędne względne kartezjańskie i biegunowe (@x,y; @ r < α), jeśli to konieczne.\n6. Korzystaj z narzędzi ŚLEDZENIE.\nĆwiczenie 4.3. Wykreśl następujący rysunek, stosując polecenie POLILINIA .\nWczytaj plik CW_4–3.dwg, a rezultat prac zapisz pod nową nazwą.\n1. Rysuj na warstwie o nazwie Kontur linii.\n2. Kreślenie zacznij od końca grotu strzałki z napisem START.\n3. Wymiary służą tylko do odczytania długości boków, a w niektórych przypadkach do ich obliczenia (nie wymiaruj rysunku).\n4. Zdefiniuj szerokość początkową i końcową polilinii na 0.35.\n5. Stosuj współrzędne względne kartezjańskie i biegunowe (@x,y; @ r < α).\nNie wymiaruj rysunku\n\n5. Rysowanie: OKRĄG, ELIPSA, PIERŚCIEŃ\nIkony poleceń OKRĄG oraz ELIPSA znajdują się w widocznej części panelu\nRYSUJ. Polecenie PIERŚCIEŃ będzie widoczne po rozwinięciu zawartości tego panelu.\nOKRĄG Polecenie służy do rysowania okręgów poprzez podanie między innymi środka, promienia lub środka i średnicy bez definiowania szerokości linii. W wierszu poleceń pojawiają się 3 opcje pozwalające na wykreślanie okręgów. Bezpośredni dostęp do opcji rysowania okręgów uzyskujemy po rozwinięciu zawartości ikony\nOKRĄG.\n2P 2 punkty rysuje okrąg przechodzący przez dwa punkty wyznaczające średnicę,\n3P 3 punkty rysuje okrąg przechodzący przez trzy punkty,\nSsr Styczny, styczny, promień rysuje okrąg o podanym promieniu, styczny do dwóch wskazanych obiektów,\nSss Styczny, styczny, styczny rysuje okrąg styczny do wskazanych trzech obiektów.\nELIPSA Polecenie umożliwia rysowanie elips będących dokładnym matematycznym odwzorowaniem elipsy.\nStandardową metodą rysowania elipsy jest określenie punktów końcowych poziomej osi elipsy i odległości, która jest równa połowie wysokości elipsy.\nIstnieją również inne metody kreślenia elips, co pokazano na opcjonalnych ikonach umieszczonych obok.\nIkona Łuk eliptyczny pozwala na rysowanie wycinku elipsy (początkowo kreślimy elipsę, a następnie podajemy kąt położenia początku łuku oraz kąt położenia końca łuku).\nPIERŚCIEŃ Polecenie służy do rysowania okręgów o określonej szerokości linii. Pierścienie są w rzeczywistości zamkniętymi poliliniami posiadającymi szerokość.\nAby utworzyć pierścień, należy podać jego wewnętrzną i zewnętrzną średnicę oraz wskazać środek. Podając wartość średnicy wewnętrznej równą 0, można utworzyć jednolicie wypełnione koła.\n\nArkusz przykładów\nDo rozwiązania przykładów pobierz plik P_5.dwg. Uzyskiwane efekty pracy zapisuj w pliku o nowej nazwie.\nPrzykład 5.1. Stosując polecenie OKRĄG , narysować okręgi:\na) środek w punkcie o współrzędnych bezwzględnych 200, 150 i promieniu 30 jednostek, b) styczny do dwóch przyprostokątnych trójkąta i promieniu równym 10 jednostkom;\nc) styczny do trzech boków trójkąta.\nd) opisany na trójkącie.\nWprowadź a) Do rysowania możesz wybrać właściwą ikowspółrzędne nę po rozwinięciu zawartości ikony zbiorczej.\nbezwzględne 1. Wprowadź współrzędne środka okręgu\n200, 150.\n2. Wprowadź wartość 30.\nPotwierdzanie działań klawiszem Enter.\nb)\nDo rysowania należy wybrać ikonę po rozwinięciu zawartości ikony zbiorczej. Opcja ta automatycznie włącza śledzenie stycznych do obiektu.\n1. Wskaż kolejno dwie przyprostokątne.\n2. Wprowadź wartość 15.\nPotwierdzanie działań klawiszem Enter.\nc)\nDo rysowania należy wybrać ikonę po rozwinięciu zawartości ikony zbiorczej.\nTa opcja automatycznie włącza śledzenie stycznych do obiektu.\n1. Wskaż kolejno trzy boki trójkąta.\nd)\nDo rysowania należy wybrać ikonę .\n3 punkty po rozwinięciu zawartości ikony zbiorczej.\n1. Wskaż kolejno trzy wierzchołki trójkąta.\n\nPrzykład 5.2. Stosując polecenie ELIPSA , narysować elipsę o długości dłuższej osi równej 90 jednostek i krótszej osi równej 40 jednostek oraz elipsę o dłuższej osi równej 62 i krótszej 20. Wynik zapisz w nowym pliku.\nProgram 1. Wskaż środek elipsy poprzez kliknięcie oczekuje LPM.\npołowę 2. Określ koniec osi: wpisz @45,0.\nwartości\n3. Wprowadź wartości drugiej półosi: 20.\ndługości osi\nPotwierdzanie działań klawiszem Enter.\n1. Do rysowania wybierz ikonę Oś, koniec.\n2. Określ początek osi elipsy oraz koniec.\n3. Wprowadź wartość drugiej półosi: 10.\nPotwierdzanie działań klawiszem Enter.\nKOMENTARZ! Przy rysowaniu elips można zastosować zmienną systemową\nPELLIPSE:\n• wartość 0 – rysowana jest elipsa opisana równaniem parametrycznym\n(nie można zmienić szerokości linii elipsy),\n• wartość 1 – elipsa rysowana jest polilinią. Elipsa jest wtedy łańcuchem łuków o różnych promieniach (możliwa jest jej edycja).\nZmienną należy wpisać z klawiatury przed narysowaniem elipsy.\nPrzykład 5.3. Stosując polecenie PIERŚCIEŃ , narysować okręgi o średnicy\n45 jednostek i grubości linii równej 2 jednostkom:\na) z wypełnieniem, b) bez wypełnienia.\nKOMENTARZ! Dostęp do włączania/wyłączania wypełnienia: PPM (na obszarze rysunkowym) > Opcje... > Wyświetl > Zastosuj pełne wypełnienie,\nOK. Aby rysunek zmienił wygląd, należy go odświeżyć: menu rozwijane Widok > Regen lub wpisać w wierszu poleceń Regen.\nPrzy zastosowaniu tego polecenia należy obliczyć średnicę wewnętrzną oraz zewnętrzną, uwzględniając przy tym szerokość uzyskiwanej linii. W przypadku danych z zadania uzyskujemy: średnica wew. = 43, zaś zew. = 47 jednostek.\n\nWprowadź 1. Określ: średnicę wew. = 43. a) b) współrzędne 2. Określ: średnicę zew. = 47.\nbezwzględne 3. Wskaż środek pierścienia (kliknij lub wpisz zmienne bezwzględne).\n4. Ponownie włącz wypełnienie.\nPotwierdzanie działań klawiszem Enter.\nArkusz ćwiczeniowy\nCel ćwiczenia\nCelem ćwiczenia jest doskonalenie umiejętności korzystania z takich narzędzi rysunkowych, jak: LINIA, POLILINIA, PROSTOKĄT oraz OKRĄG, za pomocą wszystkich dostępnych opcji oraz rozwiązanie arkusza ćwiczeniowego.\nĆwiczenie 5.1. Wykreśl rysunek następującego elementu konstrukcyjnego. Wczytaj plik CW_5–1.dwg, a wynik swojej pracy zapisz pod własną nazwą.\nNie wymiaruj rysunku\n1. Rysuj na warstwie o nazwie KONTUR.\n2. Kreślenie zacznij od końca grotu strzałki z napisem START.\n\n3. Okręgi należy rysować, korzystając z polecenia OKRĄG.\n4. Rzut boczny wykreśl, używając polecenia POLILINIA.\n5. Zdefiniuj szerokość polilinii na 0.5.\n6. Linie kreskowe wykreśl na warstwie NIEWIDOCZNE, stosując polecenie LINIA.\n7. Zastosuj współrzędne względne kartezjańskie lub biegunowe (@x,y; @ r < α), a także lokalizację punktów charakterystycznych.\nĆwiczenie 5.2. Wykreśl rysunek przedstawiający rzut płyty z zaokrąglonymi narożami i pięcioma otworami. Wymiary podane są na rysunku.\nWczytaj plik CW_5–2.dwg. Rysuj na odpowiednich warstwach.\nWynik prac zapisz pod nową nazwą.\nNie wymiaruj rysunku\n1. Na warstwie KONTUR narysuj prostokąty, stosując polecenie PROSTOKĄT\n(w prostokącie zewnętrznym użyj opcji zaokrąglij). Kreślenie rozpocznij od punktów początkowych oznaczonych jako START. Zastosuj względne współrzędne kartezjańskie.\n2. Na warstwie OKRĄG narysuj okręgi, należy skorzystać z polecenia OKRĄG.\nZastosuj ŚLEDZENIE: KONiec, PRZecięcie.\nUWAGA! Szerokości linii na rysunku będą widoczne po włączeniu przycisku\nSZEROKOŚĆ w Pasku stanu.\n\nĆwiczenie 5.3. Wykreśl rysunek przedstawiający rzut płyty. Wymiary podane są na rysunku. Wczytaj plik CW_5–3.dwg. Rysuj na odpowiednich warstwach. Wynik prac zapisz pod nową nazwą.\nNie wymiaruj rysunku\n1. Rysuj na warstwie o nazwie KONTUR.\n2. Zacznij od narysowania za pomocą polecenia OKRĄG dwóch okręgów Ø30 i Ø44.\n3. Za pomocą polecenia POLILINIA narysuj kwadratowy kształt.\n4. Zastosuj współrzędne względne kartezjańskie lub biegunowe (@x,y; @ r < α), a także lokalizację punktów charakterystycznych.\n5. Narysuj pozostałe dwa okręgi o średnicy 10.\n\n6. Rysowanie: ŁUK, POLILINIA z łukowymi segmentami,\nMULTILINIA\nIkony poleceń ŁUK oraz POLILINIA są bezpośrednio widoczne w panelu Rysuj.\nŁUK Łuk jest wycinkiem okręgu. Dlatego podstawową metodą rysowania łuków jest wskazanie środka łuku (okręgu, z którego został wycięty) oraz określenie jego początku i końca. Polecenie to umożliwia jednak kreślenie łuków na wiele innych sposobów, w zależności od tego, jakie informacje o nim mamy.\n– łuk przechodzący przez 3 różne punkty,\n– punkt początkowy, środek łuku, punkt końcowy,\n– punkt początkowy, środek łuku, kąt rozwarcia,\n– punkt początkowy, środek łuku, długość cięciwy,\n– punkt początkowy, koniec łuku, kąt rozwarcia,\n– punkt początkowy, punkt końcowy, kierunek stycznej do łuku w punkcie początkowym,\n– punkt początkowy, punkt końcowy, prom. łuku,\n– środek łuku, punkt początkowy, punkt końcowy,\n– środek łuku, punkt początkowy, kąt rozwarcia,\n– środek łuku, punkt początkowy, długość cięciwy,\n– możliwość kontynuowania rysowania łuku od końca innego łuku.\nMULTILINIA\nPolecenie Multilinia pozwala tworzyć elementy składające się z równoległych linii o różnych stylach i skalach.\nPodczas rysowania Multilinii można wybierać wcześniej stworzone style, określać skalę lub dopasowywać ją. Wyrównanie pozwala wskazać, z której strony kursora będzie ona rysowana. Edytor do tworzenia Multilinii wywoływany jest poleceniem MLSTYL, a przechodząc do rysowania, należy wybrać polecenie ML.\n\nPolecenie POLILINIA było już częściowo omawiane w rozdziale 4.\nPOLILINIA Polecenie to pozwala również na rysowanie wielu łuków o zadeklarowanych szerokościach stanowiących ciąg segmentów połączonych ze sobą i tworzących jeden element rysunkowy w sensie AutoCAD-a. Gdy jesteśmy w trybie rysowaniu łuku, mamy możliwość przełączenia na tryb rysowania odcinków, które również są połączone z wcześniej wykreślonymi łukami. Łuki można rysować na wiele sposobów, np. przez podanie środka, promienia oraz kąta rozwarcia łuku.\nłUk – włącza tryb rysowania segmentów łukowych,\nLinia – włącza tryb rysowania linii (odcinków).\nArkusz przykładów\nPrzykład 6.1. Wczytaj plik P_6–1.dwg. Stosując polecenie ŁUK , narysuj następujące łuki (wynik zapisz pod nową nazwą):\na) przechodzący przez 3 istniejące punkty, b) znając punkt początkowy, środek łuku (okręgu, którego jest wycinkiem) o parametrach: r = 20, kąt rozwarcia = 90.\na)\n1. Rozwiń ikonę ŁUK i wybierz ikonę opcji 3 punkty .\n2. Włącz ŚLEDZENIE, wskaż w odpowiedniej kolejności punkty, przez które ma przechodzić kreślony łuk.\nKOMENTARZ! W przykładzie b) określenie środka łuku po wcześniejszym wskazaniu punktu początkowego jest równoważne ze znajomością promienia łuku, dlatego położenie łuku możemy wprowadzić, stosując współrzędne względne kartezjańskie.\nb)\n1. Rozwiń ikonę ŁUK i wybierz właściwą ikonę .\n2. Wskaż punkt początkowy P1.\n3. Określ środek: @20,0.\n4. Wprowadź kąt rozwarcia: -90.\nPotwierdzanie działań klawiszem Enter.\n\nUWAGA! Dodatni zwrot kąta jest przeciwny do ruchu wskazówek zegara, wartość kąta podajemy w stopniach kątowych.\nc) 1. Rozwiń ikonę ŁUK i wybierz ikonę opcji początek, środek, koniec .\n2. Włącz ŚLEDZENIE, wskaż w odpowiedniej kolejności punkty, przez które ma przechodzić kreślony łuk.\n3. Określ początek łuku (prawy górny róg największego prostokąta oznaczony P1).\n4. Określ środek łuku (prawy dolny narożnik największego prostokąta oznaczony P2).\n5. Określ punkt końcowy łuku (koniec linii w prawym górnym rogu oznaczonym P3).\n1. Rozwiń ikonę ŁUK i wybierz ikonę opcji początek, koniec, promień\n2. Wskaż punkt początkowy P1. d)\n3. Wskaż punkt końcowy P2.\n4. Wprowadź promień: 80.\n5. Powtórz czynności z punktów P3 i P4.\nPotwierdź działania klawiszem Enter.\nPrzykład 6.2. Narysować element za pomocą polecenia POLILINIA o szerokości 0.7. Wymiary widoczne są na rysunku. Stosujemy opcję łUk oraz Linia. Wczytaj plik P_6–2.dwg, a wynik zapisz pod nową nazwą.\n1. Wybierz polecenie POLILINIA .\n2. Zacznij rysowanie od punktu A w kierunku zgodnym z ruchem wskazówek zegara.\n3. Definiujemy szerokość początkową i końcową linii (opcja S), wprowadź wartości 0.7.\nWpisane opcje i wartości potwierdzamy klawiszem\nEnter.\n4. Wpisywane kolejne wartości i wybrane opcje:\n@50,0; @0,10; opcja U; @-10,10; opcja L; @0,20; @-20,0; @0,-10; opcja U;\nopcja O; @0,-20; opcja T; 90; opcja L; @0,-10.\n\nPrzykład 6.3. Wczytaj plik P_6–3.dwg. Stosując polecenie MULTILINIA, narysuj następujące kształty.\na)\n1. Wpisz polecenie MULTILINIA (ML).\n2. Wybierz opcję Wyrównanie, Góra.\n3. Narysuj kształt przedstawiony obok, korzystając z ORTO(F8), wpisując długości MULTILINII.\nb) Rysunek po wczytaniu\n1. Włącz tryb śledzenie lokalizacji Symetria.\n2. Wybierz polecenie MULTILINIA(ML).\n3. Wybierz opcję Wyrównanie, Zero.\n4. Narysuj MULTILINIĘ pionową.\n5. Wybierz polecenie MULTILINIA(ML).\n6. Narysuj MULTILINIĘ poziomą.\n7. Wybierz polecenie EDMLIN.\nRysunek gotowy 8. Wybierz opcję otwarty krzyż i naciśnij narysowane linie kolejno pionową i poziomą.\nArkusz ćwiczeniowy\nCel ćwiczenia\nCelem ćwiczenia jest doskonalenie umiejętności korzystania z takich narzędzi rysunkowych, jak: ŁUK, POLILINIA z łukowymi segmentami, MULTILINIA oraz rozwiązanie arkusza ćwiczeniowego.\nĆwiczenie 6.1. Narysuj symbole graficzne wybranych urządzeń elektrycznych [3].\nWczytaj plik CW_6–1.dwg, a wynik zapisz pod nową nazwą.\n1. Rysuj na warstwie o nazwie KONTUR.\n2. Po zakończeniu kreślenia wykasuj osie poleceniem WYMAŻ.\n3. W Pasku stanu włącz ŚLEDZENIE i OBIEKT.\n4. Na rysunku c) zastosuj polecenie ŁUK z opcją (początek, koniec, promień), punkty wskazuj w kolejności A, B.\n5. Na rysunku d) mamy 4 półokręgi o promieniu 2. Zastosuj polecenie ŁUK z opcją\n(początek, środek, koniec). Po wskazaniu punktu początkowego środek możesz określić, stosując względne współrzędne kartezjańskie (@2,0 albo @-2,0, w zależności od którego fragmentu rysunku jest kreślony).\n\nNie wymiaruj rysunku\nĆwiczenie 6.2. Wykreśl następujący rysunek, korzystając tylko z polecenia POLILINIA.\nZdefiniuj szerokość linii na 0.4. Stosuj opcję łUk oraz Linia oraz współrzędne względne kartezjańskie. Wczytaj plik CW_6–2.dwg.\nRezultat swoich prac zapisz pod nową nazwą.\nUWAGA! Aby narysować obiekt o kształcie okręgu za pomocą polecenia POLILINIA z opcją łUk, należy najpierw wykreślić łuk o właściwym promieniu i dowolnej rozwartości (np. półokrąg), a następnie zastosować opcję\nZamknij. Otrzymany obiekt nie jest okręgiem w sensie topologicznym, ale zamkniętą Polilinią złożoną z dwóch segmentów łukowych.\nNie wymiaruj rysunku\n\nĆwiczenie 6.3. Stwórz własny styl MULTILINII reprezentujący ścianę zewnętrzną, a następnie wykreśl rysunek rzutu kondygnacji. Wczytaj plik CW_6–3.\ndwg. Rezultat swoich prac zapisz pod nową nazwą.\nRysunek po wczytaniu\nRysunek gotowy\n\n1. Wywołaj okno tworzenia stylu multilinii poleceniem MLSTYL.\n2. Naciśnij na styl STANDARD, a następnie NOWY i nadaj mu nazwę SCIANA.\n3. W obszarze Elementy dodawaj kolejne linie odsunięcia z przypisanymi wartościami liczonymi od osi symetrii warstwy konstrukcyjnej ściany.\nUkład warstw ściany z wymiarowaniem Układ warstw ściany z wymiarowaniem grubości materiałów oddającym ustawienia w oknie MLSTYL\n4. Zmień rodzaj linii odsuniętej o 17 jednostek na GRADZINOWANIE.\n5. Wyjdź z edytora, zapisując zmiany i ustawiając styl SCIANA jakob ieżący.\n6. Wywołaj plecenie ML (MLINIA), ustaw w wierszu poleceń: Wyrównianie = Zero i Skala = 1.00.\n7. Korzystaj z trybów śledzenia lokalizacji Przecięcie.\n8. Rysowanie zacznij od lewego górnego rogu i postępuj z ruchem wskazówek zegara.\n9. Rysowanie zakończ poleceniem Z(Zamknij).\n\n7. Modyfikacje: PRZESUŃ, LUSTRO, KOPIUJ, WYMAŻ,\nOBRÓT, SKALA, WYRÓWNAJ\nPolecenia do zmiany istniejących obiektów znajdujących się na arkuszu rysunkowym zostały umieszczone w panelu Modyfikuj. Ze względu na ich dużą liczbę na panelu wyświetlonych zostało 12 ikon reprezentujących wybrane narzędzia (w tym 9 z nazwami).\nUmieszczone strzałki przy trzech poleceniach umożliwiają ich rozwinięcie i uzyskanie bezpośredniego dostępu do poleceń, które są ich rozszerzeniem lub uzupełnieniem. Na rysunku 7.1 pokazano ikony poleceń znajdujące się na głównym panelu, więcej ikon poleceń jest dostępnych po jego rozwinięciu. Pozostałe polecenia, a także ich rozwinięcia będą przedstawione w kolejnych rozdziałach, które również dotyczą prezentacji narzędzi do modyfikowania obiektów rysunkowych.\nRys. 7.1. Panel Modyfikuj\nProcesowi korzystania z poleceń do modyfikacji istniejących obiektów towarzyszą zawsze działania pozwalające na ich zaznaczenie. W tym miejscu należy przypomnieć, że obiekt można zaznaczyć na dwa sposoby (inne metody nie są tu omawiane), przez kliknięcie na niego albo przez przeciągnięcie myszką okna, w którym obiekt znajdzie się w całości. W drugim sposobie wskazujemy najpierw lewe naroże okna, a następnie prawe (wszystko jedno, czy drugie kliknięcie pokazuje punkt powyżej, czy poniżej kliknięcia pierwszego). Gdy kolejność kreślenia okna jest odwrotna – z prawej strony na lewo – powstaje tzw. okno przecinające, które zaznacza również elementy przecięte przez krawędzie utworzonego okna. Proces zaznaczania obiektów należy wykonywać dopiero po wybraniu polecenia, w przeciwnym razie na wybranych obiektach pojawiają się uchwyty, które w tym podręczniku nie są omawiane. Odznaczanie elementów zaznaczonych wykonujemy przez zastosowanie okna zaznaczania lub klikanie przy wciśniętym przycisku Shift.\nPRZESUŃ Polecenie pozwala na przesuwanie istniejących obiektów. Po wybraniu obiektów, które mają być przemieszczane, należy wybrać jedną z opcji:\nPunkt – przesuwanie oparte na wskazaniu punktu bazowego bazowy i punktu docelowego. Punkty te wyznaczają dokładnie położenie przesuwanego obiektu,\nPrzesunięcie – przesuwanie oparte na wskazaniu przemieszczenia obiektu w kierunku X, Y i Z względem bieżącego położenia.\n\nLUSTRO Polecenie powoduje odbicie obiektów w symetrii osiowej względem dowolnej osi leżącej w płaszczyźnie bieżącego układu współrzędnych. Otrzymane obiekty są lustrzanym odbiciem oryginałów, zaś pierwowzory mogą zostać usunięte (w zależności od naszej decyzji). Po wybraniu obiektów do odbicia należy wskazać dwa punkty określające oś symetrii.\nPrzy stosowaniu tej komendy należy pamiętać o zmiennej\nMIRRTEXT, którą wprowadzamy z klawiatury. Wartość 1 powoduje, że odbicie lustrzane napisu staje się nieczytelne, natomiast wartość 0 powoduje, że napis po odbiciu jest nadal czytelny.\nWartość zmiennej MIRRTEXT ustawiana jest we wszystkich rysunkach programu AutoCAD, a nie tylko w aktualnym rysunku.\nKOPIUJ Polecenie umożliwia wielokrotne kopiowanie istniejących obiektów na rysunku, przy czym oryginał pozostaje w tym samym miejscu. Wyjście z polecenia następuje przez naciśnięcie klawisza Esc albo Enter. Po wprowadzeniu komendy należy wskazać obiekty do skopiowania. Następnie trzeba wybrać jedną z dostępnych opcji:\nPunkt – kopiowanie oparte na wskazaniu punktu bazowebazowy go i punktu docelowego. Punkty te wyznaczają dokładnie położenie kopiowanego obiektu,\nPrzesunięcie – kopiowanie oparte na wskazaniu przemieszczenia obiektu w kierunku X, Y i Z względem bieżącego położenia.\nWYMAŻ Polecenie umożliwia wykasowanie jednego lub wielu obiektów znajdujących się na rysunku. Po wybraniu polecenia zaznaczamy obiekty do usunięcia przez klikanie, tworzenie okien lub w inny sposób dopuszczalny w programie. Po naciśnięciu klawisza Enter zaznaczone obiekty znikają. Wykonane polecenie możemy oczywiście cofnąć przez kombinację klawiszy Ctrl+Z.\nSKALA Polecenie pozwala na skalowanie obiektów, które polega na równomiernym ich zmniejszeniu lub powiększaniu równocześnie w kierunku osi X, Y i Z. Skalowanie odbywa się za pomocą współczynnika skali (współczynnik skali większy niż 1 powiększa obiekty, zaś mniejszy niż 1 – zmniejsza je) lub przez tzw. Odniesienie (istniejący wymiar traktowany jest jako odniesienie do nowego rozmiaru).\nW opisywanej wersji programu AutoCAD dostępna jest również opcja Kopiuj pozwalająca na zachowanie oryginału przeskalowywanego obiektu. Polecenie to odnosi się również do kreskowania oraz napisów.\n\nOBRÓT Polecenie obraca istniejące obiekty wokół wskazanego punktu o bezwzględną wartość kąta obrotu. Polecenie umożliwia także obracanie napisów. W wersji programu AutoCAD 2023 dostępna jest również opcja Kopiuj pozwalająca na zachowanie oryginału obracanego obiektu. Polecenie posiada opcję Odniesienie, pozwalające na wprowadzenie wartości kąta, który staje się odniesieniem do podanej wartości kąta obrotu.\nWYRÓWNAJ Polecenie pozwala na dopasowanie położenia obiektów w odniesieniu do innych obiektów. Pracując z tym poleceniem, możliwe jest przenoszenie, obracanie i pochylanie wybranych obiektów przez wyrównanie ich względem punktów na innym obiekcie. Dopasowanie może być realizowane po określeniu jednej, dwóch lub trzech par punktów źródłowych i punktów definicji.\nArkusz przykładów\nDo wykonania przykładów włącz plik P_7.dwg. Po wykonaniu rysunków zapisz je pod nową nazwą.\nPrzykład 7.1. Wykorzystując polecenie PRZESUŃ , przemieść okrąg tak, aby jego środek oddalony był o 15 jednostek w prawo i 20 w górę.\n1. Wybierz polecenie PRZESUŃ.\n2. Zaznacz okrąg (kliknij np. w P1).\n3. Zakończ zaznaczanie: Enter.\n4. Określ punkt bazowy: pokaż Środek okręgu\n(włączone ŚLEDZENIE oraz OBIEKT).\n5. Wprowadź wartość przesunięcia: @15,20.\nCzynności potwierdzaj klawiszem Enter.\nPrzykład 7.2. Stosując polecenie LUSTRO , wykonaj odbicie zbiornika z opisem względem pionowej osi:\na) gdy parametr MIRRTEXT=1, b) gdy parametr MIRRTEXT=0.\nWłącz ŚLEDZENIE oraz OBIEKT w Pasku stanu.\n\n1. Wpisz z klawiatury parametr MIRRTEXT a) i wprowadź wartość 1.\n2. Wybierz polecenie LUSTRO.\n3. Zaznacz obiekt i tekst, zakończ klawiszem Enter.\n4. Wskaż końce widocznej linii pionowej jako osi odbicia.\n5. Nie wymazuj oryginału, wpisz N.\nb)\n1. Wpisz z klawiatury parametr MIRRTEXT i wprowadź wartość 0.\n2. Pozostałe czynności jak w przykładzie powyżej.\nPrzykład 7.3. Używając polecenia KOPIUJ , uzupełnij brakujące elementy we fragmencie schematu elektrycznego.\nUWAGA! Przy wskazywaniu punktów należy skorzystać ze stałych punktów lokalizacji:\nKONiec, CENtrum. Należy włączyć ŚLEDZENIE i OBIEKT w Pasku stanu.\nUstawianie punktów lokalizacji – najechać myszą na przycisk ŚLEDZENIE i włączyć menu kontekstowe (prawy przycisk myszy).\n1. Wybierz polecenie KOPIUJ.\n2. Wybierz obiekty. Zastosuj okno typu przecinającego.\n3. Kliknij punkt P1, a następnie P2.\n4. Zakończ fazę zaznaczania klawiszem Enter.\n5. Określ punkt bazowy: wskaż dolny koniec pionowego odcinka P3.\n6. Kopiuj zaznaczone obiekty, wskazując punkty P4 oraz P5.\nCzynności potwierdzaj klawiszem Enter.\n\nPrzykład 7.4. Za pomocą polecenia OBRÓT narysuj i przekręć linię osi o 90°.\n1. Rozpocznij pracę z szablonu acadiso.dwt.\n2. Zapisz rysunek pod nazwą Przykład 7.4.\n3. Stwórz warstwę Osie, przypisz jej kolor czerwony, grubość 0,5, rodzaj: ACAD_\nISO10W100.\n4. Włącz ORTO (F8) oraz zastosuj śledzenie: PUNKT SYMETRII.\n5. Na warstwie Osie narysuj linię długości 50 jednostek.\n6. Z panelu Zmień wybierz polecenie OBRÓĆ i zaznacz obiekt.\n7. Wskaż oś obrotu (Punkt symetrii).\n8. Wybierz opcję kopiuj (K) i wprowadź wartość obrotu: 90°.\nUWAGA! W panelu Osie symetrii na karcie Opisz znajduje się polecenie Znacznik środka, który umożliwia automatyczne wstawienie znacznika po wskazaniu okręgu lub łuku. Na panelu jest również polecenie Oś symetrii, korzystając z niego tworzona jest oś symetrii o określonym rodzaju linii w połączeniu z wybranymi liniami.\nPrzykład 7.5. Za pomocą polecenia SKALA dopasuj rzuty prostokątne do wymiarów lewego górnego rzutu.\nRysunek po wczytaniu pliku\n\n1. Wybierz polecenie SKALA (S).\n2. Zaznacz dolny obiekt. Enter.\n3. Określ punkt bazowy (Środek symetrii lewego boku, punkt P1).\n4. Wybierz opcję Odniesienie.\n5. Określ długość odniesienia – wskaż punkt\nP1, następnie P2 (Środek symetrii).\n6. Wybierz opcję Punkty.\n7. Określ nową długość odniesienia\n– wskaż punkty P3 i P4. Rysunek\n8. Powtórz analogicznie czynności gotowy w prawym rzucie.\nPrzykład 7.6. Za pomocą polecenia WYRÓWNAJ dopasuj daszek do domku.\n1. Rozwiń panel Zmień i wybierz polecenie WYRÓWNAJ.\n2. Wybierz obiekty – daszek, Enter.\n3. Określ pierwszy punkt źródłowy P1 (KONiec; włączone ŚLEDZENIE), następnie pierwszy punkt docelowy P2.\n4. Określ drugi punkt źródłowy, P3, następnie drugi punkt docelowy P4.\n5. Określ trzeci punkt docelowy – dalej (Enter).\n6. Wybierz opcję Tak, aby obiekt został przeskalowany.\nArkusz ćwiczeniowy\nCel ćwiczenia\nCelem ćwiczenia jest doskonalenie umiejętności modyfikacji rysunków przez zastosowanie takich poleceń, jak: PRZESUŃ, LUSTRO, KOPIUJ, OBRÓT i SKALUJ oraz rozwiązanie arkusza ćwiczeniowego.\nĆwiczenie 7.1. Uzupełnij schemat włączenia wyłączników przeciwporażeniowych różnicowoprądowych w układzie sieciowym IT [7].\nWczytaj plik CW_7–1.dwg, a po rozwiązaniu zapisz pod nową nazwą.\n\nRysunek uzupełniony\nRysunek do uzupełnienia\n1. Do uzupełnienia schematu zastosuj polecenie KOPIUJ .\n2. Wybierz okno Trybu lokalizacji względem obiektu i zaznacz odpowiednie punkty śledzenia: KONiec, CENtrum.\n3. Do zaznaczania obiektów użyj okna obejmujące oraz okno przecinające obiekty.\n4. Starannie obejrzyj gotowy rysunek, aby nie pominąć żadnych elementów schematu.\nĆwiczenie 7.2. Korzystając z polecenia LUSTRO , uzupełnij rysunek. Wczytaj plik CW_7–2.dwg, a po rozwiązaniu zapisz pod nową nazwą.\n1. Wywołaj okno Trybu lokalizacji względem obiektu i zaznacz odpowiednie punkty śledzenia: KONiec, SYMetria.\n2. Do zaznaczania obiektów użyj okna obejmujące obiekty.\n3. Do przeniesienia obiektów jako osi symetrii wskaż Punkt symetrii dolnej linii i górnego łuku.\n4. Uzupełnij brakujące osie symetrii okręgów.\nRysunek po wczytaniu pliku\n\nRysunek uzupełniony\nĆwiczenie 7.3. Korzystając z polecenia LUSTRO , uzupełnij rysunek przekroju tarczy z otworami. Pobierz plik CW_7–3.dwg, a końcowy rezultat zapisz pod nową nazwą.\n1. Wywołaj okno Trybu lokalizacji względem obiektu i zaznacz odpowiednie punkty śledzenia: KONiec.\n2. Do przeniesienia obiektów jako osi symetrii użyj istniejących osi, wskaż jej końce.\nZachowaj oryginał.\nRysunek po wczytaniu pliku\nRysunek uzupełniony\nĆwiczenie 7.4. Korzystając z polecenia KOPIUJ , uzupełnij rysunek przekroju podciągu żelbetowego o dolne zbrojenie poziome. Pobierz plik\nCW_7–4.dwg, a końcowy rezultat zapisz pod nową nazwą.\n1. Wybierz polecenie KOPIUJ.\n2. Wybierz obiekt w lewym dolnym narożniku P1.\n3. Zakończ fazę zaznaczania klawiszem Enter.\n\n4. Określ punkt bazowy: wskaż środek okręgu.\n5. Wybierz z wiersza poleceń opcję Szyk.\n6. Wpisz liczbę elementów równą 5.\n7. Wybierz z wiersza poleceń opcję Dopasuj.\n8. Określ punkt końcowy w środku okręgu P2.\n9. Zakończ klawiszem Enter.\nUWAGA! Oznaczenie pręta jest przygotowane w formie bloku, na który składa się oznaczenie jego średnic: 12, 20 mm oraz tarczy z pojedynczych okręgów. Przy wydruku arkusza pręt przyjmuje formę wypełnionej kropki.\nRysunek po wczytaniu pliku\nRysunek uzupełniony\n\n8. Modyfikacje: UTNIJ, WYDŁUŻ, PRZERWIJ,\nROZCIĄGNIJ, ZAOKRĄGLIJ, FAZUJ, BLOK\nCzęść ikon poleceń omawianych w tym rozdziale została umieszczona w widocznym fragmencie panelu Modyfikuj (rys. 8.1). Dostęp do polecenia WYDŁUŻ uzyskujemy po rozwinięciu polecenia UTNIJ, zaś do polecenia FAZUJ – po rozwinięciu polecenia\nZAOKRĄGLIJ. Ikona polecenia PRZERWIJ będzie widoczna po rozwinięciu panelu\nModyfikuj.\nRys. 8.1. Panel narzędzi Modyfikuj\nPolecenie pozwala ucinać obiekty na linii cięcia wyznaczonej\nUTNIJ przez inne obiekty lub ich przedłużenia; liniami cięcia mogą być również linie kreskowania oraz niewidoczne ramki otaczające napisy. Można nie pokazywać granicy cięcia (przechodzimy do kolejnej fazy klawiszem Enter) i wtedy wskazywane elementy obiektu będą ucinane przez pierwszy napotkany obiekt, z którym się krzyżuje. Będąc w poleceniu UTNIJ, można wykonać działanie polecenia WYDŁUŻ – wskazujemy wtedy obiekt przy wciśniętym klawiszu Shift. Po ucięciu obiektu typu prosta uzyskujemy półprostą, zaś po ucięciu półprostej (część biegnącą do nieskończoności) otrzymujemy odcinek typu linia.\nPolecenie przedłuża istniejące obiekty zgodnie z ich charakterem\nWYDŁUŻ\n(odcinki, polilinie, łuki) tak, by kończyły się dokładnie na linii granicznej lub przedłużeniu linii granicznej wyznaczonej przez inne obiekty. Granicami wydłużania mogą być również linie kreskowania oraz niewidoczne ramki otaczające napisy. Można nie pokazywać granicy wydłużania (przechodzimy do kolejnej fazy klawiszem Enter) i wtedy wskazywane elementy obiektu będą przedłużane do pierwszego napotkanego obiektu, z którym będzie się krzyżował. Należy pamiętać o wskazywaniu właściwego końca obiektu, który ma być przedłużony. Będąc w poleceniu\nWYDŁUŻ, można wykonać działanie polecenia UTNIJ – wskazujemy wtedy obiekt przy wciśniętym klawiszu Shift.\n\nPRZERWIJ Polecenie PRZERWIJ umożliwia wycięcie fragmentu obiektu takiego, jak linia, łuk, okrąg, polilinia, kwadrat, wielokąt, elipsa, pierścień, prosta, półprosta. W przypadku wycinania fragmentów okręgów cięcie jest realizowane zgodnie z dodatnim kątem w układzie OXY, a więc przeciwnie do ruchu wskazówek zegara.\nPolecenie po wskazaniu obiektu traktuje zidentyfikowany punkt jako pierwszy punkt przerwania. Można to zmienić, wybierając dostępną opcję:\nPierwszy – mamy możliwość na nowo określić pierwszy punkt przerwania (istotne, gdy operacja przerwania ma rozpoczynać się od punktu krzyżowania się dwóch obiektów).\nStosując polecenie PRZERWIJ W PUNKCIE , przecinamy wskazany obiekt na dwa stykające się ze sobą obiekty (w kolejnym kroku wskazujemy punkt rozcięcia).\nROZCIĄGNIJ Polecenie deformuje obiekty w ten sposób, że punkty obiektów znajdujących się w rozciągniętym oknie przecinającym obiekty są przesuwane, a pozostałe pozostają nieruchome. Obiekty poddane temu poleceniu zachowują ciągłości linii oraz łuków tworzących obiekty. Polecenie to działa aktywnie także w przypadku kreskowania oraz wymiarowania.\nZAOKRĄGLIJ Polecenie zaokrągla obiekty dwóch wybranych przecinających się linii, łuków, łuków eliptycznych, splajnów, półprostych, prostych lub okręgów, łukiem o podanym promieniu. Można zaokrąglić linie równoległe, wówczas średnica zaokrąglenia równa jest odległości między liniami. Polecenie posiada następujące opcje:\npRomień – wprowadzanie wartości promienia zaokrąglenia;\nzmiana tej wartości w kolejnym wywołaniu polecenia nie zmienia istniejących już łuków; podana wartość staje się aktualnym promieniem przy następnych wywołaniach polecenia;\nPolilinia – dotyczy zaokrąglania obiektów typu polilinia;\nprzy jednym wskazaniu obiektu uzyskujemy zaokrąglenie wszystkich naroży;\nUtnij – uaktywnienie tej opcji powoduje, że mamy możliwość wyboru, czy naroża znajdujące się za zaokrągleniem zostają odcięte (Z ucinaniem) lub pozostawione (Bez ucinania);\n\nWiele – po wykonaniu pierwszego zaokrąglenia możemy wskazywać kolejne obiekty do zaokrąglenia;\nwyjście z sesji klawiszami Enter lub Esc.\nKOMENTARZ! Wybór opcji Z ucinaniem powoduje ponadto, że przy próbie zaokrąglania linii, które nie przecinają się, program wydłuża je tak, aby można było je połączyć łukiem o zadeklarowanym promieniu.\nZastosowanie promienia zaokrąglenia o wartości równej 0 pozwala na wydłużanie dwóch obiektów do uzyskania wspólnego punktu.\nUwaga ta odnosi się również do polecenia FAZUJ (oczywiście z uwzględnieniem faktu, że będziemy mówili o fazach, a nie o promieniu zaokrąglenia).\nFAZUJ Polecenie pozwala na wykonanie ścinania przecinających się linii zgodnie z podanymi wymiarami faz. Można fazować linie, polilinie, proste i półproste. Polecenie posiada następujące opcje:\nUżywając opcji długość, określa się rozmiar faz. Stosując opcję kąt, określa się długość fazy pierwszej linii i kąt, jaki tworzy ze wskazaną linią.\nPolilinia – dotyczy fazowania obiektów typu polilinia; przy jednym wskazaniu obiektu uzyskujemy fazowanie wszystkich naroży;\nFazy – definiowanie wymiaru fazy pierwszej oraz fazy drugiej;\nUtnij – uaktywnienie tej opcji powoduje, że mamy możliwość wyboru, czy naroża znajdujące się za fazowaniem zostają odcięte (Z ucinaniem), czy pozostawione (Bez ucinania);\nWiele – po wykonaniu pierwszego fazowania możemy wskazywać kolejne obiekty do fazowania;\nwyjście z sesji klawiszami Enter lub Esc.\nBLOK Polecenie pozwala na stworzenie definicji bloku na podstawie wybranej grupy obiektów, zachowującej się jak pojedynczy obiekt\n2D lub 3D. Bloki służą do tworzenia powielanej zawartości, takiej jak symbole rysunkowe, elementy wspólne i standardowe szczegóły, umożliwiając wielokrotne wykorzystywanie i udostępnianie zawartości.\nIstotne jest właściwe określenie na ekranie obiektów oraz wskazanie punktu bazowego bloku. W trakcie wstawiania można określić skalę, obrócić i rozbić blok. Polecenie rozbij przywraca elementy tworzące.\n\nArkusz przykładów\nDo wykonania przykładów wczytaj plik P_8–1.dwg. Rezultat prac zapisz pod nazwą pochodzącą od twojego nazwiska.\nPrzykład 8.1. Za pomocą polecenia WYDŁUŻ zmodyfikuj obiekt z rysunku a) tak, aby miał postać, jak na rysunku b).\na) b)\n1. Po wybraniu polecenia WYDŁUŻ wybierz opcję A.\n2. Po wybraniu polecenia jako granicę wydłużania wskaż obiekt P1, zakończ zaznaczanie klawiszem Enter.\n3. Wskazuj kolejne odcinki do wydłużania: P2, P3, P4, P5, P7, Enter.\n4. Ponownie wybierz polecenie wydłuż, tym razem bez opcji wskazywania grAnicy wydłużania. Wskazuj kolejne odcinki do wydłużania: P8, P3’i P4’, Esc.\nPrzykład 8.2. Za pomocą polecenia PRZERWIJ W PUNKCIE zmodyfikuj obiekt z rysunku a) tak, aby miał postać, jak na rysunku b).\n1. Włącz ŚLEDZENIE (SYMetria). a)\n2. Rozwijając zawartość panelu Modyfikuj, wybierz polecenie PRZERWIJ W PUNKCIE i zaznacz dowolny bok kwadratu.\n3. Korzystając ze ŚLEDZENIA, przesuń tak kursor myszy, aby wyświetlił się znak lokalizacji SYMetria, kliknij.\n4. Czynność powtórz wobec każdego z pozostałych boków b) 1. Bez wybierania polecenia kliknij na naroże\nZmiana kwadratu.\nkoloru\n2. Wciśnij prawy klawisz myszy, z menu linii kontekstowego wybierz Właściwości albo Ctrl+1.\n3. W wyświetlonym oknie w zakładce Główne kliknij na Kolor.\n4. Rozwiń kolory i wybierz właściwy, Esc.\n5. Wybierz nowy obiekt i nadaj mu odpowiedni kolor.\n\nPrzykład 8.3. Za pomocą poleceń ROZCIĄGNIJ , ZAOKRĄGLIJ oraz\nFAZUJ zmodyfikuj obiekt z rysunku a) tak, aby miał wygląd, jak na rysunku b).\nProstowanie 1. Wybierz polecenie ROZCIĄGNIJ. a) podstawy\n2. Wybierz naroże P5, kreśląc okno przecinające obiekt (drugi punkt musi być po lewej stronie pierwszego),\nEnter.\n3. Punktem bazowym może być dowolny punkt, kliknij w pobliżu naroża P5.\n4. Wprowadź z klawiatury @0,-3, Enter.\nZaokrąglanie 5. Wprowadź polecenie ZAOKRĄGLIJ.\nnaroży\n6. Wybierz opcję Wiele oraz pRomień i wpisz wartość 4.\n7. Nie korzystaj z opcji Polilinia, wskazuj kolejno na linie przy wierzchołkach P5 oraz P6.\nFazowanie b) 8. Wprowadź polecenie FAZUJ.\nnaroży\n9. Wybierz opcję Wiele oraz Faza i wpisz wartość 3.\n10. Podaj wartość drugiej fazy (ponieważ wartość jest ta sama, wciśnij Enter).\n11. Nie korzystaj z opcji Polilinia, wskazuj kolejno na linie przy wierzchołkach P1 oraz P2, Esc.\n12. Powtórz czynności 9–11, wprowadzając wielkości faz = 2 i fazując naroża P3 oraz P4, Esc.\nKasowanie otworu 13. Wybierz polecenie WYMAŻ .\n14. Kliknij na okrąg P7 oraz jego osie, Enter.\nPrzykład 8.4. Za pomocą poleceń PROSOTKĄT, KOPIUJ, ŁUK utwórz przykładowy rzut drzwi, a następnie utwórz z niego BLOK. Włącz plik P_8-2.dwg. Rezultat prac zapisz pod nową nazwą.\n1. Narzędziem PROSTOKĄT utwórz prostokąt o wymiarach 5 × 12.\n2. W prawym górnym rogu utworzonego prostokąta utwórz prostokąt o wymiarach\n4 × 80.\n3. Narzędziem KOPIUJ (K) utwórz kopię małego prostokąta. Określ punkt bazowy lewy dolny narożnik.\n\n4. Z włączonym Orto (F8) przesuń kursor w prawą stronę i wpisz wartość 85.\n5. Narzędziem ŁUK metodą Początek, Koniec, Kąt utwórz łuk, określając początek łuku jako lewy góry narożnik prawego małego prostokąta, koniec jako lewy góry róg dużego prostokąta i wpisując kąt 90.\nTworzenie 1. Przejdź na kartę Opisz, a następnie wybierz polecenie Utwórz bloku\nBlok lub wpisz w wierszu poleceń Blok.\n2. Nadaj mu nazwę Drzwi80.\n3. Kliknij Wskaż Punkt oraz określ punkt bazowy w lewym dolnym rogu małego lewego prostokąta.\n4. Następnie kliknij na Wybierz Obiekty . Zaznacz całe drzwi,\nEnter.\n5. Zatwierdź tworzenie bloku przyciskiem OK.\n6. Aby sprawdzić, czy blok został utworzony, otwórz okno właściwości (CTRL+1) i najedź na drzwi. Jako rodzaj obiektu powinno być napisane Odniesienie do bloku.\n7. Na karcie Opisz rozwiń polecenie Wstaw , wybierz wcześniej utworzony blok Drzwi80 i wstaw obok.\n8. W wierszu poleceń wprowadź polecenie PISZBLOK.\n9. W edytorze wskaż źródło: Blok: Drzwi 80, zdefiniuj ścieżkę położenia pliku, wskazując folder z rozwiązanymi zadaniami, zapisz blok.\n\nArkusz ćwiczeniowy\nCel ćwiczenia\nCelem ćwiczenia jest doskonalenie umiejętności korzystania z narzędzi do edycji rysunku, takich jak: WYDŁUŻ, UTNIJ, OBRÓT, ROZCIĄGNIJ, PRZERWIJ oraz rozwiązanie arkusza ćwiczeniowego.\nĆwiczenie 8.1. Wykorzystując znane polecenia do modyfikacji obiektów, przekształć obiekt przedstawiający uchwyt z pliku CW_8–1.dwg do stanu przedstawionego poniżej. Wynik prac zapisz pod nową nazwą.\n1. Wykorzystaj polecenia WYDŁUŻ i UTNIJ.\n2. Wypróbuj wskazywanie obiektów przy wciśniętym klawiszu\nShift, który jest przełącznikiem między tymi poleceniami.\n3. Spróbuj zrezygnować z pokazywania granic wydłużania i ucinania.\nRysunek zmodyfikowany\nRysunek po wczytaniu pliku\nĆwiczenie 8.2. Korzystając z polecenia WYDŁUŻ , uzupełnij elementy schematu fragmentu instalacji elektrycznej w układzie TT [7].\n1. Wczytaj plik CW_8–2. Dwg.\n2. Wybierz polecenie WYDŁUŻ.\n3. Wskaż granice przedłużania linii, Enter.\n4. Klikaj w linie, które mają być wydłużane.\n5. Powyższe czynności powtarzaj, aż rysunki będą identyczne.\n\nRysunek gotowy\nRysunek po wczytaniu pliku\nĆwiczenie 8.3. Wykorzystując znane polecenia z panelu Modyfikuj, doprowadź rysunek wałka wielostopniowego z arkusza ćwiczeniowego zapisanego na pliku\nCW_8–3.dwg do stanu przedstawionego na rysunku gotowym.\n1. Wykorzystaj polecenia WYDŁUŻ, UTNIJ, LUSTRO, FAZUJ, ZAOKRĄGLIJ.\n2. Podane na rysunku wymiary wykorzystaj do wykonania operacji zaokrąglania i fazowania.\n3. Aby uzyskać szerokości linii, wciśnij przycisk SZEROKOŚĆ w Pasku stanu.\nRysunek gotowy\nNie wymiaruj rysunku\n\nArkusz ćwiczeniowy\nĆwiczenie 8.4. Wykorzystując znane polecenia do modyfikacji obiektów, wykonaj rysunki przedstawione w tabeli poniżej. Nie wymiaruj rysunków.\nPrzekształć wrysowane obiekty na bloki z punktami bazowymi w miejscach wyróżnionych czerwonym znacznikiem. Wynik prac zapisz pod nową nazwą.\nZadanie wykonane 1. Wczytaj plik CW_8–4. dwg.\n2. Wykonaj rysunki elementów wyposażenia łazienki.\nNie wymiaruj i nie rysuj czerwonych znaczników.\n3. Przekształć szkice na bloki, wskazując jako punkty bazowe miejsca wstawienia czerwonych znaczników.\nPodczas tworzenia bloków w edytorze wybieraj opcję\nZAPAMIĘTAJ.\n4. W obszarze roboczym wstaw utworzone bloki Wstaw >\nBlok > Wstaw.\n5. Zapisz rysunek.\n6. Otwórz Palety narzędzi Widok > Palety > Palety narzędzi lub wpisując w wierszu poleceń PALETYNARZĘDZI.\n7. Wybierz PPM w obszarze paska z nazwą palet i wybierz\nNOWA PALETA, nadaj jej nazwę Bloki.\n8. Przytrzymując LPM na utworzonych blokach, przeciągaj je w obszar palety Bloki.\n9. Zapisz i zamknij rysunek.\nWykonaj rysunek i zapisz jako blok\n„Miska_ustępowa”\n\nWykonaj rysunek i zapisz jako blok\n„Umywalka”\nWykonaj rysunek i zapisz jako blok\n„Pralka”\nWykonaj rysunek i zapisz jako blok\n„Wanna”\nĆwiczenie 8.5. Wykorzystując Palety narzędzi, uzupełnij rzut łazienki, doprowadzając rysunek z arkusza ćwiczeniowego zapisanego na pliku CW_8–5.dwg do stanu przedstawionego na rysunku uzupełnionym.\n1. Otwórz Palety narzędzi.\n2. Wstawiaj zgodnie z ustawieniem z rysunku uzupełnionego utworzone w Ćwiczeniu\n8.4 bloki, wybierając w Paletach zakładkę Bloki i przeciągając je na obszar roboczy.\n3. Wstaw w otworze drzwiowym blok: Blok 80, wybierając kolejno: Wstaw > Blok >\nWstaw > Bloki z bibliotek... i wskaż blok zapisany na dysku, utworzony w Przykładzie 8.5.\n4. Wrysuj linię ograniczającą obwiednię kreskowania w progu drzwi.\n5. Wykonaj kreskowanie wzorem ANSI37 i skalą: 10.\n\nRysunek po wczytaniu pliku\nRysunek uzupełniony\n\n9. Modyfikacje: SZYK BIEGUNOWY, SZYK\nPROSTOKĄTNY, SZYK WZDŁUŻ ŚCIEŻKI,\nODSUŃ, ROZBIJ\nTrzy pierwsze polecenia SZYK BIEGUNOWY, SZYK PROSTOKĄTNY,\nSZYK WZDŁUŻ ŚCIEŻKI są dostępne po rozwinięciu ikony polecenia zbiorczego\nSZYK (rys. 9.1). Polecenia ODSUŃ i ROZBIJ dostępne są w widocznej części panelu Modyfikuj lub po jego rozwinięciu na karcie Narzędzia główne.\nRys. 9.1. Panel narzędzi Modyfikuj\nSZYK Polecenia zgromadzone pod nazwą SZYK służą do wykonywania uporządkowanego kopiowania obiektów. Kopie obiektów można tworzyć w regularnie rozmieszczonym szyku prostokątnym, biegunowym lub wzdłuż ścieżki. W wersji programu 2023 uzyskane obiekty mogą być ze sobą skojarzone, tworząc jeden obiekt w sensie AutoCAD. Tak uzyskane obiekty mogą podlegać dalszemu automatycznemu przekształceniu polegającemu na zmianie liczby uzyskanych kopii i ich rozmieszczeniu. Wśród dostępnych działań polecenia znajduje się opcja Skojarzony, która pozwala już na etapie wykonywania szyku rozłączenie od siebie tworzonych kopii. Szczegółowe opcje polecenia zostały przedstawione przy prezentowaniu opisów do przykładów oraz ćwiczeń.\nSZYK PROSTOKĄTNY – umożliwia kopiowanie obiektu i ustawia je w tablicę prostokątną.\nSZYK WZDŁUŻ ŚCIEŻKI – polecenie pozwala na równomierne rozmieszczenie kopii wybranego obiektu wzdłuż ścieżki lub części ścieżki.\n\nSZYK BIEGUNOWY – polecenie umożliwia na równomierne rozmieszczanie kopii obiektu w porządku kołowym wokół punktu środkowego lub osi obrotu.\nODSUŃ Polecenie pozwala na wykonywanie tzw. kopiowania równoległego polegającego na tym, że powstała kopia jest równoległa do oryginału w przypadku odcinków, zaś w przypadku łuków i okręgów otrzymujemy obiekty współśrodkowe. Kopiować równolegle można: łuki, okręgi, elipsy, splajny, płaskie polilinie, proste i półproste, a także wieloboki zamknięte i otwarte pod warunkiem, że stanowią jeden obiekt w sensie AutoCAD. W domyślnym ustawieniu polecenia podajemy odległość, w jakiej ma być tworzona kopia (odległość można również podać, wskazując dwa punkty na arkuszu rysunkowym). Podana wartość jest zapamiętywana i wykorzystywana przy kolejnych odsunięciach. Przydatnymi opcjami polecenia są:\nprzezPunkt – w tym przypadku nie podajemy odległości odsunięcia, lecz wskazujemy punkt na rysunku, przez który ma przechodzić tworzona kopia,\nWymaż – opcja pozwala zdefiniować, czy oryginał, z którego tworzyliśmy kopie, będzie zachowany, czy nie, wArstwa – opcja umożliwia, aby kopia była wykonywana na warstwie, która została wcześniej ustawiona jako bieżąca.\nROZBIJ Polecenie rozbija obiekt złożony na obiekty składowe, gdy użytkownik chce osobno zmieniać jego komponenty. Obiekty, które można rozbijać, to m.in. bloki, polilinie i regiony, wymiary, kreskowanie. Rozbicie polilinii tworzy z niej odcinki i łuki, które nie są już związane ze sobą. Działanie polecenia można cofnąć przez naciśnięcie Ctrl+Z.\nArkusz przykładów\nPrzykład 9.1a. Stosując polecenie SZYK PROSTOKĄTNY , narysuj sześć prostokątów w trzech wierszach i dwóch kolumnach. Włącz plik\nP_9-1.dwg. Rezultat prac zapisz pod nową nazwą.\n1. Zaznacz obiekt pierwotny: PROSTOKĄT 15 × 10.\n2. Z panelu Modyfikuj wybierz polecenie SZYK PROSTOKĄTNY.\n\n3. Wskaż narysowany prostokąt, Enter.\n4. W wierszu poleceń lub na karcie Tworzenie szyku wybierz opcję Wiersze i wprowadź liczbę wierszy: 3, podaj odległość między wierszami równą 25.\n5. Wybierz opcje Kolumny i wprowadź liczbę kolumn = 2, zaś odległość między kolumnami = 35.\n6. Zamknij szyk lub Enter.\nPrzykład 9.1b. Stosując polecenie SZYK BIEGUNOWY , narysuj sześć prostokątów o wymiarach 15 × 10 rozłożonych na łuku o kącie rozwarcia 150°.\nPonownie włącz plik P_9–1.dwg. Rezultat prac zapisz ponownie.\n1. Zaznacz obiekt pierwotny:\nPROSTOKĄT 15 × 10.\nSzyk\n2. Z panelu Modyfikuj wybierz z obrotem polecenie elementów\nSZYK BIEGUNOWY.\n3. Wskaż narysowany prostokąt.\n4. Wybierz punkt środkowy szyku. Wskaż przecięcie osi.\n5. W wierszu poleceń lub na karcie Tworzenia szyku wprowadź dane: Elementy = 6, kąt Wypełnienia = 150,\nOBRóć elementy – zaznacz T.\n\n1. Zamknij szyk lub Enter.\n2. Potwierdzenia wprowadzenia\nSzyk bez opcji i danych wykonujemy obrotu klawiszem Enter.\nelementów\n3. Powtórz czynności z przykładu poprzedniego, wybierając tym razem Nie na pytanie dotyczące obrotu elementów.\nPrzykład 9.1c. Stosując polecenie SZYK WZDŁUŻ ŚCIEŻKI , narysuj zęby koła rozmieszczone na ścieżce (okręgu) o średnicy 63 jednostek. Włącz plik P_9-1c.dwg. Rezultat prac zapisz pod nową nazwą.\n1. Zaznaczyć pierwszy ząb.\n2. W panelu Modyfikuj wybierz polecenie SZYK WZDŁUŻ ŚCIEŻKI.\n3. Wybierz obiekty: wskaż ząb, Enter. Wybierz krzywą definiującą: większy okrąg.\n4. W wierszu poleceń lub na karcie Tworzenie szyku wprowadź dane: Metoda:\nPodziel, Elementy: 22.\n5. Zamknij szyk lub Enter.\n\nPrzykład 9.2. Za pomocą polecenia ROZBIJ oraz WYMAŻ zmodyfikuj istniejące obiekty do stanu pokazanego na rysunku gotowym. Wczytaj plik P_9–2.dwg, a wynik zapisz w pliku o nowej nazwie.\nRysunek gotowy\nRysunek po wczytaniu pliku\nWymiary są 1. Poleceniem ROZBIJ (panel Modyfikuj) rozbijamy istniejące wyobiektami miarowania.\nzgrupowanymi 2. Poleceniem WYMAŻ usuwamy górne groty strzałek oraz napisy.\n3. Bez wybierania polecenia klikamy na linię od strzałki, następnie klikamy w górny uchwyt (niebieski kwadrat) i przeciągamy go do istniejącej kropki. Czynność powtarzamy do pozostałych strzałek.\nPrzykład 9.3. Za pomocą polecenia ODSUŃ zmodyfikuj istniejący obiekt, aby miał postać jak na rysunku b). Wczytaj plik P_9–3.dwg. Następnie obiekt z rysunku a) doprowadź do wyglądu przedstawionego na rysunku c).\nOdsuwanie a) b) w wersji klasycznej\n\n1. Ustaw warstwę ODSUŃ jako bieżącą.\n2. Wybierz polecenie ODSUŃ.\n3. Wybierz opcję a (wArstwa), a następnie opcję b (Bieżąca), Enter.\n4. Wprowadź odległość odsunięcia = 3.\n5. Wykonaj 3 razy odsunięcie do wnętrza figury, Enter.\n6. Ponownie wybierz polecenie ODSUŃ.\n7. Wybierz opcję w (Wymaż), a następnie Tak – kasowanie oryginału.\n8. Wykonaj odsunięcie oryginału (obiekt czarny) na zewnątrz figury, Enter.\nKOMENTARZ! Polecenie automatycznie zmienia kształt obiektu, gdy wartość odsunięcia przekracza rozmiary boków.\nOdsuwanie c) 1. Wpisz nazwę zmiennej systemowej z zaokrągleniami OFFSETGAPTYPE i nadaj jej wartość = 1. Tworzone kopie będą automatycznie generowały zaokrąglenia równe zadeklarowanej odległości.\n2. Wybierz opcję w (Wymaż), a następnie Nie – bez kasowania oryginału.\n3. Wykonaj odsunięcie oryginału\n(obiekt czarny) 2 razy na zewnątrz figury, Enter.\n4. Wykonaj odsunięcie do wnętrza figury. Esc.\nUWAGA! Program pamięta ustawienia, jakie zostały wprowadzone przy poprzednim wybraniu polecenia.\nArkusz ćwiczeniowy\nCel ćwiczenia\nCelem ćwiczenia jest opanowanie umiejętności korzystania z narzędzi do edycji rysunków, takich jak: SZYK BIEGUNOWY, SZYK PROSTOKĄTNY, SZYK\nWZDŁUŻ ŚCIEŻKI, ODSUŃ oraz ROZBIJ, a także rozwiązanie arkusza ćwiczeniowego.\n\nĆwiczenie 9.1. Stosując polecenia SZYK WZDŁUŻ ŚCIEŻKI , uzupełnij rysunek. Wczytaj plik CW_9–1.dwg, a wynik pracy zapisz pod nową nazwą.\nRysunek gotowy\nRysunek po wczytaniu pliku\n1. W panelu Modyfikuj wybierz polecenie SZYK WZDŁUŻ ŚCIEŻKI.\n2. Wybierz obiekty i krzywą definiującą, Enter.\n3. W wierszu poleceń lub na karcie Tworzenie szyku wprowadź dane: Elementy: 4,\nMiędzy: 20.\n4. Ponownie wybierz polecenie SZYK WZDŁUŻ ŚCIEŻKI.\n5. Wybierz obiekty, ścieżkę i węzeł. Wskaż krzywą definiującą, Enter.\n6. W wierszu poleceń lub na karcie Tworzenie szyku wprowadź dane: Elementy: 3,\nMiędzy: 10.\nĆwiczenie 9.2.Stosując polecenie SZYK BIEGUNOWY , uzupełnij rysunek połączenia 3-fazowego. Wczytaj plik CW_9–2.dwg. Wynik prac zapisz pod nową nazwą.\n1. Z panelu Modyfikuj wybierz polecenie SZYK BIEGUNOWY.\n2. Pamiętaj, aby wskazać wszystkie elementy do kopiowania, można zastosować okno przecinające obiekty lub klikać na elementy, Enter.\n3. Jako punkt centralny szyku pokaż punkt N, włącz SZUKANIE, CENtrum (nie wybieraj opcji Oś obrotu – dotyczy obiektów 3D).\n\n4. Wybierz opcję Elementy – wpisz 3 (podajemy końcową liczbę powtarzalnych modułów lub elementów).\n5. Wybierz opcję Skojarzony i wpisz Nie (n).\n6. Wybierz opcję konIec i wciśnij Enter.\nRysunek gotowy\nRysunek po włączeniu pliku\nKOMENTARZ! Polecenie przenosi wcześniejsze ustawienia na tworzony rysunek i dlatego w trakcie wykonywania szyku możemy uzyskiwać podgląd nieodpowiadający naszym oczekiwaniom. Po wpisaniu właściwych danych podgląd naszego rysunku jest korygowany na bieżąco.\nĆwiczenie 9.3. Za pomocą polecenia KOPIUJ , SZYK BIEGUNOWY oraz WYMAŻ wykreśl rysunek widoczny poniżej. Wczytaj plik\nCW_9–3.dwg. Zapisz wynik pod nową nazwą.\nRysunek gotowy\nRysunek po wczytaniu pliku\n\nNie 1. Włącz ŚLEDZENIE oraz OBIEKT w Pasku stanu.\nwymiaruj 2. Ustaw lokalizację CENtrum, PRZecięcie.\nrysunku 3. Z panelu Modyfikuj wybierz polecenie KOPIUJ; zaznacz obiekty (element obok okręgu), pokaż jako punkt bazowy środek tego obiektu, a jako punkt docelowy punkt przecięcia osi (punkt A).\n4. W panelu Modyfikuj wybierz polecenie SZYK\nBIEGUNOWY.\n5. Starannie wskaż obiekty, pionową oś symetrii kopiowanego elementu wygodnie jest pokazać przez utworzenie okna obejmującego obiekt.\n6. Jako punkt centralny szyku wskaż środek okręgu.\n7. Wybierz opcję Elementy – wpisz 7 (tak wynika z analizy rysunku).\n8. Wybierz opcję kąt Wypełnienia i wpisz 360 (kąt w stopniach).\n9. Wybierz opcję OBRóć elementy i zaznacz Tak.\n10. Wybierz opcję Skojarzony i wpisz Nie (n) – później będziemy usuwać obiekty zbędne.\n11. Wybierz opcję konIec i wciśnij Enter.\n12. W panelu Modyfikuj wybierz polecenie ROZBIJ i kliknij na utworzony szyk.\n13. Z panelu Modyfikuj wybierz polecenie WYMAŻ i wykasuj zbędne elementy.\nĆwiczenie 9.4. Za pomocą polecenia SZYK PROSTOKĄTNY oraz ROZBIJ , a także WYMAŻ uzyskaj obiekty tak jak na rysunku. Wczytaj plik\nCW_9–4.dwg. Zapisz wynik pod nową nazwą.\nNie wymiaruj rysunku\n\nRysunek po wczytaniu pliku\n1. W panelu Modyfikuj wybierz polecenie SZYK PROSTOKĄTNY.\n2. Zaznacz okrąg oraz jego osie (odznaczanie obiektów zaznaczonych przez Shift+kliknięcie), Enter.\n3. Wprowadź opcję Liczba i wpisz: liczba kolumn = 8, zaś liczba wierszy = 4.\n4. Wybierz opcję oDstęp, a następnie wprowadź odległość między kolumnami = 10 oraz odległość między wierszami = -10 (wprowadzenie znaku minus powoduje zmianę zwrotu wykonywanego szyku, przeciwnie do zwrotu osi).\n5. Zamknij szyk lub Enter.\n6. W panelu Modyfikuj wybierz polecenie ROZBIJ i kliknij na utworzony szyk.\n7. Stosując polecenie WYMAŻ, wykasuj zbędne elementy rysunku.\nKOMENTARZ! Przy rozwiązywaniu tego ćwiczenia można było w procesie definiowania szyku prostokątnego włączyć opcję Skojarzony i wybrać Nie. Wtedy elementy utworzonego szyku nie byłyby ze sobą powiązane, a więc nie byłoby potrzeby stosowania polecenia do ich rozbijania.\nĆwiczenie 9.5. Za pomocą polecenia ODSUŃ uzyskaj obiekty jak na rysunku poniżej. Wczytaj plik CW_9–5.dwg. Rezultat prac zapisz pod nową nazwą.\nNie wymiaruj rysunku\nRysunek po wczytaniu pliku\nRysunek gotowy\n\n1. W panelu Modyfikuj wybierz polecenie ODSUŃ.\n2. Zdefiniuj odległości odsunięcia, wybieraj właściwe obiekty i podawaj odpowiednie kierunki odsunięcia.\nĆwiczenie 9.6. Stosując polecenia SZYK BIEGUNOWY i ODSUŃ , wykonaj następujący rysunek. Wczytaj plik CW_9–6.dwg. Pracuj na odpowiednich warstwach. Zapisz rysunek pod nową nazwą.\nRysunek po wczytaniu pliku\nNie wymiaruj rysunku\nRysunek gotowy\n1. Stosując polecenie ODSUŃ, narysuj okrąg o średnicy 10 jednostek.\n2. Poleceniem OKRĄG narysuj okrąg o promieniu 50.\n3. Korzystając z polecenia LINIA, narysuj na warstwie OSIE oś okręgu C.\nPoleceniem ODSUŃ narysuj okrąg o promieniu 40.\n4. Poleceniem UTNIJ usuń niepotrzebne fragmenty obiektów.\n5. Stosując polecenie SZYK BIEGUNOWY, utwórz kolejne okręgi (D oraz E) na łukach o kątach rozwarcia 75° i 150°. Pamiętaj, aby kopiować również osie tych okręgów.\n6. Stosując polecenie SZYK BIEGUNOWY oraz wykorzystując okrąg E, utwórz dwa okręgi na łuku o rozwartości 60°.\n\n10. Kreskowanie obiektów\nPolecenia dotyczące kreskowania pozwalają na wypełnienie zamkniętego obszaru\n(jednego lub wielu) zdefiniowanym wzorem. Stosowane w rysunku technicznym wzory i kolory zawierają w sobie informację o zastosowanym materiale konstrukcyjnym\n(w przypadku przekrojów projektowanych obiektów, np.: beton zbrojony, metal, guma), o przesyłanym medium (w przypadku rurociągów, np.: kolor niebieski oznacza czystą wodę), czy o sposobie pokrycia powierzchni (np.: trawnik, obszar brukowany).\nW programie AutoCAD 2023 do kreskowania obiektów rysunkowych przygotowano dwa polecenia: KRESKUJ i GRADIENT. Ikony tych poleceń możemy znaleźć w panelu Rysuj na karcie Narzędzia główne.\nKRESKUJ Polecenie umożliwia wypełnianie obszarów wybranym rodzajem wzoru, wprowadzając przy tym jego parametry, aby dostosować końcowy wygląd uzyskanego kreskowania do przepisów określonych w normach rysunku technicznego. Po wybraniu polecenia następuje włączenie menu wstęgowego zawierającego następujące panele i opcje:\nPanel – zawiera polecenia umożliwiające przede wszystkim\nObwiednie wskazanie obszaru, który będzie wypełniany wzorem, ale także generowanie obwiedni z istniejących na rysunku linii, łuków itd., a także ich usuwanie;\nPanel – zawiera przygotowane dostępne wzory wypełniania\nWzór (także wypełnienie jednolitym kolorem); dostępne typy wypełnienia uzależnione są od wyboru dokonanego w panelu Właściwości (zakładka Wzór);\nPanel – panel pozwala, oprócz wyboru grup wzorów wyświe-\nWłaściwości tlanych w panelu Wzór, na wprowadzenie indywidualnych parametrów zastosowanego wzoru wypełnienia:\nskali, kąta położenia wzoru względem zdefiniowanego wzorca desenia, koloru, desenia, jego tła oraz przezroczystości;\nPanel – w panelu dostępne jest polecenie ZESPOLONE\nOpcje odpowiadające za to, czy utworzone wypełnienie jest zintegrowane z konturem obszaru, dzięki czemu możliwa jest jednoczesna modyfikacja obiektu i wprowadzonego wypełnienia. Warto zwrócić uwagę również na polecenie UZGODNIJ WŁAŚCIWOŚCI pozwalające przenieść istniejący na rysunku wzór wypełnienia na nowe obiekty;\n\nPanel – zawiera wiele poleceń pozwalających na wybór punk-\nPoczątek tu, od którego będzie generowany wybrany wzór na wskazanym obszarze.\nGRADIENT Polecenie umożliwia wypełnianie obszarów cieniowanym kolorem lub dwoma kolorami przy różnych konfiguracjach ich wzajemnego ustawienia. Po wybraniu polecenia następuje włączenie menu wstęgowego zawierającego identyczne panele i opcje, jakie znajdują się po wybraniu polecenia KRESKUJ.\nUWAGA! Przy korzystaniu z programu można przechodzić z polecenia KRESKUJ do polecenia GRADIENT (i na odwrót) przez rozwinięcie w panelu\nWłaściwości (menu wstęgowe tych poleceń) opcji Wzór i wybór odpowiednich rodzajów wypełnienia: Bryła oraz Gradient.\nPrzystępując do kreskowania obiektów na rysunku, warto zastosować opcję Wskaż punkty, dzięki której po pokazaniu punktu/punktów we wnętrzu obszarów do zakreskowania program automatycznie znajduje granicę kreskowania i ją podświetla. Uzyskiwany rezultat działania użytkownika omawianych poleceń jest wyświetlany natychmiastowo na wybranym obiekcie wypełniania. Kreskowanie (gradient) jest specjalnym rodzajem obiektu, ponieważ wszystkie elementy składowe tworzące zdefiniowany wzór są ze sobą zgrupowane. Taki obiekt podlega edycji, w której dostępne są te same opcje, które stosowano przy jego tworzeniu. Po rozbiciu kreskowania obiekt podlega dezintegracji i rozpada się na elementy składowe, które są odcinkami.\nArkusz przykładów\nPrzykład 10.1. Za pomocą polecenia KRESKUJ wypełnij obiekt wzorem ANSI31 przy skali równej 30. Kreskuj na właściwej warstwie rysunku. Wczytaj plik P_10–1.dwg. Wynik pracy zapisz pod nową nazwą.\nKOMENTARZ! Gdy kontur obszaru wypełniania pokrywa się z istniejącym obiektem, to lepiej jest stosować opcję Wybierz. Decydując się na zaznaczanie obszaru przez opcję Wskaż punkty, musielibyśmy klikać aż 4 razy, ponieważ narysowane osie będą wykrywane przez program i wskazany obszar będzie tylko ćwiartką.\n\nRysunek po 1. W panelu Rysuj wybierz polecenie wczytaniu KRESKUJ.\npliku 2. Z panelu Obwiednie wybierz opcję\nWybierz , program natychmiast wypełnia obszar aktualnie przyporządkowanym wzorem.\n3. W panelu Właściwości rozwiń zakładkę\nWzór i wybierz Bryła.\n4. W panelu Wzór powinien pojawić się wzór ANSI31, jeśli nie, to rozwiń strzałką\nRysunek zawartość okna dynamicznego; przegotowy wiń zawartość okna, jeśli jest to konieczne, odszukaj właściwy wzór i kliknij na jego obraz.\n5. Obraz wypełnienia zostanie skorygowany.\n6. W panelu Właściwości w polu oznaczonym ikoną wpisz skalę wzoru = 30, wciśnij klawisz Enter.\n7. Wyjdź z polecenia klawiszem Esc.\nAby zobaczyć szerokości linii, włącz SZEROKOŚĆ w Pasku stanu.\nUWAGA! Program pamięta ustawienia, jakie zostały wprowadzone przy poprzednim wybraniu polecenia. Dlatego czasami lepiej najpierw jest zmienić wzór wypełnienia, wprowadzić wartość skali oraz kąta, a dopiero potem wskazywać obszar.\nPrzykład 10.2. Zakreskuj obiekty oznaczone przez O2 oraz O1 różnymi wzorami.\nKreskuj na właściwej warstwie rysunku. Wczytaj plik P_10–2.dwg.\nWynik swoich prac zapisz pod nazwą pochodzącą od twego nazwiska.\nKOMENTARZ! Gdy obszar wypełniania nie jest zamknięty, to pierwszą czynnością powinno być dorysowanie linii, które spowodują jego domknięcie. Polecenie\nKRESKUJ ma automatycznie ustawianie opcji Wskaż Punkty.\n.\n\nRysunek po 1. Poleceniem LINIA (na warstwie wczytaniu OSIE) narysuj linie domykające pliku obszar kreskowania O1.\n2. Linia L1 oddalona o 15, zaś L2 i L3 o 10 jednostek.\n3. W panelu Rysuj wybierz polecenie KRESKUJ.\n4. W panelu Właściwości rozwiń zakładkę Wzór i wybierz Bryła.\n5. Wybierz wzór ANSI31 i najedź kursorem w obszar O1 – wypełnienie zostanie wykonane, Esc.\n6. W panelu Właściwości w polu oznaczonym ikoną wpisz skalę wzoru = 25, wciśnij klawisz Enter.\n7. Wp anelu Wzór rozwiń strzałką zawartość okna dynamicznego, przewiń jego zawartość i odszukaj wzór DOTS, następnie kliknij na jego obraz.\n8. Po najechaniu kursorem w obszar O2 – obszar zostanie wypełniony wzorem.\n9. W polu skala wpisz 20, Enter, Esc.\n10. Poleceniem WYMAŻ usuń linie: L1, L2, L3.\nRysunek gotowy z objaśnieniami\n\nPrzykład 10.3. Za pomocą edycji kreskowania z wcześniej utworzonego kwadratu, który został wypełniony gradientem, utwórz serce. Wczytaj plik P_10–3.dwg.\nWynik pracy zapisz pod nową nazwą.\nRysunek po 1. Otwórz okno Edytor kreskowania, w tym wczytaniu celu kliknij na istniejące wypełnienie.\npliku 2. Najedź na kwadratowy uchwyt znajdujący się na środku symetrii lewego górnego boku, a następnie wybierz opcję Przekształć w łuk, rysunek a).\n3. Z wyłączonym ORTO (F8) rozciągnij utworzony łuk.\nRysunek 4. Powtórz czynność wobec drugiego górnego gotowy boku. Efekt pracy powinien wyglądać jak na rysunku b. Wyjdź z edytora kreskowania\n(Escape).\n5. Zaznacz i usuń poprzednią obwiednię.\n6. Ponownie otwórz okno Edytor kreskowania.\n7. W panelu Obwiednie wybierz Uwtórz obwiednię ponownie.\n8. Wybierz opcję Polilinia, Nie. Enter.\na) b)\nArkusz ćwiczeniowy\nCel ćwiczenia\nCelem ćwiczenia jest doskonalenie umiejętności wypełniania obszarów obiektów technicznych oraz dobierania parametrów kreskowania, a także rozwiązywanie arkusza ćwiczeniowego.\nĆwiczenie 10.1. Wykonaj kreskowanie (warstwa KRESKUJ) obiektów składających się ze schematu hydroizolacji budynku. Wczytaj plik CW_10–1.dwg.\nWynik zapisz w pliku pod nową nazwą.\n1. W panelu Rysuj wybierz polecenie KRESKUJ.\n2. W panelu Właściwości rozwiń zakładkę Wzór i wybierz Bryła.\n\n3. W panelu Właściwości w polu oznaczonym ikoną wpisz skalę wzoru = 100, kąt = 0, Enter.\n4. Wybierz wzór ANSI31 i najedź kolejno kursorem w odpowiednie obszary kreskowania, Esc.\n5. Ponownie wybierz polecenie KRESKUJ. (Możesz również nacisnąć Enter wtedy program automatycznie wybierze poprzednie polecenie).\n6. W panelu Właściwości wpisz skalę wzoru = 5, kąt = 90.\n7. Wybierz wzór kreskowania AR-SAND. Najedź kolejno kursorem w odpowiednie obszary kreskowania, Esc.\n8. Ponownie wybierz polecenie KRESKUJ.\n9. W panelu Właściwości wpisz skalę wzoru = 5, kąt = 90.\n10. Wybierz wzór HONEY. Najedź kolejno kursorem w odpowiednie obszary kreskowania, Esc.\n11. Ponownie wybierz polecenie KRESKUJ.\n12. Powtórz czynności wobec reszty obszarów, wybierając odpowiednie kreskowania.\n13. W przypadku obszaru GRADZINOWANIE jest to rodzaj linii.\n14. Utwórz nową warstwę o nazwie gradzinowanie. Rodzaj linii Gradzinowanie.\n15. Ustaw warstwę gradzinowanie jako obecną. Narysuj linie w odpowiednim obszarze.\n16. Kliknij na linię, a następnie otwórz właściwości linii (CTRL+1).\n17. W polu Skala Rodzaju Linii wpisz wartość 30.\nRysunek po wczytaniu pliku\n\nRysunek gotowy z objaśnieniami\nĆwiczenie 10.2. Stosując polecenie GRADIENT, zamaluj logo. Wczytaj plik CW_10–2.\ndwg. Wynik zapisz w pliku pod nową nazwą.\nRysunek gotowy\nW panelu Rysuj wybierz polecenie GRADIENT.\nW programie\n1. W panelu Właściwości kliknij w okno kolor gradientu 1 zdefiniowano\n(pasek górny) i wybierz kolor ciemny zielony.\ngradient\n2. W oknie dolnym kolor gradientu wybierz kolor jasny zielony.\ndwukolorowy,\n3. W panelu Opcje odznacz opcję Zespolone, kąt ustaw na = 45.\nstąd\n4. Najedź na kontur pierwszego logo, Esc.\nkonieczność\n5. Ponownie w panelu Rysuj wybierz polecenie GRADIENT.\nokreślenia\n6. W panelu Właściwości kliknij w okno kolor gradientu 1 dwóch kolorów\n(pasek górny) i wybierz kolor czerwony.\n7. W oknie dolnym kolor gradientu wybierz kolor fioletowy, kąt ustaw na = 135.\n8. Najedź na kontur drugiego logo, Esc.\n\nĆwiczenie 10.3. Stosując polecenie OBWIEDNIA, odczytaj powierzchnie pomieszczeń z rzutu kondygnacji. Wczytaj plik CW_10–3.dwg. Wynik zapisz w pliku pod nową nazwą pochodzącą od swojego nazwiska.\nRysunek po wczytaniu pliku\n1. Utwórz nową warstwę o nazwie Obwiednia, kolor fioletowy, rodzaj linii\nCONTINUOUS, grubość linii 0,35 i ustaw jako bieżącą.\n2. W panelu Rysuj wybierz polecenie OBWIEDNIA.\n3. W otworzonym oknie odznacz opcję Wykrywanie wysp, OK.\n4. Najdź kursorem na kolejne pomieszczenia, klikając możliwie blisko ścian wewnętrznych pomieszczeń.\n5. W przypadku pokoju biurowego nr 1 konieczne może być utworzenie linii pomocniczej. Wykorzystaj Warstwę _Pomocnicza.\n6. Uzupełnij tabelkę obok rzutu kondygnacji o powierzchnię. W tym celu najedź na odpowiednią obwiednię. Wywołaj okno właściwości skrótem CTRL+1 i odczytaj wartość Pola Obszar.\n7. Wprowadź dane do tabelki, przesuwając odpowiednio przecinek o 6 miejsc w lewo.\n\n11. Operacje na tekstach\nPolecenia do tworzenia i edycji opisów rysunku są dostępne w karcie Opisz w panelu Tekst (rys. 11.1). Podstawowym poleceniem do wpisywania opisów jest\nWTEKST (tekst wielowierszowy). Okno przechowywania zdefiniowanych wysokości tekstu.\nRys. 11.1. Panel narzędzi Tekst\nRozwinięcie ukośnej strzałki powoduje wyświetlenie okna Styl tekstu (rys. 11.2) służącego do definiowania własnych stylów opisów dostępnych w bieżącym rysunku.\nRys. 11.2. Widok okna Styl tekstu\nUżytkownik, wprowadzając nową nazwę stylu, może wybrać nazwę czcionki, styl czcionki, wysokość tekstu, a także współczynnik szerokości i kąt pochylenia czcionki.\nDobrą praktyką jest zdefiniowanie kilku stylów tekstów i wybieranie ich stosownie do potrzeb. Napisany tekst można poddać edycji. W tym celu należy kliknąć szybko dwa razy na istniejący tekst. W odpowiedzi program włączy wiele dostępnych palet (Styl,\nFormatowanie, Akapit, Wstaw, Pisownia, Narzędzia, Opcje). Palety te znajdują się w nowo dodanej karcie Edytor tekstu. Aby zmienić bieżące parametry tekstu, należy go zaznaczyć i wpisać lub wybrać nową wartość (np. wysokość tekstu, kolor wyświetlania).\nInny sposób dostępu do edycji tekstu to zaznaczyć tekst i włączyć okno Właściwości\n(CTRL+1 lub skorzystać z menu kontekstowego – prawy przycisk myszy). Ważną\n\ncechą edytora programu AutoCAD jest możliwość wstawiania różnych dostępnych symboli – polecenie SYMBOL znajduje się w panelu Wstaw po uruchomieniu edycji istniejącego napisu.\nArkusz przykładów\nPrzykład 11.1. Korzystając z okna Styl tekstu w panelu Tekst, zdefiniuj własne style tekstów i wprowadź do rysunku następujące napisy. Wczytaj plik\nP_11–1.dwg., a wynik pracy zapisz w pliku pod nową nazwą.\na) styl o nazwie TYTUŁ, nazwa czcionki: Arial, wysokość tekstu: 7, styl czcionki pogrubiony, współczynnik szerokości: 1.2;\nWYDZIAŁ MATEMATYKI I INFORMATYKI TECHNICZNEJ b) styl o nazwie OPIS, nazwa czcionki: Times New Roman, wysokość tekstu: 3.5; współczynnik szerokości: 0.9;\nOchrona przeciwpożarowa w urządzeniach elektroenergetycznych niskiego napięcia.\nc) styl o nazwie WYMIAR1, nazwa czcionki: Arial, wysokość tekstu: 3; współczynnik szerokości: 1; styl czcionki: pogrubiona kursywa; kąt pochylenia: 15.\nMalować po zmontowaniu elementów.\nPrzykład 11.2. Stosując podstawową edycję tekstu, zmień napisy istniejące na rysunku przedstawiającym przykładowe schematy obwodów SELV [7]. Wczytaj plik P_11–2.dwg., wynik pracy zapisz w pliku pod nową nazwą.\nW celu zachowania istniejącego stylu opisu wykorzystaj istniejący napis na rysunku.\nRysunek po włączeniu pliku\nRysunek gotowy\n\n1. Poleceniem KOPIUJ z panelu Modyfikuj wykonaj kopie istniejącego napisu i umieść je w odpowiednim miejscu (przy kopiowaniu wyłącz tryb ORTO – F8).\n2. Kliknij szybko dwukrotnie na kopii napisu, zamarkuj tekst i wpisz nowy tekst.\n3. Rozciągnij kursorem strzałkę powyżej tekstu, aby zwiększyć długość pola tekstowego. Klawiszem Enter podziel tekst na właściwe sekwencje.\n4. W panelu Akapit wybierz ikonę realizującą justowanie symetryczne.\n5. Czynności z pkt. 2–4 powtórz do drugiego napisu.\n6. Z panelu Modyfikuj wybierz polecenie PRZESUŃ i popraw usytuowanie napisów.\nArkusz ćwiczeniowy\nCel ćwiczenia\nCelem ćwiczenia jest opanowanie umiejętności definiowania stylów tekstów, wykonywania napisów, wstawiania i poprawiania tekstów na rysunkach oraz rozwiązanie arkusza ćwiczeniowego.\nĆwiczenie 11.1. Stosując podstawową edycję tekstu, zmień rozmiar i styl czcionki napisów umieszczonych w tabelce rysunku tak, aby zmieściły się w ramkach.\nWczytaj plik CW_11–1.dwg., a wynik pracy zapisz w pliku pod nową nazwą.\nKOMENTARZ! Rozmiar napisu można zmieniać na dwa sposoby. Zaznaczyć napis i wywołać okno Właściwości (Ctrl+1 albo stosując menu kontekstowe\n– PPM) lub przez wejście w edycję teksu i skorzystanie z menu wstążkowego.\n1. Po wybraniu napisu wywołaj okno Właściwości. W zakładce Tekst wyszukaj pozycję Wysoko..., kliknij na bieżącą wartość i wpisz nową mniejszą wartość.\n2. Długość napisu można zmienić, zmniejszając/zwiększając współczynnik szerokości.\nPo uaktywnieniu napisu (2 razy szybkie kliknięcie na napis) należy zaznaczyć napis, a następnie rozwinąć panel Formatowanie i po wybraniu dolnego okna wpisać właściwą wartość i kliknąć obok tekstu lub wcisnąć klawisz Enter.\n3. Pochylenie liter w tekście można wykonać, korzystając w panelu Formatowanie z ikony .\n4. Dowolne pochylenie liter można uzyskać, wybierając w panelu Formatowanie\n(po jego rozwinięciu) górne okna i wpisując nową wartość, zatwierdzić klawiszem\nEnter.\n\nTabelka po włączeniu pliku\nTabelka gotowa\nĆwiczenie 11.2. Stosując polecenia dotyczące tekstu, wykonaj opis schematu stanu zagrożenia porażeniowego w układzie IT. Wczytaj plik CW_11–2.dwg.\nRezultat pracy zapisz w pliku pod nową nazwą.\n1. Teksty bez pochylenia pisz stylem Opisowy.\n2. Wybierz z panelu Tekst polecenie TEKSTWIELOWIERSZOWY. Utwórz pole tekstowe i wpisuj teksty. Wyjście z polecenia uzyskuje się przez kliknięcie poza obszarem tekstu (klawisz Enter generuje kolejną linię tekstu).\n3. Stosuj indeks dolny. W tym celu wejdź w edycję tekstu (szybkie dwukrotne kliknięcie na tekst), zaznacz odpowiedni tekst, a następnie na panelu Formatowanie wybierz indeks dolny.\n4. Pisanie opisów można przyspieszyć przez kopiowanie tekstów identycznych lub podobnych i ich poprawianie.\nRysunek gotowy\n\n12. Wymiarowanie obiektów\nWszystkie narzędzia potrzebne do wymiarowania rysunku znajdują się w panelu\nWymiary w karcie Opisz. Polecenia z tej grupy można podzielić na narzędzia służące do wymiarowania, wspomagające wymiarowanie oraz do bezpośredniej edycji istniejących wymiarów. Część poleceń z tego zakresu jest widoczna bezpośrednio w panelu\nWymiar, zaś pozostałe po jego rozwinięciu.\nRys. 12.1. Panel narzędzi Wymiary\nRys. 12.2. Ikony poleceń widoczne po rozwinięciu panelu Wymiary\nRozwinięcie ukośnej strzałki powoduje wyświetlenie okna Menedżer stylów wymiarowania (rys. 12.3), służącego do definiowania własnych stylów wymiarowania, przyłączania do aktualnego rysunku stylów istniejących w programie AutoCAD, a także do zmian stylów istniejących i dostosowanie ich do własnych potrzeb.\nRys. 11.3. Widok okna Menedżer stylów wymiarowania\n\nWYMIAR Wymiarowanie w programie AutoCAD nie jest wymiarowaniem automatycznym. Użytkownik każdorazowo musi pobrać polecenie stosownie do swoich zamiarów i wskazać obiekt, który chce zwymiarować. W tym celu powinien skorzystać z lokalizacji punktów charakterystycznych i włączyć przycisk\nŚLEDZENIE oraz OBIEKT w Pasku stanu. Po rozwinięciu ikony WYMIAR pojawiają się następujące polecenia:\nWYMLINIOWY – służy do tworzenia wymiarów poziomych oraz pionowych,\n– tworzy wymiary liniowe równoległe\nWYMNORMALNY do obiektu,\nWYMKĄTOWY – tworzy wymiar kąta między liniami oraz łuku,\nWYMŁUK – tworzy wymiar długości łuku,\n– tworzy wymiar promienia okręgu i łuku,\nWYMPROMIEŃ wpisana wartość poprzedzona jest literą R,\nWYMŚREDNICA – tworzy wymiar średnicy okręgu i łuku, wpisana wartość poprzedzona jest znakiem Ø,\nWYMSKRÓCONY – tworzy wymiar ucięty okręgów i łuków, wpisana wartość poprzedzona jest literą R,\nWYMWSPÓŁRZ – określa współrzędne wskazanego punktu.\nUWAGA! Pamiętaj o symbolach: średnicy „Ø” – kod %%c, stopnia „°” – kod %%d, plus/minus „±” – kod %%p.\nArkusz przykładów\nDo wykonania zadań włącz plik P_12–1.dwg.\nPrzykład 12.1a. Stosując wymiar liniowy (WYMLINIOWY) , zwymiarować obiekty pionowe i poziome. Zapisz wynik pracy pod nową nazwą.\nZadanie 1. 1. Pobierz polecenie z panelu Wymiaruj.\n2. Określ początek pierwszej\nWymiarowanie pomocniczej linii wymiarowej lub zakreskowanej ramki <wybierz obiekt>: wcisnąć Enter.\n3. Wybierz obiekt do wymiarowania:\nzaznacz większy prostokąt.\n\n4. Określ położenie linii wymiarowej lub [Wtekst/Tekst/Kąt/\nPoziomo /pIonowo/ Obrócony]: wskaż położenie linii wymiarowej.\n5. Postępując analogicznie wymiaruj pozostałe boki.\nUWAGA! Obiekt można wymiarować bez pokazywania jego końców, po wybraniu polecenia wcisnąć Enter.\nZadanie 2. 1. Pobierz polecenie z panelu Wymiaruj.\n2. Określ początek pierwszej pomocniczej\nWymiarowanie linii wymiarowej lub <wybierz równoległoboku obiekt>: stosując lokalizację precyzyjną (KONiec), wskaż lewy dolny róg równoległoboku.\n3. Określ początek drugiej pomocniczej linii wymiarowej: stosując lokalizację precyzyjną (KONiec), wskaż prawy dolny róg równoległoboku.\n4. Położenie linii wymiarowej [Wtekst/Tekst/ Kąt/Poziomo/pIonowo/Obrócony]:\nwskaż położenie linii wymiarowej.\n5. Postępując analogicznie zwymiaruj pozostałe boki.\nUWAGA! Do pokazywania końców wybranych elementów obiektu zastosować lokalizację (PRZetnij, ewentualnie KONiec).\nPrzykład 12.1b. Stosując wymiar dopasowany (WYMNORMALNY) , zwymiarować obiekty ukośne. Zapisz wynik.\nUWAGA! Obiekt można wymiarować bez pokazywania jego końców, po wybraniu polecenia wcisnąć klawisz Enter.\n\n1. Pobierz polecenie z panelu Wymiaruj.\n2. Określ początek pierwszej pomocniczej linii wymiarowej <wybierz obiekt>: Enter.\n3. Wybierz obiekt do wymiarowania: zaznacz jedną z krawędzi.\n4. Określ położenie linii wymiarowej [Wtekst/Tekst/ Kąt]: wskaż położenie linii.\n5. Dalej postępuj analogicznie.\nPrzykład 12.1c. Stosując wymiar promienia (WYMPROMIEŃ), znacznik środka (WYMCENTRUM), długość łuku (WYMŁUK), wymiar średnicy (WYMŚREDNICA), zwymiarować obiekty. Zapisz wynik swoich prac.\nWymiarowanie\n1. Wybierz polecenie z panelu Wymiaruj.\nokręgu\n2. Wybierz łuk lub okrąg: wskaż okrąg.\n3. Określ położenie linii wymiarowej lub [Wtekst/Tekst/Kąt]:\nwskaż położenie linii.\nWymiarowanie 1. Powtórnie wybierz polecenie.\nłuku 2. Wybierz łuk lub okrąg: wskaż łuk.\n3. Określ położenie linii wymiarowej [...]: wskaż położenie linii.\n1. Wybierz polecenie z panelu Wymiaruj.\nRysowanie\n2. Wybierz łuk lub okręg: kliknij na łuk.\nznacznika\n1. Wybierz polecenie z panelu Wymiaruj.\nWymiarowanie\n2. Wybierz łuk lub segment łukowy polilinii: kliknij na łuk.\ndługości łuku\n3. Określ położenie wymiaru długości łuku lub [Wtekst/Tekst/\nKąt/Częściowy]: wskaż położenie linii.\nWymiarowanie 1. Wybierz polecenie z panelu Wymiaruj.\nokręgu 2. Wybierz łuk lub okrąg: wskaż okrąg.\n3. Określ położenie linii wymiarowej [...]: wskaż położenie linii.\n\nWymiarowanie 1. Powtórnie wybierz polecenie.\nłuku 2. Wybierz łuk lub okrąg: wskaż łuk.\n3. Określ położenie linii wymiarowej lub [Wtekst/Tekst/Kąt]:\nwpisz w, Enter.\n4. Ustaw kursor na końcu tekstu Ø30 i wpisz %%p0.5, kliknij na obszar rysunkowy i wskaż położenie linii.\nPrzykład 12.1d. Stosując wymiar kątowy (WYMKĄTOWY), Ucięty (WYMSKRÓCONY), zwymiarować kąty oraz łuki. Zapisz wynik swoich prac.\n1. Wybierz polecenie z panelu Wymiaruj.\nWymiarowanie\n2. Wybierz kąt, okrąg, linię lub <wybierz wierzchołek>: wskaż kątów pierwszą linię.\n3. Wybierz drugą linię: wskaż drugą linię.\n4. Określ położenie łuku wymiarowego [Wtekst/Tekst/Kąt]: wskaż położenie łuku.\n5. Dalej postępuj analogicznie.\n1. Wybierz polecenie z panelu Wymiaruj.\nWymiarowanie\n2. Wybierz łuk lub okrąg: wskaż łuk.\npromienia\n3. Określ nadpisanie położenia środka: wskaż punkt po stronie środka łuku.\n4. Określ położenie linii wymiarowej lub [Wtekst/Tekst/Kąt]:\nwskaż punkt, kliknij LPM.\n5. Określ położenie ucięcia: wskaż punkt, kliknij LPM.\nPrzykład 12.1e. Stosując wymiar od bazy (WYMBAZA) i kontynuuj (WYMSZEREG), zwymiarować obiekty od wspólnej bazy albo szeregowo. Po wykonaniu zadania powtórnie zapisz plik.\nUWAGA! Gdyby pierwszy wymiar liniowy lub kątowy już istniał, to po wybraniu polecenia\nWYMBAZA na początku należy pokazać pomocniczą linię wymiarową, która będzie bazą kolejnych wymiarów.\n\nZadanie 1.\n1. Wybierz polecenie z panelu\nWymiarowanie Wymiaruj.\nod wspólnej 2. Zwymiaruj element pierwszy z lewej bazy wymiarów (o długości 7). Położenie punktów liniowych wskazuj od lewej do prawej.\n3. Wybierz polecenie z panelu Wymiaruj.\n4. Określ początek drugiej pomocniczej linii wymiarowej lub [Cofaj/ Wybierz]: wskaż położenie kolejnego punktu\n(lokalizacja PRZetnij lub KONiec).\n5. Pokazuj kolejne elementy do zwymiarowania, wyjście z polecenia przez wciśnięcie klawisza Enter lub Esc.\nZadanie 2.\n1. Wybierz polecenie z panelu\nWymiarowanie Wymiaruj.\nkątów od\n2. Zwymiaruj wycinek o rozwartości wspólnej bazy\n34°. Położenie odcinków wskazuj od góry do dołu.\n3. Wybierz polecenie .\n4. Określ początek drugiej pomocniczej linii wymiarowej lub\n[Cofaj/Wybierz]: wskaż położenie kolejnego punktu\n(lokalizacja PRZetnij lub KONiec).\n5. Pokazuj kolejne elementy do zwymiarowania, wyjście z polecenia przez wciśnięcie klawisza Enter lub Esc.\nZadanie 3.\n1. Wybierz polecenie z panelu\nWymiarowanie Wymiaruj.\nszeregowe 2. Zwymiaruj element pierwszy z lewej wymiarów (o długości 7). Położenie punktów liniowych wskazuj od lewej do prawej.\n3. Wybierz polecenie z panelu Wymiaruj.\n4. Określ początek drugiej pomocniczej linii wymiarowej lub [Cofaj/Wybierz]: wskaż położenie kolejnego punktu\n(lokalizacja PRZetnij lub KONiec).\n5. Pokazuj kolejne elementy do zwymiarowania, wyjście z polecenia przez wciśnięcie klawisza Enter lub Esc.\n\nZadanie 4.\n1. Wybierz polecenie z panelu\nWymiarowanie Wymiaruj.\nszeregowe 2. Zwymiaruj wycinek o rozwartości wymiarów 34°. Położenie wycinków wskazuj kątowych od dołu do góry.\n3. Wybierz polecenie .\n4. Określ początek drugiej pomocniczej linii wymiarowej lub [Cofaj/Wybierz]: wskaż położenie kolejnego punktu\n(lokalizacja PRZetnij lub KONiec).\n5. Pokazuj kolejne elementy do zwymiarowania, wyjście z polecenia przez wciśnięcie Enter lub Esc.\nUWAGA! Gdyby pierwszy wymiar liniowy lub kątowy już istniał wcześniej, to po wybraniu polecenia WYMSZEREG na początku należy pokazać pomocniczą linię wymiarową, która będzie bazą kolejnych wymiarów.\nPrzykład 12.1f. Stosując polecenie szybki wymiar (SWYMIAR), zwymiarować liniowe wymiary obiektów. Po wykonaniu zadania powtórnie zapisz plik.\nA B C\nRys. A szeregowy 1. Wybierz polecenie z panelu Wymiaruj.\n2. Wybierz geometrię do wymiarowania: kliknij na obiekt, wyjście z tej fazy przez wciśnięcie klawisza Enter\n(w celu przyśpieszenia pracy można jednocześnie zaznaczyć wszystkie odcinki poziome, które chcemy wymiarować).\n3. Określ położenie linii wymiarowej lub [Szeregowy/Piętrowy/ odBazy/ Współrzędne/pRomień/śreDnica/punktOdniesienia/\nEdycja/Ustawienia] <Szeregowy>: wpisz s, wciśnij Enter i wskaż położenie linii.\n\nRys. B 1. Powtórnie wybierz polecenie SWYMIAR.\npiętrowy\n2. Wybierz geometrię do wymiarowania: kliknij na obiekt, wybierz\nEnter (w celu przyśpieszenia pracy można jednocześnie zaznaczyć wszystkie odcinki poziome, które chcemy wymiarować).\n3. Określ położenie linii wymiarowej lub [Szeregowy/Piętrowy/ odBazy/...] <Szeregowy>: wpisz p, wciśnij Enter i wskaż położenie linii.\nRys. C\n1. Powtórnie wybierz polecenie SWYMIAR.\nod bazy 2. Wybierz geometrię do wymiarowania: kliknij na obiekt, wybierz\nEnter (w celu przyśpieszenia pracy można jednocześnie zaznaczyć wszystkie odcinki poziome, które chcemy wymiarować).\n3. Określ położenie linii wymiarowej lub [Szeregowy/Piętrowy/ odBazy/...] <Szeregowy>: wpisz b, wciśnij Enter i wskaż położenie linii.\nPrzykład 12.1g. Stwórz nowy styl WIELOLINII, aby wyglądała tak jak wyrysowana w przykładzie poniżej. Rezultat wykonanych prac zapisz w pliku.\nPrzykład po 1. Włącz kartę Opisz.\nwczytaniu\n2. Na panelu Linie odniesienia rozwinięcie ukośnej strzałki powoduje wyświetlenie okna\nMenedżer stylów wielolinii odniesienia.\n3. Kliknij na styl Standard, a następnie Nowy. Nadaj mu nazwę\n„nowy styl” i naciśnij Kontynuuj.\nPrzykład\n4. Na karcie Format linii odniesienia rozwiązany ustaw Rozmiar Strzałki na: 5.\n5. Na karcie Struktura linii odniesienia zaznacz opcję „ustaw odległość linii łączącej” i określ jej wartość na: 16.\n6. Na karcie Element ustaw wysokość tekstu: 5, Zamocowanie poziome, Lewe zamocowanie: Dół górnej linii, Prawe zamocowanie:\nDół górnej linii. Zatwierdź zmiany przyciskiem OK oraz zamknij\nMenedżer stylów wielolinii odniesienia.\n\n7. Na karcie Element ustaw wysokość tekstu: 5, Zamocowanie poziome, Lewe zamocowanie: Dół górnej linii, Prawe zamocowanie: Dół górnej linii. Zatwierdź zmiany przyciskiem\nOK oraz zamknij Menedżer stylów wielolinii odniesienia.\n8. Na panelu linie odniesienia wybierz nowo utworzony styl oraz pobierz polecenie WIELOLODN.\n9. Określ położenie grotu strzałki linii odniesienia lub [...]: wskaż górny róg (lokalizacja KONiec).\n10. Określ położenie linii łączącej linię odniesienia: wskaż punkt.\n11. Wpisz tekst, kliknij poza tekstem.\n12. Gdyby w tekście pojawił się błąd, to można go łatwo poprawić.\nKliknij szybko dwukrotnie na tekście, ustaw kursor we właściwym miejscu i popraw.\nDo wykonania zadań włącz plik P_12–2.dwg.\nPrzykład 12.2a. Stosując wymiar liniowy (WYMLINIOWY) , zwymiarować obiekt z tolerancją symetryczną. W każdym przykładzie korzystaj ze stylu wymiarowania NOWY1.\nWymiarowanie 1. Wybierz polecenie WYMLINIOWY.\nz tolerancją 2. Wykonaj wymiarowanie jak na symetryczną rysunku.\n3. Po utworzeniu wymiaru zaznacz go i otwórz okno właściwości\n(CTRL+1).\n4. Przewiń do zakładki Tolerancje.\n5. W polu wyświetlanie tolerancji wybierz Symetrycznie.\n6. W polach odchyłka górna i dolna wpisz wartość 0.02.\nPrzykład 12.2b. Stosując wymiar liniowy (WYMLINIOWY) , zwymiarować obiekt z tolerancją odchyłkową.\nWymiarowanie 1. Wybierz polecenie z tolerancją WYMLINIOWY.\nodchyłkową 2. Wykonaj wymiarowanie jak na rysunku.\n3. Po utworzeniu wymiaru zaznacz go i otwórz okno właściwości\n(CTRL+1).\n\n4. Przewiń do zakładki Tolerancje.\n5. W polu wyświetlanie tolerancji wybierz Odchyłka.\n6. W polu odchyłka górna wpisz wartość 0.02.\n7. W polu odchyłka dolna wpisz wartość 0.05.\n8. W razie potrzeby ustawić pionowe położenie tolerancji na wartość środek.\nPrzykład 12.2c. Stosując wymiar liniowy (WYMLINIOWY) , wykonać tolerancję prostopadłości osi i płaszczyzny. Zapisz wynik pracy pod nową nazwą.\nTolerancja 1. Wybierz polecenie prostopadłości\nWYMLINIOWY.\nosi\n2. Wskaż położenie pierwszej i płaszczyzny i drugiej linii pomocniczej wymiarowej, wybierz opcję\nTekst, Enter, wstaw spację,\nEnter, wskaż położenie linii wymiarowej.\n3. Na karcie Opisz rozwiń panel Wymiar i wybierz polecenie\nTolerancja .\n4. Kliknij na czarne pole pod napisem Sym i wybierz znak odchyłki prostopadłości .\n5. W polu Tolerancja 1 wpisz R 0.02.\n6. W polu Ident. 1 wpisz B, naciśnij OK.\n7. Przyłącz obiekt do końcówki strzałki.\n8. Ponownie wybierz polecenie TOLERANCJA.\n9. W polu Identyfikator elementu odniesienia wpisz B, wciśnij Ok.\n10. Umieć obiekt pod obiektem.\n11. Stosując polecenie POLILINIA, dorysuj strzałkę. Najpierw odcinek o stałej szerokości, a następnie wykorzystaj opcję\nSzerokość, podaj wartość początkową 0, końcową 4.\nPrzykład 12.3. Stwórz styl wymiarowania: Architektoniczny i stosując znane polecenia wymiarowania i pracy z tekstem, uzupełnij plik zadania P_12–3.dwg.\nPo wykonaniu zadania powtórnie zapisz plik.\n1. Rozwiń panel Opisz na karcie Narzędzia główne i zadokuj go, wybierając ikonę pinezki w lewym dolny rogu panelu.\n2. Wybierz ikonę Menadżera stylu tekstu i na bazie Standard utwórz styl Architektoniczny.\n\n3. Ustaw:\n– Nazwa czcionki: simplex.shx,\n– Współczynnik szerokości: 0.5,\n– Kąt pochylenia: 5.\n4. Zastosuj zmiany i zamknij menadżera.\n5. W panelu Opisz wybierz ikonęm enadżera wymiarowania .\n6. Na bazie ISO-25 utwórz styl Architektoniczny i wykonaj zmiany w oknie menadżera:\n– Karta: Symbole i strzałki > Groty strzałek > Pierwszy: Pochylony, Druga: Pochylony,\n– Karta: Tekst > Wygląd tekstu > Styl tekstu: Architektoniczny,\n– Karta: Dopasowanie > Skala elementów wymiaru > Globalny współczynnik skali: 10.\n7. Wykonaj wymiarowanie zgodnie ze wzorem, zachowując kolejność linii wymiarowych zgodnie ze standardami wymiarowania budowlanego, tj.: otwory, osie otworów, osie ścian, grubości ścian, wymiar całkowity.\n8. Utwórz znaczniki okien i korzystając ze stylu tekstu: Architektoniczny i narzędzia\nTekst wielowierszowy, opisz je zgodnie ze wzorem.\nRysunek gotowy\nArkusz ćwiczeniowy\nCel ćwiczenia\nCelem ćwiczenia jest opanowanie umiejętności korzystania z narzędzi do wymiarowania wymiarów liniowych, dopasowanych, kątowych, od bazy, szeregowych, promieni, średnic, a także tworzenia linii odniesienia, praktycznego wymiarowania obiektów, wstawiania symboli wymiarowych oraz rozwiązanie arkusza ćwiczeniowego.\nĆwiczenie 12.1. Zwymiaruj wałek, wykorzystując znane polecenia wymiarowania.\nWymiaruj na warstwach: WYMIAR, WYMIAR_ŚREDNICA,\nWYMIAR_STOPIEŃ. Wczytaj plik CW_12–1.dwg. Rezultat prac zapisz pod nową nazwą.\nWłącz ŚLEDZENIE (PRZecięcie) oraz OBIEKT w Pasku stanu, aby można było wskazywać precyzyjne końce wymiarowanych obiektów rysunku.\n\n1. Wybierz polecenie WYMLINIOWY, a następnie zwymiaruj długość wałka, średnicę oraz długość czopa A.\n2. Wprowadź polecenie KONTUNUUJ i zwymiaruj kolejne wymiary za czopem A, (30, 70).\nUWAGA! Ostatnim wymiarem musi być długość czopa (28), wtedy można użyć polecenia KONTYNUUJ.\n3. Wybierz polecenie WYMLINIOWY, a następnie zwymiaruj\nOznaczenia średnicę oraz długość czopa B (28).\nczopów A oraz\n4. Wprowadź polecenie KONTUNUUJ i zwymiaruj kolejny\nB wykonać wymiar za czopem B (30).\nwielolinią\n5. Przejdź na warstwę GRUBA-RYS i wybierz polecenie LINIA.\nodniesienia\nNarysuj trójkąt oznaczający zbieżność.\n6. Wybierz z palety Tekst polecenie TEKST\nWIELOWIERSZOWY i wpisz wartość zbieżności 1 : 3.\n7. W celu przesunięcia opisu wymiaru średnic, które są nieczytelne przez kolizję z osią symetrii, należy zaznaczyć wymiar, a następnie chwycić za uchwyt opisu i przesunąć w nowe miejsce.\n8. Utwórz nowy styl wielolinii odniesienia. W tym celu rozwiń panel Opis, a następnie styl wielolinii odniesienia oznaczoną ikoną .\n9. Kliknij na styl Standard, a następnie Nowy. Nadaj mu nazwę\nOPIS_CZOPÓW i naciśnij Kontynuuj.\n10. Na karcie Format linii odniesienia symbol strzałki ustaw na\nBrak.\n\n11. Na karcie Struktura linii odniesienia odznacz opcję Automat.\nDołącz linie łączącą.\n12. Na karcie Element zaznacz opcję Obramuj tekst oraz\nZamocowanie pionowe. Styl tekstu wybierz: WYM.\n13. W panelu Opis wybierz Linia odniesienia i z włączonym\nORTO (F8) oznacz czop A i B.\nĆwiczenie 12.2. Stosując polecenie wymiar liniowy, uzupełnij opis przedstawionego schematu wzmacniacza magnetycznego [1]. Pracuj na warstwie\nWYMIARY. Wczytaj plik CW_12–2.dwg. Rezultat prac zapisz pod nową nazwą.\nWłącz ŚLEDZENIE (CENtrum, KONiec i inne) oraz OBIEKT, aby można było wskazywać precyzyjnie elementy obiektów rysunku.\nTworzenie 1. Wybierz kartę Opisz i w panelu Tekst rozwiń strzałkę (prawy górny wymiarów róg), aby wybrać właściwy styl wymiarowania. Kliknij na styl\nELEK-01.\n2. Wybierz polecenie WYMLINIOWY i zwymiaruj elementy rysunku opisane jako Us, U1, Ur.\nRysunek gotowy\nEdycja 3. W karcie Narzędzi główne w panelu Modyfikuj rozwiń panel wymiarów i wybierz polecenie ROZBIJ. Kliknij na utworzone wymiary.\n4. Poleceniem WYMAŻ (z panelu Modyfikuj) wykasuj dolne strzałki ze wszystkich utworzonych wymiarów.\n5. Kliknij szybko 2 razy na wartość wymiaru. Po włączeniu edycji tekstu zamarkuj tekst i wpisz odpowiednie oznaczenie z rysunku (np. Ur).\nKliknij poza tekstem.\n\n6. Z panelu Modyfikuj wybierz polecenie OBRÓT i obróć utworzone oznaczenie do położenia poziomego.\n7. Poleceniem PRZESUŃ (z panelu Modyfikuj) umieść oznaczenie we właściwym miejscu.\n8. Czynności z pkt. 6–7 powtórz wobec pozostałych oznaczeń.\nĆwiczenie 12.3. Stosując dostępne polecenie do wymiarowania, uzupełnij istniejący rysunek obiektu typu płyta o stosowne wymiary. Pracuj na warstwie\nWYMIARY. Wczytaj plik CW_12.3.dwg. Rezultat prac zapisz pod nową nazwą.\nWłącz ŚLEDZENIE (PRZetnij, KONiec i inne) oraz OBIEKT, aby można było wskazywać precyzyjnie elementy obiektu.\nRysunek gotowy\n1. Wybierz kartę Opisz i w panelu Tekst rozwiń strzałkę (prawy górny róg), aby wybrać właściwy styl wymiarowania. Kliknij na styl Ar1.\n2. Wybierz polecenie WYMLINIOWY i zwymiaruj pojedyncze wymiary poziome (30; 40).\n3. Następnie tym samym poleceniem zwymiaruj (20).\n4. Wybierz polecenie OD BAZY i zwymiaruj (70).\n5. Postępując jak w pkt. 3–4, zwymiaruj od wspólnej bazy (50; 90; 110) oraz wymiary w pionie (50; 80).\n6. Pobierz polecenie WYMNORMALNY, aby zwymiarować (32; 21).\n7. Pobierz polecenie WYMKĄTOWY i zwymiaruj kąty (31; 45; 153).\n8. Poleceniem WYMPROMIEŃ zwymiaruj łuki (R11; R20).\n\nĆwiczenie 12.4. Stosując dostępne polecenie do wymiarowania, uzupełnij istniejący rysunek klucza płaskiego dwustronnego o stosowne wymiary. Przed pracą stwórz nowy styl wymiarowania. Pracuj na warstwie OPIS.\nWczytaj plik CW_12.4.dwg. Rezultat prac zapisz pod nową nazwą.\nWłącz ŚLEDZENIE (PRZetnij, KONiec i inne) oraz OBIEKT, aby można było wskazywać precyzyjnie elementy obiektu.\nRysunek gotowy\n1. Wybierz kartę Opisz i w panelu Tekst rozwiń strzałkę (prawy górny róg), aby wybrać właściwy styl tekstu i wybierz styl STANDARD.\n2. Ustaw nazwę czcionki na simplex.shx i kąt pochylenia 15.\n3. W panelu Wymiary rozwiń strzałkę. Wybierz styl opisowy, a następnie kliknij Nowy. Nadaj mu nazwę WYM.\n4. W panelu Wymiary ustaw styl WYM jako aktualny.\n5. Na karcie Linie ustaw kolor linii wymiarowych i pomocniczych linii wymiarowych na niebieski oraz zaznacz opcję Stała długość pomocniczych linii wymiarowych i ustaw wartość na 5.\n6. Na karcie Tekst wybierz styl tekstu STANDARD i kolor tekstu ustaw na niebieski.\n7. Na karcie Jednostki podstawowe ustaw Dokładność na 0.0.\n8. Za pomocą polecenia WYMLINIOWY, WYMPROMIEŃ,\nWYMNORMALNY, WYMKĄTOWY zwymiaruj rysunek.\nĆwiczenie 12.5. Stosując polecenia modyfikacji i wymiarowania, uzupełnij istniejące rysunki schodów. Przed rozpoczęciem pracy zdefiniuj nowy styl wymiarowania. Wczytaj plik CW_12.5.dwg.\n1. Zdefiniuj nowy styl wymiarowania: Schody.\n2. Przełączając się między kolejnymi kartami edytora Zmień styl wymiarowania, ustaw:\n– Stała długość linii wymiarowej: 5,\n– Groty strzałek (pierwszy i drugi): Znak architektoniczny,\n– Czcionka (po wcześniejszym zdefiniowaniu stylu tekstu): Nazwa: simplex.shx,\n\nWspółczynnik szerokości: 0.5, Kąt pochylenia: 5,\n– Globalny współczynnik skali: 7.5.\n3. Zastosuj zmiany i zamknij Menadżer stylów wymiarowania.\n4. Przejdź na warstwę: pomocnicza, wybierz polecenie Podziel (Narzędzia główne > Rysuj > Podziel), a następnie wskaż pionowy odcinek w kolorze czerwonym opisany ścieżka, podaj liczbę segmentów do podziału: 19, Enter.\n5. Włącz widoczność standardowego paska Menu: Pasek szybkiego dostępu >\n> Pokaż pasek menu.\n6. Zmień styl punktu, wybierając ze standardowego paska Menu: Format > Styl punktu, wybierz „X”, Ustal rozmiar w jednostkach rysunku, Rozmiar punktu:\n5 jednostek.\n7. Zmierz odległość między puntami, wybierając: Narzędzia główne > Narzędzia\n> Zmierz > Odległość. Odczytaj wynik w wierszu poleceń. Wartość powinna wynosić 16.67.\n8. Przejdź na warstwę: szyk_prostokątny, wybierz pionowy odcinek w kolorze zielonym i wykonaj szyk prostokątny złożony z 1 wiersza i 9 kolumn rozłożonych co 30 jednostek.\n9. Przejdź na warstwę: szyk_wzdł_ścieżki, wybierz poziomy odcinek w kolorze czerwonym i wykonaj szyk wzdłuż ścieżki, wskazując jako ścieżkę opisany odcinek, zmień metodę dzielenia na: Podziel, ustaw liczbę elementów: 19.\n10. Elementy szyku wzdłuż ścieżki powinny pokrywać się z punktami, a odległość między nimi powinna wynosić 16.67. Sprawdź warunek wynikający z Warunków technicznych, jakim powinny odpowiadać budynki i ich usytuowanie: 2h+s=0,6 do 0,65 m. Jeśli warunek jest spełniony, kontynuuj pracę.\n11. Przejdź na warstwę konstrukcyjna i poleceniem Linia uzupełnij brakujące stopnie w rzucie i na przekroju.\n12. Zamroź warstwy: pomocnicza, szyk_prostokątny, szyk_wzdł_ścieżki.\n13. Wykonaj wymiarowanie i opis rysunków zgodnie ze wzorem.\nRysunek po wczytaniu\n\nRysunek po wykonaniu operacji szyków\nRysunek rozwiązany\n\n13. Przygotowanie rysunku do druku\nEkran monitora jest w programie AutoCAD rodzajem okna, przez które użytkownik zagląda w świat przestrzeni wirtualnej. Program może działać w dwóch rodzajach przestrzeni wirtualnej:\n– w trójwymiarowej przestrzeni modelu, w której zostają ukształtowane figury geometryczne będące modelami geometrycznymi rozważanych obiektów fizycznych.\nModele te mogą być figurami dwu- i trójwymiarowymi. Można je tutaj modyfikować, kasować, importować z innych plików, zmieniać ich wielkość i wzajemne położenie, korzystając z wyspecjalizowanych poleceń programu;\n– w dwuwymiarowej przestrzeni papieru, w której przygotowuje się do wydruku zapisy graficzne zaprojektowanych modeli na tzw. rzutniach, rozmieszczając je na poszczególnych formatach, opatrując odpowiednimi ramkami, tabelkami, opisami tekstowymi itp.\nW lewym dolnym rogu obszaru rysunku domyślnie znajdują się trzy zakładki Model/\nUkład1/Układ2... (rys. 13.1). Wciśnięta zakładka Model oznacza, że program pracuje w przestrzeni modelu.\nRys. 13.1. Zrzut paska odpowiadającego za przełączanie przestrzeni pracy użytkownika\nUaktywnienie którejkolwiek z zakładek Układ (można założyć ich dowolną liczbę i nazwać według potrzeb, np. rzut fundamentów, rzut parteru, rzut poddasza, przekrój... itd.) otwiera możliwości ustalenia rozmieszczenia wydruku zapisu graficznego na konkretnym arkuszu definiowanym w dwuwymiarowej przestrzeni papieru. Właściwości rozmieszczenia wydruku dotyczą wyboru odpowiedniego urządzenia drukującego, wymiarów papieru, na którym dokonany zostanie wydruk, usytuowania strony na kartce, części rysunku objętej wydrukiem, skali – podziałki wydruku, dodatkowych opcji wydruku. Wszystkie te ustalenia pozwala wprowadzić okno dialogowe Ustawienie strony (okno to wywołuje się przez naciśnięcie prawego przycisku myszy na zakładce Układ i wybraniu polecenia Menedżer ustawień strony...) (rys. 13.2).\nPo ustawieniu wszystkich wymaganych przez okno parametrów wydruku należy zaakceptować je przyciskiem OK, co spowoduje zamknięcie okna. Na ekranie pojawi się na białym tle gotowy do druku arkusz (rys. 13.3).\n\nRys. 13.2. Okno dialogowe Ustawienie strony\nRys. 13.3. Wygląd układu\nBardzo istotnym elementem każdego arkusza są tzw. rzutnie. Przedstawiane są na nich widoki zaprojektowanego w przestrzeni modelu, obiektu geometrycznego. Rzutnie tworzy się za pomocą okna dialogowego RZUTNIE (rys. 13.4) należącego do karty WIDOK. Każdej rzutni można przypisać indywidualną podziałkę określającą stosunek wielkości liniowych ustalanych w arkuszu do odpowiadających im wielkości\n\nw przestrzeni modelu. W określonym w przestrzeni modelu obiekcie geometrycznym możliwe jest zarówno generowanie dowolnych widoków na wyróżnianych rzutniach, jak i ustawianie tych rzutni na arkuszu w różnych układach oraz w różnych zakładkach\nUkład.\nRys. 13.4. Okno dialogowe Rzutnie\nPo wywołaniu każda z rzutni (standardowo) wyświetla przedstawienie graficzne struktury geometrycznej ustalonej ostatnio w przestrzeni modelu, ponieważ jednak rzutnie są obiektami programu AutoCAD zawartymi w przestrzeni papieru, więc wszystkie operacje dokonywane w tych rzutniach (zmiana podziałki, przesuwanie, kopiowanie) również dotyczą tej przestrzeni. Natomiast użytkownik, chcąc zmodyfikować zapis graficzny obiektu umieszczony na konkretnej rzutni, musi przejść do przestrzeni modelu i tam zrealizować bądź pożądane zmiany struktury zapisywanego obiektu geometrycznego, bądź odpowiednią zmianę widoku tego obiektu. Aby dokonać takiego przejścia, należy kliknąć dwukrotnie lewym przyciskiem myszy we wnętrzu rozważanej rzutni bądź zmienić ustawienia przełącznika PAPIER/MODEL w Pasku stanu.\nTakie działanie ze strony użytkownika uaktywnia rzutnie (jej ramka zostaje pogrubiona), co pozwala wybrać pożądane ustawienia widoków (np. z pomocą narzędzi z karty\nWidok w panelu Widok) oraz dokonywać dowolnych modyfikacji obiektu ustalonego w przestrzeni modelu.\n\nArkusz przykładów\nPrzykład 13.1. Przygotuj arkusz do wydruku z jedną rzutnią w formacje A4. Wczytaj plik P_13–1.dwg, a rezultat działań zapisz pod nową nazwą.\n1. Przejdź na zakładkę Układ1 i usuń widoczną rzutnię (kliknij LPM na krawędzi rzutni i wciśnij przycisk Delete).\n2. Kliknij PPM na zakładce Układ1 i wybierz Menedżer ustawień strony.\n3. W oknie Menedżer ustawień strony uaktywnij Układ1 (zaznacz) i wciśnij przycisk Zmień.\n4. W oknie Ustawienia strony wybierz drukarkę, np. PDFCreator lub DWG to PDF.\npc3, rozmiar papieru A4, skala wydruku 1 : 1 oraz 1 mm = 1 jednostka.\n5. Wciśnij przycisk Właściwości.\n6. W oknie Edytor konfiguracji plotera w zakładce Ustawienia urządzenia i dokumentu wybierz Zmień standardowe rozmiary papieru, odszukaj format A4 i wciśnij przycisk Zmień.\nUWAGA! Jeśli w pkt. 4 wybrałeś inny rozmiar papieru niż A4, np. ISO A4 (210 × 297 mm), to w pkt. 6 również należy wybrać ten rozmiar.\n7. W kolejnym oknie określ obszar drukowania (wartości marginesów): górny: 6, prawy: 6, lewy: 25, dolny: 6. Następnie wciśnij 2 razy Dalej i Zakończ.\n8. W oknach Edytor konfiguracji plotera, Zmiany w pliku konfiguracyjnym drukarki i Ustawienia strony zatwierdź zmiany OK i zamknij okno Menedżer ustawień strony.\n9. Przejdź do karty Układ i z panelu Rzutnie układu wybierz Prostokąt.\n10. Skieruj kursor na obszar papieru (nie klikaj) i wciśnij klawisz Enter, wywołując domyślne polecenie <Dopasuj> wyświetlone w wierszu poleceń (rzutnia powinna dopasować się do obszaru drukowania).\nUWAGA! Aby aktywować rzutnię, należy dwukrotnie kliknąć w dowolne miejsce rzutni na papierze (wtedy mamy możliwość modyfikacji i zmiany skali rysunku). Aby opuścić rzutnię, należy dwukrotnie kliknąć poza papierem\n(ciemniejszy obszar). Innym narzędziem do zmiany obszaru jest przycisk na Pasku stanu, który powoduje zmianę jego wyświetlania i jest opisany\nMODEL bądź PAPIER w zależności od środowiska, w którym pracujemy.\n11. Uwzględniając powyższe wskazówki, przedstaw obiekt 3D i dopasuj jego położenie jak na rysunku 13.5.\n\n12. Na pasku stanu ustaw skalę rzutni 1 : 1. Pamiętaj, że skalę rysunku zmieniamy w aktywnej rzutni.\nUWAGA! Z wciśniętym kółkiem myszy można przesuwać obszarem rysunkowym.\nZ wciśniętym klawiszem Shift i kółkiem myszy można obracać obszarem rysunkowym.\nRys. 13.5. Dopasowanie obiektu do drukowania\nArkusz ćwiczeniowy\nCel ćwiczenia\nCelem ćwiczenia jest doskonalenie umiejętności przygotowania rysunku do druku, wyboru odpowiedniego urządzenia drukującego, ustawienia wymiarów papieru, wykorzystania rzutni, ustawienia skali oraz dodatkowych opcji wydruku.\nĆwiczenie 13.1. Stosując polecenia: Tabela, Zdefiniuj atrybuty i Blok, wykonaj tabelę rysunkową. Przed rozpoczęciem pracy zdefiniuj nowy styl wymiarowania. Wczytaj plik CW_13.1.dwg.\n1. Wstaw tabelę Narzędzia główne > Opis > Tabela.\n2. Zdefiniuj liczbę kolumn: 3, i liczbę wierszy: 2. Ustaw style komórek we wszystkich rzędach na: Dane. Wstaw tabelę w obszarze roboczym.\n\nUWAGA! Ustawiając liczbę wierszy, należy pamiętać, że automatycznie zostają wstawione dwa dodatkowe pola.\n3. Zdefiniuj nowy styl tekstu: tabela (czcionka: simplex.shx, współczynnik szerokości: 0.75, kąt pochylenia: 10).\n4. Korzystając z właściwości (Ctrl+1), zaznaczaj komórki i wprowadzaj ich wysokości i szerokości zgodnie ze wzorem.\n5. Zaznacz wszystkie komórki oknem i ustaw:\n– styl tekstu: tabela,\n– wyrównanie: Góra lewo,\n– wysokość tekstu: 2.\nWymiary i opisy komórek tabeli\n6. Przechodząc przez kolejne komórki tabeli, wypełniaj je tekstem zgodnie ze wzorem.\n7. Wrysuj przekątne komórek na warstwie: pomocnicza.\n8. Ustaw jako bieżącą warstwę: Tabela i opis.\n9. Wstawiaj atrybuty, wybierając: Wstaw > Definicja bloku > Zdefiniuj atrybuty.\n10. Uzupełniaj pola edytora definicji atrybutów, kolejno wpisując w polach:\n– Oznaczenie – opisy pól zgodnie ze wzorem poniżej,\n– Monit – informację zwrotną skierowaną do projektanta, która ma być wyświetlana w momencie wstawienia tabeli, instruującą go o treści, jaka ma wypełnić komórkę, np. w polu Rysował monit to: Podaj imię i nazwisko rysującego,\n– Wyrównanie – Centrum symetria,\n– Styl tekstu – tabela,\n– Wysokość tekstu: 3.\n\n11. Analogicznie wstawiaj atrybuty w punktach symetrii linii pomocniczych.\nUWAGA!\n– W polu: Wydział / Uczelnia w edytorze definicji atrybutu wybierz Tryb: Stały, uzupełnij i w wierszu Domyślny wybierz , po czym wskaż środek linii pomocniczej i wpisz tekst w dwóch wierszach zgodnie ze wzorem. W ten sposób komórka będzie permamentnie uzupełniona.\n– W polu: Wydział / Uczelnia w edytorze definicji atrybutu wybierz Tryb: Wiele linii, uzupełnij i w wierszu Domyślny wybierz , po czym wskaż środek linii pomocniczej i wpisz tekst w dwóch wierszach zgodnie ze wzorem. W ten sposób komórka będzie wstępnie uzupełniona, jednak przy wstawianiu tabeli będzie można ją edytować.\nTabela po uzupełnieniu atrybutami\n12. Wyłącz widoczność linii pomocniczych, zamrażając odpowiednią warstwę.\n13. Utwórz blok z tabeli:\n– Nazwa: Tabela opisowa,\n– Punkt bazowy: wskaż prawy dolny wierzchołek,\n– Obiekty: Zapamiętaj,\n– Wybierz obiekty: zaznacz całą tabelę.\n14. Wstaw utworzony blok i wypełnij komórki Edytora atrybutów zgodnie ze wzorem.\n\nRozwiązane zadanie\nĆwiczenie 13.2. Przygotuj arkusz przedstawiający schemat instalacji elektrycznej [7] do wydruku z dwoma rzutniami w formacie A4. Wczytaj plik o nazwie\nCW_13–2.dwg, rezultat działań należy zapisać pod nową nazwą.\n1. Przejdź na zakładkę Układ1 i usuń widoczną rzutnię (kliknij LPM na krawędzi rzutni i wciśnij przycisk Delete).\n2. Kliknij PPM na zakładce Układ1 i wybierz Menedżer ustawień strony.\n3. W oknie Menedżer ustawień strony uaktywnij Układ1 (zaznacz) oraz wciśnij przycisk Zmień.\n4. W oknie Ustawienia strony wybierz drukarkę, np. PDFCreator lub DWG to PDF.\npc3, rozmiar papieru A4, skala wydruku 1 : 1 oraz 1mm = 1jednostka.\n5. Wciśnij przycisk Właściwości.\n6. W oknie Edytor konfiguracji plotera w zakładce Ustawienia urządzenia i dokumentu wybierz Zmień standardowe rozmiary papieru, odszukaj format A4 i wciśnij przycisk Zmień.\nUWAGA! Jeśli w pkt. 4 wybrałeś inny rozmiar papieru niż A4, np. ISO A4 (297 × 210 mm), to w pkt. 6 również należy wybrać ten rozmiar.\n7. W kolejnym oknie określ obszar drukowania (wartości marginesów): górny: 3, prawy: 3, lewy: 3, dolny: 9.\nNastępnie wciśnij 2 razy Dalej i Zakończ.\n8. W oknach Edytor konfiguracji plotera, Zmiany w pliku konfiguracyjnym drukarki i Ustawienia strony zatwierdź zmiany OK i zamknij okno\nMenedżer ustawień strony.\n9. Utwórz nową warstwę: Rzutnie, zmień szerokość linii na 0,2 mm. Ustaw utworzoną warstwę jako bieżącą\n\n10. Przejdź do karty Układ i wybierz strzałkę w prawym dolnym rogu panelu Rzutnie układu.\nUWAGA! Aby opcjonalnie wywołać okno Rzutnie, można wpisać w wierszu poleceń\nRzutnie i zatwierdzić klawiszem Enter.\n11. W oknie dialogowym Rzutnie przejdź na zakładkę Nowe rzutnie, a następnie wybierz Dwie: Pionowo. Zatwierdź zmiany OK.\n12. Skieruj kursor na obszar papieru (nie klikaj) i wciśnij klawisz Enter, wywołując domyślne polecenie <Dopasuj> wyświetlone w wierszu poleceń (rzutnia powinna dopasować się do obszaru drukowania).\nUWAGA! Aby aktywować rzutnię, należy dwukrotnie kliknąć w dowolne miejsce rzutni na papierze (wtedy mamy możliwość modyfikacji i zmiany skali rysunku). Aby opuścić rzutnię, należy dwukrotnie kliknąć poza papierem\n(ciemniejszy obszar). Innym narzędziem do zmiany obszaru jest przycisk na Pasku stanu, który powoduje zmianę jego wyświetlania i jest opisany\nMODEL bądź PAPIER w zależności od środowiska, w którym pracujemy.\n13. Uwzględniając powyższe wskazówki, przedstaw obiekt 2D i dopasuj jego położenie jak na rysunku 13.6.\n14. Na pasku stanu ustaw skalę rzutni. W rzutni z lewej strony 1 : 1, natomiast z prawej\n2 : 1. Pamiętaj, że skalę rysunku zmieniamy w aktywnej rzutni.\n15. Przejdź na obszar PAPIER i korzystając z edytora tekstu wstaw opisy „Skala 1:1” oraz\n„Skala 2:1” zgodnie ze wzorem. Styl tekstu: STANDARD, rozmiar: 10, kursywa.\nRys. 13.6. Dopasowanie obiektu do drukowania\n\nĆwiczenie 13.3. Przygotuj do wydruku arkusz w formacje A3 z trzema rzutniami przedstawiający rzut, przekrój, a także widok ogólny koła zapadkowego jednokierunkowego. Wczytaj plik o nazwie CW_13–3.dwg, rezultat działań należy zapisać pod nową nazwą.\n1. Przejdź na zakładkę Układ1 i usuń widoczną rzutnię (kliknij LPM na krawędzi rzutni i wciśnij przycisk Delete).\n2. Kliknij PPM na zakładce Układ1 i wybierz Menedżer ustawień strony.\n3. W oknie Menedżer ustawień strony uaktywnij Układ1 (zaznacz) i wciśnij przycisk\nZmień.\n4. W oknie Ustawienia strony wybierz drukarkę, np. PDFCreator lub DWG to PDF.pc3, rozmiar papieru A3, skalę wydruku 1 : 1, 1 mm = 1 jednostka, pionową orientację rysunku.\n5. Wciśnij przycisk Właściwości.\n6. W oknie Edytor konfiguracji plotera w zakładce Ustawienia urządzenia i dokumentu wybierz Zmień standardowe rozmiary papieru, odszukaj format A3 i wciśnij przycisk Zmień.\nUWAGA! Jeśli w pkt. 4 wybrałeś inny rozmiar papieru niż A3, np. ISO A3 (297 × 420 mm), to w pkt. 6 również należy wybrać ten rozmiar.\n7. W kolejnym oknie określ obszar drukowania (wartości marginesów) na: górny: 6, prawy: 6, lewy: 6, dolny: 9. Następnie wciśnij 2 razy Dalej i Zakończ.\n8. W oknach Edytor konfiguracji plotera, Zmiany w pliku konfiguracyjnym drukarki i Ustawienia strony zatwierdź zmiany OK i zamknij okno Menedżer ustawień strony.\n9. Przejdź do karty Układ i wybierz strzałkę w prawym dolnym rogu panelu Rzutnie układu (lub wpisz w wierszu poleceń: Rzutnie).\n10. W oknie dialogowym Rzutnie przejdź na zakładkę Nowe rzutnie, a następnie wybierz Trzy: Pod. Zatwierdź zmiany OK.\n11. Skieruj kursor na obszar papieru (nie klikaj) i wciśnij klawisz Enter – rzutnie powinny dopasować się do obszaru drukowania.\nUWAGA! Aby aktywować rzutnię, należy dwukrotnie kliknąć w dowolne miejsce rzutni na papierze (tylko wtedy mamy możliwość przesuwania i zmiany skali rysunku). Z wciśniętym kółkiem myszy można przesuwać obszarem rysunkowym. Aby opuścić rzutnię, należy dwukrotnie kliknąć poza papierem (ciemniejszy obszar).\n\n12. Uwzględniając powyższe wskazówki, przedstaw obiekty 2D i dopasuj ich położenie, w każdej rzutni jak na rysunku 13.7. Z paska stanu wybierz skalę rzutni. Pamiętaj, że skalę rysunku zmieniamy w aktywnej rzutni.\n13. Przejdź do karty Narzędzia główne i z panelu Opis wybierz narzędzie Tekst wielowierszowy. W każdej rzutni wstaw opis skali, pamiętaj, że opisy wstawiamy w nieaktywnej rzutni.\nRys. 13.7. Dopasowanie obiektu do drukowania\n\nZadanie dodatkowe. Przedstaw powiększenie wybranego szczegółu koła zapadkowego jednokierunkowego, tak jak na rysunku 13.8.\nKontynuujemy pracę w zakładce Układ1 przedstawiającej arkusz wydruku z trzema rzutniami. Rezultat działań należy zapisać pod nową nazwą.\n1. Przejdź do karty Narzędzia główne. Z panelu Rysuj wybierz polecenie Okrąg.\n2. Narysuj okrąg o dowolnych wymiarach poza obszarem arkusza rysunkowego (ciemniejszy obszar).\n3. Przejdź do karty Układ. Z panelu Rzutnie układu, rozwiń panel, wybierając polecenie Prostokąt i wybierz: Obiekt.\n4. Skieruj kursor myszy na łuk okręgu i kliknij LPM.\nOkrąg powinien zostać przekształcony w rzutnię.\n5. Skorzystaj z narzędzi dostępnych na karcie Widok w panelach Nawigacja\n2D oraz Widok (np. Nfragm), dopasuj położenie rysunku (zob. Rys. 13.5).\nUstaw skalę rzutni 4 : 1.\n6. Dwukrotnie kliknij LPM na ciemniejszy obszar poza rzutnią (aby ją opuścić).\n7. W nieaktywnej rzutni dodaj pozostałe wymiary jak na rysunku 13.7.\n8. Kliknij na łuk okręgu. Chwyć za aktywny uchwyt środka okręgu i przeciągnij go na rzutnię po prawej stronie.\n9. Wciśnij klawisz Esc.\n10. Przejdź do karty Narzędzia główne i z panelu Opis wybierz narzędzie Tekst wielowierszowy. Wstaw opis skali szczegółu.\nRys. 13.8. Wybrany szczegół przygotowany do wydruku\n\n14. Rysowanie obiektów złożonych\nW rozdziale tym przygotowano kilka ćwiczeń do doskonalenia umiejętności nabytych przy przerabianiu materiału dydaktycznego zaprezentowanego w rozdziałach od\n1 do 13. Celem poniższych ćwiczeń jest opanowanie sztuki łączenia działania wielu różnych poleceń wraz z ich dostępnymi opcjami w spójny system, który pozwoli wykreślić zaprezentowane rysunki z zakresu elektrotechniki oraz części maszyn.\nRozpoczęcie procesu wykonywania rysunków technicznych i schematów układów musi być poprzedzone dwoma działaniami. Po pierwsze, należy dokonać analizy kreślonego obiektu/obiektów i wyszukać takie cechy obiektu, jak istniejące osie symetrii, elementy identyczne, sposób występowania elementów powtarzających się, elementy podobne, elementy współśrodkowe, elementy z zaokrągleniami i fazowaniami, elementy będące równoległobokami. Zebrane informacje o kreślonym obiekcie pozwolą właściwie dobrać narzędzia (polecenia), które będą najbardziej efektywne w danej sytuacji. Na podstawie tego będzie można ustalić strategię tworzenia całego rysunku, a więc co i jakimi narzędziami będzie rysowane, co zaś będzie powstawało jako przekształcanie kopii obiektów wcześniej utworzonych. Drugie działanie dotyczy przygotowania arkusza/arkuszy do kreślenia rysunku. Należy więc zdefiniować warstwy, style tekstów i style wymiarowania.\nTakie podejście do procesu komputerowego kreślenia spowoduje, że praca będzie wykonywana efektywnie, a tworzone rysunki będą miały powtarzalny wygląd.\nArkusz ćwiczeniowy\nĆwiczenie 14.1. Uzupełnij rysunek zbrojenia schodów. Wczytaj plik o nazwie\nCW_14–1.dwg. Końcowy rezultat prac zapisz pod nową nazwą.\n1. Sprawdź zgodność długości prętów zbrojenia z wymiarami podanymi na rysunku. Długość możesz dostosować za pomocą polecenia ROZCIĄGNIJ.\n2. Dorysuj brakujące linie oznaczające zbrojenie, używając polecenia\nPOLILINIA z włączoną opcją WPROWADZANIA DYNAMICZNEGO\n(F12). Dzięki temu po zadaniu długości odcinka można ustawić kąt nachylenia (po wcześniejszym wybraniu przycisku TAB).\n3. Do łączenia polilinii możesz wybrać polecenie FAZUJ.\n4. Uzupełnij rysunek przekroju przez schody. Otulina zbrojenia powinna mieć grubość 30 mm, licząc od krawędzi biegu schodowego, można ją narysować poleceniem ODSUŃ.\n5. Zwymiaruj pręty zbrojeniowe. W tym celu na bazie stylu wymiarowania\n„MM20” utwórz nowy, w którego ustawieniach wyłącz wyświetlanie grotów strzałek, linii wymiarowych i pomocniczych. Zwymiaruj długości prętów zgodnie ze wzorem.\n\nUWAGA! Rysunek zwymiarowano w milimetrach. Pręty opisane są numerem porządkowym oraz długością podaną w milimetrach.\nRysunek gotowy\nĆwiczenie 14.2. Wykonaj rysunek obwodu magnetycznego magnesu trwałego [1].\nWczytaj plik o nazwie CW_14–2.dwg. Zdefiniuj konieczne warstwy zgodnie z charakterem rysunku. Końcowy rysunek zapisz pod nową nazwą.\n1. Zdefiniuj odrębne warstwy do rysowania konturu, linii pola magnetycznego (typ linii\n– kreskowa), oznaczeń, a także do wymiarowania.\n2. Przy rysowaniu przyjmij, że zewnętrzna średnica magnesu wynosi 50 jednostek.\n3. Do kreślenia okręgów można zastosować polecenie ODSUŃ.\n4. Do utworzenia zaokrągleń wykorzystaj polecenie ZAOKRĄGLIJ.\n5. Do opisów użyj stylu AR1.\n6. Wprowadź właściwy rozmiar tekstu przy wymiarowaniu.\n\n7. Dokonaj edycji napisów wymiarowych, aby ich wygląd odpowiadał temu, co pokazano na rysunku (oznaczenia kursywą, indeksy antykwą).\nRysunek gotowy\nĆwiczenie 14.3. Narysuj moduł przekaźnika RS485 [2]. Wczytaj plik o nazwie\nCW_14–3.dwg. Zdefiniuj konieczne warstwy zgodnie z charakterem rysunku. Końcowy rysunek zapisz pod nową nazwą.\n1. Odszukaj na rysunku bloki elementów powtarzające się.\n2. Przy definiowaniu warstw wprowadź właściwy kolor oraz szerokość kreślonych linii.\n3. Przyjmij, że promień wewnętrzny najmniejszego pierścienia wynosi 1.1 jednostki.\n\nĆwiczenie 14.4.Wykonaj rysunek rzutu i przekroju tarczy z otworami. Wczytaj plik o nazwie CW_14–4.dwg. Rysuj na odpowiednich warstwach.\nKońcowy rysunek zapisz pod nową nazwą.\n1. Przy kreśleniu rzutu zastosuj polecenia ODSUŃ oraz SZYK BIEGUNOWY.\n2. Utwórz warstwę KONSTRUKCYJNA, uczyń ją bieżącą i stosując polecenie\nPROSTA, przenieś rozmiary elementów z rzutu na tworzony przekrój (dzięki temu obie części rysunku będą do siebie pasowały).\nUWAGA! Nie jest to jedyny możliwy sposób rysowania.\n\nĆwiczenie 14.5. Wykonaj rysunek rzutu i przekroju tarczy z otworami. Wczytaj plik o nazwie CW_14–5.dwg. Rysuj na odpowiednich warstwach.\nKońcowy rysunek zapisz pod nową nazwą.\n1. Przy kreśleniu rzutu zastosuj polecenia UTNIJ, OBRÓĆ z aktywną funkcją\nKOPIUJ oraz SZYK BIEGUNOWY.\n2. Podczas pracy wykorzystaj TYMCZASOWE TRYBY LOKALIZACJI przy rysowaniu linii stycznej do okręgu / łuku.\n3. Utwórz styl tekstu i wymiarowania. Zwymiaruj rysunek zgodnie ze schematem.\nĆwiczenie 14.6. Wykonaj rysunki widoku oraz przekroju łącznika i zwymiaruj je.\nWczytaj plik o nazwie CW_14–6.dwg. Rysuj na odpowiednich warstwach. Rezultat prac zapisz pod nową nazwą.\n1. Przemyśl strategię kreślenia rysunku:\na) obiekt ma oś symetrii – spróbuj zastosować polecenie LUSTRO, b) do narysowania drugiego okręgu zastosuj polecenie ODSUŃ, c) możesz zastosować polecenie PROSTOKĄT do narysowania konturu widoku\n(zastosuj opcję Zaokrąglij).\n2. Zdefiniuj odpowiednie warstwy do wykreślenia łącznika.\n\n3. Utwórz warstwę KONSTRUKCYJNA, uczyń ją bieżącą i stosując polecenie\nPROSTA, przenieś wymiary z rzutu na przekrój (dzięki temu wszystkie części rysunku będą do siebie pasowały).\nĆwiczenie 14.7.Wykonaj rysunek wałka wielostopniowego wraz z wymiarami. Wczytaj plik CW_14–7.dwg. Rysuj na odpowiednich warstwach. Końcowy rysunek zapisz pod nową nazwą.\n\n1. Przemyśl starannie strategię kreślenia rysunku:\na) można zastosować polecenie PROSTOKĄT z opcją fazuj, b) obiekt ma oś symetrii – spróbuj zastosować polecenie LUSTRO, c) do narysowania drugiego okręgu możesz zastosować polecenie ODSUŃ.\n2. Zwróć uwagę na wymiary średnic (znak Ø) oraz gwintu M30. W tych przypadkach będzie konieczna edycja tych wymiarów.\nĆwiczenie 14.8.Wykonaj rysunek przekroju tulei i zwymiaruj go. Wczytaj plik o nazwie\nCW_14–8.dwg. Rysuj na odpowiednich warstwach. Końcowy rezultat prac zapisz pod nową nazwą.\n1. Przemyśl strategię kreślenia rysunku:\na) obiekt ma oś symetrii – spróbuj zastosować polecenie LUSTRO.\nb) do ścięcia naroży zastosuj polecenie FAZUJ.\n2. Pionowe linie łączące obie części przekroju wykreśl, stosując lokalizację precyzyjną.\n3. Podcięcia i zaokrąglenia zaznaczone w okręgu wykonać zgodnie ze szczegółem A.\n4. Zwróć uwagę na wymiarowanie średnic, które należy wykonać po wcześniejszym stworzeniu nowego stylu wymiarowania na bazie stylu ISO-25 z przedrostkiem\n%%C.\n\nĆwiczenie 14.9. Wykonaj rysunek tarczy wraz z opisami i wymiarowaniem. Wczytaj plik o nazwie CW_14–9.dwg. Rysuj na odpowiednich warstwach.\nKońcowy rysunek zapisz pod nową nazwą.\nĆwiczenie 14.10. Wykonaj rysunek rzutu fundamentówz wytykami zbrojenia pod ściany i słupy żelbetowe. Wczytaj plik o nazwie CW_14–10.dwg. Rysuj na odpowiednich warstwach. Końcowy rysunek zapisz pod nową nazwą.\n1. Przemyśl strategię kreślenia rysunku:\na) Ściany znajdują się w osiach symetrii – można obrysować ich położenie w budynku poleceniem Linia, b) Zwróć uwagę na szerokości fundamentów i użyj polecenia ODSUŃ, c) Połącz linie w narożnikach poleceniem FAZUJ, rozmiar pierwszej i drugiej fazy ustaw: 0,\n\nd) Oznaczenie wytyków zbrojenia wykonaj za pomocą polecenia KOPIUJ,\nLUSTRO lub SZYK PROSTOKĄTNY, e) Korzystając z predefiniowanych symboli wytyków umieszczonych w narożach, uzupełnij przykład.\nRysunek detalu naroża\n\nZakończenie\nAutorzy podręcznika są w pełni świadomi, że przedstawiony zakres materiału jest subiektywnym wyborem i nie wyczerpuje wszystkich możliwości zastosowania wybranych poleceń programu AutoCAD 2023. Z uwagi na różnorodność dostępnych narzędzi wraz ich opcjami jednorazowe przedstawienie tak obszernego materiału byłoby nużące dla czytelnika i w rezultacie mogłoby go zniechęcić do kontynuacji nauki programu. Autorzy położyli szczególny nacisk na stronę praktyczną omówionych poleceń i ich opcji, mając na uwadze stworzenie warunków zapewniających użytkownikowi poczucie swobody podczas tworzenia komputerowej dokumentacji projektowanych obiektów technicznych i schematów elektrycznych, a także satysfakcji płynącej z samodzielnego wykonania dokumentacji w formie graficznej.\nPraktyka czyni mistrza. Znaną naszym przodkom maksymę starano się wprowadzić w czyn, prezentując na łamach podręcznika sposoby wykorzystania poleceń na przykładzie konkretnych zadań rysunkowych wraz ze stosownym opisem zawierającym główne wskazówki lub szczegóły postępowania.\nW przyszłości autorzy planują przygotowanie drugiej części podręcznika, w której zostaną omówione narzędzia programu AutoCAD 2023 o większym zaawansowaniu technologicznym. Narzędzia te potrafią znacząco przyspieszyć proces przygotowania dużych dokumentacji projektowych, ponadto pozwalają uzyskiwać dane o istniejących obiektach. Przewiduje się uzupełnienie treści nowego podręcznika o nowe aspekty, uwzględniając pominięte opcje poleceń, których zastosowanie wymaga od użytkownika nabycia większej wprawy w poruszaniu się w środowisku programu AutoCAD.\n\nLiteratura\n1. Bolkowski S.: Teoria obwodów elektrycznych, Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN,\nWarszawa 2017.\n2. Budzik G., Marciniec A.: Komputerowe wspomaganie projektowania, Oficyna\nWydawnicza Politechniki Rzeszowskiej, Rzeszów 2012.\n3. Ciszewski M.: Uniwersalna karta wyjść z interfejsem RS485 i mikrokontrolerem\nAVR, „Elektronika Praktyczna” 2010, nr 01.\n4. Dobrzański T.: Rysunek techniczny maszynowy, Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN,\nWarszawa 2021.\n5. Giełdowski L.: Wymiarowanie, WSiP, Warszawa 1999.\n6. Gindis E., Kaebisch R.: Up and Running with AutoCAD 2023 2D and 3D Drawing,\nDesign and Modeling, MA: Elsevier, Inc, Waltham 2022.\n7. Jaskulski A.: AutoCAD 2013/LT 2013/WS+. Kurs projektowania parametrycznego i nieparametrycznego 2D i 3D, PWN, Warszawa 2013.\n8. Jaskulski A.: AutoCAD 2021 PL/EN/IT. Metodyka efektywnego projektowania parametrycznego i nieparametrycznego 2D i 3D, Helion, Gliwice 2021.\n9. Kania L.: Podstawy programu AutoCAD – modelowanie 2D, Wyd. Politechniki\nCzęstochowskiej, Częstochowa 2007.\n10. Łapuńka I., Mazurek R., Paszek A., Wasilewski M., Wittbrodt P.: Komputerowo wspomagane projektowanie CAD: ćwiczenia laboratoryjne, Oficyna Wydawnicza\nPolitechniki Opolskiej, Opole 2016.\n11. Majka K.: Ochrona przeciwporażeniowa w urządzeniach elektroenergetycznych niskiego napięcia, Wyd. Uczelniane, Politechnika Lubelska, Lublin 2003.\n12. Montusiewicz J.: Modelowanie 2D w programie AutoCAD, Politechnika Lubelska, Lublin 2011.\n13. Montusiewicz J., Czerkawska A.: Komputerowy zapis konstrukcji – ćwiczenia do programu AutoCAd, cz. 1, Wyd. Uczelniane, Politechnika Lubelska, Lublin 2008.\n14. Pikoń A.: AutoCAD 2023 PL. Pierwsze kroki, Helion, Gliwice 2022.\n15. Simmons C., Maguire D., Phelps N.: Manual of Engineering Drawing British and\nInternational Standards, MA: Elsevier, Inc, 2020.\n16. Węgierek P., Stępień A.: AUTODESK AutoCAD. Poziom podstawowy, Ośrodek\nKształcenia Zawodowego ELPRO Sp. z o.o., Lublin 2014.", "token_count": 66392} diff --git a/data/rock_pollub_pl/rock_pollub_pl.stats.json b/data/rock_pollub_pl/rock_pollub_pl.stats.json deleted file mode 100644 index c56b0db3102eb225910a5307b4aa571d13b01561..0000000000000000000000000000000000000000 --- a/data/rock_pollub_pl/rock_pollub_pl.stats.json +++ /dev/null @@ -1,12 +0,0 @@ -{ - "acquired": 8, - "added": "2026-09-08", - "author_coverage": 1.0, - "characters": 3380937, - "discovered_collection_items": 771, - "kept": 8, - "pilot_limit": 20, - "rejected": 0, - "sample_count": 8, - "tokens": 1177858 -} diff --git a/data/samorzad_gov_pl/NOTICE.md b/data/samorzad_gov_pl/NOTICE.md deleted file mode 100644 index d2490c8ca204218fc4f61437eb7715bf198f26f6..0000000000000000000000000000000000000000 --- a/data/samorzad_gov_pl/NOTICE.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,28 +0,0 @@ -# Attribution and licensing notice - -The `samorzad_gov_pl` source contains textual articles collected from public -pages hosted on the shared [samorzad.gov.pl](https://samorzad.gov.pl/) -platform. - -The platform footer states that textual content published in the service, -excluding audiovisual content, is available under the [Creative Commons -Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/) -license (`CC-BY-SA-4.0`). Every source page retained in the published v0.1 -upstream dataset referenced the shared platform footer script. - -For every released DynaWord document: - -- the `author` column identifies the publishing institution; -- `samorzad_gov_pl.attribution.jsonl` preserves the discovered `source_url`, - fetched `final_url`, recommended `attribution_url`, article title, - institution, tenant identifier, license URL and modification notice; -- article text was extracted from source HTML, and this contribution normalizes - metadata and excludes short, non-Polish or duplicate records. - -When redistributing or adapting these texts, retain the source attribution, -indicate changes and distribute adaptations under compatible -`CC-BY-SA-4.0` terms. - -Photographs, videos, recordings and attachment bytes are not included. Their -rights must be evaluated separately at the source. URLs and descriptive -metadata in the attribution sidecar do not redistribute the linked files. diff --git a/data/samorzad_gov_pl/samorzad_gov_pl.attribution.jsonl b/data/samorzad_gov_pl/samorzad_gov_pl.attribution.jsonl deleted file mode 100644 index 7635cb36aa437506eee0857d42fb0bd2c7c5abeb..0000000000000000000000000000000000000000 --- a/data/samorzad_gov_pl/samorzad_gov_pl.attribution.jsonl +++ /dev/null @@ -1,3 +0,0 @@ -version https://git-lfs.github.com/spec/v1 -oid sha256:e50acff3137b4680dc63a402667227b24cdd362e9c07895f1485a530ea5116c3 -size 68676369 diff --git a/data/samorzad_gov_pl/samorzad_gov_pl.license-evidence.json b/data/samorzad_gov_pl/samorzad_gov_pl.license-evidence.json deleted file mode 100644 index 4fadaa78d947dfa3fbe5c2e018ffb425cf37fa2c..0000000000000000000000000000000000000000 --- a/data/samorzad_gov_pl/samorzad_gov_pl.license-evidence.json +++ /dev/null @@ -1,17 +0,0 @@ -{ - "checked_at": "2026-08-13T23:42:06Z", - "evidence_url": "https://samorzad.gov.pl/scripts/govpl_template.js?locale=pl_PL", - "etag": "W/\"0b36ec507901ed443195479d8d8009386\"", - "bytes": 9291, - "sha256": "b36ec507901ed443195479d8d8009386159ae59d7486ce266bfb3308043e99aa", - "text_license": "CC BY-SA 4.0", - "audiovisual_license": "CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 unless stated otherwise", - "release_scope": { - "records": 81422, - "tenants": 247, - "source_pages_referencing_shared_footer_script": 81422, - "source_pages_without_reference": 0, - "missing_source_artifacts": 0 - }, - "method": "Checked the live shared footer script and searched every preserved source HTML artifact in release v0.1 for /scripts/govpl_template.js?locale=pl_PL." -} diff --git a/data/samorzad_gov_pl/samorzad_gov_pl.md b/data/samorzad_gov_pl/samorzad_gov_pl.md deleted file mode 100644 index 66a1d46d5f4f1559c68b586df948854780b03e35..0000000000000000000000000000000000000000 --- a/data/samorzad_gov_pl/samorzad_gov_pl.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,138 +0,0 @@ -# samorzad_gov_pl - -Polish-language articles published by 246 local public institutions and one -central platform tenant using the shared -[samorzad.gov.pl](https://samorzad.gov.pl/) platform. The collection includes -municipalities, counties, schools, social-service institutions, cultural -institutions and other public bodies. - -## Dataset description - -- **Published source dataset:** https://huggingface.co/datasets/dawidmajewski/samorzad-gov-pl-articles -- **Source revision:** `d5eaefc32c3f17cfa5a01d14573f8e4ee7d43385` (`v0.1`) -- **Original platform:** https://samorzad.gov.pl/ -- **Domain:** local government, education, social services and culture -- **Language:** Polish (`pl`) -- **License:** `CC-BY-SA-4.0` -- **Created:** 2020–2026 for dated records; most source records do not expose a date -- **Added:** 2026-08-14 - -## Statistics - -| read | kept | characters | tokens (`cl100k_base` proxy) | publishers | -|---:|---:|---:|---:|---:| -| 81,422 | 72,771 | 109,513,754 | 41,154,506 | 247 | - -The released Parquet uses the canonical DynaWord schema: - -`id, text, source, added, created, token_count, license, author` - -Every retained document has the human-readable name of its publishing -institution in `author`. The names were obtained from the `og:site_name` -metadata on each institution's platform homepage and frozen in -`src/samorzad_gov_pl_publishers.json`. - -## Provenance - -The source release was collected directly from public samorzad.gov.pl pages. -It contains every article URL found and successfully extracted during that -crawl, rather than a topical or length-selected sample. The published source -release contains 81,422 extracted articles from 247 institutions. - -`src/clean_samorzad_gov_pl.py` converts the published source Parquets into the -DynaWord schema, applies the common minimum-length and Polish-language checks, -removes exact duplicate text and counts tokens with `cl100k_base`. The retained -article text is otherwise unchanged. - -## Licensing — traceable basis and attribution - -The platform's shared footer states that textual content published in the -service, excluding audiovisual content, is available under CC BY-SA 4.0. A -release-time audit verified the live shared footer script and confirmed that -all 81,422 preserved source pages referenced that script. The evidence URL, -byte count and SHA-256 digest are recorded in -`samorzad_gov_pl.license-evidence.json`. - -The fixed DynaWord schema does not contain article titles or URLs. Therefore, -`samorzad_gov_pl.attribution.jsonl` maps every released `id` to its title, -discovered `source_url`, fetched `final_url`, recommended `attribution_url`, -publishing institution, platform tenant, license URL and modification notice. -For 693 retained records the discovered and final URLs differ because the -platform redirected the request; `attribution_url` uses the fetched final URL. - -Recommended attribution: - -> Publishing institution listed in the `author` column; article title and -> canonical samorzad.gov.pl URL from the attribution sidecar; CC BY-SA 4.0. -> Article text was extracted from HTML and normalized for inclusion in Polish -> DynaWord. - -Photographs, recordings, videos and attachment bytes are not redistributed. -The source platform gives audiovisual materials separate terms, and linked -attachments can carry their own conditions. URLs and descriptive metadata do -not redistribute those files. - -## Filters applied - -| result | documents | -|---|---:| -| source records read | 81,422 | -| shorter than 200 characters | 6,624 | -| below the Polish-language heuristic | 35 | -| exact duplicate text | 1,992 | -| retained | 72,771 | - -Exact duplicate removal is performed after short-text and language checks. -Existing DynaWord sources take priority when the same text is already present -elsewhere in the corpus. - -## Limitations and recommended use - -- The collection is not a complete historical archive of samorzad.gov.pl. It - contains the pages found and successfully extracted during one crawl. -- Only 21,892 of the 81,422 source records expose a publication date. After - filtering, 52,214 retained records have an empty `created` value; no date is - inferred for them. -- The source text can contain spelling errors, extraction remnants or captions. -- Very short source records are excluded by DynaWord's 200-character minimum. -- Institution names describe the publishing body, not necessarily the person - who wrote an article. -- Government and institutional language is overrepresented; this source should - complement, not stand in for, conversational or general Polish. -- Canonical URLs may stop working as institutions update their websites. - -## Included files - -- `samorzad_gov_pl.parquet` — canonical DynaWord records; -- `samorzad_gov_pl.stats.json` — build and release statistics; -- `samorzad_gov_pl.attribution.jsonl` — per-document source attribution; -- `samorzad_gov_pl.license-evidence.json` — release-time license evidence; -- `NOTICE.md` — attribution and redistribution notice. - -## Reproduction - -The converter refuses to build unless the downloaded `manifest.json` and all -10 Parquet shards match the pinned release. It verifies the manifest SHA-256, -artifact set, shard sizes and SHA-256 values, row counts, schema, unique record -IDs and the release-wide record-text digest before conversion. Outputs are -written to temporary files, cross-checked, synced and transactionally replaced; -a failed replacement restores the previous artifact set. - -Download the published source Parquet shards and run: - -```bash -hf download dawidmajewski/samorzad-gov-pl-articles \ - --repo-type dataset \ - --revision d5eaefc32c3f17cfa5a01d14573f8e4ee7d43385 \ - --include 'data/*.parquet' --include manifest.json \ - --local-dir /tmp/samorzad-gov-pl-articles - -uv run --with pyarrow --with tiktoken python src/clean_samorzad_gov_pl.py \ - --input /tmp/samorzad-gov-pl-articles/data \ - --repo-root . \ - --added 2026-08-14 -``` - -Use `--refresh-publishers` only when intentionally updating the frozen -institution-name manifest from live tenant homepages. Review any changed name -before publishing a new release. diff --git a/data/samorzad_gov_pl/samorzad_gov_pl.parquet b/data/samorzad_gov_pl/samorzad_gov_pl.parquet deleted file mode 100644 index 24f3fe1f4c768545eb8ec14619ca5fe5d968e1c2..0000000000000000000000000000000000000000 --- a/data/samorzad_gov_pl/samorzad_gov_pl.parquet +++ /dev/null @@ -1,3 +0,0 @@ -version https://git-lfs.github.com/spec/v1 -oid sha256:b4f788030bb987b6c12487ea3e2e587bca1d1fd86294c1488961045bfe8fd137 -size 51930059 diff --git a/data/samorzad_gov_pl/samorzad_gov_pl.stats.json b/data/samorzad_gov_pl/samorzad_gov_pl.stats.json deleted file mode 100644 index b490ab5eb0577ef36bde175ae5f773eb24fcd87a..0000000000000000000000000000000000000000 --- a/data/samorzad_gov_pl/samorzad_gov_pl.stats.json +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ -{ - "authors_with_value": 72771, - "central_tenant_count": 1, - "chars": 109513754, - "cross_source_hashes_loaded": 4246372, - "drop_dup": 1992, - "drop_lang": 35, - "drop_ocr": 0, - "drop_short": 6624, - "kept": 72771, - "license": "CC-BY-SA-4.0", - "licenses": { - "CC-BY-SA-4.0": 72771 - }, - "local_public_tenant_count": 246, - "publisher_count": 247, - "read": 81422, - "redirected_urls": 693, - "tokens": 41154506, - "upstream_artifact_count": 10, - "upstream_dataset": "dawidmajewski/samorzad-gov-pl-articles", - "upstream_manifest_sha256": "97b5a266b2fd4f043648b7d3c757721cd826c7ca1048301761084b0abdee5c48", - "upstream_record_text_sha256": "6c35e1dc0bd35863ddb2f4e43d5bd08264c1fc27affdd60684ab5ecbc5457f63", - "upstream_revision": "d5eaefc32c3f17cfa5a01d14573f8e4ee7d43385" -} diff --git a/data/sejm_api/NOTICE.md b/data/sejm_api/NOTICE.md deleted file mode 100644 index 7a03555bc596865b31581261f96d6cff6ee86931..0000000000000000000000000000000000000000 --- a/data/sejm_api/NOTICE.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -# Source attribution - -Official materials: Kancelaria Sejmu RP, API Sejmu — https://api.sejm.gov.pl/. - -Speech attribution is preserved in `author`; the full source URL is in `sejm_api.attribution.jsonl`. - -Corpus preparation and contribution: Piotr Styła (Hugging Face: PiotrSty; GitHub: PiotrStyla). - -Reuse follows Polish Copyright Act art. 4(2) and the Polish Open Data Act. No upstream Creative Commons grant is asserted. diff --git a/data/sejm_api/sejm_api.attribution.jsonl b/data/sejm_api/sejm_api.attribution.jsonl deleted file mode 100644 index 43c1df8d6bb9aa43374ec427672d1dcd4f8ff2dd..0000000000000000000000000000000000000000 --- a/data/sejm_api/sejm_api.attribution.jsonl +++ /dev/null @@ -1,3 +0,0 @@ -version https://git-lfs.github.com/spec/v1 -oid sha256:4ab6513f8173498d403f7ec1a9534b8e0086264d3eca6ff9ac4f9c5dbca4c069 -size 18722278 diff --git a/data/sejm_api/sejm_api.license-evidence.json b/data/sejm_api/sejm_api.license-evidence.json deleted file mode 100644 index 9409fe101b431e9a747a1214bf7feba62ccb50d6..0000000000000000000000000000000000000000 --- a/data/sejm_api/sejm_api.license-evidence.json +++ /dev/null @@ -1,34 +0,0 @@ -{ - "copyright_basis": { - "act": "Polish Copyright and Related Rights Act", - "article": "4(2)", - "finding": "official documents and materials are excluded from copyright", - "url": "https://eli.gov.pl/api/acts/DU/2025/24/text/O/D20250024.pdf" - }, - "dataset_record_license": "public-domain (official documents)", - "hf_source_license_name": "polish-public-sector-open-statutory-reuse", - "limitations": [ - "privacy and personal-data exceptions", - "third-party rights and provider-specific conditions", - "no upstream Creative Commons grant is asserted" - ], - "official_source": "https://api.sejm.gov.pl/", - "official_source_documentation": "https://api.sejm.gov.pl/sejm.html", - "pinned_source": "hf://datasets/PiotrSty/sejm-speeches-corpus@124557799608ce4212cf22fa90ca7904618de1b6", - "pinned_target_base": "hf://datasets/SlayerLab/polish-dynaword@8cc48a3c564ac9edabfbbf012842ad11f70a3e5c", - "provider": "Kancelaria Sejmu RP", - "reuse_basis": { - "act": "Polish Open Data and Reuse of Public Sector Information Act", - "articles": [ - "2(12)", - "5", - "6", - "14(1)", - "15", - "17" - ], - "url": "https://eli.gov.pl/api/acts/DU/2023/1524/text.html" - }, - "source": "sejm_api", - "status": "reviewed-open-official-materials" -} diff --git a/data/sejm_api/sejm_api.md b/data/sejm_api/sejm_api.md deleted file mode 100644 index 7db4afa3ec579fdfde112ffad3c711ed30f82170..0000000000000000000000000000000000000000 --- a/data/sejm_api/sejm_api.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,65 +0,0 @@ -# sejm_api - -Contemporary official Polish Sejm speeches, supplementing existing parliamentary sources. - -## Dataset description - -- Source (upstream): https://api.sejm.gov.pl/ -- Source documentation: https://api.sejm.gov.pl/sejm.html -- Domain: political/spoken -- Language: Polish (`pl`) -- License: `public-domain (official documents)` -- Created (range): 2023-01-11, 2026-07-03 -- Added: 2026-08-22 -- Contributor: Piotr Styła (`PiotrSty` on Hugging Face; `PiotrStyla` on GitHub). - -## Licensing — traceable basis - -Official parliamentary documents and materials are excluded from copyright by -article 4(2) of the Polish Copyright Act: https://eli.gov.pl/api/acts/DU/2025/24/text/O/D20250024.pdf. - -Reuse of public-sector information is governed by articles 2(12), 5, 6, 14, -15 and 17 of the Polish Open Data Act: https://eli.gov.pl/api/acts/DU/2023/1524/text.html. - -The per-document value intentionally matches the existing `parliamentary` -source. No unverified upstream Creative Commons license is asserted. - -## Provenance and reproducibility - -- Official provider: Kancelaria Sejmu RP. -- Immutable source release: `PiotrSty/sejm-speeches-corpus@v1.0.1`. -- Pinned source commit: `124557799608ce4212cf22fa90ca7904618de1b6`. -- Reviewed DynaWord base commit: `8cc48a3c564ac9edabfbbf012842ad11f70a3e5c`. -- Rebuild: `python src/fetch_sejm_api.py --help`. -- Source URLs and speech-level provenance are in `sejm_api.attribution.jsonl`. -- Slayer contribution digest: `sha256:38e42a791d68d593f82e1125f2bb94cd8f68212433e71d3e3da90f82d78eaf32`. - -## Temporal novelty and deduplication - -`parliamentary` ends on `2019-12-31` and registered -`parlamint_pl` ends on `2022-12-31`. Every contributed -record is dated on or after `2023-01-01`, so its date range overlaps neither -source. Exact duplicate speech texts within the contribution are removed using -SHA-1 fingerprints; this is not a claim of global cross-domain near-deduplication. - -## Statistics - -| Measure | Value | -|---|---:| -| Source rows inspected | 157,714 | -| Rows before 2023-01-01 | 118,902 | -| Exact duplicate texts removed | 0 | -| Documents published | 38,812 | -| Characters | 96,596,566 | -| Tokens (`cl100k_base` proxy) | 36,335,587 | -| Documents with speaker attribution | 38,812 | - -Statistics are recomputed from the released Parquet file. The canonical schema -is `id, text, source, added, created, token_count, license, author`. - -## Privacy and limitations - -The upstream release heuristically redacts email addresses, PESEL identifiers -and unambiguous Polish telephone numbers. Public-official names and speech -attribution remain. Regex redaction is not a guarantee of zero personal data. -Downstream users must review applicable privacy, third-party and source terms. diff --git a/data/sejm_api/sejm_api.parquet b/data/sejm_api/sejm_api.parquet deleted file mode 100644 index 1976ff7f2500e1f9d9a3dce8c9780fffb7055353..0000000000000000000000000000000000000000 --- a/data/sejm_api/sejm_api.parquet +++ /dev/null @@ -1,3 +0,0 @@ -version https://git-lfs.github.com/spec/v1 -oid sha256:56f7b03483488dec8f0fa145c6d26746926175d83096e9d1931e535aa81cf161 -size 35267581 diff --git a/data/sejm_api/sejm_api.stats.json b/data/sejm_api/sejm_api.stats.json deleted file mode 100644 index a7dd8439d9b20f54a21128887c7b7c974e531a35..0000000000000000000000000000000000000000 --- a/data/sejm_api/sejm_api.stats.json +++ /dev/null @@ -1,36 +0,0 @@ -{ - "added": "2026-08-22", - "authors_with_value": 38812, - "by_source_split": { - "train": 38053, - "validation": 759 - }, - "by_term": { - "10": 30789, - "9": 8023 - }, - "by_year": { - "2023": 10220, - "2024": 4788, - "2025": 13712, - "2026": 10092 - }, - "chars": 96596566, - "created_max": "2026-07-03", - "created_min": "2023-01-11", - "drop_before_start": 118902, - "drop_dup": 0, - "drop_lang": 0, - "drop_ocr": 0, - "drop_short": 0, - "kept": 38812, - "license": "public-domain (official documents)", - "licenses": { - "public-domain (official documents)": 38812 - }, - "read": 157714, - "source_revision": "124557799608ce4212cf22fa90ca7904618de1b6", - "stats_recomputed_from_parquet": true, - "target_base_revision": "8cc48a3c564ac9edabfbbf012842ad11f70a3e5c", - "tokens": 36335587 -} diff --git a/data/uzp_orzeczenia_pl/NOTICE.md b/data/uzp_orzeczenia_pl/NOTICE.md deleted file mode 100644 index 4d8df10eea024561bbe1b10dccc5c93fca050286..0000000000000000000000000000000000000000 --- a/data/uzp_orzeczenia_pl/NOTICE.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,7 +0,0 @@ -# Attribution and legal basis - -Source: UZP decision search service, https://orzeczenia.uzp.gov.pl/ (Urzad Zamowien Publicznych / Public Procurement Office). - -Records are official rulings (KIO, district courts, administrative courts, Supreme Court) in public procurement matters. Working basis: Polish Copyright Act art. 4(2) excludes official documents from copyright; no per-record license field exists on the service. Formal legal review has not been performed. Consult `artifacts/attribution.jsonl` for per-record provenance (organ, signature, issue date, URLs, checksums). - -Preparation: Piotr Styla with Devin (Cognition). Changes: service-PDF text extraction, running-head and page-number removal, Unicode/whitespace normalization, line-wrap repair, limited email/phone/IP/identifier/account pattern redaction, language/quality filtering and within-source deduplication. Names of parties and adjudicators remain as part of the official record. No endorsement by UZP, KIO or the courts is implied. diff --git a/data/uzp_orzeczenia_pl/uzp_orzeczenia_pl.attribution.jsonl b/data/uzp_orzeczenia_pl/uzp_orzeczenia_pl.attribution.jsonl deleted file mode 100644 index dd0b9e0d581eb11c58156579b0250ab30a3dc3aa..0000000000000000000000000000000000000000 --- a/data/uzp_orzeczenia_pl/uzp_orzeczenia_pl.attribution.jsonl +++ /dev/null @@ -1,3 +0,0 @@ -version https://git-lfs.github.com/spec/v1 -oid sha256:37e2a74646232784622a504a10f1b05aca0a16a6a9c647c4611d12c3f13726a5 -size 39221303 diff --git a/data/uzp_orzeczenia_pl/uzp_orzeczenia_pl.checksums.json b/data/uzp_orzeczenia_pl/uzp_orzeczenia_pl.checksums.json deleted file mode 100644 index 82689e1e264ed33903fb53f3c33b62f80215898a..0000000000000000000000000000000000000000 --- a/data/uzp_orzeczenia_pl/uzp_orzeczenia_pl.checksums.json +++ /dev/null @@ -1,11 +0,0 @@ -{ - "NOTICE.md": "7c9174db26e75108686bec4c2f68e07c7a778ccb774add23eb60c19e131e9867", - "uzp_orzeczenia_pl.attribution.jsonl": "37e2a74646232784622a504a10f1b05aca0a16a6a9c647c4611d12c3f13726a5", - "uzp_orzeczenia_pl.decisions.jsonl": "e80c5cac3c5c2786aeaeeb4babe6adcdf9355262e2657e06de61604f64b3cb60", - "uzp_orzeczenia_pl.md": "2c046f70c82f03fd051fb57f6b4028b70d42017d5883f7821f057db6f59bcbbd", - "uzp_orzeczenia_pl.overlap_audit.json": "584de6d8816921fb2bc3b312cbaa190ecfb829bbb471d97346db7d2989c4d72c", - "uzp_orzeczenia_pl.parquet": "2c7a13f99ee5571aa66a4d576a6b6705a3a896675ffc93d889447ca0ed9aae1a", - "uzp_orzeczenia_pl.qa.json": "2cd46cf726277064d051f96df0d99e4a5c7ee391ce53a15cabca9c5d9860219f", - "uzp_orzeczenia_pl.sample.jsonl": "d47fd82b7df915bc4957d8335fbc763749ceca796acd7afe4e504d1f37bdfe55", - "uzp_orzeczenia_pl.stats.json": "0dbc1b8a1fc7605178a012e1451baf0372eaefd1ad66e19243c73caad3e39e60" -} diff --git a/data/uzp_orzeczenia_pl/uzp_orzeczenia_pl.decisions.jsonl b/data/uzp_orzeczenia_pl/uzp_orzeczenia_pl.decisions.jsonl deleted file mode 100644 index fd80791ae11800db2593f0bd2545a302b54369b8..0000000000000000000000000000000000000000 --- a/data/uzp_orzeczenia_pl/uzp_orzeczenia_pl.decisions.jsonl +++ /dev/null @@ -1,3 +0,0 @@ -version https://git-lfs.github.com/spec/v1 -oid sha256:e80c5cac3c5c2786aeaeeb4babe6adcdf9355262e2657e06de61604f64b3cb60 -size 11277464 diff --git a/data/uzp_orzeczenia_pl/uzp_orzeczenia_pl.md b/data/uzp_orzeczenia_pl/uzp_orzeczenia_pl.md deleted file mode 100644 index 85be96ecf4bb3b878380114627c1df6cb7c5d6b3..0000000000000000000000000000000000000000 --- a/data/uzp_orzeczenia_pl/uzp_orzeczenia_pl.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,23 +0,0 @@ -# UZP Orzeczenia - Polish public-procurement rulings (KIO/SO/SA/SN) - -This slice is derived from the deterministic enumeration of the official UZP -decision search service (https://orzeczenia.uzp.gov.pl/): all rulings of the -National Appeals Chamber (KIO), district courts (SO), administrative courts (SA) -and the Supreme Court (SN) in public procurement matters. - -- Enumerated documents: 35,694 (per kind: {'KIO': 34412, 'SA': 3, 'SN': 2, 'SO': 1277}) -- Source slice retained after QA: 34715 -- Signature overlaps with `saos` excluded: 0 -- Proposed records: 34715 -- Proposed tokens: 422,043,881 (`cl100k_base` proxy) -- Characters: 1,110,428,704 -- License label: `public-domain (official documents)` (LicenseRef-Polish-Official-Documents) -- Immutable source snapshot: https://huggingface.co/datasets/PiotrSty/uzp-orzeczenia-pl/tree/696485691e9f8cb85d1a34221897250e25359ba0 - -Per-record attribution, landing URLs, PDF URLs and checksums are preserved. -Rulings are official documents; the working basis is Polish Copyright Act -art. 4(2) - no formal legal review has been performed. Cross-source text -deduplication and benchmark checks remain integration gates. pypdf-derived -text can retain layout artifacts and flattened tables. Names of parties and -adjudicators remain part of the official record; pattern-based PII checks are -not comprehensive de-identification. diff --git a/data/uzp_orzeczenia_pl/uzp_orzeczenia_pl.overlap_audit.json b/data/uzp_orzeczenia_pl/uzp_orzeczenia_pl.overlap_audit.json deleted file mode 100644 index 96a7a3566e9121dd0fec78b60c039a61013553b3..0000000000000000000000000000000000000000 --- a/data/uzp_orzeczenia_pl/uzp_orzeczenia_pl.overlap_audit.json +++ /dev/null @@ -1,12 +0,0 @@ -{ - "candidate_records": 35694, - "colliding_ids": [], - "collisions": [], - "method": "case-normalized signature match against SAOS attribution strings", - "observed_at": "2026-09-18T04:34:43.880281+00:00", - "saos_rows": 0, - "signature_collisions": 0, - "target": "SlayerLab/polish-dynaword:data/saos", - "target_revision": "bade8e7cae51bd30e9530c3be38dd0e3eeba1f70", - "text_overlap": "not tested; target-wide text dedup remains an integration gate" -} diff --git a/data/uzp_orzeczenia_pl/uzp_orzeczenia_pl.parquet b/data/uzp_orzeczenia_pl/uzp_orzeczenia_pl.parquet deleted file mode 100644 index 0530e919a5057a3fbff1507dafe09b78833a656f..0000000000000000000000000000000000000000 --- a/data/uzp_orzeczenia_pl/uzp_orzeczenia_pl.parquet +++ /dev/null @@ -1,3 +0,0 @@ -version https://git-lfs.github.com/spec/v1 -oid sha256:2c7a13f99ee5571aa66a4d576a6b6705a3a896675ffc93d889447ca0ed9aae1a -size 328263070 diff --git a/data/uzp_orzeczenia_pl/uzp_orzeczenia_pl.qa.json b/data/uzp_orzeczenia_pl/uzp_orzeczenia_pl.qa.json deleted file mode 100644 index ade758b80dcd94bb0d5be4c7918a53dfc7c2fcb7..0000000000000000000000000000000000000000 --- a/data/uzp_orzeczenia_pl/uzp_orzeczenia_pl.qa.json +++ /dev/null @@ -1,14 +0,0 @@ -{ - "benchmark_overlap": "pending", - "cross_source_text_dedup": "pending target integration", - "known_target_signature_overlap_excluded": 0, - "limitations": [ - "pypdf extraction may retain layout artifacts; tables may be flattened", - "pattern checks are not comprehensive de-identification; natural-person names of parties and adjudicators remain part of the official record", - "official-document status does not cover third-party material quoted inside rulings", - "sequential IDs contain gaps; enumeration follows the server-side result list, not the ID range" - ], - "scope": "DynaWord proposal derived from the UZP procurement-rulings corpus", - "source_text_qa_rejected": 979, - "within_source_exact_and_near_dedup": true -} diff --git a/data/uzp_orzeczenia_pl/uzp_orzeczenia_pl.sample.jsonl b/data/uzp_orzeczenia_pl/uzp_orzeczenia_pl.sample.jsonl deleted file mode 100644 index e09b6ca86edcc5c16fbf9d2ad591bc476a066ef7..0000000000000000000000000000000000000000 --- a/data/uzp_orzeczenia_pl/uzp_orzeczenia_pl.sample.jsonl +++ /dev/null @@ -1,12 +0,0 @@ -{"added": "2026-09-17", "author": "Krajowa Izba Odwoławcza", "created": "2022-08-19", "id": "uzp_orzeczenia_pl_18116", "license": "public-domain (official documents)", "source": "uzp_orzeczenia_pl", "text": "Sygn. akt: KIO 2102/22\nPOSTANOWIENIE z dnia 19 sierpnia 2022 roku\nKrajowa Izba Odwoławcza\n- w składzie:\nPrzewodniczący: Irmina Pawlik po rozpoznaniu na posiedzeniu niejawnym bez udziału stron w dniu 19 sierpnia 2022 r.\nw Warszawie odwołania wniesionego do Prezesa Krajowej Izby Odwoławczej w dniu 11 sierpnia 2022 r. przez wykonawcę GISS Spółka z ograniczoną odpowiedzialnością z siedzibą w Warszawie w postępowaniu prowadzonym przez zamawiających Regionalne\nCentrum Krwiodawstwa i Krwiolecznictwa w Krakowie, Regionalne Centrum Krwiodawstwa i Krwiolecznictwa w Rzeszowie, Regionalne Centrum Krwiodawstwa i Krwiolecznictwa w Łodzi, Regionalne Centrum Krwiodawstwa i Krwiolecznictwa w Szczecinie, w imieniu których postępowanie prowadzi Zakład Zamówień Publicznych przy Ministrze Zdrowia z siedzibą w Warszawie postanawia:\n1. umarza postępowanie odwoławcze;\n2. nakazuje zwrot z rachunku bankowego Urzędu Zamówień Publicznych na rzecz odwołującego GISS Spółka z ograniczoną odpowiedzialnością z siedzibą w Warszawie kwoty 13 500 zł 00 gr (słownie: trzynaście tysięcy pięćset złotych zero groszy) stanowiącej 90% uiszczonego wpisu od odwołania.\nStosownie do art. 579 ust. 1 i 580 ust. 1 i 2 ustawy z dnia 11 września 2019 r. - Prawo zamówień publicznych (t.j. Dz. U. z 2022 r. poz. 1710) na niniejsze postanowienie - w terminie 14 dni od dnia jego doręczenia - przysługuje skarga za pośrednictwem Prezesa\nKrajowej Izby Odwoławczej do Sądu Okręgowego w Warszawie.\nPrzewodniczący: ..............................................\nU z a s a d n i e n i e\nZamawiający Regionalne Centrum Krwiodawstwa i Krwiolecznictwa w Krakowie,\nRegionalne Centrum Krwiodawstwa i Krwiolecznictwa w Rzeszowie, Regionalne Centrum\nKrwiodawstwa i Krwiolecznictwa w Łodzi, Regionalne Centrum Krwiodawstwa i Krwiolecznictwa w Szczecinie, w imieniu których działa Zakład Zamówień Publicznych przy\nMinistrze Zdrowia z siedzibą w Warszawie (dalej jako „Zamawiający”) prowadzą postępowanie o udzielenie zamówienia publicznego w trybie przetargu nieograniczonego pn.\n„Zakup mobilnych punktów pobierania krwi na bazie autobusów dla RCKiK w Krakowie (1 pojazd), Rzeszowie (1 pojazd), Łodzi (1 pojazd) i Szczecinie (1 pojazd). Części 1*4” (znak sprawy: ZZP.ZP.411.63.2022). Ogłoszenie o zamówieniu zostało opublikowane w Dzienniku\nUrzędowym Unii Europejskiej z dnia 22 lipca 2022 r. pod numerem 2022/S 140-397686. Do ww. postępowania o udzielenie zamówienia zastosowanie znajdują przepisy ustawy z dnia\n11 września 2019 r. - Prawo zamówień publicznych (t.j. Dz. U. z 2021 r. poz. 1129 ze zm., dalej „ustawa Pzp”). Wartość szacunkowa zamówienia przekracza progi unijne, o których mowa w art. 3 ustawy Pzp.\nW dniu 11 sierpnia 2022 r. wykonawca GISS Spółka z ograniczoną odpowiedzialnością z siedzibą w Warszawie (dalej jako „Odwołujący”) wniósł odwołanie wobec treści dokumentów zamówienia. Odwołujący zarzucił Zamawiającemu naruszenie art. 99 ust. 1 i 4 w zw. z art. 16 pkt 1-3 ustawy Pzp poprzez zmianę opisu przedmiotu zamówienia w sposób nieuwzględniający wszystkich wymagań i okoliczności mogących mieć wpływ na sporządzenie oferty, a także w sposób nieadekwatny do przedmiotu zamówienia oraz naruszający uczciwą konkurencję i zasadę równego traktowania wykonawców oraz zasadę proporcjonalności, w zakresie w jakim Zamawiający odpowiadając na pytanie nr 12 w wyjaśnieniach treści SWZ z dnia 8 sierpnia 2022 r. wprowadzał wymóg, aby pojazd na moment dostawy miał przebieg nie większy niż 700 kilometrów. Odwołujący wniósł o uwzględnienie odwołania i nakazanie Zamawiającemu dokonania zmiany treści SWZ w sposób uwzględniający argumentację odwołania, tj. wprowadzenie wymogu, aby pojazd na moment dostawy miał przebieg nie większy niż 3000 kilometrów.\nOdwołujący w dniu 16 sierpnia 2022 r. złożył pismo zatytułowane „cofnięcie odwołania.” W jego treści wskazał, iż „działając na podstawie art. 520 ustawy Pzp w związku z wyjaśnieniami SWZ z dnia 12 sierpnia 2022 r., w wyniku których dokonano modyfikacji\nSWZ w sposób czyniący zadość żądaniom Odwołującego (a zatem Zamawiający de facto uwzględnił zarzuty odwołania z dnia 11 sierpnia 2022 r.), zgodnie z art. 522 ust. 1 ustawy\nPzp wnosi o umorzenie postępowania odwoławczego na posiedzeniu niejawnym bez obecności stron.” Poinformował też, że „informacja o cofnięciu została przekazana\nZamawiającemu.” Następnie Odwołujący wniósł o zwrot kwoty uiszczonej tytułem wpisu w pełnej wysokości na podstawie § 9 ust. 1 pkt 2 lit. b) rozporządzenia Prezesa Rady\nMinistrów w sprawie szczegółowych rodzajów kosztów postępowania odwoławczego, ich rozliczania oraz wysokości i sposobu pobierania wpisu od odwołania z dnia 30 grudnia 2020 r. (Dz. U. z 2020 r. poz. 2437), a przypadku nieuwzględnienia tego wniosku, zgodnie z przepisem § 9 ust. 1 pkt 3 lit. a) rozporządzenia, o zwrot kwoty stanowiącej 90% kwoty uiszczonej tytułem wpisu od odwołania.\nJak wynika z ww. pisma, Odwołujący z jednej strony powołał się na art. 520 ustawy\nPzp, dotyczący możliwości wycofania odwołanie do czasu zamknięcia rozprawy, zatytułował swoje pismo „cofnięcie odwołania” i wskazał, że „informacja o cofnięciu została przekazana\nZamawiającemu”, a z drugiej strony podniósł, że w jego ocenie Zamawiający uwzględnił odwołanie i wniósł o umorzenie postępowania na podstawie art. 522 ust. 1 ustawy Pzp, który dotyczy przypadku uwzględnienia przez zamawiającego w całości zarzutów przedstawionych w odwołaniu. Stanowisko Odwołującego jest zatem wewnętrznie sprzeczne i odnosi się do dwóch różnych podstaw prawnych umorzenia postępowania odwoławczego. Kierując się postawionymi w piśmie wnioskami Izba ustaliła, że intencją Odwołującego było złożenie wniosku o umorzenie postępowania z uwagi na uwzględnienie odwołania przez\nZamawiającego, a w przypadku nieuwzględnienia przez Izbę tego wniosku - złożenie oświadczenia o wycofaniu odwołania.\nIzba stwierdziła, że brak jest podstaw do umorzenia postępowania w oparciu o art. 522 ust. 1 ustawy Pzp. Zgodnie z tym przepisem w przypadku uwzględnienia przez zamawiającego w całości zarzutów przedstawionych w odwołaniu, Izba może umorzyć postępowanie odwoławcze na posiedzeniu niejawnym bez obecności stron oraz uczestników postępowania odwoławczego, którzy przystąpili do postępowania po stronie wykonawcy, pod warunkiem że w postępowaniu odwoławczym po stronie zamawiającego nie przystąpił w terminie żaden wykonawca. W takim przypadku zamawiający wykonuje, powtarza lub unieważnia czynności w postępowaniu o udzielenie zamówienia, zgodnie z żądaniem zawartym w odwołaniu.\nZamawiający w przedmiotowej sprawie nie złożył oświadczenia o uwzględnieniu odwołania w całości. Złożenie takiego oświadczenia ma doniosłe znaczenie procesowe, gdyż implikuje możliwość wniesienia sprzeciwu wobec tej czynności przez potencjalnych wykonawców zgłaszających przystąpienie do postępowania odwoławczego po stronie zamawiającego. Nie sposób dekodować takiego oświadczenia, które ma stricte procesowy charakter, z czynności faktycznych podjętych przez Zamawiającego w postępowaniu o udzielenie zamówienia.\nZważywszy, że Izba nie uwzględniła wniosku Odwołującego o umorzenie postępowania na podstawie art. 522 ust. 1 ustawy Pzp w zw. z art. 568 pkt 3 ustawy Pzp, w oparciu o treść pisma Odwołującego z dnia 16 sierpnia 2022 r. Izba stwierdziła, że zachodzą podstawy do umorzenia postępowania odwoławczego wobec złożenia przez\nOdwołującego oświadczenia, o którym mowa w art. 520 ust. 1 ustawy Pzp. Zgodnie z art.\n520 ustawy Pzp Odwołujący może cofnąć odwołanie do czasu zamknięcia rozprawy (ust. 1).\nCofnięte odwołanie nie wywołuje skutków prawnych, jakie ustawa wiąże z wniesienie odwołania do Izby (ust. 2).\nBiorąc pod uwagę powyższe, Izba postanowiła umorzyć postępowanie odwoławcze na podstawie art. 568 pkt 1 ustawy Pzp, w myśl którego Izba umarza postępowanie odwoławcze, w formie postanowienia, w przypadku cofnięcia odwołania.\nO kosztach postępowania odwoławczego Izba orzekła na podstawie art. 557 i art. 575 ustawy Pzp w zw. z § 9 ust. 1 pkt 3 lit. a) rozporządzenia Prezesa Rady Ministrów w sprawie szczegółowych rodzajów kosztów postępowania odwoławczego, ich rozliczania oraz wysokości i sposobu pobierania wpisu od odwołania z dnia 30 grudnia 2020 r. (Dz. U. z 2020 r. poz. 2437), nakazując dokonanie na rzecz Odwołującego zwrotu z rachunku Urzędu\nZamówień Publicznych 90% kwoty uiszczonej tytułem wpisu.\nPrzewodniczący: ..............................................", "token_count": 3282} -{"added": "2026-09-17", "author": "Sąd Okręgowy w Katowicach", "created": "2009-10-08", "id": "uzp_orzeczenia_pl_7985", "license": "public-domain (official documents)", "source": "uzp_orzeczenia_pl", "text": "Sygn. akt XIX Ga 388/09\nWYROK\nW IMIENIU RZECZYPOSPOLITEJ POLSKIEJ\nDnia 8 października 2009 r\nSąd Okręgowy w Katowicach XIX Wydział Gospodarczy Odwoławczy w składzie następującym:\nPrzewodniczący: SSO Dariusz Chrapoński (spr.)\nSędziowie: SSO Małgorzata Kowalska\nSSO Olga Gornowicz-Owczarek\nProtokolant: sekr.sądowy Agnieszka Szwedura po rozpoznaniu na rozprawie w dniu 8 października 2009 r. w Katowicach sprawy z odwołania\nKONSORCJUM: IMPEL CLEANING Spółki z ograniczoną odpowiedzialnością we Wrocławiu,\nHOSPITAL SERWIS Spółki z ograniczoną odpowiedzialnością we Wrocławiu, r przeciwko\nSzpitalowi Miejskiemu w Siemianowicach Śląskich z udziałem przystępującego do postępowania po stronie oferenta\nSpółdzielni\nInwalidów „NAPRZÓD” w Krakowie o udzielenie zamówienia publicznego na skutek skargi odwołującego KONSORCJUM : IMPEL CLEANING Spółki z ograniczoną odpowiedzialnością we Wrocławiu, HOSPITAL SERWIS Spółki z ograniczoną odpowiedzialnością we Wrocławiu, od postanowienia Krajowej Izby Odwoławczej przy Prezesie Urzędu Zamówień\nPublicznych w Warszawie z dnia 6 sierpnia 2009 r. sygn. akt KIO/UZP/974/09\n1. oddala skargę;\n2. zasądza od odwołującego na rzecz zamawiającego kwotę 3.617 zł (trzy tysiące sześćset siedemnaście złotych) tytułem zwrotu kosztów postępowania skargowego.\ncpisy\nAU::4\nNg oryginale wipsciy.p«\nZGODNCÓĆ Ż O RYG\n51, stwierdzam\nSEKRETA\nUZASADNIENIE\nZaskarżonym postanowieniem z dnia 6 sierpnia 2009 roku Krajowa\nIzba Odwoławcza (zwana dalej KIO) odrzuciła odwołanie Konsorcjum: Impel\nCleaning Sp. z o.o. we Wrocławiu i Hospital Serwis Sp. z o.o. we Wrocławiu\n(zwanego dalej Konsorcjum) od rozstrzygnięcia przez Zamawiającego - Szpital\nMiejski w Siemianowicach Śląskich (zwanego dalej Zamawiającym) protestu z dnia 18 czerwca 2009 roku przy udziale Spółdzielni Inwalidów „Naprzód” w\nKrakowie (zwanego dalej Wykonawcą) oraz rozstrzygnęło o kosztach postępowania odwoławczego.\nKIO ustaliła, że Zamawiający prowadzi w trybie przetargu nieograniczonego postępowanie o udzielenie zamówienia publicznego na kompleksową usługę sprzątania powierzchni szpitalnych, ciągów komunikacyjnych oraz pomieszczeń biurowych i socjalnych. Dnia 18 czerwca\n2009 roku Wykonawca wniósł protest wobec czynności Zamawiającego z dnia wcześniejszego, polegającej na nieuprawnionym wezwaniu go do uzupełnienia dokumentów w trybie art. 26 ust. 3 ustawy z dnia 29 stycznia\n2004 roku Prawo zamówień publicznych (t.j. Dz. U. z 2007, Nr 223, poz.\n1655 ze zm., zwanego dalej p.u.n.). Protestujący bowiem zarzucił, że wezwanie Zamawiającego do uzupełnienia planu higieny spełniającego warunki Specyfikacji Istotnych Warunków Zamówienia (SIWZ) jest nieprecyzyjne, gdyż nie określono w nim błędów, które występują w przedłożonym przez niego planie, dołączonym do oferty. Niewskazanie konkretnych uchybień prowadzi do niepewności po stronie Wykonawcy co do elementów złożonego dokumentu, które są błędne w opinii Zamawiającego.\nPrecyzja w wezwaniu do uzupełnienia dokumentów jest istotna m. in. z uwagi na możliwość jednokrotnego wezwania do uzupełnienia danego dokumentu. W konsekwencji tego, Wykonawca wniósł o uznanie czynności\nZamawiającego za bezskuteczną, względnie precyzyjnego wskazania zakresu błędów w żądanym dokumencie wraz z wyznaczeniem nowego terminu na jego uzupełnienie.\nDo postępowania protestacyjnego przystąpiło Konsorcjum, podnosząc, że wezwanie do uzupełnienia dokumentów nastąpiło z naruszeniem art. 26 ust. 3 p.z.p. W jego ocenie charakter stwierdzonych braków w planie higieny złożonym przez Wykonawcę uzasadniał odrzucenie tej oferty na podstawie art. 89 ust. 1 pkt 2 p.z.p.\nProtest został rozstrzygnięty przez Zamawiającego dnia 30 czerwca\n2009 roku poprzez jego oddalenie, jako bezzasadnego.\nZ tym rozstrzygnięciem nie zgodziło się Konsorcjum, wnosząc od niego odwołanie, w którym zarzucono naruszenie przez Zamawiającego art. 7 i art.\n26 ust. 3 p.z.p., w uzasadnieniu podnosząc te same argumenty, co w przystąpieniu do postępowania protestacyjnego. Konsorcjum domagało się uchylenia czynności Zamawiającego z dnia 17 czerwca 2009 roku i nakazaniu mu dokonania ponownej oceny ofert i wybór oferty najkorzystniejszej spośród ofert ważnych.\nMając na względzie te okoliczności KIO uznało, że odwołanie podlega odrzuceniu na podstawie art. 187 ust. 4 pkt 2 p.z.p.\nKIO zauważyło, że przepisy p.z.p. kształtują system ochrony praw ubiegających się o udzielenie zamówienia publicznego w ten sposób, że na czynność zamawiającego przysługuje protest, który tenże rozpoznaje, a od takiego rozstrzygnięcia przysługuje odwołanie do KIO. Odwołania nie może wnieść wykonawca, który wcześniej nie wniósł protestu. Wyjątkiem od tej zasady jest możliwość wniesienia odwołania przez wykonawcę, który wcześniej skutecznie przystąpił do postępowania toczącego się w wyniku wniesienia protestu. Ustawa wymaga, aby wykonawca zgłaszający przystąpienie do tego postępowania określił swoje żądanie w zakresie zarzutów zawartych w proteście (art. 181 ust. 5 p.z.p.). Nie jest zatem dopuszczalne podnoszenie innych zarzutów niż zawarte w proteście, przez co rozumieć należy nie tylko wskazanie czynności bądź zaniechania zamawiającego oraz powołanie właściwych przepisów, ale i zakres zaskarżenia oraz argumentację.\nPrzytoczona przez Wykonawcę w proteście argumentacja skupiała się na konieczności precyzyjnego określenia przez Zamawiającego uchybień i konsekwencjach, jaki mogą dla niego płynąć z faktu braku wskazania w wezwaniu nieprawidłowości w złożonych dokumentach. Tymczasem treść przystąpienia do postępowania protestacyjnego przez Konsorcjum, jak i jego odwołanie od rozstrzygnięcia protestu tylko z pozoru dotyczą tego samego zarzutu, zgłoszonego w proteście przez Wykonawcę. W rzeczywistości\nKonsorcjum zarzuca Zamawiającemu naruszenie przepisów art. 7 i art. 26 ust. 3 p.z.p., kwestionując wezwanie Wykonawcy do uzupełnienia planu higieny, gdyż ten plan jako nie należący do katalogu dokumentów wymienionych w art. 25 ust. 1 p.z.p. nie stanowi dokumentu podlegającego uzupełnieniu w myśl art. 26 ust. 3 p.z.p., a co za tym idzie oferta\nWykonawcy winna zostać odrzucona na podstawie art. 89 ust. 1 pkt 2 p.z.p.\nZdaniem KIO w takiej sytuacji zarzut nieuprawnionego wezwania\nWykonawcy winien zostać zawarty w odrębnym proteście wniesionym przez\nKonsorcjum.\nMając to na uwadze KIO odrzuciło na podstawie art. 187 ust. 4 pkt 2 p.z.p. odwołanie, a o kosztach postępowania orzekło w oparciu o art. 191 ust. 6 i 7 p.z.p.\nW skardze na to postanowienie Konsorcjum domagało się jego zmianę poprzez uwzględnienie odwołania i nakazania Zamawiającemu uchylenia czynności wezwania Wykonawcy do uzupełnienia dokumentów oraz dokonanie prawidłowej oceny złożonych ofert w postępowaniu, bez uwzględnienia dostarczonych bezprawnie przez Wykonawcę dokumentów, stanowiących uzupełnienie oferty. Ponadto Konsorcjum wniosło o zasądzenie kosztów postępowania odwoławczego i skargowego.\nZaskarżonemu orzeczeniu zarzucono naruszenie:\n- art. 7 ust. 1 p.z.p. poprzez zaniechanie merytoiycznego rozpoznania zarzutu naruszenia przez Zamawiającego zasady zachowania uczciwej konkurencji w postępowaniu, oraz zasady równego traktowania wykonawców;\nart. 26 ust. 3 w zw. z art. 87 p.z.p. poprzez zaniechanie merytorycznego rozpoznania zarzutu wadliwego wezwania przez Zamawiającego Wykonawcy do uzupełnienia dokumentów;\nart. 180 ust. 1 p.z.p. poprzez uznanie, że zarzut nieuprawnionego wezwania do uzupełnienia dokumentów nie został podniesiony w proteście Wykonawcy, jak również uznaniu, że Konsorcjum winno samodzielnie wnieść protest oparty o zarzut bezprawnego wezwania Wykonawcy;\nart. 181 ust. 4 i ust. 5 p.z.p. poprzez uznanie, że złożone przez Konsorcjum przystąpienie do protestu zawiera rozszerzenie zarzutów w odniesieniu do wniesionego protestu;\nart. 187 ust. 2 p.z.p. poprzez zaniechanie rozpoznania odwołania na rozprawie;\nart. 187 ust. 4 pkt 2 w zw. z art. 181 ust. 4 p.z.p. poprzez uznanie, że odwołanie nie zostało poprzedzone protestem;\nart. 188 ust. 7 p.z.p. poprzez przekroczenie granic swobodnej oceny dowodów;\nart. 190 ust. 2 p.z.p. poprzez wydanie postanowienia bez rozpoznania istoty sprawy;\nart. 191 ust. 1 p.z.p. poprzez zaniechanie wydania wyroku wobec braku podstaw do odrzucenia odwołania;\nart. 191 ust. 1 pkt 1 p.z.p. poprzez uznanie, że naruszenie przez Zamawiającego przepisów p.z.p. nie miało wpływu na wynik postępowania;\nart. 191 ust. 2 pkt 2 p.z.p. poprzez zaniechanie w istocie dokonania rozstrzygnięcia wniesionego odwołania;\nart. 191 ust. 3 p.z.p. poprzez uznanie, że zarzut nieuprawnionego wezwania Wykonawcy nie może się stać przedmiotem rozpoznania przez KIO;\n- art. 191 ust. 6 p.z.p. poprzez błędne rozstrzygnięcie o kosztach postępowania odwoławczego.\nZamawiający, jak i Wykonawca wnieśli o oddalenie skargi i zasądzenie kosztów postępowania skargowego.\nSąd Okręgowy ustalił i zważył, co następuje:\nSkarga nie zasługuje na uwzględnienie z następujących przyczyn.\nW pierwszej kolejności należy w sposób ogólny omówić system środków ochrony prawnej zawarty w Dziale VI Prawa zamówień publicznych.\nStosownie do zasad ogólnych wynikających z art. 179 ust. 1 p.z.p. środki ochrony prawnej określone w niniejszym dziale przysługują wykonawcom i uczestnikom konkursu, a także innym osobom, jeżeli ich interes prawny w uzyskaniu zamówienia doznał lub może doznać uszczerbku w wyniku naruszenia przez zamawiającego przepisów ustawy. Pierwszym w kolejności środkiem tej ochrony jest protest wnoszony na czynności, o których mowa w art. 180 ust. 1 p.z.p., który to rozstrzyga sam zamawiający. Zgodnie z art.\n184 ust. 1 p.z.p. od rozstrzygnięcia protestu przysługuje odwołanie do KIO, a od orzeczenia tego organu skarga do sądu (art. 194 ust. 1 p.z.p.). Przyjęty przez omawianą ustawę system środków ochrony prawnej uczestników postępowania w przedmiocie udzielenia zamówienia publicznego opiera się zatem na dwustopniowości wnoszenia środków odwoławczych - przed skargą do sądu. Innymi słowy, odwołanie od rozstrzygnięcia protestu może wnieść tylko podmiot, który wniósł protest. Odwołanie wniesione przez inny podmiot jako wniesione bez zachowania trybu określonego przez ustawę podlega odrzuceniu na podstawie art. 187 ust. 4 pkt 2 p.z.p. - chyba, że zostało ono wniesione przez wykonawcę, który przystąpił do postępowania pro te stacyj nego.\nW myśl art. 181 ust. 5 p.z.p. wykonawca zgłasza przystąpienie do postępowania toczącego się w wyniku w wniesienia protestu, wskazując swój interes prawny w przystąpieniu i określając swoje żądanie w zakresie zarzutów zawartych w proteście. Istota zagadnienia, jakie stanowisko zajmuje w tym postępowaniu, tkwi w tym, jaka jest treść protestu, a zatem jaki jest przedmiot tego postępowania. Zgodnie z art. 180 ust. 8 p.z.p.\nprotest powinien wskazywać oprotestowaną czynność lub zaniechanie zamawiającego, a także zawierać żądanie, zwięzłe przytoczenie zarzutów oraz okoliczności faktycznych i prawnych uzasadniających wniesienie protestu.\nZakres przedmiotowy postępowania protestacyjnego określają zatem następujące czynniki:\n- oznaczenie zaskarżonej czynności lub zaniechania zamawiającego;\n- żądanie zawarte w proteście, co do sposobu jego załatwienia;\n- zarzuty przeciwko czynności lub zaniechaniu zamawiającego;\n- przytoczenie okoliczności faktycznych lub prawnych uzasadniających protest.\nW tym stanie rzeczy, przystępujący do postępowania protestacyjnego - wypełniając dyspozycję cytowanego powyżej art. 181 ust. 5 p.z.p. winien się odnieść do przedmiotu postępowania, tj. czy popiera stanowisko protestującego, czy też się z nim nie zgadza. W rzeczy samej, przystępując do postępowania protestacyjnego, wykonawca przystępuje do protestującego, popierając jego stanowisko w sprawie, względnie do zamawiającego, co oznacza, że uznaje jego czynność lub zaniechanie za prawidłowe. Istota bowiem przystąpienia wykonawcy do postępowania protestacyjnego polega na tym, aby to postępowanie ze względu na jego interes prawny zakończyło się na korzyść jednej ze stron tego postępowania. Jako przystępujący to tego postępowania po jednej ze stron, jest związany zakreślonymi wcześniej czterema czynnikami, określającymi ramy tego postępowania, bez możliwości rozszerzenia jego granic w którymkolwiek elemencie, wpływających na jego zakres. Inne okoliczności faktyczne i prawne, zarzuty, twierdzenia, tudzież żądania mogą stanowić samodzielnego protestu przystępującego, o ile rzecz jasna spełnione zostaną warunki art. 179 ust. 1 p.z.p.\nZakres postępowania protestacyjnego determinuje zakres jego rozstrzygnięcia, a także zakres odwołania do KIO. Wyjście ponad przedmiot postępowania protestacyjnego przez przystępującego do protestu jest niedopuszczalny, a zatem, jako bez zachowania trybu określającego środki ochronne uczestników postępowania podlega odrzuceniu.\nPowyższe wywody należy dla oceny zasadności skargi Konsorcjum przenieść na grunt stanu faktycznego niniejszej sprawy.\nPismem z dnia 17 czerwca 2009 roku Zamawiający na podstawie art.\n26 ust. 3 p.z.p. wezwał Wykonawcę do przedłożenia wymaganych przez niego dokumentów, o których mowa w art. 25 ust. 1 p.z.p. w związku z pkt 9 ppkt\n1 SIWZ, tj. planu higieny spełniającego wymogi SIWZ w terminie do dnia 19 czerwca 2009 roku do godz. 12:00. Następnego dnia Wykonawca złożył protest na tę czynność i zarzucając Zamawiającemu naruszenie art. 7 i art.\n26 ust. 3 p.z.p. wniósł, o uznanie tej czynności za bezskuteczną, względnie o precyzyjne wskazanie zakresu błędu lub błędów w żądanym dokumencie wraz z wyznaczeniem nowego terminu na jego uzupełnienie. Jego zdaniem wezwanie Zamawiającego jest nieprecyzyjne i nie zawiera wskazania błędów, które występują w przedłożonym planie. Niewskazanie konkretnych uchybień prowadzi do sytuacji, kiedy niejasne staje się, które elementy zawarte w planie są błędne, a które prawidłowe. Brak wyraźnego określenia błędów powoduje, że nie jest możliwym ocena poprawności czynności\nZamawiającego, jak i jej wykonanie. Ramy postępowania protestacyjnego, pomijając żądanie wyznaczają okoliczności faktyczne i prawne zasadzające się na twierdzeniu, że Zamawiający naruszył wspomniane powyżej przepisy, albowiem jego czynność z dnia 17 czerwca 2009 roku nie jest precyzyjna co do tego w jaki sposób Wykonawca ma wykonać polecenie w niej zawarte, wobec czego wnosi o jej uznanie za bezskuteczną, względnie o jej sprecyzowanie.\nKonsorcjum przystąpiło do postępowania protestacyjnego, domagając się jego uwzględnienia, co wskazywałoby, że przystąpiło ono do tego postępowania po stronie Wykonawcy. Jego zdaniem czynność z dnia 26 czerwca 2009 roku narusza art. 26 ust. 3 p.z.p., ale nie dlatego, że jest ona, tak jak twierdzi Wykonawca nieprecyzyjna, ale, że jego oferta w zakresie planu higieny nie odpowiada treści SIWZ, a wobec czego Zamawiający w tym trybie nie mógł go wzywać do przedłożenia dokumentów, a na podstawie art.\n89 ust. 1 pkt 2 p.z.p. winien tę ofertę odrzucić.\nW konkluzji stwierdzić należy, że Konsorcjum w postępowaniu protestacyjnym zajęło pozycję niezależną w stosunku do twierdzeń i zarzutów Wykonawcy, a także nie przystąpiło do Zamawiającego, gdyż zakwestionowało prawidłowość jego czynności. Nastąpiło więc w niniejszej sprawie przekroczenie zakresu przedmiotowego postępowania protestacyjnego, gdyż de facto zmierza ono do jej zakwestionowania, nie dlatego, że jest ona nieprecyzyjna, lecz, że w ogóle Wykonawca nie powinien był jej podjąć, że względu na konieczność odrzucenia oferty Wykonawcy na podstawie art. 89 ust. 1 pkt 2 p.z.p. Zarzuty tego rodzaju, powtórzone w odwołaniu, przekroczyły zakres przedmiotowy postępowania protestacyjnego, wywołanego przez innego uczestnika postępowania o udzielenie zamówienia publicznego, albowiem mają one charakter od nich niezależny i odmienny.\nTego rodzaju zarzuty i twierdzenia mogłyby być podstawą własnego protestu\nKonsorcjum, którego tenże nie wniósł.\nPodniesienie zarzutów nieobjętych przedmiotem postępowania protestacyjnego Wykonawcy w odwołaniu od rozstrzygnięcia protestu wywołuje skutek, że zostało ono wniesione bez uprzedniego wniesienia protestu, w któiym Konsorcjum mogłoby podnieść prezentowane przez siebie zarzuty i twierdzenia (art. 187 ust. 4 pkt 2 p.z.p.). Zasadnie zatem KIO odrzuciło odwołanie Konsorcjum jako niedopuszczalne. W istocie ich rozpoznanie powodowałoby orzekanie co do zarzutów niezawartych w proteście (art. 191 ust. 3 p.z.p.).\nWykładnia powyżej wskazanych przepisów jest wystarczająca do rozstrzygnięcia skargi, bez analizy poszczególnych zarzutów w niej zawartych. Analiza ich zasadności zmierzała by do oceny meritum argumentów w niej podniesionych, co jest niedopuszczalne w sytuacji gdy odwołanie z przyczyn formalnych podlegało odrzuceniu.\nMając powyższe wywody orzeczono jak na wstępie (art. 198 ust. 2 p.z.p. i art. 194 ust. 2 p.z.p. w zw. z art. 98 k.p.c.).\nNa oryginale właściwe podpisy\nZGODNOŚĆ Z /ORYGINAŁEM stwierjdzam\nSE KR O ARZ\nBaroafa Sojka", "token_count": 6396} -{"added": "2026-09-17", "author": "Krajowa Izba Odwoławcza", "created": "2024-03-22", "id": "uzp_orzeczenia_pl_23861", "license": "public-domain (official documents)", "source": "uzp_orzeczenia_pl", "text": "Sygn. akt: KIO 748/24\nWYROK\nWarszawa, dnia 22 marca 2024 r.\nKrajowa Izba Odwoławcza\nPrzewodnicząca:\nBeata Konik\nProtokolantka:\n\nAldona Karpińska\n\npo rozpoznaniu na rozprawie odwołania wniesionego do Prezesa Krajowej Izby Odwoławczej w dniu 6 marca 2024 r.\nprzez odwołującego – wykonawcę Remondis Sanitech Poznań spółkę z ograniczoną odpowiedzialnością z siedzibą w\nPoznaniu, w postępowaniu prowadzonym przez zamawiającego Gminę Damasławek, przy udziale uczestnika po stronie zamawiającego – wykonawców:\nAnny Michalskiej prowadzącej działalność gospodarczą pod firmą A.M. Przedsiębiorstwo ProdukcyjnoHandlowoUsługowe „Wspólnota” z siedzibą w Skokach oraz\nMieczysława Jarzębowskiego prowadzącego działalność gospodarczą pod firmą M.J. Przedsiębiosrtwo Produkcyjno\nHnsdlowoUsługowe „Wspólnota” S. C. z siedzibą w Skokach, którzy wspólnie prowadzą działalność gospodarczą pod firmą PPHU Wspólnota S.C. A.M. M.J. z siedzibą w Skokach, orzeka:\n1.\nOddala odwołanie.\n2.\nKosztami postępowania obciąża odwołującego - wykonawcę Remondis Sanitech Poznań spółkę z ograniczoną odpowiedzialnością z siedzibą w Poznaniu i:\n\n2.1.\nZalicza w poczet kosztów postępowania odwoławczego kwotę 15 000 zł 00 gr (słownie: piętnaście tysięcy złotych zero groszy) uiszczoną przez Odwołującego tytułem wpisu od odwołania oraz kwotę 3600 zł 00 gr (słownie:\ntrzy tysiące sześćset złotych zero groszy) poniesioną przez Zamawiającego tytułem wynagrodzenia i wydatków pełnomocnika.\n2.2.\nZasądza od Odwołującego\n\nna rzecz Zamawiającego\n\nkwotę\n3600 zł 00 gr (słownie: trzy tysiące sześćset złotych zero groszy) stanowiącą koszty postępowania odwoławczego poniesione przez Zamawiającego tytułem wynagrodzenia i wydatków pełnomocnika.\nNa orzeczenie - w terminie 14 dni od dnia jego doręczenia - przysługuje skarga za pośrednictwem Prezesa Krajowej Izby\nOdwoławczej do Sądu Okręgowego w Warszawie - Sądu Zamówień Publicznych.\nPrzewodnicząca:\n.........................\n\n748/24\nUzasadnienie\nGmina Damasławek, (dalej:\n„Zamawiający”\n) prowadzi w trybie przetargu nieograniczonego postępowanie o udzielenie zamówienia publicznego na usługi pn.:\n„Odbiór niesegregowanych (zmieszanych) odpadów komunalnych, odpadów ulegających biodegradacji oraz odpadów komunalnych zbieranych selektywnie tj. papier i tektura, tworzywa sztuczne, odpady opakowaniowe\n\nwielomateriałowe, metal, szkło z nieruchomości zamieszkałych położonych na terenie\nGminy Damasławek”\n, nr postępowania: Inw.271.8.2023.\nPrzedmiotowe postępowania o udzielenie zamówienia publicznego jest prowadzone na podstawie ustawy z dnia\n11 września 2019 r. Prawo zamówień publicznych\n(Dz.U. z 2023 r. poz. 1605 ze zm.).\nSzacunkowa wartość zamówienia jest wyższa od kwot wskazanych w przepisach wykonawczych wydanych na podstawie art. 3 ust. 3 ustawy Pzp.\nOgłoszenie o zamówieniu zostało opublikowane w Dzienniku Urzędowym Unii Europejskiej z 29 września 2023 r., nr 2023/S 188-589170.\nW postępowaniu tym wykonawca Remondis Sanitech Poznań spółka z ograniczoną odpowiedzialnością z siedzibą w Poznaniu (dalej:\n„Odwołujący”\n) 6 marca 2024 r. złożył odwołanie do Prezesa Krajowej Izby Odwoławczej wobec niezgodnych z przepisami ustawy Pzp czynności i zaniechań zamawiającego w postępowaniu o udzielenie zamówienia.\n- w składzie:\nOdwołujący zarzucił Zamawiającemu naruszenie:\n1) art. 239 ust. 1 ustawy Pzp przez wybór przez Zamawiającego oferty Anny Michalskiej i Mieczysława\nJarzembowskiego, wspólników spółki cywilnej pod firmą PPHU Wspólnota S.C. A.M. M.J. (dalej:\n„Wspólnota”\n), jako oferty najkorzystniejszej, niezgodnie z kryteriami oceny ofert wskazanymi w SWZ podczas, gdy przy ocenie oferty Wspólnoty, Zamawiający powinien przyjąć, że skierowali oni do realizacji zamówienia jeden pojazd spełniający normę emisji spalin minimum EURO 6, a co za tym idzie w kryterium oceny ofert „D” oferta\nWspólnoty powinna uzyskać 20 punktów, a nie 40;\n2) art. 239 ust. 1 ustawy Pzp przez zaniechanie przez Zamawiającego wyboru oferty Odwołującego, jako oferty najkorzystniejszej zgodnie z kryteriami oceny ofert wskazanych w SWZ podczas, gdy oferta Wspólnoty powinna uzyskać łącznie 80 punktów, a oferta odwołującego uzyskała 96,81 punktów, w związku z tym to oferta odwołującego, a nie Wspólnoty, powinna zostać wybrana jako najkorzystniejsza\nW związku z powyższym, Odwołujący wniósł o uwzględnienie odwołania i nakazanie Zamawiającemu:\n1) unieważnienia czynności wyboru oferty najkorzystniejszej podjętej 26 lutego 2024 r.,\n2) ponowienia badania i oceny ofert,\n3) dokonanie wyboru oferty odwołującego jako najkorzystniejszej.\nW uzasadnieniu odwołania Odwołujący wskazał, co następuje.\nW pierwszej kolejności Odwołujący wskazał, że ma interes we wniesieniu odwołania i może ponieść szkodę.\nOdwołujący wskazał, że jako wykonawca, który złożył ofertę spełniającą warunki określone przez zamawiającego w\nSWZ, został pozbawiony możliwości uzyskania przedmiotowego zamówienia oraz zawarcia umowy w sprawie przedmiotowego zamówienia. W przypadku uznania zasadności niniejszego odwołania, a następnie po dokonaniu przez\nZamawiającego żądanych czynności, Odwołujący wskazał, że będzie miał możliwość uzyskania przedmiotowego zamówienia. Odwołujący podkreślił, że był na drugiej, po Wspólnocie, pozycji na liście punktacyjnej.\nW dalszej części odwołania, Odwołujący przedstawił uzasadnienie zarzutów.\nDo postępowania odwoławczego skuteczne przystąpienie w charakterze uczestnika postępowania zgłosili wykonawcy\nA.M. prowadząca działalność gospodarczą pod firmą A.M. Przedsiębiorstwo ProdukcyjnoHandlowoUsługowe\n„Wspólnota\" z siedzibą w Skokach oraz M.J. prowadzący działalność gospodarczą pod firmą M.J. Przedsiębiorstwo\nProdukcyjnoHandlowoUsługowe „Wspólnota\" S. C. z siedzibą w Skokach, którzy wspólnie prowadzą działalność gospodarczą pod firmą PPHU Wspólnota S.C. A.M. M.J. z siedzibą w Skokach (dalej:\n„Przystępujący”\n).\nPismem z 16 marca 2024 r. Przystępujący przedstawił pisemne stanowisko wnosząc o oddalenie odwołania.\nW złożonej pismem z 19 marca 2024 r. odpowiedzi na odwołanie, Zamawiający wniósł o oddalenie odwołania.\nKrajowa Izba Odwoławcza\n, rozpoznając na rozprawie złożone odwołanie i uwzględniając dokumentację z przedmiotowego postępowania o udzielenie zamówienia publicznego, stanowiska stron złożone na piśmie i podane do protokołu rozprawy ustaliła, co następuje.\nOdwołującemu zgodnie z treścią w art. 505 ustawy Pzp przysługują środki ochrony prawnej, ponieważ jest wykonawcą biorącym udział w postępowaniu o to zamówienie publiczne.\nOdwołanie zostało rozpoznane w granicach zawartych w nim zarzutów (art. 555 ustawy Pzp), podtrzymanych na rozprawie z uwzględnieniem zasady kontradyktoryjności postępowania (art. 534 ust. 1 ustawy Pzp). Rozpoznając przedmiotowe odwołanie Izba miała na uwadze treść akt postępowania (§8 rozporządzenia Prezesa Rady Ministrów w sprawie postępowania przy rozpoznawaniu odwołań przez Krajową Izbę Odwoławczą z dnia 30 grudnia 2020 r. (Dz.U. z\n2020 r. poz. 2453). Izba przy rozpoznaniu sprawy miała na uwadze ponadto stanowiska Stron i Przystępującego zaprezentowane zarówno w pismach procesowych, w tym w odpowiedzi na odwołania jak i podczas rozprawy oraz złożone dowody.\nIzba ustaliła następujące okoliczności faktyczne jako istotne dla rozstrzygnięcia sprawy.\nNa podstawie treści specyfikacji warunków zamówienia (dalej:\n„SWZ”\n), Izba ustaliła, że przedmiotem zamówienia jest odbiór niesegregowanych (zmieszanych) odpadów komunalnych, odpadów ulegających biodegradacji oraz odpadów komunalnych zbieranych selektywnie tj. papier i tektura, tworzywa sztuczne, odpady opakowaniowe wielomateriałowe, metal, szkło z nieruchomości zamieszkałych położonych na terenie Gminy Damasławek.\nSzczegółowy opis przedmiotu zamówienia został zawarty w załączniku nr 1 do SWZ.\nZamawiający sformułował warunek udziału w postępowaniu w zakresie zdolności technicznej lub zawodowej w sposób następujący:\n„\nZamawiający uzna powyższy warunek za spełniony, jeżeli Wykonawca wykaże, że:\na) wykonał w okresie ostatnich 3 lat przed upływem terminu składania ofert, a jeżeli okres prowadzenia działalności jest krótszy – w tym okresie, wykonał min. dwie usługi odbioru odpadów komunalnych, z których każda była wykonywana na rzecz właścicieli nieruchomości lub gmin w sposób ciągły przez okres co najmniej kolejnych 12 miesięcy, które to usługi obejmowały odbiór odpadów komunalnych o łącznej masie minimum 1 000 Mg, b) dysponuje lub będzie dysponował bazą magazynowo – transportową do której, posiada tytuł prawny, usytuowaną w odległości nie większej niż 60 km (jaką pokona pojazd po najkrótszych drogach publicznych) od granicy gminy\nDamasławek, c) dysponuje lub będzie dysponował:\n• minimum 2 pojazdami przystosowanymi do odbierania zmieszanych odpadów komunalnych gromadzonych w pojemnikach SM-60, SM-120, SM-240, SM-1100;\n• minimum 2 pojazdami przystosowanymi do odbierania selektywnie zebranych odpadów komunalnych gromadzonych w pojemnikach (o pojemności: 120, 240, 1100, 1500, 2500 litrów) lub workach (o pojemności 120 litrów);\n• minimum jeden pojazd przystosowany do odbierania odpadów bez funkcji kompaktującej obsługującego pojemniki: KP\n5, KP 7, KP10.”.\nW rozdziale III SWZ, Zamawiający wskazał, że nie przewiduje składania przedmiotowych środków dowodowych.\nZgodnie z rozdziałem VII SWZ podmiotowe środki dowodowe żądane w celu potwierdzenia spełniania warunków udziału w postępowaniu (składane na wezwanie zamawiającego) były następujące:\n„1) w celu potwierdzenia spełniania przez wykonawcę warunków udziału w postępowaniu w zakresie uprawnień do prowadzenia działalności gospodarczej Zamawiający uzna, że wykonawca spełnia ten warunek jeśli wykonawca wykaże, że posiada wszystkie aktualne wpisy do rejestrów wskazanych poniżej: a) zaświadczenie wydane przez Wójta Gminy\nDamasławek o dokonaniu wpisu do rejestru działalności regulowanej w zakresie odbierania odpadów komunalnych będących przedmiotem niniejszego postępowania, o którym mowa w art. 9b ustawy z dnia 13 września 1996 r. o utrzymaniu czystości i porządku w gminach (Dz. U. z 2022 r. poz. 1297 ze zm.). Rodzaje odpadów będących przedmiotem zamówienia określono w załączniku nr 1 do SWZ (szczegółowy opis przedmiotu zamówienia). b) zezwolenie na zbieranie odpadów wydane na podstawie art. 41 ustawy z dnia 14 grudnia 2012 roku o odpadach (Dz. U. z 2022 r. poz.\n699 ze zm.) – zezwalające na zbieranie co najmniej takich odpadów jak wskazano w załączniku nr 1 do SWZ\n(szczegółowy opis przedmiotu zamówienia). c) wpis do rejestru, o którym mowa w art. 49 ustawy o odpadach z dnia 14 grudnia 2012 r. (Dz. U. z 2022 r. poz. 699 ze zm.) w zakresie transportu odpadów – zezwalające na transport co najmniej takich odpadów jak wskazano w załączniku nr 1 do SWZ (szczegółowy opis przedmiotu zamówienia).\n2) W celu potwierdzenia spełniania przez wykonawcę warunków udziału w postępowaniu dotyczących zdolności technicznej lub zawodowej Zamawiający żąda złożenia:\na) wykazu usług wykonanych, a w przypadku świadczeń powtarzających się lub ciągłych również wykonywanych, w okresie ostatnich 3 lat, a jeżeli okres prowadzenia działalności jest krótszy - w tym okresie, wraz z podaniem ich wartości, przedmiotu, dat wykonania i podmiotów, na rzecz których dostawy lub usługi zostały wykonane lub są wykonywane, oraz załączeniem dowodów określających, czy te dostawy lub usługi zostały wykonane lub są wykonywane należycie, przy czym dowodami, o których mowa, są referencje bądź inne dokumenty sporządzone przez podmiot, na rzecz którego dostawy lub usługi zostały wykonane, a w przypadku świadczeń powtarzających się lub ciągłych są wykonywane, a jeżeli wykonawca z przyczyn niezależnych od niego nie jest w stanie uzyskać tych dokumentów - oświadczenie wykonawcy; w przypadku świadczeń powtarzających się lub ciągłych nadal wykonywanych referencje bądź inne dokumenty potwierdzające ich należyte wykonywanie powinny być wystawione w okresie ostatnich 3 miesięcy (załącznik nr 8 do\nSWZ) b) oświadczenia o bazie magazynowo – transportowej do której, posiada tytuł prawny, usytuowaną w odległości nie większej niż 60 km (jaką pokona pojazd po najkrótszych drogach publicznych) od granicy gminy Damasławek (załącznik nr 7 do SWZ), c) wykazu sprzętu przewidzianego do realizacji zamówienia (załącznik nr 7 do SWZ).”.\nW rozdziale XII SWZ wskazano:\n„Wykonawca składa Ofertę poprzez złożenie za pośrednictwem Platformy Zakupowej:\na) wypełnionego i podpisanego Formularza Oferty (załącznik nr 2 do SWZ), b) wypełnionego i podpisanego jednolitego europejskiego dokumentu zamówienia (JEDZ) przez wykonawcę (w przypadku wykonawców wspólnie ubiegających się o zamówienie – odrębnego dla każdego z wykonawców podpisanego przez każdego z wykonawców; w przypadku polegania na zasobach podmiotu udostępniającego – podpisanego przez podmiot udostępniający zasoby) oraz oświadczenia stanowiącego załącznik nr 15 do SWZ, c) pełnomocnictwa do reprezentowania wykonawcy, jeżeli w imieniu wykonawcy działa osoba, której umocowanie do jego reprezentowania nie wynika z dokumentów rejestrowych (KRS, CEDiG) *Pełnomocnictwo pod rygorem nieważności przekazuje się w postaci elektronicznej i opatruje kwalifikowanym podpisem elektronicznym. Jeżeli dokument sporządzony został jako dokument w postaci papierowej i opatrzony własnoręcznym podpisem, wykonawca składa cyfrowe odwzorowanie dokumentu opatrzone kwalifikowanym podpisem elektronicznym. Poświadczenia zgodności cyfrowego odwzorowania z dokumentem w postaci papierowej dokonuje mocodawca lub notariusz (§7 Rozporządzenia\nPRM) d) (o ile dotyczy) pełnomocnictwa do reprezentowania wykonawców występujących wspólnie e) (o ile dotyczy) oświadczenia, o którym mowa w art. 117 ust. 4 ustawy Pzp (załącznik nr 4 do SWZ), 21 f) (o ile dotyczy) zobowiązania podmiotu udostępniającego zasoby do oddania mu do dyspozycji niezbędnych zasobów na potrzeby realizacji danego zamówienia lub inny podmiotowy środek dowodowy potwierdzający, że wykonawca realizując zamówienie, będzie dysponował niezbędnymi zasobami tych podmiotów.”\nJak wynika z rozdziału XVI SWZ, kryteria oceny ofert były następujące:\nCena – 60% = 60 pkt\nAspekt środowiskowy – norma emisji spalin - D = 40 pkt\nKryterium\n„Aspekt środowiskowy” zostało opisane w następujący sposób:\n„\nAspekt środowiskowy – norma emisji spalin – D – znaczenie kryterium: 40% W powyższym kryterium oceniana będzie norma emisji spalin:\na) Wykonawca, który skieruje do realizacji zamówienia dwa lub więcej pojazdów spełniających normę emisji spalin minimum EURO 6 – 40 pkt, b) Wykonawca, który skieruje do realizacji zamówienia jeden pojazd spełniający normę emisji spalin minimum EURO 6 –\n20 pkt, c) Wykonawca, który nie skieruje do realizacji zamówienia żadnego pojazdu spełniającego normę emisji spalin minimum\nEURO 6 – 0 pkt.”\n.\n\nJak wynika ze wzoru formularza ofertowego – załącznik nr 2 do SWZ, pkt 4 miał brzmienie:\n\n„\nOŚWIADCZAMY, że do realizacji zamówienia skierujemy ..... pojazd/y/ów spełniających normę emisji spalin minimum EURO 6\n\n(wpisać ilość)”.\n\nPrzystępujący w treści złożonego formularza ofertowego sporządzonego na wzorze stanowiącym załącznik nr 2 do\nSWZ, w pkt 4 tego formularza wskazał:\n„4. OŚWIADCZAMY, że do realizacji zamówienia skierujemy 2 pojazd/y spełniające normę emisji spalin minimum EURO 6”\n.\n\nPismem z 8 listopada 2023 r. Zamawiający wezwał Przystępującego w trybie art. 126 ust. 1 ustawy Pzp do złożenia podmiotowych środków dowodowych.\n\nW odpowiedzi na powyższe Przystępujący złożył m.in. Wykaz sprzętu przewidzianego do realizacji zamówienia, według wzoru stanowiącego załącznik nr 7 do SWZ. W pkt 1 Przytupujący wskazał samochód SCANIA odbiór śmiec.\n30.10., podstawa dysponowania\n„własność”\n, Norma emisji spalin EURO\n6; w pkt 2 Przystępujący wskazał samochód\nPOB\n27560 MERCEDES ANTOS\n- śmieciarka podstawa dysponowania\n„użyczony umowa”,\nNorma emisji spalin EURO\n6; w pkt 5 wykazu, Przystępujący wskazał samochód PWA\n14367 TOYOTA RAV 4 HYBRYDA opisując to auto jako samochód osobowy, do obsługi pojazdów pracujących w trasie odbioru odpadów, dostarczania worków oraz obsługi biura i kontaktu z kontrahentami firmy, podstawa dysponowania – własność.\nPismem z 29 listopada 2023 r. Zamawiający wezwał Przystępującego w trybie art. 128 ust. 4 ustawy Pzp do wyjaśnienia rozbieżności między treścią JEDZ a oświadczeniem zawartym w formularzu ofertowym co do polegania na potencjale podmiotu trzeciego.\nPismem z 4 grudnia 2023 r. Przystępujący udzielił odpowiedzi na powyższe pismo, wskazując:\n„wykonawca będzie polegał na zdolnościach innych podmiotów. Wpis do JEDZ to pomyłka techniczna rozumiana jako wykonywanie zadań przez inne podmioty - co nie będzie miało miejsca. W załączeniu przesyłamy Poprawiony\nJEDZ oraz KRK podmiotu udostępniającego zasoby (samochód\nMercedes)” oraz\n„wykonawca w dniu otwarcia ofert dysponował samochodem\nSCANIA. Samochód jest naszą własnością i od\n29.10.2023 garażuje na bazie zakładu. Dla pełnego wyjaśnienia przesyłamy w załączeniu fakturę zakupu.\nW wykazanych dokumentach wskazaliśmy 3 pojazdy spełniające normę emisji\nEURO 6.”\n.\nPismem z 11 grudnia 2023 r. Zamawiający wezwał Przystępującego do uzupełnienia podmiotowych środków dowodowych, w odpowiedzi na powyższe, Przystępujący złożył dokumenty pismem z 12 grudnia 2023 r.\nPismem z 15 grudnia 2023 r. Przystępujący złożył dodatkowe wyjaśnienia w odpowiedzi na pismo z 11 grudnia 2023 r., w których wskazał, że pierwotnie złożony dokument KRK dla podmiotu na zasoby którego się powołał jest prawidłowy, dodatkowo wskazał, że\n„do obliczenia wartości przetargu potrzebne są dane z dwóch pojazdów”\n. Przystępujący wskazał, że dwa samochody, które są jego własnością, tj. SCANIA i TOYOTA\n„spełniają warunki przetargu, podobnie jak użyczony\nMercedes”\n. Przystępujący powołał się na wnioski z informacji prawnej z 5 grudnia 2023, którą załączył do ww. pisma.\nPismem z 28 grudnia 2023 r. Zamawiający wezwał Odwołującego w trybie art. 126 ust. 1 ustawy Pzp do złożenia podmiotowych środków dowodowych.\nNa powyższe wezwanie Odwołujący złożył dokumenty.\n15 stycznia 2024 r. Zamawiający poinformował wykonawców o wyborze jako najkorzystniejszej oferty złożonej przez Odwołującego. Jednocześnie Zamawiający poinformował o odrzuceniu oferty Przystępującego.\nNa powyższą czynność odwołanie zostało złożone przez Przystającego. Postępowanie odwoławcze toczyło się pod sygn. akt KIO 271/24.\nKrajowa Izba Odwoławcza postanowieniem z 9 lutego 2024 r. umorzyła postępowanie odwoławcze. Podstawą umorzenia postępowania był przepis art. 522 ust. 1 ustawy Pzp. Do postępowania odwoławczego przystąpienie w charakterze uczestnika postępowania po stronie Zamawiającego zgłosił Odwołujący. Izba uznała wniesione przystąpienie za nieskuteczne, z uwagi na zgłoszenie przystąpienia po terminie wynikającym z dyspozycji art. 525 ust. 1 ustawy Pzp.\nPismem z 22 lutego 2024 r. Zamawiający poinformował o unieważnieniu czynności wyboru oferty najkorzystniejszej z 15 stycznia 2024 r. o przystąpieniu do czynności ponownego badania i oceny ofert.\nPismem z 26 lutego 2024 r. Zamawiający poinformował o wyborze jako najkorzystniejszej oferty złożonej przez\nPrzystępującego. Zamawiający poinformował o przyznanej punktacji:\nOdwołujący, cena – 56,81 pkt, aspekt środowiskowy\n- norma emisji spalin – 40,00 pkt\nPrzystępujący, cena – 60,00 pkt, aspekt środowiskowy\n- norma emisji spalin – 40,00 pkt\nIzba zważyła co następuje.\nIstota sporu sprowadza się do oceny, czy Przystępującemu prawidłowo została przyznana punktacja w kryterium aspekt środowiskowy – norma emisji spalin - D. Zarzut sprowadza się do twierdzenia, że skoro w piśmie z 15 grudnia 2023 r.\nPrzystępujący oświadczył, że\n„do obliczenia wartości przetargu potrzebne są dane z 2 pojazdów. Pojazd SCANIA i\nTOYOTA spełniają warunki przetargu”\n, to Zamawiający powinien przyjąć na potrzeby punktacji, że Przystępujący skierował do realizacji zamówienia jeden pojazd spełniający normę emisji spalin minimum Euro 6 i w konsekwencji przyznać ofercie Przystępującego w tym kryterium 20 pkt a nie 40 pkt. W konsekwencji ogólna przyznana\nPrzystępującemu punktacja powinna wynosić 80 pkt a nie 100 pkt.\nZarzut opiera się na poczynionym przez Odwołującego założeniu, że Zamawiający oceniając ofertę Przystępującego na potrzeby przyznania punktacji w spornym kryterium oceny ofert uwzględnił dwa pojazdy wskazane przez\nPrzystępującego pismem z 15 grudnia 2023 r., tj. samochód SCANIA i TOYOTA. Odwołujący podniósł, że w przypadku pojazdu TOYOTA punkty się nie należą, ponieważ jest to samochód osobowy i nie jest przystosowany do odbierania odpadów i w konsekwencji nie może być uznany za pojazd służący realizacji zamówienia.\nZ takim stanowiskiem nie zgodzili się Zamawiający i Przystępujący.\nZamawiający w odpowiedzi na odwołanie argumentował m.in., że istotą stanowiska Odwołującego jest poczynione przez niego założenie, zgodnie z którym pojazd Mercedes Antos nie mógł być – z uwagi na fragment wyjaśnień\nPrzystępującego – brany pod uwagę przy dokonywaniu oceny oferty wybranego wykonawcy przez pryzmat spełniania kryteriów środowiskowych. Założenie takie, zdaniem Zamawiającego, nie znajduje żadnego oparcia w okolicznościach niniejszej sprawy. Zamawiający wskazał, że wyjaśnienia Przystępującego z 15 grudnia 2023 r., na których opiera się\nOdwołujący, zostały złożone w bardzo specyficznych okolicznościach, które następnie – na skutek działań podjętych tak przez Zamawiającego jak i samego Przystępującego – uległy zmianie i obecnie oświadczenie złożone w tym piśmie – zacytowane w odwołaniu – nie może być uznane za aktualne. Zamawiający wyjaśnił, że oświadczenie to zostało złożone w sytuacji, w której Zamawiający działał w przeświadczeniu, wywołanym stanowiskiem Przystępującego, iż\nPrzystępujący polega na zasobach podmiotu trzeciego, a nie dysponuje wymaganym sprzętem bezpośrednio. W związku z takim przeświadczeniem Zamawiający podejmował czynności, do podjęcia których był zobligowany przepisami pzp, a Przystępujący – z daleko idącej ostrożności – zawierał w swoich odpowiedziach bardzo szeroki zakres informacji i dokumentów.\nPonadto Zamawiający podzielił stanowisko Przystępującego zawarte w jego piśmie procesowym 16 marca 2024 r.\nPrzystępujący w swoim piśmie procesowym z 16 marca 2024 r. wskazał m.in., że ocena ofert w ramach spornego kryterium następowała na podstawie deklaracji wykonawcy, stanowiącej zobowiązanie ofertowe do określonego zachowania przyszłego, tj. realizowania zamówienia z wykorzystaniem określonej ilości pojazdów spełniających normę emisji spalin nie niższą niż EURO 6. Przystępujący wskazał, że oświadczenie w tym zakresie wykonawcy składali w treści formularza oferty, w pkt 4. Przystępujący podkreślił, że stosownie do ust. 13 rozdziału III SWZ, Zamawiający nie przewidział obowiązku składania przedmiotowych środków dowodowych składanych w celu potwierdzenia zgodności oferowanych usług z wymaganiami, cechami lub kryteriami określonymi w opisie przedmiotu zamówienia lub opisie kryteriów oceny ofert lub wymaganiami związanymi z realizacją zamówienia.\nPrzystępujący zwrócił uwagę, że całość stanowiska Odwołującego oparta jest na dokumentach odnoszących się do podmiotowej sytuacji wykonawcy.\nMając na uwadze stanowiska Stron oraz treść dokumentacji postępowania, w tym w szczególności SWZ oraz wzoru formularza oferty, Izba stwierdziła, iż odwołanie nie zasługiwało na uwzględnienie.\nTreść SWZ wskazuje, że Zamawiający w opisie kryteriów oceny ofert nie wskazał sposobu podana informacji, w oparciu o którą zostaną przyznane punkty. Niemniej jednak treść formularza ofertowego, w pkt 4 zawiera oświadczenie w przedmiocie skierowania do realizacji zamówienia wskazanej ilości pojazdów spełniających normę emisji spalin minimum EURO 6. Wobec powyższego, zasadny jest wniosek, że ocena w ramach spornego kryterium przyznawana była w oparciu o oświadczenie wskazane w pkt 4 formularza oferty.\nZałącznik nr 7 zawierający wykaz sprzętu składany był, zgodnie z SWZ, na wezwanie Zamawiającego, a nie wraz z ofertą. Ponadto, jak wynika z treści SWZ załącznik nr 7 zawierający wykaz sprzętu, został przez Zamawiającego zakwalifikowany jako podmiotowy środek dowodowy i na jego podstawie dokonywana była ocena spełnienia warunku udziału w postępowaniu.\nTrafnie, zdaniem Izby Przystępujący dostrzegł, że Odwołujący w okolicznościach tej sprawy w sposób bezpodstawny wiąże ocenę oferty w ramach spornego kryterium z oceną w ramach warunku udziału w postępowaniu w związku z treścią załącznika nr 7.\nMając na uwadze powyższe, Izba uznała że stanowisko zaprezentowane przez Przystępującego na stronach 3-6 jest zasadne i zasługuje na uwzględnienie.\nOdnosząc się do stanowiska Odwołującego zawartego w odwołaniu, zgodnie z którym należy uznać, że Przystępujący skierował jeden pojazd spełniający normę emisji spalin minimum EURO 6, w związku z wyjaśnieniami Przystępującego z\n15 grudnia 2023 r., wskazać należy, że jak podniósł Zamawiający, wyjaśnienia te były udzielane w związku z podmiotowymi środkami dowodowymi, a nie w związku z oświadczeniem wskazanym w pkt 4 formularza oferty.\nRzeczywiście z oświadczenia tego wynika, że Przystępujący wskazuje jakie pojazdy Zamawiający powinien uwzględnić dokonując oceny jednak odpowiedź ta zdaje się nie mieć związku ze skierowanym przez Zmawiającego wezwaniem.\nJak już wskazano wyżej, Odwołujący w sposób nieuprawniony w okolicznościach tej sprawy wiąże ocenę na potrzeby spełnienia warunków w postępowaniu z oceną w ramach kryteriów oceny ofert. W ocenie Izby z okoliczności sprawy wynika, że postawą oceny w ramach kryterium było oświadczenie wskazane w pkt 4 formularza oferty. W treści tego oświadczenia wykonawca miał podać tylko liczbę pojazdów, jaką skieruje do realizacji zamówienia i które spełniają normę emisji spalin minimum EURO 6. W treści tego oświadczenia nie należało podać szczegółów w postaci danych identyfikujących pojazd. Zamawiający nie zdefiniował również jakie pojazdy rozumie pod pojęciem pojazdów skierowanych do realizacji zamówienia. Odwołujący tezę, iż musi być to pojazd do odbioru odpadów zdaje się formułować przez pryzmat przedmiotu zamówienia i być może warunku udziału w postępowaniu, jednak zdaniem Izby z uwagi na brak doprecyzowania tego pojęcia przy jednoczesnym rozpisaniu obowiązków wykonawcy w sposób, na który uwagę zwrócił Przystępujący nie sposób uznać, że w okolicznościach tej sprawy nie można uznać pojazdu marki\nTOYOTA za wpisujący się w kryterium. Słusznie też argumentował Zamawiający i Przystępujący, że nie sposób pominąć pojazdu użyczonego tylko z uwagi na treść pisma Przystępującego z 15 grudnia 2023 r.\nW tych okolicznościach odwołanie podlegało oddaleniu.\nO kosztach postępowania orzeczono stosownie do wyniku sprawy na podstawie art. 575 ustawy z dnia 11 września 2019 r. - Prawo zamówień publicznych (Dz.U. z 2023 r. poz. 1605 ze zm.) oraz § 8 ust. 2 pkt 1 związku z § 2 ust. 1 pkt 2 w zw. z § 5 pkt 1) i 2) lit b) rozporządzenia Prezesa Rady Ministrów z dnia 30 grudnia 2020 r. w sprawie szczegółowych rodzajów kosztów postępowania odwoławczego, ich rozliczania oraz wysokości i sposobu pobierania wpisu wysokości wpisu od odwołania (Dz. U. z 2020 r. poz. 2437).\nPrzewodnicząca:\n............................", "token_count": 10356} -{"added": "2026-09-17", "author": "Krajowa Izba Odwoławcza", "created": "2023-06-20", "id": "uzp_orzeczenia_pl_26690", "license": "public-domain (official documents)", "source": "uzp_orzeczenia_pl", "text": "Sygn. akt: KIO 1615/23\nWYROK z dnia 20 czerwca 2023 r.\nKrajowa Izba Odwoławcza\n\n- w składzie:\nPrzewodniczący:\nAneta Mlącka\nCzłonkowie:\n\nKatarzyna Odrzywolska\n\nAndrzej Niwicki\nProtokolant:\n\nRafał Komoń po rozpoznaniu na rozprawie w dniu 19 czerwca 2023 r. w Warszawie odwołania wniesionego do Prezesa Krajowej Izby\nOdwoławczej w dniu 5 czerwca 2023 r. przez Wykonawców wspólnie ubiegających się o udzielenie zamówienia\nKonsorcjum:\nTrakcja S.A., P. P. prowadzący działalność gospodarczą pod nazwą P.H.U.B. P. P. (Al.\nJerozolimskie 100/lok. II p., 00-807 Warszawa) w postępowaniu prowadzonym przez Zamawiającego\nCentralny Port\nKomunikacyjny sp. z o.o. (Al. Jerozolimskie 142B, 02-305 Warszawa) przy udziale wykonawcy\nBudimex S.A. (ul. Siedmiogrodzka 9, 01-204 Warszawa) zgłaszającego przystąpienie do postępowania odwoławczego po stronie Zamawiającego orzeka:\n1) oddala odwołanie,\n2) kosztami postępowania obciąża Odwołującego - Wykonawców wspólnie ubiegających się o udzielenie zamówienia\nKonsorcjum:\nTrakcja S.A., P. P. prowadzący działalność gospodarczą pod nazwą P.H.U.B. P. P. (Al.\nJerozolimskie 100/lok. II p., 00-807 Warszawa) i\n2.1.\nzalicza w poczet kosztów postępowania odwoławczego kwotę 15000 zł 00 gr (słownie: piętnaście tysięcy złotych zero groszy) uiszczoną przez Odwołującego - Wykonawców wspólnie ubiegających się o udzielenie zamówienia\nKonsorcjum:\nTrakcja S.A., P. P. prowadzący działalność gospodarczą pod nazwą P.H.U.B. P. P. (Al.\nJerozolimskie 100/lok. II p., 00-807 Warszawa) tytułem wpisu od odwołania, kwotę 3600 zł 00 gr (słownie: trzy tysiące sześćset złotych zero groszy) poniesioną przez Zamawiającego\nCentralny Port Komunikacyjny sp. z o.o. (Al. Jerozolimskie 142B, 02-305 Warszawa) tytułem wynagrodzenia pełnomocnika\nZamawiającego,\n2.2.\nzasądza od Odwołującego - Wykonawców wspólnie ubiegających się o udzielenie zamówienia\nKonsorcjum:\nTrakcja S.A., P. P. prowadzący działalność gospodarczą pod nazwą P.H.U.B. P. P. (Al. Jerozolimskie\n100/lok. II p., 00-807 Warszawa) na rzecz Zamawiającego\n\nCentralny Port Komunikacyjny sp. z o.o. (Al.\nJerozolimskie 142B, 02-305 Warszawa) kwotę\n\nzł 00 gr\n(słownie: trzy tysiące sześćset złotych zero groszy) z tytułu wynagrodzenia pełnomocnika Zamawiającego.\nStosownie do art. 579 ust. 1 i 580 ust. 1 i 2 ustawy z dnia 11 września 2019 r. - Prawo Zamówień Publicznych (Dz. U. z\n2022 r., poz. 1710 ze zm.) na niniejszy wyrok - w terminie 14 dni od dnia jego doręczenia - przysługuje skarga za pośrednictwem Prezesa Krajowej Izby Odwoławczej do\nSądu Okręgowego w Warszawie.\nPrzewodniczący:\n....................................\nCzłonkowie:\n\n....................................\n\n....................................\nUZASADNIENIE\nZamawiający Centralny Port Komunikacyjny Sp. z o.o.\nprowadzi postępowanie, którego przedmiotem jest\nOdwołujący - Wykonawcy wspólnie ubiegający się o udzielenie zamówienia Konsorcjum: Trakcja S.A.,\nP. P. prowadzący działalność gospodarcza pod nazwą P.H.U.B.\nP. P. wnieśli odwołanie wobec czynności Zamawiającego polegającej na odtajnieniu informacji zawartych w piśmie z dnia 12 maja 2023 r. zawierającym wyjaśnienia dotyczące przesłanki wykluczenia z postępowania (art. 109 ust. 1 pkt 7 ustawy Prawo zamówień publicznych) i załącznikach do tego pisma\n(łącznie wszystkie dokumenty jako „\n\"), zastrzeżonych przez Odwołującego jako tajemnica przedsiębiorstwa\n(z wyjątkiem załączników 1-7, 57, 59-64).\nOdwołujący zarzucił Zamawiającemu naruszenie poprzez odtajnienie Wyjaśnień Odwołującego, podczas gdy Odwołujący wykazał, że dokumenty te spełniają wszystkie wymagania niezbędne dla uznania ich za\n„Budowa korytarzy transportowych dojazdowych przy budowie Centralnego Portu Komunikacyjnego - zaprojektuj i wybuduj - postępowanie w dwóch częściach.\"\nWyjaśnienia art. 18 ust. 3 ustawy Prawo zamówień publicznych w zw. z art. 11 ust.\n2 ustawy z dnia 16 kwietnia 1993 r. o zwalczaniu nieuczciwej konkurencji\n\ntajemnicę przedsiębiorstwa (w szczególności posiadają wartość gospodarczą dla Odwołującego); a w konsekwencji poprzez naruszenie zasad prowadzenia postępowania o udzielenie zamówienia nakazujących prowadzić je w sposób zapewniający zachowanie uczciwej konkurencji, równe traktowanie wykonawców oraz zgodnie z regułami proporcjonalności i przejrzystości.\nOdwołujący wniósł o uwzględnienie odwołania oraz nakazanie Zamawiającemu unieważnienia czynności odtajnienia dokumentów stanowiących Wyjaśnienia Odwołującego; uznania, że Wyjaśnienia zawierają tajemnicę przedsiębiorstwa i jako takie nie powinny zostać odtajnione.\n24 maja 2023 roku Zamawiający dokonał czynności odtajnienia informacji zawartych w piśmie Odwołującego z dnia 12 maja 2023 roku zawierającym wyjaśnienia dotyczące przesłanki wykluczenia z postępowania (art. 109 ust. 1 pkt 7 ustawy Prawo zamówień publicznych) i załącznikach do tego pisma, zastrzeżonych przez Odwołującego jako tajemnica przedsiębiorstwa (z wyjątkiem załączników 1-7, 57, 59-64).\nW treści uzasadnienia odtajnienia zastrzeżonych jako tajemnica przedsiębiorstw wyjaśnień Zamawiający wskazał, że\nWykonawca w Wyjaśnieniach wskazał wyłącznie ogólnikowe stwierdzenia, że informacje objęte tajemnicą przedsiębiorstwa:\n• zawierają informacje handlowe i organizacyjne,\n• ujawnienie opisanych w nich faktów może mieć negatywny skutek procesowy na linii Trakcja— instytucje zamawiające w zakresie powyższych kontraktów,\n• zawierają szereg szczegółowych informacji, których upublicznienie może negatywnie wpłynąć na fakt podjęcia rozmów ugodowych i uzgodnienia wspólnego stanowiska (w przypadku umowy, gdzie ugoda nie została zawarta),\n• zawierają treść zarzutów stawianych zarówno przez zamawiających, jak i Trakcję w przypadku spornych części kontraktów,\n• wyjaśnienia zawierają korespondencję pomiędzy Trakcją a zamawiającymi, zawierającą informacje, które mogą negatywnie wpłynąć na prowadzenie przez Wykonawcę działalności gospodarczej;\nnie przywołując przy tym konkretnych okoliczności, które potwierdziłyby konieczność objęcia tajemnicą przedsiębiorstwa wskazanych przez niego dokumentów. Wykonawca nie wykazał, że informacji tych nie powinno się ujawniać.\nZdaniem Zamawiającego, Wykonawca nie może opierać swojego przekonania o wartości gospodarczej informacji przedstawionych w zastrzeżonych dokumentach na ogólnych, subiektywnych stwierdzeniach, pozbawionych szerszego uzasadnienia, nie wskazując żadnych konkretnych danych pozwalających na obiektywne zweryfikowanie jego przypuszczeń.\nZamawiający wskazał także, że wszystkie sześć umów:\n1.\nUmowa nr 170/2016/ZDW z dnia 15 września 2016 r. zawarta z Zarządem Dróg Wojewódzkich w Krakowie, której przedmiotem jest realizacja zadania pn.„Obwodnica Zatora, Podolsza w ciągu DW nr 781 - zaprojektowanie i wykonanie robót budowanych\";\n2.\nUmowa nr 234/2016/ZDW z dnia 5 grudnia 2016 r. zawarta z Zarządem Dróg Wojewódzkich w Krakowie, której przedmiotem jest „Rozbudowa DW 957 Krowiarki - Nowy Targ, zadanie 1 -opracowanie dokumentacji projektowej i wykonanie robót\";\n3.\nUmowa Nr 186/I-4/2017 z dnia 23 października 2017 r. na realizację inwestycji pn.: „Rozbudowa drogi krajowej nr 22 na odcinku Czarlin - Knybawa\" zawarta ze Skarbem Państwa - Generalnym Dyrektorem Dróg Krajowych i Autostrad\";\n4.\nUmowa nr 576/106.WZP/18 z dnia 24 sierpnia 2018 r. zawarta z Województwem Wielkopolskim -Wielkopolskim\nZarządem Dróg Wojewódzkich w Poznaniu na realizację inwestycji pn.: „Rozbudowa drogi wojewódzkiej nr 190 na odcinku od skrzyżowania z drogą wojewódzką nr 188 w miejscowości Krajenka do skrzyżowania z drogą krajową nr 10 - etap I w systemie zaprojektuj i wybuduj\";\n5.\nUmowa nr 745/136.WZP/18 z 10 października2018 r. zawarta z Województwem Wielkopolskim -Wielkopolskim\nZarządem Dróg Wojewódzkich w Poznaniu na realizację inwestycji pn.: „Rozbudowa drogi wojewódzkiej nr 263 na odcinku od skrzyżowania z DP 3403P w m. Drzewce do skrzyżowania z DW473 w systemie zaprojektuj i wybuduj\";\n6. Umowa nr 90/107/0217/18/Z/I z dnia 27 lipca 2018 r. zawarta z PKP Polskie Linie Kolejowe S.A. z siedzibą w\nWarszawie na realizację inwestycji pn.: „Budowa szczecińskiej kolei metropolitalnej z wykorzystaniem istniejących odcinków linii kolejowych nr 406, 273, 351 - zadanie A pn. Modernizacja linii kolejowej nr 406 na odcinku Szczecin Główny\n- Police\" objęte tajemnicą przedsiębiorstwa to umowy zawarte na skutek postępowań o udzielenie zamówienia publicznego w trybie ustawy Pzp. W przypadku wystąpienia do któregoś z Zamawiających, z którymi Trakcja miała zawarte umowy, z wnioskiem o udzielenie informacji publicznej dotyczącej realizacji poszczególnych umów, Zamawiający Ci mają obowiązek jej udzielić. Nie można zatem uznać, że informacje te mogą stanowić tajemnicę przedsiębiorstwa.\nZamawiający ujawnił, że część informacji, które w ocenie Wykonawcy stanowią tajemnicę przedsiębiorstwa można odnaleźć na stronach internetowych, dla przykładu:\nart.\n16 pkt 1-3 ustawy Prawo zamówień publicznych\n\nKonflikt GDDKiA z Trakcją S.A. Będą kroki prawne. Kto ma rację? - Inżynieria.com\n(\n),\n.\nZdaniem Zamawiającego przywołany argument, iż upublicznienie informacji zmniejszyłoby konkurencyjność Trakcji w innych przetargach, nie ma racji bytu. Zdolność do realizacji przedmiotu zamówienia każdy Zamawiający bada niezależnie, na podstawie spełnienia warunków udziału w postępowaniu odrębnie dla każdego z postępowania, tj. na podstawie przedłożonych wymaganych dokumentów, a nie innych dostępnych informacji.\nZamawiający nie zgodził się również z argumentem Wykonawcy odnośnie potencjalnej możliwości wyeliminowania go z rynku przez otoczenie konkurencyjne, gdyby jego unikalna wiedza o konkretnym biznesie stała się publiczna i dostępna dla każdego. Zwrócił uwagę, iż informacje zawarte w Wyjaśnieniach nie zawierają unikalnej wiedzy o prowadzeniu biznesu.\nSamo przekonanie Wykonawcy o posiadaniu przez zastrzeżone informacje wartości gospodarczej nie jest wystarczające. Wątpliwe jest, aby utajniony zakres, w przypadku odtajnienia mógł zachwiać pozycją rynkową\nWykonawcy. Zawarte w Wyjaśnieniach informacje nie świadczą wprost o ich wartości gospodarczej.\nZamawiający zauważył, że Wykonawca, pomimo obszernej treści Wyjaśnień (po usunięciu wyroków KIO i cytatów z orzecznictwa, faktyczna treść sprowadza się do ogólnikowych stwierdzeń) nie wykazał, jaką zastrzeżone przez niego informacje posiadają wartość gospodarczą, czy też w jaki sposób, o ile w ogóle, wpływają na wartość przedsiębiorstwa w obrocie gospodarczym. Wartość gospodarcza powinna mieć wymiar obiektywny.\nZamawiający odnosząc się do zakresu informacji zawartych w Wyjaśnieniach, w szczególności w Załącznikach zwrócił uwagę, że Wykonawca wskazał całość zawartych w nich informacji, jako stanowiące tajemnicę przedsiębiorstwa w rozumieniu w art. 11 ust. 2 u.z.n.k. Natomiast zgodnie z orzecznictwem Wykonawca powinien zastrzec pojedyncze, konkretne dane, czy informacje z nich wynikające, a nie cały dokument.\nNadto Zamawiający wskazał, że:\n- Wykonawca zaniechał wykazania, jakie konkretne walory mają informacje poufne zawarte w Wyjaśnieniach i dlaczego w stosunku do nich zasada jawności ma drugorzędne znaczenie.\n- Wykonawca nie wskazał, które elementy tego dokumentu stanowią przejaw jego know-how, czy są jego innowacyjnymi rozwiązaniami technicznymi.\n- Uzasadnienie Wykonawcy nie pozwala Zamawiającemu na ustalenie, czy pewna część (konkretne informacje) zastrzeżonego dokumentu stanowią tajemnicę przedsiębiorstwa.\nStanowisko Wykonawcy, iż upublicznienie treści wskazanego do realizacji Zamówienia narazi go na znaczną szkodę majątkową i zmniejszy jego przewagę konkurencyjną są gołosłowne.\n- Wśród katalogu dokumentów, które podlegają wyjaśnieniu, czy uzupełnieniu na etapie prowadzonego postępowania ustawodawca nie przewidział takiego mechanizmu dla dokumentu uzasadnienia zastrzeżenia tajemnicy przedsiębiorstwa. Oznacza, to że nadał temu dokumentowi szczególny charakter niezmienności i kompletności jego zapisów oraz automatyzmu - Wykonawca przekazuje Zamawiającemu posiadane dowody potwierdzające wdrożenie odpowiednich działań, bez konieczności ich opracowania na potrzeby konkretnego postępowania o udzielenie zamówienia publicznego.\n- Wykonawca nie sprostał ustawowym wymaganiom i nie wykazał okoliczności z art. 11 ust. 2 u.z.n.k.\nOdwołujący nie zgodził się z decyzją Zamawiającego i wniósł odwołanie od wyżej wskazanej czynności Zamawiającego.\nW przekonaniu Odwołującego, dokonał on skutecznego zastrzeżenia tajemnicy przedsiębiorstwa wyszczególnionych dokumentów.\nW argumentacji podniesionej w odwołaniu Odwołujący odniósł się do znaczenia, jakie dla obowiązków wykonawcy ma użycie przez ustawodawcę sformułowania „wykazać\".\nW ocenie Odwołującego, wykazał, że w uzasadnieniu tajemnicy przedsiębiorstwa przedstawił rzeczowe okoliczności, które przemawiają za przyjęciem, że posiadają one dla niego wartość gospodarczą, w sposób możliwie jak najbardziej wyczerpujący wskazując ewentualne skutki ujawnienia informacji do publicznej wiadomości. Zaniechanie przedłożenie w tym przedmiocie bezpośrednich dowodów (dokumentów) wiązało się przy tym z faktem, że zjawiskiem powszechnym jest brak możliwości skwantyfikowania wartości gospodarczej.\nOdwołujący wyjaśnił, że w uzasadnieniu tajemnicy przedsiębiorstwa wskazywał, że działanie Zamawiającego może doprowadzić do pogorszenia jego przyszłej pozycji procesowej, pogorszenia kontaktów z kontrahentami czy utrudnienia zawarcia kolejnych ewentualnych ugód. Potencjalna strata Odwołującego nie dotyczy zatem żadnej materialnej wartości, a odnosi się do zdarzeń przyszłych, których zmaterializowanie się jest uzależnione od szeregu czynników zewnętrznych.\nPrzedłożenie bezpośrednich dowodów, celem poparcia potencjalnej przyszłej straty wydaje się na obecnym etapie nie\nOdwołujący przytoczył słownikową definicję pojęcia „wykazać\" co inaczej oznacza „uzewnętrznić coś\", „ujawnić istnienie czegoś\", „przedstawić coś w sposób przekonujący\". Wydaje się zatem jak najbardziej zasadne postawienie znaku równości pomiędzy „wykazaniem\" i „uprawdopodobnieniem\". W opinii Odwołującego, z\n\ncałą pewnością nie należy jednak zamiennie posługiwać się pojęciami „wykazać\" i „udowodnić\".\ntylko niezasadne, co wręcz niemożliwe.\nZdaniem Odwołującego, nie sposób zaakceptować stanowiska Zamawiającego, zgodnie z którym wykonawca zastrzegający tajemnicę w odniesieniu do poszczególnych dokumentów, powinien każdorazowo odnosić się do każdego z nich i przedstawiać indywidualne uzasadnienie dla wszystkich dokumentów. Motywacje dla zachowania w tajemnicy poszczególnych dokumentów mogą być wspólne dla kilku z nich, w takim przypadku za czynność zupełnie zbędną należałoby uznać powtarzanie tej samej argumentacji w opisie każdego zastrzeganego dokumentu.\nOdwołujący stwierdził, że wbrew temu co utrzymuje Zamawiający, doprecyzował, jakie skutki może ze sobą nieść ujawnienie informacji, posiadających dla niego wartość gospodarczą w postępowaniu. Odwołujący wyjaśnił, że (mając na uwadze wypracowane w toku postępowania spornego), wskazał, że dokonanie odtajnienia przedmiotowych informacji może negatywnie wpłynąć na pozycję konkurencyjną i reputację firmy Trakcja, a przede wszystkim upublicznienie tych informacji może mieć negatywny skutek w procesie ugodowego rozwiązania sporu w ramach poszczególnych inwestycji. Dalej podkreślono, że ujawnienie linii obrony oraz sposobu przygotowania argumentacji może skutkować całkowitą utratą przyjętego modelu działania w toku postępowania procesowego, które w toku lat działalności opracowała Trakcja.\nOdwołujący wskazał także, że kategorie informacji, które zastrzegł Odwołujący, obejmują swoim zakresem wypracowany modelu postępowania w przypadku zaistnienia sporu na linii Odwołujący - zamawiający, na co składa się m.in. cała strategia procesowa, tak obrana na etapie prowadzonej korespondencji z zamawiającym, na etapie postępowania sądowego oraz wreszcie na etapie zawarcia ugody. Takie rodzaje dokumentów (pisma kontraktowe) przedstawiają informacje newralgiczne i istotne z biznesowego punktu widzenia prowadzenia działalności gospodarczej, a same w sobie opisują konkretne procedowane na bieżąco zdarzenia gospodarcze, które mają realny wpływ na status\nOdwołującego w przetargach publicznych. Każdy z wykonawców posługuje się własnymi, opracowanymi w toku wieloletniej działalności i będącymi pochodną posiadanego doświadczenia i zasobów merytorycznych, metodami realizacji inwestycji publicznych. Metody te (w szczególności dobór argumentacji związanej z dochodzeniem praw wynikających z kontraktów) niewątpliwie zasługują na ochronę. Tego typu informacje zawierają takie załączniki jak: 28-30,\n34, 37-43, 48 (pozwy o zapłatę oraz pisma sądowe czy odpowiedzi na odstąpienie). Upublicznienie opisów realizacji poszczególnych kontraktów, a wraz z nimi odpowiednich dowodów w postaci pism kontraktowych, może negatywnie wpłynąć na prowadzenie przez Odwołującego działalności gospodarczej, a w konsekwencji może negatywnie wpłynąć na fakt podjęcia stosownych rozmów ugodowych z instytucjami zamawiającymi.\nOdwołujący zwrócił także uwagę na ochronę wynikającą z dyspozycji art.\n9 § 1 Kodeksu postępowania cywilnego.\nZgodnie z tym przepisem prawo do przeglądania akt sprawy (w tym do otrzymywania odpisów, kopii lub wyciągów z akt) przysługuje jedynie stronom i uczestnikom postępowania. Tym samym dostęp do akt sprawy ograniczony jest względem osób postronnych (a do takich zalicza się wszelkie osoby i podmioty niebędące stronami lub uczestnikami postępowania). Załączniki przedłożone wraz z Wyjaśnieniami stanowią dokumenty włączone do akt postępowań sądowych prowadzonych przez Odwołującego i jako takie zasługują na ochronę. Ochrona, o której mowa w art.\n9 § 1\nKodeksu postępowania cywilnego obejmuje nie tylko pozwy czy inne pisemne stanowiska procesowe, ale także załączniki do nich. Odtajnienie takich informacji zmniejszyłoby konkurencyjność Odwołującego w innych przetargach, bowiem otoczenie konkurencyjne z łatwością zapoznałoby się z wewnętrznymi dokumentami Odwołującego stanowiącymi omawiane pisma kontraktowe i procesowe. Ujawnienie informacji wynikających z zastrzeżonych dokumentów oznaczałoby udostępnienie konkurencji informacji o strategii gospodarczej Odwołującego i metodach prawnych reagowania na nieprawidłowe działania zamawiających.\nFundamentalny zakres dokumentacji zastrzeżonej przez Odwołującego jako tajemnicę przedsiębiorstwa stanowią przy tym ugody sądowe oraz dokumentacja poprzedzająca jej finalne zawarcie.\nOdwołujący podkreślił, że informacje wynikające z Wyjaśnień znane są tylko ograniczonemu kręgowi osób - pracownikom spółki, którzy odpowiedzialni są za przygotowanie kompleksowej oferty. Odwołujący wskazał przy tym, że dostęp do tych informacji posiada tylko wąska grupa pracowników Odwołującego (w tym zarząd spółki), co z kolei przekłada się na jednoznaczny wniosek, że informacje te nie są upublicznione. W tym kontekście, Odwołujący wykazał, że w stosunku do zastrzeganych informacji spełniła się druga z przesłanek definiujących tajemnicę przedsiębiorstwa - zastrzegane informacje nie są powszechnie znane zwykle zajmującym się tym rodzajem informacji.\nOdwołujący wskazał, że stosuje rygorystyczne reguły wewnętrzne związane z dostępem do informacji stanowiących tajemnicę przedsiębiorstwa oraz z obrotem tymi informacjami. w strukturze wewnętrznej funkcjonują wewnętrzne procedury, które uniemożliwiają wypływ danych. Odwołujący wskazał przy tym, że w ramach ogólnego systemu ochrony danych stanowiących tajemnicę przedsiębiorstwa Spółki, podjęto również fizyczne środki ochrony danych, m.in.\nwłaściwy obieg dokumentacji stanowiących tajemnicę przedsiębiorstwa, zabezpieczeniu hasłami danych zapisywanych na serwerze, a także stosowanie procedur zapewniających bezpieczeństwo danych poufnych w sieci informatycznej know-how know-how przedsiębiorstwa. Dodatkowo Odwołujący wskazał, że u Odwołującego wprowadzone zostały mechanizmy ochrony informacji poufnych w postaci załącznika do Regulaminu Pracy, w którym szczegółowo dookreślono co Odwołujący rozumie poprzez tajemnicę służbową, jak również Odwołujący wykazał, że w umowach o pracę osób mających dostęp do zastrzeżonych informacji zawarto odpowiednią klauzulę dot. tajemnicy służbowej. Odwołujący wskazał także na klauzule w zakresie ochrony tajemnicy przedsiębiorstwa w dokumentach załączonych do uzasadnienia zastrzeżenia tajemnicy przedsiębiorstwa. Stosowanie przez Zdaniem Odwołującego dowodzi to dowodzi temu, że Odwołujący dba o to, by nawet w obrębie spółki nie wszystkie osoby miały dostęp do informacji, które przeważyć niejednokrotnie mogą na udziale Odwołującego w postępowaniach o udzielenie zamówienia publicznego.\nOdwołujący wskazał także, że stałą praktyką Odwołującego (a przede wszystkim Lidera - wykonawcy Trakcja) jest przedkładanie wyjaśnień w zakresie przesłanki wykluczenia z art. 109 ust. 1 pkt 7 ustawy Prawo zamówień publicznych w postępowaniach o udzielenie zamówienia publicznego w sposób niezwykle zbliżony do tego, który został zastosowany przez Odwołującego w postępowaniu.\nWyjaśnił, że od kilku lat stosuje tożsamy „system\" przygotowania wyjaśnień w odpowiedzi na wezwania dot. przesłanki wykluczenia z art. 109 ust. 1 pkt 7 ustawy Prawo zamówień publicznych, który jest powszechnie akceptowany przez największych zamawiających w Polsce. Jako przykład instytucji, które zaakceptowały niemalże identyczne wyjaśnienia jak te przedstawiane przez Odwołującego, są m. in. Generalna Dyrekcja Dróg Krajowych i Autostrad czy PKP PLK.\nIzba ustaliła i zważyła co następuje:\nOdwołanie nie zasługuje na uwzględnienie.\nOcenie Izby podlega ocena prawidłowości decyzji Zamawiającego podjętej na podstawie złożonego przez Wykonawcę\nTrakcja S.A. uzasadnienia zastrzeżenia tajemnicy przedsiębiorstwa; zbadanie, czy Wykonawca należycie uzasadnił zastrzeżenie informacji, gdyż to zawartość merytoryczna tego uzasadnienia decyduje o tym, czy w jawnym postępowaniu o udzielenie zamówienia publicznego określone informacje mogą pozostać niejawne.\nW ocenie Zamawiającego Wykonawca w wyjaśnieniach użył wyłącznie ogólnikowych stwierdzeń, bez wykazania rzeczywistej wartości gospodarczej zastrzeganych informacji.\nPrzede wszystkim jednak nie wykazał, na czym konkretnie jego szkoda będzie polegała, jakie konsekwencje Wykonawca poniesie w przypadku ujawnienia zastrzeżonych dokumentów.\nIzba podziela powyższe stanowisko Zamawiającego.\nOdwołujący nie wykazał również wartości gospodarczej zastrzeganych jako tajemnica przedsiębiorstwa informacji.\nOdwołujący w treści wyjaśnień użył stwierdzenia, że: „ujawnienie tych informacji może skutkować ewentualnymi negatywnymi konsekwencjami procesowymi dla Trakcji”, co jest stwierdzeniem ogólnikowym i z całą pewnością nie może zostać uznane za wykazanie wartości gospodarczej zastrzeganych informacji. Ponadto stwierdzenie takie wskazuje jedynie na ewentualne, a co za tym idzie takie, które nie musza wystąpić skutki dla Odwołującego, zupełnie nieokreślone. Odwołujący nie wykazał, w jaki konkretnie sposób ujawnienie zastrzeżonych jako tajemnica przedsiębiorstwa informacji będzie mu zagrażało, jaką konkretnie poniesie szkodę w przypadku, gdy przedmiotowe informacje zostaną ujawnione do wiadomości publicznej.\nOdwołujący wskazał również: „Jednocześnie zastrzeżone informacje znajdujące się w umowach najmu/dzierżawy oraz związane w związku z tym poniesione koszty, co przedstawiają faktury VAT zawierają dane istotnie wrażliwe dla\nWykonawcy. Obrazują bowiem wielkość produkcji/sprzedaży danego podmiotu, co ujawnia jego możliwości finansowe.\nW postanowieniu z dnia 30 października 1996 r. Sąd Antymonopolowy uznał, że dane obrazujące wielkość produkcji i sprzedaży, a także źródła zaopatrzenia i zbytu mogą stanowić tajemnicę przedsiębiorstwa.” W tym miejscu należy wskazać, że Sąd Antymonopolowy stwierdził jedynie, co może stanowić tajemnicę przedsiębiorstwa, natomiast\nOdwołujący powinien był wykazać, co rzeczywiście taką tajemnicę stanowi, nie zaś co nią może być i dlaczego. Nie można uznać, aby samo stwierdzenie: „faktury VAT zawierają dane istotnie wrażliwe dla Wykonawcy” mogło decydować o tym, że w sposób prawidłowy dokonano zastrzeżenia tajemnicy przedsiębiorstwa, gdyż jest to zdanie ogólnikowe, nie poparte żadna argumentacją w tym zakresie. Nie jest wykazaniem wartości gospodarczej przedstawienie ogólnych wyjaśnień, bez odniesienia się do konkretnej sytuacji Wykonawcy.\nIstotą zastrzeżenia tajemnicy przedsiębiorstwa jest wykazanie przez wykonawcę, że chroni konkretne informacje w przedsiębiorstwie, nie zaś, co miało miejsce w niniejszym postępowaniu, próba ukrycia informacji przed innymi wykonawcami w danym postępowaniu, w celu uniemożliwienia weryfikacji prawidłowości dokonania oceny spełnienia przesłanek wykluczenia z pozstępowania.\nIzba podziela stanowisko, że chęć ukrycia przed innymi wykonawcami działającymi na rynku problemów Odwołującego, jakie miały miejsce przy wykonywaniu innych zamówień, nie jest tym dobrem, które zasługiwałoby na ochronę, tj. ukrycie tych zdarzeń przed innymi uczestnikami rynku. Odwołujący w żaden konkretny sposób nie wykazał, jaką konkretnie wartość gospodarczą posiadają informacje jako tajemnica przedsiębiorstwa - Wyjaśnienia wraz z załącznikami.\nWykazanie tajemnicy przedsiębiorstwa może być uznane za skuteczne tylko wtedy, gdy wykonawca wykaże w sposób precyzyjny i pełny, że zastrzegany dokument lub jego część spełnia wymagania ustawowe, a nadto, że jego ujawnienie naraziłoby wykonawcę na szkodę mającą realną wartość gospodarczą.\nNie jest tak, jak argumentował Odwołujący w trakcie rozprawy z udziałem stron, że nie istnieje możliwość wykazania takiej wartości. Wbrew twierdzeniu Odwołującego, istnieją możliwości wykazania wartości informacji, a także określenia i wyceny szkód, jakie nastąpią w przypadku ich utraty. Podobnie jak istnieją możliwości wyceny różnych innych wartości, tak materialnych, jak i niematerialnych oraz szkód, jakie można ponieść w wyniku ich utraty (wyceną zajmują się także różne instytucje finansowe czy ubezpieczeniowe). W niniejszym przypadku, gdyby rzeczywiście Odwołujący w swoim przedsiębiorstwie chronił i zabezpieczał te konkretne informacje, doskonale znana byłaby mu ich wartość i wymiar oraz zakres i wartość szkody, jaką może ponieść. Tymczasem Odwołujący dokonał zastrzeżenia wyłącznie na potrzeby procedury przetargowej, ad hoc, zatem nie dokonywał żadnego zabezpieczenia, czy wyceny tych informacji, które znajdują się w dokumentach, jakie objął tajemnicą przedsiębiorstwa.\nOdwołujący stwierdził, że: „Ujawnienie tych informacji mogłoby negatywnie wpłynąć na możliwość efektywnego konkurowania pomiędzy przedsiębiorcami na tożsamym rynku.”\nPonownie należy zwrócić uwagę na ogólnikowy charakter wyjaśnienia Odwołującego. Tymczasem Odwołujący powinien był logicznie powiązać konkretną informację, która jest udostępniana, z wykazaniem jej wartości oraz szkody, jaką może ponieść w przypadku jej ujawnienia.\nBrak jest również podstaw do tego, aby uznać zasadność stawianej w odwołaniu tezy, iż treści zawarte w odtajnionych załącznikach stanowią know-how\nOdwołującego.\n\nOczywistym jest, że każdy podmiot opracowuje własną dokumentację w zakresie składanych wyjaśnień, pism procesowych, czy innych dokumentów. Odwołujący nie wykazał jednak ani ponadstandardowego charakteru takich pism, ani co więcej, nie złożył żadnego dowodu na okoliczność, że rzeczywiście jest to know-how\nOdwołującego, chronione przez niego w szczególny sposób. W ocenie Izby, Odwołujący przy pomocy gry słów stara się wywrzeć wrażenie, iż treść ww. dokumentów posiada dla niego określoną – istotną wartość gospodarczą.\nZa chybiony należy uznać argument Odwołującego dotyczący ograniczonego dostępu do akt sądowych w toku postępowań prowadzonych przed sądem powszechnym, z którego miałaby wynikać poufność informacji.\nAdresatem i odbiorcą dokumentów w postępowaniu prowadzonym przed sądem powszechnym jest rzeczywiście strona postępowania. Nie oznacza to jednak automatycznie, że dokumenty te są objęte tajemnicą przedsiębiorstwa w toku postępowania o udzielenie zamówienia publicznego. Czym innym jest udostępnienie przez sąd dokumentów w postępowaniu sądowym, a czym innym zastrzeżenie tajemnicy przedsiębiorstwa w postępowaniu o udzielnie zamówienia publicznego. Dokument będący np. załącznikiem do pozwu nie staje się automatycznie dokumentem zastrzeżonym jako tajemnica przedsiębiorstwa.\nOkoliczność, że dostęp do akt sprawy w toku postępowania sądowego mają co do zasady wyłącznie strony, nie przesądza o konieczności utajnienia w toku postępowania o udzielenie zamówienia dokumentów składanych przez strony w ramach postępowania sądowego (np. pozew, załączniki, odpowiedź na pozew). Co więcej, zgodnie z art. 148 §\n1 Kodeksu postępowania cywilnego, posiedzenia sądowe przed sądem powszechnym są co do zasady jawne. Zatem obecność na sali rozpraw nie jest ograniczona tylko dla stron i uczestników postępowania.\nPrzedmiotem rozprawy sądowej są okoliczności, które są zawarte w dokumentach lub z nich wynikają. W trakcie jawnej rozprawy informacje zawarte w tych dokumentach mogą zostać upublicznione, a w konsekwencji mogą one zostać ujawnione osobom postronnym. Wyłączenie jawności następuje na wniosek strony postępowania.\nZgodnie z art. 153 § 1\nKodeksu postepowania cywilnego, sąd na wniosek strony zarządza odbycie posiedzenia lub jego części przy drzwiach zamkniętych, gdy mogą być ujawnione okoliczności stanowiące tajemnicę jej przedsiębiorstwa.\nOdwołujący nie wykazał natomiast, aby podjął chociażby próbę utajnienia rozprawy czy jej części lub składanych dokumentów.\nTrafnie zauważył Zamawiający, że nie sposób przyjąć, iż Wykonawca w jakikolwiek sposób wykazał, że w postępowaniach arbitrażowych, których jest stroną, znajduje zastosowanie zasada poufności. Nie wskazano z jakiej daty, w jakim kształcie (tj. z jakimi ew. wyłączeniami i modyfikacjami) strony tego postępowania stosują regulamin SIDIR.\nOdwołujący w treści wyjaśnień wskazał, że: „Zastrzeżone informacje nie zostały nigdy ujawnione do wiadomości publicznej, a Trakcja podjęła niezbędne działania w celu zachowania ich poufności (...)”. Jak wyjaśnił Zamawiający,\nOdwołujący, jako spółka publiczna, jest podmiotem transparentnym w związku z obowiązującymi regulacjami – w tym\nRozporządzeniem MAR, które reguluje kwestię publikacji raportów bieżących i okresowych, jak również informacji poufnych, zobowiązany jest publikować raporty (stosowanie do Rozporządzenia MAR). Skoro informacje, zastrzeżone w niniejszym postępowaniu jako tajemnica przedsiębiorstwa, zostały upublicznione, to nie jest prawdą, aby informacje te nigdy nie podlegały ujawnieniu. Zasadne jest zatem zdanie Zamawiającego wyrażone w trakcie rozprawy z udziałem stron postępowania, że skoro Zamawiający był w stanie w prosty sposób ustalić, iż niektóre informacje są publicznie dostępne, to okoliczność ta wskazała na nierzetelne podejście Odwołującego do zastrzeżenia tajemnicy przedsiębiorstwa, a taką rzetelność i prawidłowość powinien był wykazać Odwołujący. Co więcej, skoro informacje zostały już ujawnione, to nie stanowią tajemnicy przedsiębiorstwa. Odwołujący z całą pewnością nie wykazał, aby podjął działania w celu zachowania ich poufności, a tym samym nie wykazał skuteczności i prawidłowości zastrzeżenia tajemnicy przedsiębiorstwa.\nWykonawca powinien był wykazać, w jaki sposób chroni te konkretne informacje (tj. zastrzeżone w niniejszym postępowaniu jako tajemnica przedsiębiorstwa). Odwołujący przedstawił w wyjaśnieniach informacje dotyczące ogólnie stosowanych zabezpieczeń, jakim podlega jego firma, natomiast nie wykazał sposobu szczególnej ochrony tych konkretnych – zastrzeżonych w niniejszym postępowaniu - informacji i dokumentów. Należy zauważyć, że zabezpieczenia, na które wskazuje Odwołujący, są obecnie powszechnie przyjmowanymi zabezpieczeniami. W zakresie tajemnicy przedsiębiorstwa Odwołujący powinien był wykazać szczególną ochronę tych konkretnych dokumentów i informacji.\nW konsekwencji należało stwierdzić, że czynność Zamawiającego polegająca na odtajnieniu wyjaśnień wraz z załącznikami zastrzeżonych przez Wykonawcę Trakcja S.A. jako tajemnica przedsiębiorstwa nie jest nieprawidłowa i nie narusza wskazanych przez Odwołującego przepisów prawa (tj.\n.\nO kosztach postępowania odwoławczego orzeczono stosownie do jego wyniku na podstawie art. 557 oraz art. 574 ustawy z 11.09.2019 r. Prawo zamówień publicznych (Dz. U. z 2022 r., poz. 1710 ze zm.) oraz w oparciu o przepisy § 5 pkt 1a) oraz § 5 pkt 2b),\n), zaliczając w poczet kosztów postępowania uiszczony przez Odwołującego wpis od odwołania oraz koszty z tytułu zastępstwa procesowego pełnomocnika Zamawiającego.\nMając powyższe na uwadze orzeczono jak w sentencji.\nPrzewodniczący:\n....................................\nCzłonkowie:\n.....................................\n.....................................\nart. 18 ust. 3 ustawy Prawo zamówień publicznych w zw. z art. 11 ust. 2 ustawy z dnia 16 kwietnia 1993 r. o zwalczaniu nieuczciwej konkurencji)", "token_count": 12142} -{"added": "2026-09-17", "author": "Krajowa Izba Odwoławcza", "created": "2026-05-20", "id": "uzp_orzeczenia_pl_34694", "license": "public-domain (official documents)", "source": "uzp_orzeczenia_pl", "text": "S ygn. akt: KIO 1550/26\nSygn. akt: KIO 1598/26\nWYROK\nWarszawa, dnia 20. 05. 2026 r.\nKrajowa Izba Odwoławcza\n- w składzie:\n\nPrzewodnicząca:\n\nAgata Mikołajczyk\n\nProtokolant:\nTomasz Skowroński po rozpoznaniu na rozprawie w dniu 19 maja 2026 r. w Warszawie odwołań wniesionych do Prezesa Krajowej Izby\nOdwoławczej\n\nw dniu 7 kwietnia 2026 r. przez\nOdwołujących:\n1)\nZABERD Sp. z o.o. z/ s we Wrocławiu\n(ul. Bystrzycka 24, 54215 Wrocław) - sygn. akt: KIO 1550/26\n2) wykonawców wspólnie ubiegający się o udzielenie zamówienia:\nV4 sp. z o.o.\noraz\nPlus Inwest P. Żygadło sp. j.\n\nz/ s w\nŻernikach Wrocławskich\n(ul. Kolejowa 11 a, 55-010 Żerniki Wrocławskie) - sygn. akt: KIO 1598/26 w postępowaniu prowadzonym przez Zamawiającego:\nSkarb Państwa – Generalny Dyrektor Dróg Krajowych i\nAutostrad z/s w Warszawie prowadząca postępowanie:\nGeneralna Dyrekcja Dróg Krajowych i Autostrad Oddział we\nWrocławiu\n(ul. Powstańców Śląskich 186, 53139 Wrocław),\n- Uczestnik po stronie Odwołującego:\na. wykonawcy wspólnie ubiegający się o udzielenie zamówienia:\nV4 sp. z o.o.\noraz\nPlus Inwest P. Żygadło sp. j.\n\nz/ s w\nŻernikach Wrocławskich\n(ul. Kolejowa 11 a, 55-010 Żerniki Wrocławskie) - sygn. akt: KIO 1550/26\n- Uczestnicy po stronie Zamawiającego:\na.\nSaferoad Services Sp. z o. o.\n\nz/s we Włocławku\n(ul. Komunalna 7, 87-800 Włocławek) - sygn. akt: KIO 1550/26 i b. ZABERD Sp. z o.o. z/ s we Wrocławiu\n(ul. Bystrzycka 24, 54215 Wrocław) - sygn. akt: KIO 1598/26 orzeka:\n1.\nOddala odwołanie w sprawie o sygn. akt: KIO 1550/26 oraz odwołanie o sygn. akt: KIO 1598/26;\n2.\nKosztami postępowania odwoławczego w sprawie o sygn. akt KIO 1550/26 obciąża\n\nOdwołującego:\n\nZABERD Sp. z o.o. z/ s we Wrocławiu\n(ul. Bystrzycka 24, 54215 Wrocław) i:\n2.1.\nzalicza w poczet kosztów postępowania odwoławczego\n\nkwotę\n15 000 zł 00 gr (słownie: piętnaście tysięcy złotych zero groszy) uiszczoną przez Odwołującego tytułem wpisu od odwołania oraz kwotę\n3 600 zł 00 gr\n(słownie: trzy tysiące sześćset złotych zero groszy) poniesioną przez Zamawiającego tytułem wynagrodzenia jego pełnomocnika;\n2.2.\nzasądza od\n\nOdwołującego na rzecz\nZamawiającego:\nSkarb Państwa – Generalny Dyrektor Dróg Krajowych i\nAutostrad z/s w Warszawie prowadząca postępowanie:\nGeneralna Dyrekcja Dróg Krajowych i Autostrad Oddział we Wrocławiu\n(ul. Powstańców Śląskich 186, 53139 Wrocław)\n\nkwotę\n\n3 600 zł 00 gr\n(słownie: trzy tysiące sześćset złotych zero groszy) stanowiącą koszty postępowania odwoławczego poniesione przez Zamawiającego;\n3.\nKosztami postępowania odwoławczego w sprawie o sygn. akt KIO 1598/26 obciąża\n\nOdwołującego:\n\nwykonawców wspólnie ubiegający się o udzielenie zamówienia:\nV4 sp. z o.o.\noraz\nPlus Inwest P. Żygadło sp. j.\n\nz/ s w Żernikach\nWrocławskich\n(ul. Kolejowa 11 a, 55-010 Żerniki Wrocławskie) i:\n3.1.\nzalicza w poczet kosztów postępowania odwoławczego\n\nkwotę\n15 000 zł 00 gr (słownie: piętnaście tysięcy złotych zero groszy) uiszczoną przez Odwołującego tytułem wpisu od odwołania oraz kwotę\n3 600 zł 00 gr\n(słownie: trzy tysiące sześćset złotych zero groszy) poniesioną przez Zamawiającego tytułem wynagrodzenia jego pełnomocnika;\n3.2.\nzasądza od\n\nOdwołującego na rzecz Zamawiającego:\n\nSkarb Państwa – Generalny Dyrektor Dróg Krajowych i\nAutostrad z/s w Warszawie prowadząca postępowanie:\nGeneralna Dyrekcja Dróg Krajowych i Autostrad Oddział we Wrocławiu\n(ul. Powstańców Śląskich 186, 53139 Wrocław)\n\nkwotę\n3 600 zł 00 gr\n(słownie: trzy tysiące sześćset złotych zero groszy) stanowiącą koszty postępowania odwoławczego poniesione przez Zamawiającego;\nNa orzeczenie - w terminie 14 dni od dnia jego doręczenia - przysługuje skarga za pośrednictwem Prezesa Krajowej Izby\nOdwoławczej do Sądu Okręgowego w Warszawie - Sądu Zamówień Publicznych.\n..................................\nUzasadnienie\nOdwołania zostały wniesione do Prezesa Krajowej Izby Odwoławczej w dniu 7 kwietnia\n\n2026 r. przez:\n1) wykonawcę ZABERD Sp. z o.o. z/ s we Wrocławiu (Odwołujący Zaberd lub wykonawca Zaberd)\n2) wykonawców wspólnie ubiegających się o udzielenie zamówienia: V4 sp. z o.o. – Lider oraz Plus Inwest P. Żygadło sp. j.\n– Partner z/s w Żernikach Wrocławskich (Odwołujący V4 lub Konsorcjum V4) w postępowaniu prowadzonym w trybie przetargu nieograniczonego na podstawie ustawy z dnia 11 września 2019 r. -\nPrawo zamówień publicznych (Dz. U. z 2024 r. poz. 1320 ze zm.), [ustawa Pzp lub Pzp lub Ustawa PZP] przez\nZamawiającego:\nGeneralna Dyrekcja Dróg Krajowych i Autostrad Oddział we Wrocławiu.\nPrzedmiotem postępowania o udzielenie zamówienia publicznego jest „Całoroczne utrzymanie drogi ekspresowej S5 zarządzanej przez Generalną Dyrekcję Dróg Krajowych i Autostrad Oddział we Wrocławiu Rejon w Wołowie.” Nr\nPostępowania OWR.D-3.2421.30.2025.\nOgłoszenie o zamówieniu zostało opublikowane w Dzienniku Urzędowym Unii\nEuropejskiej numer publikacji ogłoszenia: 783032-2025, numer wydania Dz.U. S: 228/2025, data publikacji: 26/11/2025.\n.\nWykonawca Zaberd podał (...) wnoszę odwołanie wobec niezgodnych z ustawą pzp zaniechań i czynności\nZamawiającego podjętych w Postępowaniu polegających na:\n➢ dokonaniu wyboru oferty Wykonawcy Saferoad Services Sp. z o.o. (dalej jako: „Wykonawca” lub „Saferoad”) jako najkorzystniejszej w tym Postępowaniu, pomimo że oferta tego Wykonawcy powinna zostać odrzucona,\n➢ zaniechaniu odrzucenia oferty Saferoad w sytuacji, gdy oferta Saferoad jest niezgodna z warunkami zamówienia,\n➢ zaniechaniu wezwania do złożenia wyjaśnień oraz dalszych wyjaśnień w zakresie cen jednostykowych stanowiących istotne części składowe, które budzą wątpliwości co do tego, czy są zgodne z warunkami zamówienia, a także czy wystarczają na pokrycie kosztów prac nimi objętych.\nI.\nZarzuty:\nOdwołujący zarzuca Zamawiającemu naruszenie:\n1) art. 226 ust. 1 pkt 5 pzp w zw. z art. 16 pkt 1 i 3 pzp poprzez zaniechanie odrzucenia oferty Saferoad jako niezgodnej z warunkami zamówienia w Postępowaniu z uwagi na fakt, że Saferoad w ramach zaoferowanego Zamawiającemu świadczenia w pozycji TER 1 poz. 1.1, poz. 1.2, poz. 6.1 i poz. 7.1 nie uwzględnił wymaganych przez Zamawiającego w dokumentach zamówienia sprzętów i materiałów niezbędnych do realizacji prac objętych tymi pozycjami TER;\n2) art. 224 ust. 1, 2 pzp w zw. z art. 226 ust. 1 pkt 8) pzp i art. 16 pzp poprzez zaniechanie wezwania Saferoad do wyjaśnień w zakresie istotnych części składowych ceny oferty, tj. pozycji TER 10 poz. 4.2, TER 8 poz. 2.2, TER, TER 4 poz. 11.3, TER 13 poz. 2, 3, 5, 17 lub art. 223 ust. 1 pzp w zw. z art. 226 ust. 1 pkt 5) pzp i art. 16 pzp poprzez zaniechanie wezwania do wyjaśnień dotyczących treści oferty w zakresie ww. pozycji;\n3) naruszenie art. 224 ust. 1, 2 Pzp w zw. z art. 226 ust. 1 pkt 8) pzp i art. 16 Pzp poprzez zaniechanie wezwania Saferoad do dalszych wyjaśnień w zakresie istotnych części składowych ceny oferty, tj. pozycji TER 8 poz. 9.1 lub art. 223 ust. 1\nPzp w zw. z art. 226 ust. 1 pkt 5) pzp i art. 16 Pzp poprzez zaniechanie wezwania do wyjaśnień dotyczących treści oferty w zakresie ww. pozycji.\nw konsekwencji zarzutów z pkt 1-3 naruszenie:\n4) art.\n239 ust. 1 pzp w zw. z art. 16 pkt 1 i 2 pzp, poprzez wybór jako najkorzystniejszej w Postępowaniu oferty Saferoad pomimo, że oferta tego Wykonawcy jest niezgodna z warunkami zamówienia i zawiera rażąco niską cenę,\nII.\nŻądania:\nW oparciu o przedstawione wyżej zarzuty, wnoszę o uwzględnienie odwołania i nakazanie Zamawiającemu dokonania następujących czynności w ramach Postępowania:\n1) unieważnienie czynności wyboru oferty złożonej przez Saferoad, jako oferty najkorzystniejszej;\n2) odrzucenie oferty Saferoad;\n3) powtórzenie czynności badania i oceny ofert wykonawców biorących udział w Postępowaniu z wyłączeniem oferty wykonawcy – Saferoad;\n4) dokonanie wyboru oferty ZABERD jako najkorzystniejszej w postępowaniu.\na w przypadku nie uwzględnienia zarzutu ad 1) dotyczącego niezgodności oferty Saferoad z SWZ:\n1) unieważnienie czynności wyboru oferty złożonej przez Saferoad, jako oferty najkorzystniejszej;\n2) powtórzenie czynności badania i oceny ofert wykonawców biorących udział w Postępowaniu, w tym a) wezwanie Saferoad do wyjaśnień w zakresie istotnych części składowych ceny oferty, tj. pozycji lub wezwanie do wyjaśnień dotyczących treści oferty w zakresie ww. pozycji;\nb) wezwanie Saferoad do dalszych wyjaśnień w zakresie istotnych części składowych ceny oferty, tj. pozycji TER 13 poz.\n2,3,5,17, TER 4 poz. 11.3, TER 10 poz. 4.2, TER 8 poz. 2.2,lub wezwanie do wyjaśnień dotyczących treści oferty w zakresie ww. pozycji;\nIII.\nInne wnioski i oświadczenia:\nNiezależnie od powyższego wnoszę o:\n1) dopuszczenie i przeprowadzenie dowodów załączonych do odwołania oraz przedstawionych na rozprawie;\n2) dopuszczenie i przeprowadzenie dowodu z dokumentów zgromadzonych w aktach Postępowania, na które powołano się w uzasadnieniu odwołania;\nIV.\nInteres we wniesieniu odwołania:\nOdwołujący posiada interes w rozumieniu art. 505 ust. 1 pzp w złożeniu odwołania.\nOdwołujący to podmiot profesjonalnie działający na rynku usług objętych przedmiotem zamówienia. Odwołujący jest wykonawcą biorącym udział w Postępowaniu, a oferta złożona przez niego została sklasyfikowana na drugim miejscu w rankingu złożonych ofert. Prawidłowa ocena ofert powinna prowadzić jednak do odrzucenia oferty złożonej przez\nSaferoad, sklasyfikowanej przed ofertą Odwołującego. W rezultacie oferta Odwołującego powinna zostać sklasyfikowana na pierwszym miejscu. W wyniku naruszenia przez Zamawiającego przepisów ustawy pzp, interes Odwołującego w uzyskaniu zamówienia doznał uszczerbku. W przypadku prawidłowego działania Zamawiającego i odrzucenia oferty\nSaferoad, za najkorzystniejszą zostałaby uznana oferta Odwołującego. Wskutek naruszenia wskazanych przepisów pzp przez Zamawiającego, Odwołujący pozbawiony został możliwości wykonania zamówienia, pomimo że złożona przez niego oferta nie podlega odrzuceniu i jest najkorzystniejsza. Nie powinno zatem budzić wątpliwości, że objęte odwołaniem czynności Zamawiającego prowadzą do poniesienia szkody przez Odwołującego, polegającej na uniemożliwieniu\nOdwołującemu uzyskania zamówienia. (...)\nW uzasadnieniu stanowiska wskazał na następujące okoliczności: (...)\n1. (...)\n2.\nOtwarcie ofert miało miejsce 19.01.2026 r. Jak wynika z udostępnionych Odwołującemu załączników do protokołu\nPostępowania, pismem z dnia 04.02.2026 r. Zamawiający, działając w oparciu o art. 224 ust. 1 oraz art. 223 ust. 1 ustawy\nPzp, zwrócił się o udzielenie przez Saferoad wyjaśnień, w tym złożenie dowodów dotyczących wyliczenia ceny oferty, w celu ustalenia, czy zaoferowana przez Saferoad cena oraz jej istotne części składowe zawierają rażąco niską cenę oraz czy uwzględniają wszystkie wymagania zawarte w SWZ.\n3.\nWw. pismem Zamawiający zwrócił się o przedstawienie szczegółowej i wyczerpującej informacji na temat sposobu skalkulowania przez Saferoad ceny całej oferty oraz odniesienie się do poszczególnych pozycji cenowych, oznaczonych w załączniku do wezwania kolorem czerwonym, tj. łącznie 33 pozycji kosztorysu ofertowego.\n4.\nWymagane było także przedstawienie szczegółowych i wyczerpujących wyjaśnień dotyczących sposobu uwzględnienia elementów mających wpływ na cenę ofertową ogółem, mając na uwadze m.in. koszty bezpośrednie, pośrednie a także zakładany poziom zysku.\n5.\nW odpowiedzi na powyższe wezwanie, w piśmie z dnia 17.02.2026r. Saferoad złożył wyjaśnienia.\n6.\nW dniu 26.03.2026 r. Zamawiający opublikował Informację o wyborze najkorzystniejszej oferty, z którego wynika, że w\nPostępowaniu jako najkorzystniejsza została wybrana oferta złożona przez Saferoad. Oferta Odwołującego uplasowała się na drugiej pozycji w rankingu ofert.\nII. Zarzut naruszenia art. 226 ust. 1 pkt 5) pzp - niezgodność oferty z SWZ w zakresie sprzętu i materiałów do wykonania prac\n7.\nW ramach wyjaśnień rażąco niskiej ceny Saferoad złożył kalkulacje szczegółowe dla prac objętych poszczególnymi pozycjami kosztorysu ofertowego. Z treści kalkulacji przedłożonych przez Saferoad dla pozycji TER 1 poz. 1.1, 1.2, 6.1,\n7.1 wynika, iż wykonawca ten nie uwzględnił w założonej ofercie wymagań Zamawiającego określonych w SWZ w zakresie sprzętu, którym należy wykonać dane prace, a także materiału wymaganego przez Zamawiającego w SWZ do realizacji poszczególnych prac.\n8.\nCo istotne, zgodnie z pkt 17.4 Tom I Instrukcja dla wykonawców: „Każda cena jednostkowa zawarta w Ofercie powinna obejmować całkowity koszt wykonania danej pozycji, zgodnie z zapisami SST” Powyższe oznacza w szczególności, iż wykonawcy nie są uprawnieni do przenoszenia kosztów wykonania robót do innych pozycji.\n9.\nPoniżej Odwołujący szczegółowo opisuje przypadki niezgodności oferty Saferoad z SWZ.\nII.1. Brak sprzętu wymaganego zgodnie z SWZ do wykonania prac z pozycji TER 1 poz. 1.1, poz. 1.2, poz. 6.1 i poz. 7.1\n10.\nWraz z wyjaśnieniami rażąco niskiej ceny Saferoad złożył szczegółowe kalkulacje dla pozycji kosztorysu ofertowego\nTER 1 poz. 1.1, poz. 1.2, poz. 6.1 i poz. 7.1 o następującej treści:\n11.\nTER 1 poz. 1.1 „Remont cząstkowy nawierzchni z betonu asfaltowego poprzez frezowanie istniejącej nawierzchni do głębokość 4 cm i ułożenie warstwy betonu asfaltowego o grubości 4 cm - łaty do 5 m2”\n12.\nTER 1 poz. 1.2 „Remont cząstkowy nawierzchni z betonu asfaltowego poprzez frezowanie istniejącej nawierzchni do głębokość 4 cm i ułożenie warstwy betonu asfaltowego o grubości 4 cm - łaty powyżej 5 m2”\n\n13.\nTER 1 poz. 6.1 „Wyrównanie nawierzchni betonem asfaltowym przy grubości do 3 cm”\n14.\nTER 1 poz. 7.1 „Lokalne nakładki z masy bitumicznej warstwy ścieralnej SMA11 o grubości 4 cm”\n15.\nZ powyższych kalkulacji wynika, przy pomocy jakiego sprzętu Saferoad zamierza wykonywać prace objęte pozycjami\nTER 1 poz. 1.1, 1.2, 6.1 oraz 7.1, gdyż sprzęt ten został wyszczególniony w kalkulacjach szczegółowych.\n16.\nZ powyższych kalkulacji wynika, że Saferoad do realizacji prac z pozycji TER 1 poz. 1.1, 1.2, 6.1 oraz 7.1 nie przewidział wykorzystania następującego sprzętu wymaganego przez Zamawiającego, tj:\n- skrapiarka lub alternatywny do niej sprzęt do wykonania podłoża,\n- samobieżny podajnik do mas bitumicznych, wymagany w pkt 3.7 SST 05.03.13 dla dróg kategorii KR6-7 (tylko w przypadku TER 1 poz. 7.1), gdyż sprzęty te nie zostały wymienione w przedłożonych kalkulacjach szczegółowych.\n17.\nZgodnie z dokumentem pn. WT-2 „Nawierzchnie asfaltowe na drogach krajowych” WT-2 2016 część II wrzesień 2016\nWykonanie warstw nawierzchni asfaltowych. Wymagania techniczne – pkt 7.3.3 „Wykonanie skropienia”:\n„Skrapianie należy wykonywać równomiernie na całej powierzchni przeznaczonej do skropienia, przy użyciu skrapiarek samochodowych, ewentualnie ciągnionych - wyposażonych w rampy spryskujące oraz automatyczne systemy kontroli wydatku skropienia. Dopuszcza się skrapianie ręczne lancą tylko w miejscach trudno dostępnych (np. ścieki uliczne) oraz przy urządzeniach usytuowanych w nawierzchni lub ją ograniczających.”\n18.\nDokument pn. „WT-2 2016 część II” jest przywołany w Szczegółowej Specyfikacji Technicznej (dalej: SST) jako jeden z dokumentów stanowiących przepisy związane, zgodnie z którym i należy wykonywać przedmiot zamówienia, co oznacza, iż zawarte w nim wymagania stanowią integralną część SST.\n19.\nPonadto zgodnie z treśicą kalkulacji dla pozycji TER 1 poz. 7.1, Saferoad nie zamierza wykonywać robót przy pomocy samobieżnego podajnika do mas bitumicznych, który jest wymagany pkt 3.7 SST 05.03.13 dla dróg kategorii KR6-7.\n20.\nZatem w swojej ofercie Saferoad nie uwzględnił wykonania robót w zakresie skropienia podłoża, tj, pracy niezbędnej do prawidłowej realizacji przedmiotowych robót, wyszczególnionych w pozycjami TER 1 poz. 1.1, 1.2, 6.1 oraz 7.1, przy pomocy specjalistycznego sprzętu wymaganego przez Zamawiającego.\n21.\nOznacza to brak uwzględnienia w Ofercie Saferoad pełnego zakresu robót określonego w SST, a w konsekwencji oferta Saferoad jest niezgodna z SWZ i jako taka polega odrzuceniu.\nII.2. Brak materiałów wymaganych zgodnie z SWZ do wykonania prac z pozycji TER 1 poz. 1.1, poz. 1.2, poz. 6.1 i poz. 7.1\n22.\nZ powyższych kalkulacji szczegółowych pozycji TER 1 poz. 1.1, 1.2, 6.1 oraz 7.1 wynika, przy pomocy jakiego materiału Saferoad zamierza wykonywać prace objęte pozycjami TER 1 poz. 1.1, 1.2, 6.1 oraz 7.1, gdyż materiały te zostały wyszczególnione w kalkulacjach szczegółowych.\n23.\nJeśli chodzi o TER 1 poz. 1.1 Saferoad nie uwzględnił w tej pozycji następujących wymaganych materiałów, a zatem zaoferował przedmiot świadczenia niezgodny z wymaganiami Zamawiającego określonymi w dokumentach zamówienia:\n24.\n- emulsja C60 3 ZM - zgodnie z pkt 2.6 SST 05.03.17f wymaganym materiałem na skropienie podłoża pod warstwę bitumiczną jest emulsja C60 3 ZM, 1555 zł/t lub C60 B4 ZM. Zgodnie z pkt 5.6.3 ppkt 4 SST wymagana ilość emulsji na m2 wynosi 0,2-0,5 kg/m2 czystego asfaltu.To oznacza, że emulsja musi być zużyta w ilości minimum 0,2kg/60% (określona w SST emulsja ma zawartość 60% czystego asfaltu) = 0,333 kg/m2. Koszt zakupu emulsji to minimum 1,8*4,50 = 8,10 zł/m2.\n25.\n- taśma do wykonania połączeń krawędzi łaty ze starą nawierzchnią (minimalna ilość dla 5m2 to 9 mb, czyli 1,8mb taśmy na 1m2 – przy założeniu, że łata jest kwadratowa, co daje najmniejszą długość obwodu łaty do jej powierzchni).\nKonieczność wykonania połączenia przy użyciu taśmy wynika z pkt 5.6.3 SST 05.03.17f. Z kolei grubość taśmy 10mm dla warstwy ścieralnej jest wskazana w WT-2 2016 cz. II pkt [REDACTED:IP]. Koszt zakupu taśmy to minimum 1,8*4,50 = 8,10 zł/m2.\n26.\nJeśli chodzi o TER 1 poz. 1.2 Saferoad nie uwzględnił w tej pozycji następujących wymaganych materiałów, a zatem zaoferował przedmiot świadczenia niezgodny z wymaganiami Zamawiającego określonymi w dokumentach zamówienia:\n27.\n- emulsja C60 3 ZM – zgodnie z pkt 2.6 SST 05.03.17f SST wymaganym materiałem na skropienie podłoża pod warstwę bitumiczną jest emulsja C60 3 ZM 1555 zł/t lub C60 B4 ZM. Ilość emulsji na m2 wynosi 0,2-0,5 kg/m2 czystego asfaltu wg pkt 5.6.3 ppkt 4 SST. To oznacza, że emulsja musi być zużyta w ilości minimum 0,2kg/60% (określona w SST emulsja ma zawartość 60% czystego asfaltu) = 0,333 kg/m2. Cena za kg to 1,56zł, czyli brakujący koszt wynosi\n0,51zł/m2.\n28.\n- taśma do wykonania połączeń krawędzi łaty ze starą nawierzchnią (minimalna ilość dla 1000m2 to 126,5 mb, czyli\n0,13 mb taśmy na 1m2 – przy najbardziej optymistycznym założeniu, że to jest tylko jedna kwadratowa łata, co daje najmniejszą długość obwodu łaty do jej powierzchni); koszt zakupu tasmy to minimum 0,13*4,50 = 0,52 zł/m2.\n29.\nJeśli chodzi o TER 1 poz. 6.1 nie uwzględnił w tej pozycji następujących wymaganych materiałów, a zatem zaoferował przedmiot świadczenia niezgodny z wymaganiami Zamawiającego określonymi w dokumentach zamówienia:\n30.\n– emulsja na skropienie podłoża pod warstwę bitumiczną - SST 05.03.05b odwołuje się do wytycznych WT-2 2016.\nZgodnie z Tabelą 4 WT-2 2016 część II ilość emulsji do skropienia to 0,3 – 0,5 kg/m2. Cena zakupu emulsji za kg to\n1,56zł, czyli łącznie 0,3 x 1,56 = 0,47 zł/m2.\n31.\nJeśli chodzi o TER 1 poz. 7.1 Saferoad nie uwzględnił w tej pozycji następujących wymaganych materiałów, a zatem zaoferował przedmiot świadczenia niezgodny z wymaganiami Zamawiającego określonymi w dokumentach zamówienia:\n32.\n- emulsja na skropienie podłoża pod warstwę bitumiczną. SST 05.03.05b odwołuje się do wytycznych WT-2 2016.\nZgodnie z Tabelą 4 WT-2 2016 część II ilość emulsji do skropienia to 0,3 – 0,5 kg/m2. Cena zakupu emulsji za kg to\n1,56zł, czyli łącznie koszt wynosi co najmniej 0,3 x 1,56 = 0,47 zł/m2.\n33.\n- materiał na uszorstnienie nawierzchni SMA, tj. według pkt 2.3.1 SST 05.03.13 jest to kruszywo zgodne z WT-2 2016 część II, pkt 7.1.2, czyli kruszywo łamane o uziarnieniu 2/4 lub 2/5 (wg p. 5.9 SST dopuszcza się uziarnienie 1/3). Zgodnie z pkt 5.9 SST należy rozsypać 1 do 2 kg/m2 (średnio 1,5 kg/m2) kruszywa do uszorstnienia. Daje to koszt min. 1,5kg x\n140 zł/t /1000 = 0,21 zł/kg.\n34.\nPowyższe oznacza, iż Saferoad w cenach jednostkowych robót pozycji TER 1 poz. 1.1, 1.2, 6.1 oraz 7.1 to nie uwzględnił pełnego zakresu materiałów określonego w SST, a w konsekwencji oferta Saferoad jest niezgodna z SWZ i jako taka polega odrzuceniu.\nIII. Zarzut dotyczący zaniechania wezwania Saferoad do wyjaśnień w zakresie istotnych części składowych ceny oferty, tj.\npozycji TER 10 poz. 4.2, TER 8 poz. 2.2, TER 4 poz. 11.3, TER 13 poz. 2, 3, 5, 17\n35.\nOdwołujący wskazuje, że Zamawiający dopuścił się naruszenia przepisów ustawy Pzp, ponieważ wezwanie z dnia\n04.02.2026 r. skierowane do Saferoad, nie dotyczyło wszystkich cen jednostkowych z oferty Saferoad, które stanowią istotne części składowe i obiektywnie budzą uzasadnione wątpliwości co do tego, czy nie są rażąco niskie.\n36.\nPoniżej wskazane pozycje (tj. TER 10 poz. 4.2, TER 8 poz. 2.2, TER 4 poz. 11.3, TER 13 poz. 2, 3, 5, 17) stanowią istotne części składowe, w szczególności uwagi na specyfikę zadań, których przedmiotem jest wykonanie prac utrzymaniowych. Cena ofertowa ma bowiem charakter kosztorysowy, a ilości poszczególnych prac, które zostaną ostatecznie zlecone do wykonania, nie są na obecnym etapie postępowania znane (są one zależne od zdarzeń przyszłych, w tym o charakterze losowym – to Zamawiający decyduje jakie konkretnie prace i w jakiej ilości zostaną zlecone). Wobec powyższego wszystkie ceny jednostkowe mają istotne znaczenie.\n37.\nW wezwaniu do wyjaśnienia rażąco niskiej ceny Zamawiający wskazał w formie tabeli pozycje istotne, dla których różnica ceny jednostkowej Saferoad w stosunku do ceny z kosztorysu inwestorskiego lub średniej arytmetycznej cen z wszystkich 5 złożonych ofert jest niższa o więcej niż 30%. Zaoferowane przez Saferoad ceny jednostkowe pozycji TER 10 poz. 4.2, TER 8 poz. 2.2, TER 4 poz. 11.3, TER 13 poz. 2, 3, 5, 17 odbiegają istotnie (tj. o więcej niż 30%) zarówno od wartości tych prac z kosztorysu Zamawiającego, jak i od średniej cen pozostałych wykonawców. Oznacza to, iż ceny\nSaferoad za wykonanie prac z tych pozycji budzą wątpliwości w podobnym zakresie, co pozostałe ceny, do wyjaśnienia których Zamawiający wezwał Saferoad.\nIII.1.\n\nTER 10 poz. 4.2\nLp.\nOpis\nJedn.\nc.j. z oferty\nSaferoad\nIlość nominalna\nWartość\nRazem netto\n[zł] cena jedn. z KI\n[zł]\nWartość z KI\n[zł] średnia cena jedn. z 5 ofert średnia wartość z 5 ofert\n[zł] różnica do ceny jednostkowej z KI różnica do średniej arytmetycznej ceny jednostkowej z 5 złożonych ofert a b c j k\nGRUPA PRAC NR 10 - Zimowe utrzymanie dróg\n4.2\nProdukcja i dostawa na Obwód Drogowy\n10% mieszanki piaskowo-solnej.\nMg\n25,00\n3 750,00\n166,50\n24 975,00\n108,52\n16 278,60\n-85%\n-77%\n38.\nPrace z pozycji TER 10 poz. 4.2 obejmują produkcję i dostawę na obwód drogowy 10%\n39.\nmieszanki piaskowo-solnej zgodnie z SST D-66.01.00. Saferoad zaoferował za wykonanie prac objętych tą pozycją cenę jednostkową 25,00 złotych netto za 1 Mg.\n40.\nZgodnie z wyjaśnieniami rażąco niskiej ceny, złożonymi przez Saferoad, wykonawca ten wyjaśniał m.in. ceny z pozycji\nTER 10 poz. 5.1 (Odśnieżanie z usuwaniem śliskości (posypywaniem) chodników, ścieżek rowerowych, ciągów pieszorowerowych) oraz 5.2 (Usuwanie śliskości (posypywanie) na chodnikach, ścieżkach rowerowych, ciągach pieszorowerowych).\n41.\nW ramach tychże pozycji (tj. TER 10 poz. 5.1 i 5.2) Saferoad wskazał jako materiał niezbędny – zgodnie z SST – mieszankę piaskowo solną 90/10 cenie jednostkowej 75,80 złotych za tonę:\n42.\nDowodem na powyższe jest szczegółowa kalkulacja kosztów pozycji TER 10 poz. 5.1 i poz. 5.2 - dowód załączony przez Saferoad do pisma z dnia 17 lutego 2026 roku – odpowiedź na wezwanie.\n43.\nJednocześnie Saferoad tą samą mieszankę piaskowo – solną w pozycji TER 10 poz. 4.2 wycenił na kwotę 25,00 złotych za tonę (robocizna + sprzęt + materiał) wraz z kosztami pośrednimi i zyskiem.\n44.\nZgodnie s SST D-66.01.00 Zimowe utrzymanie dróg krajowych v.5 po zmianie na etapie zadawania pytań i wyjaśnień już na stronie 2 wymaga, aby pozycja 4.2 uwzględniała nie tylko ew. robociznę i sprzęt, ale również materiał:\n„W ramach zimowego utrzymania dróg Wykonawca zrealizuje poniższe czynności:\n(...) g) wykonanie i dostawa wraz z zakupem materiałów mieszanki piaskowo – solnej;” Następnie na stronie 10 w punkcie 2 dotyczącym materiałów:\n„Obowiązkiem Wykonawcy będzie również, na zlecenie Zamawiającego za odrębnym wynagrodzeniem zgodnie z TER, produkcja i dostawa na Obwód Utrzymania 10% mieszanki piaskowo – solnej do utrzymania chodników i ścieżek rowerowych.\nWykonawca ponosi we własnym zakresie koszty związane z zakupem niezbędnych materiałów do realizacji umowy, w tym w zakresie ZUD: kruszywa i soli do produkcji mieszanki piaskowo-solnej do utrzymania chodników i ścieżek rowerowych oraz materiały niezbędne do montażu zasłon przeciwśnieżnych wraz zakupem brakujących ilości siatki z opisem „GDDKiA”, palików, naciągów i kołków wyznaczających pas drogowy.\nZaładunek soli, solanek, mieszanek piaskowo-solnych ma być wliczony w cenę pracy sprzętu i nie będzie podlegał odrębnej zapłacie.”\nJeszcze dobitniej wybrzmiewa to na stronie 11 w/w specyfikacji:\n„Obowiązkiem Wykonawcy jest zapewnienie, na polecenie Zamawiającego, wymaganych ilości mieszanki piaskowo – solnej do utrzymania chodników i ścieżek rowerowych, w tym:\n- mieszanki piaskowo – solnej – dostarczonej przez Wykonawcę na polecenie Zamawiającego (z materiałów Wykonawcy\n- w proporcjach 90% piasku i 10% soli),” oraz na stronie 12 w pkt. 2.3.3. Zasady przygotowania mieszanek:\n„Mieszanka piaskowo - solna produkowana będzie w wytwórniach mieszanki. Koszt zakupu soli i piasku oraz koszt transportu soli i piasku do mieszalni, a także koszt transportu gotowej mieszanki piaskowo – solnej do Obwodu\nDrogowego / Obwodu Utrzymania ponosi Wykonawca.”\nWreszcie w punkcie 9.3 cena jednostki obmiarowej, a dokładnie 9.3.5:\n„9.3.5. Produkcja i dostawa na Obwód Drogowy mieszanki piaskowo-solnej - wg ceny jednostkowej za 1 Mg mieszanki piaskowo- solnej w proporcji 90% piasku i 10% soli wyprodukowanej z materiałów Wykonawcy i dostarczonej na Obwód\nUtrzymania, załadunek na solarki w cenie pracy solarki.”\n44.\nPonadto zgodnie z pkt 17.4 Tom I Instrukcja dla wykonawców: „Każda cena jednostkowa zawarta w Ofercie powinna obejmować całkowity koszt wykonania danej pozycji, zgodnie z zapisami SST”\n45.\nMając powyższe na uwadze, cena jednostkowa z pozycji TER 10 poz. 4.2 „Produkcja i Dostawa na Obwód Drogowy\n10% mieszanki piaskowo-solnej” winna zawierać następujące elementy:\n- koszt bezpośredni w postaci robocizny przy mieszaniu soli i piasku;\n- koszt bezpośredni związany ze sprzętem służącym do mieszania soli i piasku;\n- koszt bezpośredni związany z transportem materiałów do miejsca, w którym są mieszane (z zapisów SST wynika jednoznacznie, iż jest to miejsce poza Obwodem Drogowym Zamawiającego) transportu z miejsca mieszania już gotowej mieszanki do Obwodu Drogowego;\n- koszt bezpośredni w postaci piasku i soli do mieszanki w proporcji 90% piasek i 10% sól;\n- koszt pośredni związany z wyżej wymienionymi kosztami bezpośrednimi oraz\n- zysk Wykonawcy;\n46.\nCena jednostkowa 25,00 złotych za tonę, zaoferowana przez Wykonawcę Saferoad za wykonanie praz z pozycji TER\n10 poz. 4.2 budzi wątpliwości co do zgodności zaoferowanego zakresu prac z wymaganiami Zamawiającego, a także co do tego, czy cena ta jest wystarczająca do pokrycia kosztów wykonania prac nią objętych. Cena jednostkowa zaoferowana przez Saferoad jest bowiem niższa niż koszt materiału do wykonania prac z tej pozycji.\n47.\nSam Wykonawca Saferoad podał cenę materiału, jaka winnna zostac uwzględnić w w/w pozycji TER 10 poz. 4.1 – wskazując tą wartość w kalkulacjach szczegółowych, złożonych na wezwanie Zamawiającego dla pozycji TER 10 poz.\n5.1 i 5.2.\n48.\nSaferoad w ww. wyjaśnieniach wskazał cenę mieszanki piaskowo solna 90/10 – proporcja zgodna z SST – za 1 tonę w kwocie 75,80 złotych netto. Powyższa cena samego materiału jest o 50,80 zł netto wyższa niż wynosi cała cena jednostkowa z pozycji TER 10 poz. 4.2, która wynosi 25 zł netto za tonę.\n49.\nWskazać należy dowód nr 12 załączony przez Saferoad do wyjaśnień rażąco niskiej ceny\n- faktura z dnia 19.01.2026 roku nr 82BX2026010001 na zakup soli drogowej po cenie jednostkowej 240,00 złotych netto za tonę oraz fakturę z dnia 21 stycznia 2026 roku nr FV/89/01/2026 na usługę transportową, gdzie przewóz 1 tony soli kosztuje 41,00 złotych netto. Daje to łączną kwotę 281,00 złotych netto – co oznacza, iż sama sól do mieszanki piaskowo solnej kosztuje 281,00 złotych x 0,1 (10% całości 1 tony mieszanki) = 28,10 złotego netto, czyli więcej niż cała cena jednostkowa pozycji TER 10 poz. 4.2.\n50.\nPonadto do wyjaśnień rażąco niskiej ceny Saferoad dołączył również załącznik nr 1.1 „Tabela Zbiorcze zestawienie źródeł cen i dowodów”. W pozycji 55 wskazano piasek do mieszanki piaskowo solnej w cenie 53,00 złotych za tonę wg.\nSecocenbud II kwartał 2025, co oznacza, iż według w/w dowodu piasek do mieszanki piaskowo solnej kosztuje 53,00 złote x 0,9 (90% całości 1 tony mieszanki) = 47,70 złotych.\n51.\nZestawienie powyższych dowodów Saferoad pokazuje, iż w wyjaśnieniach rażąco niskiej ceny Safreoad wyjaśnił, iż mieszanka solno piaskowa kosztuje 47,70 zł + 28,10 zł = 75,80 złotych.\n52.\nWskazana przez Saferaod w pozycji TER 10 poz. 5.1 i 5.2 cena mieszanki piaskowo solnej w wysokości 75,80 zł netto/tona jest ceną realną i rynkową, gdyż:\n-\n1 tona piasku wraz z transportem kosztuje bowiem 45,00 złotych za tonę do 1 tony mieszanki potrzebna jest ilość 0,9 tony (90% mieszanki) – 45,00 x 0,9 = 40,50 złotego netto.\n-\n1 tona soli wraz z transportem kosztuje 245,00 złotych za tonę do 1 tony mieszanki piaskowo-solnej potrzebna jest ilość\n0,1 tony (10% mieszanki) – 245,00 x 0,1 = 24,50 złotego netto.\n53.\nZatem sam materiał wraz z transportem do mieszalni rynkowo to kwota co najmniej rzędu 40,50 + 24,50 = 65,00 zł netto. Do tego należy doliczyć koszty towarzyszące i pozostałe.\n54.\nPamiętać należy ponadto, iż cena jednostkowa to nie tylko materiał, ale również sprzęt, robocizna, transport, koszty pośrednie od robocizny i sprzętu, koszty towarzyszące od materiału robocizny i sprzętu oraz narzut wraz z zyskiem.\n55.\nZ powyższego jednoznacznie wynika, iż cena jednostkowa prac objętych pozycją TER 10 poz. 4.2 budzi wątpliwości co do jej zgodności z wymaganiami Zamawiającego, a także co do tego, czy jest ona wystarczająca do pokrycia kosztów wykonania prac objętych ta pozycją.\nIII.2.\n\nTER 8 poz. 2.2 ESTETYKA\nLp.\nOpis\nJedn.\nc.j. z oferty\nSaferoad\nIlość nominalna\nWartość\nRazem netto\n[zł] cena jedn. z KI\n[zł]\nWartość z KI\n[zł] średnia cena jedn. z 5 ofert średnia wartość z 5 ofert\n[zł] różnica do ceny jednostkowej z KI różnica do średniej arytmetycznej ceny jednostkowej z 5 złożonych ofert a b c j k\nGRUPA PRAC NR 8 - Estetyka\n2.2\nMalowanie, impregnacja ekranów akustycznych, ekranów przeciwolśnieniowych m2\n1,88\n115 870\n217 835,60\n25,00\n2 896 750,00\n20,29\n2 350 770,56\n-92%\n-91%\n56.\nPrace z pozycji TER 8 poz. 2.2 obejmują malowanie, impregnację ekranów akustycznych, ekranów przeciwolśnieniowych zgodnie z SST D-10.10.01o – cena za 1 m2.\n57.\nSaferoad w kosztorysie ofertowym wskazał cenę jednostkową za w/w pozycję w wysokości 1,88 złotego za m2; Ilości robót z tej pozycji zgodnie z przedmiarem to 115.870 m2 malowania lub impregnacji.\n58.\nZgodnie z załącznikiem nr 1 Tomu III SWZ (katalog Dane o drogach) – tabela excel, zał 1.9 Wykaz ekranów akustycznych – Zamawiający wskazał lokalizacje ekranów akustycznych oraz ekranów przeciwolśnieniowych:\nDroga ekspresowa S5\n- Rejon w Wołowie\nLp.\nKm początku zabezpieczenia\n(po wybudowaniu)\nKm końca zabezpieczenia\n(po wybudowaniu)\nDługość zabezpieczenia\n[m]\nWysokość zabezpieczenia\n(bez zakrzywienia)\nOdgięcie, zakrzywienie itp.\n(tak/nie)\nEkrany akustyczne aluminiowe\n112,062\n112,190\n2,6\nNIE\n127,530\n127,670\n2,6\nNIE\n142,280\n142,355\n2,6\nNIE\n142,355\n142,393\n2,6\nNIE\n142,393\n142,500\n2,6\nNIE\n142,500\n142,680\n2,6\nNIE\n151,700\n152,102\n2,6\nNIE\n154,630\n155,000\n2,6\nNIE\n142,367\n142,500\n2,6\nNIE\n142,500\n142,660\n2,6\nNIE\n144,550\n144,870\n2,6\nNIE\n146,907\n147,222\n2,6\nNIE\n147,222\n147,360\n2,6\nNIE\nSuma:\nEkrany przeciwolśnieniowe\n115,900\n116,400\n2,8\nNIE\n116,460\n117,600\n2,8\nNIE\nMS1, MS4, MS6, WS9, MS14\n2,8\nNIE\n129,759\n129,896\n2,8\nNIE\n129,780\n129,920\n2,8\nNIE\n132,687\n132,829\n2,8\nNIE\n132,687\n132,829\n2,8\nNIE\n136,969\n137,079\n2,8\nNIE\n135,050\n135,500\n2,8\nNIE\n143,704\n143,829\n2,8\nNIE\n143,700\n143,824\n2,8\nNIE\n146,850\n146,908\n2,8\nNIE\n146,850\n147,234\n2,8\nNIE\n149,364\n149,438\n2,8\nNIE\n149,364\n149,438\n2,8\nNIE\n155,623\n156,465\n2,8\nNIE\n155,624\n156,465\n2,8\nNIE\nSuma:\n59.\nZgodnie z podanym kilometrażem na drodze znajdują się:\n- ekrany akustyczne składające się z paneli aluminiowych osadzonych w stalowych hebach;\n- drewniane ekrany przeciwolśnieniowe;\n60.\nMalowanie, impregnację ekranów akustycznych i ekranów olśnieniowych należy wykonać zgodnie z specyfikacją techniczną SST D-10.10.01o o nazwie „Malowanie elementów wyposażenia drogi”. Zgodnie z pkt 1.1:\n„Przedmiotem niniejszej szczegółowej specyfikacji technicznej (SST) są wymagania dotyczące wykonania i odbioru robót i usług związanych z malowaniem elementów betonowych, malowaniem/impregnacją ekranów akustycznych, ekranów przeciwolśnieniowych, malowaniem elementów stalowych tj. balustrad, wygrodzeń, poręczy rurowych, poręczy łańcuchowych, poręczy schodów skarpowych itp.” oraz pkt 1.3:\n„Ustalenia zawarte w niniejszej Specyfikacji Technicznej dotyczą prowadzenia prac związanych z:\n− malowaniem elementów betonowych zlokalizowanych przy drogach,\n− malowaniem, impregnacją ekranów akustycznych, ekranów przeciwolśnieniowych itp.\n− malowaniem balustrad, wygrodzeń, poręczy rurowych, poręczy łańcuchowych, poręczy schodów skarpowych itp. i są wspólne dla w/w pozycji przedmiaru.”\n61.\nZgodnie z pkt 2.1:\n„Należy stosować materiały oznakowane znakiem CE lub B, dla których Wykonawca przedstawi deklarację zgodności świadczącą o zgodności materiału z Polską Normą, normą zharmonizowaną, aprobatą techniczną wydaną przez certyfikowaną jednostkę, a także karty techniczne poszczególnych materiałów.\nNależy stosować materiały malarskie, należące do jednego ochronnego systemu powłokowego, wzajemnie kompatybilne, nadające się do renowacji. Przy wyborze rodzaju powłoki należy zwrócić uwagę, czy przez producenta podane jest wyraźne stwierdzenie przydatności do stosowania. Producent powinien określić ją w pierwszym rzędzie na podstawie danych z praktyki, odnoszących się do podobnych przypadków zastosowań, determinowanych przez warunki środowiskowe, kształt konstrukcji, przygotowanie powierzchni pod powłokę, sposób aplikacji materiału.”\n62.\nDo powierzchni aluminiowej należy stosować farby do powierzchni aluminiowych, do stali farby do powierzchni stalowych, a do drewna impregnaty, farby do powierzchni drewnianych.\n63.\nZgodnie z pkt 9.2 SST D-10.10.01o:\nWykonawca powinien wliczyć w cenę jednostki obmiarowej wszelkie czynności związane z prawidłowym wykonaniem prac określonych niniejszą ST, co do zasady będą to:\n− wykonanie prac pomiarowych i prac przygotowawczych,\n− oznakowanie prac,\n− koszt pracy sprzętu oraz koszty dowozu i odwozu sprzętu na/z terenu prac,\n− koszt użytych materiałów wraz z kosztami ich zakupu, transportu i magazynowania,\n− przygotowanie podłoża,\n− przeprowadzenie ewentualnych prac rozbiórkowych wraz z wywozem urobku i/lub zużytych materiałów poza teren prac i zagospodarowanie bądź zutylizowanie zgodnie z obecnie obowiązującymi przepisami,\n− wykonanie prac zgodnie z technologią prac opisaną w pkt. 5 niniejszej Specyfikacji oraz zgodnie z przepisami, normami i sztuką budowlaną,\n− wykonanie wymaganych zapisami niniejszej Specyfikacji pomiarów i/lub badań laboratoryjnych,\n− uporządkowanie terenu prac,\n− wszystkie koszty związane z kosztami pośrednimi, zyskiem kalkulacyjnym i podatkami obligatoryjnymi.\n64.\nZgodnie z w/w zapisami SST (oraz pozostałymi zapisami zawartymi w specyfikacji), w przypadku ekranów drewnianych należy przygotować podłoże poprzez jego oczyszczenie, uczynić chropowatym poprzez użycie materiałów ściernych oraz ew. odtłuścić, a następnie pomalować dwoma warstwami impregnatu. Najbardziej powszechnym i jednym z najtańszych impregnatów do drewna jest DREWNOCHRON Impregnat Extra. Zgodnie z kartą techniczną średnia wydajność tego typu preparatu to 12 m2 z jednego litra. Zgodnie z zaleceniem producenta należy zastosować dwie warstwy impregnatu. Dowodem powyższego jest Karta techniczna Drewnochron Impregnat Extra (załącznik nr 6)\n65.\nNiezależnie od koloru największy pojemnik 9 litrów kosztuje co najmniej 164,00 złote brutto za opakowanie, czyli 18,22 złote brutto za litr – 14,82 złote netto (Dowód: Ceneo.pl – załącznik nr 7)\n66.\nJak wcześniej wskazano, wydajność to 12 m2 z litra, czyli materiał na jednokrotne pomalowanie metra kwadratowego kosztuje 14,82 zł / 12 m2 = 1,24 zł. Zatem cena materiału na dwukrotne pomalowanie wynosi 2,48 złotego na m2.\nOznacza to, iż cena samego materiału do pomalowania przewyższa cenę jednostkową zaoferowaną przez Saferoad o\n0,60 złotego. Jednakże Wykonawca winien także uwzględnić pozostałe materiały niezbędne do oczyszczenia, materiał ścierny, narzędzia w postaci pędzli wałków, ew. agregat malarski, robociznę, koszty transportu, koszty zakupu, koszty tymczasowej organizacji ruchu itp., a także koszty pośrednie oraz zysk. Tymczasem w niniejszym przypadku cena samego materiału w postaci Drewnochronu przewyższa cenę jednostkową całej pozycji o 32%.\n67.\nJeszcze większe wątpliwości budzi kwestia ekranów aluminiowych. Do ich pomalowania należy użyć farby przeznaczonej do malowania powierzchni aluminiowych np. RAFIL do powierzchni aluminiowych, ocynkowanych, stalowych. Jest to farba spełniająca wymagania Zamawiającego. Zgodnie z kartą techniczną średnia wydajność tego typu preparatu to 10 m2 z jednego litra. Zgodnie z zaleceniem producenta należy zastosować dwie warstwy. (Dowód: Karta techniczna RAFIL – załącznik nr 8)\n68.\nNiezależnie od koloru największy pojemnik 3 litry kosztuje najtaniej również 164,00 złote brutto za opakowanie, czyli\n54,67 złotych brutto za litr – 44,44 złote netto (Dowód: Ceneo.pl – załącznik nr 9).\n69.\nJak wcześniej wskazano, wydajność to 10 m2 z litra, czyli materiał na jednokrotne pomalowanie metra kwadratowego kosztuje 44,44 zł / 10 m2 = 4,44 złotego. Zatem cena materiału na dwukrotne pomalowanie ekranów aluminiowych wynosi\n8,88 złotego na m2. Oznacza to, iż cena samego materiału do pomalowania ekranów aluminiowych przewyższa cenę jednostkową zaoferowaną przez Saferoad o 7,00 złotego. Jednakże Wykonawca winien także uwzględnić pozostałe materiały niezbędne do oczyszczenia, materiał ścierny, narzędzia w postaci pędzli wałków, ew. agregat malarski, robociznę, koszty transportu, koszty zakupu, koszty tymczasowej organizacji ruchu itp., koszty pośrednie oraz zysk.\nTymczasem w niniejszym przypadku cena samego materiału w postaci farby do powierzchni aluminiowej przewyższa cenę jednostkową całej pozycji o 372%.\n70.\nTą samą farbę można zastosować do powierzchni stalowej (stalowe herby w ekranach akustycznych), zatem powyższe obliczenia są tożsame.\n71.\nZ powyższego jednoznacznie wynika, iż cena jednostkowa prac objętych pozycją TER 8 poz. 2.2 budzi wątpliwości co do jej zgodności z wymaganiami Zamawiającego, a także co do tego, czy jest ona wystarczająca do pokrycia kosztów wykonania prac objętych tą pozycją.\nIII.3.\nTER 4 poz. 11.3\nLp.\nOpis\nJedn.\nc.j. z oferty\nSaferoad\nIlość nominalna\nWartość\nRazem netto\n[zł] cena jedn. z KI\n[zł]\nWartość z KI\n[zł] średnia cena jedn. z 5 ofert średnia wartość z 5 ofert\n[zł] różnica do ceny jednostkowej z KI różnica do średniej arytmetycznej ceny jednostkowej z 5 złożonych ofert a b c j k\nGRUPA PRAC NR 4 - Odwodnienie\n11.3\nWymiana / wykonanie przepustu drogowego o średnicy 121 do 150 cm mb\n555,73\n27 786,50\n896,29\n44 814,50\n877,35\n43 867,30\n-38%\n-37%\n72.\nPrace objęte pozycją TER 4 poz. 11.3 obejmują „Wymianę / wykonanie przepustu drogowego o średnicy 121 do 150 cm” (SST 03.01.01a)”.\n73.\nSaferoad wycenił tę pozycję na kwotę 555,73 zł/mb, która jest niższa od średniej arytmetycznej cen wszystkich wykonawców o 37%. Wartość tej pozycji w ofercie Saferoad to 27 786,50 zł, zaś wartość średnia z pozostałych ofert to 43\n847,30 zł. Mimo to Zamawiający nie uznał zasadne zwrócić się do Saferoad o wyjaśnienie tejże pozycji.\n74.\nPowyższa pozycja dotyczy uzupełnienia/wymiany skrajnych elementów przelotowych przepustów (a w tym: roboty ziemne, rozbiórkowe, przygotowanie podłoża i powierzchni styków, roboty fundamentowe, wykonanie płyty zespalającej, uszczelnienie, izolacja). W pkt. 2.1 SST 03.01.01a wskazano, że do wykonania prac należy zastosować żelbetowe elementy prefabrykowane. Odwołujący dołącza jako dowód ofertę cenową firma HABABETON na dostarczenie rur żelbetowych o średnicy 1200mm w cenie 910 zł/mb, zaś dla średnicy 1500mm – w cenie 1410 zł/mb (Załącznik nr 10).\n75.\nW przypadku przedmiotowej ceny rura żelbetowa stanowi istotny – choć nie jedyny – element kosztowy wykonania prac objętych pozycją TER 4 poz. 11.3. Saferoad zaoferował wykonanie kompletu prac objętych przedmiotową pozycją\nTER 4 poz. 11.3 za cenę jednostkową 555,73 zł / mb. Z powyższego wynika, iż koszt samego materiału niezbędnego do wykonania prac objętych pozycją TER 4 poz. 11.3 dalece przewyższa zaoferowaną cenę Saferoad za wykonanie prac z pozycji TER 4 poz. 11.3.\nIII.4.\nTER 13 poz. 2\nLp.\nOpis\nJedn.\nc.j. z oferty\nSaferoad\nIlość nominalna\nWartość\nRazem netto\n[zł] cena jedn. z KI\n[zł]\nWartość z KI\n[zł] średnia cena jedn. z 5 ofert średnia wartość z 5 ofert\n[zł] różnica do ceny jednostkowej z KI różnica do średniej arytmetycznej ceny jednostkowej z 5 złożonych ofert a b c j k\nGrupa nr 13 - PRACE POMOCNICZE - Wykaz stawek godzinowych - SPRZĘT\nPiaskarka\n\ngodz.\n\n57,78\n\n1 386,72\n\n154,72\n\n3 713,28\n\n132,36\n\n3 176,54\n\n-\n63%\n\n-56%\n\nnależy podawać wraz z kosztem wykwalifikowanego operatora. Saferoad podał w wyjaśnieniach rażąco niskiej ceny, że stawka roboczogodziny przyjęta w kalkulacji wynosi 44zł. Odejmując tę kwotę od kosztu pracy piaskarki uzyskujemy 13,78 zł/h.\n77.\nZużycie paliwa samochodu ciężarowego (stanowiącego „nośnik” zestawu do posypywania) wynosi minimum 20 l/100 km. Prędkość jazdy podczas posypywania średnio 30 km/h. Zatem zużycie paliwa na godzinę to 6l.\n78.\nPowyższe oznacza, że – nawet przyjmując cenę 4zł/l paliwa (czyli poniżej rzeczywistej ceny rynkowej) – koszt paliwa wyniesie 24zł/h, czyli przekracza wartość 13,78zł.\n79.\nW cenie ofertowej Saferoad za wykonanie prac objętych ta pozycją nie uwzględniono również kosztów utrzymania samochodu (przeglądy, serwisy, naprawy) oraz zakładanego zysku dla Saferoad.\n80.\nOznacza to, że zaoferowana cena pozycji TER 13 poz. 1 budzi wątpliwości co do tego, czy jest zgodna z wymogami\nSWZ, a także czy wystarczy na pokrycie kosztów wykonania prac z tej pozycji.\nIII.5.\nTER 13 poz. 3\nLp.\nOpis\nJedn.\nc.j. z oferty\nSaferoad\nIlość nominalna\nWartość\nRazem netto\n[zł] cena jedn. z KI\n[zł]\nWartość z KI\n[zł] średnia cena jedn. z 5 ofert średnia wartość z 5 ofert\n[zł] różnica do ceny jednostkowej z KI różnica do średniej arytmetycznej ceny jednostkowej z 5 złożonych ofert a b c j k\nGrupa nr 13 - PRACE POMOCNICZE - Wykaz stawek godzinowych - SPRZĘT\nSamochód ciężarowy skrzyniowy\n\ngodz.\n\n57,78\n\n1 386,72\n\n92,79\n\n2 226,96\n\n102,56\n\n2 461,34\n\n-\n38%\n\n-44%\n\n81.\nKoszt pracy samochodu ciężarowego skrzyniowego – zgodnie z uwagą Zamawiającego z tabeli TER stawki dla\nSprzętu należy podawać wraz z kosztem wykwalifikowanego operatora. Saferoad podał w wyjaśnieniach rażąco niskiej ceny, że stawka roboczogodziny przyjęta w kalkulacji wynosi 44zł. Odejmując tę kwotę od kosztu pracy samochodu ciężarowego skrzyniowego uzyskujemy 13,78 zł/h.\n82.\nZużycie paliwa samochodu ciężarowego wynosi minimum 20 l/100 km. Prędkość jazdy wynosi średnio 60 km/h. Zatem zużycie paliwa na godzinę to 12l.\n83.\nPowyższe oznacza, że – nawet przyjmując cenę 4zł/l ON – koszt paliwa wyniesie 48zł/h, czyli przekracza wartość\n13,78zł.\n84.\nW cenie ofertowej Saferoad za wykonanie prac objętych ta pozycją nie uwzględniono również kosztów utrzymania samochodu (przeglądy, serwisy, naprawy) oraz zakładanego zysku dla Saferoad.\n85.\nOznacza to, że zaoferowana cena poz. TER 13 poz. 3 budzi wątpliwości co do tego, czy jest zgodna z wymogami\nSWZ, a także czy wystarczy na pokrycie kosztów wykonania prac z tej pozycji.\nIII.6.\nTER 13 poz. 5\nLp.\nOpis\nJedn.\nc.j. z oferty\nSaferoad\nIlość nominalna\nWartość\nRazem netto\n[zł] cena jedn. z KI\n[zł]\nWartość z KI\n[zł] średnia cena jedn. z 5 ofert średnia wartość z 5 ofert\n[zł] różnica do ceny jednostkowej z KI różnica do średniej arytmetycznej ceny jednostkowej z 5 złożonych ofert a b c j k\nGrupa nr 13 - PRACE POMOCNICZE - Wykaz stawek godzinowych - SPRZĘT\nSamochód dostawczy\n\ngodz.\n\n57,78\n\n3 466,80\n\n90,62\n\n5 437,20\n\n91,16\n\n5 469,36\n\n-\n36%\n\n-37%\n\n86.\nKoszt pracy samochodu dostawczego – zgodnie z uwagą Zamawiającego z tabeli TER stawki dla Sprzętu należy podawać wraz z kosztem wykwalifikowanego operatora. Saferoad podał w wyjaśnieniach rażąco niskiej ceny, że stawka roboczogodziny przyjęta w kalkulacji wynosi 44zł. Odejmując tę kwotę od kosztu pracy samochodu dostawczego uzyskujemy 13,78 zł/h.\n87.\nZużycie paliwa samochodu ciężarowego wynosi minimum 10 l/100 km. Prędkość jazdy wynosi średnio 60 km/h. Zatem zużycie paliwa na godzinę to 6l.\n88.\nPowyższe oznacza, że – nawet przyjmując cenę 4zł/l ON – koszt paliwa wyniesie 24 zł/h, czyli przekracza wartość\n13,78 zł.\n89.\nW cenie ofertowej Saferoad za wykonanie prac objętych ta pozycją nie uwzględniono również kosztów utrzymania samochodu (przeglądy, serwisy, naprawy) oraz zakładanego zysku dla Saferoad.\n90.\nOznacza to, że zaoferowana cena poz. TER 13 poz. 5 budzi wątpliwości co do tego, czy jest zgodna z wymogami\nSWZ, a także czy wystarczy na pokrycie kosztów wykonania prac z tej pozycji.\nIII.7.\nTER 13 poz. 17\nLp.\nOpis\nJedn.\nc.j. z oferty\nSaferoad\nIlość nominalna\nWartość\nRazem netto\n[zł] cena jedn. z KI\n[zł]\nWartość z KI\n[zł] średnia cena jedn. z 5 ofert średnia wartość z 5 ofert\n[zł] różnica do ceny jednostkowej z KI różnica do średniej arytmetycznej ceny jednostkowej z 5 złożonych ofert a b c j k\nGrupa nr 13 - PRACE POMOCNICZE - Wykaz stawek godzinowych - SPRZĘT\nPług ciężki\n\ngodz.\n\n50,00\n\n1 200,00\n\n212,13\n\n5 091,12\n\n104,80\n\n2 515,20\n\n-\n76%\n\n-52%\n\n91.\nKoszt pracy pługu ciężkiego – zgodnie z Uwagą Zamawiającego z tabeli TER stawki dla Sprzętu należy podawać wraz z kosztem wykwalifikowanego operatora. Saferoad podał w wyjaśnieniach rażąco niskiej ceny, że stawka roboczogodziny przyjęta w kalkulacji wynosi 44zł. Odejmując tę kwotę od kosztu pracy pługu ciężkiego uzyskujemy 6,00 zł/h.\n92.\nZużycie paliwa samochodu ciężarowego stanowiącego nośnik pługu wynosi minimum 25 l/100 km. Prędkość jazdy wynosi podczas odśnieżania średnio 20 km/h. Zatem zużycie paliwa na godzinę to 4l.\n93.\nPowyższe oznacza, że – nawet przyjmując cenę 4zł/l ON – koszt paliwa wyniesie 16 zł/h, czyli przekracza wartość\n6,00 zł.\n94.\nW cenie ofertowej Saferoad za wykonanie prac objętych ta pozycją nie uwzględniono również kosztów utrzymania samochodu (przeglądy, serwisy, naprawy) oraz zakładanego zysku dla Saferoad.\n95.\nOznacza to, że zaoferowana cena TER 13 poz. 17 budzi wątpliwości co do tego, czy jest zgodna z wymogami SWZ, a także czy wystarczy na pokrycie kosztów wykonania prac z tej pozycji.\n96.\nPodsumowując, wobec faktu, iż ceny jednostkowe pozycji TER 10 poz. 4.2, TER 8 poz. 2.2, TER, TER 4 poz. 11.3,\nTER 13 poz. 2, 3, 5, 17 budzą powyżej opisane wątpliwości, Zamawiający powinien wezwać Saferoad do wyjaśnień w zakresie ww. cen jednostkowych, w szczególności stanowiących istotne części składowe ceny oferty.\nIV.\nZarzut dotyczący zaniechania wezwania Saferoad do dalszych wyjaśnień w zakresie istotnych części składowych ceny oferty, tj. pozycji TER 8 poz. 9.1\n97.\nOdwołujący wskazuje, że Zamawiający dopuścił się naruszenia przepisów ustawy Pzp, ponieważ wezwanie z dnia\n04.02.2026 r. skierowane do Saferoad, jedynie zapoczątkowało proces wyjaśnień ceny zaoferowanej oferty. Zamawiający przerwał ten proces i dokonał przedwczesnego wyboru oferty Saferoad jako najkorzystniejszej, pomimo iż po analizie wyjaśnień Saferoad powinny pojawić mu się wątpliwości w zakresie pozycji TER 8 poz. 9.1, która jest istotną częścią składową ceny. Zamawiający powinien zatem co najmniej żądać dalszych wyjaśnień w zakresie tej pozycji.\n98.\nWraz z wyjaśnieniami rażąco niskiej ceny Saferoad złożył szczegółową kalkulację dla pozycji kosztorysu ofertowego\nTER 8 poz. 9.1 „Ręczne i mechaniczne koszenie traw i chwastów zgodnie z SST D-09.01.03a – cena za 1 ha”.\n99.\nZ kalkulacji tej wynika, iż nakłady na koszenie 1 ha czyli 10.000 m2 wynoszą:\nRobocizna - norma 2,4 roboczogodziny na ha - koszt jednostkowy 1 roboczogodziny 44,00 złote\nCiągnik kołowy z kosiarką bijakową – kosiarka bijakowa sprzęt własny zamortyzowany – norma 0,31019 m-g na ha – koszt jednostkowy 1 m-g 62,00 złote\nKosa spalinowa 2-3 km – norma 2,4 m-g na 1 ha – koszt jednostkowy 1 m-g 9,75 złotego Materiały pomocnicze do materiałów M (15%) wynoszący 7,02 złotego\nSamochód dostawczy do 0,9 t – norma 0,55556 m-g na 1 ha – koszt jednostkowy 1 m-g 75,00 złotych\nNarzędzia – norma 2,4 m-g na ha - koszt jednostkowy 1-mg 14,54 złotych.\n100.\nKalkulacja budzi istotne wątpliwości co do tego, czy zaoferowana cena wystarczy na pokrycie kosztów wykonania prac nią objętych, a także co do zgodności z wymaganiami Zamawiającego, w tym z pkt 17.4 IDW.\n101.\nI tak ze złożonych przez Saferoad wyjaśnień rażąco niskiej ceny wynika, że zgodnie z dowodem przedłożonym przez\nSaferoad, tabela 1.1 zbiorcze zestawienie źródeł cen i dowodów, do kalkulacji przyjęto ciągnik kołowy 85KM za kwotę\n62,00 zł za m-g.\n102.\nIlość nakładów (norma) na 1 ha ciągnika kołowego 85KM została wskazana jako 0,3102 m-g na ha. Oznacza to, iż ciągnik ten skosi 1 ha w ciągu 18 minut i 37 sekund a jeden metr kwadratowy zostanie skoszony w ciągu 0,11 sekundy.\nJest to bardzo optymistyczne i całkowicie nierealne założenie, gdyż należy jeszcze doliczyć czas przestojów technologicznych (przejazd z miejsca na miejsce, manewrowanie, dźwiganie i opuszczanie kosy, posiłek pracownika, potencjalne awarie, czas potrzebny na ew.\nzatankowanie pojazdu itd.). Powyższe stanowi wątpliwość wymagającą wyjaśnienia.\n103.\nIdąc dalej, ze złożonych przez Saferoad wyjaśnień rażąco niskiej ceny wynika, że koszt 1 m-g ciągnika 85 KM z operatorem to kwota 62 zł. Zgodnie z kalkulacją Saferoad, koszt robocizny to 44,00 złote. Zatem pozostaje kwota 18,00 złotych. Zgodnie z dowodem n1 przedstawionym przez Saferoad w załączeniu do wyjaśnień, w dniu 8 stycznia 2026 roku olej napędowy w cenie hurtowej kosztował 4,399 zł za litr, co oznacza, iż za 18,00 zł można kupić 4,091 litra oleju napędowego – co jest ilością nie zapewniającą możliwość pracy i nierealną według obecnych cen. Przy pracach średnio ciężkich np.\nlżejsza orka lub praca z kosiarką, ciągnik ten spala od 5 do 8 litrów paliwa na 1 m-g, czyli koszty wykonania tych prac byłyby nawet o 100% większe, niż kwota, jaka została przyjęta w kalkulacji Saferoad. Powyższe stanowi wątpliwość wymagającą wyjaśnienia.\n104.\nSaferoad wskazał, iż materiały pomocnicze od M wynoszą 15%, to jest 7,02 złotego, tymczasem po przemnożeniu wychodzi zupełnie inna kwota (19,23+23,40)*15% = 6,39 zł. Powyższe stanowi wątpliwość wymagającą wyjaśnienia.\n105.\nW złożonych wyjaśnieniach Saferoad wskazał nakład zakładowy na narzędzia w ilości 2,4 m-g/ha. Następnie w kolumnie 7 kalkulacji wskazuje, iż aby uzyskać ilość nakładów należy przemnożyć kolumnę 3 x kolumnę 5. Powyższe nie zgadza się w pozycji narzędzia. Według działania Saferoad 1,000 x 2,40000 = 0,1200.\nJest to błędy wynik, powinno być\n2,4000.\njednostkowa tej pozycji to 14,54 zł. Zatem 14,54 zł x 2,4000 (zgodnie z opisem „ilość nakładów”) = 34,90 zł, a nie 1,74 zł.\nWobec powyższego z kalkulacji szczegółowej wynika, iż w cenie jednostkowej tej pozycji brakuje co najmniej 33,16 zł (tj. 34,90 zł – 1,74 zł).\n107.\nW konsekwencji, kwota w pozycji „Razem” nie wynosi 198,66 zł, jak podaje Saferoad, tylko 231,82 zł (tj. 198,66 +\n33,16).\n108.\nW konsekwencji powyższego koszty towarzyszące, wynoszące 3% od RMS, nie wynoszą 5,96 zł jako podano w kalkulacji Saferoad, tylko 6,95 zł (tj. 231,82 zł x 3%).\n109.\nWedług wyjaśnień Saferoad, narzut wraz z zyskiem w wysokości 8,4% miałby wynosić 20,05 zł. Żadne działanie na wartościach Saferoad nie daje kwoty 20,05 zł, co może wskazywać, że kwota ta nie jest wynikiem obliczeń, lecz została przyjęta na potrzeby wyjaśnień.\n110.\nPo korekcie ww. błędów cena jednostkowa pozycji TER 8 poz. 9.1 wynosiłaby nie 240 zł netto, a co najmniej 278,18 zł netto.\nSZCZEGÓŁOWA KALKULACJA KOSZTÓW GRUPA PRAC GR 8\nCałoroczne utrzymanie drogi ekspresowej S5 zarządzanej przez Generalną Dyrekcję Dróg Krajowych i Autostrad Oddział we Wrocławiu Rejon w Wołowie\nGRUPA PRAC NR 8 - Estetyka\n9.1\nRęczne i mechaniczne koszenie traw i chwastów\nWyliczenie kosztu za 1 ha : kalkulacja własna lp opis pozycji\nIlość j.m nakład zakładowy\nIlość nakładów [kol.3 x kol.\n5] koszt jedn. [zł] koszt [zł] [kol. 7 x kol. 8]\nRęczne i mechaniczne koszenie traw i chwastów\n1,000\n1ha\nR robocizna\n1,000\n1ha\n2,40000 r-g/ha\n2,4000\n44,00 zł\n105,60 zł\nM ciągnik kołowy z kosiarką bijakową - kosiarka bijakowa sprzęt własny zamortyzowany\n1,000\n1ha\n0,31019 m-g/ha\n0,3102\n62,00 zł\n19,23 zł\nM kosa spalinowa 2-3KM\n1,000\n1ha\n2,40000 m-g/ha\n2,4000\n9,75 zł\n23,40 zł\nM\nMaterały pomocnicze do M (15%)\n%\n6,39 zł\nSamochód dostawczy do 0,9 T\n1,000\n1ha\n0,55556 m-g/ha\n0,5556\n75,00 zł\n41,67 zł narzędzia\n1,000\n1ha\n2,40000 m-g/ha\n2,4000\n14,54 zł\n34,90 zł\nRAZEM\n231,19 zł\nKoszty towarzyszące [Kt] R+M+S\n3,00%\n6,94 zł\nKoszty pośrednie [Kp] R+S\n8,00%\n18,50 zł\nNarzut (wraz z zyskiem) Razem z narzutami\n8,40%\n21,56 zł\n278,18 zł\nRazem z narzutami cena jednostkowa zł\n278,18 zł\n111.\nOznacza to, że zaoferowana cena TER 8 poz. 9.1 budzi wątpliwości co do tego, czy jest zgodna z wymogami SWZ, a także co to tego, w jaki sposób została rzeczywiście skalkulowana i w szczególności, czy wystarczy na pokrycie kosztów wykonania prac z tej pozycji.\n112.\nWobec faktu, iż cena jednostkowa pozycji TER 8 poz. 9.1 budzi powyżej opisane wątpliwości, Zamawiający powinien wezwać Saferoad do dalszych wyjaśnień w zakresie ww. ceny jednostkowej.\nV.\nUzasadnienie zarzutu naruszenia art. 239 ust. 1 pzp.\n113.\nOdwołujący uważa, że dokonując wyboru oferty Saferoad jako najkorzystniejszej w tym Postępowaniu doszło do naruszenia art. 239 ust. 1 pzp. Oferta Wykonawcy nie jest bowiem, wbrew stanowisku Zamawiającego, najkorzystniejsza.\nTaką ofertą jest oferta Odwołującego. Na wypadek nieuwzględnienia zarzutu ad 1) dotyczącego niezgodności oferty\nSaferoad z SWZ Odwołujący podnosi, iż decyzja o wyborze oferty Saferoad jako oferty najkorzystniejszej była przedwczesna, ponieważ Zamawiający jedynie zapoczątkował proces wyjaśnień ceny Saferaod i przerwał go przed wyjaśnieniem wszystkich istotnych okoliczności.\nNaruszenie art. 239 ust. 1 pzp stanowi więc dalszą konsekwencję naruszenia przepisów pzp opisanych w niniejszym odwołaniu.\n114.\nNależy zauważyć, że różnica między ceną ofertową Saferoad, a ceną oferowaną przez Odwołującego się w zakresie podstawowym była niewielka i wynosiła 179 173,21 zł netto. Wobec powyższego kluczowe znaczenie w niniejszej sprawie ma rzetelne wyjaśnienie całości wątpliwości co do cen oferowanych przez Saferoad.\n115.\nPonadto w świetle argumentów przedstawionych w uzasadnieniu odwołania, Postępowanie, które\n\nzakończyło się wyborem oferty Saferoad jako oferty najkorzystniejszej nie może zostać uznane za przeprowadzone z dochowaniem reguł uczciwej konkurencji i zasady przejrzystości.\nDo postępowania odwoławczego po stronie Odwołującego zgłosili wykonawcy\n\nwspólnie ubiegający się o udzielenie zamówienia: V4 sp. z o.o. – Lider oraz Plus Inwest P. Żygadło sp. j. – Partner z/s w Żernikach Wrocławskich\n(Uczestnik V4 lub wykonawca V4). Wniósł o uwzględnienie odwołania.\nDo postępowania odwoławczego po stronie Zamawiającego przystąpienia zgłosił wykonawca Saferoad\nServices Sp. z o. o. z/s we Włocławku. Wniósł o oddalenie odwołania.\nWykonawca Saferoad Services Sp. z o. o. z/s we Włocławku w piśmie procesowym z 28.04. 2026 r. podał: (...)\nCo do zarzutu niezgodności oferty Przystępującego z warunkami zamówienia.\n1.\nOdwołujący oparł swój zarzut na wygodnym dla siebie założeniu, iż jak coś nie zostało wprost wskazane przez\nPrzystępującego w szczegółowych kalkulacjach to Przystępujący nie uwzględnił w złożonej ofercie wymagań\nZamawiającego określonych w SWZ w zakresie sprzętu czy materiałów, którymi należy wykonać dane prace. Oczywiście jest to założenie wygodne dla Odwołującego, bo w zamierzeniu Odwołującego miałoby go zwalniać z obowiązku wykazania niezgodności treści oferty Przystępującego z warunkami zamówienia, co jest konieczne dla skuteczności zarzutu z art. 226 ust. 1 pkt 5 ustawy Pzp.\n2.\nPrzystępujący oświadcza, że wszystko co było wymagane dokumentami zamówienia zostało przez Przystępującego uwzględnione w złożonej ofercie, a treść oferty Przystępującego jest zgodna z warunkami zamówienia.\n3.\nZamawiający wezwał Przystępującego do wyjaśnień ceny pismem z dnia 4 lutego 2026 r., wzywając Przystępującego do „wyjaśnienia (w tym złożenie dowodów), w zakresie wyliczenia istotnych części składowych ceny ofertowej, m.in. do złożenia kalkulacji szczegółowych dla wszystkich pozycji kosztorysu ofertowego wymienionych w powyższej tabeli.”\n(chodzi o tabelę zawartą w wezwaniu, w której wskazane zostały przez Zamawiającego pozycje z danej grupy prac wymagające wyjaśnienia – dopisek Przystępującego). Zamawiający nie wymagał od Przystępującego przedstawienia zestawienia sprzętu i materiałów niezbędnych do realizacji prac, jak chciałby Odwołujący. Zamawiający wymagał natomiast wyjaśniania pozycji danych grup prac wymienionych w wezwaniu.\n4.\nZnamienne jest to, że Odwołujący nie wymienił w swoich szczegółowych kalkulacjach wszystkich pozycji sprzętu wymaganego do realizacji prac, czego oczekuje od Przystępującego. Przykładowo w grupie prac nr 3 poz. 4.1 Odwołujący nie uwzględnił wymaganych koparki, walców ręcznych oraz płyt zagęszczających. Z kolei w grupie prac nr 4 poz. 4.1\nOdwołujący nie uwzględnił 2 szt. samochodów specjalnych próżniowo-ssących do czyszczenia kanałów, pojazdu specjalistycznego do udrażniania (frezowania) kanałów z zanieczyszczeń stałych i korzeni. I dalej w grupie prac nr 4, ale w poz. 6.1, Odwołujący nie uwzględnił specjalistycznego samochodu do przewozu materiałów niebezpiecznych. A to tylko przykłady.\n5.\nMożna powiedzieć – stosując tok rozumowania przyjęty przez Odwołującego, że skoro Odwołujący nie uwzględnił wskazanego sprzętu w swoich szczegółowych kalkulacjach, to znaczy, że Odwołujący tego sprzętu nie uwzględnił w złożonej ofercie, a co za tym idzie oferta Odwołującego podlega odrzuceniu z uwagi na niezgodność jej treści z warunkami zamówienia, ponieważ Odwołujący nie uwzględnił wymagań Zamawiającego określonych w SWZ w zakresie sprzętu, którym należy wykonać dane prace.\n6.\nDowód - Sprzęt, którego Odwołujący ZABERD nie wykazuje w szczegółowej kalkulacji, tj. sprzęt, którego Odwołujący nie uwzględnił w ofercie, a który był wymagany przez Zamawiającego do wykonania określonych prac\n– plik o nazwie „Brak wymaganego_sprzętu_ZABERD”.\n7.\nPrzyjęty przez Odwołującego na użytek odwołania tok rozumowania – nie ma oczywiście oparcia ani w dokumentach zamówienia ani w treści wezwania do wyjaśnień ceny.\n8.\nPrzystępujący uwzględnił wymagany sprzęt oraz materiały w szczegółowej kalkulacji zgodnie z przyjętą przez siebie metodologią opisaną w wyjaśnieniach ceny, w tym w załączniku nr 1 do wyjaśnień ceny Przystępującego.\n9.\nDowód: – plik pod nazwą „Załącznik nr 1 – Założenia metodologiczne wyjaśnień RNC” (w aktach postępowania).\n10.\nOdwołujący zarzucił\nPrzystępującemu, że Przystępujący do realizacji prac z pozycji TER 1 poz. 1.1, 1.2, 6.1 oraz 7.1 nie przewidział wykorzystania skrapiarki lub alternatywnego do niej sprzętu do skropienia podłoża oraz samobieżnego podajnika do mas bitumicznych dla TER 1 poz. 7.1, gdyż sprzęty te nie zostały wymienione w kalkulacjach szczegółowych.\n11.\nPrzystępujący uwzględnił powyższy sprzęt w pozycji narzędzia i sprzęt pomocniczy od S doliczając 10% od całości wartości sprzętu, a dla poz. 1.2 - 5% od całości wartości sprzętu.\n12.\nOdwołujący zarzucił Przystępującemu brak materiałów w postaci emulsji dla TER 1 poz. 1.1, 1.2, 6.1 i 7.1, taśmy dla\nTER 1 poz. 1.1., 1.2, a także materiału do uszorstnienia nawierzchni SMA dla TER 1 poz. 7.1, gdyż materiały te nie zostały wymienione w kalkulacjach szczegółowych.\n13.\nPrzystępujący uwzględnił powyższe materiały w odniesieniu do emulsji C– w pozycjach materiały pomocnicze od M\n(doliczając 2% od kosztu materiału) oraz w Kosztach towarzyszących (doliczając 3% od kosztów robocizny, sprzętu i materiału), z kolei w odniesieniu do taśmy (przewidzianej przez Przystępującego jako element uszczelnienia) oraz materiału do uszorstnienia nawierzchni SMA - w pozycji materiały pomocnicze od M oraz w Kosztach towarzyszących\n(doliczając 3% od kosztów robocizny, sprzętu i materiału).\n14.\nNa marginesie warto zauważyć, że zgodnie z postanowieniami SST, zastosowanie taśmy nie jest obligatoryjne. SST jedynie dopuszcza zastosowanie taśmy po uzgodnieniu z Zamawiającym. SST oraz WT-2 dopuszczają inne alternatywne rozwiązania uzyskania szczelności jn. smarowanie ścian bocznych asfaltem (znacznie tańsze rozwiązanie). Krótko rzez ujmując, zastosowanie taśmy ma charakter opcjonalny i wymaga uzgodnienia z Zamawiającym.\n15.\nZgodnie z pkt 5.6.3 ppkt.5 SST: Sposób naprawy uszkodzenia - po uzgodnieniu z Przedstawicielem Zamawiającego, wykonanie bocznego połączenia istniejącej warstwy ścieralnej z nowym betonem asfaltowym w formie szczeliny przy użyciu taśmy asfaltowo-kauczukowej przyklejonej według wskazówek producenta. Szerokość taśmy powinna być równa grubości wbudowywanej warstwy lub mniejsza o 2÷5mm. Cieńsze taśmy należy stosować przy mniejszych szerokościach naprawianych ubytków i wybojów, a grubsze przy większych szerokościach. O ile producent nie zalecił innych warunków ułożenia taśmy, to należy (...).\n16.\nMając na uwadze, że zastosowana technologia i rodzaj uszczelnienia będą wykonane w zależności od potrzeb i w uzgodnieniu z Zamawiającym, Przystępujący koszt tego materiału (uszczelnienia) uwzględnił jako procentowy dodatek do materiału oraz w kosztach towarzyszących.\n17.\nDodatkowo warto zauważyć, że Odwołujący zawyża i błędnie wskazuje wyliczenia ceny za emulsję oraz taśmę.\n18.\nCo do emulsji – Odwołujący przedstawia następujące wyliczenia: emulsja C60 3 ZM, 1555 zł/t lub C60 B4 ZM.\nWymagana ilość emulsji na m2 wynosi 0,2-0,5 kg/m2 czystego asfaltu. To oznacza, że emulsja musi być zużyta w ilości minimum 0,2kg/60% (określona w SST emulsja ma zawartość 60% czystego asfaltu) = 0,333 kg/m2. Koszt zakupu emulsji to minimum 1,8*4,50 = 8,10 zł/m2.\n19.\nWyliczenie Odwołującego jest błędne i zawyżone o około 15 razy.\n20.\nMinimum wymaganej emulsji zgodnie z SST - 0,333 kg/m2 przemnażając wymagany nakład razy cena jednostkowa emulsji 1555zł/t otrzymujemy wynik: 0,333* 1555/1000 = 0,51 zł/m2.\n21.\nOdwołujący wyliczając koszt taśmy również zawyża koszt tej pozycji. Sam bowiem jak wskazuje w wyliczeniu poz. 1.1 dla Rejonu Tczew (tożsama pozycja wykonania pracy) nakład dla zużycia taśmy równy 1,1m na m2 a nie jak wylicza w odwołaniu (jako minimalne zużycie) 1,8m na m2.\n22.\nDowód – Wyjaśnienia Odwołującego – drogi kategorii S – Całoroczne utrzymanie dróg GDDKiA Oddział Gdańsk Rejon w Tczewie. GR1pozycja prac 1.1. – plik o nazwie „Tczew”.\n23.\nReasumując, zarzut Odwołującego należy uznać za bezzasadny. Odwołujący nie wykazał niezgodności treści oferty\nPrzystępującego z warunkami zamówienia, co jest konieczne dla skuteczności zarzutu z art. 226 ust. 1 pkt 5 ustawy Pzp.\nPrzystępujący uwzględnił wszystkie wymagane przez Zamawiającego sprzęty i materiały niezbędne do wykonania prac, czemu dał wyraz w treści oferty, a także w szczegółowych kalkulacjach.\nB. Co do zarzutu zaniechania wezwania Przystępującego do wyjaśnień TER 10 poz. 4.2, TER 8 poz. 2.2, TER 4 poz.\n11.3, TER 13 poz. 2, 3, 5, 17.\n24.\nW ocenie Przystępującego Zamawiający nie zaniechał wezwania Przystępującego do wyjaśnienia wskazanych przez\nOdwołującego pozycji. Z zaniechaniem mielibyśmy bowiem do czynienia wówczas, gdyby na Zamawiającym ciążył obowiązek wezwania do wyjaśnienia danych pozycji. Tymczasem obowiązek ten nie powstaje, dlatego że Odwołujący tak uważa, lecz powstaje wówczas, gdy przepis prawa tak stanowi.\n25.\nPrzepis art. 224 ust. 1 ustawy Pzp zawiera w tym względzie pewien luz decyzyjny (pewną elastyczność) przyznaną zamawiającym przez ustawodawcę z uwagi na konieczność dostosowania regulacji do konkretnego postępowania przetargowego, różnych przedmiotów zamówienia i różnych ich warunków. Z tych właśnie przyczyn „ustawodawca nie określił precyzyjnie i sztywno przesłanek stosowania tego przepisu, zostawiając tym samym zamawiającemu swobodę w podejmowaniu decyzji.” (A. Matusiak w: Komentarz do art. 224 Pzp red. J. 2026, wyd. 7/Legalis).\n26.\nZ literalnego brzmienia przepisu art. 224 ust. 1 Pzp wynika, że zamawiający występuje do wykonawcy o wyjaśnienia dotyczące ceny lub kosztu, lub ich istotnych części składowych wyłącznie, gdy na podstawie okoliczności ustalonych w toku postępowania o udzielenie zamówienia poweźmie wątpliwość, że zaproponowana przez wykonawcę cena oferty wydaje się rażąco niska w stosunku do przedmiotu zamówienia lub budzi wątpliwości zamawiającego co do możliwości wykonania przedmiotu zamówienia zgodnie z wymaganiami zamawiającego.\n27.\nKrajowa Izba Odwoławcza wyjaśniła, że \"użyte w art. 224 ust. 1 Prawa zamówień publicznych sformułowanie \"budzą wątpliwości zamawiającego co do możliwości wykonania przedmiotu zamówienia\" publicznych\" wskazuje na wrażenie zamawiającego charakteryzujące się dużym stopniem subiektywności. Istotne jest, że przepisy ustawy nie określają żadnych przesłanek uzasadniających konieczność wezwania wykonawcy do złożenia wyjaśnień w powyższym zakresie.\nZamawiający może powziąć wątpliwości w oparciu o szereg czynników, w tym doświadczenie nabyte przy udzielaniu tego rodzaju zamówień, znajomość cen obowiązujących na rynku, ceny innych ofert złożonych w postępowaniu itp. (wyr. KIO\n1543/22, Legalis).\n28.\nZ kolei kwalifikacja danej pozycji kosztorysu, dokonana przez Odwołującego na użytek odwołania, nie ma oparcia normatywnego. Krótko rzecz ujmując, to że dana pozycja kosztorysowa rozliczana jest w ten sposób nie oznacza per se, że stanowi ona istotną część składową ceny lub kosztu. Ta ostatnia bowiem – istotna część składowa ceny lub kosztu, to pozycja o znaczącym udziale w całkowitej wartości oferty, która ma kluczowy wpływ na realizację zamówienia. Innymi słowy, może to być pozycja w kosztorysie istotna dlatego, że stanowi znaczący element ceny lub dlatego, że ma kluczowy wpływ na realizację zamówienia.\n29.\nTymczasem Odwołujący za istotne części składowe ceny uznał wszystkie ceny jednostkowe. Taki tok rozumowania\nOdwołującego, w świetle przedstawionych wyżej zapatrywań wyrażonych w piśmiennictwie i orzecznictwie, nie może zasługiwać na aprobatę.\nC. Co do zarzutu zaniechania wezwania Przystępującego do dalszych wyjaśnień TER 8 poz. 9.1.\n30.\nOdwołujący zarzuca Przystępującemu przyjęcie do kalkulacji ciągnika kołowego kwoty 62 zł za m-g. Otóż\nPrzystępujący przyjął tę kwotę na podstawie danych Sekocenbudu.\n31.\nSekocenbud to jedna z najpopularniejszych baz cenowych wykorzystywanych w kosztorysowaniu. Jest wydawana raz na kwartał i w jej ramach użytkownik otrzymuje informacje o cenach materiałów, stawkach robocizny oraz cenach pracy sprzętu budowlanego obowiązujące w aktualnym kwartale.\n32.\nPrzystępujący wskazał w swoich wyjaśnieniach ceny, że cyt. „W przypadku, gdy takie dane wyjściowe dla kalkulacji są niedostępne dla wykonawcy lub wykonawca takimi danymi nie dysponuje, wykonawca bazuje, jako punkcie wyjścia, na cenniku Sekocenbud, jako obiektywnym i niezależnym źródle dla kalkulacji kosztów realizacji prac.”.\n33.\nJest to – można powiedzieć – częsta praktyka stosowana przez różnych wykonawców, w tym także w obszarze utrzymania dróg.\n34.\nPrzystępujący przyjął stawki Sekocenbud dla pracy sprzętu, które obejmują całość kosztów jego użytkowania, w tym paliwo. Nieuprawnionym jest analizowanie tych elementów osobno. Odwołujący dokonuje sztucznego podziału kalkulacji, który nie wynika ani z zasad kosztorysowania, ani z przyjętej metody kalkulacji Przystępującego. W konsekwencji wyciągnięte przez Odwołującego wnioski są błędne i nie mogą stanowić podstawy do kwestionowania realności ceny oferty.\n35.\nPrzystępujący wskazał, iż materiały pomocnicze od M wynoszą 15%, tj. 7,02 zł, podczas gdy po poprawnym przemnożeniu powinno być 6,39 zł.\n36.\nJeżeli chodzi o obliczenia zawarte w TER 8 poz. 9.1 to są one prawidłowe - w kolumnie 5 nakład zakładowy wpisano wartość „2,40000” zamiast\n„0,1200”, co znajduje potwierdzenie w kolumnie 7 [kol.3 x kol. 5], czyli 1,000 x 0,1200 = 0,1200. We wszystkich pozostałych szczegółowych kalkulacjach złożonych przez Przystępującego, ilość nakładów z kolumny 7 jest równa ilości nakładów z kolumny 5.\n37.\nPoza tym przyjęcie wartości 2,40000 prowadziłoby do nieracjonalnego wyniku kosztowego – koszt narzędzi przekraczałby 30 zł, podczas gdy rzeczywisty poziom kosztów dla tej pozycji jest istotnie niższy, tj. w zakresie wynikającym z prawidłowego nakładu 0,1200 ok. 1,76 zł. Cena jednostkowa narzędzi stanowi kalkulację własną\nWykonawcy, uwzględniającą koszty utrzymania i konserwacji sprzętu będącego własnością Wykonawcy. Powyższe wskazuje, że wartość 2,40000 nie odzwierciedla zamierzonego sposobu kalkulacji, lecz stanowi oczywistą omyłkę pisarską, niespójną z pozostałymi elementami kalkulacji.\n38.\nBiorąc pod uwagę powyższe, wpisanie w kolumnie 5 wartość „2,40000” zamiast „0,1200” należy uznać za oczywistą omyłkę pisarską (...)\nZamawiający w odpowiedzi na odwołanie\n(pismo z 28.04.2026 r.) wniósł o oddalenie odwołania. Wskazał w uzasadnieniu na następujące okoliczności: (...) Odwołujący, pismem z dnia 07.04.2026 r. wniósł odwołanie od czynności\nZamawiającego na niezgodne z przepisami ustawy czynności Zamawiającego polegające na zaniechaniu odrzucenia oferty wykonawcy Saferoad mimo, że oferta ta jest niezgodna z warunkami zamówienia, czynności wyboru oferty\nSaferoad jako najkorzystniejszej, a także zaniechanie wezwania tego Wykonawcy do złożenia wyjaśnień oraz dalszych wyjaśnień w zakresie cen jednostykowych stanowiących istotne części składowe. (...)\nOpis stanu faktycznego:\n1. (...)\n2.\nOferty w postępowaniu złożyło 5 wykonawców, wśród których znajdowała się także oferta Odwołującego oraz\nPrzystępującego.\n3.\nZamawiający dokonał badania wstępnego ofert, złożonych w dniu 19.01.2026 r. przez Wykonawców biorących udział w postępowaniu, pod kątem sprawdzenia czy zachodzą przesłanki do przeprowadzenia szczegółowego postępowania wyjaśniającego, a także wytypowania ofert, na które pada podejrzenie rażącego zaniżenia cen. Komisja przetargowa\nZamawiającego przeanalizowała wszystkie 5 ofert. W wyniku powyższego badania ofert Komisja uznała, że między złożonymi przez wykonawców ofertami występują różnice dające podstawę do stwierdzenia, że zachodzą przesłanki do przeprowadzenia obligatoryjnej procedury wyjaśniania złożonych ofert pod kątem rażąco niskiej ceny. W ramach przedmiotowego badania, komisja dokonała również analizy cen jednostkowych w złożonych ofertach, we wskazanych w badaniu asortymentach kluczowych. Komisja, w ramach wezwania na podstawie art. 224 ust. Pzp zwróciła się do\nOdwołującego oraz Przystępującego o udzielenie wyjaśnień, w tym złożenie dowodów, w zakresie elementów kosztorysu ofertowego we wskazanych pozycjach TER. W rankingu ofert, oferta Przystępującego uplasowała się na pierwszym miejscu, oferta Odwołującego na drugim miejscu.\n4.\nW związku z powyższym Zamawiający przystąpił do drugiego etapu rozstrzygnięcia postępowania i wezwał\nPrzystępującego, który złożył najkorzystniejszą ofertę, do złożenia podmiotowych środków dowodowych. Zamawiający uznał, iż Przystępujący spełnia warunki udziału w postępowaniu i brak jest podstaw do wykluczenia z postępowania o udzielenie zamówienia.\n5.\nW dniu 26.03.2026 r. Zamawiający dokonał wyboru oferty Przystępującego jako najkorzystniejszej spośród złożonych w postępowaniu, a nie podlegających odrzuceniu.\n6.\nZ decyzją Zamawiającego nie zgodził się Odwołujący, czemu dał wyraz wnosząc w dniu\n07.04.2026 r. odwołanie, będące przedmiotem niniejszej odpowiedzi.\nZarzut nr 1): naruszenie art. 226 ust. 1 pkt 5 pzp w zw. z art. 16 pkt 1 i 3 pzp poprzez zaniechanie odrzucenia oferty\nSaferoad jako niezgodnej z warunkami zamówienia w Postępowaniu z uwagi na fakt, że Saferoad w ramach zaoferowanego Zamawiającemu świadczenia w pozycji TER 1 poz. 1.1, poz. 1.2, poz. 6.1 i poz. 7.1 nie uwzględnił wymaganych przez Zamawiającego w dokumentach zamówienia sprzętów i materiałów niezbędnych do realizacji prac objętych tymi pozycjami TER\nZarzut nr 2): naruszenie art. 224 ust. 1, 2 pzp w zw. z art. 226 ust. 1 pkt 8) pzp i art. 16 pzp poprzez zaniechanie wezwania Saferoad do wyjaśnień w zakresie istotnych części składowych ceny oferty, tj. pozycji TER 10 poz. 4.2, TER 8 poz. 2.2, TER, TER 4 poz. 11.3, TER 13 poz. 2, 3, 5, 17 lub art. 223 ust. 1 pzp w zw. z art. 226 ust. 1 pkt 5) pzp i art. 16 pzp poprzez zaniechanie wezwania do wyjaśnień dotyczących treści oferty w zakresie ww. pozycji;\nZarzut nr 3): naruszenie art. 224 ust. 1, 2 Pzp w zw. z art. 226 ust. 1 pkt 8) pzp i art. 16 Pzp poprzez zaniechanie wezwania Saferoad do dalszych wyjaśnień w zakresie istotnych części składowych ceny oferty, tj. pozycji TER 8 poz. 9.1 lub art. 223 ust. 1 Pzp w zw. z art. 226 ust. 1 pkt 5) pzp i art. 16 Pzp poprzez zaniechanie wezwania do wyjaśnień dotyczących treści oferty w zakresie ww. pozycji; w konsekwencji zarzutów z pkt 1-3\nZarzut nr 4): naruszenie art. 239 ust. 1 pzp w zw. z art. 16 pkt 1 i 2 pzp, poprzez wybór jako najkorzystniejszej w\nPostępowaniu oferty Saferoad pomimo, że oferta tego Wykonawcy jest niezgodna z warunkami zamówienia i zawiera rażąco niską cenę.\nZamawiający nie zgadza się z przedstawionymi zarzutami z następujących względów:\nUzasadnienie ww. zarzutów oparte jest na przekonaniu Odwołującego o tym, że Zamawiający dokonał wadliwego wyboru oferty najkorzystniejszej Saferoad, gdyż wyjaśnienia wraz z dowodami złożone przez tego Wykonawcę (lub brak złożonych wyjaśnień w odniesieniu do wskazanych w odwołaniu pozycji) nie uzasadniają podanych w kosztorysie ofertowym cen części składowych wskazanych w odwołaniu poszczególnych pozycji z Grup, są niezgodne z warunkami zamówienia i dowodzą, że te ceny były rażąco niskie.\nZamawiający dokonał szczegółowego badania ofert, a badanie to było prowadzone zgodnie z obowiązującymi przepisami prawa.\nWszystkie oferty były oceniane wg tych samych kryteriów. Badania ofert dokonano w oparciu o art. 224 Pzp:\n1.\nPorównanie cen całkowitych wszystkich złożonych ofert do wartości zamówienia powiększonej o należny podatek od towarów i usług, ustalonej przed wszczęciem postępowania – kryterium arytmetyczne.\n2.\nPorównanie średniej arytmetycznej cen wszystkich złożonych ofert niepodlegających odrzuceniu, w odniesieniu do ceny danej oferty - kryterium cen ofert.\nDla kryterium arytmetycznego, punktem odniesienia była ustalona przez Zamawiającego szacunkowa wartość zamówienia, powiększona o podatek od towarów i usług – VAT w wysokości 23%. Wartość szacunkowa zamówienia została określona na podstawie zamówień o podobnym charakterze. Graniczny ustawowy poziom odniesienia dla przedmiotowego badania, dla wszystkich złożonych ofert, wynosił 30% poniżej wartości szacunkowej zamówienia powiększonej o podatek od towarów i usług.\nDla kryterium cen ofert, punktem odniesienia była średnia arytmetyczna cen wszystkich złożonych ofert niepodlegających odrzuceniu w odniesieniu do ceny danej oferty. Graniczny ustawowy poziom odniesienia dla przedmiotowego badania dla wszystkich złożonych ofert niepodlegających odrzuceniu wynosił 30% poniżej średniej arytmetycznej cen wszystkich złożonych ofert niepodlegających odrzuceniu w odniesieniu do ceny danej oferty.\nDodatkowo Zamawiający przeprowadził analizę cen jednostkowych, w tym asortymentów kluczowych zgodnie z uregulowaniami wewnętrznymi Zamawiającego, wszystkich ofert niepodlegających odrzuceniu w odniesieniu do cen jednostkowych KI.\nZ art. 224 ustawy Pzp wynika, że jeżeli zaoferowana cena lub koszt, lub ich istotne części składowe, wydają się rażąco niskie w stosunku do przedmiotu zamówienia lub budzą wątpliwości zamawiającego co do możliwości wykonania przedmiotu zamówienia zgodnie z wymaganiami określonymi w dokumentach zamówienia lub wynikającymi z odrębnych przepisów, zamawiający żąda od wykonawcy wyjaśnień, w tym złożenia dowodów w zakresie wyliczenia ceny lub kosztu, lub ich istotnych części składowych.\nCo do zasady rażąco niska cena odnosi się więc do całości wynagrodzenia, w pewnych przypadkach jednak przepisy Pzp regulują również kwestię istotnych części składowych ceny.\nTabelaz badania ofert, Zbiorcze Zestawienie Kosztów w zakresie Grup 1- 13:\nGrupa\nGrupa robót robót\nNazwa\nNazwa grupy grupy\nWartość\nWartość netto netto danej danej grupy grupy\n[zł]\n[zł]\nWartość\nWartość brutto brutto danej danej grupy grupy\n[zł]\n[zł]\nRekomendowana\nRekomendowana przez przez\nZamawiającego\nZamawiającego relacja relacja procentowa procentowa ceny brutto ceny brutto danej danej grupy robót w grupy robót w stosunku do stosunku do wartości wartości całkowitej ceny całkowitej ceny oferty brutto - oferty brutto - nie więcej niż nie więcej niż\n% z\n% z zastrzeżeniem zastrzeżeniem kolumny f kolumny f\nDopuszczalna\nDopuszczalna zmiana zmiana wymaganej wymaganej relacji o relacji o której mowa w której mowa w kolumnie e [+ kolumnie e [+\n%]\n%]\nŚREDNIA\nŚREDNIA\nCENA\nCENA\nZ 5\nZ 5\nZŁOŻONYCH\nZŁOŻONYCH\nOFERT\nOFERT brutto brutto\nOFERTA NR 1 - SAFEROAD SERVICES\nOFERTA NR 1 - SAFEROAD SERVICES\n[1]\n[1]\nOFERTA NR 2 - FB SERWIS\nOFERTA NR 2 - FB SERWIS\n[5]\n[5]\nOFERTA NR 3 - ZABERD\nOFERTA NR 3 - ZABERD\n[2]\n[2]\nOFERTA NR 4 - BUDIA\nOFERTA NR 4 - BUDIA\n[4]\n[4]\nOFERTA NR 5 - V4\nOFERTA NR 5 - V4\n[3]\n[3] a b c d e f w artość netto w artość brutto\nWartość kol. e + f w stosunku do w artości brutto oferty\n[%]\nRNC różnica do\nKI\nRNC różnica do średniej arytmetycz nej w artość netto w artość brutto\nWartość kol. e + f w stosunku do w artości brutto oferty\n[%]\nRNC różnica do\nKI\nRNC różnica do średniej arytmetycz nej w artość netto w artość brutto\nWartość kol. e + f w stosunku do w artości brutto oferty\n[%]\nRNC różnica do\nKI\nRNC różnica do średniej arytmetycz nej w artość netto w artość brutto\nWartość kol. e + f w stosunku do w artości brutto oferty\n[%]\nRNC różnica do\nKI\nRNC różnica do średniej arytmetycz nej w artość netto w artość brutto\nWartość kol. e + f w stosunku do w artości brutto oferty [%]\nRNC różnica do\nKI\nRNC różnica do średniej arytmetycz nej\nNaw ierzchnia\n390 968,00\n480 890,64\n1,15%\n0,23%\n417 364,71\n654,50 zł\n495,04 zł\n0,91%\n-\n47,91%\n-39,98%\n129,50 zł\n889,29 zł\n1,38%\n40,97%\n62,42%\n570,50 zł\n391,72 zł\n1,35%\n-\n22,35%\n-10,54%\n750,00 zł\n132,50 zł\n1,18%\n-\n16,17%\n-3,41%\n500,00 zł\n915,00 zł\n1,14%\n-\n20,58%\n-8,49%\nPobocza i pasy rozdziału\n36 942,00\n45 438,66\n0,11%\n0,02%\n40 254,09\n609,00 zł\n26 579,07 zł\n0,10%\n-\n41,51%\n-33,97%\n975,50 zł\n61 469,87 zł\n0,13%\n35,28%\n52,70%\n150,00 zł\n33 394,50 zł\n0,12%\n-\n26,51%\n-17,04%\n200,00 zł\n43 296,00 zł\n0,13%\n-4,72%\n7,56%\n700,00 zł\n36 531,00 zł\n0,11%\n-\n19,60%\n-9,25%\nKorpus drogi\n95 809,00\n117 845,07\n0,28%\n0,06%\n105 759,34\n863,00 zł\n92 081,49 zł\n0,34%\n-\n21,86%\n-12,93%\n863,00 zł\n591,49 zł\n0,28%\n16,76%\n30,10%\n590,00 zł\n90 515,70 zł\n0,33%\n-\n23,19%\n-14,41%\n000,00 zł\n620,00 zł\n0,34%\n-1,89%\n9,32%\n600,00 zł\n92 988,00 zł\n0,28%\n-\n21,09%\n-12,08%\nOdw odnienie\n6 060 579,75\n7 454 513,09\n17,89%\n3,58%\n4 939 598,41\n4 098\n778,90 zł\n5 041\n498,05 zł\n18,39%\n-\n32,37%\n2,06%\n3 647\n550,45 zł\n4 486\n487,05 zł\n9,13%\n-\n39,82%\n-9,17%\n3 428\n651,00 zł\n4 217\n240,73 zł\n15,26%\n-\n43,43%\n-14,62%\n4 074\n388,00 zł\n5 011\n497,24 zł\n14,68%\n-\n32,77%\n1,46%\n4 830\n300,00 zł\n5 941\n269,00 zł\n17,71%\n-\n20,30%\n20,28%\nChodniki, ścieżki row erow e\n214 139,62\n263 391,73\n0,63%\n0,13%\n215 340,95\n805,00 zł\n750,15 zł\n0,51%\n-\n47,32%\n-35,57%\n494,70 zł\n338,48 zł\n0,63%\n17,44%\n43,65%\n070,00 zł\n436,10 zł\n0,65%\n-\n32,25%\n-17,14%\n900,00 zł\n957,00 zł\n0,71%\n-8,52%\n11,90%\n100,00 zł\n223,00 zł\n0,62%\n-\n20,57%\n-2,84%\nOznakow anie\n874 921,78\n1 076 153,79\n2,58%\n0,52%\n924 052,27\n401,70 zł\n064,09 zł\n2,51%\n-\n36,06%\n-25,54%\n1 030\n708,35 zł\n1 267\n771,27 zł\n2,58%\n17,81%\n37,20%\n450,00 zł\n103,50 zł\n3,05%\n-\n21,66%\n-8,76%\n150,00 zł\n504,50 zł\n2,83%\n-\n10,37%\n4,38%\n600,00 zł\n818,00 zł\n2,55%\n-\n20,38%\n-7,28%\nUrządzenia\nBRD\n5 296 092,13\n6 514 193,32\n15,63%\n3,13%\n5 608 465,03\n4 180\n738,64 zł\n5 142\n308,53 zł\n18,76%\n-\n21,06%\n-8,31%\n5 241\n599,70 zł\n6 447\n167,63 zł\n13,12%\n-1,03%\n14,95%\n4 015\n900,00 zł\n4 939\n557,00 zł\n17,87%\n-\n24,17%\n-11,93%\n4 870\n300,00 zł\n5 990\n469,00 zł\n17,55%\n-8,04%\n6,81%\n4 490\n100,00 zł\n5 522\n823,00 zł\n16,47%\n-\n15,22%\n-1,53%\nEstetyka\n7 394 102,90\n9 094 746,57\n21,83%\n4,37%\n7 417 994,62\n2 455\n237,95 zł\n3 019\n942,68 zł\n11,02%\n-\n66,79%\n-59,29%\n10 462\n684,99 zł\n12 869\n102,54 zł\n26,19%\n41,50%\n73,48%\n4 721\n467,70 zł\n5 807\n405,27 zł\n21,01%\n-\n36,15%\n-21,71%\n6 620\n959,05 zł\n8 143\n779,63 zł\n23,86%\n-\n10,46%\n9,78%\n5 894\n100,00 zł\n7 249\n743,00 zł\n21,61%\n-\n20,29%\n-2,27%\nUrządzenia w spomagające\n308 333,70\n379 250,45\n0,91%\n0,18%\n285 095,77\n947,90 zł\n275,92 zł\n0,71%\n-\n48,77%\n-31,86%\n478,00 zł\n477,94 zł\n0,61%\n-\n21,03%\n5,04%\n300,00 zł\n799,00 zł\n1,07%\n-\n21,74%\n4,11%\n500,00 zł\n715,00 zł\n0,97%\n-\n12,27%\n16,70%\n700,00 zł\n211,00 zł\n0,90%\n-\n20,31%\n6,00%\nZimow e utrzymanie dróg\n6 941 123,58\n8 537 582,00\n20,49%\n4,10%\n7 406 076,67\n5 480\n588,18 zł\n6 741\n123,46 zł\n24,59%\n-\n21,04%\n-8,98%\n9 823\n414,74 zł\n12 082\n800,13 zł\n24,59%\n41,52%\n63,15%\n4 364\n836,80 zł\n5 368\n749,26 zł\n19,43%\n-\n37,12%\n-27,51%\n4 904\n863,00 zł\n6 032\n981,49 zł\n17,67%\n-\n29,34%\n-18,54%\n5 532\n300,00 zł\n6 804\n729,00 zł\n20,29%\n-\n20,30%\n-8,12%\nZarządzanie kontraktem *\n4 859 532,00\n5 977 224,36\n14,35%\n2,87%\n5 656 417,71\n3 837\n400,20 zł\n4 720\n002,25 zł\n17,22%\n-\n21,03%\n-16,55%\n6 879\n267,72 zł\n8 461\n499,30 zł\n17,22%\n41,56%\n49,59%\n3 866\n400,00 zł\n4 755\n672,00 zł\n17,21%\n-\n20,44%\n-15,92%\n4 536\n000,00 zł\n5 579\n280,00 zł\n16,34%\n-6,66%\n-1,36%\n3 874\n500,00 zł\n4 765\n635,00 zł\n14,21%\n-\n20,27%\n-15,75%\nCzystość na obiektach inżynierskich\n1 314 080,00\n1 616 318,40\n3,88%\n0,78%\n1 258 223,58\n1 038\n060,00 zł\n1 276\n813,80 zł\n4,66%\n-\n21,00%\n1,48%\n1 550\n070,00 zł\n1 906\n586,10 zł\n3,88%\n17,96%\n51,53%\n000,00 zł\n520,00 zł\n2,33%\n-\n60,12%\n-48,78%\n000,00 zł\n1 174\n650,00 zł\n3,44%\n-\n27,33%\n-6,64%\n1 047\n600,00 zł\n1 288\n548,00 zł\n3,84%\n-\n20,28%\n2,41%\nPrace pomocnicze\n87 939,36\n108 165,41\n0,27%\n0,05%\n99 605,32\n815,68 zł\n84 643,29 zł\n0,31%\n-\n21,75%\n-15,02%\n480,00 zł\n430,40 zł\n0,27%\n23,36%\n33,96%\n904,00 zł\n88 441,92 zł\n0,32%\n-\n18,23%\n-11,21%\n800,00 zł\n844,00 zł\n0,30%\n-5,84%\n2,25%\n900,00 zł\n89 667,00 zł\n0,27%\n-\n17,10%\n-9,98%\nPODSUMOWANIE GRUP 1 -\n33 874 563,82\n41 665 713,49\n34 374\n34 374\n248,47\n248,47\n22 289\n900,65\n27 416\n27 416\n577,82\n577,82\n-\n34,20%\n-20,24%\n39 951\n716,65 zł\n49 140\n49 140\n611,49\n611,49\n17,94%\n42,96%\n22 469\n290,00 zł\n27 637\n27 637\n226,70\n226,70\n-\n33,67%\n-19,60%\n27 751\n810,05 zł\n34 134\n34 134\n726,36\n726,36\n-\n18,07%\n-0,70%\n27 270\n000,00 zł\n33 542\n33 542\n100,00\n100,00\n-\n19,50%\n-2,42%\nW oparciu o powyższą analizę Komisja przetargowa Zamawiającego uznała, iż oferenci\nSaferoad oraz Zaberd Sp. z o.o.\npowinni zostać wezwani do zbadania rażąco niskiej ceny. Kosztorys inwestorski sporządzony przez Zamawiającego zawierał cenę brutto za wykonanie zamówienia w wysokości 58 331 989,50 zł. Cena Odwołującego to 38 692 117,38 zł brutto, natomiast cena wskazana przez Przystępującego to 38 383 208,92 zł brutto. Oferta cenowa złożona przez\nPrzystępującego jest mniejsza o 34,20% wartości kosztorysu inwestorskiego. Oferta cenowa złożona przez\nOdwołującego jest mniejsza o 33,67% wartości kosztorysu inwestorskiego (oferty te stanowią odpowiednio 65,80% i\n66,33% wartości KI). Natomiast badanie wartości ofert wg kryterium średniej arytmetycznej cen złożonych ofert nie zobowiązywało Zamawiającego do wzywania Wykonawców do badania rażąco niskiej ceny.\nZamawiający przeanalizował oferty, zidentyfikował pozycje budzące wątpliwości i skierował do Saferoad oraz Zaberd wezwanie do złożenia wyjaśnień. Zakres tych wezwań odpowiadał realnym wątpliwościom Zamawiającego i nie istniał prawny obowiązek objęcia nim wszystkich pozycji kosztorysu, które – subiektywnie – Odwołujący uznał za kontrowersyjne. Zamawiający dokonał oceny ofert pod kątem rażąco niskiej ceny w stosunku do pozycji złożonych ofert w sytuacji gdy wystąpił ustawowy wymóg badania RNC oraz mając na względzie pozycje dotyczące tzw. asortymentu kluczowego, które w umowach dotyczących utrzymania dróg Zamawiający zwyczajowo bada szczegółowo w zakresie\nRNC. Zamawiający przeanalizował zatem poszczególne ceny jednostkowe dla asortymentu robót wymaganego dla prawidłowego wykonania przedmiotu zamówienia, których wartość była niższa od cen wskazanych w kosztorysie ofertowym o ponad 30% i które były dla Zamawiającego istotne, z punktu widzenia prawidłowej realizacji zamówienia.\nZarzut nr 1)\nOdwołujący, zarzucając Zamawiającemu naruszenie art. 226 ust. 1 pkt 5 pzp w zw. z art. 16 pkt 1 i 3 pzp poprzez zaniechanie odrzucenia oferty Saferoad jako niezgodnej z warunkami zamówienia w Postępowaniu z uwagi na fakt, że\nSaferoad w ramach zaoferowanego Zamawiającemu świadczenia w pozycji TER 1 poz. 1.1, poz. 1.2, poz. 6.1 i poz. 7.1 nie uwzględnił wymaganych przez Zamawiającego w dokumentach zamówienia sprzętów i materiałów niezbędnych do realizacji prac objętych tymi pozycjami TER, zdaje się celowo pomijać treść całej kalkulacji przedstawionej przez\nPrzystępującego dla grupy TER 1 w zakresie sprzętu i materiałów. Zamawiający podkreśla, że w kalkulacji przedstawionej na wezwanie Zamawiającego, Przystępujący wskazał na wyceniane kategorie sprzętu, w tym pozycję „narzędzia i sprzęt pomocniczy”, która – jak wynika z samego opisu pozycji – jest kategorią zbiorczą i zawiera wszystkie inne sprzęty konieczne do wykonania analizowanej pozycji nie wymienione wprost w pozostałych miejscach kalkulacji. Podobnie,\nPrzystępujący wskazał w kalkulacji dla tej Grupy prac na pozycję „materiały pomocnicze” wyjaśniając w ten sposób nieuwzględnione w ocenie Odwołującego pozycje kalkulacji cenowej.\nZamawiający wyjaśnia, że oceniał wyjaśnienia Wykonawców w kontekście ich treści i przyjętej przez nich metodologii.\nWobec takiego sposobu kalkulacji analizowanych pozycji dla TER 1 przyjętego przez Przystępującego, Zamawiający nie miał podstaw do przyjęcia, że Wykonawca nie uwzględnił któregokolwiek ze sprzętów czy materiałów wymienionych w odpowiednim SST. Przedstawiony przez Przystępującego sposób kalkulacji ceny nie powoduje, zdaniem Zamawiającego sprzeczności treści oferty z warunkami zamówienia. Złożone na wezwanie wyjaśnienia wprost wskazują, które koszty zostały uwzględnione i w jaki sposób Przystępujący skalkulował koszty danej Grupy prac. Taka kalkulacja nie świadczy ani o niezgodności z warunkami zamówienia, ani o niskiej szczegółowości złożonych wyjaśnień. Przy stosowaniu takiego rozwiązania Przystępujący wyodrębnił w kalkulacji szczegółowej szereg kosztów jednostkowych – kosztów w swojej ocenie kluczowych dla wyjaśnienia ceny i należytego wykonania danej pracy, a sposób wyliczenia tych kosztów nie jest przez Odwołującego kwestionowany w odwołaniu.\nPrzy ocenie oferty pod kątem rażąco niskiej ceny, Zamawiający kierował się nie tylko oceną kilku pozycji, ale również ogólną ceną oferty, która jest minimalnie niższa od ceny oferty Odwołującego, również doświadczonego Wykonawcy na rynku. Fakt ten potwierdza realne możliwości wykonania przedmiotu zamówienia za cenę zaoferowaną przez firmę\nSaferoad. W postępowaniu o tak dużej różnorodności asortymentów, jak również dużej konkurencji na rynku nie sposób pominąć aspektów takich jak dotychczasowe doświadczenie Wykonawcy, które przekłada się na sposób przygotowania kalkulacji.\nPrzedstawione przez Przystępującego wyjaśnienia rażąco niskiej ceny wskazują jasno, że Wykonawca ten w zakresie\nGrupy 1 przyjął określoną metodologię wykazywania poszczególnych kosztów, która zakłada posłużenie się zbiorczą pozycją „narzędzia i sprzęt pomocniczy” oraz „materiały pomocnicze”, co pozwala na przyjęcie zaprezentowanego przez\nZamawiającego wniosku, że nie miał on wątpliwości, iż sporne sprzęty i materiały wskazane przez Odwołującego zostały wycenione w tej zbiorczej pozycji.\nZarzut nr 2)\nOdnosząc się do zarzutu naruszenia przez Zamawiającego art. 224 ust. 1, 2 pzp w zw. z art. 226 ust. 1 pkt 8) pzp i art. 16 pzp poprzez zaniechanie wezwania Saferoad do wyjaśnień w zakresie istotnych części składowych ceny oferty, tj. pozycji\nTER 10 poz. 4.2, TER 8 poz. 2.2, TER, TER 4 poz. 11.3, TER 13 poz. 2, 3, 5, 17 lub art. 223 ust. 1 pzp w zw. z art. 226 ust. 1 pkt 5) pzp i art. 16 pzp poprzez zaniechanie wezwania do wyjaśnień dotyczących treści oferty w zakresie ww.\npozycji, Zamawiający wskazuje, iż przepisy art. 224 Pzp nie nakładają obowiązku badania pod kątem rażąco niskiej ceny każdej pozycji kosztorysowej wobec której istnieje podejrzenie rażąco niskiej ceny. Żadna z wylistowanych pozycji wskazanych przez Odwołującego w zarzucie nie była objęta wezwaniem do złożenia wyjaśnień. To Zamawiający przeprowadza procedurę wyjaśniania ceny, w tym decyduje o treści wezwania i zakresie wymagającym wyjaśnienia oraz ocenia złożone mu wyjaśnienia. Zamawiający dokonał analizy cen jednostkowych w zakresie pozycji asortymentów kluczowych (istotnych) z punktu widzenia realizacji zamówienia, kierując się własnym doświadczeniem i wewnętrznymi procedurami. Wskazane w zarzucie pozycje TER nie były przedmiotem wezwania Przystępującego do wyjaśnień i nie podlegały ocenie Zamawiającego, stąd zarzut ten w stosunku do tych pozycji jest bezzasadny. Nie sposób przy tym pominąć faktu, że pozycje, na które wskazuje Odwołujący nie są istotnymi częściami składowymi zamówienia, co wskazuje poniższa tabela:\nZarzut nr 3)\nOdnosząc się natomiast do zarzutu naruszenie art. 224 ust. 1, 2 Pzp w zw. z art. 226 ust. 1 pkt 8) pzp i art. 16 Pzp poprzez zaniechanie wezwania Saferoad do dalszych wyjaśnień w zakresie istotnych części składowych ceny oferty, tj.\npozycji TER 8 poz. 9.1 lub art. 223 ust. 1 Pzp w zw. z art. 226 ust. 1 pkt 5) pzp i art. 16 Pzp poprzez zaniechanie wezwania do wyjaśnień dotyczących treści oferty w zakresie ww. pozycji, Zamawiający wskazuje, iż nie widział konieczności wzywania Przystępującego do dalszych wyjaśnień dotyczących pozycji TER 8 poz. 9.1.\nZałożenia Odwołującego co do określonych cen dla tej pozycji nie mogą zostać uznane za jedyne wzorcowe założenia, a każdy z wykonawców kalkuluje cenę w oparciu o swoje, indywidualne założenia. Przystępujący swoje założenia należycie uzasadnił w ramach wyjaśnień ceny, co świadczy o niezasadności zarzutu Odwołującego.\nNie sposób zatem uznać, by cena którą oferuje Przystępujący była rażąco niska, skoro sam Odwołujący oferuje wykonanie zamówienia za ceny niższe, twierdząc jednocześnie, że są to ceny rynkowe.\nW konsekwencji, za niezasadny należy również uznać zarzut naruszenia przez Zamawiającego art. 239 ust. 1 w zw. z art.\n16 pkt 1) i 2) Pzp poprzez wybór dla Postępowania oferty Przystępującego w warunkach braku przejrzystości i nierównego traktowania Wykonawców. Ofertą z najkorzystniejszą ceną, niepodlegającą odrzuceniu, jest oferta Saferoad Services Sp.\nz o.o. Dokonując wyboru oferty tego Wykonawcy Zamawiający nie naruszył ww. przepisów ustawy Pzp. Wszystkie czynności Zamawiającego przeprowadzone w postępowaniu zostały wykonane z zachowaniem zasad uczciwej konkurencji, z zapewnieniem równego traktowania wszystkich wykonawców oraz zgodnie z zasadami proporcjonalności i przejrzystości. Zamawiający przeprowadził postępowanie zgodnie z prawem i w jego granicach, a także z należytą starannością. (...)\nUczestnik po stronie Odwołującego\n- wykonawcy\n\nwspólnie ubiegający się o udzielenie zamówienia: V4 sp. z o.o. – Lider oraz Plus Inwest P. Żygadło sp. j. – Partner z/s w Żernikach Wrocławskich w piśmie procesowym z 8 maja\n2026 r. wskazał: (...)\nPrzystępujący popiera w całości stanowisko Odwołującego. Podniesione w odwołaniu zarzuty wraz z ich uzasadnieniem są w pełni zasadne, gdyż jasno wskazują na naruszenia przepisów p.z.p. polegające w szczególności na zaniechaniu odrzucenia oferty niezgodnej z warunkami zamówienia oraz niewyjaśnieniu istotnych elementów jej ceny, które budzą uzasadnione wątpliwości co do ich realności i zgodności z wymaganiami\nZamawiającego. W konsekwencji powyższe uchybienia miały istotny wpływ na wynik postępowania, co uzasadnia uwzględnienie odwołania w całości.\nKonsorcjum V4 podał (...) składam odwołanie w postępowaniu o udzielenie zamówienia publicznego (...) wobec czynności wyboru oferty Saferoads Services Sp. z o.o. jako oferty najkorzystniejszej oraz zaniechania odrzucenia oferty\nSaferoad Services sp. z o.o., oferty Zaberd sp. z o.o. oraz oferty FbSerwis S.A. jako ofert niezgodnych z warunkami zamówienia oraz zawierających błąd w obliczeniu ceny.\nOdwołujący zarzuca Zamawiającemu:\n1.\nnaruszenie art. 226 ust. 1 pkt 5 p.z.p. w zw. z art. 16 p.z.p. i art. 17 ust. 1 p.z.p.\npoprzez zaniechanie odrzucenia oferty złożonej przez Saferoads Services sp. z o.o., Zaberd sp. z o.o. oraz FbSerwis S.A. pomimo niezgodności treści tych ofert z warunkami zamówienia z uwagi na niezgodną z SWZ ingerencję tych wykonawców w tabelę elementów rozliczeniowych i w konsekwencji wybór oferty złożonej przez Saferoad Services sp. z o.o. jako oferty najkorzystniejszej w postępowaniu;\n2.\nnaruszenie art. 226 ust. 1 pkt 10 p.z.p. w zw. z art. 16 p.z.p. i art. 17 ust. 1 p.z.p.\npoprzez zaniechanie odrzucenia oferty złożonej przez Saferoads Services sp. z o.o., Zaberd sp. z o.o. oraz FbSerwis S.A., pomimo że oferty tych wykonawców zawierają błąd w obliczeniu ceny z uwagi na niezgodną z SWZ ingerencję tych wykonawców w tabelę elementów rozliczeniowych i w konsekwencji wybór oferty złożonej przez Saferoad Services sp. z o.o. jako oferty najkorzystniejszej w postępowaniu.\nOdwołujący wnosi o uwzględnienie odwołania i nakazanie Zamawiającemu:\n1.\nunieważnienia czynności wyboru oferty Saferoads Services sp. z o.o. jako oferty najkorzystniejszej;\n2.\nponowienie czynności badania i oceny ofert w postępowaniu i w jej ramach odrzucenie oferty Saferoads Services sp. z o.o., oferty Zaberd sp. z o.o. oraz oferty FbSerwis S.A.\nWnoszę także o dopuszczenie i przeprowadzenie dowodów z dokumentacji Postępowania, w szczególności z załączonych do odwołania:\n1.\nSpecyfikacji warunków zamówienia w celu wykazania faktu: jej treści, określenia sposobu ceny oferty przez\nZamawiającego, w szczególności zakazu wprowadzania jakichkolwiek zmian do Tabel Elementów Rozliczeniowych przygotowanych przez Zamawiającego,\n2.\nZałącznika nr 2 – Tabele Elementów Rozliczeniowych_S5_v2 zamieszonego na stronie internetowej prowadzonego postępowania w dniu 9.12.2025 r.\nw celu wykazania faktu: ich treści, w szczególności sposobu sformułowania formuł przez Zamawiającego oraz okoliczności, iż formuła przewidziana przez Zamawiającego w Tabelach Elementów Rozliczeniowych dla grupy prac nr 7\n– Urządzenia BRD w wierszu 74 kolumna H przewidywała sumę pozycji cen jednostkowych z wierszy 10 do 72, tj. z pominięciem wiersza 73, w którym należało wycenić prace brygady interwencyjnej - dodatkowe prace wykonywane na polecenie Zamawiającego (poz. 14.2.)\n3.\noferty Saferoads Services sp. z o.o. wraz z Tabelą Elementów Rozliczeniowych w celu wykazania faktu: ingerencji tego\nWykonawcy w formularz przygotowany przez\nZamawiającego, tj.: niezgodnego z SWZ wypełnienia TABELI ELEMENTÓW ROZLICZENIOWYCH przez Saferoads\nServices sp. z o.o.\n4.\noferty Zaberd sp. z o.o.\nwraz z Tabelą Elementów Rozliczeniowych w celu wykazania faktu: ingerencji tego Wykonawcy w formularz przygotowany przez Zamawiającego, tj. niezgodnego z SWZ wypełnienia TABELI ELEMENTÓW\nROZLICZENIOWYCH przez Zaberd sp. z o.o.\n5.\noferty FbSerwis S.A. wraz z Tabelą Elementów Rozliczeniowych w celu wykazania faktu: ingerencji tego Wykonawcy w formularz przygotowany przez Zamawiającego, tj.: niezgodnego z SWZ wypełnienia TABELI ELEMENTÓW\nROZLICZENIOWYCH przez FbSerwis S.A.\n6.\noferty Odwołującego wraz z Tabelą Elementów Rozliczeniowych w celu wykazania faktu: zgodnego z SWZ wypełnienia TABELI ELEMENTÓW ROZLICZENIOWYCH przez Odwołującego\n7. oferty Budia-Standard sp. z o.o. wraz z Tabelą Elementów Rozliczeniowych w celu wykazania faktu: sposobu wypełnienia TABELI ELEMENTÓW ROZLICZENIOWYCH przez wykonawcę Budia-Standard sp. z o.o.\n(...)\nInteres we wniesieniu odwołania\nOdwołującemu przysługuje prawo do wniesienia odwołania stosownie do art. 505 ust. 1 p.z.p., gdyż ma interes w uzyskaniu przedmiotowego zamówienia i może ponieść szkodę w wyniku naruszenia przez Zamawiającego przepisów ustawy. Odwołujący złożył w niniejszym postępowaniu ofertę, która została sklasyfikowana na trzecim miejscu w rankingu ofert. Naruszenie przez Zamawiającego przepisów przywołanych w niniejszym odwołaniu godzi w interes Odwołującego, gdyż to oferta Odwołującego powinna zostać sklasyfikowana na pierwszym miejscu w rankingu ofert, co umożliwiłoby\nOdwołującemu uzyskanie przedmiotowego zamówienia. W wyniku naruszenia przez Zamawiającego przepisów ustawy\nOdwołujący może ponieść szkodę w postaci nieuzyskania przedmiotowego zamówienia, a tym samym nieosiągnięcia spodziewanego zysku z jego realizacji. W związku z powyższym Odwołujący posiada legitymację do wniesienia niniejszego środka ochrony prawnej. (...)\nW uzasadnieniu stanowiska wskazał na następujące okoliczności: (...)\nPrzedmiot zamówienia obejmuje wykonywanie usług i robót budowlanych z zakresu:\n− bieżącego utrzymania autostrad i dróg ekspresowych,\n− zimowego utrzymania dróg,\n− bieżącego utrzymania czystości na obiektach inżynierskich.\nZamawiający określił 13 grup prac objętych przedmiotem zamówienia, które podlegały odrębnej wycenie w przygotowanych przez Zamawiającego Tabelach Elementów Rozliczeniowych:\n1) utrzymanie nawierzchni dróg;\n2) utrzymanie poboczy i pasów rozdziału;\n3) utrzymanie korpusu drogi,\n4) utrzymanie odwodnienia,\n5) utrzymanie chodników i ścieżek rowerowych,\n6) utrzymanie oznakowania,\n7) utrzymanie urządzeń bezpieczeństwa ruchu,\n8) utrzymanie estetyki znaków, elementów bezpieczeństwa ruchu oraz pasa drogowego,\n9) utrzymania urządzeń wspomagających,\n10) zimowego utrzymania dróg,\n11) pełnienie funkcji Operatora Kontraktu,\n12) utrzymanie czystości na obiektach inżynierskich,\n13) usługi pomocnicze.\nW rozdziale 17 SWZ Zamawiający określił Sposób Obliczenia Ceny Oferty. Zgodnie z pkt 17.1. SWZ cena oferty zostanie wyliczona przez Wykonawcę w oparciu o Tabele Elementów Rozliczeniowych (TER) sporządzone na formularzach stanowiących integralną część SWZ – Tom IV.\nW kolejnych punktach tego rozdziału Zamawiający określił instrukcję wypełniania Tabel Elementów Rozliczeniowych:\n17.2. Tabele Elementów Rozliczeniowych, o których mowa w pkt 17.1., należy wypełnić ściśle według kolejności pozycji wyszczególnionych w tych formularzach, wyliczając poszczególne ceny jednostkowe netto. Wykonawca powinien określić ceny jednostkowe netto oraz wartości netto dla wszystkich pozycji wymienionych w danym formularzu, a następnie wyliczyć Wartość netto łącznie dla poszczególnych grup. Tak wyliczoną Wartość netto należy przenieść do Zbiorczego\nZestawienia Kosztów (ZZK) i obliczyć WARTOŚĆ CAŁKOWITĄ. Na podstawie wyliczonej WARTOŚCI CAŁKOWITEJ\nWykonawca wyceni koszt prawa opcji, o którym mowa w § 4 ust. 1 a pkt 1 i pkt 2 PPU oraz Łączną wartość zamówienia wraz z prawem Opcji brutto, którą przeniesie do pkt 3 Formularza „Oferta” jako cenę ofertową. Wykonawca obliczając cenę oferty musi uwzględniać wszystkie pozycje opisane w danej Tabeli Elementów Rozliczeniowych (TER). Wykonawca nie może samodzielnie wprowadzić żadnych zmian do Tabel Elementów Rozliczeniowych (TER).\n17.3. Przy wycenie Wykonawca winien przestrzegać zasad określonych w uwagach zamieszczonych w Tabelach\nElementów Rozliczeniowych (TER).\nW TER: GRUPA PRAC NR 10 – poz. 2.1 i GRUPA PRAC NR 11 – Zarządzanie kontraktem, Zamawiający przewiduje limit procentowy udział poszczególnych kosztów.\nPrzekroczenie któregokolwiek z ustanowionych limitów w TER dla:\n− GRUPA PRAC NR 1 – poz. 1.1 i 1.2\n−\nGRUPA PRAC NR 2 – poz. 1.3\n− GRUPA PRAC NR 5 – poz. 1.3\n−\nGRUPA PRAC NR 6 – poz. 5.2\n− GRUPA PRAC NR 7 – poz. 9.1 i 9.2\n− GRUPA PRAC NR 8 – poz. 3.1 i 9.1\n− GRUPA PRAC NR 10 – poz. 2.1: Całodobowa gotowość pługosolarki liczona za dobę w której brak było pracy lub dyżuru pługosolarki,\n− GRUPA PRAC NR 11 i Zbiorcze Zestawienie Kosztów – poz. nr 11: Zarządzanie\nKontraktem, spowoduje odrzucenie oferty Wykonawcy.\nTabele Elementów Rozliczeniowych (TER) to odpowiednio sformatowany przez Zamawiającego plik w formacie .xlsx –\nArkusz Programu Microsoft Excel, który obejmował 14 formularzy – 13 formularzy odpowiadających poszczególnym grupom prac (Grupa prac nr 1 – Grupa prac nr 13) oraz formularz zbiorczego zestawienia kosztów (ZZK). Tabele\nElementów Rozliczeniowych są kluczowym narzędziem służącym do kalkulacji ceny oferty oraz późniejszego rozliczania\nZamawiającego z Wykonawcą na etapie realizacji zamówienia.\nFormularze TER zostały tak sformatowane przez Zamawiającego, że jeżeli wykonawca wypełnił pozycje cen jednostkowych netto w formularzach dla poszczególnych grup prac w odpowiedniej kolumnie, łączna wartość netto danej pozycji (danego rodzaju prac) obliczała się automatycznie. Automatycznie wyliczała się również suma wartości netto wszystkich pozycji podlegających wycenie w danym formularzu, tj. wartość netto danej grupy prac. Suma ta (wartość netto danej grupy prac) automatycznie pojawiała się również w odpowiednim miejscu w tabeli Zbiorczego Zestawienia\nKosztów (arkusz nr 14).\nOznacza to, że wykonawca nie był zobowiązany samodzielnie dokonywać działań rachunkowych polegających na sumowaniu określonych pozycji, gdyż wartości te zliczały się automatycznie. Automatycznie, na podstawie danych dla poszczególnych grup prac, wypełniał się także arkusz nr 14 – Zbiorcze Zestawienie Kosztów.\nCo istotne, specyfikacja przewidywała wyraźny zakaz wprowadzania jakichkolwiek zmian w Tabelach Rozliczeniowych.\nOznacza to, że wykonawca nie mógł samodzielnie wprowadzić zmian w określonych przez Zamawiającego formułach.\nFormuła przewidziana przez Zamawiającego w Tabelach Elementów Rozliczeniowych dla grupy prac nr 7 – Urządzenia\nBRD w pozycji H74 brzmi następująco: =ZAOKR(SUMA(H10:H72);2)\nFormuła ta sumuje zakres wartości określonych w pozycjach H10:H72, a następnie zaokrągla wynik do 2 miejsc po przecinku.\nCeny jednostkowe w ramach grupy prac nr 7 należało wypełnić w pozycjach F10 do F73, ale formularz przewidziany przez Zamawiającego przewidywał jako łączną wartość sumę pozycji od F10 do F72. Wartość poszczególnych pozycji w kolumnie H (w pozycjach od H10 do H73) obliczała się automatycznie jako iloczyn ceny jednostkowej wskazywanej przez wykonawcę w kolumnie F oraz ilości przewidzianych przez Zamawiającego dla poszczególnych prac określonych w kolumnie G.\nW wierszu 74 kolumna H przewidywała sumę pozycji cen jednostkowych z wierszy od 10 do 72, tj. z pominięciem wiersza\n73, w którym należało wycenić prace brygady interwencyjnej - dodatkowe prace wykonywane na polecenie Zamawiającego\n(poz. 14.2.). Zamawiający skonstruował formularz w taki sposób, aby wartość tej konkretnej pozycji (mimo jej wyceny) nie wpływała na łączną wartość prac Grupy nr 7, a co za tym idzie – na cenę oferty w zakresie podstawowym, jak i całkowitą cenę ofertową podlegającą ocenie w kryterium oceny ofert „Cena”.\nOdwołujący, zgodnie z treścią SWZ i wyrażonym wprost przez Zamawiającego zakazem ingerencji w przedmiotową tabelę, nie dokonał żadnej ingerencji w przewidziane przez Zamawiającego formuły. Podobnie Tabele Elementów\nRozliczeniowych wypełnił wykonawca BUDIA-Standard sp. z o.o., tj. bez jakiejkolwiek ingerencji w formuły Zamawiającego w Tabelach Elementów Rozliczeniowych.\nTymczasem zarówno Saferoad Services sp. z o.o., jak i\nZABERD Sp. z o.o.\noraz FbSerwis S.A. dokonali ingerencji w przygotowane przez Zamawiającego Tabele Elementów Rozliczeniowych w ten sposób, że w pozycji H74 wskazali sumę wartości określonych w pozycjach H10:H73,a nie jak przewidywał przygotowany przez Zamawiającego formularz w pozycjach H10:H72.\nOznacza to, że zmodyfikowali oni pierwotnie zadaną przez\nZamawiającego formułę, w ten sposób, że sumowała ona zakres wartości określonych w pozycjach H10:H73, a następnie zaokrągla wynik do 2 miejsc po przecinku lub wpisali te wartości ręcznie, usuwając formułę przewidzianą przez\nZamawiającego. Tego rodzaju ingerencja winna być uznana za niezgodną ze Specyfikacją Warunków Zamówienia, która skutkować powinna odrzuceniem oferty wykonawców Saferoad Services, Zaberd i FbSerwis.\nA.\nPozycja 14.2 w ofercie Saferoad Services Sp. z o.o.\nWykonawca Saferoad Services Sp. z o.o. w swojej ofercie dokonał pełnej wyceny Grupy Prac nr 7 na kwotę 4 180 738,64 zł netto. Analiza formularza wykazuje, że kwota ta jest sumą wszystkich pozycji składowych w wierszach H10 do H73, w tym pozycji 14.2. Suma wierszy H10 do H72 wynosi natomiast 4 077 883,64 zł netto i to ta wartość powinna zgodnie ze wzorem formularza TER przygotowanym przez Zamawiającego widnieć jako wartość całkowita grupy prac nr 7 i zostać przeniesiona do pola C16 ZZK, tj. do pozycji 7 ZZK – wartość netto grupy prac nr 7 – Urządzenia BRD.\nElement kalkulacji\nDane z oferty Saferoad\nWartość netto [PLN]\nPozycja 14.2 (jm: godz.)\nCena jedn.\n: 68,57 x Ilość: 1 500\n102 855,00\nSuma pozostałych pozycji (1.1\n-\n14.1)\nAgregacja wartości z kolumny H\n4 077 883,64\nSuma „RAZEM” Grupa 7\nWykazana w ofercie i ZZK\n4 180 738,64\nSaferoad doliczył wartość pozycji 14.2 (pole H73) w kwocie 102 855,00 zł do sumy całkowitej grupy prac nr 7, która następnie stała się podstawą do wyliczenia ceny ofertowej brutto oraz określenia udziału procentowego tej grupy w ZZK.\nB.Pozycja 14.2 w ofercie Zaberd Sp. z o.o.\nPodobny schemat postępowania zaobserwowano w ofercie firmy Zaberd Sp. z o.o. Wykonawca ten wycenił Grupę prac nr\n7 na łączną kwotę 4 015 900,00 netto. Analiza formularza wykazuje, że kwota ta jest sumą wszystkich pozycji składowych w wierszach H10 do H73, w tym pozycji 14.2. Suma wierszy H10 do H72 wynosi natomiast 3 790 900,00 zł netto i to ta wartość powinna zgodnie ze wzorem formularza TER przygotowanym przez Zamawiającego widnieć jako wartość całkowita grupy prac nr 7 i zostać przeniesiona do pola C16 ZZK, tj. do pozycji 7 ZZK – wartość netto grupy prac nr 7 –\nUrządzenia BRD.\nElement kalkulacji\nDane z oferty Zaberd\nWartość netto [PLN]\nPozycja 14.2 (jm: godz)\nCena jedn: 150,00 x Ilość: 1 500\n225 000,00\nSuma pozostałych pozycji (1.1\n- 14.1)\nAgregacja wartości z kolumny H\n3 790 900,00\nSuma „RAZEM” Grupa 7\nWykazana w ofercie i ZZK\n4 015 900,00\nZaberd doliczył wartość pozycji 14.2 (pole H73) w kwocie 225 000,00 zł do sumy całkowitej grupy prac nr 7, która następnie stała się podstawą do wyliczenia ceny ofertowej brutto oraz określenia udziału procentowego tej grupy w ZZK.\nC.\nPozycja 14.2 w ofercie FbSerwis S.A.\nWykonawca FbSerwis S.A. w swojej ofercie dokonał pełnej wyceny Grupy 7 na kwotę 5 241 599,70 zł netto. Analiza formularza wykazuje, że kwota ta jest sumą wszystkich pozycji składowych, w tym pozycji 14.2. Suma wierszy H10 do\nH72 wynosi natomiast 4 939 664,70 zł netto i to ta wartość powinna zgodnie ze wzorem formularza TER przygotowanym przez Zamawiającego widnieć jako wartość całkowita grupy prac nr 7 i zostać przeniesiona do pola C16 ZZK, tj. do pozycji\n7 ZZK – wartość netto grupy prac nr 7 – Urządzenia BRD.\nElement kalkulacji\nDane z oferty FbSerwis\nWartość netto [PLN]\nPozycja 14.2 (jm: godz)\nCena jedn: 201,29 x Ilość: 1 500\n301 935,00\nSuma pozostałych pozycji (1.1\n-\n14.1)\nAgregacja wartości z kolumny H\n4 939 664,70\nSuma „RAZEM” Grupa 7\nWykazana w ofercie i ZZK\n5 241 599,70\nFbSerwis doliczył wartość pozycji 14.2 (pole H73) w kwocie 301 935,00 zł do sumy całkowitej grupy prac nr 7, która następnie stała się podstawą do wyliczenia ceny ofertowej brutto oraz określenia udziału procentowego tej grupy w ZZK.\nDziałanie Wykonawców Saferoad Services sp. z o.o., Zaberd sp. o.o. oraz FBSerwis S.A. polegające na modyfikacji mechanizmu sumowania w arkuszu Grupa Prac nr 7 stanowi bezpośrednie naruszenie zakazu zawartego w pkt 17.2\nSWZ.\nWykonawca zobowiązany był do wypełnienia formularza ściśle według kolejności pozycji i do zachowania integralności tabeli.\nArkusz excel dla grupy prac nr 7 w kolumnie H nie uwzględniał pozycji z wiersza 73 (pozycja 14.2.) w sumie wszystkich pozycji znajdującej się w wierszu 74. Zamawiający tak skonstruował formularz, aby wartość tej konkretnej pozycji nie wpływała na łączną wartość prac z grupy 7, a co za tym idzie na całkowitą cenę ofertową podlegającą ocenie w kryterium\n„Cena”.\nPrzyczyny wyłączenia pola H73 (pozycji 14.2) w arkuszu grupy prac nr 7 z sumowania dla potrzeb ustalenia łącznej wartości prac w tej grupie przez Zamawiającego mogły być różne. Odwołujący może jedynie snuć przypuszczenia, dlaczego Zamawiający w ten sposób sformatował tabele TER. Poniżej Odwołujący przedstawia trzy potencjalne scenariusze.\n1.\nKoszty warunkowe: Jedną z możliwych przyczyn wyłączenia pola H73 z sumy było uznanie, że prace, których wartość należało określić w tej pozycji należy traktować jako prace warunkowe. Sam opis pozycji 14.2 zakładał, że prace brygady interwencyjnej obejmują dodatkowe prace wykonywane na polecenie Zamawiającego. Zamawiający mógł traktować wartość prac brygady interwencyjnej jako pulę środków, która nie powinna być przedmiotem rywalizacji cenowej (np. ze względu na jej nieprzewidywalność na etapie realizacji zamówienia).\n2.\nJednolitość bazy ocennej: Wyłączenie pozycji H73 z sumy mogło służyć wyrównaniu szans i uniemożliwieniu manipulowania ceną poprzez nierealne stawki godzinowe w pozycji o dużej szacunkowej liczbie godzin (1 500 h).\n3.\nBłąd w formularzu: Brak uwzględnienia pozycji 14.2 w całkowitej wartości prac podlegających wycenie w grupie prac nr\n7 mógł stanowić przeoczenie czy też błąd Zamawiającego.\nJeżeli uznać, że mamy do czynienia z błędem Zamawiającego w przygotowaniu formularza, a intencją Zamawiającego było, aby łączna wartość netto prac w arkuszu GRUPA PRAC nr 7 – Urządzenia BRD odpowiadała sumie wszystkich pozycji podlegających wycenie w tym formularzu, tj. od poz. H10 do poz. H73, to mając na względzie brzmienie pkt 17.2.\nSWZ żaden wykonawca nie miał prawa samodzielnie poprawiać określonej przez Zamawiającego formuły w arkuszach\nTER. Kwestia ta nie została wyjaśniona przed terminem składania ofert w trybie zapytań do SWZ stosowanie do art. 135 p.z.p., a zatem wykonawcy byli zobligowani do wypełnienia formularzy TER zgodnie z wzorem opublikowanym przez\nZamawiającego na stronie prowadzonego postępowania.\nWobec powyższego, nawet gdyby uznać, że zastosowana przez trzech wykonawców formuła odpowiadała intencji\nZamawiającego, aby łączna wartość netto prac w arkuszu GRUPA PRAC nr 7 – Urządzenia BRD odpowiadała sumie wszystkich pozycji podlegających wycenie w tym formularzu, tj. od poz. 10 do poz. 73, to żaden z wykonawców wobec brzmienia pkt 17.2 in fine SWZ pod rygorem odrzucenia jego oferty, nie był uprawniony do wprowadzenia zmian w przygotowanych przez Zamawiającego arkuszach TABEL ELEMENTÓW ROZLICZENIOWYCH, które przewidywały sumowanie wyłącznie wartości określonych w poz.\nH10 do poz. H72.\nTego rodzaju błąd Zamawiającego – prowadzący do nieporównywalności złożonych ofert – nie może bowiem obciążać wykonawców, którzy wypełnili formularz TER zgodnie z SWZ. Natomiast wykonawca, który złożył ofertę niezgodną z warunkami zamówienia, musi liczyć się z sankcją w postaci odrzucenia jego oferty. Warunki zamówienia co do zasad wypełniania TER zostały określone przez Zamawiającego w sposób precyzyjny i jednoznaczny.\nW niniejszym postępowaniu Zamawiający zaniechał należytego i rzetelnego zbadania złożonych w postępowaniu ofert, gdyż nie wychwycił, że oferty trzech wykonawców – Saferoad Services, Zaberd oraz FbSerwis uwzględniają w cenie także wartość pozycji 14.2 arkusza grupa prac nr 7, podczas gdy oferty Odwołującego oraz BUDIA-Standard sp. z o.o. tej wartości nie uwzględniają. Zamawiający nie dokonał zatem sprawdzenia matematycznej poprawności sum poszczególnych pozycji wskazanych w ofertach wykonawców, co świadczy o braku rzetelnego zbadania i oceny ofert przez Zamawiającego. Tym samym Zamawiający naruszył podstawowe zasady udzielania zamówień publicznych.\nNależy nadmienić, że Zamawiający przewidział w Tabelach Elementów Rozliczeniowych obowiązek zachowania określonych relacji cenowych dla wybranych grup i pozycji. W Zbiorczym Zestawieniu Kosztów w kolumnie G dla każdej grupy prac wskazano Rekomendowaną przez Zamawiającego relację procentową ceny brutto danej grupy robót w stosunku do wartości całkowitej ceny oferty brutto – nie więcej niż % z zastrzeżeniem kolumny F. Z kolei w kolumnie F\nZbiorczego Zestawienia Kosztów wskazano dopuszczalną zmianę wymaganej relacji, o której mowa w kolumnie E\n[+%].\nPamiętać przy tym należy, że formuły związane z przenoszeniem poszczególnych wartości do Zbiorczego Zestawienia\nKosztów zostały określone przez samego Zamawiającego. Dla pola C16 w Zbiorczym Zestawieniu Kosztów formuła brzmiała następująco: ='GR 7'!H74\nFormuła ta oznacza, że Excel pobiera wartość z komórki H74 z arkusza o nazwie „GR 7”.\nNadto należy zauważyć, że dla Grupy Prac nr 11 – Zarządzanie Kontraktem Zamawiający wskazał, że - \"Wartość netto danej grupy\" (kolumna C) dla Grupy 11 Zarządzanie kontraktem ≤ 14,35 % od sumy \"Wartość netto danej grupy\" (kolumna\nC) grup robót nr 1÷10 + 12÷13, z zastrzeżeniem dopuszczalnej zmiany relacji, o której mowa w ZZK, kolumna F poz. 11.\nOznacza to, że wartość poszczególnych grup prac powinna mieścić się w przedziale określonym w tabeli poniżej:\nGrupa robót\nNazwa grupy\nRekomendowana przez\nZamawiającego relacja procentowa ceny brutto danej grupy robót w stosunku do wartości całkowitej ceny oferty brutto - nie więcej niż\n% z zastrzeżeniem kolumny f\nDopuszczalna zmiana wymaganej relacji o której mowa w kolumnie e [+ %]\nMin.\nMax.\na\nB e f\nNawierzchnia\n1,15%\n0,23%\n0,92%\n1,38%\nPobocza i pasy rozdziału\n0,11%\n0,02%\n0,09%\n0,13%\nKorpus drogi\n0,28%\n0,06%\n0,22%\n0,34%\nOdwodnienie\n17,89%\n3,58%\n14,31%\n21,47%\nChodniki, ścieżki rowerowe\n0,63%\n0,13%\n0,50%\n0,76%\nOznakowanie\n2,58%\n0,52%\n2,06%\n3,10%\nUrządzenia BRD\n15,63%\n3,13%\n12,50%\n18,76%\nEstetyka\n21,83%\n4,37%\n17,46%\n26,20%\nUrządzenia wspomagające\n0,91%\n0,18%\n0,73%\n1,09%\nZimowe utrzymanie dróg\n20,49%\n4,10%\n16,39%\n24,59%\nZarządzanie kontraktem *\n14,35%\n2,87%\n11,48%\n17,22%\nCzystość na obiektach inżynierskich\n3,88%\n0,78%\n3,10%\n4,66%\nPrace pomocnicze\n0,27%\n0,05%\n0,22%\n0,32%\nPODSUMOWANIE GRUP 1 - 13\nWARTOŚĆ CAŁKOWITA:\n100,00%\nA.\nRelacje procentowe poszczególnych pozycji cenowych w ofercie Saferoad Services Sp. z o.o.\nGdyby Saferoad Services sp. z o.o. wypełnił Tabele Elementów Rozliczeniowych zgodnie z wzorem zamieszczonym przez Zamawiającego na stronie prowadzonego postępowania (tj. bez doliczania w Grupie 7 wartości poz. 11.2) to nie zachowałby wymaganych przez Zamawiającego relacji procentowych dla następujących Grup Prac: Grupa Prac nr 8 –\nEstetyka, Grupa Prac nr 9 – Urządzenia wspomagające oraz Grupa Prac nr 11 – Zarządzanie Kontraktem, co obrazuje poniższa tabela.\nGrupa robót\nNazwa grupy\nWartość netto danej grupy\n[zł]\nWartość brutto danej grupy\n[zł]\n%\nRekomendowan a przez\nZamawiającego relacja procentowa ceny brutto danej grupy robót w stosunku do wartości całkowitej ceny oferty brutto - nie więcej niż\n% z zastrzeżeniem kolumny f\nDopuszczaln a zmiana wymaganej relacji o której mowa w kolumnie e\n[+ %]\nMin.\nMax\n.\na b c d e f\nNawierzchnia\n203 654,50\n250 495,04\n0,92%\n1,15%\n0,23%\n0,92%\n1,38%\nPobocza i pasy rozdziału\n21 609,00\n26 579,07\n0,10%\n0,11%\n0,02%\n0,09%\n0,13%\nKorpus drogi\n74 863,00\n92 081,49\n0,34%\n0,28%\n0,06%\n0,22%\n0,34%\nOdwodnienie\n4 098 778,90\n5 041 498,05\n18,47%\n17,89%\n3,58%\n14,31%\n21,47%\nChodniki, ścieżki rowerowe\n112 805,00\n138 750,15\n0,51%\n0,63%\n0,13%\n0,50%\n0,76%\nOznakowanie\n559 401,70\n688 064,09\n2,52%\n2,58%\n0,52%\n2,06%\n3,10%\nUrządzenia BRD\n4 077 883,64\n5 015 796,88\n18,38%\n15,63%\n3,13%\n12,50%\n18,76%\nEstetyka\n2 455 237,95\n3 019 942,68\n11,07%\n21,83%\n4,37%\n17,46 %\n26,20 %\nUrządzenia wspomagające\n157 947,90\n194 275,92\n0,71%\n0,91%\n0,18%\n0,73%\n1,09%\nZimowe utrzymanie dróg\n5 480 588,18\n6 741 123,46\n24,70%\n20,49%\n4,10%\n16,39%\n24,59%\nZarządzanie kontraktem *\n3 837 400,20\n4 720 002,25\n17,30%\n14,35%\n2,87%\n11,48 %\n17,22 %\nCzystość na obiektach inżynierskich\n1 038 060,00\n1 276 813,80\n4,68%\n3,88%\n0,78%\n3,10%\n4,66%\nPrace pomocnicze\n68 815,68\n84 643,29\n0,31%\n0,27%\n0,05%\n0,22%\n0,32%\nPODSUMOWANIE GRUP 1 -\n27 290 066,17\n100,00\n%\nWARTOŚĆ CAŁKOWITA:\n22 187 045,65\n27 290\n066,17\n100,00%\nB.\nRelacje procentowe poszczególnych pozycji cenowych w ofercie Zaberd Sp. z o.o.\nGdyby Zaberd sp. z o.o. wypełnił Tabele Elementów Rozliczeniowych zgodnie z wzorem zamieszczonym przez\nZamawiającego na stronie prowadzonego postępowania (tj. bez doliczania w Grupie 7 wartości poz. 11.2) to nie zachowałby wymaganych przez Zamawiającego relacji procentowych dla następujących Grup Prac: Grupa Prac nr 11 –\nZarządzanie Kontraktem, co obrazuje poniższa tabela.\nGrupa robót\nNazwa grupy\nWartość netto danej grupy\n[zł]\nWartość brutto danej grupy\n[zł]\nRekomendowana przez\nZamawiającego relacja procentowa ceny brutto danej grupy robót w stosunku do wartości całkowitej ceny oferty brutto - nie więcej niż\n% z zastrzeżeniem kolumny f\nDopuszczalna zmiana wymaganej relacji o której mowa w kolumnie e\n[+ %] min max a b c d e f\nNawierzchnia\n303 570,50\n373 391,72\n1,36%\n1,15%\n0,23%\n0,92%\n1,38%\nPobocza i pasy rozdziału\n27 150,00\n33 394,50\n0,12%\n0,11%\n0,02%\n0,09%\n0,13%\nKorpus drogi\n73 590,00\n90 515,70\n0,33%\n0,28%\n0,06%\n0,22%\n0,34%\nOdwodnienie\n3 428 651,00\n4 217 240,73\n15,41%\n17,89%\n3,58%\n14,31%\n21,47%\nChodniki, ścieżki rowerowe\n145 070,00\n178 436,10\n0,65%\n0,63%\n0,13%\n0,50%\n0,76%\nOznakowanie\n685 450,00\n843 103,50\n3,08%\n2,58%\n0,52%\n2,06%\n3,10%\nUrządzenia BRD\n3 790 900,00\n4 662 807,00\n17,04%\n15,63%\n3,13%\n12,50%\n18,76%\nEstetyka\n4 721 467,70\n5 807 405,27\n21,23%\n21,83%\n4,37%\n17,46%\n26,20%\nUrządzenia wspomagające\n241 300,00\n296 799,00\n1,08%\n0,91%\n0,18%\n0,73%\n1,09%\nZimowe utrzymanie dróg\n4 364 836,80\n5 368 749,26\n19,62%\n20,49%\n4,10%\n16,39%\n24,59%\nZarządzanie kontraktem *\n3 866 400,00\n4 755 672,00\n17,38%\n14,35%\n2,87%\n11,48%\n17,22%\nCzystość na obiektach inżynierskich\n524 000,00\n644 520,00\n2,36%\n3,88%\n0,78%\n3,10%\n4,66%\nPrace pomocnicze\n71 904,00\n88 441,92\n0,32%\n0,27%\n0,05%\n0,22%\n0,32%\nPODSUMOWANIE GRUP 1 - 13\n27 360 476,70\n100,00%\nWARTOŚĆ CAŁKOWITA:\n22 244 290,00\n27 360 476,70\n100,00%\nC.\nRelacje procentowe poszczególnych pozycji cenowych w ofercie FbSerwis S.A.\nGdyby FbSerwis S.A. wypełnił Tabele Elementów Rozliczeniowych zgodnie z wzorem zamieszczonym przez\nZamawiającego na stronie prowadzonego postępowania (tj. bez doliczania w Grupie 7 wartości poz. 11.2) to nie zachowałby wymaganych przez Zamawiającego relacji procentowych dla następujących Grup Prac: Grupa Prac nr 1 –\nNawierzchnia, Grupa Prac nr 4 – Odwodnienie, Grupa Prac nr 7 – Urządzenia BRD, Grupa Prac nr 8 – Estetyka, Grupa\nPrac nr 9 – Urządzenia Wspomagające, Grupa Prac nr 10 – Zimowe Utrzymanie Dróg, Grupa Prac nr 11 – Zarządzanie\nKontraktem, co obrazuje poniższa tabela.\nGrupa robót\nNazwa grupy\nWartość netto danej grupy\n[zł]\nWartość brutto danej grupy\n[zł]\nRekomendowana przez\nZamawiającego relacja procentowa ceny brutto danej grupy robót w stosunku do wartości całkowitej ceny oferty brutto - nie więcej niż\n% z zastrzeżeniem kolumny f\nDopuszczalna zmiana wymaganej relacji o której mowa w kolumnie e\n[+ %] min max a b c d e f\nNawierzchnia\n551 129,50\n677 889,29\n1,39%\n1,15%\n0,23%\n0,92%\n1,38%\nPobocza i pasy rozdziału\n49 975,50\n61 469,87\n0,13%\n0,11%\n0,02%\n0,09%\n0,13%\nKorpus drogi\n111 863,00\n137 591,49\n0,28%\n0,28%\n0,06%\n0,22%\n0,34%\nOdwodnienie\n3 647 550,45\n4 486 487,05\n9,20%\n17,89%\n3,58%\n14,31%\n21,47%\nChodniki, ścieżki rowerowe\n251 494,70\n309 338,48\n0,63%\n0,63%\n0,13%\n0,50%\n0,76%\nOznakowanie\n1 030 708,35\n1 267 771,27\n2,60%\n2,58%\n0,52%\n2,06%\n3,10%\nUrządzenia BRD\n4 939 664,70\n6 075 787,58\n12,46%\n15,63%\n3,13%\n12,50%\n18,76%\nEstetyka\n10 462 684,99\n12 869 102,54\n26,39%\n21,83%\n4,37%\n17,46%\n26,20%\nUrządzenia wspomagające\n243 478,00\n299 477,94\n0,61%\n0,91%\n0,18%\n0,73%\n1,09%\nZimowe utrzymanie dróg\n9 823 414,74\n12 082 800,13\n24,78%\n20,49%\n4,10%\n16,39%\n24,59%\nZarządzanie kontraktem *\n6 879 267,72\n8 461 499,30\n17,35%\n14,35%\n2,87%\n11,48%\n17,22%\nCzystość na obiektach inżynierskich\n1 550 070,00\n1 906 586,10\n3,91%\n3,88%\n0,78%\n3,10%\n4,66%\nPrace pomocnicze\n108 480,00\n133 430,40\n0,27%\n0,27%\n0,05%\n0,22%\n0,32%\nPODSUMOWANIE GRUP 1 - 13\n48 769 231,44\n100,00%\nWARTOŚĆ CAŁKOWITA:\n39 649 781,65\n48 769 231,44\n100,00%\nNaruszenie przez trzech w/w wykonawców przewidzianych przez Zamawiającego zasad sumowania w arkuszu Grupa\nPrac nr 7 ma zatem daleko idące konsekwencje dla oceny zgodności całości oferty z warunkami zamówienia, w tym w zakresie wyceny kluczowej części oferty dotyczącej zarządzania kontraktem. Zamawiający w punkcie 17.3 SWZ oraz w uwagach do ZZK nałożył sztywny limit: wartość netto Grupy prac nr 11 nie może przekroczyć 14,35% sumy wartości netto grup robót nr 1-13 z uwzględnieniem dopuszczalnego odchylenia określonego w kolumnie F.\nJeśli Wykonawcy Saferoad Services, Zaberd i FbSerwis niezgodnie z wymaganiami określonymi przez Zamawiającego powiększyli wartość sumy prac podlegających wycenie w Grupie Prac nr 7 o wartość pozycji 14.2, to automatycznie zwiększyli bazę (mianownik), od którego liczony jest limit wartości prac dla Grupy 11. Pozwoliło im to na zaoferowanie wyższej ceny za zarządzanie kontraktem, co przy sumowaniu zgodnym z określonym przez Zamawiającego wzorem doprowadziłoby do przekroczenia progu 14,35% i dopuszczalnych odchyleń i odrzucenia oferty jako niezgodnej z warunkami zamówienia, tj. postanowieniami pkt 17.3 SWZ.\nZgodnie z art. 226 ust. 1 pkt 5 ustawy p.z.p. Zamawiający odrzuca ofertę, jeżeli jej treść jest niezgodna z warunkami zamówienia. Przepis ten jest skorelowany z art. 218 ust. 2 p.z.p., zgodnie z którym treść oferty musi być zgodna z wymaganiami zamawiającego określonymi w dokumentach zamówienia. Warunki zamówienia w niniejszym postępowaniu obejmowały nie tylko zakres rzeczowy, ale również rygorystyczną metodologię wypełniania formularzy TER i obliczenia ceny oferty opartą na nienaruszalności formularzy TER. Uchybienie Zamawiającego można zatem zakwalifikować nie tylko jako zaniechanie odrzucenia ofert niezgodnych z warunkami zamówienia, ale także jako zaniechanie odrzucenia ofert zawierających błąd w obliczeniu ceny – o czym w dalszej części odwołania.\nW warunkach niniejszego postępowania Zamawiający nie ma możliwości poprawienia ofert wykonawców Saferoad\nServices, Zaberd oraz FbSerwis jako oczywistych omyłek rachunkowych, gdyż nie mają one takiego charakteru, ani jako poprawienia innych omyłek polegających na niezgodności oferty z dokumentami zamówienia stosownie do art. 223 ust. 2 pkt 3 p.z.p.\nZgodnie z tym przepisem poprawie podlegają bowiem wyłącznie omyłki niepowodujące istotnych zmian w treści oferty. Tymczasem uwzględnienie pola H73 (pozycji 14.2) w sumie określonej w pozycji H74 arkusza GR7 nie może być uznanie za taką omyłkę z następujących względów:\n1)\nZmiana ma charakter istotny – kwoty określone przez poszczególnych wykonawców w pozycji H73 są wartościami mającymi znaczenia dla wyliczenia ceny oferty oraz relacji %, które należało zachować dla poszczególnych grup prac;\n2)\nŚwiadome działanie wykonawców – omyłka to niezamierzony błąd lub przeoczenie, tymczasem wykonawcy Saferoad\nServices, Zaberd oraz FbSerwis musieli celowo zmodyfikować formułę sumującą w pliku excel (dane w polu H74) lub ręcznie wpisać tę pozycję podczas agregacji danych do ZZK, co wyklucza przypadkowy charakter błędu;\n3)\nZasada nienaruszalności TER – postanowienie pkt 17.2 in fine SWZ wyraźnie zakazuje dokonywania jakichkolwiek zmian w Tabelach Elementów Rozliczeniowych. Zamawiający w sposób jednoznaczny zakazał ingerencji w strukturę i mechanizm obliczeniowy przewidziane w formularzach TER.\nPotwierdza to wyrok Krajowej Izby Odwoławczej z dnia 23 marca 2021 r. w sprawie o sygn. akt KIO 252/21: „omyłka nie może polegać na celowym działaniu wykonawcy co do zmiany założeń zawartych w specyfikacji istotnych warunków zamówienia na własne. Nie oznacza to jednak, że musi być to jedynie błąd techniczny (na podobieństwo omyłki pisarskiej) ani oznaczać braku świadomości wykonawcy co do swoich działań – po prostu musi być to niezamierzona, niecelowa niezgodność ze specyfikacją istotnych warunków zamówienia”.\nPodobnie wypowiada się Krajowa Izba Odwoławcza w wyroku z dnia 19 stycznia 2023 r. w sprawie o sygn. akt KIO 54/23:\n„Poprawienie nieprawidłowości z art. 223 ust. 2 pkt 3 ustawy p.z.p. występującej w ofercie uzależnione od ustalenia, że zauważona niezgodność musi mieć charakter omyłki, a nie celowego działania wykonawcy polegającego na świadomym złożeniu oświadczenia woli o określonej treści. Obowiązek zamawiającego poprawienia omyłek nieoczywistych dopuszcza poprawienie niedopatrzeń, błędów niezamierzonych, opuszczeń, drobnych różnic itp., lecz wszystkie te zmiany muszą mieścić się w pojęciu «omyłki». Zatem z założenia umyślne zastosowanie rozwiązania całkowicie odmiennego od wymagań zamawiającego nie może być traktowane jako omyłka w tym sensie, który nadaje jej przepis art.\n223 ust. 2 pkt 3 ustawy p.z.p.”\nW tych warunkach oferty Saferoad Services sp. z o.o., Zaberd sp. z o.o. oraz FbSerwis sp. z o.o. powinny zostać przez\nZamawiającego odrzucone na podstawie art. 226 ust. 1 pkt 5 p.z.p. jako oferty niezgodne z warunkami zamówienia z uwagi na odmienną od przewidzianej przez Zamawiającego metodologię wyceny oferty w zakresie obliczenia wartości grupy prac nr 7 oraz całkowitej ceny oferty. Nadto, w okolicznościach niniejszej sprawy należy uznać, że oferty złożone przez w/w wykonawców podlegają odrzuceniu także na podstawie art. 226 ust. 1 pkt 10 p.z.p. z uwagi na błąd w obliczeniu ceny, w szczególności z tego względu, że dodanie w arkuszu GR7 wartości pola H73 do sumy określonej w polu H74 wpływa na błędne obliczenie wartości oferty niezgodnie z oczekiwaniami Zamawiającego określonymi poprzez strukturę TER i zastosowanych przez Zamawiającego formuł.\nZamawiający powinien zatem unieważnić czynności wyboru oferty najkorzystniejszej, ponowić czynność badania i oceny ofert i w jej ramach odrzucić oferty wykonawców, którzy dopuścili się niezgodnej z SWZ ingerencji w przygotowane przez Zamawiającego formularze TER.\nOdwołujący wskazuje, że dla uzasadnienia zarzutu nr 2 aktualność zachowują wszelkie uwagi poczynione powyżej.\nNiemniej jednak podkreślenia wymaga, że włączenie w arkuszu GR7 pozycji H73 do sumy, o której mowa w polu H74 stanowi merytoryczną zmianę sposobu obliczenia ceny przez wykonawców Saferoad Services, Zaberd oraz FbSerwis.\nSkoro Zamawiający w formularzu TER wyłączył to pole z sumowania, to jej samowolne doliczenie przez wykonawcę zmienia istotę wyceny grupy robót nr 7, a w konsekwencji wycenę całej oferty.\nCena za zamówienie podstawowe wyliczona została w ofertach tych trzech wykonawców niezgodnie z SWZ, co wpływa także na wadliwe wyliczenie wartości opcji, o której mowa w § 4 ust. 1a pkt 1 PPU, jak też wartość opcji, o której mowa w\n§ 4 ust. 1a pkt 2 PPU, a w konsekwencji na łączną wartość całego zamówienia. Wartość każdej z opcji stanowi 20% wartości całkowitej zamówienia podstawowego, a zatem gdy całkowita cena oferty jest obliczona od błędnie określonej wartości całkowitej za zamówienie podstawowe, to mamy do czynienia z błędem w obliczeniu ceny oferty, który winem skutkować jej odrzuceniem. Nadto, błąd ten rzutuje na poprawność ZZK oraz na zachowanie zadanych limitów procentowych dla poszczególnych pozycji wyceny. Wyłącznie zachowanie integralności struktury formularza TER przez wszystkich wykonawców pozwala na dokonanie sprawiedliwej oceny ofert. „Sztywny” formularz TER stanowi fundament porównywalności ofert złożonych przez poszczególnych wykonawców. Każda ingerencja w strukturę formularza winna skutkować odrzuceniem oferty wykonawcy, który dopuścił się nieuprawnionej ingerencji we wzorze formularza udostępnionego przez Zamawiającego.\nW przeciwnym wypadku dochodzi do rażącego naruszenia przez Zamawiającego zasad uczciwej konkurencji i równego traktowania wykonawców.\n(...)\nDo postępowania odwoławczego przystąpienie po stronie Zamawiającego zgłosił (1) wykonawca Saferoad Services\nSp. z o. o. oraz (2) wykonawca ZABERD Sp. z o.o. z/ s we Wrocławiu wnosząc o oddalenie odwołania.\nWykonawca Saferoad Services w piśmie z 27.04.2026 r. wskazał: (...)\n1.\nOdwołujący zarzuca Przystępującemu „niezgodną z SWZ ingerencję w tabelę elementów rozliczeniowych”, co powinno skutkować odrzuceniem oferty Przystępującego.\n2.\nZarzut Odwołującego jest nietrafny, a nadto Odwołujący przyznał, że wypełnił tabelę elementów rozliczeniowych niezgodnie z warunkami zamówienia, tj. z pkt 17.2. SWZ. Tom 1, co powinno skutkować odrzuceniem oferty\nOdwołującego.\n3.\nPrzystępujący tymczasem wypełnił tabelę elementów rozliczeniowych zgodnie z warunkami zamówienia, w tym zgodnie z pkt 17.2. SWZ. Tom 1. Zgodnie bowiem z pkt 17.2. SWZ. Tom 1, cyt.: „Wykonawca powinien określić ceny jednostkowe netto oraz wartości netto dla wszystkich pozycji wymienionych w danym formularzu, a następnie wyliczyć Wartość netto łącznie dla poszczególnych grup.”, a nadto, cyt.: „Wykonawca obliczając cenę oferty musi uwzględniać wszystkie pozycje opisane w danej Tabeli Elementów Rozliczeniowych (TER).” (podkreślenie Przystępującego).\n4.\nZ powołanych postanowień wyraźnie wynika, że Zamawiający wymagał uwzględnienia wszystkich pozycji – brak jest natomiast informacji o konieczności pominięcia danej pozycji (np. poz. 14.2 w grupie prac nr 7), jak wywodzi Odwołujący.\nBrak też informacji o konieczności posłużenia się przez wykonawców plikiem excel, czy też konieczności skorzystania z zawartych tamże formuł, czy tym bardziej brak wymagania złożenia przez wykonawców tabel elementów rozliczeniowych w postaci pliku excel. Pliki te, a także formuły w nich zawarte, należy bowiem traktować jako pomocnicze – do ewentualnego wykorzystania przez wykonawców. Tego typu praktyka jest stosowana także przez inne Odziały GDDKiA przeprowadzające postępowania przetargowe na analogiczne przedmioty zamówienia.\n5.\nOdwołujący opiera swój tok rozumowania na zdaniu zawartym w postanowieniu pkt 17.2. SWZ. Tom 1, cyt. z odwołania:\n„Wykonawca nie może samodzielnie wprowadzić żadnych zmian do Tabel Elementów Rozliczeniowych (TER).”.\n6.\nPo pierwsze, Odwołujący pomija powołane wyżej przez Przystępującego postanowienia, z których jasno wynika, że wykonawcy byli zobowiązani do uwzględnienia wszystkich pozycji zawartych w tabeli elementów rozliczeniowych – brak było informacji o wyjątku odnoszącym się do pozycji 14.2.\n7.\nPo drugie, Odwołujący pomija także postanowienie pkt 16.8.7. SWZ. Tom 1. Otóż, zgodnie z pkt 16.8.7. SWZ. Tom 1., oferta oraz pozostałe oświadczenia i dokumenty, dla których Zamawiający określił wzory w formie formularzy zamieszczonych w Rozdziale 2 i w Rozdziale 3 Tomu I SWZ, powinny być sporządzone zgodnie z tymi wzorami, co do treści oraz opisu kolumn i wierszy. Dla porządku warto dodać, iż zgodnie z pkt 16.5. SWZ. Tom 1, ofertę stanowi wypełniony Formularz „Oferta” oraz Tabele Elementów Rozliczeniowych.\n8.\nReasumując, Zamawiający nakazał określić ceny jednostkowe dla wszystkich pozycji wymienionych w danym formularzu, a następnie wyliczyć Wartość netto łącznie dla poszczególnych grup, podkreślając, że wykonawca obliczając cenę oferty musi uwzględniać wszystkie pozycje opisane w danej Tabeli Elementów Rozliczeniowych, a nadto\nZamawiający zakazał ingerencji w treść oraz opis kolumn i wierszy wspomnianych tabeli. Zamawiający nie nakazał wykonawcom złożenia tabel w postaci pliku excel, w tym nie wprowadził obowiązku skorzystania z formuł w nim zawartych.\n9.\nBiorąc pod uwagę powyższe, Przystępujący zastosował się do instrukcji Zamawiającego zawartej w SWZ. Tom 1, czego nie da się powiedzieć o Odwołujący, który dokonał wyliczenia ceny niezgodnie z warunkami zamówienia. (...)\nWykonawca ZABERD w piśmie z 28.04.2026 r. wskazał: (...)\n3.\nPrzystępujący podkreśla, że Oferta złożona przez Przystępującego Zaberd Sp. z o.o. jest zgodna z SWZ oraz nie zawiera błędu w obliczeniu ceny.\nI. Błędne założenie Odwołującego\n4.\nZrzuty odwołania dotyczące rzekomej niezgodności oferty Przystępującego z SWZ, a także rzekomego błędu w obliczeniu ceny przez Przystępującego, zgodnie z treścią odwołania opierają się na jednym, całkowicie błędnym założeniu\nOdwołującego. Mianowicie Odwołujący przyjmuje, iż wykonawcy, wypełniając Tabelę Elementów Rozliczeniowych na potrzeby przygotowania ofert, mieli obowiązek korzystania z formuł sumujących w programie Excel.\n5.\nPowyższe założenie Odwołującego jest błędne, gdyż formuły sumujące nie stanowią treści tabel TER.\n6.\nFormuły sumujące to dodatkowa funkcjonalność programu Excel, z której wykonawcy nie mają obowiązku korzystać.\nFunkcjonalności programu Excel mają charakter wyłącznie pomocniczy i to tylko dla wykonawców, którzy zdecydowaliby się korzystać z plików udostępnionych przez Zamawiającego podczas sporządzania oferty. Wymagania Zamawiającego nie przewidują jednak obowiązku korzystania z plików Excel udostępnionych przez Zamawiającego podczas sporządzania oferty.\n7.\nZgodnie z SWZ wykonawcy mogą bowiem wypełnić tabele TER w innym programie, niż Excel, a także wydrukować je i wypełnić ręcznie, a następnie zeskanować do formatu wskazanego w pkt 14.7 IDW. Wobec braku obowiązku korzystania z programu Excel w celu sporządzenia oferty, wykonawcy nie mieli obowiązku korzystania z dodatkowych funkcjonalności tego programu, w tym formuł sumujących.\n8.\nWynika to przede wszystkim z pkt 16.8.7 IDW, zgodnie z którym:\nOferta oraz pozostałe oświadczenia i dokumenty, dla których Zamawiający określił wzory w formie formularzy zamieszczonych w Rozdziale 2 i w Rozdziale 3 Tomu I SWZ, powinny być sporządzone zgodnie z tymi wzorami, co do treści oraz opisu kolumn i wierszy.\n9.\nZ powyższego postanowienia IDW wynika, że Zamawiający nie wymagał sporządzenia tabel TER w plikach udostępnionych przez Zamawiającego, a jedynie zgodnie z ich wzorami. Oznacza to, że zgodnie z SWZ każdy z wykonawców w celu przygotowania oferty mógł we własnym zakresie odwzorować tabele TER (co jest możliwe np.\npoprzez ich wydrukowanie).\n10.\nJednocześnie Przystępujący zdecydowanie zaprzecza twierdzeniom Odwołującego jakoby świadomie zmodyfikował formułę sumującą w programie Excel. Przystępujący nie korzystał bowiem z plików Excel Zamawiającego. Wypełniając tabelę TER Przystępujący stosował się do postanowień SWZ, w których Zamawiający nie zawarł obowiązku stosowania formuł sumujących w programie Excel.\n11.\nCo istotne, zgodnie z pkt 16.8.7 IDW tabele TER, stanowiące cześć Oferty, powinny być sporządzone zgodnie ze wzorami jedynie co do treści oraz opisu kolumn i wierszy. Treść tabel TER to informacje zawarte pod każdą z tych tabel, zawierające instrukcje co do ich wypełnienia oraz nagłówki (tytuły) poszczególnych tabel. Opis kolumn i wierszy to informacje zawarte w treści tabel TER. Formuły sumujące w programie Excel nie były opisane ani w treści tabel, ani też w opisie kolumn i wierszy, wobec czego zgodnie z SWZ mogły zostać przez wykonawców pominięte.\n12.\nWobec powyższego założenie Odwołującego, jakoby wykonawcy, wypełniając Tabelę Elementów Rozliczeniowych na potrzeby przygotowania ofert, mieli obowiązek korzystania z formuł sumujących w programie Excel, nie znajduje potwierdzenia w treści SWZ i jest całkowicie błędne.\nII.\nBłędne wnioski Odwołującego\n13.\nSkutkiem przyjęcia przez Odwołującego powyższego błędnego założenia co do obowiązku stosowania się do formuł sumujących w programie Excel, są dalsze twierdzenia Odwołującego, w tym jakoby:\n- prace z Grupy nr 7 poz. 14.2 TER miałyby podlegać wycenie w ofertach wykonawców, jednak wartość prac z tej pozycji nie miałaby być wliczana ani do łącznej wartości prac objętych Grupą nr 7, ani też do wartości całkowitej przedmiotu zamówienia, czyli do ceny Oferty,\n- w konsekwencji powyższego wartość prac z Grupy nr 7, jak i wartość ceny ofertowej Przystępującego, powinna zostać pomniejszona o cenę prac GR 7 poz. 14.2 TER, tj. o kwotę 225 000 zł netto,\n- w konsekwencji powyższego Przystępujący miałby nie zachować wymaganych przez Zamawiającego relacji procentowych określonych dla poszczególnych Grupach w stosunku do ceny Oferty, co miałoby dotyczyć Grupy nr 11 –\nZarządzanie Kontraktem.\n14.\nPowyższe twierdzenia Odwołującego są błędne nie tylko dlatego, iż opierają się na błędnym założeniu Odwołującego, opisanym w pkt I powyżej, ale przede wszystkim dlatego, iż są sprzeczne z literalną treścią SWZ.\n15.\nJeśli chodzi o twierdzenie Odwołującego, jakoby prace z Grupy nr 7 poz. 14.2 TER miałyby podlegać wycenie przez wykonawców, jednak wartość prac z tej pozycji nie miałaby być wliczana ani do wartości prac objętych Grupą nr 7, ani też do wartości całkowitej przedmiotu zamówienia, czyli do ceny Oferty, to wniosek ten jest sprzeczny z treścią pkt 17.2 zdanie czwarte SWZ. Zgodnie bowiem z tym postanowieniem SWZ:\n„(...) Wykonawca obliczając cenę oferty musi uwzględniać wszystkie pozycje opisane w danej Tabeli Elementów\nRozliczeniowych (TER). (...).\n16.\nPowyższe postanowienie SWZ w sposób jednoznaczny potwierdza, iż cena oferty to suma wartości prac z wszystkich pozycji z tabel TER.\n17.\nWobec powyższego zgodnie z wymaganiami Zamawiającego wartość prac z GR 7 poz. 14.2 TER podlega uwzględnieniu zarówno w cenie Oferty, jak i w łącznej wartości prac objętych Grupą nr 7.\n18.\nJedynie na marginesie Przystępujący dodaje, że przyjęcie powyżej przywołanego twierdzenia Odwołującego za zasadne prowadziłoby ponadto także do szeregu niezgodności z przepisami prawa zamówień publicznych, w tym z zasadą efektywności wydatkowania środków publicznych (oferta z najniższą ceną mogłaby w rzeczywistości taką ofertą nie być) oraz zasadą proporcjonalności (wymaganie nie znajdujące logicznego uzasadnienia), a także do złożenia przez wykonawców ofert, które faktycznie byłyby nieporównywalne. (art. 16 pzp).\n19.\nDalsze twierdzenia Odwołującego (tj. rzekome niezachowanie w Ofercie Przystępującego wymaganych relacji procentowych określonych dla poszczególnych Grupach w stosunku do ceny Oferty, co miałoby dotyczyć Grupy nr 11 –\nZarządzanie Kontraktem) są wynikiem powyżej opisanych, niezgodnych z SWZ założeń Odwołującego i także są całkowicie błędne.\n20.\nWobec powyższego oferta złożona przez Przystępującego jest zgodna z SWZ oraz nie zawiera błędu w obliczeniu ceny, a odwołanie jest w całości bezzasadne. (...)\nZamawiający w odpowiedzi na odwołanie\n(pismo z 29.04.2026 r.) wniósł o oddalenie odwołania. Wskazał w uzasadnieniu na następujące okoliczności: (...) Zamawiający nie zgadza się z przedstawionymi zarzutami z następujących względów:\nUzasadnienie ww. zarzutów oparte jest na przekonaniu Odwołującego o tym, że Zamawiający dokonał wadliwego wyboru oferty najkorzystniejszej Saferoad, z powodu błędu w obliczaniu ceny przez Wykonawców: Saferoad Services sp. z o.o.,\nZaberd sp. z o.o. i FbSerwis S.A. oraz niezgodności tych ofert z warunkami zamówienia polegającej na uwzględnieniu w wartości Grupy Prac nr 7 pozycji 14.2 (prace brygady interwencyjnej), tj. pozycji ujętej w Tabelach Elementów\nRozliczeniowych (TER), lecz – zdaniem Odwołującego – nieuwzględnianej w pierwotnej formule sumującej arkusza\nExcel. Stanowisko Odwołującego jest w ocenie Zamawiającego błędne. Zamawiający wskazuje, iż pozycja 14.2 (prace brygady interwencyjnej) została ujęta w TER Grupa Prac nr 7, posiadała określoną jednostkę miary i ilość, a także zgodnie z pkt 17.2 SWZ musiała zostać wyceniona przez Wykonawców. Twierdzenia Odwołującego o „intencji Zamawiającego” wyłączenia pozycji 14.2 z arkusza prac dla Gr. 7 i co za tym idzie wyłączenia tej pozycji z ceny są irracjonalne i hipotetyczne oraz nie znajdują uzasadnienia w zapisach SWZ. Wszyscy Wykonawcy, w tym Odwołujący dokonali wyceny tej pozycji, co wynika ze złożonych przez Wykonawców Formularzy cenowych. Oznacza to zatem, iż pozycja ta wchodzi do ceny ofertowej, jej wartość ma charakter cenotwórczy oraz podlega uwzględnieniu przy ocenie ofert lub rozliczeniu umowy. Zgodnie z treścią SWZ:\n17.1. Cena oferty zostanie wyliczona przez Wykonawcę w oparciu o Tabele Elementów Rozliczeniowych (TER) sporządzone na formularzach stanowiących integralną część SWZ - Tom IV.\n17.2. Tabele Elementów Rozliczeniowych, o których mowa w pkt 17.1., należy wypełnić ściśle według kolejności pozycji wyszczególnionych w tych formularzach, wyliczając poszczególne ceny jednostkowe netto. Wykonawca powinien określić ceny jednostkowe netto oraz wartości netto dla wszystkich pozycji wymienionych w danym formularzu, a następnie wyliczyć Wartość netto łącznie dla poszczególnych grup. Tak wyliczoną Wartość netto należy przenieść do Zbiorczego\nZestawienia Kosztów (ZZK) i obliczyć WARTOŚĆ CAŁKOWITĄ. Na podstawie wyliczonej WARTOŚCI CAŁKOWITEJ\nWykonawca wyceni koszt prawa opcji, o którym mowa w § 4 ust. 1 a pkt 1 i pkt 2 PPU oraz Łączną wartość zamówienia wraz z prawem Opcji brutto, którą przeniesie do pkt 3 Formularza „Oferta” jako cenę ofertową. Wykonawca obliczając cenę oferty musi uwzględniać wszystkie pozycje opisane w danej Tabeli Elementów Rozliczeniowych (TER). Wykonawca nie może samodzielnie wprowadzić żadnych zmian do Tabel Elementów Rozliczeniowych (TER).\n17.3. Przy wycenie Wykonawca winien przestrzegać zasad określonych w uwagach zamieszczonych w Tabelach\nElementów Rozliczeniowych (TER).\nW TER: GRUPA PRAC NR 10 – poz. 2.1 i GRUPA PRAC NR 11 – Zarządzanie kontraktem, Zamawiający przewiduje limit procentowy udział poszczególnych kosztów.\nPrzekroczenie któregokolwiek z ustanowionych limitów w TER dla:\n-\nGRUPA PRAC NR 1 – poz. 1.1 i 1.2\n-\nGRUPA PRAC NR 2 – poz. 1.3\n-\nGRUPA PRAC NR 5 – poz. 1.3\n-\nGRUPA PRAC NR 6 – poz. 5.2\n-\nGRUPA PRAC NR 7 – poz. 9.1 i 9.2\n-\nGRUPA PRAC NR 8 – poz. 3.1 i 9.1\n-\nGRUPA PRAC NR 10 – poz. 2.1: Całodobowa gotowość pługosolarki liczona za dobę w której brak było pracy lub dyżuru pługosolarki,\n-\nGRUPA PRAC NR 11 i Zbiorcze Zestawienie Kosztów – poz. nr 11: Zarządzanie Kontraktem, spowoduje odrzucenie oferty Wykonawcy.\nZamawiający podkreśla, że intencji normatywnej wymogów pkt. 17 nie można rekonstruować na podstawie technicznej formuły arkusza Excel. Warunki zamówienia w rozumieniu ustawy Pzp obejmują treść SWZ, a nie techniczne rozwiązania zastosowane w formułach Excel, które pełnią wyłącznie funkcję pomocniczą i techniczną dla wykonawców, mogącą ułatwić wypełnianie formularzy. Decydujące znaczenie ma zakres pozycji, ich wycena, zgodność ceny z wymaganiami\nSWZ, a nie literalne zachowanie każdej formuły arkusza. Przedmiotem zamówienia jest wykonanie prac opisanych we wszystkich 73 pozycjach Formularza. Wykonawca, który zsumował 72 pozycje, składa ofertę „niepełną\", Wykonawca, który wycenił 73 pozycje odpowiednio je sumując, złożył ofertę zgodną z OPZ. Oferty złożone przez Saferoad Services sp.\nz o.o., Zaberd sp. z o.o. i FbSerwis S.A. zawierają wycenę wszystkich 73 pozycji i zachowują wymagane relacje procentowe. Prawidłowe, zgodne z pkt. 17.2 zsumowanie pozycji Formularza przez tych Wykonawców nie może być oceniane w kategoriach oczywistej omyłki rachunkowej w kosztorysach ofertowych, ponieważ Wykonawcy ci zachowali reguły wynikające z SWZ i dokonali poprawnego arytmetycznie zsumowania wszystkich pozycji zawartych w złożonych przez siebie kosztorysach. Zdaniem Zamawiającego Odwołujący nieprawidłowo przyjął zasady obliczania uznając, iż nie należy zliczyć wszystkich pozycji Formularza cenowego (poz. 1-73), natomiast zsumowanie tych pozycji wynikało z zapisów pkt. 17.2 SWZ. Wykonawcy Saferoad Services sp. z o.o., Zaberd sp. z o.o. i FbSerwis S.A. podali cenę jednostkową netto dla każdej pozycji kosztorysu, po czym przemnożyli ją przez ilość jednostek miary danej pozycji, obliczając tym samym wartość każdej z pozycji kosztorysu. Następnie zsumowali wszystkie pozycje kosztorysu otrzymując cenę oferty w wymiarze netto, którą – po zsumowaniu wszystkich grup - powiększyli o kwotę podatku VAT, otrzymując cenę całkowitą oferty brutto. Podczas wszystkich ww. działań arytmetycznych Wykonawcy nie popełnił błędu ani omyłki. W związku z tym nie było możliwe ( i konieczne) stwierdzenie wystąpienia błędu (omyłki), bowiem Wykonawcy ci zsumował wszystkie określone w złożonym kosztorysie pozycje. Wynik zsumowania pozycji 14.2 wraz z pozostałymi pozycjami kosztorysu był zgodny z sumaryczną wartością sumy prac wskazaną przez Odwołującego. Tym samym zaistniała okoliczność - oceniana przez Odwołującego jako błąd w rzeczywistości nie była błędem lub nie można było jej potraktować jako niezgodności, nie miała charakteru oczywistości oraz nie miała charakteru rachunkowego. Działania podjęte przez Wykonawców Saferoad Services Sp. z o.o., Zaberd sp. z o.o. i FbSerwis S.A. odzwierciedlały wynik wyliczeń na podstawie przyjętego przez Zamawiającego schematu podanego w pkt. 17.2 SWZ.\nDziałanie Wykonawców\nSaferoad Services sp. z o.o., Zaberd sp. z o.o. i FbSerwis S.A. nie było ingerencją w formularz w sensie zmiany zakresu zamówienia, a jedynie dostosowaniem sumy do matematycznego stanu faktycznego (wszystkie 73 pozycje zostały wycenione). Zakaz wprowadzania zmian do TER, wynikający z pkt 17.2 SWZ dotyczy zmian merytorycznych, zmian prowadzących do modyfikacji zakresu świadczenia, obejścia limitów i nie może być interpretowany jako zakaz każdej technicznej czynności w arkuszu formularza w ujęciu Excel.\nBrak jest podstaw do odrzucenia ofert tych Wykonawców na podstawie art. 226 ust. 1 pkt 5 Pzp, gdyż nie doszło do niezgodności treści ofert tych Wykonawców z SWZ, albowiem wszystkie pozycje TER zostały ujęte i wycenione, nie został zmieniony zakres robót ani ilości, nie pominięto żadnego elementu zamówienia, Wykonawcy zaoferowali realizację pełnego przedmiotu zamówienia za wskazaną cenę. Odwołujący błędnie utożsamia sposób technicznego zsumowania pozycji z niezgodnością treści oferty z warunkami zamówienia. Odwołujący wskazuje, że Wykonawcy Saferoad Services sp. z o.o., Zaberd sp. z o.o. i FbSerwis S.A. celowo zmodyfikowali formułę sumującą, co wyklucza przypadkowy charakter błędu. Celowość działania Wykonawców nie polegała na zmianie wymagań Zamawiającego (Wykonawcy ci nie wprowadzili własnych założeń do oferty), ale na wycenie wszystkich prac i ich prawidłowego zsumowania.\nReasumując, metodologia wyceny oferty w zakresie obliczenia wartości grupy prac nr 7 oraz całkowitej ceny oferty dokonana przez Wykonawców Saferoad Services sp. z o.o., Zaberd sp. z o.o. i FbSerwis S.A. była prawidłowa i nie stanowi niedozwolonej ingerencji w treść formularza. Brak jest także błędu w obliczeniu ceny, który powodowałby, że\nZamawiający powinien odrzucić oferty tych Wykonawców na podstawie art. 226 ust. 1 pkt 10 Pzp. Cena została obliczona prawidłowo. Ceny ofert obejmują wszystkie wycenione pozycje, są arytmetycznie poprawne, odpowiadają rzeczywistemu zakresowi świadczenia.\nW odniesieniu do podnoszonych w odwołaniu twierdzeń odnoszących się do relacji procentowych, Zamawiający wskazuje, iż badał zachowanie relacji procentowych w oparciu o ceny wynikające z ofert, przy uwzględnieniu wszystkich pozycji objętych przedmiotem zamówienia. Rozważania i symulacje Odwołującego, oparte na hipotetycznym „odjęciu” pozycji 14.2 są niepoprawne, nie mają oparcia w SWZ i nie mogą stanowić podstawy do stwierdzenia naruszenia limitów.\nWszystkie czynności Zamawiającego przeprowadzone w Postępowaniu zostały wykonane z zachowaniem zasad uczciwej konkurencji, z zapewnieniem równego traktowania wszystkich wykonawców oraz zgodnie z zasadami proporcjonalności i przejrzystości. Zamawiający przeprowadził Postępowanie zgodnie z prawem i w jego granicach, a także z należytą starannością. (...)\n\nSkład Orzekający Krajowej Izby Odwoławczej (Izba lub KIO) ustalił i zważył, co następuje:\n\nOdwołania podlegają oddaleniu.\nOdwołujący, wykonawca Zaberd kwestionuje wybór oferty wykonawcy\nSaferoad Services Sp. z o.o. jako najkorzystniejszej w tym Postępowaniu, podnosząc zarzut zaniechania: (a) odrzucenia oferty tego wykonawcy, która zdaniem Odwołującego jest niezgodna z warunkami zamówienia,\n(b) wezwania do złożenia wyjaśnień oraz dalszych wyjaśnień w zakresie cen jednostykowych stanowiących istotne części składowe, które budzą wątpliwości co do tego, czy są zgodne z warunkami zamówienia, a także czy wystarczają na pokrycie kosztów prac nimi objętych.\nOdwołujący wymienionym czynnościom i zaniechaniom zarzucił naruszenie:\n1) art. 226 ust. 1 pkt 5 Pzp w zw. z art. 16 pkt 1 i 3 Pzp z uwagi na fakt, że Saferoad w ramach zaoferowanego\nZamawiającemu świadczenia w pozycji TER 1 poz. 1.1, poz. 1.2, poz. 6.1 i poz. 7.1 nie uwzględnił wymaganych przez\nZamawiającego w dokumentach zamówienia sprzętów i materiałów niezbędnych do realizacji prac objętych tymi pozycjami TER;\n2) art. 224 ust. 1, 2 Pzp w zw. z art. 226 ust. 1 pkt 8) Pzp i art. 16 Pzp z uwagi na zaniechanie wezwania Saferoad do wyjaśnień w zakresie istotnych części składowych ceny oferty, tj. pozycji TER 10 poz. 4.2, TER 8 poz. 2.2, TER, TER 4 poz. 11.3, TER 13 poz. 2, 3, 5, 17 lub art. 223 ust. 1 Pzp w zw. z art. 226 ust. 1 pkt 5) Pzp i art. 16 Pzp poprzez zaniechanie wezwania do wyjaśnień dotyczących treści oferty w zakresie ww. pozycji;\n3) art. 224 ust. 1, 2 Pzp w zw. z art. 226 ust. 1 pkt 8) Pzp i art. 16 Pzp z uwagi na zaniechanie wezwania Saferoad do dalszych wyjaśnień w zakresie istotnych części składowych ceny oferty, tj. pozycji TER 8 poz. 9.1 lub art. 223 ust. 1 Pzp w zw. z art. 226 ust. 1 pkt 5) Pzp i art. 16 Pzp poprzez zaniechanie wezwania do wyjaśnień dotyczących treści oferty w zakresie ww. pozycji. w konsekwencji zarzutów z pkt 1-3 naruszenie:\n4) art. 239 ust. 1 pzp w zw. z art. 16 pkt 1 i 2 pzp, z uwagi na wybór jako najkorzystniejszej w Postępowaniu oferty Saferoad pomimo, że oferta tego Wykonawcy jest niezgodna z warunkami zamówienia i zawiera rażąco niską cenę,\nOdwołujący wskazane w punktach 1 – 3 zarzuty odniósł do wyjaśnień, które złożył wykonawca w odpowiedzi na wezwanie 4.02.2026 r.\nZamawiający w tym wezwaniu skierowanym do wykonawcy Saferoad na podstawie art. 224 ust.1\nPzp wskazał na konkretne grupy prac i Nr pozycji z kosztorysu ofertowego wykonawcy (ujęte w tym wezwaniu w tabeli).\nTo wezwanie dotyczyło następujących pozycji TER wskazanych w zawartej w wezwaniu tabeli:\n1. Grupa Prac nr 1 – Nawierzchnia – poz. 1.1, 1.2, 6.1, 7.1;\n2. Grupa Prac nr 3 – Korpus drogi – poz. 4.1;\n3. Grupa Prac nr 4 – Odwodnienie – poz. 4.1, 5.1, 5.4;\n4. Grupa Prac nr 5 – Chodniki ścieżki rowerowe – poz. 1.3, 1.6;\n5. Grupa Prac nr 6 – Oznakowanie – poz. 1.8, 1.10, 2.2, 7.1;\n6. Grupy Prac nr 7 – Urządzenia BRD – poz. 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 3.1, 3.2, 4.4, 5.2, 5.3, 5.4, 13.1;\n7. Grupa Prac nr 8 – Estetyka – poz. 9.1;\n8. Grupy Prac nr 10 – Zimowe utrzymanie dróg – poz. 1.2, 5.1, 5.2;\nW tym wezwaniu Zamawiający w szczególności podał: (...)\nDla potwierdzenia realnego charakteru ceny oferty - adekwatnej do przedmiotu zamówienia i gwarantującej możliwość jego prawidłowego wykonania - Zamawiający prosi o wyjaśnienia (w tym złożenie dowodów), w zakresie wyliczenia istotnych części składowych ceny ofertowej, m.in. o złożenie kalkulacji szczegółowych dla wszystkich pozycji kosztorysu ofertowego wymienionych w powyższej tabeli. Kalkulacje szczegółowe powinny zawierać wszystkie koszty skalkulowane i niezbędne do realizacji przedmiotu zamówienia tj. wartości poszczególnych jednostkowych nakładów rzeczowych (kosztów bezpośrednich) oraz doliczeniu narzutów kosztów pośrednich i zysku. Prosimy o podanie wyczerpujących i szczegółowych informacji dotyczycących sposobu uwzględnienia elementów mających wpływ na sposób realizacji zamówienia, w szczególności w kwestiach wskazanych powyżej, ale również innych, które uważacie Państwo za istotne. Jednocześnie zamawiający zwraca się o udzielenie wyjaśnień w zakresie określonym w art. 224 ust. 3 pkt 4) i 6) ustawy Pzp, tj. o potwierdzenie zgodności z przepisami dotyczącymi kosztów pracy, których wartość przyjęta do ustalenia ceny nie może być niższa od minimalnego wynagrodzenia za pracę albo minimalnej stawki godzinowej, ustalonych na podstawie przepisów ustawy z dnia 10 października 2002 r. o minimalnym wynagrodzeniu za pracę (Dz. U. z 2018 r. poz. 2177) lub przepisów odrębnych właściwych dla spraw, z którymi związane jest realizowane zamówienie oraz zgodności z przepisami z zakresu prawa pracy i zabezpieczenia społecznego, obowiązującymi w miejscu, w którym realizowane jest zamówienie”.\nWykonawca w odpowiedzi na wezwanie w szczególności podał: (...)\n\nprzyjęte założenia, co do wysokości poszczególnych kosztów, uwzględniają:\n• koszty bieżącej działalności wykonawcy,\n• koszty wynikające z przepisów obowiązującego prawa\n• ewentualne dodatkowe nakłady, które Wykonawca przyjmuje w kalkulacji ceny oferty w oparciu o doświadczenie zdobyte przy realizacji podobnych zamówień,\n• koszty wynikające z ofert podwykonawców i dostawców.\nW przypadku, gdy takie dane wyjściowe dla kalkulacji są niedostępne dla wykonawcy lub wykonawca takimi danymi nie dysponuje, wykonawca bazuje, jako punkcie wyjścia, na cenniku Sekocenbud, jako obiektywnym i niezależnym źródle dla kalkulacji kosztów realizacji prac. Wykonawca wyjaśnia, że przyjęte ilości poszczególnych nakładów (nakład zakładowy), jakie musi ponieść, o ile nie wynikają wprost z dokumentów zamówienia, w tym z OPZ i SST, zostały przyjęte na podstawie doświadczenia wykonawcy zdobytego podczas realizacji zamówień publicznych, których przedmiot był analogiczny.\nPrzedstawione poszczególne elementy składowe cen jednostkowych uwzględniają wszystkie – obligatoryjne – koszty wskazane m.in. w SST i OPZ i uwzględniają wszystkie wymagania określone przez Zamawiającego. Tak przyjęte założenia znajdują swoje odzwierciedlenie w kalkulacjach SKK, które przedstawiają wyliczenia cen jednostkowych dla poszczególnych pozycji w TER dla danej Grupy Prac. (...)\nTakże wskazał: (...)\nCzęść wyjaśnień dotyczących ceny zawierająca uwagi wstępne i opis założeń przyjmowanych przy kalkulacji cen, za wskazane pozycje w TER dla poszczególnych Grup Prac została zawarta w zał. nr 1 do wyjaśnień dotyczących ceny w następujących dokumentach:\n• w pliku pod nazwą Opis do odczytywania danych w Załączniku nr 1, a także\n• w pliku 1.1 Tabela zbiorcze zestawienie źródła cen i dowodów, oraz\n• w pliku Załącznik nr 1 – wprowadzenie do SKK.\nDokumenty te opisują założenia przyjęte w szczegółowych kalkulacjach dotyczących poszczególnych pozycji w TER, w określonych Grupach Prac w oparciu, o które zostały skalkulowane ceny jednostkowe w poszczególnych pozycjach TER dla Grup Prac, zgodnie z załączonymi do wyjaśnień kalkulacjami SKK.”\nDo tych wyjaśnień załączył kalkulacje szczegółowe i dowody.\nRozpoznając pierwszy z zarzutów Izba w pierwszej kolejności zwraca uwagę, że Zamawiający nie wymagał od wykonawcy Saferoad przedstawienia zestawienia sprzętu i materiałów niezbędnych do realizacji prac. Wymagał natomiast wyjaśnienia pozycji danych grup prac, których dotyczyło wezwanie. Wykonawca w odpowiedzi na to wezwanie wskazując na przyjętą i opisaną w wyjaśnieniach metodologię ceny uwzględnił wymagany sprzęt oraz materiały w szczegółowej kalkulacji. O tej metodologii stanowi załączony do wyjaśnień plik pod nazwą „Załącznik nr 1 – Założenia metodologiczne wyjaśnień RNC”. Izba mając na uwadze treść złożonych wyjaśnień i kalkulacji uzupełnionych stanowiskiem wykonawcy z 28.04.\n\n2026 r. nie znalazła podstaw do kwestionowania ustaleń Zamawiającego, że w przedstawionej kalkulacji wykonawca\nSaferoad wskazał na wyceniane kategorie sprzętu, w tym pozycję „narzędzia i sprzęt pomocniczy”, która – jak wynika z samego opisu pozycji – jest kategorią zbiorczą i zawiera wszystkie inne sprzęty konieczne do wykonania analizowanej pozycji nie wymienione wprost w pozostałych miejscach kalkulacji. Podobnie, wykonawca wskazał w kalkulacji dla tej\nGrupy prac na pozycję „materiały pomocnicze”.\nZamawiający oceniając wyjaśnienia wykonawców miał prawo uwzględniać ich treść w kontekście przyjętej przez nich metodologii. Wobec takiego sposobu kalkulacji analizowanych pozycji dla TER\n1 przyjętego przez wykonawcę, Zamawiający nie miał podstaw do przyjęcia, że wykonawca w sprzeczności z wymaganiami SWZ nie uwzględnił któregokolwiek ze sprzętów czy materiałów wymienionych w odpowiednim SST.\nZłożone wyjaśnienia wskazują, które koszty zostały uwzględnione i w jaki sposób wykonawca skalkulował koszty danej\nGrupy prac. Według zastosowanej metodologii wykonawca wyodrębnił w kalkulacji szczegółowej szereg kosztów jednostkowych – w jego ocenie kluczowych dla wyjaśnienia sposób wyliczenia tych kosztów. Przy ocenie oferty pod kątem rażąco niskiej ceny, Zamawiający niewątpliwie miał prawo kierować się nie tylko oceną kilku pozycji, ale także ogólną ceną oferty. Izba zwraca uwagę, podobnie jak zamawiający, że cena wykonawcy Saferoad jest nieznacznie niższa od ceny oferty Odwołującego. W konkluzji Izba stwierdza, że w wyjaśnieniach rażąco niskiej ceny wykonawca w zakresie Grupy 1 przyjął – jak zwracał uwagę Zamawiający - określoną metodologię wykazywania poszczególnych kosztów, która zakłada posłużenie się zbiorczą pozycją „narzędzia i sprzęt pomocniczy” oraz „materiały pomocnicze”, co pozwala na przyjęcie, że sporne sprzęty i materiały wskazane w ramach zarzutu 1 zostały wycenione w tej zbiorczej pozycji.\nOdnośnie zarzutu z punktu drugiego Izba zgodziła się z Zamawiającym, że art. 224 Pzp nie nakłada obowiązku badania pod kątem rażąco niskiej ceny każdej pozycji kosztorysowej.\nŻadna ze wskazanych w ramach tego zarzutu pozycji nie była objęta wezwaniem do złożenia wyjaśnień. Zamawiający dokonał analizy cen jednostkowych w zakresie pozycji asortymentów – jego zdaniem - kluczowych (istotnych) z punktu widzenia realizacji zamówienia, mając na uwadze\n– jak podał - własne doświadczenie i wewnętrzne procedury. Odwołujący nie wykazał w odwołaniu, że pozycje na które wskazał w ramach tego zarzutu są istotnymi częściami składowymi zamówienia.\nZamawiający z kolei w odpowiedzi na odwołanie dowiódł, że te pozycje nie mają takiego charakteru, co obrazuje % udział w zadaniu (kolumna ostatnia).\nW zakresie zarzutu z punktu 3 dotyczącego dalszych wyjaśnień dotyczących pozycji TER 8 poz. 9.1. Izba wskazuje na założenia przyjęte w szczegółowych kalkulacjach dotyczących poszczególnych pozycji w TER, w określonych Grupach Prac w oparciu, o które zostały skalkulowane ceny jednostkowe w poszczególnych pozycjach TER dla Grup Prac, zgodnie z załączonymi do wyjaśnień kalkulacjami SKK przedstawione przez wykonawcę Saferoad w ramach wyjaśnień RNC. Izba zgodziła się Zamawiającym, że brak jest podstaw, aby uznać, że założenia wykonawcy\nZaberd co do określonych cen dla tej pozycji są jedynymi wzorcowymi założeniami, albowiem każdy z wykonawców kalkuluje cenę w oparciu o jego indywidualne założenia. Tym samym taka argumentacja nie może stanowić podstawy do uwzględnienia zarzutu opartego na twierdzeniu, że cena oferowana przez wykonawcę Saferoad w przeciwieństwie do ceny wykonawcy Zaberd nie jest ceną rynkową.\nW konkluzji Izba wobec powyższych ustaleń stwierdza, że także podnoszony w punkcie 4 zarzut związany z wyborem oferty wykonawcy Saferoad jako najkorzystniejszej nie podlega uwzględnieniu.\nOdwołujący, Konsorcjum\nV4 wniósł odwołanie także wobec czynności wyboru oferty Saferoads Services Sp. z o.o. jako oferty najkorzystniejszej podnosząc zarzut zaniechania odrzucenia oferty tego wykonawcy oraz oferty Zaberd sp. z .o.o. i oferty FbSerwis S.A. które zdaniem Odwołującego są niezgodne z warunkami zamówienia oraz zawierają błąd w obliczeniu ceny. Odwołujący wskazanym czynnościom i zaniechaniom zarzucił naruszenie:\n1) art. 226 ust. 1 pkt 5 Pzp w zw. z art. 16 Pzp i art. 17 ust. 1 wskazując na niezgodność treści oferty Saferoads Services sp.\nz o.o., Zaberd sp. z o.o. oraz FbSerwis S.A. z warunkami zamówienia z uwagi na niezgodną z SWZ ingerencję tych wykonawców w tabelę elementów rozliczeniowych i w konsekwencji wybór oferty Saferoad Services sp. z o.o. jako oferty najkorzystniejszej w postępowaniu,\n2) art. 226 ust. 1 pkt 10 Pzp w zw. z art. 16 Pzp i art. 17 ust. 1 Pzp wskazując, że oferty Saferoads Services sp. z o.o., Zaberd sp. z o.o. oraz FbSerwis S.A., zawierają błąd w obliczeniu ceny z uwagi na niezgodną z SWZ ingerencję tych wykonawców w tabelę elementów rozliczeniowych i w konsekwencji wybór oferty złożonej przez Saferoad Services sp. z o.o. jako oferty najkorzystniejszej w postępowaniu.\nPowyższe zarzuty nie podlegają uwzględnieniu.\nZgodnie z postanowieniami punktu 17 SWZ:\n17.1. Cena oferty zostanie wyliczona przez Wykonawcę w oparciu o Tabele Elementów Rozliczeniowych (TER) sporządzone na formularzach stanowiących integralną część SWZ - Tom IV.\n17.2. Tabele Elementów Rozliczeniowych, o których mowa w pkt 17.1., należy wypełnić ściśle według kolejności pozycji wyszczególnionych w tych formularzach, wyliczając poszczególne ceny jednostkowe netto. Wykonawca powinien określić ceny jednostkowe netto oraz wartości netto dla wszystkich pozycji wymienionych w danym formularzu, a następnie wyliczyć Wartość netto łącznie dla poszczególnych grup. Tak wyliczoną Wartość netto należy przenieść do Zbiorczego\nZestawienia Kosztów (ZZK) i obliczyć WARTOŚĆ CAŁKOWITĄ. Na podstawie wyliczonej WARTOŚCI CAŁKOWITEJ\nWykonawca wyceni koszt prawa opcji, o którym mowa w § 4 ust. 1 a pkt 1 i pkt 2 PPU oraz Łączną wartość zamówienia wraz z prawem Opcji brutto, którą przeniesie do pkt 3 Formularza „Oferta” jako cenę ofertową. Wykonawca obliczając cenę oferty musi uwzględniać wszystkie pozycje opisane w danej Tabeli Elementów Rozliczeniowych (TER). Wykonawca nie może samodzielnie wprowadzić żadnych zmian do Tabel Elementów Rozliczeniowych (TER).\n17.3. Przy wycenie Wykonawca winien przestrzegać zasad określonych w uwagach zamieszczonych w Tabelach\nElementów Rozliczeniowych (TER).\nW TER: GRUPA PRAC NR 10 – poz. 2.1 i GRUPA PRAC NR 11 – Zarządzanie kontraktem, Zamawiający przewiduje limit procentowy udział poszczególnych kosztów.\nPrzekroczenie któregokolwiek z ustanowionych limitów w TER dla:\n-\nGRUPA PRAC NR 1 – poz. 1.1 i 1.2\n-\nGRUPA PRAC NR 2 – poz. 1.3\n-\nGRUPA PRAC NR 5 – poz. 1.3\n-\nGRUPA PRAC NR 6 – poz. 5.2\n-\nGRUPA PRAC NR 7 – poz. 9.1 i 9.2\n-\nGRUPA PRAC NR 8 – poz. 3.1 i 9.1\n-\nGRUPA PRAC NR 10 – poz. 2.1: Całodobowa gotowość pługosolarki liczona za dobę, w której brak było pracy lub dyżuru pługosolarki,\n-\nGRUPA PRAC NR 11 i Zbiorcze Zestawienie Kosztów – poz. nr 11: Zarządzanie Kontraktem, spowoduje odrzucenie oferty Wykonawcy.\nOdwołujący wskazując na cytowane postanowienie punktu 17 SWZ ingerencję wykonawców w Tabele Elementów\nRozliczeniowych oparł na twierdzeniu, że wykonawcy\n(...)\n\nw pozycji H74 wskazali sumę wartości określonych w pozycjach\nH10:H73, a nie jak przewidywał przygotowany przez Zamawiającego formularz w pozycjach H10:H72. Oznacza to, że zmodyfikowali oni pierwotnie zadaną przez Zamawiającego formułę, w ten sposób, że sumowała ona zakres wartości określonych w pozycjach H10:H73, a następnie zaokrągla wynik do 2 miejsc po przecinku lub wpisali te wartości ręcznie, usuwając formułę przewidzianą przez Zamawiającego\n”.\n\nZamawiający oraz Uczestnicy po jego stronie (wykonawca Saferoad oraz wykonawcę Zaberd) także wskazywali w ich stanowisku na punkt 17 SWZ oraz powoływali się na punkt 16.8.7 SWZ. Zgodnie z tym punktem „O ferta oraz pozostałe oświadczenia i dokumenty, dla których Zamawiający określił wzory w formie formularzy zamieszczonych w Rozdziale 2 i w\nRozdziale 3 Tomu I SWZ, powinny być sporządzone zgodnie z tymi wzorami, co do treści oraz opisu kolumn i wierszy\n”.\n\nIzba mając na uwadze wskazane postanowienia SWZ zgodziła się z Zamawiającym i z przystępującymi po jego stronie wykonawcami, że nie korzystając z formuł zawartych w pliku excel wykonawcy Saferoad, Zaberd oraz FB Serwis nie naruszyli postanowień SWZ powodujących sankcję odrzucenia ofert tych wykonawców. Ta okoliczność bowiem nie może być kwalifikowana jako niezgodną ze Specyfikacją Warunków Zamówienia (jej punktem 17) ingerencję w TER.\nZ postanowień punktu 17 SWZ jednoznacznie wynika, że Zamawiający wymagał uwzględnienia wszystkich pozycji. Z żadnego postanowienia nie wynika, aby pozycja 14.2 w Grupie prac nr 7 miała być na kolejnym późniejszym etapie pominięta. Także z postanowień SWZ – jak podnosił Zamawiający i wykonawcy przystępujący - nie można wywodzić konieczności posłużenia się przez wykonawców plikiem excel, czy też konieczności skorzystania z zawartych tam formuł, czy konieczności złożenia przez wykonawców tabel elementów rozliczeniowych w postaci pliku excel. Zatem pliki te, a także formuły w nich zawarte, należy traktować jako pomocnicze – do ewentualnego wykorzystania przez wykonawców.\nW odniesieniu do drugiego zarzutu Izba – podobnie jak Zamawiający - zwraca uwagę, że wykonawcy Saferoad\nServices sp. z o.o., Zaberd sp. z o.o. i FbSerwis S.A. podali cenę jednostkową netto dla każdej pozycji kosztorysu, następnie przemnożyli tę cenę przez ilość jednostek miary danej pozycji, obliczając tym samym wartość każdej z pozycji kosztorysu. Następnie zsumowali wszystkie pozycje kosztorysu uzyskując cenę oferty w wymiarze netto, którą – po zsumowaniu wszystkich grup - powiększyli o kwotę podatku VAT, uzyskując cenę całkowitą oferty brutto. Podczas tych działań arytmetycznych wykonawcy nie popełnił błędu ani omyłki. Wynik zsumowania pozycji 14.2 wraz z pozostałymi pozycjami kosztorysu był zgodny z sumaryczną wartością sumy prac wskazaną przez Odwołującego, która wynika także z Formularza oferty. Tym samym w kosztorysach (TER) wykonawców ich matematyczne działania nie było ingerencją w formularz w sensie zmiany zakresu zamówienia, a stanowiły dostosowanie sumy do matematycznego stanu faktycznego\n(wszystkie 73 pozycje zostały wycenione). Zdaniem Izby, co wymaga podkreślenia, zakaz wprowadzania zmian do TER, wynikający z pkt 17.2 SWZ dotyczył zmian merytorycznych, takich zmian, które mogły prowadzić do modyfikacji zakresu świadczenia czy obejścia limitów\nTym samym nie mógł podlegać uwzględnieniu podnoszony w odwołaniu zarzut naruszenia art. 226 ust. 1 pkt 5\nPzp, albowiem w skarżonych ofertach wszystkie pozycje TER zostały ujęte i wycenione, nie został zmieniony zakres robót ani ilości, ani nie pominięto żadnego elementu zamówienia. Także nie podlega uwzględnieniu drugi z zarzutów, naruszenia art. 226 ust.1 pkt 10 ustawy Pzp, albowiem niezastosowanie formuły obliczenia wynikającej z arkuszu excel nie skutkowało błędem w obliczeniu. Ceny ofert obejmują wszystkie wycenione pozycje, są arytmetycznie poprawne, odpowiadają rzeczywistemu zakresowi świadczenia. Twierdzenia Odwołującego odnoszące się do relacji procentowych, zostały oparte na hipotetycznym „odjęciu” pozycji 14.2, które to twierdzenia wobec ustaleń Izby nie mają oparcia w SWZ i tym samym te twierdzenia nie mogą stanowić podstawy do stwierdzenia naruszenia limitów. Zamawiający w jego stanowisku, które w toku rozprawy nie zostały obalone przez Odwołującego, wskazywał, że badał zachowanie relacji procentowych w oparciu o ceny wynikające z ofert, przy uwzględnieniu wszystkich pozycji objętych przedmiotem zamówienia.\nW konkluzji należy podkreślić, że według SWZ wymagane było określenie cen jednostkowych dla wszystkich pozycji wymienionych w danym formularzu, następnie wyliczenie wartości netto łącznie dla poszczególnych grup, uwzględniając wszystkie pozycje podane w danej Tabeli Elementów Rozliczeniowych, a zakaz ingerencji odnosił się do treści oraz opisu kolumn i wierszy TER. Także z SWZ nie wynikało wymaganie złożenia tabel w postaci pliku excel, w tym nie skorzystania z formuł w nim zawartych.\n\nWydając wyrok łączny w sprawie odwołań o sygn. akt KIO 1550/26 oraz o sygn. akt KIO 1598/26 Izba miała na uwadze art. 556 w myśl którego: „W przypadku, o którym mowa w art. 544 ust. 2, Izba może wydać łączne orzeczenie w sprawach złożonych odwołań”. Z kolei zgodnie ze wskazanym art. 544 ust. 2 Pzp: „\nPrezes Izby może zarządzić łączne rozpoznanie odwołań przez Izbę, jeżeli zostały one złożone w tym samym postępowaniu o udzielenie zamówienia lub dotyczą takich samych czynności i lub za niechań czynności zamawiającego\n.”\nW tej sprawie Prezes Krajowej Izby Odwoławczej na podstawie wskazanego przepisu zarządzeniem z dnia 20.04.2026 r.\nzarządził łączne rozpoznanie odwołań przez Krajową Izbę Odwoławczą.\n\nO kosztach postępowania orzeczono stosownie do wyniku na podstawie art. 575 ustawy - Prawo zamówień publicznych oraz w oparciu o przepisy poz. 2437).\nMając powyższe na uwadze, Krajowa Izba Odwoławcza orzekła jak w sentencji wyroku.\n..........................................", "token_count": 67394} -{"added": "2026-09-17", "author": "Krajowa Izba Odwoławcza", "created": "2021-03-18", "id": "uzp_orzeczenia_pl_15274", "license": "public-domain (official documents)", "source": "uzp_orzeczenia_pl", "text": "Sygn. akt: KIO 523/21\nWYROK z dnia 18 marca 2021 r.\nKrajowa Izba Odwoławcza\n\n– w składzie:\nPrzewodniczący:\nAgata Mikołajczyk\nCzłonkowie:\n\nMałgorzata Matecka\nAneta Mlącka\nProtokolant:\nAldona Karpińska po rozpoznaniu w Warszawie na rozprawie z udziałem stron w dniu 16 marca\n2021 r.\nodwołania wniesionego do\nPrezesa Krajowej Izby Odwoławczej w dniu 16 lutego r. przez odwołującego:\nGRAMAR Sp. z o.o. z siedzibą w\nLublińcu\n(ul. Chłopska 15, 42-700 Lubliniec) w postępowaniu prowadzonym przez zamawiającego:\n\nSkarb Państwa,\nGeneralny Dyrektor Dróg Krajowych i Autostrad, prowadzący postępowanie:\nGeneralna Dyrekcja Dróg\nKrajowych i Autostrad Oddział w Katowicach\n(ul. Myśliwska 5, 40-017 Katowice), przy udziale:\nA. wykonawcy:\nSaferoad Grawil sp. z o.o. z siedzibą we Włocławku\n(ul. Komunalna 7, 87-800 Włocławek), zgłaszającego przystąpienie do postępowania odwoławczego po stronie zamawiającego orzeka:\n1.\nOddala odwołanie;\n2.\nKosztami postępowania obciąża odwołującego:\nGRAMAR Sp. z o.o. z siedzibą w Lublińcu\n(ul. Chłopska 15, 42-700\nLubliniec) i:\n2.1.\nzalicza w poczet kosztów postępowania odwoławczego kwotę\n10.000 zł 00 gr\n(słownie: dziesięć tysięcy złotych, zero groszy) uiszczoną przez odwołującego tytułem wpisu od odwołania;\n2.2.\nzasądza od odwołującego na rzecz zamawiającego:\nSkarb Państwa, Generalny Dyrektor Dróg Krajowych i\nAutostrad, prowadzący postępowanie:\n\nGeneralna Dyrekcja Dróg Krajowych i Autostrad Oddział w Katowicach\n(ul. Myśliwska 5, 40-017 Katowice) kwotę 3.600 zł 00 gr (słownie: trzy tysiące sześćset złotych zero groszy) stanowiącą koszty postępowania odwoławczego poniesione z tytułu wynagrodzenia pełnomocnika.\nStosownie do art. 579 ust. 1 i 580 ust. 1 i 2 ustawy z dnia 11 września 2019 r. - Prawo zamówień publicznych (Dz. U. z\n2019 r., poz. 2019 z późn. zm.) na niniejszy wyrok\n- w terminie 14 dni od dnia jego doręczenia - przysługuje skarga za pośrednictwem Prezesa Krajowej Izby Odwoławczej do\nSądu Okręgowego w Warszawie.\n.\n...........................................\n...........................................\n...........................................\nUzasadnienie\nOdwołanie zostało wniesione w dniu 16 lutego 2021 r.\nprzez wykonawcę:\nGRAMAR Sp. z o.o. z siedzibą w Lublińcu\n(Odwołujący)\n\nw postępowaniu prowadzonym przez zamawiającego:\n\nGeneralna Dyrekcja Dróg Krajowych i Autostrad\nOddział w Katowicach w trybie przetargu nieograniczonego na podstawie ustawy z dnia 29 stycznia 2004r. Prawo zamówień publicznych (Dz. U. z 2019 r. poz. 1843 ze zm.), [ustawa Pzp lub Pzp lub Ustawa PZP] w przedmiocie zamówienia publicznego w przedmiocie zamówienia publicznego na: „Roboty w zakresie napraw i utrzymania obiektów inżynierskich na terenie administrowanym przez GDDKiA Oddział w Katowicach Rejon w Zawierciu. Numer referencyjny:\nO.KA.D- 3.2412.39.2020.\nOgłoszenie o zamówieniu zostało opublikowane w BZP w dniu 24 czerwca 2020 r. Nr\n553029-\nN-2020.\nOdwołujący wskazał, że odwołanie dotyczy podjętych w postępowaniu:\n1.\nczynności wyboru najkorzystniejszej oferty złożonej przez SAFEROAD GRAWIL sp. z o.o. z siedzibą we Włocławku (\n„SAFEROAD” lub „Wykonawca”),\n2.\nzaniechania czynności odrzucenia oferty złożonej przez SAFEROAD\n- z naruszeniem:\n1) art. 89 ust. 1 pkt 4 PZP przez zaniechanie odrzucenia oferty SAFEROAD, pomimo że zawiera ona rażąco niską cenę w stosunku do przedmiotu zamówienia, w szczególności uwzględniając pozycje kosztorysowe opisane szczegółowo poniżej w uzasadnieniu, a stanowiące istotną część składową ceny w ofercie SAFEROAD,\n2) art. 90 ust. 3 PZP przez zaniechanie odrzucenia oferty SAFEROAD, pomimo że złożone przez wykonawcę wyjaśnienia w zakresie rażąco niskiej ceny nie potwierdziły realności zaoferowanej ceny, a wykonawca nie obalił domniemania rażąco niskiej ceny zgodnie z dyspozycją art. 90 ust. 2 PZP\n3) art. 89 ust. 1 pkt 3 PZP w zw. art. 3 ust. 1 ustawy o zwalczaniu nieuczciwej konkurencji (dalej jako: „ustawa ZNKU\") przez zaniechanie odrzucenia oferty SAFEROAD, pomimo że jej złożenie stanowi czyn nieuczciwej konkurencji w rozumieniu przepisów ZNKU, a w konsekwencji naruszenie art. 7 ust. 1 PZP przez prowadzenie postępowania z naruszeniem zasady uczciwej konkurencji i równego traktowania wykonawców;\n4) art. 7 ust. 1 i 3 PZP przez naruszenie zasady uczciwej konkurencji i równego traktowania wykonawców wyrażające się w zaniechaniu odrzucenia oferty SAFEROAD oraz zasady legalizmu prowadzonego Postępowania przez wybór oferty\nSAFEROAD.\nOdwołujący wniósł o uwzględnienie odwołania i nakazanie Zamawiającemu: a) unieważnienia czynności wyboru najkorzystniejszej oferty, b) powtórzenia czynności badania i oceny ofert, c) odrzucenia oferty złożonej przez\nSAFEROAD.\nOdwołujący podał, że (...) jest legitymowany do wniesienia odwołania, stosownie do wymagań określonych w art.\n505 ust. 1 nowego PZP jako jeden z wykonawców biorących udział w Postępowaniu o udzielenie zamówienia i zainteresowany jego uzyskaniem, W wyniku naruszenia przez Zamawiającego przepisów PZP interes Odwołującego doznał uszczerbku, w związku z czym Odwołujący może ponieść szkodę. Na skutek niezgodnego z prawem zaniechania odrzucenia oferty złożonej przez SAFEORAD i dokonania jej wyboru Odwołujący został pozbawiony możliwości pozyskania i wykonania zamówienia. W przypadku uznania przez Krajową Izbę Odwoławczą zasadności niniejszego odwołania, Zamawiający będzie zobowiązany do ponownego badania i oceny ofert, a w konsekwencji Odwołujący będzie miał możliwość uzyskania przedmiotowego zamówienia, ponieważ złożył ofertę najkorzystniejszą spośród ofert niepodlegających odrzuceniu. W wyniku naruszenia przez Zamawiającego przepisów wskazanych w petitum odwołania i wynikających z jego uzasadnienia, Odwołujący może ponieść szkodę, wyrażającą się w pozbawieniu Odwołującego możliwości zawarcia umowy w sprawie zamówienia publicznego i otrzymania wynagrodzenia za jego realizację, w tym osiągnięcia zakładanego w ofercie zysku. Powyższe dowodzi posiadania interesu w uzyskaniu zamówienia kwalifikowanego możliwością poniesienia szkody, co czyni zadość wymaganiom określonym w art. 505 ust. 1 nowego\nPZP do wniesienia niniejszego odwołania”.\nW uzasadnieniu zarzutów wskazał na okoliczności, którego jego zdaniem uzasadniają odrzucenie oferty wykonawcy SAFEROAD:\nA. Rażąco niska cena\nPrzedmiotem niniejszego postępowania jest wykonywanie robót i usług w zakresie napraw i bieżącego utrzymania drogowych obiektów inżynierskich na terenie administrowanym przez Rejon w Zawierciu w ramach zleceń utrzymaniowych oraz wykonywanie robót i usług z zakresu napraw i bieżącego utrzymania nowo przyjętych obiektów inżynierskich administrowanych przez Rejon w Zawierciu w ramach zleceń prac utrzymaniowych, Przedmiot umowy będzie wykonywany w trybie „podstawowym” i „awaryjnym” w formie zleceń prac utrzymaniowych. Wynagrodzenie ma charakter wynagrodzenia kosztorysowego. Wynagrodzenie wykonawcy wyliczane będzie na podstawie wystawionych faktur VAT, a podstawę wystawienia faktury stanowić będzie zatwierdzone przez Przedstawiciela Zamawiającego zestawienie wartości i ilości wykonanych Robót sporządzone przez wykonawcę oraz bezusterkowy protokół odbioru robót podpisany przez Przedstawicieli stron (§ 5 ust. 1 umowy). Wynagrodzenie wykonawcy stanowić będzie wynik iloczynu ilości faktycznie wykonanych robót zgodnie z obmiarem i cen jednostkowych podanych w kosztorysie ofertowym wykonawcy lub cen jednostkowych wyliczonych zgodnie z § 7 umowy (§ 5 ust. 5 umowy).\n2. Wykonawcy zobowiązani byli obliczyć cenę na podstawie dokumentów zamieszczonych w SIWZ Tom II — V. Zgodnie z pkt 15.4 SIWZ:\n„Cena oferty powinna obejmować całkowity koszt wykonania przedmiotu zamówienia w tym również wszelkie koszty towarzyszące wykonaniu, o których mowa w Tomach II-V niniejszej SIWZ\"-\n3. Analizując poszczególne ceny jednostkowe przedstawione w ofercie SAFEROAD stwierdzić należy, że istotne części składowe ceny zawarte w kosztorysach ofertowych SAFEORAD, opisane poniżej, są rażąco niskie, będąc cenami nierynkowymi, nieprzystającymi do realnych kosztów jakie należało przyjąć wyceniając roboty zgodnie z dokumentacją przetargową, jak i przepisami PZP, co powoduje rażące zaniżenie pozycji kosztorysowych. Tym bardziej prawidłowe, realne i zgodne z rzeczywistością ustalenie cen jednostkowych przez wykonawców ma istotne znaczenie z punktu widzenia przyjętego na potrzeby realizacji niniejszego zamówienia sposobu wypłaty wynagrodzenia (wynagrodzenie ma charakter kosztorysowy) ustalanego w oparciu o wynik iloczynu ilości faktycznie wykonanych robót zgodnie z obmiarem i cen jednostkowych podanych w kosztorysie ofertowym.\n4.Wartość opisanych szczegółowo poniżej pozycji kosztorysu ofertowego, a także odnoszące się do owych pozycji: a) średnie arytmetyczne wszystkich złożonych ofert oraz b) ceny rynkowe poszczególnych zakresów robót należy wskazać, że zaoferowane przez SAFEROAD pozycje kosztorysowe, które stanowią istotne części składowe ceny są rażąco niskie w rozumieniu art. 90 ust. 1 PZP, czego konsekwencją — po dokonaniu prawidłową weryfikacji złożonych na dwukrotne wezwanie Zamawiającego wyjaśnień winno być odrzucenie oferty SAFEROAD na mocy art. 90 ust. 3 i 89 ust.\n1 pkt 4 PZP.\n5.Wobec rażąco zaniżonych w stosunku do ofert pozostałych wykonawców cen jednostkowych poszczególnych pozycji kosztorysowych w ofercie SAFEROAD, weryfikacji wymaga, czy w istocie ceny zaproponowane przez Wykonawcę obejmują wszelkie niezbędne koszty do wykonania przedmiotowych zakresów Zamówienia zgodnie z wymaganiami\nZamawiającego określonymi w SIWZ.\n(1) Utrzymanie czystości - grupa robót 1\n6.Zamawiający w przedmiarze robót w ramach grupy robót 1 (Utrzymanie czystości) przewidział roboty polegające na: (i)\nCzyszczenie, mycie elementów konstrukcji oraz wyposażenia obiektu inżynierskiego; (ii) Utrzymanie drożności elementów odwodnienia obiektu inżynierskiego; (iii) Utrzymanie przestrzeni podmostowej, koszenie i usuwanie traw oraz\n(iv) Utrzymanie drożności przepustów. Wykonawca SOFEROAD na rażąco niskim poziomie wycenił m.in. poz. 1.1, 1.2,\n1.3, 1.4, 1,13, 1.14, 1.15. Porównanie cen jednostkowych zaoferowanych przez wykonawców w przedmiotowym postępowaniu przykładowo dla poz. 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4 i 1.14 przedstawia poniższa tabela. I tak w poz. 1.1 cena jednostkowa zaoferowana przez SAFEROAD jest 0 64 % niższa od średniej ceny w zaoferowanej w Postępowaniu; a dla poz. 1.3 o ponad 50 %.\nZ wyjaśnień SAFEROAD (złożonych pismem z dnia 4.09.2020 r. na wezwanie Zamawiającego skierowane na podstawie art. 90 ust. 1a i 87 ust. 1 PZP) wynika: w poz.\n1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.13, 1.14, 1.15, że wykonawca założył dojazd i powrót brygady roboczej w ciągu jednego dnia pracy w wymiarze tylko 50 minut, co jest sprzeczne z charakterem prac utrzymaniowych na obiektach mostowych zlokalizowanych w ciągach różnych dróg krajowych, oddalonych od siebie od kilku do czasami nawet kilkunastu kilometrów. Wyjaśnił, że prace polegające na utrzymaniu czystości obiektów mają charakter robót postępujących (od obiektu do obiektu), a zatem trzeba uwzględnić znacznie większy czas dojazdu i przejazdów niż zrobił to SAFEROAD na poziomie 10,5% czasu pracy ekipy. Wykonawca ten również bardzo optymistycznie podszedł do założenia robocizny (wydajności brygady) dla ww. pozycji kosztorysowych. W szczegółowej kalkulacji kosztów stanowiącej załącznik do wyjaśnień SAFEROAD uwzględnił tylko i wyłącznie brygadę dwuosobową i założył jej wydajność tak jakby jechała w jedno miejsce, na 1 obiekt mostowy i tam pracowała przez dniówkę roboczą. Co oczywiście przy założonym przez Zamawiającego charakterze prac nie jest wykonalne. Dalej Odwołujący wskazuje, że\nSAFEROAD dla pozycji nr 1.1 przyjął założenie 1200m2/dzień dla dojazdu wynoszącego tylko 10,5% czasu pracy ekipy\n(bez uwzględnienia przejazdów pomiędzy obiektami). Jak wynika natomiast z zestawień robót wykonywanych przez\nOdwołującego w ramach realizacji obecną umowy, na podstawie której realizowany był ten sam zakres prac, nie ma takich obiektów, których powierzchnia do czyszczenia dla jednego wynosiła 1200m2. Także, jego zdaniem\n„\nSzczególnego spojrzenia wymaga kalkulacja przyjęta przez SAFEROAD na potrzeby wykazania realności ceny w poz.\n1.13 związanej ze sprzątaniem śmieci oraz wszelkich zanieczyszczeń w obrębie obiektu mostowego. Cena jednostkowa netto za tę pozycję została skalkulowana przez SAFEROAD na poziomie 0,24 zł, gdzie w ofercie Odwołującego poz. ta została wyceniona na poziomie 1,00 zł, w ofercie PRIMOST 0/50 złu a w ofercie UTDM J. Opiłek 1,50 zł. W szczegółowej kalkulacji SAFEROAD założył, że dwóch pracowników w ciągu 8 godzin pracy dotrze samochodem na 1 obiekt mostowy pokonując z bazy sprzętowej dystans 25km, następnie posprząta 2400m2 śmieci i wróci do bazy kolejne 25 kilometrów.\nTymczasem jak spojrzymy na załączoną tabelkę (zestawienie robót) z powierzchniami objętymi sprzątaniem obiektów, żeby wykonać przyjęte przez SAFEROAD założenie kosztorysowe sprzątania na poziome 2400m2 dziennie przez 2 pracowników, musieliby oni posprzątać wszystkie obiekty na drodze nr DKI, DK46 i DK78, łącznie 26 obiektów mostowych. W każdym przypadku należy dojechać do kolejnego mostu i przed rozpoczęciem prac oznakować roboty zgodnie ze schematem tymczasowej organizacji ruchu. Robiąc proste założenie, że posprzątanie 1 obiektu wraz z dojazdem do niego i oznakowaniem robót zajmie tylko 0,6 godziny (bardzo optymistyczne założenie przy brygadzie 2 osobowej) to czas potrzebny na posprzątanie 26 obiektów wyniesie 15,6 godziny. Co jest oczywiście niemożliwe do wykonania. Ilość śmieci założona przez SAFEROAD do wywiezienia (lm3/ha) również została przyjęta wyłącznie na potrzeby obrony realności zaoferowanej w tej pozycji ceny jednostkowej. W związku z tym, że obecnie Odwołujący wykonuje przedmiotowe zamówienie na podstawie umowy oraz biorąc pod uwagę posiadane doświadczenie, należy uznać, że przyjęta do kalkulacji ilość śmieci została przez SAFORAD znacznie zaniżona. Zatem również w tym zakresie kalkulacja winna wzbudzić u Zamawiającego wątpliwości w zakresie prawidłowości oszacowania przez SAFEROAD ceny\n.”\nW podsumowaniu wskazał, że roboty obejmujące utrzymanie czystości (grupa robót 1) zostały przez SAFEROAD wycenione na łączną kwotę 879 273,86 zł brutto. Z kolei PRIMOST za wykonanie tych samych prac zaproponował kwotę\n3 437 075,10 zł brutto, a Odwołujący 1 795 098,90 zł brutto.\n\nZatem nawet zsumowanie wszystkich pozycji z grupy robót 1 świadczy o rażącym zaniżeniu przez SAFEROAD tej grupy prac obejmujących utrzymanie czystości.\n(2) Montaż ocynkowanych balustrady\n7. W ramach poz. 2.125 przedmiaru Zamawiający wymagał dokonania wyceny montażu balustrady ocynkowanej z płaskowników. Jak wynika z oferty SAFEROAD pozycja ta została wyceniona na kwotę jednostkową 250,06 zł netto.\nZdaniem Odwołującego, po dokonaniu rozeznania rynku nie można w tej cenie (250,06zł/m) wykonać, dostarczyć i zabudować balustrad zgodnie z wymaganiami Zamawiającego zawartych w STWiORB M. 19.01.04A.\nOdwołujący przedłożył (jak zaznaczył) szczegółową kalkulację\n\nkosztorysową produkcji, ocynkowania i montażu balustrad mostowych z płaskowników, sporządzoną na podstawie Katalogu Nakładów Rzeczowych i średnich cen za 3 kwartał\n2020 r. publikowanych w wydawnictwie Sekocenbud. Firma SAFEROAD składając wyjaśnienia dotyczące rażąco niskiej ceny nie wykazała w jego ogólnej kalkulacji poprawności wyceny a Zamawiający nie wystąpił o dodatkową kalkulację szczegółową kosztów produkcji, zakupu stali i ocynkowania ogniowego balustrady. Zwrócił również uwagę na różnicę w nakładzie pracy przy montażu balustrady pomiędzy wyceną opartą o KNR tj. 3,317 r-g/m a kalkulacją firmy SAFEROAD tj. 0,4 r-g/m. Różnica jest 8-krotna. Dodatkowo załączył wyciąg z STWiORB dotyczący podstawy płatności dla tej pozycji i zakresu prac jaki należy przy nią wykonać. SAFEROAD zakłada do montażu 40m balustrady i wykonania pozostałych czynności tylko 2 osobową brygadę. Wskazał ponadto, że waga 1 elementu balustrady o długości 2 metrów wynosi ok\n100 kg. Dalej wskazał, że wykonawca ten wycenił w tej samej cenie 250,06 zł/m wykonanie, transport i montaż ocynkowanej poręczy z dwoma lub więcej przeciągami (pozycja nr 2.128), gdzie przy wykonaniu tej części prac trzeba użyć nieporównywalnie mniej materiału do ich produkcji, niż przy realizacji pozycji 2.125. Na marginesie wskazać należy, że całkowicie niezrozumiała jest wycena przez SAFEROAD pozycji nr 2.132, gdzie wykonanie i montaż poręczy bez przeciągów (281,31zł/m) jest droższe od wykonania i montażu poręczy z dwoma lub więcej przeciągami (pozycja nr\n2.128, cena jedn. przy tych samych wymaganiach Zamawiającego dotyczących użytych materiałów opisanych w\nSTWiORB M. 19.01.04B). Podkreślił, że z dokonanej przez SAFEROAD kalkulacji wynika, że wyprodukowanie poręczy z wykorzystaniem mniejszej ilości materiałów jest droższe niż wyprodukowanie poręczy z wykorzystaniem większej ilości materiału.\nW podsumowaniu dla porównania podał, że poz. 2.125 została wyceniona przez PRIMOST na kwotę 500 zł/m, natomiast w ofercie Odwołującego na kwotę 600 zł/m. Zatem cena SAFEROAD jest o ponad 50% niższa. Zdaniem Odwołującego wskazane pozycje kosztorysowe zostały skalkulowane przez SAFEROAD na rażąco niskim poziomie, co spowodowało również że cena ofertowa również jest rażąco niska. Przypomniał, że w dniu 27.08.2020 r. i następnie 29.10.2020 r.\nZamawiający wezwał SAFEORAD do udzielenia wyjaśnień wysokości zaoferowanej ceny. Podstawę wezwania stanowił art. 90 ust. 1a i art. 87 ust. 1 PZP. W wezwaniu Zamawiający podał, że cena oferty wykonawcy SAFEROAD jest o\n49,83% niższa od wartości zamówienia powiększonej o należny podatek od towarów i usług oraz średnią arytmetycznej cen wszystkich złożonych ofert 0 30,85%. Wykonawca ten zaoferował cenę 2 549 61057 zł brutto, a wartość przedmiotowego zamówienia została ustalona na kwotę 5 081 999,47 zł brutto.\n\nDodatkowo Zamawiający wskazał pozycje kosztorysu ofertowego, którego ceny jednostkowe budziły jego szczególne wątpliwości. Zamawiający wezwał do złożenia nie tylko wyjaśnień, ale i przedłożenia dowodów, podkreślając, że to na wykonawcy spoczywa ciężar udowodnienia, że proponowana cena nie jest rażąco niska. SAFEROAD złożył wyjaśnienia pismem z dnia 4.09.2020 r i\n5.11.2020 r. Zamawiający uznał wyjaśnienia SAFEROAD w zakresie zaoferowanej ceny jako wystarczające, czego efektem było wybranie oferty tego wykonawcy do realizacji przedmiotowego zamówienia.\n8. Zgodnie z art. 90 ust. 3 PZP oferta podlega odrzuceniu, w przypadku, gdy wykonawca nie złożył wyjaśnień dotyczących rażąco niskiej ceny oferty lub gdy ocena złożonych wraz z dowodami wyjaśnień potwierdza, że oferta zawiera rażąco niską cenę. „Ceną rażąco niską, zgodnie z utrwalonym orzecznictwem KIO będzie cena niepokrywająca średniego jednostkowego kosztu zmiennego wykonania, czyli pogarszająca wynik finansowy przedsiębiorstwa.\nZawsze jednak konieczne jest, aby cena oferty była rażąco niska w stosunku do przedmiotu zamówienia, a dokładniej jego wartości rynkowej. W konsekwencji wartość rynkowa przedmiotu zamówienia, obejmująca jego pełny zakres i wszystkie konieczne do Jego wykonania nakłady kosztowe, ustalana przez porównanie cen występujących w danej branży .d/a okres/onego asortymentu, stanowić będzie punkt odniesienia d/a ceny rażąco niskie/. Rażąco niską ceną jest cena oderwana od realiów rynkowych, która nie pokrywa kosztów realizacji zamówienia, a zatem nie pozwala wykonawcy na jego należyte wykonanie bez poniesienia straty. Za rażąco niską cenę należy uznać taką cenę, która jest niewiarygodna d/a wykonania przedmiotu zamówienia i jest całkowicie oderwana od realiów rynkowych. Ocena tej okoliczności powinna być dokonana z uwzględnieniem przedmiotu zamówienia, jego specyfiki i towarzyszących mu realiów rynkowych”\n.\n9. W odniesieniu do przedmiotu zamówienia wskazać należy, że wycena takiego zamówienia musi obejmować wszystkie jego elementy i powinna odpowiadać rynkowej wartości zamówienia. Zaistnienie przesłanek określonych w art.\n90 ust. 1a pkt 1 PZP, tj. w sytuacji, gdy cena całkowita oferty jest niższa o co najmniej 30% od wartości zamówienia powiększonej o należny podatek od towarów i usług, ustalonej przed wszczęciem postępowania zgodnie z art. 32 ust. 1\nPZP, lub średniej arytmetycznej cen wszystkich złożonych ofert, prowadzi do ustanowienia domniemania, że oferta zawiera rażąco niską cenę. Jak wskazała KIO, wszczęcie przez zamawiającego procedury wyjaśnień (wezwanie) powoduje, że od tego momentu ciężar wykazania, że cena oferty wezwanego wykonawcy nie jest ceną rażąco niską, spoczywa na wykonawcy (art. 90 ust. 2 ustawy Pzp).\n10. W przedmiotowym stanie faktycznym takie domniemanie zaistniało, bowiem cena brutto oferty wykonawcy\nSAFEROAD jest niższa o ponad 30% od szacunkowej wartości zamówienia powiększonej o podatek VAT ustalonej przez Zamawiającego przed wszczęciem postępowania, a także Zamawiający wezwał SAFEROAD do złożenia wyjaśnień. W takiej sytuacji jedynie złożenie wyjaśnień obalających domniemanie zaoferowania przedmiotu zamówienia po cenie rażąco niskiej mogło uchronić tego wykonawcę przed odrzuceniem oferty. Wykonawca, wezwany do wyjaśnień zaoferowanej\n11. W odniesieniu do oceny wyjaśnień dotyczących domniemania rażąco niskiej ceny należy zauważyć, że ciężar wykazania, że oferta nie zawiera rażąco niskiej ceny leży po stronie wykonawcy na mocy art. 90 ust. 2 PZP. Jak wskazuje utrwalone orzecznictwo KIO, Wyjaśnienia w zakresie ceny oferty łub kosztu, łub ich istotnych części składowych, powinny w związku z tym zostać rzetelnie opracowane, powinny być konkretne i wyczerpujące Stanowią one bowiem podstawę oceny w zakresie prawidłowości ceny oferty a zatem powinny rozwiewać wątpliwości\nZamawiającego co do możliwości wykonania przedmiotu zamówienia zgodnie z wymaganiami określonymi w SIWZ lub wynikającymi z odrębnych przepisów. Tym bardziej, że oferta podlega odrzuceniu zarówno wówczas gdy wykonawca w odpowiedzi na wezwanie zamawiającego do złożenia wyjaśnień, w tym dowodów, w przedmiocie rażąco niskiej ceny, w ogóle nie złożył wyjaśnień, jak też wówczas gdy wykonawca wprawdzie złożył wyjaśnienia, ale są one niepełne, nierzetelne, nie odpowiadają żądaniu zamawiającego i nie wykazują, że oferta nie zawiera rażąco niskiej ceny Zgodnie bowiem z art, 90 ust. 3 ustawy PZP zamawiający odrzuca ofertę wykonawcy który nie udzielił wyjaśnień lub jeżeli dokonana ocena wyjaśnień wraz ze złożonymi dowodami potwierdzą że oferta zawiera rażąco niską cenę lub koszt w stosunku do przedmiotu zamówienia. Zgodnie z art. 89 ust 1 pkt 4 ustawy Pzp zamawiający odrzuca ofertę jeżeli zawiera rażąco niską cenę lub koszt w stosunku do przedmiotu zamówienia.\n12. Wyjaśnienia nie mogą mieć zatem charakteru ogólnego, lakonicznego. Muszą faktycznie prowadzić do udowodnienia, że za zaoferowaną cenę wykonawca jest w stanie zrealizować zamówienie nie ponosząc straty. Warto wskazać za kolejnym wyrokiem KIO, że: „\nWyjaśnienia rażąco niskiej ceny powinny być konkretne i wyczerpujące. Oznacza tą że wyjaśnienia powinny odnosić się do konkretnych wartości ekonomicznych Ogólne twierdzenia dotyczące np. posiadanego doświadczenia lub zasobów personalnych, bliskości wytwórni mas bitumicznych, bazy sprzętowej, posiadanie wiedzy i zdolności organizacyjnych itd. nie mogą zostać uznane za spełniające wymóg konkretności. Wyjaśnienia powinny również być kompletne, a zatem na ich podstawie zamawiający powinien moc ocenić czy wykonawca uwzględnił w cenie oferty wszystkie istotne pozycje kosztowe. Wyjaśnienia składane przez specjalizujący się w danej branży podmiot nie mogą bomem opierać się na ogólnych deklaracjach i zapewnieniach wykonawcy mających na ce/u wywrzeć na zamawiającym wrażenie, jakoby cena oferty została skalkulowana w sposób rzetelny i prawidłowy. Wyjaśnienia wykonawcy powinny zawierać jednoznaczne informacje, przekładające się na uchwytne i wymierne wartości ekonomiczne co powinno zostać poparte adekwatnymi i wiarygodnymi dowodami (art. 90 ust. 2 p.z.p.), ponieważ brak udowodnienia realności ceny winno bezwzględnie skutkować odrzuceniem oferty również na podstawie art. 89 ust 1 pkt 4 pz.p\n”.\n13. W przedmiotowym stanie faktycznym wskazanych wyżej wymogów nie spełniają wyjaśnienia złożone przez wykonawcę SAFEROAD. W przypadku tego wykonawcy nie zachodzą żadne szczególne okoliczności właściwe tylko temu wykonawcy, które pozwalają wycenić przedmiot zamówienia na aż tak niskim poziomie. Wieloletnie doświadczenie, dysponowanie odpowiednią ilością sprzętu i osób czy przeprowadzenie rozeznania lokalnego rynku, na które powoływał się SAFEROAD (wyjaśnienia z dnia 4.09.2020 r.), stanowią czynniki które można przypisać każdemu z wykonawców biorącym udział w Postępowaniu. Nie są to zatem okoliczności właściwe tylko dla SAFEROAD, a zatem nie mogą świadczyć o możliwości tak rażącego obniżenia cen. Odwołujący podnosi ponadto, że wykonawca SAFEROAD nie przedstawił wystarczających dowodów, na podstawie których można stwierdzić, że zaoferowana cena jest ceną realną, również w zakresie pozycji, które budziły wątpliwości Zamawiającego. Żaden z tych dokumentów nie ma w zasadzie wpływu na cenę oferty tego wykonawcy, bo nawet szczegółowa kalkulacja stanowi jedynie wyliczenia wykonawcy niepoparte żadnymi dowodami. Za pomocą przedstawionych dowodów wykonawca SAFEROAD nie mógł wykazać, że cena oferty oraz poszczególnych pozycji rzeczywiście mogła przyjąć taką wartość zgodnie z realiami rynkowymi.\n14. W związku z tym, że cena zaproponowana przez SAFEROAD w sposób znaczący odbiega od cen z innych ofert -1\nZamawiający winien powziąć poważne wątpliwości w zakresie ustalenia ją zgodnie z regułami rynkowymi, a biorąc pod uwagę złożone wyjaśnienia, nie miał podstaw do uznania realności zaoferowanej ceny, w szczególności biorąc pod uwagę pozycje zakwestionowane przez Odwołującego. Oferta SAFEROAD zawierająca rażąco niską cenę jest zarówno nierealna, jak i uniemożliwia prawidłowe wykonanie zamówienia oraz godzi w podstawowe zasady uczciwej konkurencji.\nStąd też oferta tego wykonawcy powinna zostać odrzucona na podstawie art. 90 ust. 3 i art. 89 ust. 1 pkt 4 PZP.\nB. Czyn nieuczciwej konkurencji\n15.W odniesieniu do oferty SAFEROAD Odwołujący zwrócił uwagę na niepożądane, sprzeczne z powszechnie obowiązującymi dobrymi obyczajami kupieckimi, a co istotne mogące spowodować realną szkodę po stronie\nZamawiającego (podobnie jak i po stronie wykonawców) zjawisko „przeszacowania jednych a niedoszacowania\"\n\ninnych pozycji kosztorysu ofertowego, mające na celu wykreowanie ceny pozornie rynkową, przy czym w istocie służące jedynie wykorzystaniu przewagi rynkowej, o czym będzie mowa poniżej. Stąd też zasadne wydaje się dokonanie oceny czynów\nSAFEROAD w kontekście czynu nieuczciwej konkurencji zdefiniowanego w art. 3 ust. 1 ZNKU, czego następstwem winno być odrzucenie oferty SAFEROAD na podstawie art. 89 ust. 1 pkt 3 PZP.\n16. Odwołujący wskazał, że niektóre pozycje dotyczące tej samej roboty, różniące się tylko pochodzeniem użytego materiału do ją wykonania tj. z materiału zakupionego przez Wykonawcę lub pochodzącego z rozbiórki (materiał\nZamawiającego), mają w ofercie SAFEROAD wyższą cenę jednostkową dla robót z wykorzystaniem materiału\nZamawiającego (z rozbiórki) co jest oczywiście niemożliwe. Nie można bowiem oferować wykonania roboty z materiału powierzonego przez Zamawiającego w cenie wyższej niż cena w której trzeba dodatkowo skalkulować koszt zakupu materiału przez Wykonawcę robót. Przykładem są m.in. pozycje 2.18 i 2.19.\n\nW pozycji 2.18 Wykonawca musi zakupić ścieki prefabrykowane betonowe korytkowe cena 117,68zł/m. W pozycji 2.19 Wykonawca nie musi kupować ścieków, korzysta z materiałów Zamawiającego (z rozbiórki) cena 169,83zł/m. Nie trzeba ich kupować ani transportować na budowę a cena jest wyższa 0 52,15zł/m. Takie same działania dotyczą również pozycji nr 2.4 i 2.5, 213 i 2.141 2.16 i\n2.17.\n17. Kolejny przykład nieuczciwych praktyk dotyczy poz. 2,40 i 2.41. Różnica między tymi pozycjami wynosi 4,94zł/m.\nWynika z tego, że firma SAFEROAD zamierza zabudować obrzeża chodnikowe pochodzące od Zamawiającego w cenie\n165,62zł/m (poz.2.40). W przypadku kiedy będzie musiała zakupić nowe obrzeża, zamierza to zrobić za cenę 494zł/m, ponieważ cena jednostkowa dla pozycji (241) jest wyceniona na 170,56zł/m\nPodobnie jest w pozycjach nr 2.6 i 2.7, 2.10 i\n2.11. Na podstawie analizy pozycji nr 2.6 i 2.7 można wywnioskować, że firma zamierza zakupić i dostarczyć na budowę płyty betonowe w cenie 4,14zł/m2 (nie ma na rynku takich cen). Na podstawie analizy pozycji nr 2.10 i 2.11 można wywnioskować, że firma zamierza zakupić i dostarczyć na budowę kostkę betonową w cenie 1,06zł/m2 (nie ma na rynku takich cen). Na podstawie analizy pozycji nr 2.40 i 2.41 można wywnioskować, że firma zamierza zakupić i dostarczyć na budowę betonowe obrzeże chodnikowe w cenie 4,94zł/m (nie ma na rynku takich cen).W załączeniu przedkładamy ofertę handlową materiałów wykorzystywanych przy realizacji robót uwzględnionych w tych pozycjach.\n18. Zauważył również, że rażące zaniżenie cen przez SAFEROAD dot. pozycji których jest duża ilość. Kalkulacja wykonywana była według zasady: mała ilość robót - bardzo wysoka cena jednostkowa, duża ilość robót rażąco niska cena jednostkowa. Przykłady takiego postępowania pokazują pozycje nr 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.13, 1.14. 1.15 - rażąco niska cena jednostkowa i duża ilość szacunkowa robót, co w zasadzie przesądza o wartości końcowej całej oferty; z kolei dla poz. nr 220, 2.21, 236, 2,37, 238, 2.39/ 2,40, 2.41 przyjęto zasadę bardzo wysoka cena jednostkowa i mała ilość szacunkowa robót.\n19.\nW świetle orzecznictwa KIO zjawisko zawyżania cen do wartości nierynkowych traktowane jest jako nieuprawniona manipulacja ceną. Zgodnie z uzasadnieniem wyroku KIO: manipulowane ceną polega na określaniu cen jednostkowych w taki sposób, że część cen określana jest na poziomie rażąco niskim, w oderwaniu od rzeczywistych kosztów i nakładów związanych z realizacją zamówienia, a część jest bez uzasadnienia zawyżona, by rekompensować zaniżenie innych cen, przy czym celem dokonywania takiej operacji jest zamierzona optymalizacja dokonanych wycen. Manipulacja cenowa sprowadza się zatem do przerzucania kosztów pomiędzy poszczególnymi elementami cenotwórczymi Celem takiej „optymalizacji\" jest nic innego jak uzyskanie przewagi nad innymi wykonawcami wedle przyjętych przez zamawiającego kryteriów oceny ofert. Wskazał, że jest to działanie, które prowadzi do wynaturzeń pozbawiających system zamówień publicznych jego ekonomicznego sensu, jak również narusza to interes innych przedsiębiorcom.\n20. Również zauważył, że działanie wykonawców w postaci manipulowania cenami jednostkowymi (przerzucanie kosztów) jest sprzeczne z dobrymi obyczajami rozumianymi jako normy moralne i obyczajowe w stosunkach gospodarczych, a więc pozaprawnymi normami postępowania, którymi powinni kierować się przedsiębiorcy (tzw.\nuczciwość kupiecka). Istotne znaczenie mają tu oceny zorientowane na zapewnienie niezakłóconego funkcjonowania konkurencji poprzez rzetelne i niezafałszowane współzawodnictwo.\n21.Działanie wykonawców w postaci manipulowania cenami jednostkowymi zagraża interesom innych przedsiębiorców\n(wykonawców), którzy kalkulując cenę uczciwie nie mogą w ten sposób realnie konkurować z podmiotem, który dopuszcza się manipulowania ceną, a w konsekwencji ich dostęp do rynku jest ograniczany przez podmiot popełniający delikt uczciwej konkurencji. Działanie takie może również zagrażać interesom samego zamawiającego, który w następstwie tego typu manipulacji cenowej byłby zmuszony niejednokrotnie dokonać wyboru oferty sumarycznie droższej\n(zawierającej wyższą cenę całkowitą).\n22. Czynem nieuczciwej konkurencji jest również utrudnianie innym przedsiębiorcom dostępu do rynku, w szczególności przez sprzedaż towarów lub usług poniżej kosztów ich wytworzenia lub świadczenia albo ich odprzedaż poniżej kosztów zakupu w celu eliminacji innych przedsiębiorców z rynku (art. 3 ust. 2 i art. 15 ust. 1 pkt 1 ZNKU). Zgodnie z orzecznictwem „nieuczciwe utrudnianie dostępu do rynku może polegać, w szczególności na (...) użyciu typowych środków walki konkurencyjnej takich jak zaniżanie cen, które, co do zasady są dozwolone, natomiast przy spełnieniu szczególnych przesłanek nieuczciwości mogą stanowić czyn nieuczciwej konkurencji (wyr. z 11.05.2009 r., KIO/UZP\n532/09). Jak wskazała KIO ustawa o zwalczaniu nieuczciwej konkurencji odnosząc popełnienie czynu nieuczciwej konkurencji do utrudnienia dostępu do rynku, nie określa o jaki dokładnie rynek chodzi Rynkiem może być zarówno rynek globalny jak i lokalny. Wobec tak szerokiego rozumienia pojęcia rynku zawartego w ustawie, popełnienie czynu nieuczciwej konkurencji może być związane z utrudnieniem lub uniemożliwieniem innym przedsiębiorcom uzyskania konkretnego zamówienia. Eliminowanie z rynku nie oznacza wyłącznie sytuacji gdy przedsiębiorca traci byt prawny, lub faktycznie nie może uzyskiwać żadnych zamówień, ale jest to także pozbawianie możliwości uzyskania konkretnego zamówienia, na skutek zastosowania nieuczciwych praktyk rynkowych przez jednego z wykonawców.\n23. Tego typu zachowanie, czyli przeszacowania jednych a niedoszacowania innych pozycji kosztorysu ofertowego, mające na celu wykreowanie ceny pozornie rynkowej oraz rażące zniżanie cen wypełnia definicję czynu nieuczciwej konkurencji, określoną w art. 3 ust. 1 ZNKU i jako takie skutkuje obowiązkiem odrzucenia oferty wykonawcy na podstawie art. 89 ust. 1 pkt 3 PZP. 23. Odwołujący wskazał, że dla wykazania zaistnienia czynu nieuczciwej konkurencji nie jest wymagane dysponowanie bezpośrednim dowodem, albowiem jego pozyskanie przeważnie jest niemożliwe. W tym przypadku obowiązują obniżone standardy dowodowe, a wykazanie czynu nieuczciwej konkurencji może opierać się (i przeważnie się opiera) na dowodach pośrednich oraz domniemaniach faktycznych, tj. ustalenia pewnych faktów mogą być dokonane, jeżeli możliwe jest wyprowadzenie takiego wniosku na podstawie innych faktów. Dlatego też wystarczające jest, aby całokształt okoliczności sprawy pozwalał na racjonalne i logiczne wyprowadzenie wniosku, że doszło do złożenia oferty w warunkach czynu nieuczciwej konkurencji w rozumieniu przepisów ZNKU (tak też KIO w wyr.\nz dnia 30.09.2020 r., KIO 1865/20; w wyr. z dnia 13.07.2018 r., KIO 1279/18).\nC. Zarzut naruszenia uczciwej konkurencji i równego traktowania wykonawców\n24. Całokształt wskazanych wyżej w uzasadnieniu okoliczności wskazuje jednoznacznie, że Zamawiający naruszył reguły równego traktowania wykonawców i uczciwej konkurencji. W stosunku do wykonawcy SAFEROAD Zamawiający nie dokonał prawidłowej oceny wyjaśnień w zakresie rażąco niskiej ceny, uznając że wykonawca ten obalił domniemanie rażąco niskiej ceny. Pominięcie przez Zamawiającego tych istotnych okoliczności, na które wskazuje w odwołaniu\nOdwołujący, prowadzi do zachwiania równowagi konkurencyjnej w Postępowaniu, zamówienie bowiem otrzymuje wykonawca, który nie sprostał dyspozycji art. 90 ust. 2 PZP, a zatem jego oferta powinna zostać odrzucona. Takie działanie wprost narusza również dyspozycję art. 7 ust. 3 PZP zgodnie z którą zamówienia udziela się wyłącznie wykonawcy wybranemu zgodnie z przepisami ustawy.\nZamawiający w odpowiedzi na odwołanie\n(pismo z dnia 15 marca 2021 r.) wniósł o oddalenie odwołania w całości, wskazując na następujące okoliczności:.\nZgodnie z art. 90 ust. 1a pkt 1) ustawy PZP w przypadku gdy cena całkowita oferty jest niższa o co najmniej 30% od wartości zamówienia powiększonej o należny podatek od towarów i usług, ustalonej przed wszczęciem postępowania zgodnie z art. 35 ust. 1 i 2 lub średniej arytmetycznej cen wszystkich złożonych ofert, zamawiający zwraca się o udzielenie wyjaśnień, o których mowa w ust. 1 tego artykułu, chyba że rozbieżność wynika z okoliczności oczywistych, które nie wymagają wyjaśnienia.\nZamawiający dokonał analizy ofert złożonych przez wykonawców w celu ustalenia czy zachodzą podstawy do zastosowania procedury, o której mowa w art. 90 ust. 1 i ust. 1a ustawy Pzp. Dokonując analizy wszystkich cen ofertowych brał także pod uwagę takie kryteria jak:\na) kryterium arytmetyczne, gdzie punktem odniesienia jest ustalona przez Zamawiającego z należytą starannością szacunkowa wartość zamówienia, powiększona o podatek od towarów i usług. Szacunkowa wartość zamówienia podstawowego netto plus podatek VAT to kwota: 5.081.999,47 zł.\nb) kryterium cen ofert, w którym punktem odniesienia jest średnia arytmetyczna cen wszystkich złożonych ofert w odniesieniu do ceny danej oferty.\nŚrednia arytmetyczna cen wszystkich złożonych ofert wynosi: 3.687.293,62 zł. Na podstawie przeprowadzonej analizy ustalono, że zgodnie z art. 90 ust. 1a pkt 1) ustawy Pzp zachodziła konieczność uruchomienia procedury wyjaśniającej w odniesieniu do ofert złożonych przez wykonawców: 1) J. O., 2) Saferoad Grawil sp. z o. o. i 3) Odwołujący - Gramar sp. z o. o. Zaznaczył, że cena oferty Saferoad w stosunku do średniej arytmetycznej cen wszystkich złożonych ofert wynoszącej 3.687.293,62 zł jest niższa wyłącznie 0 30,85 %.\nTabela uwzględniająca wartości wszystkich złożonych w postępowaniu ofert przedstawia się następująco:\nWykonawca\nZaoferowana cena brutto\nStosunek do kwoty\nZamawiającego\nRóżnica\nStosunek do średniej ceny\nRóżnica\nMiejsce rankingu\nUTDM\nJ. O.\n2 387 971,20 zł\n46,99%\n64,760/0\nSAFEROAD\nGRAWIL Sp. z o. o.\n2 549 610,57 zł\n50,17%\n69,15%\nGRAMAR\nSp. z o. o.\n3 528 621,54 zł\n69,43%\n4,300/0\nKonsorcjum:\nPRIMOST\nPOŁUDNIE sp.\nz o. o., ZBD sp.\nz o. o. Sp. K.\n5 832 971,19 zł\n114,78%\n158,19%\n-58,19%\nZamawiający pismem z dnia 27 sierpnia 2020 r. zwrócił się do wykonawcy Saferoad o udzielenie wyjaśnień dotyczących wyliczenia ceny oferty w celu ustalenia czy oferta zawiera rażąco niską cenę w stosunku do przedmiotu zamówienia oraz, czy uwzględnia wszystkie wymagania zawarte w SIWZ.\n‘Wykonawca przedstawił wyjaśnienia i dowody przy piśmie z dnia 4 września 2020 r. Następnie pismem z dnia 29 października 2020 r. Zamawiający zwrócił się do tego wykonawcy o doprecyzowanie wyjaśnień z dnia 4 września 2020 r.\nw odniesieniu do czterech pozycji kosztorysowych (wyłącznie w zakresie określonym w piśmie Zamawiającego).\nWykonawca odpowiedział pismem z dnia 5 listopada 2020 r.\nZamawiający, na podstawie analizy wyjaśnień i przedstawionych przez wykonawcę Saferoad dowodów przyjął, że cena oferty tego wykonawcy nie nosi znamion ceny rażąco niskiej. Wykonawca złożył wyjaśnienia, które w sposób wystarczający uzasadniają to, że oferta została skalkulowana racjonalnie i prawidłowo, a cena oferty nie jest rażąco niska\n(jest realna).\nZ analiz cen wynika, że - wyłączając ofertę najdroższą - mieszczą się one w granicach cen normalnie spotykanych na rynku konkurencji. Fakt, iż ceny wykonawców różnią się od siebie jest normalną sytuacją występującą na rynku.\nPotwierdza to powszechnie przyjęta linia orzecznicza KIO, zgodnie z którą wskazuje się, że: „Istotą zamówienia publicznego jest konkurowanie Wykonawców na rynku i składanie przez nich ofert z zamiarem wygrania zamówienia\"\n(wyrok z 12.03.2012 r., KIO 406/12).\nWykonawca Saferoad przedstawił wraz z wyjaśnieniami szczegółowe kalkulacje ceny, uwzględniające elementy i okoliczności mające wpływ na wycenę (w tym m.in. materiały, robociznę, transport czy zysk). Z wyjaśnień złożonych przez wykonawcę wynika, że przy kalkulacji ceny brano pod uwagę specyfikę realizacji usług przedmiotowego rodzaju i przeprowadzono rozpoznanie cenowe lokalnego rynku, co przy wieloletnim doświadczeniu i dysponowaniu odpowiednimi zasobami pozwoliło na przyjęcie realnych stawek i odpowiedniego wynagrodzenia czynności wykonywanych przez osoby dedykowane do realizacji zamówienia. Wykonawca ten wskazał, że oferowana cena została skalkulowana w sposób uwzględniający wszystkie elementy i wymagania określone przez Zamawiającego w dokumentacji przetargowej, a czynnikami mającymi wpływ na wysokość oferowanej ceny są: 1) wieloletnie doświadczenie w realizacji kontraktów związanych z bieżącym utrzymaniem obiektów inżynierskich stanowiących przedmiot niniejszego zamówienia publicznego; 2) dysponowanie odpowiednią ilością sprzętu i osób niezbędnych do realizacji przedmiotowego zamówienia, co w znacznym stopniu wpływa na obniżenie kosztów; 3) rozpoznanie cenowe lokalnego rynku przed upływem terminu składania ofert. Wykonawca także wyjaśnił, że przygotowując ofertę cenową bazował na wszystkich dostępnych źródłach informacji na temat przedmiotowego zakresu prac, w szczególności wykorzystując: dokumentację przetargową, odpowiedzi udzielone przez Zamawiającego na etapie postępowania przetargowego, zakres gwarancji udzielonych przez Wykonawców poszczególnych odcinków dróg, wizję w terenie, własne doświadczenie zdobyte przy realizacji kontraktów utrzymaniowych w zakresie obiektów inżynierskich. Dodatkowo wykonawca wyjaśnił, że przy sporządzaniu kalkulacji szczegółowych przyjmował następujące założenia:\nwykorzystywany przez wykonawcę sprzęt oraz narzędzia typu szalunki, pomosty, rusztowania, konstrukcje zabezpieczające są zamortyzowane.\nmarża zawiera koszty pośrednie przedsiębiorstwa, koszty ogólne kontraktu oraz zysk wykonawcy. Zysk kalkulacyjny\nEBITDA całego projektu, po uwzględnieniu alokowanych kosztów ogólnozakładowych wynosi 8,6%.\nkoszty roboczogodziny wynosi 19,00 zł/r-g.\nroboczogodzina jest jednostką zawierającą koszty brutto pracownika oraz koszty pracodawcy. Jest to pełna godzina zegarowa (60 minut) ilości nakładów roboczogodziny obejmują między innymi roboty towarzyszące przy realizacji danej pozycji kosztorysowej, jeśli występują np. wykonanie, utrzymanie i demontaż niezbędnych rusztowań, pomostów roboczych oraz konstrukcji zabezpieczających i ich przestawianie i/lub wynajęcie samochodu z wysuwanym pomostem lub koszem (jeżeli niezbędne), wykonanie prac zabezpieczających.\nwykonawca posiada pojazdy do zabezpieczania miejsc prowadzenia robót oraz niezbędne oznakowanie podstawowe.\nmaszynogodzina jest jednostką zawierającą koszty pracy sprzętu wraz z kosztami obsługi operatora (koszty brutto pracodawcy). Jedna jednostka maszynogodziny równa jest jednej godzinie zegarowej (60 minut).\nkoszty sprzętu zostały ustalone na podstawie średniej ceny serwisu ORGBUD za 2 kwartał 2020 r. z wyłączeniem: myjka ciśnieniowa elektryczna - sprzęt własny zamortyzowany, kosiarka spalinowa sprzęt własny zamortyzowany samochód dostawczy (sprzęt własny) użyto ceny minimalnej serwisu ORGBUD-45,OO zł/m-g koszty materiałów zostały ustalone na podstawie cen rynkowych. Przyjęte w kalkulacji materiały:\n-\nBariera ochronna mostowa HIW2A -131,90 zł/mb\n- piasek kwarcowy suszony frakcji 0.5-2.0 - 0,17 zł/kg\n- śmieci - utylizacja - 160,77 zł/m3\n-\nDetergent Dolphin Super Oil Cleaner - 8,39zł/dm3\n-\nSTOSEAL r-355 - 25,50 zł/O,6dm3\n-\nSTOPOX TER Multitop - 20,98 zł/kg\n-\nSTO GH530 16,00 zł/kg\n-\nABF Wkładka neoprenowa do dylatacji modułowych - 100zł/mb\n-\nBalustrada mostowa - 200zł/mb koszty materiałów które zostały ustalone na podstawie średniej ceny serwisu Orgbud, Przyjęte w kalkulacji materiały: woda\n- 4,00 zł/m3.\nroboty towarzyszące czynności dodatkowe, niezbędne do wykonania prac objętych daną pozycją kosztorysową, niewyszczególnione w kosztach bezpośrednich oraz koszty zakupu materiałów, zabezpieczenia robót i utylizacji odpadów.\nWykonawca Safroad wyjaśnił również, że nie można uznać, że zaoferowana przez niego cena „generalnie nie występuje na rynku, na którym ceny wyznaczane są m.in. poprzez ogólną sytuację gospodarczą panującą w danej branży\", ponieważ cena oferty w wysokości 2.549.610,57 zł brutto, stanowi 71,32% średniej arytmetycznej\n\nwszystkich złożonych ofert, przy czym wykonawca za ceny rynkowe uznał wyłącznie oferty swoją, J. O. (2.387.971,20 zł brutto) oraz Gramar\nSp. z o.o. (3.528.621,54 zł brutto). Wykonawca w zakresie rozumienia pojęcia ceny rażąco niskiej odwołał się do stanowiska w wyroku KIO\n2291/13) i wyroku\nKIO 560/12).\nZamawiający stwierdził, że przedstawione przez wykonawcę Saferoad wyjaśnienia i dowody (w tym szczegółowe kalkulacje ceny) zawierały odpowiedzi na pytania Zamawiającego zawarte w wezwaniach i nie budziły wątpliwości, co do możliwości realizacji zamówienia za cenę ofertową w sposób należyty, z uwzględnieniem wszystkich elementów przedmiotu zamówienia oraz warunków jego realizacji określonych w SIWZ.\n\nW świetle złożonych przez wykonawcę\nSaferoad wyjaśnień i dowodów należało przyjąć, że wykonawca ten wykazał, że zaoferowana przez niego cena jest ceną rynkową, a w cenie tej uwzględniono wszystkie wymagania Zamawiającego określone w SIWZ oraz koszty związane z realizacją przedmiotu Zamówienia, w tym w szczególności zapewnienie odpowiedniej ilości sprzętu i materiałów niezbędnych do prawidłowej realizacji przedmiotowego zamówienia.\nZamawiający przyjmuje, że cena rażąco niska jest ceną nierealistyczną, nieadekwatną do zakresu i kosztów prac składających się na dany przedmiot zamówienia, zakładającą wykonanie zamówienia poniżej jego rzeczywistych kosztów i w takim sensie nie jest ceną rynkową, tzn. generalnie nie występuje na rynku, na którym ceny wyznaczane są m.in. poprzez ogólną sytuację gospodarczą panującą w danej branży i jej otoczeniu biznesowym, postęp technologicznoorganizacyjny oraz obecność i funkcjonowanie uczciwej konkurencji podmiotów racjonalnie na nim działających itp. Taki sposób definiowania rażąco niskiej ceny jest powszechnie przyjmowany w orzecznictwie zarówno KIO jak i sądów powszechnych.\nPodniósł, że w odwołaniu zakwestionowano nie tyle łączną cenę oferty wykonawcy Saferoad, co przyjęte przez tego wykonawcę ceny jednostkowe kilku pozycji kosztorysowych. Co do zasady w zakresie rażąco niskiej ceny, należy brać pod uwagę całościową cenę oferty, a nie tylko zaoferowane ceny jednostkowe. Natomiast, ceny składowe i ceny jednostkowe są badane w zakresie rażąco niskiej ceny, w sytuacji kiedy mogą zaważyć na należytym wykonaniu przyszłej umowy. Regulację dotyczące rażąco niskiej ceny mają na celu zabezpieczenie zamawiającego (w tym interesu publicznego), przed koniecznością zawierania umowy z wykonawcą oferującym cenę na tyle niską, iż wątpliwym wydaje się, że wykonawca ten wykonana umowę, ewentualnie, iż wykona ją należycie. Przesłanka rażąco niskiej ceny także w przypadku wynagrodzenia kosztorysowego powinna zostać wypełniona w stosunku do całościowej ceny oferty. Zatem nawet jeśli niektóre oferowane przez wykonawców ceny\n\njednostkowe odbiegają od przyjętych w obrocie, to nie można niejako automatycznie przyjmować, że mają one wpływ na ocenę łącznej ceny ofertowej jako realnej.\nPonadto Odwołujący nie wykazał, że kwestionowane pozycje kosztorysu obejmują istotne części przedmiotowego zamówienia, które mogą mieć wpływ na przyjęcie, że całościowa cena oferty jest rażąco niska. Odwołujący nie wykazał również jaki jest wpływ kwestionowanych przez niego pozycji na prawidłowość wykonania całego zamówienia.\nZwrócił uwagę, że kwestionowane w odwołaniu pozycje jednostkowe dotyczące elementów betonowych i kamiennych\n(poz.: 2,4, 2.5, 2.6, 2.7, 2.10, 2.11, 2.13, 2.14, 2.16, 2.17, 2,18, 2,19, 2,20, 2.21, 2,36, 2,37, 2,38, 2,39, 2,40, 2,41 kosztorysu ofertowego) stanowią około 0,3 % ogólnej wartości kosztorysu inwestorskiego. W odniesieniu do pozycji jednostkowych dotyczących montażu ocynkowanych balustrad podał, że wykonawca Saferoad wraz z wyjaśnieniami z dnia 4 września 2020 r. przedstawił ofertę, która uzasadniała zdaniem Zamawiającego przyjęcie pozycji jednostkowych o wartościach wskazanych w ofercie wykonawcy Saferoad. Jak poinformowano pismem Zamawiającego z dnia 28 grudnia\n2020 r. oferta ta została uznana za skutecznie zastrzeżoną jako tajemnica przedsiębiorcy wykonawcy.\nZ kolei kwestionowana w odwołaniu pozycja 2.125 stanowi około 0,65 %\n\nogólnej wartości kosztorysu inwestorskiego. Również w odniesieniu do pozycji jednostkowych wchodzących w skład grupy robót pn. „utrzymanie czystości” Zamawiający uznał wyjaśnienia wykonawcy Saferoad za wystarczające do przyjęcia, że cena ofertowa została rzetelnie skalkulowana, a umowa zostanie należycie zrealizowana przez tego wykonawcę.\nZamawiający nie zgodził się z Odwołującym, że wyjaśnienia przedstawione przez wykonawcę Saferoad na wezwanie\nZamawiającego nie były wystarczające do przyjęcia, że cena oferty tego wykonawcy nie jest rażąco niska. Jak opisano powyżej wykonawca Saferoad przedstawił wraz z wyjaśnieniami szczegółowe kalkulacje ceny, uwzględniające elementy i okoliczności mające wpływ na wycenę. Ze złożonych przez wykonawcę Saferoad wyjaśnień i dowodów wynika, że wykonawca ten wykazał, że zaoferowana przez niego cena jest ceną rynkową (ceną realną), a w cenie tej uwzględniono wszystkie wymagania Zamawiającego określone w SIWZ oraz koszty związane z realizacją przedmiotu zamówienia, w tym w szczególności zapewnienie odpowiedniej ilości sprzętu i materiałów niezbędnych do prawidłowej realizacji przedmiotowego zamówienia. Zauważył, że wezwanie z dnia 29 października 2020 r. skierowane przez Zamawiającego do wykonawcy Saferoad o doprecyzowanie wcześniejszych wyjaśnień dotyczyło w zasadzie kwestii uwzględnienia pracy własnego sprzętu wykonawcy i planowanego rodzaju detergentu. Możliwość wezwania wykonawcy o doprecyzowanie wcześniejszych wyjaśnień w zakresie rażąco niskiej ceny nie budzi wątpliwości w orzecznictwie Krajowej Izby\nOdwoławczej i sądów. Podkreślił, że przepis art. 90 ust. 3 ustawy PZP zobowiązuje zamawiającego do odrzucenia oferty tylko wtedy gdy wykonawca nie udzielił wyjaśnień lub jeżeli dokonana ocena wraz ze złożonymi wyjaśnieniami potwierdza, że oferta zawiera rażąco niska cenę lub koszt w stosunku do przedmiotu zamówienia. W niniejszym postępowaniu taka sytuacja nie miała miejsca. Informacje zawarte w wyjaśnieniach wykonawcy Saferoad są w ocenie\nZamawiającego wiarygodne i wskazują na realną możliwość wykonania przedmiotu zamówienia zgodnie ze złożoną ofertą i wymogami zawartymi w SIWZ. Dlatego też brak jest podstaw do nakazania Zamawiającemu odrzucenia oferty na podstawie art. 90 ust. 3 ustawy Pzp i tym samym uznania ceny oferty złożonej przez wykonawcę Saferoad jako rażąco niskiej.\nBiorąc pod uwagę zawarte w odwołaniu uzasadnienie konieczności odrzucenia oferty wykonawcy Saferoad na podstawie art. 89 ust. 1 pkt 3 ustawy Pzp w zw. art. 3 ust. 1 ustawy o zwalczaniu nieuczciwej konkurencji, jego zdaniem,\nOdwołujący nie wykazał zasadności wykluczenia wykonawcy Saferoad z postępowania w oparciu o wskazywaną przez\nOdwołującego podstawę prawną. Zamawiający wskazał, że kwestionowane w odwołaniu pozycje jednostkowe dotyczące elementów betonowych i kamiennych stanowią około 0,3 % ogólnej wartości kosztorysu inwestorskiego. Zdaniem\nZamawiającego Odwołujący nie wykazał zaistnienia wszystkich przesłanek uzasadniających możliwość przyjęcia, że wykonawca Saferoad dopuścił się czynu nieuczciwej konkurencji w rozumieniu przepisów o zwalczaniu nieuczciwej konkurencji.\nPodsumowując Zamawiający stwierdził, że także za nieuzasadniony w realiach niniejszego postępowania należy\n– zdaniem Zamawiającego - uznać także zarzut rzekomego naruszenia przez Zamawiającego art. 7 ust. 1 i 3 ustawy\nPzp, a mianowicie\n\nnaruszenia zasady uczciwej konkurencji i równego traktowania wykonawców. Najkorzystniejsza oferta nie zawiera rażąco niskiej ceny w stosunku do przedmiotu zamówienia, a wybór najkorzystniejszej oferty odbył się zgodnie z przepisami ustawy Pzp oraz zapisami SIWZ.\nDo postępowania odwoławczego w piśmie z dnia 19 lutego 2021 r. zgłosił przystąpienie do postępowania odwoławczego po stronie zamawiającego wykonawca: Saferoad Grawil sp. z o.o. z siedzibą we Włocławku\n\nwnosząc oddalenie odwołania.\nIzba ustaliła i zważyła co następuje:\nZgodnie z art. 92 ust. 2 ustawy z dnia 11 września 2019 r. Przepisy wprowadzające ustawę - Prawo zamówień publicznych (Dz.U. z 2019 poz. 2020) [dalej: ustawa Pwu), do postępowań odwoławczych, o których mowa w uchylanej ustawie z dnia 29 stycznia 2004 r. (dalej: ustawa Pzp), wszczętych po dniu 31 grudnia 2020 r., dotyczących postępowań o udzielenie zamówienia wszczętych przed dniem 1 stycznia 2021 r. stosuje się przepisy ustawy z dnia 11 września\n2019 r. Prawo zamówień publicznych (Dz.U. z 2019 r., poz. 2019) (dalej: nPzp).\nOdwołanie w niniejszej sprawie zostało wniesione w dniu 16 lutego 2021 r. Izba zatem wydając wyrok w niniejszej sprawie, stosowała w postępowaniu odwoławczym przepisy nPzp z dnia 11 września 2019 r.\nOdwołujący podnosząc w odwołaniu zarzut zaniechania odrzucenia oferty wykonawcy Saferoad Grawil sp. z o.o.\nwe Włocławku (dalej: wykonawca Saferoad) oparty na argumentacji związanej z rażąco niską ceną wskazał na naruszenie: art. 89 ust. 1 pkt 4 ustawy Pzp oraz art. 90 ust. 3 tej ustawy Pzp, stwierdził, że oferta zawiera rażąco niską cenę oraz, że wyjaśnienia Saferoad w zakresie rażąco niskiej ceny - nie potwierdziły realności zaoferowanej ceny oraz nie obaliły – tak jak wymaga przepis art. 90 ust.2 Pzp - domniemania rażąco niskiej ceny. Wskazał na pozycje kosztorysowe dotyczące grupy robót 1 (Utrzymanie czystości: poz.1.\n1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1,13, 1.14, 1.15.\n) oraz montażu ocynkowanych balustrad (poz. 2125).\nWskazane zarzuty nie zasługują na uwzględnienie.\nWezwany do złożenia wyjaśnień wykonawca Saferoad w trybie art. 90 ust.1 ustawy Pzp (pismo z dnia 27 sierpnia 2020 r.) przedstawił wyjaśnienia w zakresie wymaganym wezwaniem oraz dowody dla potwierdzenia przyjęcia pozycji jednostkowych o wartościach wskazanych w ofercie wykonawcy, a kwestionowanych w odwołaniu (pismo z dnia 4 września 2020 r.). Także dodatkowo (wezwanie z dnia 29 października 2020 r.) doprecyzował te wyjaśnienia w odniesieniu do czterech pozycji kosztorysowych w zakresie żądanym (pismo z dnia 5 listopada 2020 r.).\nWraz z wyjaśnieniami – jak wskazywał Zamawiający - przedstawił szczegółowe kalkulacje ceny, uwzględniające elementy i okoliczności mające wpływ na wycenę (w tym m.in. materiały, robociznę, transport czy zysk). Z wyjaśnień tych wynika, że kalkulację poprzedziło rozpoznanie cenowe lokalnego rynku i przy kalkulacji ceny uwzględniano m.in. specyfikę realizacji usług przedmiotowego rodzaju oraz dysponowanie odpowiednimi zasobami, które pozwoliły na przyjęcie realnych stawek i odpowiedniego wynagrodzenia czynności wykonywanych przez osoby dedykowane do realizacji zamówienia. W tych wyjaśnieniach wykonawca Saferoad podał, że sporządzając kalkulacje szczegółowe przyjął m.in. następujące założenia:\n- wykorzystywany przez wykonawcę sprzęt oraz narzędzia typu szalunki, pomosty, rusztowania, konstrukcje zabezpieczające są zamortyzowane.\n- zysk kalkulacyjny EBITDA całego projektu, po uwzględnieniu alokowanych kosztów ogólnozakładowych - 8,6%, zaznaczając, że marża zawiera koszty pośrednie przedsiębiorstwa, koszty ogólne kontraktu oraz zysk wykonawcy.\n- koszty roboczogodziny - 19,00 zł/r-g, wskazując, że roboczogodzina jest jednostką zawierającą koszty brutto pracownika oraz koszty pracodawcy. Jest to pełna godzina zegarowa (60 minut), a ilości nakładów roboczogodziny obejmują między innymi roboty towarzyszące przy realizacji danej pozycji kosztorysowej, jeśli występują np.\nwykonanie, utrzymanie i demontaż niezbędnych rusztowań, pomostów roboczych oraz konstrukcji zabezpieczających i ich przestawianie i/lub wynajęcie samochodu z wysuwanym pomostem lub koszem (jeżeli niezbędne), wykonanie prac zabezpieczających;\n- posiadane pojazdy do zabezpieczania miejsc prowadzenia robót oraz niezbędne oznakowanie podstawowe.\n- koszty pracy sprzętu (maszynogodzina) wraz z kosztami obsługi operatora (koszty brutto pracodawcy). Jedna jednostka maszynogodziny równa jest jednej godzinie zegarowej (60 minut). Koszty sprzętu zostały ustalone na podstawie średniej ceny serwisu ORGBUD za 2 kwartał 2020 r. z wyłączeniem: myjka ciśnieniowa elektryczna - sprzęt własny zamortyzowany, kosiarka spalinowa sprzęt własny zamortyzowany samochód dostawczy (sprzęt własny) użyto ceny minimalnej serwisu ORGBUD-45,OO zł/m-g\n- koszty materiałów ustalone na podstawie cen rynkowych. Przyjęte w kalkulacji materiały: bariera ochronna mostowa\nHIW2A -131,90 zł/mb ; piasek kwarcowy suszony frakcji 0.5-2.0 - 0,17 zł/kg; śmieci - utylizacja - 160,77 zł/m3;\ndetergent Dolphin Super Oil Cleaner - 8,39zł/dm3; STOSEAL r-355 - 25,50 zł/O,6dm3; STOPOX TER Multitop - 20,98 zł/kg; STO GH530 16,00 zł/kg; ABF Wkładka neoprenowa do dylatacji modułowych - 100zł/mb; balustrada mostowa -\n200zł/mb\n- koszty materiałów ustalone na podstawie średniej ceny serwisu Orgbud, Przyjęte w kalkulacji materiały: woda - 4,00 zł/m3.\n- roboty towarzyszące czynności dodatkowe, niezbędne do wykonania prac objętych daną pozycją kosztorysową, niewyszczególnione w kosztach bezpośrednich oraz koszty zakupu materiałów, zabezpieczenia robót i utylizacji odpadów.\nW odniesieniu do pozycji jednostkowych dotyczących montażu ocynkowanych balustrad wykonawca Saferoad wraz z wyjaśnieniami z dnia 4 września 2020 r. przedstawił ofertę dostawcy,\n\nktóra to oferta została zastrzeżona jako tajemnica przedsiębiorcy wykonawcy.\nIzba zgodziła się, że te wyjaśnienia i dowody (w tym szczegółowe kalkulacje ceny) zawierały odpowiedzi na pytania Zamawiającego zawarte w wezwaniach i nie budzą wątpliwości, co do możliwości realizacji zamówienia za cenę ofertową w sposób należyty, z uwzględnieniem wszystkich elementów przedmiotu zamówienia oraz warunków jego realizacji określonych w SIWZ. W świetle tych wyjaśnień i dowodów brak jest podstaw do kwestionowania ustaleń\nZamawiającego, że wykonawca ten wykazał, że zaoferowana przez niego cena jest ceną rynkową, uwzględniającą wymagania określone w SIWZ oraz koszty związane z realizacją przedmiotu zamówienia, także co do odpowiedniej ilości sprzętu i materiałów niezbędnych do prawidłowej realizacji przedmiotowego zamówienia. Nie można zatem zgodzić się, że cena wykonawcy Saferoad jest ceną nierealistyczną, nieadekwatną do zakresu i kosztów prac składających się na dany przedmiot zamówienia, zakładającą wykonanie zamówienia poniżej jego rzeczywistych kosztów i w takim sensie nie jest ceną rynkową.\nIzba także zwraca uwagę, że w odwołaniu zarzuty skierowane są do kilku (wskazanych powyżej) pozycji cen jednostkowych, nie do łącznej ceny oferty wykonawcy Saferoad. Co do zasady ustalenia, co do rażąco niskiej ceny można odnosić także do oferowanych cen jednostkowych, jednakże dotyczy to sytuacji (na co zwracał uwagę\nZamawiający), gdy mogą one zaważyć na należytym wykonaniu przyszłej umowy. Izba zwraca uwagę, że łączna cena oferty Saferoad to kwota 2.549.610,57 zł brutto, stanowiąca 71,32% średniej arytmetycznej cen trzech ofert, wskazywanych przez Zamawiającego jako ceny rynkowe. Z kolei pierwsza kwestionowanych grup robót (Utrzymanie czystości) stanowi tylko około 0, 5 % ogólnej wartości kosztorysu inwestorskiego, a druga z kwestionowanych cen co do balustrad ocynkowanych (pozycja 2.125) stanowi tylko około 0,65 % tej ogólnej wartości.\nOdwołujący nie wykazał, że kwestionowane pozycje kosztorysu obejmują istotne części przedmiotowego zamówienia, które mogą mieć wpływ na przyjęcie, że całościowa cena oferty jest rażąco niska. Odwołujący nie wykazał również jaki jest wpływ kwestionowanych przez niego pozycji na prawidłowość wykonania całego zamówienia, zważywszy, że Odwołujący w cenach podobnych dla tych pozycji realizował zamówienia w ramach kontraktu w latach\n2017 - 2020. Nie wykazał w tym przypadku, że ogólna sytuacja gospodarcza w tej branży i jej otoczeniu biznesowym, a także postęp technologiczno-organizacyjny oraz konkurencja podmiotów racjonalnie na nim działających nie pozwala na wykonanie tych prac za taką cenę w roku 2021.\nTakże nie zasługuje na uwzględnienie zarzut naruszenia przez Zamawiającego art.89 ust. 1 pkt 3 ustawy Pzp w zw. art. 3 ust. 1 ustawy o zwalczaniu nieuczciwej konkurencji albowiem Izba nie podzieliła stanowiska Odwołującego, że w okolicznościach przez niego wskazanych złożenie oferty przez wykonawcę Safteroad stanowi czyn nieuczciwej konkurencji w rozumieniu przepisów ustawy ZNK.\nKwestionowane w odwołaniu ceny jednostkowe dotyczą:\n(1) pozycji nr\n1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.13, 1.14, 1.15 – dla których przyjęto według Odwołującego rażąco niską cenę jednostkową i których duża ilość szacunkowa robót w zasadzie przesądza o wartości końcowej całej oferty; oraz m.in. (2) poz. nr 2.20, 2.21,\n236, 2,37, 238, 2.39, 2,40, 2.41 – dla których przyjęto zasadę bardzo wysokiej ceny jednostkowej i których dotyczy mała ilość szacunkowa robót.\nIzba wskazuje, że te pozycje z pkt 1 i pkt 2 (jak podnosił Zamawiający) stanowią odpowiednio około 0,5 % i około\n0,3 % ogólnej wartości kosztorysu inwestorskiego. Odwołujący nie wykazał przesłanek wymaganych wskazanym art. 3 ust.1 ustawy znk, uzasadniających przyjęcie, że wykonawca Saferoad dopuścił się czynu nieuczciwej konkurencji w rozumieniu przepisów o zwalczaniu nieuczciwej konkurencji tylko dlatego, że niektóre wskazywane przez wykonawcę pozycje kosztorysu ofertowego, w jego przekonaniu mając na celu wykreowanie ceny pozornie rynkowej wykonawca\nSaferoad niedoszacowywał, albo przeszacowywał. Odwołujący nie wykazał jednocześnie, aby takie sprzeczne z dobrymi obyczajami działanie miało kluczowy wpływ na cenę tej oferty i powodowało eliminację wykonawców, w tym\nOdwołującego, z rynku.\nTym samym wobec powyższych ustaleń podlega oddaleniu zarzut naruszenia przez Zamawiającego art. 7 ust. 1 i\n3 ustawy Pzp, a mianowicie naruszenia zasady uczciwej konkurencji i równego traktowania wykonawców. Według ustaleń Izby najkorzystniejsza oferta nie zawiera rażąco niskiej ceny w stosunku do przedmiotu zamówienia, a wybór najkorzystniejszej oferty dokonany został zgodnie z przepisami ustawy Pzp oraz postanowieniami SIWZ.\nRozstrzygając o kosztach postępowania odwoławczego Izba uwzględniała art. 575 nPzp oraz § 8 ust. 2 pkt 1 rozporządzenia Prezesa Rady Ministrów z dnia 30 grudnia 2020 r. w sprawie szczegółowych rodzajów kosztów postępowania odwoławczego, ich rozliczania oraz wysokości i sposobu pobierania wysokości wpisu od odwołania (Dz.\nU. z 2020 r. poz. 2437).\nMając powyższe na uwadze orzeczono jak w sentencji.\n.............................................\n.............................................\n.............................................", "token_count": 23625} -{"added": "2026-09-17", "author": "Sąd Okręgowy w Zielonej Górze", "created": "2008-10-31", "id": "uzp_orzeczenia_pl_8372", "license": "public-domain (official documents)", "source": "uzp_orzeczenia_pl", "text": "Samodzielny Publiczny Zakład Opieki Zdrowotnej Szpital Wojewódzki w\nZielonej Górze\nSygnatura akt V Ga z 77/08\nWYROK\nW IMIENIU RZECZYPOSPOLITEJ POLSKIEJ\nDnia 31 października 2008r.\nSąd Okręgowy w Zielonej Górze Wydział V Gospodarczy w składzie:\nPrzewodniczący : SSO Danuta Hopa-Grasza\nSędziowie : SSO Joanna Klimek-Zielińska\nSSO Monika Zych -Anastasow\nProtokolant: Agnieszka Chmielak po rozpoznaniu w dniu 31 października 2008r. w Zielonej Górze na rozprawie sprawy:\nze skargi wniesionej przez:\nPowszechny Zakład Ubezpieczeń S.A. w Warszawie Oddział w Szczecinie przy udziale:\nw przedmiocie zamówienia publicznego na skutek skargi Powszechny Zakład Ubezpieczeń\nS.A. w Warszawie Oddział w Szczecinie od postanowienia Krajowej Izby Odwoławczej z dnia 18 sierpnia 2008r., sygn. akt KIO/UZP 797/08\nI. oddala skargę;\nII. zasądza od skarżącego na rzecz uczestnika postępowania kwotę 1.200zł tytułem zwrotu kosztów zastępstwa procesowego.\nSSO J. Klimek-Zielińska\nSygn. akt V Ga z\n77/08\nUZASADNIENIE\nKrajowa Izba Odwoławcza postanowieniem z dnia 18 sierpnia 2008r. - odrzuciła odwołanie wniesione przez Powszechny Zakład Ubezpieczeń S.A. w Warszawie Oddział w Szczecinie.\nW uzasadnieniu postanowienia podniesiono, iż Krajowa Izba Odwoławcza uznała, że wartość zamówienia jest niższa od wartości 206.000euro od jakiej to wartości na podstawie art. 184 ust. 1 PzP nr 20, 2 § 1 pkt 2 rozporządzenia Ministra Rady Ministrów z dnia\n19 grudnia 2007r. w sprawie kwot wartości zamówienia oraz konkursów, od których jest uzależniony obowiązek przekazywania ogłoszeń Urzędowi Oficjalnych Publikacji Wspólnot\nEuropejskich - przysługiwałoby prawo wniesienia odwołania.\nNa powyższe postanowienie skargę złożył Powszechny Zakład Ubezpieczeń S.A.\nw Warszawie Oddział w Szczecinie wnosząc o zmianę zaskarżonego postanowienia w pkt I poprzez unieważnienie przetargu, zmianę zaskarżonego postanowienia w pkt. II ust. 1 poprzez określenie, że koszt odwołania w wysokości 4.064zł w całości obciąża zamawiającego, oraz w pkt II ust. 4 poprzez określenie, że cały uiszczony wpis w wysokości\n20.000zł podlega zwrotowi skarżącego.\nZaskarżonemu postanowieniu zarzucono naruszenie art. 191 ust. 3 zd. 2 ustawy PzP przez niezastosowanie w sprawie pomimo, że przepis ten nakazuje Izbie bezwarunkową kontrolę istnienia lub nieistnienia przesłanek w nim wskazanych.\nUzasadnienie art. 93 ust. 1 pkt 4 i 6 PzP przez niezastosowanie w sprawie pomimo, że doszło do zdarzeń tamże opisywanych co nakazywało unieważnienie postępowania .\nNaruszenie art. 93 ust. 1 pkt 7 w związku z art. 146 ust. 1 pkt 5 i 6 PzP, które to przepisy nakazały unieważnić postępowanie.\nW odpowiedzi na skargę zamawiający wniósł o odrzucenie skargi złożonej na postanowienie Krajowej Izby Odwoławczej ewentualnie o oddalenie skargi i zasądzenie od strony skarżącej zwrotu kosztów zastępstwa procesowego.\nW uzasadnieniu podniósł, iż skarżącemu nie przysługiwało prawo do złożenia odwołania od nieuwzględnienia protestu na rozstrzygnięcie przetargu na ubezpieczenie zamawiającego z uwagi na to, że postępowanie prowadzone było według procedury przewidzianej dla szacunkowej wartości zamówienia poniżej 206.000euro.\nWobec tego odwołanie nie jest dopuszczalne, a składając niniejszą skargę skarżący usiłuje obejść przepisy o niedopuszczalności odwołania i doprowadzić do merytorycznego rozpatrzenia sprawy, która nie mogła być merytorycznie rozpatrzona w trybie odwoławczym.\nGdyby przyjąć za dopuszczalne iż sąd zajmuje się merytorycznie zarzutami skargi i odwołania w sytuacji, kiedy samo odwołanie od rozstrzygnięcia protestu jest niedopuszczalne, to powstałaby sytuacja w której przepis mówiący o niedopuszczalności odwołań byłby całkowicie pusty.\nZdaniem zamawiającego skarżący błędnie interpretuje treść przepisu art. 191 ust. 3\nPzP. Przepis ten dotyczy sytuacji, kiedy Izba rozstrzygając merytorycznie dopuszczalne odwołanie stwierdzi, iż w toku postępowania zaszły okoliczności skutkujące unieważnieniu postępowania o uchylenie zamówienia mimo, że w proteście odwołujący nie zawarł zarzutów skutkujących unieważnieniem samego postępowania. Nie ma on zastosowania do sytuacji, w której Izba nie rozpatruje merytorycznie sprawy, tylko wydaje postanowienie formalne.\nBezzasadnie skarżąca łączy uprawnienia wynikające z art. 146 ust 2 ustawy dane\nPrezesowi, który z urzędu władny jest wystąpić do sądu o stwierdzenie nieważności z prawem\nKrajowej Izby Odwoławczej do orzekania o nieważności postępowań , które nie mogą być badane przez Krajową Izbę Odwoławczą z urzędu.\nPrezes Urzędu Zamówień Publicznych może w każdym czasie wystąpić o unieważnienie umowy, ale musi to uczynić w odpowiednich procedurach.\nSąd Okręgowy zważył, co następuje;\nSkarga wniesiona została w ustawowym terminie (art. 195 ust. 4 PzP) przez\nPowszechny Zakład Ubezpieczeń S.A. w Warszawie Oddział w Szczecinie od postanowienia\nKrajowej Izby Odwoławczej z dnia 18 sierpnia 2008r., którym to postanowieniem odrzucono odwołanie wniesione przez skarżącego.\nZgodnie z art. 184 ust. 1 PzP - od rozstrzygnięcia protestu przysługuje odwołanie, jeżeli wartość zamówienia jest równa lub przekracza kwoty określone w przepisach wydanych na podstawie art. 11 ust. 8 PzP, od których jest uzależniony obowiązek przekazywania Urzędowi Oficjalnych Publikacji Wspólnot Europejskich ogłoszeń o zamówieniach na dostawy lub usługi.\nNa podstawie art. 11 ust. 8 PzP zostało wydane rozporządzenie Prezesa Rady\nMinistrów z dnia 19.12.2007r. - w sprawie kwot wartości zamówień i konkursów od których jest uzależniony obowiązek przekazywania ogłoszeń Urzędowi Oficjalnych Publikacji\nWspólnot Europejskich (Dz. U. nr 241, poz. 1762)\nPrzepisy rozporządzenia wskazują, że w przypadku zamówień publicznych na roboty budowlane kwotą progową dla wszystkich zamówień jest kwota równa lub przekraczająca wyrażoną w złotych równowartość 5.150.000euro, natomiast kota progowa dla dostaw lub usług jest zróżnicowana w zależności od kategorii zamawiającego ( pkt 1 i 2 § 11) lub wystąpienia zamówienia sektorowego( pkt 3 § 1).\nW przedmiotowej sprawie zamawiający należy do kategorii objętych zakresem § 1 ust.\n2 w/w rozporządzenia i w tym stanie rzeczy kwotą progową wartości zamówienia od której uzależniony jest obowiązek przekazywania Urzędowi Oficjalnych Publikacji Wspólnot\nEuropejskich ogłoszeń o zamówieniach na dostawy lub usługi jest kwota równa lub przekraczająca wyrażaną w złotych równowartość 206.00euro.\nBiorąc więc pod uwagę że ustawodawca w art.184 ust 1 PzP jednoznacznie i wprost wskazuje, że od rozstrzygnięcia protestu przysługuje odwołanie jeżeli wartość zamówienia jest równa lub przekracza kwoty od których uzależniony jest obowiązek przekazywania ogłoszeń o zamówieniach na dostawy i usługi, to tym samym - dla oceny dopuszczalności odwołania - jedynie ten próg kwotowy ma zastosowanie, a skoro bezspornym w sprawie jest iż wartość szacunkowa zamówienia określona została poniżej 206.000euro (dowód SIWZ) to dokonane odrzucenie odwołania przez Krajową Izbę Odwoławczą należało uznać za zasadne w świetle art. 184 ust. 1 PzP.\nZgodnie z utrwalonym orzecznictwem odrzucenie odwołania skutkuje niemożliwością merytorycznego rozpoznania tego odwołania, które jest postanowieniem kończącym postępowanie odwoławcze. Krajowa Izba Odwoławcza nie ma także podstaw do orzekania z urzędu na podstawie art. 191 ust. 3 ustawy PzP sprawdzałoby się to bowiem w istocie do merytorycznej oceny, czy postępowanie o udzielenie zamówienia publicznego jest dotknięte wodą skutkującą unieważnieniem postępowania.\nGdyby Sąd uznał, iż Krajowa Izba Odwoławcza niezasadnie odrzuciła skargę, to wówczas dokonałaby merytorycznej oceny postępowania.\nSąd nie może badać merytorycznie odwołania, które wnioskodawcy zgodnie z przepisami ustawy Prawo Zamówień Publicznych nie przysługuje.\nWolą ustawodawcy było w odniesieniu do zamówień, których wartość nie przekracza wartości progu unijnego dla dostaw i usług ( wyznaczającego próg zastosowania instytucji odwołań), iż będzie to moment ostatecznego rozstrzygnięcia protestu, bowiem żaden środek odwoławczy nie będzie służył od takiego milczącego rozstrzygnięcia.\nUstawodawca uznał, iż rolę kontrolnej funkcji spełnionej przez odwołania przejmują inne instytucje kontrolne (Najwyższa Izba Kontroli, regionalne Izby obrachunkowe, prezes\nUrzędu Zamówień Publicznych).\nMając na uwadze powyższe oddalono skargę w oparciu o art. 385 k.p.c., a o kosztach orzeczono stosownie do wyniku sporu.\nSSO J. Klimek-Zielińska SSO D. Hopa -Grasza SSO M. Zych-Anastasow", "token_count": 3313} -{"added": "2026-09-17", "author": "Krajowa Izba Odwoławcza", "created": "2023-08-25", "id": "uzp_orzeczenia_pl_28645", "license": "public-domain (official documents)", "source": "uzp_orzeczenia_pl", "text": "Sygn. akt KIO 2340/23\nWYROK z dnia 25 sierpnia 2023 r.\nKrajowa Izba Odwoławcza\n– w składzie:\nPrzewodniczący:\nMichał Pawłowski\nProtokolant:\n\nRafał Komoń po rozpoznaniu na rozprawie w dniu 22 sierpnia 2023 r. w Warszawie odwołania wniesionego do Prezesa Krajowej Izby\nOdwoławczej w dniu 7 sierpnia 2023 r. przez wykonawcę ANTINUS Spółka z ograniczoną odpowiedzialnością z siedzibą w Skierniewicach w postępowaniu prowadzonym przez zamawiającego Gminę Warta, przy udziale wykonawcy EKO-ON Spółka z ograniczoną odpowiedzialnością z siedzibą w Górze Libertowskiej zgłaszającego przystąpienie do postępowania odwoławczego w sprawie o sygn. akt KIO 2340/23 po stronie zamawiającego orzeka:\n1.\nUwzględnia odwołanie w zakresie zarzutu naruszenia art. 226 ust. 1 pkt 5 ustawy z dnia 11 września 2019 r. –\nPrawo zamówień publicznych (Dz. U. z 2023 r., poz. 1605)\n\ni nakazuje zamawiającemu – Gminie Warta:\n1.1.\nUnieważnienie czynności wyboru oferty najkorzystniejszej, tj. oferty złożonej przez wykonawcę EKO-ON\nSpółka z ograniczoną odpowiedzialnością z siedzibą w Górze Libertowskiej.\n1.2.\nOdrzucenie oferty wykonawcy EKO-ON Spółka z ograniczoną odpowiedzialnością z siedzibą w Górze\nLibertowskiej na podstawie art. 226 ust. 1 pkt 5 ustawy z dnia 11 września 2019 r. – Prawo zamówień publicznych (Dz. U. z 2023 r., poz. 1605).\n1.3.\nPowtórzenie czynności badania i oceny ofert.\n2.\nW pozostałym zakresie zarzuty odwołania oddala.\n3.\nKosztami postępowania odwoławczego obciąża zamawiającego – Gminę Warta\n\ni odwołującego – wykonawcę ANTINUS Spółka z ograniczoną odpowiedzialnością\n\nz siedzibą w Skierniewicach i:\n3.1.\nZalicza w poczet kosztów postępowania odwoławczego kwotę 15 000 zł 00 gr (słownie: piętnaście tysięcy złotych zero groszy) uiszczoną przez odwołującego – wykonawcę ANTINUS Spółka z ograniczoną odpowiedzialnością z siedzibą\n\nw Skierniewicach tytułem wpisu od odwołania.\n3.2.\nZasądza od zamawiającego – Gminy Warta na rzecz odwołującego – wykonawcy ANTINUS Spółka z ograniczoną odpowiedzialnością z siedzibą w Skierniewicach kwotę 7 558 zł 65 gr (słownie: siedem tysięcy pięćset pięćdziesiąt osiem złotych sześćdziesiąt pięć groszy) stanowiącą część kosztów postępowania odwoławczego poniesionych przez odwołującego z tytułu wpisu od odwołania, wynagrodzenia pełnomocnika i kosztów dojazdu pełnomocnika na rozprawę.\nStosownie do art. 579 ust. 1 i art. 580 ust. 1 i 2 ustawy z dnia 11 września 2019 r. – Prawo zamówień publicznych (Dz. U.\nz 2023 r., poz. 1605) na niniejszy wyrok – w terminie 14 dni od dnia jego doręczenia – przysługuje skarga za pośrednictwem Prezesa Krajowej Izby Odwoławczej do Sądu Okręgowego w Warszawie.\nPrzewodniczący:\n.................................................\nUzasadnienie\nGmina Warta, zwana dalej „Zamawiającym”,\n\ndziałając na podstawie przepisów ustawy z dnia 11 września 2019 r. –\nPrawo zamówień publicznych (Dz. U. z 2023 r., poz. 1605), zwanej dalej „ustawą PZP”, prowadzi postępowanie o udzielenie zamówienia publicznego na\n„ budowę instalacji odnawialnych źródeł energii w Gminie Warta”.\nZamówienie zostało podzielone na dwie części.\nOgłoszenie o zamówieniu zostało opublikowane w Dzienniku Urzędowym Unii Europejskiej\n\nz dnia 31 maja 2023 r., pod numerem 2023/S 103-324461.\nW dniu 7 sierpnia 2023 r. (data wpływu do Prezesa Krajowej Izby Odwoławczej) wykonawca ANTINUS Spółka z ograniczoną odpowiedzialnością z siedzibą w Skierniewicach, zwany dalej „Odwołującym” lub „wykonawcą ANTINUS”, wniósł odwołanie od niezgodnych z przepisami ustawy PZP zaniechań i czynności Zamawiającego w zakresie części I zamówienia, tj.:\n1) zaniechania odrzucenia oferty złożonej przez wykonawcę EKO-ON Spółka z ograniczoną odpowiedzialnością z siedzibą w Górze Libertowskiej (zwanego dalej „wykonawcą EKO-ON”) jako niezgodnej z warunkami zamówienia,\n2) dokonania wadliwego wyboru oferty najkorzystniejszej w postępowaniu złożonej przez wykonawcę EKO-ON, podczas gdy oferta ta powinna zostać odrzucona jako niezgodna\n\nz warunkami zamówienia.\nOdwołujący zarzucił Zamawiającemu naruszenie:\n1) a rt. 226 ust. 1 pkt 5 ustawy PZP poprzez zaniechanie zastosowania tego przepisu w odniesieniu do oferty wykonawcy\nEKO-ON, tj. zaniechanie odrzucenia tej oferty jako niezgodnej z warunkami zamówienia,\n2) art. 239 ust. 1 i 2 ustawy PZP poprzez dokonanie wadliwego wyboru najkorzystniejszej oferty w postępowaniu złożonej przez wykonawcę EKO-ON, podczas gdy oferta ta powinna zostać odrzucona ze względu na niezgodność z warunkami zamówienia.\nW związku z podniesionymi zarzutami Odwołujący wniósł o uwzględnienie jego odwołania\n\ni nakazanie Zamawiającemu:\nunieważnienia czynności wyboru najkorzystniejszej oferty oraz przeprowadzenia ponownej oceny ofert, a w konsekwencji odrzucenie oferty wykonawcy EKO-ON oraz wybór oferty Odwołującego jako najkorzystniejszej.\nPonadto Odwołujący złożył wniosek o zasądzenie od Zamawiającego na jego rzecz zwrotu kosztów postępowania odwoławczego, w tym kosztów reprezentacji według przedstawionych na rozprawie rachunków.\nW uzasadnieniu odwołania wykonawca ANTINUS wskazał, że w przedmiotowym postępowaniu złożył ofertę, która w rankingu ofert uplasowała się na drugiej pozycji z łączną ilością punktów 95,80. Jego zdaniem ocena dokonana przez\nZamawiającego była nieprawidłowa, albowiem Zamawiający zaniechał odrzucenia oferty jego konkurenta – wykonawcy\nEKO-ON, która była niezgodna z warunkami zamówienia. Odwołujący podał także, że w pkt 5.1. SWZ Zamawiający wymagał od wykonawców złożenia przedmiotowego środka dowodowego w postaci Wykazu oferowanych instalacji fotowoltaicznych – według załącznika nr 9 do SWZ, które nie podlegał uzupełnieniu (zgodnie z pkt 5.2. SWZ). Zgodnie z pkt 10.5.1. SWZ Wykaz oferowanych instalacji fotowoltaicznych powinien zostać dołączony do oferty. Jednocześnie\nOdwołujący podniósł, że formularz Wykazu oferowanych instalacji fotowoltaicznych wymagał podania producenta, jak również modelu proponowanego panelu fotowoltaicznego oraz proponowanego falownika. Poza tym Zamawiający wymagał w formularzu potwierdzenia, że zaoferowane urządzenia spełniają określone parametry, których wymagane wartości Zamawiający podał sam w treści formularza. Odwołujący podał, że wykonawca EKO-ON wskazał producenta jak również model oferowanych urządzeń, ale tylko w odniesieniu do paneli fotowoltaicznych, natomiast jeśli chodzi o falowniki wykonawca ten poprzestał jedynie na podaniu producenta i oznaczeniu „AFORE ATON”, które nie jest nazwą modelu urządzenia. Zdaniem Odwołującego taki opis zaoferowanego urządzenia nie spełnia wymagań postępowania i jest niezgodny z warunkami zamówienia, gdyż wykonawca EKO-ON zaniechał wskazania, jaki konkretnie model falownika oferuje.\nW dalszej części uzasadnienia odwołania wykonawca ANTINUS wskazał, że oferta jako oświadczenie woli wykonawcy nie jest kształtowana wyłącznie w ramach formularza ofertowego. Sam charakter dokumentu będącego wykazem oferowanych instalacji,\n\njak również rodzaj wymaganych w nim informacji (nazwa producenta i modelu oferowanego urządzenia) świadczy o tym, że to właśnie z tego dokumentu miało wynikać, co dany wykonawca oferuje w ramach instalacji fotowoltaicznej. Zarówno panele fotowoltaiczne, jak i falowniki są podstawowymi elementami tej instalacji, natomiast określenie przedmiotu dostawy jest niewątpliwie elementem oferty sensu stricto. Powołując się na wyroki\nKrajowej Izby Odwoławczej z dnia 23 września 2011 r. w sprawie o sygn. akt KIO 1960/11 i z dnia 4 czerwca 2013 r. w sprawie o sygn. akt KIO 1207/13 Odwołujący podał, że dokumenty odnoszące się bezpośrednio do przedmiotu przyszłego zobowiązania wykonawcy, dookreślające jego zakres czy sposób wykonania, co do zasady są częścią oferty rozumianej jako oświadczenie woli wyrażające zobowiązanie wykonawcy do określonego wykonania zamówienia.\nPodobne poglądy Izba wyraziła w wyroku\n\nz dnia 19 stycznia 2015 r. w sprawie o sygn. akt KIO 1781/12. Poza tym Odwołujący zauważył, że skoro Zamawiający nie przewidział uzupełnienia Wykazu zaoferowanych instalacji, to musiał uznać informacje wymagane w tym Wykazie za istotne z punktu widzenia oświadczenia woli wykonawcy. Zdaniem Odwołującego gdyby dokument ten miał jedynie potwierdzać zgodność zaoferowanego urządzenia z warunkami zamówienia, to zapewne Zamawiający przewidziałby możliwość uzupełnienia tego dokumentu, natomiast z racji tego, że Wykaz miał zawierać elementy ofertotwórcze – a za taki element Odwołujący uznaje określenie zaoferowanego przedmiotu poprzez podanie nazwy producenta i nazwy modelu oferowanego urządzenia – to uzupełnienie takiego dokumentu stanowiłoby de facto niedopuszczalne uzupełnienie oferty po terminie otwarcia ofert.\nOdwołujący dodał, że zamówienie obejmuje zaprojektowanie, dostawę i montaż łącznie 189 instalacji fotowoltaicznych o mocach min. od 2.04 kWp do min. 9,86 kWp. Rozróżnienie przez Zamawiającego mocy instalacji powoduje, że co do zasady w przedmiotowym postępowaniu zaoferować można było różne typy falowników. Odwołujący zaoferował falowniki produkowane przez firmę AFORE New Energy Technology (Shanghai) Co. Ltd, ale także wykonawca EKO-ON podał w odniesieniu do falowników nazwę producenta AFORE. I choć z oferty Odwołującego wynika jednoznacznie, jakie konkretne modele falowników zaoferowano (model BNT003KTL, BNT004KTL, BNT005KTL, BNT006KTL, BNT008KTL oraz BNT010KTL), to z oferty wykonawcy EKO-ON w ogóle nie wynika, jakie modele urządzeń zostały zaoferowane.\nPrzy tym Odwołujący podkreślił, że podane przez wykonawcę EKO-ON oznaczenie „AFORE ATON” nie identyfikuje żadnego konkretnego modelu urządzenia. Można co najwyżej domyślać się, że chodzi o serię urządzeń Aton Series, jednak podanie serii urządzeń w żaden sposób nie stanowi podania zaoferowanego modelu urządzeń. Jednocześnie brak skonkretyzowania oferowanego modelu falownika uniemożliwia Zamawiającemu sprawdzenie, czy zgodnie z deklaracjami wykonawcy EKO-ON zawartymi w formularzu Wykazu instalacji przedmiot oferty rzeczywiście odpowiada wymaganiom postępowania, tj. czy spełnia podane przez Zamawiającego parametry. W ramach serii Aton produkowanych jest łącznie 16 modeli falowników, przy czym tylko 6 z tych modeli (które zaoferował również\nOdwołujący) jest zgodnych z wymaganiami postępowania. Chodzi\n\no następujące modele falowników:\nBNT003KTL, BNT004KTL, BNT005KTL, BNT006KTL, BNT008KTL, BNT010KTL,\nBNT012KTL, BNT015KTL, BNT017KTL, BNT020KTL, BNT025KTL, BNT030KTL, BNT036KTL, BNT040KTL, BNT050KTL i BNT060KTL. Odwołujący zaznaczył, że tylko 6 pierwszych modeli jest zgodnych z warunkami zamówienia. W przypadku pozostałych 10 modeli falowników (od modelu BNT012KTL do modelu BNT060KTL) występuje niezgodność z warunkami zamówienia i dotyczy ona parametru poziomu hałasu. Odwołujący podał, że zgodnie z Opisem Przedmiotu\nZamówienia Zamawiający oczekiwał falowników o poziomie emisji hałasu maksymalnie do 31 dB, natomiast falowniki od modelu AFORE BNT012KTL Aton Series do modelu BNT025KTL Aton Series posiadają ten parametr na poziomie maksymalnie 40 dB, zaś falowniki od modelu AFORE BNT030KTL Aton Series do modelu BNT060KTL Aton Series posiadają ten parametr na poziomie nawet 51dB. Odwołujący zauważył również, że n awet gdyby przyjąć, że poprzez oznaczenie „AFORE ATON” wykonawca EKO-ON miał na myśli wszystkie urządzenia danej serii, to i tak należy uznać niezgodność jego oferty z warunkami zamówienia. Po pierwsze niedopuszczalne jest interpretowanie oświadczenia woli złożonego w ofercie przetargowej na podstawie domniemań czy domysłów – zwłaszcza w tak podstawowym zakresie jak zaoferowany przedmiot. Po drugie zaoferowanie serii urządzeń (jako całości urządzeń tworzących serię) i oznaczenie tej serii jako zaoferowanego przedmiotu jest sprzeczne z literalnym brzmieniem wymagań, wynikającym z dokumentacji zamówienia co do tego, jak należy opisać oferowane urządzenia. Po trzecie nie wszystkie modele falowników serii ATON Series są zgodne z warunkami zamówienia.\nOdwołujący podsumował, że niezgodność oferty wykonawcy EKO-ON z warunkami zamówienia ma charakter nieusuwalny. Zdaniem Odwołującego w niniejszej sprawie nie jest możliwe ani samodzielne poprawienie oferty wykonawcy w trybie art. 223 ust. 2 ustawy PZP, ani wyjaśnianie treści złożonego Wykazu. Zarówno samodzielne poprawienie oferty, jak również wyjaśnienie treści złożonego Wykazu w zakresie związanym z brakującym oznaczeniem zaoferowanego modelu urządzenia, prowadziłoby do istotnej zmiany oferty i negocjowania jej treści. Wykonawca\nANTINUS stwierdził również, że oferta jego konkurenta – wykonawcy EKO-ON po winna zostać odrzucona z postępowania na podstawie art. 226 ust. 1 pkt 5 ustawy PZP i w konsekwencji wybór tej oferty jako najkorzystniejszej pozostaje nieprawidłowy i wymaga unieważnienia.\nUwzględniając akta sprawy odwoławczej, jak również biorąc pod uwagę oświadczenia i stanowiska stron i uczestnika postępowania odwoławczego wyrażone w pismach oraz złożone w trakcie rozprawy, Krajowa Izba Odwoławcza ustaliła i zważyła, co następuje:\nKrajowa Izba Odwoławcza nie stwierdziła podstaw do odrzucenia odwołania w związku z tym, iż nie została spełniona żadna z negatywnych przesłanek wynikająca z art. 528 ustawy PZP, która uniemożliwiałaby merytoryczne rozpoznanie odwołania.\nIzba stwierdziła ponadto, że wypełnione zostały opisane w art. 505 ust. 1 ustawy PZP ustawowe przesłanki istnienia interesu Odwołującego w uzyskaniu przedmiotowego zamówienia oraz możliwości poniesienia szkody w wyniku naruszenia przez Zamawiającego przepisów ustawy.\nIzba stwierdziła skuteczność przystąpienia zgłoszonego do postępowania odwoławczego po stronie Zamawiającego przez wykonawcę EKO-ON, albowiem zostało ono złożone w terminie wynikającym z ustawy i w przewidzianej przez przepisy prawa formie.\nIzba rozpoznając sprawę uwzględniła akta sprawy odwoławczej, które zgodnie z regulacją § 8 rozporządzenia Prezesa\nRady Ministrów z dnia 30 grudnia 2020 r. w sprawie postępowania przy rozpoznawaniu odwołań przez Krajową Izbę\nOdwoławczą (Dz. U. z 2020 r., poz. 2453) stanowią odwołanie wraz z załącznikami oraz dokumentacją postępowania o udzielenie zamówienia\n\nw postaci elektronicznej lub kopia dokumentacji, o której mowa w § 7 ust. 2 rozporządzenia,\n\na także inne pisma składane w sprawie oraz pisma kierowane przez Prezesa Krajowej Izby Odwoławczej w związku z wniesionym odwołaniem.\nIzba uwzględniła też stanowiska prezentowane na rozprawie przez strony postępowania oraz uczestnika postępowania odwoławczego, jak również uwzględniła stanowisko zaprezentowane przez Zamawiającego w jego odpowiedzi na odwołanie z dnia 22 sierpnia 2023 r. i stanowisko uczestnika postępowania odwoławczego zaprezentowane w jego piśmie z dnia 22 sierpnia 2023 r.\nIzba wydała na rozprawie postanowienie o dopuszczeniu dowodu z dokumentacji zgromadzonej w aktach sprawy odwoławczej, w tym z dokumentów przedłożonych przez strony i uczestnika postępowania odwoławczego jako załączniki do ich pism oraz dokumentów złożonych przez Odwołującego i uczestnika na rozprawie, tj.\n:\ndwóch oświadczeń firmy AFORE Polska Spółka z ograniczoną odpowiedzialnością\n\nz dnia 27 stycznia 2023 r. i 8 sierpnia 2023 r., wydruku z KRS firmy AFORE Polska Spółka z ograniczoną odpowiedzialnością, wydruku ze strony internetowej firmy AFORE Polska Spółka z ograniczoną odpowiedzialnością, trzech wydruków – kart katalogowych ze strony internetowej firmy AFORE Polska Spółka z ograniczoną odpowiedzialnością, oświadczenia firmy AFORE Polska Spółka z ograniczoną odpowiedzialnością z dnia 18 sierpnia 2023 r., certyfikatów falowników firmy AFORE Polska Spółka z ograniczoną odpowiedzialnością.\nJednocześnie Izba uznała wiarygodność oraz moc dowodową dokumentów znajdujących się\n\nw aktach sprawy odwoławczej, z wyjątkiem dwóch oświadczeń firmy AFORE Polska Spółka\n\nz ograniczoną odpowiedzialnością z dnia 27 stycznia 2023 r. i 8 sierpnia 2023 r. złożonych do akt sprawy przez uczestnika postępowania odwoławczego, albowiem treść tych oświadczeń jest lakoniczna, nie precyzuje na jakie konkretnie pytania (zagadnienia) udziela w nich odpowiedzi przedstawiciel firmy AFORE Polska, jak również nie koresponduje z pozostałym materiałem dowodowym zgromadzonym w sprawie, a zwłaszcza z innym, o wiele bardziej szczegółowym\n\ni konkretnym w treści oświadczeniem firmy AFORE Polska, które do akt sprawy odwoławczej złożył na rozprawie\nOdwołujący.\nIzba ustaliła następujący stan faktyczny:\nNa podstawie a rt. 552 ust. 1 ustawy PZP\nIzba wydając wyrok bierze za podstawę stan rzeczy ustalony w toku postępowania odwoławczego.\nZamawiający – Gmina Warta prowadzi postępowanie o udzielenie zamówienia publicznego na\n„ budowę instalacji odnawialnych źródeł energii w Gminie Warta”.\nZamówienie podzielono na 2 części, z czego część pierwsza zamówienia dotyczy instalacji fotowoltaicznych.\nOgłoszenie o zamówieniu opublikowano w Dzienniku Urzędowym Unii Europejskiej z dnia 31 maja 2023 r., pod numerem\n2023/S 103-324461.\nZgodnie z pkt 4.4.1 SWZ przedmiotem zamówienia jest wykonanie dokumentacji projektowej\n\ni prac mających na celu realizację inwestycji polegającej na dostawie, montażu i uruchomieniu 189 sztuk instalacji fotowoltaicznych na obiektach należących do osób prywatnych.\nW świetle pkt 5.1.1 SWZ w celu potwierdzenia spełniania przez wykonawców warunków udziału w postępowaniu w zakresie części pierwszej zamówienia Zamawiający oczekiwał złożenia wraz z ofertą przedmiotowego środka dowodowego w postaci Wykazu oferowanych instalacji fotowoltaicznych – zgodnie z formularzem stanowiącym załącznik nr 9 do SWZ. Jednocześnie Zamawiający nie przewidział możliwości uzupełnienia przedmiotowych środków\n-\n-\n-\n-\n-\n- dowodowych (pkt 5.2 SWZ). Także w pkt 10.5.1 SWZ Zamawiający podał, że wykonawcy powinni dołączyć do swojej oferty w zakresie części pierwszej zamówienia Wykaz oferowanych instalacji fotowoltaicznych na załączniku nr 9 do\nSWZ.\nFormularz Wykazu oferowanych instalacji fotowoltaicznych\n\nwymagał podania nazwy producenta i nazwy modelu oferowanego panelu fotowoltaicznego i oferowanego falownika. Ponadto\n\nw formularzu Zamawiający wymagał potwierdzenia przez wykonawców, że oferowane instalacje fotowoltaiczne w zakresie paneli fotowoltaicznych spełniają 10 wyszczególnionych parametrów, natomiast w zakresie falowników 18 wyszczególnionych parametrów.\nOdwołujący – wykonawca ANTINUS zaoferował Gminie Warta falowniki, których producentem jest firma AFORE New\nEnergy Technology (Shanghai) Co. Ltd. Model tych falowników to:\nBNT003KTL, BNT004KTL, BNT005KTL, BNT006KTL,\nBNT008KTL i BNT010KTL. Z kolei uczestnik postępowania odwoławczego – wykonawca EKO-ON na formularzu z\nZałącznika nr 9 do SWZ w rubryce „Producent i model proponowanego falownika” wpisał „AFORE ATON”.\nOstatecznie Zamawiający jako najkorzystniejszą ofertę w postępowaniu w zakresie pierwszej części zamówienia dotyczącej instalacji fotowoltaicznych wybrał ofertę wykonawcy EKO-ON, której przyznał 100 pkt w ramach kryteriów oceny ofert.\nMając na uwadze powyższe Izba zważyła, co następuje:\nIzba rozpoznała merytorycznie odwołanie złożone przez wykonawcę ANTINUS i stwierdziła, że zasługuje ono na częściowe uwzględnienie, tj. w zakresie zarzutu dotyczącego zaniechania odrzucenia oferty wykonawcy EKO-ON z powodu jej niezgodności z warunkami zamówienia.\nZgodnie z art. 226 ust. 1 pkt 5 ustawy PZP zamawiający odrzuca ofertę, jeżeli jej treść jest niezgodna z warunkami zamówienia.\nZ załącznika nr 9 do SWZ wynika, że wykonawca składając ofertę w ramach części pierwszej zamówienia na instalacje fotowoltaiczne miał wskazać m. in. nazwę producenta oferowanych falowników oraz ich modele. Z akt niniejszej sprawy odwoławczej i złożonych dowodów, w tym certyfikatów falowników, wydruków kart katalogowych falowników ze strony internetowej firmy AFORE Polska Spółka z ograniczoną odpowiedzialnością oraz oświadczenia tej firmy z dnia 18 sierpnia 2023 r. w sposób jednoznaczny wynika, że producentem urządzenia jest firma AFORE, natomiast modeli falowników spełniających szczegółowe wymagania Zamawiającego określone w dokumentacji postępowania jest 6 i oznaczone są one symbolami\nBNT003KTL, BNT004KTL, BNT005KTL, BNT006KTL, BNT008KTL oraz BNT010KTL.\nNazwa „ATON” odnosi się nie do konkretnego modelu falownika tylko do całej serii falowników, na którą składa się 16 urządzeń o różnych parametrach.\nSkoro zatem ze złożonych dokumentów bezsprzecznie wynika, że nazwa „ATON” jest nazwą całej serii urządzeń, nie zaś nazwą poszczególnych jego modeli, to ofertę wykonawcy EKO-ON – jako zawierającą wadliwe oznaczenie modelu urządzenia oraz zarazem niekonkretyzującą przedmiotu oferty oraz niepotwierdzającą, że zaoferowany produkt spełnia określone przez Zamawiającego wymogi – należy uznać za niezgodną z warunkami zamówienia i jako taką podlegającą odrzuceniu.\nW ocenie Krajowej Izby Odwoławczej ze sposobu zredagowania Załącznika nr 9 do SWZ\n\nw sposób niebudzący wątpliwości wynika, że Zamawiający żądał podania nie tylko konkretnej nazwy producenta falownika, ale też konkretnej nazwy modelu/modeli oferowanego urządzenia.\nNiepodanie przez wykonawcę precyzyjnej nazwy (oznaczenia) modelu/modeli zaoferowanego falownika stanowi nieusuwalny brak oferty, ponieważ oznacza brak złożenia oświadczenia woli przez wykonawcę co do tego, jakie konkretnie urządzenie/urządzenia zaoferował w przetargu. Ograniczenie się do wskazania w treści złożonego Wykazu samej nazwy serii urządzenia\n\nw sytuacji, gdy seria obejmuje 16 modeli urządzenia, jest w ocenie Krajowej Izby Odwoławczej nieprawidłowe, albowiem nie konkretyzuje przedmiotu oferty i Zamawiający w zasadzie nie wie, co dokładnie zostało mu zaoferowane.\nMając powyższe na uwadze zarzut dotyczący naruszenia art. 226 ust. 1 pkt 5 ustawy PZP przez Zamawiającego jako trafny podlegał uwzględnieniu.\nNatomiast zarzut odwołania dotyczący naruszenia art. 239 ust. 1 i 2 ustawy PZP nie został przez Izbę uznany za zasadny.\nArt. 239 ust. 1 ustawy PZP stanowi, że z amawiający wybiera najkorzystniejszą ofertę na podstawie kryteriów oceny ofert określonych w dokumentach zamówienia. Najkorzystniejsza oferta to oferta przedstawiająca najkorzystniejszy stosunek jakości do ceny lub kosztu lub oferta z najniższą ceną lub kosztem (art. 239 ust. 2 ustawy PZP).\nOdwołujący nie uzasadnił szerzej zarzutu odwołania dotyczącego naruszenia art. 239 ust. 1 i 2 ustawy PZP. Z treści zarzutu wynika, że Odwołujący wiąże naruszenie wyżej wymienionych przepisów ustawy PZP z samym wadliwym wyborem oferty najkorzystniejszej w postępowaniu ze względu na zaniechanie odrzucenia oferty podlegającej odrzuceniu z uwagi na niezgodność z warunkami zamówienia. W ocenie Izby nie jest to wystarczające dla skutecznego postawienia zarzutu naruszenia art. 239 ust. 1 i 2 ustawy PZP, albowiem Odwołujący powinien wyraźnie wykazać oraz uzasadnić w odwołaniu, w jaki konkretnie sposób Zamawiający naruszył kryteria oceny ofert w postępowaniu, tj. czy Zamawiający w toku postępowania dokonał oceny ofert niezgodnie z ustalonymi przez siebie kryteriami oceny i w jaki dokładnie sposób\nZamawiający niewłaściwie zastosował wybrane przez siebie kryteria oceny.\nDlatego też Izba stwierdziła, że zarzut odwołania dotyczący naruszenia art. 239 ust. 1 i 2 ustawy PZP nie może zostać uwzględniony.\nW powyższych okolicznościach skoro oferta uczestnika postępowania odwoławczego wbrew zapisom dokumentacji postępowania nie zawierała prawidłowej nazwy zaoferowanego modelu falowników, tylko wskazywała na nazwę całej serii 16 falowników, z których jedynie 6 spełniało wymogi postawione przez Zamawiającego w SWZ, zasadnym było nakazanie Zamawiającemu unieważnienia czynności wyboru oferty najkorzystniejszej, tj. oferty wykonawcy EKO-ON oraz nakazanie Zamawiającemu odrzucenia oferty tego wykonawcy na podstawie art. 226 ust. 1 pkt 5 ustawy PZP.\nO kosztach postępowania odwoławczego orzeczono stosownie do jego wyniku, tj. na podstawie art. 557, art. 574-576 ustawy PZP oraz w oparciu o przepisy § 7 ust. 2 pkt 1 w zw. z § 7 ust. 3 pkt 1 i 2 w zw. z § 5 pkt 1 i 2 rozporządzenia\nPrezesa Rady Ministrów z dnia 30 grudnia 2020 r. w sprawie szczegółowych rodzajów kosztów postępowania odwoławczego, ich rozliczania oraz wysokości i sposobu pobierania wpisu od odwołania (Dz. U. z 2020 r., poz. 2437).\nIzba zasądziła od Zamawiającego na rzecz Odwołującego zwrot części kosztów postępowania odwoławczego w wysokości 7 558 zł 65 gr (słownie: siedem tysięcy pięćset pięćdziesiąt osiem złotych sześćdziesiąt pięć groszy), na które składają się połowa wpisu od odwołania i połowa kosztów dojazdu pełnomocnika Odwołującego na rozprawę przed\nIzbą. Natomiast wydatki stron na wynagrodzenie pełnomocników zostały wzajemnie zniesione.\nBiorąc pod uwagę powyższe orzeczono jak w sentencji.\nPrzewodniczący:\n................................................", "token_count": 9214} -{"added": "2026-09-17", "author": "Krajowa Izba Odwoławcza", "created": "", "id": "uzp_orzeczenia_pl_1885", "license": "public-domain (official documents)", "source": "uzp_orzeczenia_pl", "text": "Sygn. akt: KIO 1790/17\nWYROK z dnia 8 września 2017 r.\nKrajowa Izba Odwoławcza\n\n- w składzie:\nPrzewodniczący: Paweł Trojan\nProtokolant:\n\nRafał Komoń po rozpoznaniu na rozprawie w dniu 6 września 2017 r. w Warszawie odwołania wniesionego do Prezesa Krajowej Izby Odwoławczej w dniu 28 sierpnia 2017 r. przez wykonawcę\nBudimex S.A., ul. Stawki 40, 01-040 Warszawa\n\nw postępowaniu prowadzonym przez\nZamawiającego –\n\nSkarb Państwa - Generalny Dyrektor Dróg Krajowych i Autostrad, ul. Wronia 53, 00-874 Warszawa\n\n(prowadzący postępowanie Generalna Dyrekcja Dróg\nKrajowych i Autostrad Oddział we Wrocławiu, ul. Powstańców Śląskich 186, 53-139 Wrocław) w trybie przetargu nieograniczonego pn.: „Zaprojektowanie i wybudowanie drogi S3 Legnica\n(A4) - Lubawka zadanie IV od węzła Kamienna Góra Północ (z węzłem) do granicy państwa, o długości ok 15,3 km” (numer postępowania: O.WR.D-3.2410.86.2017) przy udziale wykonawcy\n\nMota Engil Central Europe S.A., ul. Wadowicka 8W, 30-415\nKraków\n\nzgłaszającego przystąpienie do postępowania wszczętego wskutek wniesienia odwołania po stronie Odwołującego.\nprzy udziale wykonawcy\n\nPorr S.A., ul. Hołubcowa 123, 02-854 Warszawa\n\nzgłaszającego przystąpienie do postępowania wszczętego wskutek wniesienia odwołania po stronie\nOdwołującego.\nprzy udziale wykonawców wspólnie ubiegający się o udzielenie zamówienia Konsorcjum\nSalini Impregilo S.p.A., via dei Missaglia 97, 20142 Mediolan (Włochy)\n\noraz\n\nSalini\nPolska Spółka z o.o., ul. Złota 59, 00-120 Warszawa\n\nzgłaszających przystąpienie do postępowania wszczętego wskutek wniesienia odwołania po stronie Odwołującego.\norzeka:\n1. oddala odwołanie;\n2. kosztami postępowania w wysokości\n\n23 600 zł 00 gr\n\n(słownie: dwadzieścia trzy tysiące sześćset złotych i zero groszy) obciąża Odwołującego -\n\nBudimex S.A., ul. Stawki 40,\n01-040 Warszawa\n\ni:\n1) zalicza w poczet kosztów postępowania kwotę\n\n20 000 zł 00 gr\n\n(słownie:\ndwadzieścia tysięcy złotych zero groszy) uiszczoną przez wykonawcę\n\nBudimex\nS.A., ul. Stawki 40, 01-040 Warszawa\n\ntytułem wpisu od odwołania,\n2) zasądza od wykonawcy\n\nBudimex S.A., ul. Stawki 40, 01-040 Warszawa\n\nna rzecz zamawiającego -\n\nSkarb Państwa - Generalny Dyrektor Dróg Krajowych i\nAutostrad, ul. Wronia 53, 00-874 Warszawa\n\nkwotę w wysokości\n\n3 600 zł 00 gr\n(słownie: trzy tysiące sześćset złotych i zero groszy) tytułem zwrotu kosztów zastępstwa przed Izbą.\n3. Stosownie do art. 198a i 198b ustawy z dnia 29 stycznia 2004 r. - Prawo zamówień publicznych (tekst jednolity Dz. U. z 22 grudnia 2015 r., poz. 2164 z późn. zm.) na niniejszy wyrok - w terminie 7 dni od dnia jego doręczenia - przysługuje skarga za pośrednictwem\nPrezesa Krajowej Izby Odwoławczej do\n\nSądu Okręgowego w Warszawie.\nPrzewodniczący:\n........................\nUzasadnienie do wyroku z dnia 8 września 2017 r. w sprawie o sygn. akt KIO 1790/17\nZamawiający – Skarb Państwa - Generalny Dyrektor Dróg Krajowych i Autostrad, ul. Wronia\n53, 00-874 Warszawa (prowadzący postępowanie Generalna Dyrekcja Dróg Krajowych i\nAutostrad Oddział we Wrocławiu, ul. Powstańców Śląskich 186, 53-139 Wrocław) prowadzi w trybie przetargu nieograniczonego postępowanie o udzielenie zamówienia publicznego pn.:\n„Zaprojektowanie i wybudowanie drogi S3 Legnica (A4) - Lubawka zadanie IV od węzła Kamienna Góra Północ (z węzłem) do granicy państwa, o długości ok 15,3 km” (numer postępowania: O.WR.D-3.2410.86.2017).\nPostępowanie prowadzone w trybie przetargu nieograniczonego o wartości powyżej kwot określonych w przepisach wydanych na podstawie art. 11 ust. 8 ustawy Pzp.\nW dniu 26.05.2017 r. Zamawiający przekazał ogłoszenie o zamówieniu do publikacji\nUrzędowi Oficjalnych Publikacji UE;\nW dniu 31.05.2017 r. ogłoszenie o zamówieniu zostało opublikowane w suplemencie do Dz.\nU. UE pod numerem 2017/S 103 - 204881.\nW dniu\n\n18.08.2017 r.\n\nZamawiający dokonał modyfikacji treści SIWZ.\nOdwołanie zostało wniesione do Prezesa Krajowej Izby Odwoławczej w dniu 28 sierpnia\n2017 r. przez wykonawcę\n\nBudimex S.A., ul. Stawki 40, 01-040 Warszawa,\n\nktóry zarzucił\nZamawiającemu, iż prowadząc przedmiotowe postępowanie naruszył w szczególności następujące przepisy:\n1) art. 29 ust. 1 i 2 ustawy Pzp w zw. z art. 31 ust. 2 i 3 ustawy Pzp poprzez zaniechanie sporządzenia opisu przedmiotu zamówienia w sposób jednoznaczny i wyczerpujący, za pomocą dostatecznie dokładnych i zrozumiałych określeń, uwzględniających wszystkie wymagania i okoliczności mogące mieć wpływ na sporządzenie ważnej oferty, spełniającej w całości wymagania Zamawiającego, a w konsekwencji w sposób utrudniający uczciwą konkurencję,\n2) §15 Rozporządzenia Ministra Infrastruktury z dnia 2 września 2004 r. w sprawie szczegółowego zakresu i formy dokumentacji projektowej, specyfikacji technicznych wykonania i odbioru robót budowlanych oraz programu funkcjonalno-użytkowego (dalej jako\n„Rozporządzenie\") poprzez zaniechanie sporządzenia Programu funkcjonalno - użytkowego w sposób umożliwiający ustalenie planowanych kosztów prac projektowych i robót budowlanych oraz przygotowanie oferty szczególnie w zakresie obliczenia ceny oferty,\n3) art. 14 ustawy Pzp i art. 139 ust. 1 ustawy Pzp w zw. z art. 5 i 353\n\nkodeksu cywilnego poprzez ukształtowanie treści przyszłego stosunku zobowiązaniowego w zakresie odnoszącym się do przedmiotu zamówienia w sposób naruszający jego właściwość (naturę), bezwzględnie obowiązujące przepisy prawa oraz równowagę stron i prowadzący do nadużycia własnego prawa podmiotowego,\n4) art. 7 ust. 1 ustawy Pzp poprzez przygotowanie i prowadzenie Postępowania w sposób niezapewniający zachowania uczciwej konkurencji oraz równego traktowania wykonawców oraz niezgodny z zasadami proporcjonalności i przejrzystości.\nW związku z powyższymi zarzutami Odwołujący wniósł o:\n1) uwzględnienie odwołania,\n2) nakazanie Zamawiającemu dokonania zmiany treści SIWZ w sposób wskazany w uzasadnieniu odwołania,\n3) nakazanie Zamawiającemu odpowiedniej zmiany terminu składania ofert, jeśli okaże się to niezbędne.\nInteres i szkoda:\nOdwołujący podniósł, że w wyniku naruszenia przez Zamawiającego wskazanych przepisów ustawy Pzp interes Odwołującego w uzyskaniu zamówienia doznał uszczerbku, ponieważ\nOdwołujący jest wykonawcą zainteresowanym pozyskaniem przedmiotowego zamówienia i może ponieść szkodę na skutek naruszenia wskazanych przepisów ustawy Pzp przez\nZamawiającego. Szkoda ta polega na ryzyku wyłączeniu możliwości pozyskania zamówienia, a w konsekwencji osiągnięcia zysku w związku z jego realizacją.\nW kontekście posiadania interesu prawnego we wnoszeniu odwołania na etapie kwestionowania elementów SIWZ, za wyrokiem KIO z dnia 4 października 2010 r. (sygn. akt\nKIO 2036/10), wskazujemy iż ,,środki ochrony prawnej określone w dziale VI Pzp przysługują wykonawcy, uczestników! konkursu, a także Innemu podmiotowi, jeżeli ma lub miał interes w uzyskaniu danego zamówienia oraz poniósł lub może ponieść szkodę w wyniku naruszenia przez zamawiającego przepisów ustawy. Na etapie postępowania o udzielenie zamówienia przed otwarciem ofert, np. w przypadku odwołań czy skarg dotyczących postanowień ogłoszenia i siwz przyjąć należy, iż każdy wykonawca deklarujący zainteresowanie uzyskaniem danego zamówienia posiada jednocześnie interes w jego uzyskaniu.\nSformułowanie ww. przepisu w żaden sposób nie nakazuje badania sytuacji podmiotowej wykonawcy w celu ustalenia jakiego typu warunki udziału w postępowaniu spełnia oraz w jaki sposób o dane zamówienie zamierza się ubiegać (samodzielnie, np. korzystając z doświadczenia innych podmiotów, w konsorcjum (...). Również pojęcie szkody w takiej sytuacji nie może być badane w sposób równie ścisły jak w przypadku korzystania ze środków ochrony prawnej odnośnie złożonych ofert. Na etapie specyfikacji istotnych warunków zamówienia nie ma możliwości określenia i udowodnienia konkretnej szkody, którą wykonawca w trakcie dalszego biegu postępowania o udzielenie zamówienia może ponieść.\nWystarczające jest tu wskazanie na naruszenie obowiązujących przepisów prowadzące do powstania hipotetycznej szkody w postaci utrudniania dostępu do zamówienia lub spowodowania konieczności ubiegania się o udzielenie zamówienia niezgodnie z prawem (np. przez perspektywę zawarcia niezgodnej z przepisami prawa umowy w sprawie zamówienia). Przyjęcie założeń przeciwnych prowadzić by mogło do nadmiernego ograniczenia w korzystaniu ze środków ochrony prawnej dotyczących treści ogłoszenia i siwz\".\nPowyższe, zdaniem Odwołującego, w połączeniu z faktem, iż czynności Zamawiającego objęte niniejszym odwołaniem nie tylko naruszają wskazane powyżej przepisy ustawy Pzp ale również ograniczają konkurencyjność w ramach postępowania i szeroko rozumiany dostęp do zamówienia, dowodzi wypełnienia przesłanek umożliwiających wniesienie odwołania, zdefiniowanych w art. 179 ust. 1 ustawy Pzp.\nZachowanie terminu i wymogów formalnych:\nJak wskazał Odwołujący odwołanie zostało wniesione z zachowaniem ustawowego terminu, gdyż Zamawiający w dniu 18 sierpnia 2017 r. przekazał Wykonawcom zmianę treści\nSpecyfikacji Istotnych Warunków Zamówienia (SIWZ) - zestaw nr 4 - modyfikującą postanowienia zawarte w Tomie III - Opis Przedmiotu Zamówienia (Program Funkcjonalno -\nUżytkowy), dotyczące m.in. Parametrów przewidywanych obiektów inżynierskich.\nPostanowienia w tym zakresie wprowadzone rzeczoną modyfikacją stanowią przedmiot niniejszego odwołania.\nW związku z tym, w dniu 18 sierpnia 2017 r. Wykonawca powziął wiadomość o zmianie treści\nSIWZ, a tym samym o nowych okolicznościach stanowiących podstawę wniesienia odwołania. Biorąc pod uwagę powyższe, w ocenie Odwołującego, ustawowy – 10 - dniowy - termin na wniesienie odwołania został zachowany.\nOdwołujący wskazał ponadto, że uiścił wpis od odwołania w wymaganej wysokości i przekazał Zamawiającemu kopię odwołania wraz z załącznikami (potwierdzenia w załączeniu).\nUZASADNIENIE\nI. Uwagi ogólne\n1. Na wstępie, w związku z tym iż zarzuty stawiane w ramach niniejszego odwołania dotyczą sposobu ukształtowania jednej z części SIWZ, Odwołujący wskazał, że SIWZ jest dokumentem o szczególnym znaczeniu w postępowaniu o udzielenie zamówienia publicznego. Wyznacza ona bowiem obowiązki wykonawców, jakie na nich ciążą w związku z chęcią uczestniczenia w postępowaniu, warunki jakim muszą wykonawcy sprostać, oraz dokumenty, jakie należy złożyć, by w nim uczestniczyć. Z tego względu każda część SIWZ winna być precyzyjna i jasna w swej treści, zaś jej zapisy powinny być sformułowane w sposób eliminujący potrzebę wnioskowania, co należy uczynić w jej wykonaniu, aby ubiegać się o udzielenie zamówienia publicznego. Biorąc pod uwagę powyższe, a także konieczność zapewnienia konkurencyjności i równego traktowania wykonawców w ramach postępowań o udzielenie zamówień publicznych, ustawodawca nałożył na zamawiającego szereg szczegółowych obowiązków, którym musi sprostać na etapie przygotowywania postępowania o udzielenie zamówienia publicznego, w tym podczas formułowania każdej z części specyfikacji istotnych warunków zamówienia.\n2. Opis przedmiotu zamówienia, co wprost determinuje dyspozycja art. 29 ust 1 i 2 ustawy\nPzp, powinien pozwolić każdemu z potencjalnie zainteresowanych danym zamówieniem wykonawcom, przygotowanie i złożenie ważnej oferty, w tym umożliwić precyzyjne obliczenie ceny za jego realizację. Zamawiający formułując opis przedmiotu zamówienia powinien w związku z tym posługiwać się dostatecznie dokładnymi i zrozumiałymi określeniami oraz uwzględniać wszystkie wymagania i okoliczności mogące mieć wpływ na sporządzenie oferty, mając na uwadze to, iż perspektywę decydującą dla oceny czy wytyczne te zostały zachowane jest perspektywa wykonawcy. Takie stanowisko potwierdził m.in. SO w Zielonej\nGórze w wyroku z dnia 13 maja 2005 r. (sygn. akt II Ca 109/05), w ramach którego wskazał, że okoliczność, że inny wykonawca składa ofertę zgodną z założeniem zamawiającego, nie ma znaczenia, wystarczy bowiem, że określenie przedmiotu zamówienia mogło wprowadzić w błąd jakiegokolwiek wykonawcę. W związku z tym jak wskazał Sąd Okręgowy w Gdańsku w wyroku z dnia 27 listopada 2006 r. (sygn. akt III Ca 1019/06) z przepisu art. 29 ust. 1 ustawy Pzp wynika, iż „opis przedmiotu zamówienia powinien być na tyle jasny, aby pozwalał na identyfikację zamówienia. Zwroty użyte do określenia przedmiotu zamówienia powinny być dokładnie określone i niebudzące wątpliwości, a zagadnienie winno być przedstawione wszechstronnie, dogłębnie i szczegółowo (...)”.\n3. Również treść przyszłego stosunku zobowiązaniowego kreowanego przez\nZamawiającego, niezależnie od przysługującej zamawiającemu uprzywilejowanej pozycji, powinien być tak ukształtowany aby realizacja zamówienia była możliwa. Celem zamawiającego powinno być również dążenie do osiągnięcia korzystnych rynkowo cen.\nZamawiający nie powinien konstruować umowy w żadnym z elementów (w tym również w elemencie odnoszącym się do przedmiotu zamówienia) w sposób, który negatywnie wpłynie na ilość złożonych w przetargu ofert. Nie może także przerzucić całości ryzyka gospodarczego na wykonawcę. Postanowienia umowy powinny zostać przy tym określone w sposób na tyle precyzyjny, aby wykonawca był w stanie określić cenę ofertową. W sytuacji, w której nie jest możliwe podanie katalogu zamkniętego okoliczności, z którymi wiążą się określone następstwa, zamawiający powinien dążyć do jak najpełniejszego ich wyszczególnienia.\n4. Co istotne, w ocenie Odwołującego, powyższe zobowiązania Zamawiającego dotyczące kształtowania treści SIWZ, w tym opisu przedmiotu zamówienia oraz przyszłych zobowiązań kontraktowych, kilkukrotnie były przedmiotem analizy i rozstrzygnięć KIO na tle postępowań dotyczących realizacji inwestycji drogowych. Z uwagi na analogię przedmiotu zamówienia oraz skarżonych postanowień stosowanych przez zamawiających w tych postępowaniach, tezy takich wyroków KIO stanowić mogą w związku z tym istotny punkt odniesienia i powinny być wzięte pod rozwagę w ramach orzekania w niniejszej sprawie. Tytułem przykładu powołać można w tym zakresie wyrok KIO z dnia 18 maja 2015 r. (sygn. akt KIO 897/15), wyrok KIO z dnia 14 września 2016 r. (sygn. akt KIO 1607/16) czy wyrok KIO z dnia 8 kwietnia 2016 r. (sygn. akt KIO 437/16), w ramach których konsekwentnie podkreślano m.in.\nokoliczność, iż obciążanie wykonawców w całości ryzykiem wystąpienia okoliczności nieznanych na etapie ofertowania jest niewłaściwe, a opis przedmiotu zamówienia powinien być na tyle precyzyjny aby umożliwiał skalkulowanie ceny ofertowej. Niewątpliwie, naganność praktyk nieuwzględniających powyższych postulatów wzmożona jest przy inwestycjach infrastrukturalnych, w ramach których skala ryzyk związanych z każdą niedoprecyzowaną i nieznaną okolicznością wiąże się z ogromnymi kosztami, które spowodować mogą w konsekwencji nieopłacalność kontraktu, a w skrajnych przypadkach nawet upadłość podmiotu realizującego dane zadanie inwestycyjne. Dlatego też jak wskazywała KIO w wyroku o sygn. KIO 1607/16 „opis przedmiotu zamówienia stanowi kluczowy element dokumentacji, która jest przygotowana przez zamawiającego i nie może być on ogólny, szacunkowy i niedookreślony, wzajemnie niespójny, przenoszący na wykonawców składających ofertę ciężar jego dookreślenia. Za niedopuszczalną należy uznać praktykę opisu przedmiotu zamówienia poprzez zdarzenia przyszłe, niedookreślone, których rzeczywista potrzeba wykonania jak i rozmiar uzależnione są od rezultatu podjętych przez wykonawcę czynności już na etapie realizacji (...). Nadużywanie praw podmiotowych przez zamawiającego do ustalania warunków zamówienia, nie służy realizacji celów zakładanym przez ustawę Prawo zamówień publicznych - otwartych na konkurencję. Zniechęca wykonawców do uczestnictwa w takim postępowaniu, gdzie granice przedmiotu zamówienia, które przyjdzie im realizować nie zostały, w sposób przewidywalny określone, a wykonawcę obarcza się nadmiernym ryzykiem niedoszacowania ceny oferty. W warunkach tak prowadzonego postępowania, każdy z wykonawców będzie mógł inaczej identyfikować poszczególne ryzyka, co może doprowadzić do złożenia nieporównywalnych ofert\". Co warte podkreślenia, powyżej cytowany wyrok Krajowej Izby Odwoławczej dotyczył postępowania prowadzonego w formule\n„zaprojektuj i wybuduj\" która dopuszczając pewien margines doprecyzowania opisu przedmiotu zamówienia na etapie realizacji inwestycji, nie przerzuca jednak wszelkich ryzyk z tym związanych na wykonawców i nie zwalnia Zamawiającego z konieczności respektowania podstawowych, powyżej zdefiniowanych obowiązków w zakresie opisania przedmiotu zamówienia.\nII. Stan faktyczny - konkretyzacja zarzutów i wniosków Odwołującego\n1. Zamawiający prowadzi postępowanie o udzielenie zamówienia publicznego w trybie przetargu nieograniczonego pn. „Zaprojektowanie i wybudowanie drogi S3 Legnica (A4) -\nLubawka zadanie IV od węzła Kamienna Góra Północ (z węzłem) do granicy państwa, o długości ok 15,3 km\", które zostało wszczęte w dniu 31 maja 2017 r. poprzez publikację ogłoszenia o zamówieniu w Dzienniku Urzędowym Unii Europejskiej.\n2. Pierwotnie zgodnie z treścią Tomu III SIWZ - Program Funkcjonalno - Użytkowy (PFU) w odniesieniu do Parametrów przewidywanych obiektów inżynierskich Zamawiający zamieścił\nWykaz tychże obiektów inżynierskich wraz ze wskazaniem, iż:\n(...)\nZmiana sposobu pokonania przeszkody, liczby i parametrów obiektów inżynierskich, podanych w tabeli nr 1.1:\n- są dopuszczalne wyłącznie na podstawie Procedury Zmiany zgodnie z Warunkami\nKontraktu,\n- wymagają uzasadnienia w Raporcie wykonanym w ramach ponownej oceny oddziaływania na środowisko w stosunku do decyzji środowiskowej.\nZdaniem Odwołującego, innymi słowy, Zamawiający stworzył poprzez zamieszczenie w treści\nPFU Tabeli 1.1. zamknięty katalog obiektów inżynierskich, które należało skalkulować w ramach przygotowywanej oferty, limitując możliwość ich modyfikacji jedynie do przypadków ściśle określonych powyżej, wprowadzonych zgodnie z Warunkami Kontraktu.\n2. Zmiana dotyczy SIWZ Tomu III Opis Przedmiotu Zamówienia (Program Funkcjonalno -\nUżytkowy), zmieniając pkt. [REDACTED:IP], Parametry przewidywanych obiektów inżynierskich:\nIstniejący zapis:\n(-)\nZmiana sposobu pokonania przeszkody, liczby i parametrów obiektów Inżynierskich, podanych w tabeli nr 1.1:\n- są dopuszczalne wyłącznie na podstawie Procedury Zmiany zgodnie z Warunkami\nKontraktu,\n- wymagają uzasadnienia w Raporcie wykonanym w ramach ponownej oceny oddziaływania na środowisko w stosunku do decyzji środowiskowej.\nZastępuje się:\nW przypadku przejść dolnych dla zwierząt, dla których określono w decyzji środowiskowej współczynnik względnej ciasnoty [(szerokość x wysokość) / długość) należy pamiętać, że długość przejść dolnych stanowi szerokość drogi (tj. szerokość obiektu inżynierskiego, a nie jego długość). Zmiana sposobu pokonania przeszkody, lub ilości, lub parametrów obiektów\nInżynierskich, podanych w Tabeli nr 1.1.:\n• są dopuszczalne wyłącznie na podstawie Procedury Zmiany zgodnie z Warunkami\nKontraktu,\n• wymagają uzasadnienia w Raporcie wykonanym w ramach ponownej oceny oddziaływania na środowisko - w stosunku do decyzji środowiskowej,\nProcedury Zmiany jak wyżej nie stosuje się do zmiany parametrów obiektów Inżynierskich wskazanych w Tabeli nr 1.1. w przypadku gdy przedmiotem zmiany jest:\n• zmiana długości całkowitej do ±25% wartości podanych w Tabeli nr 1.1 kolumna 4, lub\n• zmiana szerokości całkowitej przęsła do ±10% wartości podanych w Tabeli nr 1.1. kolumna\n5.\nZmiany parametrów podanych w Tabeli nr 1.1., tj. długości całkowitej do ±25% oraz szerokości całkowitej przęsła do ±10% zawierają się w Zaakceptowanej Kwocie\nKontraktowej. Zmiany wykraczające poza powyższe będą rozpatrywane zgodnie z\nWarunkami Kontraktu.\nW przypadku obiektów z funkcją ekologiczną, w celu uzyskania drożności szlaku migracji zwierząt w pasie objętym realizacją Inwestycji, należy uwzględnić konieczność budowy obiektów wyszczególnionych w decyzji środowiskowej. W uzasadnionych przypadkach należy uwzględnić konieczność budowy również dodatkowych obiektów na szlaku migracji (o parametrach określonych w decyzji dla przejścia głównego) w celu bezpiecznego wyprowadzenia zwierząt poza pas drogowy (np. pod łącznicami). Za uzasadniony przypadek uważa się sytuację, w której zwierzęta bezpośrednio z przejścia dla zwierząt zlokalizowanego w ciągu szlaku migracji wyprowadzane są na przeszkody uniemożliwiające dalsze kontynuowanie migracji (np. inna droga komunikacyjna o zaporowym, natężeniu ruchu dla możliwości bezpiecznego jej pokonania, wysoki i stromy nasyp, linia kolejowa itp.).\nTym samym, w ocenie Odwołującego, zmienione postanowienie w tym zakresie z jednej strony wskazuje konsekwentnie, iż katalog przewidywanych obiektów inżynierskich zamieszczony w treści Tabeli 1.1. ma charakter wiążący i zamknięty (o czym świadczy wyraźne wskazanie, iż zmiana sposobu pokonania przeszkody, ilości lub parametrów obiektów inżynierskich względem Tabeli 1.1. powoduje konieczność wprowadzenia zmiany na podstawie Warunków Kontraktowych), z drugiej zaś, poprzez treść ostatniego dodanego akapitu, sugeruje otwarcie tego katalogu (konieczność uwzględnienia innych obiektów wyszczególnionych w decyzji środowiskowej oraz innych potencjalnych obiektów w przypadku gdyby okazało się to uzasadnione). W konsekwencji, zdaniem Odwołującego, w ramach tej samej jednostki redakcyjnej Wykonawcy otrzymali dwie sprzeczne ze sobą informacje w zakresie tego co należy wycenić w treści składanej oferty. Wskazana sytuacja nie występowała w ramach pierwotnej treści PFU, co determinuje, iż Wykonawcy dopiero w dniu 18 sierpnia 2017 r. powzięli wiadomość o rzeczonej okoliczności mogącej być przedmiotem odwołania, która to okoliczność doprowadziła do klasycznej nieprecyzyjności opisu przedmiotu zamówienia, mogącej w konsekwencji skutkować nieporównywalnością złożonych ofert.\n4. Przewidzianej przez Zamawiającego w ostatnim akapicie konieczności uwzględnienia budowy:\n- obiektów wyszczególnionych w decyzji środowiskowej;\n- dodatkowych obiektów na szlaku migracji (o parametrach określonych dla przejścia głównego) w celu bezpiecznego wyprowadzenia zwierząt poza pad drogowy (np. pod łącznicami);\nnie da się, zdaniem Odwołującego, pogodzić z deklarowanym wiążącym charakterem Tabeli\n1.1. ze względu na to, iż:\n- Tabela 1.1. nie zawiera wszystkich obiektów, które wskazywane są w treści decyzji środowiskowej. Odwołujący wskazuje w tym zakresie przykładowo na obiekt w km 63+700 do\n63+900 (przejścia górne dla zwierząt dużych) o szerokości w najwęższym miejscu > 60 m, który zdefiniowany został w pkt 3.5. na stronie 9 udostępnionej Decyzji Środowiskowej\n(RDOŚ-02-WOOŚ-6613-1/59-17/09/10/kc), a który nie został ujęty w rzeczonej Tabeli;\n- Tabela 1.1. siłą rzeczy nie odnosi się również do dodatkowych obiektów na szlaku migracji, które miałyby zostać zidentyfikowane indywidualnie przez każdego z wykonawców, a które nie zostały ujęte tak w treści PFU jak również innych dokumentach udostępnionych przez\nZamawiającego.\n5. Jak wskazał Odwołujący w związku z tym, w świetle powyższych postanowień niejednoznaczne pozostaje to, czy konieczność budowy obiektów wyszczególnionych w decyzji środowiskowej oraz dodatkowych obiektów na szlaku migracji zidentyfikowanych przez wykonawców, nie wymienionych w Tabeli 1.1. ma zostać wyceniona w ramach składanej oferty, czy też - zgodnie z postanowieniem, które równolegle znajduje się w treści\nPFU - będzie wiązała się z każdorazowym wprowadzaniem zmian do Kontraktu.\nW kontekście powyższego postanowienia PFU, zdaniem Odwołującego, należy zwrócić uwagę, że na jego podstawie każdy z potencjalnych wykonawców może poczynić odmienne założenie, a w konsekwencji wliczyć w cenę swojej oferty inne obiekty inżynierskie. W rezultacie takie ujęcie informacji w ramach opisu przedmiotu zamówienia w sposób bezpośredni generuje ryzyko uzyskania nieporównywalnych ofert w ramach postępowania.\nPowyższe, niwecząc konkurencyjność w ramach postępowania jest sytuacją niekorzystną tak dla wykonawców jak i dla samego Zamawiającego.\n6. W ocenie Odwołującego tymczasem wykonawcy ubiegający się o udzielenie danego zamówienia publicznego powinni otrzymać jednolite i stanowcze informacje obejmujące taki zakres danych, który umożliwi im przygotowanie i wycenę składanych ofert. Odwołujący, nie neguje, że formuła zaprojektuj i wybuduj zakłada pewną elastyczność postanowień opisujących przedmiot zamówienia, który doszczegóławiany jest w ramach projektów budowlanych i wykonawczych przygotowywanych przez wykonawcę uzyskującego dane zamówienie. Nie mniej jednak, jak wynika z §15 Rozporządzenia, Program funkcjonalno - użytkowy powinien zawierać takie informacje, które umożliwią ustalenie planowanych kosztów i wycenę oferty. Biorąc pod uwagę powyższe, oraz fakt, iż obiekty inżynierskie, o których mowa w kwestionowanym postanowieniu stanowią istotny element składowy w ramach wyceny oferty, informacje będące podstawą wyceny w tym zakresie powinny więc mieć stanowczy i jednoznaczny charakter.\n7. Odwołujący podniósł, że niezależnie od powyższego, przy założeniu, że obiekty inżynierskie, o których wspomina ostatni akapit zmodyfikowanego postanowienia, nie ujęte w\nTabeli 1.1., zgodnie z intencją Zamawiającego miałyby zostać skalkulowane w ramach składanej oferty, taki opis przedmiotu zamówienia cechowałby się ponadto brakiem wymaganego skonkretyzowania. W takiej sytuacji Wykonawcy zmuszeni zostaliby bowiem do kalkulacji ryzyk w tym zakresie jedynie na podstawie wstępnych szacunków, bez precyzyjnych danych wyjściowych przekazanych przez Zamawiającego, który posiadając instrumenty do opisania przedmiotu zamówienia zgodnie z jego zapotrzebowaniem powinien dać temu wyraz w treści udostępnianej PFU. Ponadto, podnieść należy, że w przypadku dodatkowych obiektów inżynierskich, o których mowa w ostatnim akapicie zmienionego postanowienia PFU, które wykonawcy mieliby sami zidentyfikować dla uzasadnionych w tym celu przypadków, każdy z wykonawców może ilość i parametry tych obiektów zidentyfikować na innym poziomie. W związku z tym przy założeniu, że ten element ma zostać wliczony do ceny ofertowej może dojść tak do jej przeszacowania jak i niedoszacowania, przy czym\nZamawiający pozbawiony zostanie mechanizmów zmierzających do weryfikacji prawidłowości tejże wyceny (Wykonawcy nie zostali bowiem zobligowani do przedłożenia wykazu zakładanych przez siebie dodatkowych obiektów inżynierskich).\nJak wskazał Odwołujący skala obiektów inżynierskich, które potencjalnie mogą okazać się konieczne do dodatkowego wprowadzenia przedstawiona zostanie poniższej w ramach zestawienia tabelarycznego. Szacunkowa wartość wybudowania tych obiektów zdaniem\nWykonawcy może sięgnąć nawet kilkudziesięciu milionów złotych, a w konsekwencji kwestia konieczności włączenia tej kwoty do wyceny oferty każdego z wykonawców może okazać się kluczowa dla wyboru najkorzystniejszej oferty.\nTabela 1.1.a\n\nWykaz przewidywanych obiektów inżynierskich koniecznych do budowy na szlakach migracji zwierząt W celu zapewnienia bezpiecznego wyprowadzenia zwierząt poza inne drogi komunikacyjne, wysokie i strome nasypy, linie kolejowe itp.\nOznaczenie obiektu Lp.\n\nPrzewidywany kilometraż Przewidywana długość całkowita\nPrzewidywana min. szerokość całkowita\n\nPrzeszkoda [m]\n\nobiektu (zalecana) [m]\n(ostatnia kolumna)\n1. PZg-60 -59+251 WS-45 36 50(60) linia kolejowa nr 345\n2. PZg-61 -60+000 WS-47 30 50(60) linia kolejowa nr 299\n3. PZg-62 -62+639 WS-49 30 50(60) DK5\n4. PZg-63 -63+900 86 50(60)\n\nS3 + DK5\n5. PZg-64\n\n30 -64+145 WS-52\n\n50(60) DK5\n6. PZg-65\n\n32 -65+285 WS-54\n\n50(60) linia kolejowa nr 299\n7. PZg-66 -65+285 WS-54 30 50(60) DK5\n8. PZg-67 -67+227 WS-57 36 30\n\nDK5\nPZg - przejście dla zwierząt górą\nTabela 1.2.a Wykaz przewidywanych przepustów inżynierskich koniecznych do budowy na szlakach migracji zwierząt W celu zapewnienia bezpiecznego wyprowadzenia zwierząt poza inne drogi komunikacyjne, wysokie i strome nasypy, linie kolejowe itp.\nOznaczenie obiektu Lp.\n\nPrzewidywany kilometraż Przewidywany przekrój poprzeczny\n[BxH Ø]\n1 PZ-60 58+923 3,5 x 1,5\n2 PZ-61 58+923 3,5 x 1,5\n3 PZ-62 66+053 3,5 x 1,5\n4 PZ-63 66+053 3,5 x 1,5\n5 PZ-64 66+323 3,5 x 1,5\n6 PZ-65 66+323 3,5 x 1,5\n7 PZ-66 66+373 3,5 x 1,5\n8 PZ-67 66+373 3,5 x 1,5\n9 PZ-68 66+423 3,5 x 1,5\n10 PZ-69 66+423 3,5 x 1,5\n11 PZ-70 66+473 3,5 x 1,5\n12 PZ-71 66+473 3,5 x 1,5\n13 PZ-72 66+523 3,5 x 1,5\n14 PZ-73 66+523 3,5 x 1,5\n15 PZ-74 66+573 3,5 x 1,5\n16 PZ-75 66+573 3,5 x 1,5\n17 PZ-76 68+045 5 x 1,5\n18 PZ-77 68+650 5x1,5\n19 PZ-78 68+850 6x1,5\n8. Biorąc pod uwagę powyższe, zdaniem Odwołującego, każdy z potencjalnych wykonawców powinien uzyskać precyzyjną informację w zakresie tego jakie elementy mają zostać oszacowane w ramach składanej przez niego oferty. Konieczność wliczenia potencjalnie koniecznych do wybudowania obiektów już do ceny ofertowej zdaniem Odwołującego jest jednak o tyle nieuzasadnione, iż Wykonawcy mogą na obecnym etapie zidentyfikować ilość i parametry ww. obiektów inżynierskich jedynie w sposób szacunkowy. Taka konstrukcja postanowienia PFU, zwalniałaby jednocześnie Zamawiającego z jego obowiązku opisania przedmiotu zamówienia, przerzucając go na Wykonawców, którzy zostaliby zobowiązani do kalkulacji niemożliwych precyzyjnie do oszacowania ryzyk. Jak wskazał Odwołujący precyzyjną skalę kosztów związanych z koniecznością wprowadzenia dodatkowych obiektów inżynierskich będzie można bowiem określić dopiero na etapie wykonywania Projektu\nBudowlanego i Wykonawczego, a więc ich określenie uzależnione jest od zdarzeń przyszłych, niemożliwych w sposób jednoznaczny do przewidzenia na etapie ofertowania.\nTakie ujęcie opisu przedmiotu zamówienia wskazuje więc na definiowanie obowiązków wykonawców za pomocą przyszłych zdarzeń, które to działanie jest jednoznacznie sankcjonowane w ramach najnowszego orzecznictwa Krajowej Izby Odwoławczej oraz\nSądów Powszechnych. Tytułem przykładu, Odwołujący wskazuje w tym zakresie na wyrok\nKIO z dnia 8 kwietnia 2016 r. (sygn. akt KIO 437/16), potwierdzony wyrokiem SO w\nWarszawie z dnia 8 lipca 2016 r. (sygn. akt XXIII Ga 675/16), w którym to w ramach postępowania prowadzonego w formule zaprojektuj i wybuduj, zanegowano zastosowanie takiego opisu przedmiotu zamówienia, w którym ewentualne zmiany w stosunku do danych wyjściowych wskazywanych przez Zamawiającego miałyby być ryzykiem obciążającym wyłącznie Wykonawcę. Jak wskazała KIO w ramach uzasadnienia ww. wyroku „w chwili składania ofert wykonawca nie ma wiedzy co do tego, czy taka sytuacja będzie miała miejsce oraz jaki będzie zakres ewentualnych zmian. Ewentualne ryzyko związane z wprowadzonymi zmianami obciążać będzie wówczas wykonawcę. Z uwagi na brak wiedzy co do zakresu zmian oraz ich wpływu na wartość wykonywanych prac oraz innych elementów związanych z realizacją zamówienia (np. czasu) obciążanie tym ryzykiem w całości wykonawcę należy uznać za niewłaściwe\" Warto podkreślić, że Sąd Okręgowy akcentował w tym zakresie, że automatyczne uznanie a priori, iż ewentualne zmiany w zakresie realizacji zamówienia wynikające z przyszłych zdarzeń nie wpłyną ani na koszt ani na czas inwestycji (co przejawiać miałoby się w zakazie modyfikacji kontraktu w tych obszarach) jest nielogiczne i sprzeczne z doświadczeniem życiowym.\n9. Tym samym, zdaniem Odwołującego, stwierdzić należy, iż brak przekazania jednoznacznych i precyzyjnych informacji, będących składowymi opisu przedmiotu zamówienia, świadczy tak o naruszeniu art. 29 ust. 1 i 2 ustawy Pzp w zw. z art. 31 ust. 2 i 3 ustawy Pzp, jak również art. 14 i 139 ust. 1 ustawy Pzp w zw. z art. 5 i 353\n\nKC. Z uwagi na fakt, iż przedmiotowe zamówienie realizowane jest w ramach formuły zaprojektuj i wybuduj, konsekwentnie działania Zamawiającego naruszają równocześnie odpowiednie postanowienia Rozporządzenia.\n10. Biorąc pod uwagę wszystkie powyższe okoliczności, Odwołujący wniósł o:\n- modyfikację treści PFU w kwestionowanym zakresie poprzez jednoznaczne wskazanie, iż konieczność budowy obiektów inżynierskich wykraczających poza katalog zawarty w Tabeli\n1.1. nie mieści się w ramach Zaakceptowanej Kwoty Kontraktowej i każdorazowo wprowadzana będzie do umowy w trybie zmiany Kontraktu. Rzeczona modyfikacja może zostać wprowadzona do treści PFU poprzez następujący zapis:\n„W przypadku obiektów z funkcją ekologiczną, w celu uzyskania drożności szlaku migracji zwierząt w pasie objętym realizacją inwestycji, należy uwzględnić konieczność budowy obiektów wyszczególnionych w decyzji środowiskowej. W uzasadnionych przypadkach należy uwzględnić konieczność budowy również dodatkowych obiektów na szlaku migracji (o parametrach określonych w decyzji dla przejścia głównego) w celu bezpiecznego wyprowadzenia zwierząt poza pas drogowy (np. pod łącznicami). Za uzasadniony przypadek uważa się sytuację, w której zwierzęta bezpośrednio z przejścia dla zwierząt zlokalizowanego w ciągu szlaku migracji wyprowadzane są na przeszkody uniemożliwiające dalsze kontynuowanie migracji (np. inna droga komunikacyjna o zaporowym, natężeniu ruchu dla możliwości bezpiecznego jej pokonania, wysoki i stromy nasyp, linia kolejowa itp.).\nUwzględnienie konieczności budowy ww. obiektów nie wiąże się z koniecznością uwzględnienia ich w Zaakceptowanej Kwocie Kontraktowej. W przypadku zaktualizowania się konieczności budowy rzeczonych obiektów każdorazowo przeprowadzona zostanie\nProcedura Zmiany zgodnie z Warunkami Kontraktu.\nalternatywnie:\n- modyfikację treści PFU poprzez modyfikację Tabeli 1.1. i ujęcie w jej treści wszystkich obiektów inżynierskich koniecznych do wybudowania i skalkulowania w cenie ofertowej.\nKrajowa Izba Odwoławcza, po przeprowadzeniu rozprawy w przedmiotowej sprawie, na podstawie zebranego materiału dowodowego, po zapoznaniu się z dokumentacją postępowania o udzielenie zamówienia publicznego, w tym w szczególności z postanowieniami ogłoszenia o zamówieniu, Specyfikacją Istotnych\nWarunków Zamówienia oraz korespondencją prowadzoną w toku postępowania pomiędzy Zamawiającym a wykonawcami ubiegającymi się o udzielenie zamówienia, jak również po zapoznaniu się z odwołaniem, po wysłuchaniu oświadczeń, jak też stanowisk stron złożonych ustnie do protokołu w toku rozprawy ustaliła i zważyła, co następuje.\nW pierwszej kolejności Izba ustaliła, że nie została wypełniona żadna z przesłanek, o których stanowi art. 189 ust.\n2 ustawy Pzp, skutkujących odrzuceniem odwołania.\nJednocześnie Izba stwierdziła, że Odwołującemu przysługiwało prawo do skorzystania ze środka ochrony prawnej, gdyż wypełniono materialnoprawną przesłankę interesu w uzyskaniu zamówienia, określoną w art. 179 ust. 1 ustawy Pzp kwalifikowaną możliwością poniesienia szkody przez Odwołującego będącej konsekwencją zaskarżonej w odwołaniu czynności. Wnoszący odwołanie jest zainteresowany złożeniem w niniejszym postępowaniu oferty zaś, w jego ocenie, postanowienia SIWZ w kształcie po modyfikacji z dnia 18.08.2017 r. uniemożliwiają mu złożenie ważnej oferty i dokonanie precyzyjnej wyceny przedmiotu zamówienia. Odwołujący podniósł, że w wyniku naruszenia przez Zamawiającego wskazanych przepisów ustawy Pzp interes Odwołującego w uzyskaniu zamówienia doznał uszczerbku, ponieważ Odwołujący jest wykonawcą zainteresowanym pozyskaniem przedmiotowego zamówienia i może ponieść szkodę na skutek naruszenia wskazanych przepisów ustawy Pzp przez Zamawiającego. Szkoda ta polega na ryzyku wyłączeniu możliwości pozyskania zamówienia, a w konsekwencji osiągnięcia zysku w związku z jego realizacją. W przypadku zaś uwzględniania odwołania ma on szansę na uzyskanie przedmiotowego zamówienia.\nIzba dopuściła w niniejszej sprawie dowody z dokumentacji postępowania o zamówienie publiczne, nadesłanej przez Zamawiającego do akt sprawy w kopii potwierdzonej za zgodność z oryginałem, w tym w szczególności z treści ogłoszenia o zamówieniu, treści SIWZ, jak również korespondencji prowadzonej pomiędzy Zamawiającym a wykonawcami ubiegającymi się o udzielenie Zamówienia publicznego.\nBiorąc pod uwagę zgromadzony w sprawie materiał dowodowy oraz zakres zarzutów podniesionych w odwołaniu Izba stwierdziła, że odwołanie nie zasługuje na uwzględnienie.\nKrajowa Izba Odwoławcza ustaliła, co następuje.\nW pierwszej kolejności Izba ustaliła, iż postępowanie jest prowadzone w trybie przetargu nieograniczonego o wartości powyżej kwot wskazanych w przepisach wykonawczych wydanych na podstawie art. 11 ust. 8 ustawy Pzp.\nNastępnie Izba ustaliła, że postępowanie zostało wszczęte w dniu 31.05.2017 r. przez zamieszczenie ogłoszenia o zamówieniu w suplemencie do Dz. U. UE pod numerem 2017/S\n103-204881.\nPowyższe oznacza, iż do przedmiotowego postępowania mają zastosowanie przepisy znowelizowanej ustawy Prawo zamówień publicznych tj. ustawy zmienionej w związku z wejściem w życie z dniem 28.07.2016 r. nowelizacji zawartej w ustawie z dnia 22 czerwca\n2016 r. o zmianie ustawy – Prawo zamówień publicznych oraz niektórych innych ustaw (Dz.\nU. z 2016 r., poz. 1020).\nIzba ustaliła również, że przedmiotem zamówienia jest zaprojektowanie i wybudowanie drogi S3 Legnica (A4) - Lubawka zadanie IV od węzła Kamienna Góra Północ\n(z węzłem) do granicy państwa, o długości ok 15,3 km.\nJak wynika z sekcji II pkt 2.4) ogłoszenia o zamówieniu zamówienie obejmuje w szczególności:\n1. Opracowanie dokumentacji projektowej, w tym:\na) wykonanie projektów budowlanych – zaktualizowanie i zoptymalizowanie rozwiązań projektowych przyjętych w Projekcie Budowlanym pn.: „Budowa drogi S – 3 Legnica (A – 4) –\nLubawka, Zadanie IVa od km ok. 54+316,50 do km ok. 67+650 w zakresie opisanym w\nProgramie Funkcjonalno – Użytkowym i uzyskanie niezbędnych opinii, uzgodnień, decyzji administracyjnych, b) wykonanie nowych projektów budowlanych – w oparciu o rozwiązania projektowe przyjęte w Dokumentacji koordynującej połączenia dróg ekspresowych S3 i R11, dla zadania inwestycyjnego pn.: „Budowa drogi ekspresowej S – 3 Legnica (A – 4) – Lubawka”, Zadanie\nIVb od km ok. 67=650 do granicy państwa w zakresie opisanym w programie Funkcjonalno –\nUżytkowym i uzyskanie niezbędnych opinii, uzgodnień, decyzji administracyjnych, c) opracowanie koniecznych projektów wykonawczych branżowych, technologicznych, warsztatowych, d) opracowanie koncepcji Systemu Zarządzania Ruchem.\n2. Uzyskanie decyzji zezwalającej na realizację inwestycji drogowej (ZRID).\n3. Budowę drogi ekspresowej o długości ok. 15,3 km i przekroju 2 x 2 pasy ruchu.\n4. Budowę 3 węzłów drogowych: „Kamienna Góra Północ”, „Kamienna Góra Południe” oraz\n„Lubawka”.\n5. Przebudowę istniejącej sieci dróg w zakresie kolizji z planowana drogą ekspresową.\n6. Budowę dróg innych niż droga ekspresowa, obsługujących tereny przyległe do projektowanego pasa drogowego oraz przywracające naruszone połączenia drogowe.\n7. Budowę obiektów inżynierskich, w tym:\n- 9 wiaduktów i 3 mostów w ciągu drogi S – 3,\n- 5 wiaduktów nad drogą ekspresową,\n- 3 przejazdów gospodarczych,\n- przepustów.\n8. Budowę systemu odwodnienia korpusu drogowego drogi ekspresowej i pozostałych dróg.\n9. Przebudowę sieci melioracyjnych. 10. Budowę urządzeń ochrony środowiska.\n11. Budowę infrastruktury na potrzeb drogi.\n12. Przebudowę kolidujących urządzeń i sieci istniejącej infrastruktury pod i nadziemnej.\n13. Realizację Systemów Bezpieczeństwa Tuneli i Systemów Zarządzania Tunelami wraz z infrastrukturą im towarzyszącą.\n14. Stałą organizacje ruchu oraz organizacje ruchu na czas wykonywania robót.\n15. Prace przygotowawcze i wykończeniowe, w tym m.in.: rozbiórki, zieleń, ogrodzenia drogi.\n16. Opracowanie dokumentacji powykonawczej.\n17. Uzyskanie decyzji o pozwoleniu na użytkowanie.\nZgodnie z treścią SIWZ (Wrocław, maj 2017) Tom II Warunki kontraktu Rozdział 4 warunki ogólne kontraktu stanowią „Warunki Kontraktu na urządzenie i budowę z projektowaniem dla urządzeń elektrycznych i mechanicznych oraz dla robót budowlanych i inżynieryjnych projektowanych przez Wykonawcę” COSMOPOLI CONSULTANTS, wydanie angielsko – polskie 2000. Tłumaczenie pierwszego wydania FIDIC 1999 (Fédération Internationale des\nIngénieure-Conseils).\nZamawiający pismem z dnia 10.08.2017 r. ustalił ostateczny termin składania ofert na dzień\n26.09.2017 r. na godzinę 11.30.\nW pierwotnej treści Tomu III SIWZ - Program Funkcjonalno - Użytkowy (PFU) w odniesieniu do Parametrów przewidywanych obiektów inżynierskich Zamawiający zamieścił Wykaz tychże obiektów inżynierskich wraz ze wskazaniem, iż:\n(...)\nZmiana sposobu pokonania przeszkody, liczby i parametrów obiektów inżynierskich, podanych w tabeli nr 1.1:\n- są dopuszczalne wyłącznie na podstawie Procedury Zmiany zgodnie z Warunkami\nKontraktu,\n- wymagają uzasadnienia w Raporcie wykonanym w ramach ponownej oceny oddziaływania na środowisko w stosunku do decyzji środowiskowej.\nNastępnie pismem z dnia 18.08.2017 r. (Pytania wraz z wyjaśnieniami – znak O.WR.D-\n3.2410.86.2017.5.md) Zamawiający dokonał m.in. zmiany dotyczącej treści SIWZ Tomu III odnoszącej się do Opisu Przedmiotu Zamówienia (Program Funkcjonalno - Użytkowy), zmieniając pkt. [REDACTED:IP]. zatytułowany „Parametry przewidywanych obiektów inżynierskich” przez zastąpienie istniejącego postanowienia ( w pkt 2 – str. 4 wyjaśnień):\n„Zmiana\n\nsposobu pokonania przeszkody, liczby i parametrów obiektów Inżynierskich, podanych w tabeli nr 1.1:\n- są dopuszczalne wyłącznie na podstawie Procedury Zmiany zgodnie z Warunkami\nKontraktu,\n- wymagają uzasadnienia w Raporcie wykonanym w ramach ponownej oceny oddziaływania na środowisko w stosunku do decyzji środowiskowej.\nnastępującym - nowym postanowieniem:\n„W przypadku przejść dolnych dla zwierząt, dla których określono w decyzji środowiskowej współczynnik względnej ciasnoty [(szerokość x wysokość) / długość) należy pamiętać, że długość przejść dolnych stanowi szerokość drogi (tj. szerokość obiektu inżynierskiego, a nie jego długość). Zmiana sposobu pokonania przeszkody, lub ilości, lub parametrów obiektów\nInżynierskich, podanych w Tabeli nr 1.1.:\n• są dopuszczalne wyłącznie na podstawie Procedury Zmiany zgodnie z Warunkami\nKontraktu,\n• wymagają uzasadnienia w Raporcie wykonanym w ramach ponownej oceny oddziaływania na środowisko - w stosunku do decyzji środowiskowej,\nProcedury Zmiany jak wyżej nie stosuje się do zmiany parametrów obiektów Inżynierskich wskazanych w Tabeli nr 1.1. w przypadku gdy przedmiotem zmiany jest:\n• zmiana długości całkowitej do ±25% wartości podanych w Tabeli nr 1.1 kolumna 4, lub\n• zmiana szerokości całkowitej przęsła do ±10% wartości podanych w Tabeli nr 1.1. kolumna\n5.\nZmiany parametrów podanych w Tabeli nr 1.1., tj. długości całkowitej do ±25% oraz szerokości całkowitej przęsła do ±10% zawierają się w Zaakceptowanej Kwocie\nKontraktowej. Zmiany wykraczające poza powyższe będą rozpatrywane zgodnie z\nWarunkami Kontraktu.\nW przypadku obiektów z funkcją ekologiczną, w celu uzyskania drożności szlaku migracji zwierząt w pasie objętym realizacją Inwestycji, należy uwzględnić konieczność budowy obiektów wyszczególnionych w decyzji środowiskowej. W uzasadnionych przypadkach należy uwzględnić konieczność budowy również dodatkowych obiektów na szlaku migracji (o parametrach określonych w decyzji dla przejścia głównego) w celu bezpiecznego wyprowadzenia zwierząt poza pas drogowy (np. pod łącznicami). Za uzasadniony przypadek uważa się sytuację, w której zwierzęta bezpośrednio z przejścia dla zwierząt zlokalizowanego w ciągu szlaku migracji wyprowadzane są na przeszkody uniemożliwiające dalsze kontynuowanie migracji (np. inna droga komunikacyjna o zaporowym, natężeniu ruchu dla możliwości bezpiecznego jej pokonania, wysoki i stromy nasyp, linia kolejowa itp.)”.\nNa powyższą czynności Odwołujący wniósł w dniu 28.08.2017 r. odwołanie.\nKrajowa Izba Odwoławcza zważyła, co następuje.\nIzba, uwzględniając zgromadzony w sprawie materiał dowodowy, w szczególności powyższe ustalenia oraz zakres zarzutów podniesionych w odwołaniu, doszła do przekonania, iż sformułowane przez Odwołującego zarzuty nie znajdują oparcia w ustalonym stanie faktycznym i prawnym, a tym samym rozpoznawane odwołanie nie zasługuje na uwzględnienie.\n1. W pierwszej kolejności Izba wskazuje, iż w ramach niniejszego postępowania\nZamawiający zastosował do realizacji przedmiotu zamówienia formułę „zaprojektuj i wybuduj” opierając realizację zamierzenia inwestycyjnego na standardowych warunkach kontraktowych (SIWZ Tom II Warunki kontraktu Rozdział 4) wskazując, że warunki ogólne kontraktu stanowią „Warunki Kontraktu na urządzenie i budowę z projektowaniem dla urządzeń elektrycznych i mechanicznych oraz dla robót budowlanych i inżynieryjnych projektowanych przez Wykonawcę” COSMOPOLI CONSULTANTS, wydanie angielsko – polskie 2000. Tłumaczenie pierwszego wydania FIDIC 1999 (Fédération Internationale des\nIngénieure-Conseils).\nPowyższe ma istotny wpływ zarówno na sposób przygotowania oferty, jak również na sam proces ofertowania, w tym identyfikację przedmiotu zamówienia oraz jego wycenę.\nWszakże Zamawiający nie przekazuje wykonawcom w ramach opisu przedmiotu zamówienia szczegółowej dokumentacji projektowej, lecz jedynie program funkcjonalno – użytkowy (PFU) zawierający jedynie ogólne wytyczne funkcjonalne związane z planowanych zamierzeniem inwestycyjnym. PFU zgodnie z regulacjami\n\nRozporządzenia Ministra Infrastruktury z dnia 2 września 2004 r. w sprawie szczegółowego zakresu i formy dokumentacji projektowej, specyfikacji technicznych wykonania i odbioru robót budowlanych oraz programu funkcjonalno-użytkowego\n\nwinien zawierać (w zakresie merytorycznym) opis ogólny przedmiotu zamówienia, opisy wymagań zamawiającego w stosunku do przedmiotu zamówienia, charakterystyczne parametry określające wielkość obiektu lub zakres robót budowlanych, aktualne uwarunkowania wykonywania przedmiotu zamówienia, ogólne i szczególne właściwości funkcjonalno-użytkowe, wymagania dotyczące przygotowania terenu, architektury, konstrukcji, instalacji, wykończenia i zagospodarowania terenu (§ 18 ust.\n1 – 3 ww. Rozporządzenia). W ust. 4 ww. paragrafu wskazano, że opis wymagań z ust. 3 obejmuje cechy obiektu dotyczące rozwiązań budowlano-konstrukcyjnych i wskaźników ekonomicznych, warunki wykonania i odbioru robót budowlanych odpowiadających zawartości specyfikacji technicznej wykonania i odbioru robót budowlanych, o których mowa w rozdziale 3.\nMając na uwadze powyższe Odwołujący w zakresie merytorycznym nie wykazał braków przekazanego wykonawcom przez Zamawiającego PFU. W ocenie Izby dołączony do\nSIWZ dokument umożliwia sporządzenie oferty i wycenę przedmiotu zamówienia. Nie oznacza to jednak, że jest on jedynym dokumentem, na podstawie którego wykonawcy winni przygotować ofertę.\nWykonawcy zaś, w takim wypadku z jakim mamy do czynienia (formuła prowadzonego postępowania), już na etapie przygotowania oferty celem poprawnej i kompleksowej identyfikacji zakresu przedmiotowego winni dokonać przynajmniej wizji lokalnej terenu inwestycji, analizy innych powiązanych inwestycji oraz obiektów, w tym dokumentacji projektowej i powykonawczej dotyczącej otoczenia inwestycyjnego, jak również nierzadko wykonać projekt koncepcyjny celem dokonania wstępnego ustalenia zakresu przedmiotowego zamówienia. Wszakże, pomimo braku szczegółowego projektu, w tego typu formule realizacji inwestycji, winni oni nie tylko wycenić prace projektowe, nadzór autorski ale również i przede wszystkim dokonać wyceny wszystkich robót budowlanych i dostaw związanych z realizacją przedmiotu zamówienia.\nDziałania te, mające swoje źródło w samej formule realizacji inwestycji, będą w konsekwencji oddziaływały na cały proces ofertowania, i w konsekwencji proces realizacji przedmiotu zamówienia.\n2. Istotą sporu w ramach rozpoznawanego odwołania, w ocenie Odwołującego, jest uksztaltowanie w zakresie obiektów inżynieryjnych treści SIWZ w taki sposób, że jest ona sprzeczna i niejednoznaczna. Odwołujący wskazał, że\n\n„(...) z jednej strony wskazuje konsekwentnie, iż katalog przewidywanych obiektów inżynierskich zamieszczony w treści\nTabeli 1.1. ma charakter wiążący i zamknięty (...), z drugiej zaś, poprzez treści ostatniego dodanego akapitu, sugeruje otwarcie tego katalogu (konieczność uwzględnienia innych obiektów wyszczególnionych w decyzji środowiskowej oraz innych potencjalnych obiektów w przypadku gdyby okazało się to uzasadnione).”\n\nW konsekwencji, zdaniem Odwołującego, w ramach tej samej jednostki redakcyjnej Wykonawcy otrzymali dwie sprzeczne ze sobą informacje w zakresie tego co należy wycenić w treści składanej oferty. Jak wskazał\nOdwołujący w pkt 5 odwołania w związku z tym, w świetle powyższych postanowień niejednoznaczne pozostaje to, czy konieczność budowy obiektów wyszczególnionych w decyzji środowiskowej oraz dodatkowych obiektów na szlaku migracji zidentyfikowanych przez wykonawców, nie wymienionych w Tabeli 1.1. ma zostać wyceniona w ramach składanej oferty, czy też - zgodnie z postanowieniem, które równolegle znajduje się w treści\nPFU - będzie wiązała się z każdorazowym wprowadzaniem zmian do Kontraktu.\nW ocenie zaś Zamawiającego brak jest wątpliwości, co do postanowień SIWZ odnoszących się do identyfikacji i wyceny obiektów inżynieryjnych przeznaczonych do migracji zwierząt, gdyż w wyniku modyfikacji z dnia 18.08.2017 r. doszło do sprecyzowania jakie dodatkowe obiekty wykonawca winien uwzględnić w swojej ofercie, w tym uwzględnić je w cenie ofertowej, precyzując jednocześnie w jakich okolicznościach obiekty te mają być ujęte w ofercie.\n3. W ocenie Izby konieczność ewentualnego przewidzenia i wyceny dodatkowych obiektów inżynieryjnych jest nie tyle dodatkowym ryzykiem wprowadzonym przez Zamawiającego, lecz nałożeniem na wykonawców dodatkowego obowiązku i zwrócenia uwagi na pewien możliwy do wystąpienia problem. Z trudnym do zidentyfikowania ryzykiem mielibyśmy do czynienia wówczas, gdyby Zamawiający zawarł w treści SIWZ oraz warunkach kontraktowych ogólną klauzulę w ogóle nie precyzując jakie ewentualne obiekty i w jakich okolicznościach należy ująć w założeniach projektowych i w konsekwencji w cenie ofertowej. Zdaniem Izby konieczność ujęcia w ww. założeniach oraz cenie ofertowej dodatkowych obiektów inżynieryjnych w przypadku, gdy wykonawcy zidentyfikują kolizje na trasach migracji zwierząt, mieści się w dopuszczalnych granicach niedookreśloności przedmiotu zamówienia mających swoje źródło w istocie formuły „zaprojektuj i wybuduj”. Wszakże, jak słusznie wskazywał na rozprawie Zamawiający, to wykonawcy pełnią tutaj funkcję projektanta w wyniku kumulacji dwóch funkcji uczestnictwa w procesie budowlanym – zgodnie z nomenklaturą przepisów ustawy Prawo budowlane. Tym samym ocena podstawy faktycznej zarzutu w kontekście wskazanych dla niej wzorców kontroli w postaci art. 29 ust. 1 i 2 w zw. z art. 31 ust. 2 i 3 ustawy Pzp nie może nastąpić bez uwzględnienia formuły w jakiej prowadzone jest postępowania i sama inwestycja.\n4. Dokonując wykładni postanowień SIWZ stanowiących źródło niniejszego sporu, w ocenie\nIzby, już sama analiza dokonanej modyfikacji (pismo z dnia 18.08.2017 r.) prowadzi do takich wniosków, jakie zostały zaprezentowane w toku rozprawy przez Zamawiającego.\nO powyższym świadczy utrzymanie dotychczasowego brzmienia w zakresie obiektów inżynieryjnych ujętych w Tabeli 1.1. oraz dodane postanowienie, które w najistotniejszym fragmencie stanowi, że: „W\n\nprzypadku obiektów z funkcją ekologiczną, w celu uzyskania drożności szlaku migracji zwierząt w pasie objętym realizacją Inwestycji, należy uwzględnić konieczność budowy obiektów wyszczególnionych w decyzji środowiskowej. W uzasadnionych przypadkach należy uwzględnić konieczność budowy również dodatkowych obiektów na szlaku migracji (...)” (podkreślenie Izby).\nWykonawcy mieli zatem obowiązek wycenić i ująć w założeniach projektowych wszystkie obiekty inżynieryjne, które zostały ujęte w Tabeli 1.1., jak również wynikające z decyzji środowiskowej. Jednocześnie zgodnie z dokonaną modyfikacja wykonawcy mieli również obowiązek ujęcia w założeniach projektowych obiektów inżynieryjnych nie wymienionych w ww. opracowaniach (tj. Tabeli 1.1. oraz decyzji środowiskowej) jeżeli konieczność ich wykonania jest konsekwencją zidentyfikowanych kolizji szlaków migracyjnych zwierząt ze sztucznymi przeszkodami (szlakami komunikacyjnymi drogowymi i kolejowymi, węzłami komunikacyjnymi, obiektami inżynieryjnymi itp.) i w konsekwencji dokonania ich wyceny w toku składania ofert.\nPowyższe jest logiczną konsekwencją założenia, że wykonawcy winni wycenić na etapie składania ofert cały zakres przedmiotowy ujęty w, przygotowywanych na potrzeby złożenia oferty, założeniach projektowych (wstępnej koncepcji projektowej), gdyż z istoty procesu ofertowania w ramach formuły „zaprojektuj i wybuduj” wynika, że wycenie i identyfikacji na potrzeby wyceny podlegają zarówno przewidziane do realizacji w przyszłości prace projektowe oraz przewidziane w przyszłości do realizacji i uszczegółowione w tej dokumentacji roboty budowlane. Z tym, że pewien zakres przedmiotowy może być, pod względem jakościowymi i ilościowym, narzucony przez podmiot zamawiający, zaś pewna jego części pozostaje w gestii wykonawców, tj. może być pozostawiona do samodzielnej identyfikacji (jak w niniejszym wypadku) lub być wynikiem założeń i decyzji samego wykonawcy (przyjętych rozwiązań technologicznych i organizacyjnych). Wniosek ten prowadzi jednocześnie do założenia, że profesjonalni wykonawcy winni na etapie przygotowania oferty dysponować lub opracować choćby wstępną koncepcja projektową dla zadania inwestycyjnego – bez względu na to jaką formę ona przyjmie u poszczególnych wykonawców.\nWskazane wyżej reguły stanowią bowiem istotę procesu przygotowania oferty, i tym samym wyceny przedmiotu zamówienia, w postępowaniach o udzielenie zamówienia publicznego, gdzie podmiot zamawiający zastosował formułę „zaprojektuj i wybuduj”, która, co istotne, wynika wprost z definicji legalnej robót budowlanych ujętej w art. 2 pkt 8 ustawy\nPrawo zamówień publicznych (Ilekroć\n\nw ustawie jest mowa o: robotach budowlanych - należy przez to rozumieć wykonanie albo zaprojektowanie i wykonanie robót budowlanych w rozumieniu ustawy z dnia 7 lipca 1994 r. - Prawo budowlane (Dz. U. z 2006 r. Nr 156, poz.\n1118, z późn. zm.2), a także realizację obiektu budowlanego w rozumieniu ustawy z dnia 7 lipca 1994 r. - Prawo budowlane, za pomocą dowolnych środków, zgodnie z wymaganiami określonymi przez zamawiającego)\n\n(podkreślenie Izby).\nOdnosząc się następnie do argumentacji Odwołującego Izba wskazuje, że w ramach rozpoznania podniesionych zarzutów w kontekście zasad rządzących procesem opisu przedmiotu zamówienia oraz zasad rządzących procesem składania ofert, kwestia ewentualnych korekt wynagrodzenia na etapie realizacji kontraktu i „celowości oraz racjonalności” realizacji poszczególnych obiektów inżynieryjnych jest kwestią, co do zasady, pozbawioną znaczenia. Dla zagwarantowania porównywalności cenowej ofert wykonawcy winni mieć możliwość zidentyfikowania pełnego zakresu przedmiotowego i tym samym jego wyceny. W tym jednak wypadku, ze względu na przyjętą przez Zamawiającego formułę\n„zaprojektuj i wybuduj”, ujęty przez poszczególnych wykonawców w ofertach zakres przedmiotowy może się nieznacznie różnić. Wynika to bowiem z istoty samego procesu przygotowania ofert, w tym zależy od poprawności identyfikacji pełnego zakresu rzeczowego, szczegółowości opracowanych założeń projektowych lub wstępnej koncepcji projektowej, i wreszcie, z przyjętych przez poszczególnych wykonawców rozwiązań technologicznych, architektonicznych, konstrukcyjnych lub urbanistycznych. Co do zasady bowiem powodzenie ekonomiczne zamierzenia inwestycyjnego nie jest przedmiotem rozpoznania w ramach środków ochrony prawnej, zaś warunki kontraktowe FIDIC zawierają klauzule przewidujące korekty wynagrodzenia. Tym samym Izba ocenia jedynie, czy dokonany przez podmiot zamawiający opis przedmiotu zamówienia umożliwia wykonawcom sporządzenie ważnych i porównywalnych ofert, w tym należytą wycenę przedmiotu zamówienia.\n5. Mając na uwadze powyższe Izba wskazuje, że brak jest podstaw do przyjęcia, że na skutek modyfikacji przez Zamawiającego treści SIWZ pismem z dnia 18.08.2017 r. doszło do naruszenia art. 29 ust. 1 i 2 ustawy Pzp w zw. z art. 31 ust. 2 i 3 ustawy Pzp, jak wskazał\nOdwołujący, poprzez zaniechanie sporządzenia opisu przedmiotu zamówienia w sposób jednoznaczny i wyczerpujący, za pomocą dostatecznie dokładnych i zrozumiałych określeń, uwzględniających wszystkie wymagania i okoliczności mogące mieć wpływ na sporządzenie ważnej oferty, spełniającej w całości wymagania Zamawiającego, a w konsekwencji w sposób utrudniający uczciwą konkurencję.\nW ocenie Izby Zamawiający zasygnalizował wykonawcom konieczność uwzględnienia w ofercie dodatkowych obiektów inżynieryjnych pozostawiając jednak pewnie zakres dopuszczalnej swobody, która jest cechą immanentną w tego typu postępowaniach. Zdaniem\nIzby takie postępowania mieści się w dopuszczalnych granicach postępowania, gdyż ocena zarzutów opartych o treść art. 29 i 31 ustawy Pzp winna uwzględniać nie tylko treść opisu przedmiotu zamówienia, ale również profesjonalizację samych wykonawców oraz przyjętą formułę postępowania. Jeżeli bowiem mamy do czynienia z dialogiem konkurencyjnym (vide art. 60b ust. 1 ustawy Pzp odsyłający m.in. do treści art. 55 ust. 1 pkt 6 – 9 ustawy Pzp) lub, tak jak w niniejszym wypadku, przedmiot zamówienia jest realizowany w formule „zaprojektuj i wybuduj” ocena zarzutów musi uwzględniać te okoliczności.\n6. W zakresie pozostałych zarzutów Izba w całości przychyliła się do argumentacji\nZamawiającego zaprezentowanej na rozprawie wskazując, iż oddalenie pozostałych zarzutów (jako zarzutów następczych i wynikowych) stanowi konsekwencję oddalenia zarzutów z art. 29 ust. 1 i 2 ustawy Pzp w zw. z art. 31 ust. 2 i 3 ustawy.\nW zakresie naruszenia § 15\n\nRozporządzenia Ministra Infrastruktury z dnia 2 września\n2004 r. w sprawie szczegółowego zakresu i formy dokumentacji projektowej, specyfikacji technicznych wykonania i odbioru robót budowlanych oraz programu funkcjonalnoużytkowego\n\nzarzut ten nie został przez Odwołującego w żaden sposób skonkretyzowany. Nie wskazano bowiem w treści odwołania, których obligatoryjnych elementów nie zawiera PFU.\nCo istotne w ramach niniejszego postępowania Zamawiający udzielił odpowiedzi na kilkaset pytań wykonawców, które to odpowiedzi stanowią integralną cześć dokumentacji postępowania. Dokonał licznych modyfikacji SIWZ, w tym w zakresie przedmiotu zamówienia.\nW zakresie pozostałych zarzutów, tj. art. 14 ustawy Pzp i art. 139 ust. 1 ustawy Pzp w zw. z art. 5 i 353\n\nustawy Kodeks cywilny przez ukształtowanie treści przyszłego stosunku zobowiązaniowego w zakresie odnoszącym się do przedmiotu zamówienia w sposób naruszający jego właściwość (naturę), bezwzględnie obowiązujące przepisy prawa oraz równowagę stron i prowadzący do nadużycia własnego prawa podmiotowego Odwołujący nie wykazał w jaki sposób doszło do nadużycia przez Zamawiającego prawa podmiotowego. W ocenie Izby aby mogło dojść do wypełnienia hipotezy normy prawnej ujętej w treści art. 5 ustawy Kodeks cywilny Zamawiający musiałby zastosować klauzulę umowną niezgodnie z gospodarczym lub społecznym przeznaczeniem swojego uprawnienia. Taka sytuacja może zatem mieć miejsce jedynie na etapie realizacji przedmiotu zamówienia, zaś na etapie składania ofert ewentualna podstawa faktyczna tego zarzutu ma charakter czysto hipotetyczny. Co do naruszenia art. 353\n\nustawy Kodeks cywilny w toku postępowania odwoławczego nie doszło do wykazania, że wprowadzony w wyniku modyfikacji przez\nZamawiającego sposób kreowania przez wykonawców zakresu przedmiotowego i tym samym ceny ofertowej, jest niezgodny z istotą (naturą) formuły „zaprojektuj i wybuduj” lub z bezwzględnie obowiązującymi przepisami prawa. Otóż choć ustawa Pzp nie zawiera odrębnych regulacji w zakresie opisu przedmiotu zamówienia przy tego typu formule prowadzenia inwestycji z istoty jej, jak wskazano we wstępnej części niniejszego uzasadnienia, wynika właśnie taki sposób „dochodzenia” przez wykonawców do identyfikacji całego zakresu przedmiotowego. Jak słusznie wskazał Zamawiający w toku rozprawy funkcję projektanta pełnią w tym wypadku wykonawcy ubiegający się o zamówienie publiczne – zatem to na nich ciąży odpowiedzialność pełnego zidentyfikowania, przewidzianego do realizacji w przyszłości, zakresu przedmiotowego.\nCo do zarzutu z art. 7 ust. 1 ustawy Pzp wskazać należy, że z naruszeniem tego przepisu mamy do czynienia wówczas, gdy dochodzi do zróżnicowania przez podmiot zamawiający działań wobec wykonawców znajdujących się w identycznej sytuacji prawnej lub faktycznej. W przypadku opisu przedmiotu zamówienia nie zawsze dochodzi do naruszenia art. 7 ust. 1 ustawy Pzp. Taka sytuacja ma bowiem miejsce wówczas, gdy określona konstrukcja tego opisu stawia w uprzywilejowanej sytuacji poszczególnych wykonawców kosztem innych (dyskryminacja podmiotowa - bezpośrednia) lub określone produkty lub rozwiązania technicznej (dyskryminacja przedmiotowa – pośrednia). Jest to konsekwencją tego, że co do zasady art. 7 ust. 1 ustawy Pzp nie może stanowić samodzielnego zarzutu i winien być on dopełniony treścią innego – szczegółowego przepisu z jednoczesnym wykazaniem zróżnicowania sytuacji poszczególnych wykonawców znajdujących się w tożsamej sytuacji podmiotowej. W niniejszym zaś wypadku żaden wykonawca nie został uprzywilejowany działaniami Zamawiającego – zaś, co istotne, wszyscy uczestnicy postępowania odwoławczego zgłosili przystąpienie po stronie\nOdwołującego popierając zarzuty odwołania. Odwołujący nie wykazał również na wyrażonej w tym samodzielne naruszenia\n\nprzepisie zasady proporcjonalności i przejrzystości.\nChoć w ocenie Izby postanowienia SIWZ w zakwestionowanym zakresie były jasne i precyzyjne, jeżeli Odwołujący miał wątpliwości co ich znaczenia, (pomimo upływu terminu w ramach którego Zamawiający był zobligowany do odpowiedzi na pytania wykonawców) mógł, kierując się wskazywaną przez siebie zapobiegliwością, obok środka ochrony prawnej skierować do Zamawiającego pytania w zakresie ujętym w pkt 5 odwołania. Gdyby zaś\nZamawiający udzielił na to pytanie odpowiedzi Odwołujący mógłby cofnąć odwołanie.\nWszakże istota wniesionego środka ochrony prawnej sprowadzała się w zasadzie do odpowiedzi na to czy\n\n„(...) w świetle powyższych postanowień niejednoznaczne pozostaje to, czy konieczność budowy obiektów wyszczególnionych w decyzji środowiskowej oraz dodatkowych obiektów na szlaku migracji zidentyfikowanych przez wykonawców, nie wymienionych w Tabeli 1.1. ma zostać wyceniona w ramach składanej oferty, czy też - zgodnie z postanowieniem, które równolegle znajduje się w treści PFU - będzie wiązała się z każdorazowym wprowadzaniem zmian do Kontraktu”.\n\nZamawiający w toku rozprawy udzielił na nie odpowiedzi wskazując „tak”.\nW związku z powyższym, na podstawie art. 192 ust. 1 ustawy Pzp, orzeczono jak w sentencji.\nZgodnie bowiem z treścią art. 192 ust. 2 ustawy Pzp Izba uwzględnia odwołanie, jeżeli stwierdzi naruszenie przepisów ustawy, które miało wpływ lub może mieć istotny wpływ na wynik postępowania o udzielenie zamówienia. Brak potwierdzenia zarzutów wskazanych w odwołaniu powoduje, iż w przedmiotowym stanie faktycznym nie została wypełniona hipoteza normy prawnej wyrażonej w art. 192 ust. 2 ustawy Pzp.\nO kosztach postępowania odwoławczego orzeczono na podstawie art. 192 ust. 9 i 10 ustawy Pzp, tj. stosownie do wyniku postępowania, z uwzględnieniem postanowień rozporządzenia Prezesa Rady Ministrów z dnia 15 marca 2010 r. w sprawie wysokości i sposobu pobierania wpisu od odwołania oraz rodzajów kosztów w postępowaniu odwoławczym i sposobu ich rozliczania (Dz. U. z 2010 r., Nr 41, poz. 238) zmienionego rozporządzeniem Prezesa Rady Ministrów z dnia 9 stycznia 2017 r. zmieniającego rozporządzenie w sprawie wysokości i sposobu pobierania wpisu od odwołania oraz rodzajów kosztów w postępowaniu odwoławczym i sposobu ich rozliczania (Dz. U. z 2017 r., poz. 47), w tym w szczególności § 5 ust. 4.\nPrzewodniczący:\n........................", "token_count": 24084} -{"added": "2026-09-17", "author": "Krajowa Izba Odwoławcza", "created": "2008-06-11", "id": "uzp_orzeczenia_pl_3971", "license": "public-domain (official documents)", "source": "uzp_orzeczenia_pl", "text": "Sygn. akt: KIO/UZP 522/08\nWYROK z dnia 11 czerwca 2008 r.\nKrajowa Izba Odwoławcza\n\n- w składzie:\nPrzewodniczący: Małgorzata Stręciwilk\nCzłonkowie:\n\nKlaudia Szczytowska - Maziarz\nRyszard Tetzlaff\nProtokolant:\n\nMagdalena Pazura po rozpoznaniu na rozprawie w dniu 11 czerwca 2008 r. w Warszawie odwołania wniesionego przez\n\nWykonawców wspólnie ubiegających się o zamówienie:\nPrzedsiębiorstwo Wodociągów i Kanalizacji Sp. z o.o. w Tarnowskich Górach (Lider\nKonsorcjum i Pełnomocnik), ONYX-SERVICE Sp. z o.o. z Trzebini i Miejskie\nPrzedsiębiorstwo Wodociągów i Kanalizacji Sp. z o.o. w Będzinie z siedzibą dla Lidera\nKonsorcjum i Pełnomocnika: ul. Opolska 51, 42-600 Tarnowskie Góry\n\nod rozstrzygnięcia przez zamawiającego\n\nGminę Dąbrowa Górnicza, ul. Graniczna 21, 41-300 Dąbrowa\nGórnicza\n\nprotestu z dnia 13 maja 2008 r.\norzeka:\n1. oddala odwołanie\n2. kosztami postępowania obciąża\n\nWykonawców wspólnie ubiegających się o zamówienie: Przedsiębiorstwo Wodociągów i Kanalizacji Sp. z o.o. w Tarnowskich\nGórach (Lider Konsorcjum i Pełnomocnik), ONYX-SERVICE Sp. z o.o. z Trzebini i Miejskie Przedsiębiorstwo Wodociągów i Kanalizacji Sp. z o.o. w Będzinie z siedzibą dla Lidera Konsorcjum i Pełnomocnika: ul. Opolska 51, 42-600 Tarnowskie Góry i nakazuje:\n1) zaliczyć na rzecz Urzędu Zamówień Publicznych koszty w wysokości\n4 064 zł 00 gr\n\n(słownie: cztery tysiące sześćdziesiąt cztery złote zero groszy) z kwoty wpisu uiszczonego przez\n\nWykonawców wspólnie ubiegających się o zamówienie: Przedsiębiorstwo Wodociągów i Kanalizacji Sp. z o.o.\nw Tarnowskich Górach (Lider Konsorcjum i Pełnomocnik), ONYX-\nSERVICE Sp. z o.o. z Trzebini i Miejskie Przedsiębiorstwo Wodociągów i Kanalizacji Sp. z o.o. w Będzinie z siedzibą dla Lidera Konsorcjum i Pełnomocnika: ul. Opolska 51, 42-600 Tarnowskie Góry;\n2) dokonać wpłaty kwoty XXX zł XXX gr (słownie: XXX) przez XXX na rzecz\nXXX, stanowiącej uzasadnione koszty strony poniesione z tytułu XXX;\n3) dokonać wpłaty kwoty XXX zł XXX gr (słownie: XXX) przez XXX na rzecz\nUrzędu Zamówień Publicznych na rachunek dochodów własnych UZP;\n4) dokonać zwrotu kwoty\n\n15 936 zł 00 gr\n\n(słownie: piętnaście tysięcy dziewięćset trzydzieści sześć złotych zero groszy) z rachunku dochodów własnych Urzędu\nZamówień Publicznych na rzecz\n\nWykonawców wspólnie ubiegających się o zamówienie: Przedsiębiorstwo Wodociągów i Kanalizacji Sp. z o.o.\nw Tarnowskich Górach (Lider Konsorcjum i Pełnomocnik), ONYX-\nSERVICE Sp. z o.o. z Trzebini i Miejskie Przedsiębiorstwo Wodociągów i Kanalizacji Sp. z o.o. w Będzinie z siedzibą dla Lidera Konsorcjum i Pełnomocnika: ul. Opolska 51, 42-600 Tarnowskie Góry.\nUzasadnienie\nPostępowanie o udzielenie zamówienia publicznego na „Eksploatację i bieżące utrzymanie sieci kanalizacji deszczowej i ogólnospławnej na terenie gminy Dąbrowa\nGórnicza”, którego dotyczy odwołanie wniesione przez Wykonawców wspólnie ubiegających się o zamówienie: Przedsiębiorstwo Wodociągów i Kanalizacji Sp. z o.o. w Tarnowskich\nGórach (Lider Konsorcjum i Pełnomocnik), ONYX-SERVICE Sp. z o.o. z Trzebini i Miejskie\nPrzedsiębiorstwo Wodociągów i Kanalizacji Sp. z o.o. w Będzinie z siedzibą dla Lidera\nKonsorcjum i Pełnomocnika: ul. Opolska 51, 42-600 Tarnowskie Góry, zwanych dalej\n„Odwołującym”, zostało wszczęte w trybie przetargu nieograniczonego, poprzez publikację ogłoszenia w Dzienniku Urzędowym UE w dniu 5 lutego 2008 r. (nr ogłoszenia 2008/S 24-\n031726). Postępowanie to prowadzi Gmina Dąbrowa Górnicza, zwana dalej:\n„Zamawiającym” na podstawie przepisów ustawy z dnia 29 stycznia 2004 r. Prawo zamówień publicznych (tj. z 2007 r. Dz. U. Nr 223, poz. 1655), zwanej dalej „ustawą”.\nZamawiający w piśmie z dnia 6 maja 2008 r. (doręczenie Odwołującemu w dniu\n7 maja 2008 r.) poinformował wykonawców składających oferty w postępowaniu o unieważnieniu przedmiotowego postępowania z uwagi na to,\n\nże\n\nobarczone jest ono wadą uniemożliwiającą zawarcie ważnej umowy w sprawie zamówienia publicznego (art. 93 ust. 1 pkt 7 ustawy). Swoją decyzję Zamawiający uzasadnił tym, iż\n\nżądanie\n\nprzez niego w postępowaniu wadium w kwocie przekraczającej o 54 000 zł wysokość określoną przepisem art. 45 ust. 4 ustawy. Zamawiający – tak bowiem w treści ogłoszenia o zamówieniu (sekcja II pkt 11.1), jak i w postanowieniach SIWZ (pkt 11.1 SIWZ) - zażądał wadium w wysokości 300 000 zł przy określonej wartości szacunkowej przedmiotu zamówienia: 8 200 000 zł. Zamawiający uznał,\n\nże\n\npowyższe\n\nświadczy\n\no rażącym naruszeniu przez niego przepisów ustawy, co w\n\nświetle\n\nart. 146 ust. 1 pkt 5 ustawy skutkowałoby podpisaniem umowy nieważnej z mocy prawa. Zamawiający wskazał również,\n\nże\n\nswoim postępowaniem naruszył zasady uczciwej konkurencji (art. 7 ustawy), bowiem znaczne – w jego ocenie – zawyżenie wartości wadium mogło zdecydować o niemożności złożenia ofert w postępowaniu przez inne podmioty, niż wykonawcy, którzy to uczynili w niniejszym postępowaniu, a zatem mogło to naruszenie wpłynąć na wybór oferty najkorzystniejszej.\nNa tę czynność Zamawiającego Odwołujący w piśmie z dnia 13 maja 2008 r., doręczonym Zamawiającemu z dniu 14 maja 2008 r., złożył protest, podnosząc naruszenie przez Zamawiającego przepisów art. 93 ust. 1 pkt 7 ustawy i art. 146 ust. 1 pkt 5 ustawy oraz art. 7 ust. 1 i 32 ust. 1 i 41 ustawy.\nOdwołujący w proteście podniósł,\n\nże\n\nZamawiający w treści ogłoszenia o zamówieniu wskazał jako wartość szacunkową przedmiotu zamówienia (bez VAT) kwotę w wysokości:\n8 200 000 zł. Zarówno w ogłoszeniu (sekcja II 2.1.), jak i w specyfikacji istotnych warunków\nZamówienia (pkt 11.1 SIWZ) zażądał kwoty wadium w wysokości 300 000 zł, biorąc właśnie pod uwagę ustaloną wartość zamówienia. Odwołujący wskazuje jednak,\n\nże\n\nczym innym jest wartość zamówienia ustalona po myśli art. 32 ustawy, która stanowi podstawę do obliczenia wysokości wadium, ale czym innym jest wielkość zamówienia, o której stanowi art. 41 pkt 4 ustawy, która to wielkość wskazywana jest w treści ogłoszenia o zamówieniu. Odwołujący wskazał zresztą w tym zakresie na kwotę, jaką Zamawiając podał tuż przed otwarciem ofert, tj. kwotę jaką zamierz przeznaczyć na sfinansowanie niniejszego zamówienia i była to kwota\n12 200 000 zł.\nOdwołujący w swoim proteście podnosił również,\n\nże\n\nta minimalna różnica w wielkości wymaganego wadium (54 000 zł) nie może stanowić o rażącym naruszeniu przepisów prawa, bowiem\n\nżaden\n\nz wykonawców tej kwestii nie oprotestował na odpowiednim etapie postępowania, dwóch wykonawców złożyło swoje oferty w postępowaniu, które zaopatrzone były wymaganą przez Zamawiającego kwotą wadium, a poza tym ta niewielka różnica\n(54 000 zł) nie stanowiłaby na pewno bariery dla wykonawców chcących ubiegać się o udzielenie niniejszego zamówienia. Tym samym Odwołujący wskazał,\n\nże\n\nZamawiający poprzez określenie kwoty wadium na nieco wyższym poziomie nie naruszył zasad uczciwej konkurencji i na pewno nie dopuścił się rażącego naruszenia przepisów ustawy, skutkującego niemożnością podpisania ważnej umowy w sprawie zamówienia publicznego.\nZamawiający nie dokonał rozstrzygnięcia przedmiotowego protestu w ustawowym terminie, tym samym – stosownie do treści art. 183 ust. 3 ustawy – należało uznać,\n\nże protest został przez Zamawiającego oddalony.\nOd braku rozstrzygnięcia protestu Odwołujący w piśmie z dnia 28 maja 2008 r. złożył odwołanie do Prezesa Urzędu Zamówień Publicznych (w dniu 29 maja 2008 r. odwołanie zostało złożone w placówce pocztowej operatora publicznego). Kopia odwołania w dacie złożenia w placówce pocztowej została doręczona Zamawiającemu.\nW treści odwołania Odwołujący podtrzymał wszystkie zarzuty i argumentację zawartą w proteście i jednocześnie wniósł o:\n-\n\nunieważnienie czynności unieważnienia niniejszego postępowania\n-\n\ndokonanie wyboru oferty najkorzystniejszej oraz\n-\n\nprzyznanie zwrotu kosztów postępowania odwoławczego, w tym kosztów zastępstwa procesowego.\nUwzględniając dokumentację z przedmiotowego postępowania o udzielenie zamówienia publicznego, w tym w szczególności postanowienia SIWZ i ogłoszenia o zamówieniu oraz treść złożonych w postępowaniu ofert, jak również biorąc pod uwagę oświadczenia i stanowiska stron postępowania złożone w trakcie rozprawy, skład orzekający Izby zważył, co następuje.\nSkład orzekający Izby w pierwszej kolejności ustalił,\n\nże\n\nnie została wypełniona\n\nżadna z przesłanek skutkujących odrzuceniem odwołania w trybie art. 187 ust. 4 ustawy.\nUstalono również,\n\nże\n\nwykonawca wnoszący odwołanie posiadał interes prawny w rozumieniu art. 179 ust. 1 ustawy, uprawniający go do złożenia protestu i odwołania.\nWykonawca ten, jako wykonawca, który złożył ofertę w postępowaniu, miał prawo do kwestionowania czynności Zamawiającego polegającej na unieważnieniu postępowania, ponieważ dzięki temu ma szansę na uzyskanie niniejszego zamówienia.\nOdnosząc się do podniesionych w proteście, jak i w treści odwołania zarzutów stwierdzić należy,\n\nże\n\nodwołanie nie zasługuje na uwzględnienie.\nPodnoszony w proteście i odwołaniu zarzut bezzasadnego unieważnienia postępowania o udzielenie zamówienia publicznego nie potwierdził się.\nBezsporna między stronami postępowania odwoławczego jest kwestia,\n\nże\n\nwartość szacunkowa zamówienia została określona przez Zamawiającego na kwotę 8 200 000 zł.\nStosownie do treści art. 32 ustawy podstawą ustalenia wartości zamówienia jest całkowite, szacunkowe wynagrodzenie wykonawcy ustalone przez zamawiającego z należytą starannością bez podatku od towarów i usług. Zamawiający, uwzględniając przepis art. 35 ustawy, powinien dokonać ustalenia tej wartości nie wcześniej niż 3 miesiące (dostawy, usługi) lub 6 miesięcy (roboty budowlane) przed dniem wszczęcia postępowania.\nW niniejszym postępowaniu Zamawiający dokonał oszacowania wartości przedmiotowego zamówienia w dniu 10 stycznia 2008 r. na kwotę 8 200 000 zł netto\n(tj. 10 004 000 zł brutto), biorąc pod uwagę trzyletni okres trwania umowy (lata 2008 – 2010), w oparciu o wcześniejsze umowy z okresu pięciu lat (od 2003 r. do 2007 r.). Przy ustalaniu wartości zamówienia znacznie zwiększono jego wartość, biorąc pod uwagę zamówienia udzielane w poprzednich latach, ale także z uwagi na konieczność zwiększenia nakładów na czyszczenie, monitoring i naprawy sieci kanalizacyjnej nie tylko w punktach newralgicznych, ale również peryferyjnych. Uwzględniając powyższe nie można Zamawiającemu postawić w tym zakresie (szacowanie wartości zamówienia) zarzutów niezgodności z przywołanymi powyżej przepisami ustawy.\nStosownie do treści art. 45 ust. 1 ustawy zamawiający w zamówieniach o wartości równej lub przekraczającej wartości progów UE ma obowiązek\n\nżądania\n\nw postępowaniu wadium. Jednocześnie też, przy uwzględnieniu ust. 4 przywołanego przepisu, kwota wadium określona przez Zamawiającego powinna oscylować pomiędzy 0,5%, a 3% wartości zamówienia, czyli wartości ustalonej przez Zamawiającego, zgodnie z art. 32 ust. 1 ustawy.\nNie można w tym zakresie zgodzić się z dywagacjami Odwołującego, iż kwota, którą\nZamawiający – stosownie do treści art. 86 ust. 3 ustawy – podaje bezpośrednio przed otwarciem ofert ma w tym względzie (ustalenia wysokości kwoty wadium) jakieś znaczenie.\nPodstawą tą jest wartość szacunkowa zamówienia, która ujawniana jest przede wszystkim w treści protokołu z postępowania o udzielenie zamówienia publicznego (pkt 2 części ogólnej druku – w tym przypadku – ZP 1). Kwota ta również jest ujawniana w polu ogłoszenia o zamówieniu, publikowanego w Dzienniku Urzędowym UE – Wielkości lub zakres zamówienia (sekcja II pkt 2). W tym polu Zamawiający zobowiązany jest do wskazania wartości szacunkowej przedmiotu zamówienia, ustalonej zgodnie z przywołanymi powyżej przepisami (tak: Aleksandra Sołtysińska w: „Informator o zmianach w przepisach dotyczących ogłoszeń wynikających z rozporządzenia Komisji Europejskiej ustanawiającego standardowe formularze do publikacji ogłoszeń”, autorstwa Bartłomiej Kardas Aleksandra\nSołtysińska, wydanym przez Urząd Zamówień Publicznych, Warszawa, 2006 r., s. 88):\n„W\n\nprzypadku gdy zamawiającemu znana jest szacunkowa wartość zamówienia, jest on obowiązany podać wartość zamówienia bez podatku VAT lub też zakres pomiędzy kwotami.\nPrzepisy ustawy Pzp zobowiązują zamawiającego każdorazowo do określenia szacowanej wartości przedmiotu zamówienia jeszcze przed wszczęciem postępowania. Wynika z tego, iż mimo zapisu formularza, który jedynie fakultatywnie nakazuje podanie wartości szacunkowej zamówienia, zgodnie z przepisami prawa polskiego, zamawiający jest obowiązany w każdym przypadku podać wartość szacunkową zamówienia. Ustawa Pzp nie przewiduje również możliwości ustalenia szacowanej wartości zamówienia przez odniesienie do przedziału wartościowego. Zamawiający powinien zatem w każdym przypadku podać całkowitą wielkość lub zakres zamówienia oraz szacunkową wartość zamówienia bez podatku VAT określoną kwotowo w walucie, w której będzie zapłacona cena.”\nNiewątpliwie zatem w niniejszym postępowaniu doszło do naruszenia przepisu ustawy nakazującego określenia wysokości kwoty wadium w przedziale od 0,5% do 3% wartości zamówienia. Faktycznie Zamawiający zawyżył ową kwotę o 54 000 zł. Do oceny składu orzekającego Izby pozostało ustalenie, czy to naruszenie jest rażącym naruszeniem przepisów ustawy, przy którym wybór oferty obarczony byłby wadą (pkt 5 art. 146 ust. 1 ustawy), czy też może jest to naruszenie, które miało wpływ na wynik tego postępowania (pkt\n6 art. 146 ust. 1 ustawy).\nSkład orzekający Izby doszedł do przekonania,\n\nże\n\npowyższe naruszenie nie jest rażącym naruszeniem przepisów ustawy. Pojęcie „rażącego naruszenie przepisów ustawy” oznacza,\n\nże\n\nnie każde naruszenie przepisów będzie mogło być traktowane jako rażące.\nO rażącym naruszeniu przepisów ustawy będziemy mogli mówić w sytuacji, gdy w postępowaniu doszło do naruszenia podstawowych zasad udzielania zamówień publicznych, doszło do naruszenia zasad przy ocenie spełniania warunków udziału w postępowaniu, czy kryteriów oceny ofert. Istotne z punktu widzenia oceny, czy mamy do czynienia z rażącym naruszeniem przepisów ustawy – w ocenie składu orzekającego Izby – jest okoliczność ewentualnego skutku tego naruszenia. W analizowanym przypadku naruszenie przez Zamawiającego przepisu art. 45 ust. 4 ustawy poprzez podwyższenie kwoty wadium o 54 000 zł przy całkowitej ustalonej przez Zamawiającego kwocie wadium\n300 000 zł oraz przy ustalonej przez niego wartości szacunkowej przedmiotu zamówienia na kwotę 8 200 000 zł, nie wydaje się stanowić o rażącym, czyli jaskrawym, naruszeniu przepisów ustawy. Stąd też powoływanie się przez Zamawiającego na okoliczność rażącego naruszenia przepisów ustawy, które stało się podstawą unieważnienia postępowania w trybie art. 93 ust. 1 pkt 7 ustawy (wada postępowania uniemożliwiająca zawarcie ważnej umowy w sprawie zamówienia publicznego) nie jest wystarczająca.\nW drugiej jednak kolejności skład orzekający Izby dokonał ustalenia, czy owo naruszenie przepisu art. 45 ust. 4 ustawy miało wpływ na wynik postępowania.\nEwentualnego wpływu na wynik postępowania w tym przypadku można dopatrywać się w tym, czy poprzez zawyżenie\n\nżądanej\n\nprzez Zamawiającego kwoty wadium jacyś wykonawcy zostali wykluczeni z udziału w postępowaniu z powodu nie wniesienia zawyżonej kwoty wadium, albo też w tym,\n\nże\n\njacyś potencjalni wykonawcy zrezygnowali z ubiegania się o przedmiotowe zamówienie ze wskazanego powodu. Z dokumentacji postępowania wynika, że\n\npierwsza ze wskazanych okoliczności nie zachodzi - w postępowaniu złożono dwie oferty i\n\nżadna\n\nz nich nie została odrzucona,\n\nżaden\n\nz wykonawców nie został wykluczony z udziału w postępowaniu. Z treści dwóch złożonych w postępowaniu ofert wynika też wprost,\n\nże żądane\n\nprzez Zamawiającego wadium zostało przez tych wykonawców prawidłowo wniesione.\nCo do drugiej okoliczności wskazać należy,\n\nże\n\nw postępowaniu złożono dwie oferty.\nNa etapie dokumentacji postępowania – publikacji ogłoszenia o zamówieniu oraz treści\nSIWZ – jedna z firm zainteresowanych zamówieniem – Przedsiębiorstwo Produkcyjno -\nHandlowo – Usługowe J. Biskup S. Owczarek Sp. j. AKWA z siedzibą w Zabrzu - w piśmie z dnia 17 marca 2008 r. złożyła do Zamawiającego protest, w którym min. podniosła zarzut dotyczący wysokości\n\nżądanego\n\nprzez Zamawiającego wadium, która w ocenie protestującego była niewspółmiernie wysoka w porównaniu z wymaganymi w postępowaniu referencjami. Zamawiający, rozpatrując ten protest w piśmie z dnia 27 marca 2008 r., podniósł z jednej strony,\n\nże\n\npodniesiony zarzut wobec braku sprecyzowania\n\nżądania protestującego nie zasługuje na uwzględnienie, a z drugiej strony wskazał,\n\nże\n\nów zarzut został podniesiony po terminie.\nJak wynika z dokumentacji postępowania Przedsiębiorstwo AKWA nie złożyło następnie swojej oferty w postępowaniu, pomimo częściowego uwzględnienia przez\nZamawiającego wskazanego powyżej protestu w zakresie zarzutów dotyczących sposobu realizacji przedmiotu zamówienia. Powyższe wskazuje,\n\nże\n\nnie uwzględnienie zarzutu tej firmy, co do ustalonej przez Zamawiającego w sposób niezgodny z przepisami prawa kwoty wadium uniemożliwiło tej firmie udział w postępowaniu, skoro nie złożyła ona swojej oferty, pomimo wyrażanego w tym zakresie zainteresowania. Uwzględniając powyższe skład orzekający Izby doszedł do przekonania,\n\nże\n\nw niniejszej sprawie mamy do czynienia z naruszeniem przez Zamawiającego przepisu ustawy (art. 45 ust. 4 ustawy), które to naruszenie miało wpływ na wynik postępowania o udzielenie zamówienia publicznego.\nW postępowaniu tym bowiem jeden z wykonawców ubiegających się o udzielenie zamówienia publicznego podnosił zarzut, co do wysokości\n\nżądanego\n\nwadium, który nie został przez Zamawiającego uwzględniony, a następnie nie złożył oferty w postępowaniu pomimo tego,\n\nże\n\nZamawiający pozostałą i większą część jego zarzutów dotyczących sposobu realizacji przedmiotu zamówienia, zawartych w proteście, uwzględnił i dokonał modyfikacji SIWZ. Okoliczności w tej sprawie wskazują zatem,\n\nże\n\nnie uwzględnienie przez\nZamawiającego zarzutu dotyczącego wysokości wadium miało wpływ na to,\n\nże\n\nwykonawca ten zrezygnował z udziału w postępowaniu, a zatem naruszenie dotyczące błędnego ustalenia kwoty wadium miało wpływ na wynik tego postępowania. Tym samym unieważnienie postępowania na podstawie art. 93 ust. 1 pkt 7 ustawy było zasadne. Skład orzekający Izby nie stwierdził zatem naruszenia wskazanego przepisu, jak również przepisu art. 7 ust. 1 oraz 32 ust. 1 i 41 ustawy.\nWskazać jednocześnie należy,\n\nże\n\nunieważnienie postępowaniem w oparciu o wskazaną przesłankę stanowi ewidentnie o unieważnieniu postępowania z winy\nZamawiającego. Zamawiający będąc jednostką sektora finansów publicznych powinien przykładać większą wagę i staranność przy prowadzeniu procedury udzielenia zamówienia publicznego, aby swoim działaniem nie doprowadzać do unieważnienia postępowania, ponieważ podstawowym celem postępowania o udzielenie zamówienia publicznego jest wybór oferty najkorzystniejszej.\nMając powyższe na uwadze orzeczono jak w sentencji.\nO kosztach postępowania odwoławczego orzeczono na podstawie art. 191 ust. 6 i 7 ustawy, tj. stosownie do wyniku postępowania.\nStosownie do art. 194 i 195 ustawy z dnia 29 stycznia 2004 r. - Prawo zamówień publicznych\n(Dz. U. z 2006 r. Nr 164, poz. 1163 z późn. zm.) na niniejszy wyrok - w terminie\n7 dni od dnia jego doręczenia - przysługuje skarga za pośrednictwem Prezesa Urzędu\nZamówień Publicznych do Sądu Okręgowego\n\nw Katowicach.\nPrzewodniczący:\n....................................\nCzłonkowie:\n....................................\n....................................\n_________\n*\n\nniepotrzebne skreślić", "token_count": 7543} -{"added": "2026-09-17", "author": "Krajowa Izba Odwoławcza", "created": "2009-01-16", "id": "uzp_orzeczenia_pl_5848", "license": "public-domain (official documents)", "source": "uzp_orzeczenia_pl", "text": "Sygn. akt KIO/UZP 1535/08\nPOSTANOWIENIE z dnia 16 stycznia 2009 r.\nKrajowa Izba Odwoławcza\n\n- w składzie:\nPrzewodniczący: Lubomira Matczuk-Mazuś\nCzłonkowie:\n\nIzabela Niedziałek\nAndrzej Niwicki\nProtokolant:\n\nPrzemysław\n\nŚpiewak po rozpoznaniu na posiedzeniu w dniu\n\n16.01.2009 r.\n\nw Warszawie odwołania wniesionego przez\n\nPoznańskie Przedsiębiorstwo Robót Instalacyjno-Hydrotechnicznych\n„WODKAN” Sp. z o.o., 61-249 Poznań, ul. Unii Lubelskiej 3,\n\nod rozstrzygnięcia przez zamawiającego\n\nGminę Lądek, 62-406 Lądek, ul. Rynek 26,\n\nprotestu z dnia\n\n17.12.2008 r.\nprzy udziale XXX zgłaszającej przystąpienie do postępowania odwoławczego po stronie zamawiającego orzeka:\n1. Odrzuca odwołanie.\n2. Kosztami postępowania obciąża\n\nPoznańskie Przedsiębiorstwo Robót Instalacyjno-\nHydrotechnicznych „WODKAN” Sp. z o.o., 61-249 Poznań, ul. Unii Lubelskiej 3\n\ni nakazuje:\n1) zaliczyć na rzecz Urzędu Zamówień Publicznych koszty w wysokości\n\n4 574 zł 00 gr\n(słownie: cztery tysiące pięćset siedemdziesiąt cztery złote zero groszy) z kwoty wpisu uiszczonego przez\n\nPoznańskie Przedsiębiorstwo Robót Instalacyjno-\nHydrotechnicznych „WODKAN” Sp. z o.o., 61-249 Poznań, ul. Unii Lubelskiej 3;\n2) dokonać wpłaty kwoty\n\n3600 zł 00 gr (słownie:\n\ntrzy tysiące sześćset złotych zero groszy) przez\n\nPoznańskie Przedsiębiorstwo Robót Instalacyjno-\nHydrotechnicznych „WODKAN” Sp. z o.o., 61-249 Poznań, ul. Unii Lubelskiej 3 na rzecz\n\nGminy Lądek, 62-406 Lądek, ul. Rynek 26\n\nstanowiącej uzasadnione koszty strony poniesione z tytułu wynagrodzenia pełnomocnika;\n3) dokonać wpłaty kwoty XXX (słownie: XXX) przez XXX na rzecz Urzędu Zamówień\nPublicznych na rachunek dochodów własnych UZP;\n4) dokonać zwrotu kwoty\n\n5 426 zł 00 gr\n\n(słownie: pięć tysięcy czterysta dwadzieścia sześć złotych zero groszy) z rachunku dochodów własnych Urzędu Zamówień\nPublicznych na rzecz\n\nPoznańskiego Przedsiębiorstwa Robót Instalacyjno-\nHydrotechnicznych „WODKAN” Sp. z o.o., 61-249 Poznań, ul. Unii Lubelskiej 3.\nUzasadnienie\nOdwołujący - Poznańskie Przedsiębiorstwo Robót Instalacyjno-\nHydrotechnicznych „WODKAN” Sp. z o.o. z siedzibą w Poznaniu,\n\nwniósł w dniu\n29.12.2008 r. odwołanie od rozstrzygnięcia pismem z dnia 23.12.2008 r. przez\nZamawiającego – Gmina Lądek,\n\nprotestu z dnia 17.12.2008 r. wniesionego w dniu\n18.12.2008 r., na czynność zaniechania wykluczenia z postępowania wykonawców wspólnie ubiegających się o udzielenie zamówienia: Krystyna Mitura Zakład Ochrony\nŚrodowiska\n\nz siedzibą w Poznaniu (pełnomocnik) i Artur Furmaniak FAR-BUD\nPartner Przedsiębiorstwo Instalacyjno-Budowlane z siedzibą w\n\nśerkowie,\n\nzwanych w dalszej treści Krystyna Mitura Zakład Ochrony\n\nŚrodowiska,\n\na następnie dokonania wyboru oferty złożonej przez tych wykonawców, jako oferty najkorzystniejszej, w postępowaniu o udzielenie zamówienia publicznego na roboty budowlane, których przedmiotem jest „budowa oczyszczalni\n\nścieków\n\nw miejscowości Ciążeń”, prowadzonym w trybie przetargu nieograniczonego. Zawiadomienie o rozstrzygnięciu postępowania doręczono Odwołującemu w dniu 11.12.2008 r.\nOdwołujący zarzucił Zamawiającemu naruszenie, poprzez dokonanie wymienionych czynności, przepisów ustawy z dnia 29 stycznia 2004 r. Prawo zamówień publicznych (Dz. U. z 2007 r. Nr 233, poz. 1655 z późn. zm.), zwanej w dalszej treści\nPzp – art. 2 pkt 5, art. 7 ust. 1 i 3, art. 24 ust. 2 pkt 3, art. 24 ust. 4, art. 32 ust. 1 oraz art. 183 ust. 4. Odwołujący ponadto podał,\n\nże\n\nZamawiający bezprawnie oddalił protest, bezprawnie uznał,\n\nże\n\njego oferta nie jest ofertą najkorzystniejszą, w\n\nświetle postanowień SIWZ w tym postępowaniu oraz błędnie pouczył o sposobie i terminie wniesienia odwołania.\nOdwołujący wniósł o nakazanie Zamawiającemu:\n1) unieważnienia rozstrzygnięcia z dnia 23 grudnia 2008 r. dotyczącego protestu,\n2) unieważnienia wyboru oferty uczestnika postępowania – Krystyna Mitura\nZakład Ochrony\n\nŚrodowiska,\n3) wykluczenia uczestnika postępowania – Krystyna Mitura Zakład Ochrony\nŚrodowiska\n\nz prowadzonego postępowania i odrzucenia jego oferty,\n4) dokonania wyboru oferty Odwołującego, jako najkorzystniejszej w\n\nświetle\nSpecyfikacji Istotnych Warunków Zamówienia, a ponadto wniósł o:\n5) dopuszczenie dowodów zawartych w aktach sprawy oraz o przesłuchanie\nOdwołującego, na okoliczność treści wyjaśnień udzielanych przez\nZamawiającego przed wniesieniem protestu.\nW uzasadnieniu odwołania Odwołujący podał,\n\nże\n\nmając na uwadze definicję wykonawcy wynikającą z art. 2 pkt 11 Pzp oraz treść art. 184 ust. 1a pkt 3 Pzp, jest uprawniony do wniesienia odwołania pomimo, iż nie został wykluczony z postępowania. Podstawę odwołania może stanowić również zaniechanie wykluczenia z postępowania wykonawcy, gdy zachodzą ku temu przesłanki. W przeciwnym razie dochodzi do naruszenia podstawowej zasady wyboru najkorzystniejszej oferty (art. 2 pkt 5 Pzp) oraz obowiązku udzielenia zamówienia wyłącznie wykonawcy wybranemu zgodnie z przepisami Pzp (art. 7 ust. 3).\nW ocenie Odwołującego, wykonawca Krystyna Mitura Zakład Ochrony\n\nŚrodowiska, powinien zostać wykluczony z postępowania na skutek nie udowodnienia doświadczenia zawodowego w wykonywaniu zamówień w sposób określony w SIWZ i oferta tego wykonawcy powinna zostać odrzucona, jako następstwo uprzedniego wykluczenia. Odwołujący podał,\n\nże\n\nzostał błędnie pouczony o możliwości wniesienia odwołania, w sytuacji bezprawnego zaniechania wykluczenia wykonawcy - Krystyna\nMitura Zakład Ochrony\n\nŚrodowiska\n\nz prowadzonego postępowania.\nZamawiający oddalając protest wyjaśnił,\n\nże\n\nw trybie art. 26 ust. 3 Pzp nastąpiło uzupełnienie załącznika nr 5 (doświadczenie zawodowe) w ofercie wykonawcy\nKrystyna Mitura Zakład Ochrony\n\nŚrodowiska,\n\nzatem brak było podstaw do wykluczenia tego wykonawcy z postępowania i dokonania wyboru oferty\nOdwołującego, jako najkorzystniejszej. Zamawiający zamieścił na drugiej (ostatniej) stronie pisma pouczenie,\n\nże\n\nod rozstrzygnięcia protestu nie przysługuje odwołanie z uwagi na wartość zamówienia. Jednocześnie zamieścił pouczenie, wskazując jakie czynności Zamawiającego mogą być przedmiotem odwołania od rozstrzygnięcia protestu, poprzez przytoczenie całej treści art. 184 ust. 1a pkt 1-4 Pzp.\nKrajowa Izba Odwoławcza na posiedzeniu niejawnym z udziałem stron postępowania odwoławczego, na podstawie dokumentów zawartych w aktach sprawy, oryginalnej dokumentacji postępowania dostarczonej przez\nZamawiającego, w tym SIWZ, protokołu postępowania, ofert – Odwołującego i oferty wybranej, ustaliła i zważyła, co następuje.\nOgłoszenie o zamówieniu zamieszczone zostało w Biuletynie Zamówień Publicznych nr 303761 – 2008 z dnia 6.11.2008 r.\nWartość zamówienia ustalona została na kwotę 2 640 211,05 zł, co stanowi równowartość 680 975,74 euro (protokół postępowania (...) DRUK ZP - 2, a więc jest to postępowanie o wartości mniejszej niż kwoty określone w przepisach wydanych na podstawie art.11 ust. 8 Pzp, które dla robót budowlanych wynoszą 5 150 000 euro - §\n1 pkt 2 lit. b rozporządzenia Prezesa Rady Ministrów z dnia 19 grudnia 2007 r. w sprawie kwot wartości zamówień oraz konkursów, od których jest uzależniony obowiązek przekazywania ogłoszeń Urzędowi Oficjalnych Publikacji Wspólnot\nEuropejskich (Dz. U. Nr 241, poz. 1762).\nW takiej sytuacji, zgodnie z art. 184 ust. 1a Pzp, odwołanie przysługuje wyłącznie od rozstrzygnięcia protestu dotyczącego:\n1)\n\nwyboru trybu negocjacji bez ogłoszenia, zamówienia z wolnej ręki i zapytania o cenę;\n2)\n\nopisu sposobu oceny spełniania warunków udziału w postępowaniu;\n3)\n\nwykluczenia wykonawcy z postępowania o udzielenie zamówienia;\n4)\n\nodrzucenia oferty.\nW postępowaniu złożono siedem ofert, z czego czterech wykonawców Zamawiający wykluczył i odrzucił ich oferty, ocenił merytorycznie trzy oferty, w tym ofertę\nOdwołującego, przyznając 89,68 pkt, ofercie trzeciej w kolejności pod względem punktacji przyznał 88,12 pkt, a ofercie wybranej, jako najkorzystniejsza 100 pkt.\nOferta Odwołującego uzyskała drugą w kolejności punktację. Odwołujący nie został wykluczony z postępowania, jego oferta nie została odrzucona i zarówno protest, jak i odwołanie nie dotyczy tych kwestii.\nOdwołanie dotyczy zaniechania wykluczenia z postępowania wykonawcy, którego oferta została wybrana, jako najkorzystniejsza i zaniechania odrzucenia tejże oferty z powodu zarzutów wskazanych w proteście i odwołaniu. Odwołanie nie dotyczy żadnej\n\nczynności Zamawiającego wymienionej we wskazanym art. 184 ust. 1a Pzp.\nWbrew interpretacji podanej w odwołaniu, wykluczenie wykonawcy z postępowania, o którym stanowi art. 184 ust. 1a pkt 3 Pzp, podobnie jak odrzucenie oferty, o którym mowa w pkt 4 tego przepisu, dotyczy wykonawcy, który wnosi odwołanie, a nie innego wykonawcy uczestniczącego w postępowaniu, a więc, np. wykonawcy, którego oferta wybrana została jako najkorzystniejsza. Przedstawiona interpretacja wynika z treści przepisu, a także potwierdza ją stanowisko zawarte w uzasadnieniu nowelizacji ustawy Pzp, dokonanej ustawą z dnia 4 września 2008 r. o zmianie ustawy – Prawo zamówień publicznych (Dz. U. Nr 171, poz.1058). Na str. 14 - 15 uzasadnienia zawarto treść:\n„Jednocześnie jednak Komisja Europejska, uwzględniając orzecznictwo\nEuropejskiego Trybunału\n\nuwagę na konieczność Sprawiedliwości zwraca zapewnienia\n\nśrodków\n\nochrony prawnej dla najistotniejszych decyzji mogących naruszać interes wykonawców, takich jak wykluczenie z postępowania czy też odrzucenie oferty. Takie stanowisko znalazło wyraz w\n\nKomunikacie wyjaśniającym\nKE dotyczącym prawa wspólnotowego obowiązującego w dziedzinie udzielania zamówień, które nie są lub są jedynie częściowo objęte dyrektywami w sprawie zamówień publicznych\n\nz dnia 1 sierpnia 2006 r.\nNiezbędne jest zatem wprowadzenie systemu gwarantującego ochronę podstawowych interesów wykonawców, który nie będzie ograniczał się jedynie do postępowań, których wartość przekracza progi wynikające z przepisów dyrektyw.\nMając to na względzie, proponuje się ujednolicenie zasad wnoszenia\n\nśrodków ochrony prawnej dla zamówień o wartości mniejszej niż progi unijne. W postępowaniach tych wykonawca powinien mieć zagwarantowane prawo do wnoszenia efektywnych\n\nśrodków\n\nochrony prawnej dotyczących jego najistotniejszych interesów, a mianowicie:\n1) nieprawidłowego wyboru trybu negocjacji bez ogłoszenia, wolnej ręki, zapytania o cenę;\n2) opisu sposobu oceny spełniania warunków udziału w postępowaniu;\n3) wykluczenia wykonawcy z postępowania o udzielenie zamówienia;\n4) odrzucenia oferty.\nProponowane zmiany dotyczące systemu\n\nśrodków\n\nochrony prawnej wpłyną pozytywnie na przebieg procedury udzielania zamówień publicznych. Przede wszystkim w przypadku zamówień na roboty budowlane wprowadzona zostanie ochrona prawna dla zamawiających do progu 5 150 000 euro polegająca na wyeliminowaniu prawa do wniesienia\n\nśrodków\n\nochrony prawnej na czynności nie godzące bezpośrednio w interes wykonawcy, który z nich korzysta (np. dotyczące nieprawidłowości w ofercie innego wykonawcy). Wykonawcy będą mieli zagwarantowane efektywne\n\nśrodki\n\nochrony we wszystkich postępowaniach poniżej progów na decyzje zamawiających, godzące w ich podstawowe interesy (obecnie wykonawcy nie mają prawa do wniesienia odwołania poniżej progów właściwych dla dostaw i usług), przy czym skarżone będą mogły być wyłącznie te czynności zamawiającego, które bezpośrednio dotyczą wykonawcy wnoszącego dany\n\nśrodek ochrony prawnej. Należy jednocześnie podkreślić,\n\nże\n\nrozwiązanie polegające na przyznaniu wykonawcom prawa do wnoszenia\n\nśrodków\n\nochrony prawnej wyłącznie na ustawowo określone czynności będzie miało zastosowanie tylko w odniesieniu do odwołań i skarg. Prawo do wnoszenia protestów, tak jak ma to miejsce obecnie, będzie przysługiwało wykonawcom na wszystkie czynności zamawiającego.\nProponowane zmiany doprowadzą do pełnej zgodności ustawy z prawodawstwem unijnym” (www.uzp.gov.pl/prawo krajowe).\nWniesienie odwołania z powołaniem się na art. 184 ust. 1a pkt 3 Pzp, w myśl powyższego, dotyczy wyłącznie czynności wykluczenia z postępowania wykonawcy wnoszącego odwołanie, a nie wykluczenia, bądź zaniechania wykluczenia, innego wykonawcy uczestniczącego w postępowaniu, w tym zaniechania wykluczenia wykonawcy, którego ofertę wybrano jako najkorzystniejszą.\nJeżeli w postępowaniu o wartości zamówienia mniejszej niż kwoty określone w przepisach wydanych na podstawie art. 11 ust. 8 Pzp, odwołanie dotyczy innych czynności niż wymienione w art. 184 ust. 1a Pzp, Izba odrzuca odwołanie na posiedzeniu niejawnym, zgodnie z art. 187 ust. 4 pkt 8 Pzp.\nWskazany przepis nakłada na Izbę obowiązek odrzucenia odwołania (rozstrzygnięcie obligatoryjne), nie jest to rozstrzygnięcie uzależnione od woli składu orzekającego\n(rozstrzygnięcie fakultatywne).\nBiorąc powyższe pod uwagę, KIO na podstawie wskazanego art. 187 ust. 4 pkt 8 w zw. z art. 184 ust. 1a pkt 3 Pzp, orzekła jak w sentencji postanowienia, tj. odrzuciła odwołanie.\nO kosztach postępowania odwoławczego orzeczono stosownie do wyniku sprawy na podstawie art. 191 ust. 6 i 7 Pzp, uwzględniając wynagrodzenie pełnomocnika\nZamawiającego w kwocie 3600,00 zł wynikające z rachunku przedłożonego do akt sprawy, na podstawie § 4 ust. 1 pkt 2 lit. b rozporządzenia Prezesa Rady Ministrów z dnia 9 lipca 2007 r. w sprawie wysokości oraz sposobu pobierania wpisu od odwołania oraz rodzajów kosztów w postępowaniu odwoławczym i sposobu ich rozliczania (Dz. U. Nr 128, poz. 886 z późn. zm.), ograniczając wynagrodzenie do kwoty wynikającej z podanego przepisu.\nStosownie do art. 194 i 195 ustawy z dnia 29 stycznia 2004 r. - Prawo zamówień publicznych\n(Dz. U. z 2007 r. Nr 223, poz. 1655, z późn. zm.) na niniejsze postanowienie - w terminie 7 dni od dnia jego doręczenia - przysługuje skarga za pośrednictwem Prezesa Urzędu\nZamówień Publicznych do Sądu Okręgowego\n\nw Koninie.\nPrzewodniczący:\n....................................\nCzłonkowie:\n....................................\n....................................", "token_count": 5353} -{"added": "2026-09-17", "author": "Krajowa Izba Odwoławcza", "created": "2025-08-14", "id": "uzp_orzeczenia_pl_30123", "license": "public-domain (official documents)", "source": "uzp_orzeczenia_pl", "text": "Sygn. akt KIO 2949/25\nPOSTANOWIENIE\n\nWarszawa, dnia 14 sierpnia 2025 r.\nKrajowa Izba Odwoławcza\n- w składzie:\nPrzewodniczący:\nB.L.\n\npo rozpoznaniu w dniu 14 sierpnia 2025 r. w Warszawie, na posiedzeniu niejawnym bez udziału stron, odwołania wniesionego do Prezesa Krajowej Izby Odwoławczej w dniu 17 lipca 2025 r. przez wykonawców wspólnie ubiegających się o udzielenie zamówienia:\nUsługi Leśne i Ogrodnicze ELITELAS sp. z o.o. z siedzibą w Durdach, Durdy 141, 39-\n450 Baranów Sandomierski\n\n(Lider Konsorcjum) i Usługi Ogrodnicze ELITELAS sp. z o.o. z siedzibą w Durdach, Durdy 141, 39-450 Baranów Sandomierski w postępowaniu prowadzonym przez zamawiającego\nTAURON Dystrybucja S.A. z siedzibą w Krakowie ul. Podgórska 25A, 31-035 Kraków orzeka:\n1.\nUmarza postępowanie odwoławcze.\n2.\nNakazuje zwrot z rachunku bankowego Urzędu Zamówień Publicznych na rzecz wykonawców wspólnie ubiegających się o udzielenie zamówienia\nUsługi Leśne i Ogrodnicze ELITELAS sp. z o.o. z siedzibą: Durdy 141, 39-450 Baranów Sandomierski\n\n(Lider Konsorcjum) i\nUsługi Ogrodnicze ELITELAS sp. z o.o.\nz siedzibą: Durdy 141, 39-450 Baranów Sandomierski kwoty\n\n13 500 zł 00 gr\n(słownie:\n\ntrzynaście tysięcy pięćset złotych zero groszy) stanowiącej 90% wniesionego wpisu.\nNa orzeczenie - w terminie 14 dni od dnia jego doręczenia - przysługuje skarga za pośrednictwem Prezesa Krajowej Izby\nOdwoławczej do Sądu Okręgowego w Warszawie - Sądu Zamówień Publicznych.\nPrzewodnicząca:\n...........................\n\nUzasadnienie\nZamawiający - TAURON Dystrybucja S.A. z siedzibą w Krakowie, zwany dalej „Zamawiającym” - prowadzi postępowanie o udzielenie zamówienia publicznego w trybie przetargu nieograniczonego na usługę wycinania drzew pod nazwą:\n„Wykonanie usługi wycinki i przycinki drzewostanu znajdującego się wokół linii elektroenergetycznych nN\n\nna obszarze działania TAURON Dystrybucja S.A. – Oddział w Wałbrzychu, Opolu, Częstochowie, Będzinie i Tarnowie”.\nOgłoszenie o zamówieniu zostało zamieszczone\n\nw Dzienniku Urzędowym Unii Europejskiej w dniu 4 marca 2025 r. pod numerem\n141218-2025.\nW dniu 17 lipca 2025 r. (pismem z tej samej daty) wykonawcy wspólnie ubiegający się o udzielenie zamówienia:\nUsługi Leśne i Ogrodnicze ELITELAS sp. z o.o. z siedzibą w Durdach i Usługi Ogrodnicze ELITELAS sp. z o.o. z siedzibą w Durdach, zwani dalej „Odwołującym”, wnieśli odwołanie wobec niezgodnych z przepisami ustawy Pzp czynności i zaniechań Zamawiającego, polegających na: 1) wyborze jako najkorzystniejszej oferty złożonej przez wykonawcę MATPARK sp. z o.o. z siedzibą w Gródku Nad Dunajcem pomimo, że wykonawca powinien podlegać wykluczeniu z udziału w postepowaniu na podstawie art. 109 ust. 1 pkt 5 lub 7 ustawy Pzp; 2) odmowy udostępnienia wyjaśnień złożonych przez wykonawcę MATPARK sp. z o.o. z siedzibą w Gródku Nad Dunajcem dotyczących procedury samooczyszczenia dla zadań nr 3,8,9,16,17,18, które zostały zastrzeżone jako tajemnica przedsiębiorstwa pomimo braku przesłanek do skutecznego ich zastrzeżenia; 3) zaniechania odrzucenia oferty złożonej przez MATPARK sp. z o.o.\nz siedzibą w Gródku Nad Dunajcem na podstawie art. 109 ust. 1 pkt 5 lub 7 w związku z art. 110 ust. 2 ustawy Pzp.\nW dniu 29 lipca 2025 r. do Prezesa Krajowej Izby Odwoławczej wpłynęło oświadczenie Odwołującego o cofnięciu odwołania. Wobec powyższego postępowanie odwoławcze – zgodnie z art. 568 pkt 1 ustawy Pzp – należało umorzyć.\nO kosztach postępowania odwoławczego orzeczono stosownie do art. 557 ustawy Pzp i § 9 ust. 1 pkt 3 lit. a rozporządzenia Prezesa Rady Ministrów z dnia 30 grudnia 2020 r.\n\nw sprawie szczegółowych rodzajów kosztów postępowania odwoławczego, ich rozliczania oraz wysokości i sposobu pobierania wpisu od odwołania (Dz.U. z 2020 r. poz. 2437), nakazując zwrot na rzecz Odwołującego kwoty 13.500,00 zł stanowiącej 90% uiszczonego wpisu.\nPrzewodnicząca:\n........................", "token_count": 1585} diff --git a/data/uzp_orzeczenia_pl/uzp_orzeczenia_pl.stats.json b/data/uzp_orzeczenia_pl/uzp_orzeczenia_pl.stats.json deleted file mode 100644 index befd02141cd103171c38f72b9334cd1626ed76de..0000000000000000000000000000000000000000 --- a/data/uzp_orzeczenia_pl/uzp_orzeczenia_pl.stats.json +++ /dev/null @@ -1,20 +0,0 @@ -{ - "added": "2026-09-17", - "characters": 1110428704, - "enumerated": 35694, - "kept": 34715, - "license_counts": { - "public-domain (official documents)": 34715 - }, - "per_kind": { - "KIO": 34412, - "SA": 3, - "SN": 2, - "SO": 1277 - }, - "sample_count": 12, - "source_slice_kept": 34715, - "target_overlap_excluded": 0, - "target_revision": "bade8e7cae51bd30e9530c3be38dd0e3eeba1f70", - "tokens": 422043881 -} diff --git a/data/wiktionary_examples/wiktionary_examples.md b/data/wiktionary_examples/wiktionary_examples.md deleted file mode 100644 index 687a865a7aea67772ccb3f74897f9d4ce3fb06d7..0000000000000000000000000000000000000000 --- a/data/wiktionary_examples/wiktionary_examples.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,41 +0,0 @@ -# wiktionary_examples - -Polish Wiktionary usage examples - -## Dataset description -- **Source (upstream):** https://dumps.wikimedia.org/plwiktionary/latest/ -- **Domain:** lexicographic -- **Language:** Polish (pl) -- **License:** `CC-BY-SA-3.0` -- **Created (range):** 2004-03-22, 2026-08-15 -- **Added:** 2026-07-19 - -## Licensing — traceable basis -Wikimedia dumps explicitly released under CC-BY-SA 3.0; attribution to contributors + share-alike preserved. Derived subset: usage-example sections from Polish-language entries only, grouped one document per headword. - -## Provenance -Parsed directly from the official Wikimedia dump (plwiktionary-latest-pages-articles.xml.bz2); not routed through SpeakLeash. Usage-example sections of Polish-language entries extracted and grouped one document per headword. - -## Statistics -| documents | characters | tokens (tiktoken proxy) | -|---:|---:|---:| -| 8,639 | 2,889,761 | 1,115,820 | - - -## Per-document license metadata -| license | documents | -|---|---:| -| `CC-BY-SA-3.0` | 8,639 | - -Author metadata present for **8,639** documents. Empty values mean the upstream record did not expose a machine-readable author field. - -## Filters applied (build_dynaword.py) -Minimal, per Dynaword guidelines (heavy filtering left to downstream use): -- drop documents < 200 chars: **0** -- drop non-Polish (diacritic ratio): **0** -- exact cross-source dedup (sha1): **481** -- OCR alpha-ratio < 0.70 (OCR sources only): **0** -- read 9,120 → kept 8,639 - -Token counts are a fast tiktoken (cl100k) proxy (~1% off Llama-3); the canonical -Llama-3 count is computed at release. diff --git a/data/wiktionary_examples/wiktionary_examples.parquet b/data/wiktionary_examples/wiktionary_examples.parquet deleted file mode 100644 index 775fc4a2247830a26c9b961b121f8f0468d9b0ec..0000000000000000000000000000000000000000 --- a/data/wiktionary_examples/wiktionary_examples.parquet +++ /dev/null @@ -1,3 +0,0 @@ -version https://git-lfs.github.com/spec/v1 -oid sha256:633427b261c1ae7524be43e5b0ecfbf673596ab6250a86a1304d69c975f0bd0d -size 1646449 diff --git a/data/wiktionary_examples/wiktionary_examples.stats.json b/data/wiktionary_examples/wiktionary_examples.stats.json deleted file mode 100644 index 72b8c8e73010505f7439eb4aa134c93e61103533..0000000000000000000000000000000000000000 --- a/data/wiktionary_examples/wiktionary_examples.stats.json +++ /dev/null @@ -1,16 +0,0 @@ -{ - "read": 9120, - "kept": 8639, - "drop_short": 0, - "drop_lang": 0, - "drop_dup": 481, - "drop_ocr": 0, - "chars": 2889761, - "tokens": 1115820, - "licenses": { - "CC-BY-SA-3.0": 8639 - }, - "authors_with_value": 8639, - "secs": 2.9, - "license": "CC-BY-SA-3.0" -} \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/pattern_frequency_report.md b/pattern_frequency_report.md index c93411adda33b53010af636fd4ebf8a8408f8316..a60876fae61d0dc0594257abb269f3af03e9a080 100644 --- a/pattern_frequency_report.md +++ b/pattern_frequency_report.md @@ -1,18 +1,18 @@ ## Pattern frequency on corpus -- total tokens (tiktoken proxy): `9,639,062,573` +- total tokens (tiktoken proxy): `6,362,577,363` | pattern | count | share of all tokens | |---|---:|---:| -| `w roku` | 585,072 | 0.0061% | -| `klasyfikacji` | 164,757 | 0.0017% | -| `ustawa` | 659,103 | 0.0068% | -| `artykuł` | 2,416,361 | 0.0251% | -| `parlament` | 1,285,792 | 0.0133% | -| `rozporządzenie` | 1,527,456 | 0.0158% | -| `w pobliżu` | 127,784 | 0.0013% | -| `mieszkańców` | 476,710 | 0.0049% | -| `Dz.U.` | 987,048 | 0.0102% | +| `w roku` | 438,913 | 0.0069% | +| `klasyfikacji` | 130,503 | 0.0021% | +| `ustawa` | 592,186 | 0.0093% | +| `artykuł` | 2,038,776 | 0.0320% | +| `parlament` | 1,205,608 | 0.0189% | +| `rozporządzenie` | 1,494,566 | 0.0235% | +| `w pobliżu` | 79,715 | 0.0013% | +| `mieszkańców` | 254,305 | 0.0040% | +| `Dz.U.` | 943,080 | 0.0148% | | source | pattern | count | per-token share | |---|---|---:|---:| @@ -25,15 +25,6 @@ | 1000_novels | `w pobliżu` | 1,262 | 0.00209% | | 1000_novels | `mieszkańców` | 868 | 0.00143% | | 1000_novels | `Dz.U.` | 0 | 0.00000% | -| biblioteka_nauki | `w roku` | 28,728 | 0.00427% | -| biblioteka_nauki | `klasyfikacji` | 9,045 | 0.00134% | -| biblioteka_nauki | `ustawa` | 48,791 | 0.00724% | -| biblioteka_nauki | `artykuł` | 91,241 | 0.01355% | -| biblioteka_nauki | `parlament` | 32,868 | 0.00488% | -| biblioteka_nauki | `rozporządzenie` | 19,594 | 0.00291% | -| biblioteka_nauki | `w pobliżu` | 3,378 | 0.00050% | -| biblioteka_nauki | `mieszkańców` | 34,392 | 0.00511% | -| biblioteka_nauki | `Dz.U.` | 33,098 | 0.00491% | | dziennik_ustaw | `w roku` | 33,096 | 0.00681% | | dziennik_ustaw | `klasyfikacji` | 10,896 | 0.00224% | | dziennik_ustaw | `ustawa` | 77,376 | 0.01592% | @@ -61,24 +52,6 @@ | eurlex | `w pobliżu` | 6,088 | 0.00026% | | eurlex | `mieszkańców` | 9,441 | 0.00040% | | eurlex | `Dz.U.` | 915,707 | 0.03851% | -| european_hplt_v3_pl | `w roku` | 113,501 | 0.00444% | -| european_hplt_v3_pl | `klasyfikacji` | 24,675 | 0.00097% | -| european_hplt_v3_pl | `ustawa` | 16,067 | 0.00063% | -| european_hplt_v3_pl | `artykuł` | 283,875 | 0.01111% | -| european_hplt_v3_pl | `parlament` | 45,516 | 0.00178% | -| european_hplt_v3_pl | `rozporządzenie` | 11,841 | 0.00046% | -| european_hplt_v3_pl | `w pobliżu` | 44,108 | 0.00173% | -| european_hplt_v3_pl | `mieszkańców` | 172,896 | 0.00677% | -| european_hplt_v3_pl | `Dz.U.` | 9,487 | 0.00037% | -| global_voices | `w roku` | 160 | 0.00431% | -| global_voices | `klasyfikacji` | 5 | 0.00013% | -| global_voices | `ustawa` | 157 | 0.00423% | -| global_voices | `artykuł` | 1,047 | 0.02818% | -| global_voices | `parlament` | 366 | 0.00985% | -| global_voices | `rozporządzenie` | 26 | 0.00070% | -| global_voices | `w pobliżu` | 105 | 0.00283% | -| global_voices | `mieszkańców` | 508 | 0.01367% | -| global_voices | `Dz.U.` | 1 | 0.00003% | | govpl | `w roku` | 3,372 | 0.00418% | | govpl | `klasyfikacji` | 526 | 0.00065% | | govpl | `ustawa` | 4,727 | 0.00586% | @@ -88,15 +61,6 @@ | govpl | `w pobliżu` | 892 | 0.00111% | | govpl | `mieszkańców` | 13,105 | 0.01625% | | govpl | `Dz.U.` | 3,114 | 0.00386% | -| nkjp1m | `w roku` | 109 | 0.00419% | -| nkjp1m | `klasyfikacji` | 9 | 0.00035% | -| nkjp1m | `ustawa` | 79 | 0.00304% | -| nkjp1m | `artykuł` | 153 | 0.00588% | -| nkjp1m | `parlament` | 216 | 0.00830% | -| nkjp1m | `rozporządzenie` | 20 | 0.00077% | -| nkjp1m | `w pobliżu` | 77 | 0.00296% | -| nkjp1m | `mieszkańców` | 159 | 0.00611% | -| nkjp1m | `Dz.U.` | 2 | 0.00008% | | parliamentary | `w roku` | 198,192 | 0.01203% | | parliamentary | `klasyfikacji` | 12,637 | 0.00077% | | parliamentary | `ustawa` | 459,179 | 0.02788% | @@ -106,15 +70,6 @@ | parliamentary | `w pobliżu` | 4,964 | 0.00030% | | parliamentary | `mieszkańców` | 78,048 | 0.00474% | | parliamentary | `Dz.U.` | 23,809 | 0.00145% | -| samorzad_gov_pl | `w roku` | 3,661 | 0.00890% | -| samorzad_gov_pl | `klasyfikacji` | 520 | 0.00126% | -| samorzad_gov_pl | `ustawa` | 1,823 | 0.00443% | -| samorzad_gov_pl | `artykuł` | 1,269 | 0.00308% | -| samorzad_gov_pl | `parlament` | 1,218 | 0.00296% | -| samorzad_gov_pl | `rozporządzenie` | 1,409 | 0.00342% | -| samorzad_gov_pl | `w pobliżu` | 401 | 0.00097% | -| samorzad_gov_pl | `mieszkańców` | 14,450 | 0.03511% | -| samorzad_gov_pl | `Dz.U.` | 1,380 | 0.00335% | | wikibooks | `w roku` | 319 | 0.00205% | | wikibooks | `klasyfikacji` | 37 | 0.00024% | | wikibooks | `ustawa` | 165 | 0.00106% | diff --git a/src/__pycache__/fetch_sejm_api.cpython-311.pyc b/src/__pycache__/fetch_sejm_api.cpython-311.pyc deleted file mode 100644 index bca7ae650ea8ce4bd7b114396605c46908eb59e0..0000000000000000000000000000000000000000 Binary files a/src/__pycache__/fetch_sejm_api.cpython-311.pyc and /dev/null differ diff --git a/src/build_uzp_orzeczenia_pl.py b/src/build_uzp_orzeczenia_pl.py deleted file mode 100644 index 27f54ed4dac1c1325fe4cf52c7ba90fe06997879..0000000000000000000000000000000000000000 --- a/src/build_uzp_orzeczenia_pl.py +++ /dev/null @@ -1,862 +0,0 @@ -#!/usr/bin/env python3 -"""Build an auditable corpus of UZP public-procurement rulings (KIO/SO/SA/SN). - -Source: https://orzeczenia.uzp.gov.pl - the official decision search service of -the Polish Public Procurement Office (Urzad Zamowien Publicznych). Documents -are official rulings of the National Appeals Chamber (KIO), district courts -(SO), administrative courts (SA) and the Supreme Court (SN) in public -procurement matters. Legal basis: official documents are excluded from -copyright under Polish Copyright Act art. 4(2) (same basis as the SAOS slice). -""" -from __future__ import annotations - -import argparse -from collections import Counter -from concurrent.futures import ThreadPoolExecutor, as_completed -from datetime import datetime, timezone -import gzip -import hashlib -import html as html_module -import io -import ipaddress -import json -from pathlib import Path -import re -import time - -import requests - - -SOURCE = "uzp_orzeczenia_pl" -OWN_REPO = "PiotrSty/uzp-orzeczenia-pl" -TARGET = "SlayerLab/polish-dynaword" -BASE = "https://orzeczenia.uzp.gov.pl" -SEARCH_URL = BASE + "/Home/Search" -RESULTS_URL = BASE + "/Home/GetResults" -SOURCE_URL = BASE + "/" -FIELDS = ["id", "text", "source", "added", "created", "token_count", "license", "author"] -UA = "UzpOrzeczeniaCorpusResearch/0.1 (PiotrSty; open research slice)" -LICENSE_LABEL = "public-domain (official documents)" -LICENSE_SPDX = "LicenseRef-Polish-Official-Documents" -LEGAL_BASIS = ("Polish Copyright Act art. 4(2): official documents are not subject to copyright; " - "UZP search service republishes KIO/SO/SA/SN rulings in public procurement matters") -MIN_TEXT_CHARS = 1_500 -PAGE_SIZE = 10 # fixed server-side; #sp-page-size is not a serialized form field -KINDS = ("KIO", "SO", "SA", "SN") - -EMAIL_RE = re.compile(r"(?i)\b[A-Z0-9._%+-]+@[A-Z0-9.-]+\.[A-Z]{2,}\b") -PHONE_RE = re.compile(r"(?i)(?:\btelefon|\btel\.|\bphone)\s*:?[ \t]*(?:\+48[ \t]*)?\d(?:[ .-]?\d){8}\b") -IPV4_RE = re.compile(r"\b\d{1,3}\.\d{1,3}\.\d{1,3}\.\d{1,3}\b") -IPV6_RE = re.compile(r"(?i)\b(?:[0-9a-f]{1,4}:){3,}[0-9a-f]{1,4}\b") -IPV6_CANDIDATE_RE = re.compile(r"(?<![\w:])(?:[0-9a-fA-F]{0,4}:){2,}[0-9a-fA-F:.]*(?![\w:])") -NATIONAL_ID_RE = re.compile(r"(?i)\b(PESEL|NIP|REGON)\s*[:=]?\s*\d(?:[ -]?\d){8,13}\b") -BANK_ACCOUNT_RE = re.compile(r"(?<!\d)(?:PL\s*)?\d{2}(?:[ -]?\d){24}(?!\d)") -DETAILS_LINK_RE = re.compile(r'href="/Home/Details/(\d+)"') -RESULT_COUNTS_RE = re.compile(r'value="([\d,]+)"\s+id="resultCounts"') -PDF_LINK_RE = re.compile(r'href="(/Home/PdfContent/(\d+)\?Kind=([A-Z]+))"') -SYGN_RE = re.compile(r"^Sygn\.\s*akt\b", re.I) -PAGE_NUM_RE = re.compile(r"^\d{1,4}$") - - -def now(): - return datetime.now(timezone.utc).isoformat() - - -def digest(value): - if not isinstance(value, bytes): - value = json.dumps(value, ensure_ascii=False, sort_keys=True, separators=(",", ":")).encode("utf-8") - return hashlib.sha256(value).hexdigest() - - -def save(path, value): - path.parent.mkdir(parents=True, exist_ok=True) - path.write_text(json.dumps(value, ensure_ascii=False, sort_keys=True, indent=2) + "\n", encoding="utf-8") - - -def write_lines(path, rows): - path.parent.mkdir(parents=True, exist_ok=True) - path.write_text("".join(json.dumps(row, ensure_ascii=False, sort_keys=True) + "\n" for row in rows), encoding="utf-8") - - -def read_lines(path): - return [json.loads(line) for line in path.read_text(encoding="utf-8").split("\n") if line] - - -def load(path): - return json.loads(path.read_text(encoding="utf-8")) - - -def is_ipv6(value): - try: - return ipaddress.ip_address(value.rstrip(".")).version == 6 - except ValueError: - return False - - -def redact_pii(text): - counts = Counter() - - def replace_ipv6(match): - value = match.group().rstrip(".") - if not is_ipv6(value): - return match.group() - counts["ipv6"] += 1 - return "[REDACTED:IP]" + match.group()[len(value):] - - text = IPV6_CANDIDATE_RE.sub(replace_ipv6, text) - for name, pattern, replacement in ( - ("email", EMAIL_RE, "[REDACTED:EMAIL]"), - ("labelled_phone", PHONE_RE, "[REDACTED:PHONE]"), - ("ipv4", IPV4_RE, "[REDACTED:IP]"), - ("ipv6_legacy_pattern", IPV6_RE, "[REDACTED:IP]"), - ("national_identifier", NATIONAL_ID_RE, lambda match: match.group(1) + " [REDACTED:ID]"), - ("account_candidate", BANK_ACCOUNT_RE, "[REDACTED:ACCOUNT]"), - ): - text, count = pattern.subn(replacement, text) - counts[name] += count - return text, counts - - -def iso_date(text): - match = re.match(r"(\d{2})-(\d{2})-(\d{4})", (text or "").strip()) - if match: - day, month, year = match.groups() - return f"{year}-{month}-{day}" - return "" - - -def strip_html(fragment): - return html_module.unescape(re.sub(r"\s+", " ", re.sub(r"<[^>]+>", " ", fragment))).strip() - - -def parse_result_items(page_html): - """Parse /Home/GetResults response into per-document records.""" - records = [] - for block in re.findall(r'<div class="search-list-item".*?(?=<div class="search-list-item"|$)', - page_html, flags=re.S): - link = DETAILS_LINK_RE.search(block) - if not link: - continue - fields = dict() - for label, value in re.findall(r"<label>([^<]+)</label>\s*([^<]+)", block): - fields[label.strip().rstrip(":")] = strip_html(value) - records.append({ - "doc_id": int(link.group(1)), - "organ": fields.get("Organ wydający", ""), - "doc_type": fields.get("Rodzaj dokumentu", ""), - "signature": fields.get("Sygnatura", ""), - "issued": fields.get("Data wydania", ""), - }) - counts = RESULT_COUNTS_RE.search(page_html) - totals = [int(value) for value in counts.group(1).split(",")] if counts else [] - return records, totals - - -def parse_counts(page_html): - """Return dict kind -> count from the resultCounts hidden field.""" - _records, totals = parse_result_items(page_html) - kinds = ["ALL", "KIO", "SO", "SA", "SN"] - return {kinds[index]: value for index, value in enumerate(totals)} if totals else {} - - -def parse_details(page_html, doc_id): - """Parse /Home/Details/{id} metadata page.""" - pdf = PDF_LINK_RE.search(page_html) - body = re.sub(r"<script.*?</script>", " ", page_html, flags=re.S) - fields = {} - for label, value in re.findall(r"<label>([^<]+)</label>\s*([^<]+)", body): - fields[label.strip().rstrip(":")] = strip_html(value) - return { - "doc_id": doc_id, - "organ": fields.get("Organ wydający", ""), - "doc_type": fields.get("Rodzaj dokumentu", ""), - "issued": fields.get("Data wydania rozstrzygnięcia", ""), - "chairman": fields.get("Przewodniczący", ""), - "purchaser": fields.get("Zamawiający", ""), - "city": fields.get("Miejscowość", ""), - "signature": fields.get("Sygnatura akt / Sposób rozstrzygnięcia", - fields.get("Sygnatura akt / Sygnatura KIO / Sposób rozstrzygnięcia", "")), - "provisions": fields.get("Kluczowe przepisy ustawy Pzp", ""), - "pdf_path_url": BASE + pdf.group(1) if pdf else "", - "pdf_kind": pdf.group(3) if pdf else "", - } - - -def session(): - s = requests.Session() - s.headers.update({"User-Agent": UA}) - s.get(SEARCH_URL, timeout=20) - return s - - -def post_results(sess, kind, page, attempts=5): - data = {"Phrase": "", "Fle": "1", "SCnt": "1", "CountStats": "true", - "Kind": kind, "Srt": "", "Pg": str(page)} - for attempt in range(attempts): - try: - r = sess.post(RESULTS_URL, data=data, timeout=30) - if r.status_code in (429, 500, 502, 503, 504): - time.sleep(2 ** attempt) - continue - r.raise_for_status() - return r.text - except requests.RequestException: - if attempt == attempts - 1: - raise - time.sleep(2 ** attempt) - raise RuntimeError("unreachable") - - -def request(url, attempts=5, timeout=(15, 90), binary=False, sess=None): - client = sess or requests - response = None - for attempt in range(attempts): - response = client.get(url, headers={"User-Agent": UA}, timeout=timeout) - if response.status_code not in (429, 500, 502, 503, 504): - response.raise_for_status() - return response.content if binary else response.content.decode("utf-8", "replace") - time.sleep(2 ** attempt) - response.raise_for_status() - - -def request_json(url): - return json.loads(request(url)) - - -def discover(out, workers): - """Enumerate every document via the kind-filtered result pages.""" - seen = {} - counts = {} - for kind in KINDS: - body = post_results(session(), kind, 1) - first, totals = parse_result_items(body) - all_counts = parse_counts(body) - counts[kind] = all_counts.get(kind, len(first)) - total = counts[kind] - pages = max(1, -(-total // PAGE_SIZE)) if total else 1 - for record in first: - record["kind"] = kind - seen[record["doc_id"]] = record - - def fetch_page(page): - return page, post_results(session(), kind, page) - - with ThreadPoolExecutor(max_workers=workers) as pool: - futures = {pool.submit(fetch_page, p): p for p in range(2, pages + 1)} - for index, future in enumerate(as_completed(futures), 1): - _, body = future.result() - for record in parse_result_items(body)[0]: - record["kind"] = kind - seen[record["doc_id"]] = record - if index % 200 == 0: - print(f" {kind} {index}/{pages - 1} pages", flush=True) - print(f" {kind}: {pages} pages, total {total}", flush=True) - records = sorted(seen.values(), key=lambda record: record["doc_id"]) - write_lines(out / "source_manifest.jsonl", records) - selection = { - "observed_at": now(), "search_url": SEARCH_URL, - "reported_totals": counts, "enumerated": len(records), - "per_kind": dict(Counter(record["kind"] for record in records)), - "selected": len(records), - "selected_ids": [record["doc_id"] for record in records], - "source_manifest_sha256": digest((out / "source_manifest.jsonl").read_bytes()), - } - save(out / "selection.json", selection) - print(json.dumps(selection, ensure_ascii=False, indent=2)) - - -def acquire(out, workers): - selection = load(out / "selection.json") - manifest = {record["doc_id"]: record for record in read_lines(out / "source_manifest.jsonl")} - (out / "raw_pages").mkdir(parents=True, exist_ok=True) - (out / "raw_pdf").mkdir(parents=True, exist_ok=True) - (out / "raw_text").mkdir(parents=True, exist_ok=True) - results = [] - - def fetch(doc_id): - record = manifest[doc_id] - page_path = out / "raw_pages" / f"{doc_id}.html.gz" - pdf_path = out / "raw_pdf" / f"{doc_id}.pdf" - text_path = out / "raw_text" / f"{doc_id}.txt" - if pdf_path.is_file() and text_path.is_file() and page_path.is_file(): - return record, digest(pdf_path.read_bytes()), pdf_path.stat().st_size, \ - digest(text_path.read_bytes()), "cached", json.loads( - gzip.decompress(page_path.read_bytes()).decode("utf-8"))["details"] - sess = session() - body = request(BASE + f"/Home/Details/{doc_id}", sess=sess) - details = parse_details(body, doc_id) - if not details["pdf_path_url"]: - raise ValueError(f"no PdfContent link on details page: {doc_id}") - page_path.write_bytes(gzip.compress(json.dumps( - {"doc_id": doc_id, "details": details}, ensure_ascii=False).encode("utf-8"))) - payload = request(details["pdf_path_url"], binary=True, sess=sess) - if not payload.startswith(b"%PDF"): - raise ValueError("not a PDF: " + str(doc_id)) - pdf_path.write_bytes(payload) - from pypdf import PdfReader - reader = PdfReader(io.BytesIO(payload)) - text = "\n".join(page.extract_text() or "" for page in reader.pages) - text_path.write_text(text, encoding="utf-8") - return record, digest(payload), len(payload), digest(text.encode("utf-8")), \ - str(len(reader.pages)), details - - with ThreadPoolExecutor(max_workers=workers) as pool: - futures = {pool.submit(fetch, doc_id): doc_id for doc_id in selection["selected_ids"]} - for index, future in enumerate(as_completed(futures), 1): - doc_id = futures[future] - record = manifest[doc_id] - try: - record, pdf_sha, pdf_bytes, text_sha, pages, details = future.result() - results.append({**record, "details": details, "pdf_sha256": pdf_sha, - "pdf_bytes": pdf_bytes, "text_sha256": text_sha, "pdf_pages": pages, - "pdf_path": f"raw_pdf/{doc_id}.pdf", "text_path": f"raw_text/{doc_id}.txt"}) - except Exception as error: - results.append({**record, "error": f"{type(error).__name__}: {error}"}) - if index % 100 == 0: - print(f" {index}/{len(selection['selected_ids'])}", flush=True) - results.sort(key=lambda record: record["doc_id"]) - acquisition = { - "observed_at": now(), "target": selection["selected"], - "acquired": sum("pdf_sha256" in record for record in results), - "failed": [record["doc_id"] for record in results if "error" in record], - "selected": results, - } - save(out / "acquisition.json", acquisition) - print(json.dumps({key: acquisition[key] for key in ("target", "acquired", "failed")}, - ensure_ascii=False, indent=2)) - - -def normalize(text): - import unicodedata - text = unicodedata.normalize("NFKC", text or "").replace("­", "").replace("​", "") - text = re.sub(r"[\x00-\x08\x0b\x0c\x0e-\x1f\x7f]", "", text) - lines = [re.sub(r"[ \t   ]+", " ", line).strip() for line in text.splitlines()] - # drop repeated running-head signature lines and bare page numbers - seen_sygn = 0 - kept = [] - for line in lines: - if SYGN_RE.match(line): - seen_sygn += 1 - if seen_sygn > 1: - continue - if PAGE_NUM_RE.match(line): - continue - kept.append(line) - text = "\n".join(kept) - text = re.sub(r"(?<=\w)-\n(?=[a-ząćęłńóśźż])", "", text) - text = re.sub(r"(?<![.!?:;\n])\n(?!\n)(?=[a-ząćęłńóśźż])", " ", text) - return re.sub(r"\n{3,}", "\n\n", text).strip() - - -def shingle_sketch(text, limit=5_000): - words = re.findall(r"\w+", text.casefold()) - hashes = set() - for index in range(max(0, len(words) - 4)): - value = " ".join(words[index:index + 5]).encode("utf-8") - hashes.add(int.from_bytes(hashlib.blake2b(value, digest_size=8).digest(), "big")) - if len(hashes) > limit: - return set(sorted(hashes)[:limit]) - return hashes - - -DF_FRACTION = 0.02 # shingles in >2% of docs are boilerplate (KIO formula openings) - - -def shingle_document_frequencies(sketches): - df = Counter() - for sketch in sketches: - df.update(sketch) - return df - - -def filter_sketch(sketch, df, max_df): - """Drop high document-frequency shingles (boilerplate) from a sketch.""" - return {h for h in sketch if df[h] <= max_df} - - -class NearDuplicateIndex: - def __init__(self): - self.postings = {} - self.records = [] - self.comparisons = 0 - - @staticmethod - def prefix(sketch): - return sorted(sketch)[:len(sketch) - (9 * len(sketch) + 9) // 10 + 1] - - def find(self, sketch): - candidates = set() - for value in self.prefix(sketch): - candidates.update(self.postings.get(value, ())) - for position in sorted(candidates): - row_id, other = self.records[position] - if 10 * min(len(sketch), len(other)) < 9 * max(len(sketch), len(other)): - continue - self.comparisons += 1 - intersection = len(sketch & other) - score = intersection / max(len(sketch) + len(other) - intersection, 1) - if score >= 0.90: - return row_id, score - return None, 0.0 - - def add(self, row_id, sketch): - position = len(self.records) - self.records.append((row_id, sketch)) - for value in self.prefix(sketch): - self.postings.setdefault(value, []).append(position) - - -def language_vote(identifier, text): - chunks = [text[:30_000], text[max(0, len(text) // 2 - 15_000):len(text) // 2 + 15_000], text[-30_000:]] - classified = {chunk: identifier.classify(chunk) for chunk in dict.fromkeys(chunks) if chunk.strip()} - votes = [classified[chunk] for chunk in chunks if chunk in classified] - languages = Counter(language for language, _ in votes) - return (languages.most_common(1)[0][0] if languages else "unknown", votes) - - -def audit_target(out): - info = request_json(f"https://huggingface.co/api/datasets/{TARGET}") - revision = info["sha"] - tree = request_json(f"https://huggingface.co/api/datasets/{TARGET}/tree/{revision}?recursive=true&expand=false") - discussions = request_json(f"https://huggingface.co/api/datasets/{TARGET}/discussions?status=open&p=0") - paths = sorted(item.get("path", "") for item in tree) - open_rows = [{"num": item.get("num"), "title": item.get("title"), "status": item.get("status"), - "author": item.get("author", {}).get("name")} for item in discussions.get("discussions", [])] - terms = ("uzp", "kio", "orzeczenia_uzp", "zamowienia_publiczne") - matches = [path for path in paths if any(term in path.casefold() for term in terms)] - discussion_matches = [row for row in open_rows if any(term in (row.get("title") or "").casefold() - for term in terms)] - report = { - "target": TARGET, "revision": revision, "last_modified": info.get("lastModified"), - "tree_paths": len(paths), "source_path_matches": matches, "open_discussions": open_rows, - "matching_open_discussions": discussion_matches, "source_absent": not matches and not discussion_matches, - "observed_at": now(), - } - save(out / "target_audit.json", report) - print(json.dumps({"revision": revision, "source_absent": report["source_absent"], - "tree_matches": matches, "discussion_matches": discussion_matches}, ensure_ascii=False, indent=2)) - - -def audit_overlap(out): - """Compare our signatures/ids against the shipped SAOS shard (closest legal corpus).""" - import pyarrow.parquet as pq - from huggingface_hub import HfApi, HfFileSystem - - revision = HfApi().dataset_info(TARGET).sha - remote = f"datasets/{TARGET}@{revision}/data/saos/saos.parquet" - try: - with HfFileSystem().open(remote, "rb") as handle: - table = pq.read_table(handle, columns=["id", "attribution"]) - saos_rows = table.to_pylist() - except Exception as error: - saos_rows = [] - print("saos shard unavailable:", error) - saos_sigs = set() - for row in saos_rows: - attribution = row.get("attribution") or "" - for sig in re.findall(r"[IVXLCDM]*\s*[A-Z][a-zA-Z]*\s*\d+/\d+", attribution): - saos_sigs.add(sig.strip().casefold()) - manifest = read_lines(out / "source_manifest.jsonl") - results = [] - for record in manifest: - sig = (record.get("signature") or "").strip() - if sig and sig.casefold() in saos_sigs: - results.append({"doc_id": record["doc_id"], "signature": sig, "kind": record["kind"]}) - report = { - "target": f"{TARGET}:data/saos", "target_revision": revision, - "method": "case-normalized signature match against SAOS attribution strings", - "saos_rows": len(saos_rows), "candidate_records": len(manifest), - "signature_collisions": len(results), - "text_overlap": "not tested; target-wide text dedup remains an integration gate", - "observed_at": now(), - "colliding_ids": [r["doc_id"] for r in results], - "collisions": results[:500], - } - save(out / "overlap_audit.json", report) - print(json.dumps({key: report[key] for key in ("target_revision", "saos_rows", - "candidate_records", "signature_collisions")}, - ensure_ascii=False, indent=2)) - - -def build(out): - import pyarrow as pa - import pyarrow.parquet as pq - import tiktoken - from langid.langid import LanguageIdentifier, model - - acquisition = load(out / "acquisition.json") - selection = load(out / "selection.json") - encoder = tiktoken.get_encoding("cl100k_base") - identifier = LanguageIdentifier.from_modelstring(model, norm_probs=True) - identifier.set_languages(["pl", "en", "de", "uk", "ru"]) - rows, attribution, decisions = [], [], [] - exact_seen = {} - near = NearDuplicateIndex() - - # pass 1: document frequencies of shingles, to drop boilerplate-heavy - # formulas (identical opening lines in ~every KIO ruling) from sketches. - df_sketches = [] - for record in acquisition["selected"]: - if "error" in record: - continue - raw = (out / record["text_path"]).read_text(encoding="utf-8") - df_sketches.append((record["doc_id"], shingle_sketch(normalize(raw)))) - df = shingle_document_frequencies(sketch for _, sketch in df_sketches) - max_df = max(1, int(len(df_sketches) * DF_FRACTION)) - del df_sketches - print(f"df pass done: {len(df)} distinct shingles, max_df={max_df}", flush=True) - pii = Counter() - added = acquisition["observed_at"][:10] - for record in acquisition["selected"]: - row_id = f"{SOURCE}_{record['doc_id']}" - if "error" in record: - decisions.append({"id": row_id, "selected": False, - "reason": "acquisition_failed", "error": record["error"]}) - continue - pdf_path = out / record["pdf_path"] - text_path = out / record["text_path"] - if digest(pdf_path.read_bytes()) != record["pdf_sha256"]: - raise ValueError("PDF checksum mismatch: " + str(record["doc_id"])) - raw = text_path.read_text(encoding="utf-8") - text = normalize(raw) - replacement_count = text.count("\ufffd") - letters = len(re.findall(r"[A-Za-zĄĆĘŁŃÓŚŹŻąćęłńóśźż]", text)) - language, votes = language_vote(identifier, text) - reason = "" - if len(text) < MIN_TEXT_CHARS: - reason = "too_little_extractable_text" - elif letters / max(len(text), 1) < 0.55: - reason = "low_letter_ratio" - elif replacement_count > 100 or replacement_count / max(len(text), 1) > 0.002: - reason = "excessive_replacement_characters" - elif language != "pl": - reason = "non_polish_text" - text = text.replace("\ufffd", "[UNREADABLE_GLYPH]") - text, counts = redact_pii(text) - pii.update(counts) - if not reason and len(text) < MIN_TEXT_CHARS: - reason = "too_little_text_after_redaction" - exact_key = digest(" ".join(text.casefold().split()).encode("utf-8")) - duplicate_of, duplicate_score = None, 0.0 - if not reason and exact_key in exact_seen: - reason, duplicate_of, duplicate_score = "normalized_duplicate", exact_seen[exact_key], 1.0 - if not reason: - sketch = filter_sketch(shingle_sketch(text), df, max_df) - if sketch: - duplicate_of, duplicate_score = near.find(sketch) - if duplicate_of: - reason = "near_duplicate" - decision = { - "id": row_id, "selected": not bool(reason), "reason": reason or "include", - "characters": len(text), "letter_ratio": letters / max(len(text), 1), - "replacement_characters": replacement_count, "language": language, - "language_votes": [{"language": lang, "confidence": float(score)} for lang, score in votes], - } - if duplicate_of: - decision.update({"duplicate_of": duplicate_of, "jaccard": duplicate_score}) - decisions.append(decision) - if reason: - continue - exact_seen[exact_key] = row_id - near.add(row_id, sketch) - details = record.get("details") or {} - organ = record.get("organ") or details.get("organ") or "Unknown" - created = iso_date(record.get("issued") or details.get("issued", "")) - row = { - "id": row_id, "text": text, "source": SOURCE, "added": added, - "created": created, "token_count": len(encoder.encode_ordinary(text)), - "license": LICENSE_LABEL, "author": organ, - } - rows.append(row) - attribution.append({ - "id": row_id, "doc_id": record["doc_id"], "kind": record["kind"], - "organ": organ, "doc_type": record.get("doc_type") or details.get("doc_type", ""), - "signature": record.get("signature") or details.get("signature", ""), - "issued": record.get("issued") or details.get("issued", ""), - "chairman": details.get("chairman", ""), "purchaser": details.get("purchaser", ""), - "provisions": details.get("provisions", ""), - "landing_url": f"{BASE}/Home/Details/{record['doc_id']}", - "pdf_url": details.get("pdf_path_url", ""), - "pdf_sha256": record["pdf_sha256"], "pdf_bytes": record["pdf_bytes"], - "license": LICENSE_LABEL, "license_spdx": LICENSE_SPDX, - "legal_basis": LEGAL_BASIS, - "text_sha256": digest(text.encode("utf-8")), - "transformations": ["per-document PDF via /Home/PdfContent", "pypdf text extraction", - "repeated signature running-head and page-number removal", - "Unicode/whitespace normalization", "line-wrap repair", - "email/labelled-phone/IP/labelled-national-ID/account-candidate pattern redaction"], - }) - root = out / "hf_repo" - (root / "data").mkdir(parents=True, exist_ok=True) - (root / "artifacts").mkdir(parents=True, exist_ok=True) - schema = pa.schema([(field, pa.int64() if field == "token_count" else pa.string()) for field in FIELDS]) - pq.write_table(pa.Table.from_pylist(rows, schema=schema), root / "data/train-00000-of-00001.parquet", - compression="zstd") - write_lines(root / "artifacts/attribution.jsonl", attribution) - write_lines(root / "artifacts/decisions.jsonl", decisions) - write_lines(root / "artifacts/source_manifest.jsonl", read_lines(out / "source_manifest.jsonl")) - sample = sorted(rows, key=lambda row: digest(("sample:" + row["id"]).encode("utf-8")))[:12] - write_lines(root / "artifacts/sample.jsonl", sample) - save(root / "artifacts/selection.json", selection) - save(root / "artifacts/acquisition.json", acquisition) - overlap = load(out / "overlap_audit.json") if (out / "overlap_audit.json").exists() else None - target_audit = load(out / "target_audit.json") if (out / "target_audit.json").exists() else None - if overlap: - save(root / "artifacts/overlap_audit.json", overlap) - if target_audit: - save(root / "artifacts/target_audit.json", target_audit) - stats = { - "reported_totals": selection["reported_totals"], - "enumerated": selection["enumerated"], "per_kind": selection["per_kind"], - "acquired": acquisition["acquired"], "failed": len(acquisition["failed"]), - "kept": len(rows), "rejected": len(decisions) - len(rows), - "rejection_reasons": dict(Counter(d["reason"] for d in decisions if not d["selected"])), - "tokens": sum(row["token_count"] for row in rows), - "characters": sum(len(row["text"]) for row in rows), - "license_counts": dict(Counter(row["license"] for row in rows)), - "sample_count": len(sample), "added": added, - } - save(root / "artifacts/stats.json", stats) - qa = { - "scope": "all rulings enumerated via /Home/GetResults on orzeczenia.uzp.gov.pl (KIO/SO/SA/SN in public procurement matters)", - "license_gate": "official documents excluded from copyright under Polish Copyright Act art. 4(2); no per-record license field exists", - "language_gate": "three-window langid vote (pl/en/de/uk/ru)", - "pii_pattern_matches": dict(pii), - "exact_dedup": True, - "near_dedup": "deterministic prefix-indexed capped 5-word-shingle Jaccard >= 0.90 within source; high document-frequency shingles (>2% of docs, i.e. KIO opening-formula boilerplate) excluded from sketches", - "near_dedup_comparisons": near.comparisons, - "saos_overlap": overlap or "pending", - "cross_source_text_dedup": "pending target integration", - "limitations": [ - "pypdf extraction may retain layout artifacts; tables may be flattened", - "pattern checks are not comprehensive de-identification; natural-person names of parties and adjudicators remain part of the official record", - "official-document status does not cover third-party material quoted inside rulings", - "sequential IDs contain gaps; enumeration follows the server-side result list, not the ID range", - ], - } - save(root / "artifacts/qa.json", qa) - protocol_id = "protocol:uzp-orzeczenia-v1" - run = { - "id": "run:" + digest({"script": digest(Path(__file__).read_bytes()), "selection": selection, - "acquisition": digest(acquisition)}), - "protocol": protocol_id, "started_at": selection["observed_at"], "finished_at": now(), - "success": True, "actor": "actor:devin", "stats": stats, - } - save(root / "artifacts/run.json", run) - excluded = {"README.md", "NOTICE.md", "artifacts/checksums.json", "artifacts/ontology.json"} - checks = {path.relative_to(root).as_posix(): digest(path.read_bytes()) for path in sorted(root.rglob("*")) - if path.is_file() - and path.relative_to(root).as_posix() not in excluded - and not path.relative_to(root).as_posix().startswith("src/")} - save(root / "artifacts/checksums.json", checks) - source_version = "version:source:" + digest({"manifest": selection["source_manifest_sha256"]}) - dataset_version = "version:dataset:" + digest(checks) - selection_evidence = "evidence:selection:" + digest(selection) - acquisition_evidence = "evidence:acquisition:" + digest(acquisition) - qa_evidence = "evidence:qa:" + digest(qa) - evidence = [ - {"id": selection_evidence, "observation_type": "source_inventory_and_selection", - "artifact": "artifacts/selection.json", "content_address": digest(selection), "produced_by": run["id"]}, - {"id": acquisition_evidence, "observation_type": "pdf_acquisition_and_extraction", - "artifact": "artifacts/acquisition.json", "content_address": digest(acquisition), "produced_by": run["id"]}, - {"id": qa_evidence, "observation_type": "source_qa", "artifact": "artifacts/qa.json", - "content_address": digest(qa), "produced_by": run["id"]}, - ] - overlap_evidence = None - if overlap: - overlap_evidence = "evidence:overlap:" + digest(overlap) - evidence.append({"id": overlap_evidence, "observation_type": "metadata_overlap_audit", - "artifact": "artifacts/overlap_audit.json", "content_address": digest(overlap), - "produced_by": run["id"]}) - target_evidence = None - if target_audit: - target_evidence = "evidence:target:" + digest(target_audit) - evidence.append({"id": target_evidence, "observation_type": "target_registry_audit", - "artifact": "artifacts/target_audit.json", "content_address": digest(target_audit), - "produced_by": run["id"]}) - ontology = { - "schema": "slayer-research-ontology-profile-v1", - "objects": [{"id": "object:source:uzp-orzeczenia", "type": "Source"}, - {"id": "object:dataset:uzp-orzeczenia-pl", "type": "Dataset"}], - "versions": [{"id": source_version, "object": "object:source:uzp-orzeczenia", - "content_address": source_version.rsplit(":", 1)[-1]}, - {"id": dataset_version, "object": "object:dataset:uzp-orzeczenia-pl", - "content_address": dataset_version.rsplit(":", 1)[-1]}], - "protocols": [{"id": protocol_id, - "procedure": "enumerate /Home/GetResults per kind; fetch /Home/Details metadata and /Home/PdfContent PDF; pypdf extraction; running-head/page-number removal; normalization; PII patterns; exact and near dedup"}], - "runs": [run], "evidence": evidence, - "claims": [ - {"id": "claim:enumeration-complete", - "statement": f"The result-list enumeration observed {selection['enumerated']} documents across kinds {selection['per_kind']} matching server-reported totals {selection['reported_totals']}.", - "supported_by": [selection_evidence], - "falsification_condition": "The preserved manifest does not reproduce the counts or the server totals differ."}, - {"id": "claim:official-documents", - "statement": "Retained records are official rulings of KIO, district courts, administrative courts and the Supreme Court in public procurement matters, excluded from copyright under Polish Copyright Act art. 4(2).", - "supported_by": [selection_evidence, qa_evidence], - "falsification_condition": "A retained record is shown to be a non-official or non-ruling document."}, - {"id": "claim:slice-retention", - "statement": f"The slice retained {stats['kept']} records after text QA and within-source deduplication.", - "supported_by": [acquisition_evidence, qa_evidence], - "falsification_condition": "The decisions, Parquet rows, or checksums do not reproduce the retention count."}, - {"id": "claim:training-value-untested", - "statement": "Net corpus novelty and training benefit remain untested hypotheses.", - "supported_by": [qa_evidence] + ([overlap_evidence] if overlap_evidence else []), - "falsification_condition": "Target-wide text deduplication and controlled ablations establish those properties."}, - ], - "actors": [{"id": "actor:piotrsty", "type": "Contributor"}, - {"id": "actor:uzp", "type": "Organization"}, {"id": "actor:devin", "type": "Agent"}], - "relations": [{"source": dataset_version, "predicate": "DERIVED_FROM", "target": source_version}, - {"source": dataset_version, "predicate": "GENERATED_BY", "target": run["id"]}] + - ([{"source": dataset_version, "predicate": "VALIDATED_AGAINST", - "target": f"hf:dataset:{TARGET}@{target_audit['revision']}"}] if target_audit else []), - "pending": ["formal legal review of art. 4(2) application", "cross-source text deduplication", - "benchmark contamination check", "third-party quoted material review", - "controlled training ablation"], - } - save(root / "artifacts/ontology.json", ontology) - card = f"""--- -license: other -language: -- pl -task_categories: -- text-generation -configs: -- config_name: default - data_files: - - split: train - path: data/train-00000-of-00001.parquet ---- - -# UZP Orzeczenia - Polish public-procurement rulings (KIO/SO/SA/SN) - -Polish-language rulings from the official decision search service of the Public -Procurement Office (https://orzeczenia.uzp.gov.pl/): the National Appeals Chamber -(KIO), district courts (SO), administrative courts (SA) and the Supreme Court -(SN) in public procurement matters. - -- Enumerated documents: {stats['enumerated']:,} (per kind: {stats['per_kind']}) -- Acquired PDFs: {stats['acquired']:,} (failed: {stats['failed']}) -- Retained after text QA and within-source deduplication: {stats['kept']:,} -- Characters: {stats['characters']:,} -- Tokens: {stats['tokens']:,} (`cl100k_base` proxy) -- License label: `{LICENSE_LABEL}` - -## Provenance and rights - -Rulings are official documents excluded from copyright under Polish Copyright -Act art. 4(2) (LicenseRef-Polish-Official-Documents). No Creative Commons grant -is asserted. Each row links to its `/Home/Details` landing URL, PDF URL and -checksum; `artifacts/attribution.jsonl` carries organ, document type, -signature, issue date, chairman, purchaser and key provisions per record. - -## Processing and limitations - -Text was extracted from the service PDFs with pypdf, then normalized: -repeated signature running-heads and page numbers removed, Unicode/whitespace -normalization, line-wrap repair, and limited email/phone/IP/identifier/account -pattern redaction. Language is checked independently across three text windows; -exact and deterministic near deduplication run within the source. - -Pattern checks are not comprehensive de-identification: names of parties, -adjudicators and quoted natural persons remain part of the official record. -PDF-derived text may retain layout artifacts and flattened tables. - -## Review artifacts - -See `artifacts/sample.jsonl`, `attribution.jsonl`, `decisions.jsonl`, -`source_manifest.jsonl`, `overlap_audit.json`, `stats.json`, `qa.json`, -`checksums.json`, `run.json` and `ontology.json`. -""" - (root / "README.md").write_text(card, encoding="utf-8") - (root / "NOTICE.md").write_text( - "# Attribution and legal basis\n\n" - "Source: UZP decision search service, https://orzeczenia.uzp.gov.pl/ " - "(Urzad Zamowien Publicznych / Public Procurement Office).\n\n" - "Records are official rulings (KIO, district courts, administrative courts, Supreme Court) in public " - "procurement matters. Working basis: Polish Copyright Act art. 4(2) excludes official documents from " - "copyright; no per-record license field exists on the service. Formal legal review has not been performed. " - "Consult `artifacts/attribution.jsonl` for per-record provenance (organ, signature, issue date, URLs, checksums).\n\n" - "Preparation: Piotr Styla with Devin (Cognition). Changes: service-PDF text extraction, running-head and " - "page-number removal, Unicode/whitespace normalization, line-wrap repair, limited email/phone/IP/" - "identifier/account pattern redaction, language/quality filtering and within-source deduplication. " - "Names of parties and adjudicators remain as part of the official record. No endorsement by UZP, KIO " - "or the courts is implied.\n", - encoding="utf-8", - ) - print(json.dumps(stats, ensure_ascii=False, indent=2)) - - -def verify(out): - import pyarrow.parquet as pq - import tiktoken - - root = out / "hf_repo" - table = pq.read_table(root / "data/train-00000-of-00001.parquet") - rows = table.to_pylist() - stats = load(root / "artifacts/stats.json") - decisions = read_lines(root / "artifacts/decisions.jsonl") - attribution = read_lines(root / "artifacts/attribution.jsonl") - sample = read_lines(root / "artifacts/sample.jsonl") - assert table.column_names == FIELDS - assert len(rows) == stats["kept"] == len(attribution) - assert sum(item["selected"] for item in decisions) == len(rows) - encoder = tiktoken.get_encoding("cl100k_base") - assert sum(row["token_count"] for row in rows) == stats["tokens"] - for row in rows: - assert len(encoder.encode_ordinary(row["text"])) == row["token_count"] - assert all(row["source"] == SOURCE and row["license"] == LICENSE_LABEL for row in rows) - assert all(EMAIL_RE.search(row["text"]) is None for row in rows) - assert all(len(row["text"]) >= MIN_TEXT_CHARS for row in rows) - by_id = {row["id"]: row for row in rows} - assert len(sample) == stats["sample_count"] and all(by_id[row["id"]] == row for row in sample) - # reconstruct every retained text from the extracted source - for att in attribution: - doc_id = att["doc_id"] - raw = (out / "raw_text" / f"{doc_id}.txt").read_text(encoding="utf-8") - text = normalize(raw).replace("\ufffd", "[UNREADABLE_GLYPH]") - text, _ = redact_pii(text) - assert text == by_id[att["id"]]["text"], f"text mismatch: {doc_id}" - assert digest(text.encode("utf-8")) == att["text_sha256"] - ontology = load(root / "artifacts/ontology.json") - evidence = {item["id"] for item in ontology["evidence"]} - assert all(item["falsification_condition"] and set(item["supported_by"]) <= evidence for item in ontology["claims"]) - checks = load(root / "artifacts/checksums.json") - assert all((root / path).is_file() and digest((root / path).read_bytes()) == checksum - for path, checksum in checks.items()) - for item in ontology["evidence"]: - artifact = root / item["artifact"] - assert artifact.is_file() and digest(load(artifact)) == item["content_address"] - # residual PII pattern scan - residual = { - name: sum(bool(pattern.search(row["text"])) for row in rows) - for name, pattern in {"email": EMAIL_RE, "labelled_phone": PHONE_RE, - "ipv4": IPV4_RE, "ipv6": IPV6_RE}.items() - } - report = {"verified": True, "residual_patterns": residual, **stats} - save(out / "validation_report.json", report) - print(json.dumps(report, ensure_ascii=False, indent=2)) - - -def main(): - parser = argparse.ArgumentParser() - parser.add_argument("--output", type=Path, required=True) - parser.add_argument("--workers", type=int, default=8) - parser.add_argument("command", choices=["discover", "acquire", "audit_target", "audit_overlap", - "build", "verify"]) - args = parser.parse_args() - if args.command == "discover": - discover(args.output, args.workers) - elif args.command == "acquire": - acquire(args.output, args.workers) - elif args.command == "audit_target": - audit_target(args.output) - elif args.command == "audit_overlap": - audit_overlap(args.output) - elif args.command == "build": - build(args.output) - else: - verify(args.output) - - -if __name__ == "__main__": - main() diff --git a/src/clean_hplt_v3.py b/src/clean_hplt_v3.py index d13ffd2fceef46e4cea733cd02644b8d460cc397..c888b9ce6a47c3d2b7bc7d6978bbb3540603dc9d 100644 --- a/src/clean_hplt_v3.py +++ b/src/clean_hplt_v3.py @@ -16,8 +16,6 @@ import zstandard as zstd import pyarrow as pa, pyarrow.parquet as pq import tiktoken -sys.path.insert(0, str(Path(__file__).resolve().parent)) - ADDED = "2026-07-14" SOURCE = "european_hplt_v3_pl" LICENSE = "CC0-1.0" diff --git a/src/clean_samorzad_gov_pl.py b/src/clean_samorzad_gov_pl.py deleted file mode 100644 index 479e8f92f004f49e8c693389016f55409eba49d9..0000000000000000000000000000000000000000 --- a/src/clean_samorzad_gov_pl.py +++ /dev/null @@ -1,513 +0,0 @@ -#!/usr/bin/env python3 -"""Convert dawidmajewski/samorzad-gov-pl-articles to DynaWord. - -The input is the published source dataset. Institution names are frozen in a -committed publisher manifest generated from each tenant homepage's -``og:site_name`` metadata. The output uses DynaWord's canonical eight columns -and writes a URL-bearing attribution sidecar for CC-BY-SA compliance. -""" -from __future__ import annotations - -import argparse -import hashlib -import html as html_module -import http.client -import json -import os -import re -import shutil -import tempfile -import time -import urllib.request -from pathlib import Path - -import pyarrow as pa -import pyarrow.dataset as ds -import pyarrow.parquet as pq - -SOURCE = "samorzad_gov_pl" -LICENSE = "CC-BY-SA-4.0" -LICENSE_URL = "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/" -UPSTREAM_DATASET = "dawidmajewski/samorzad-gov-pl-articles" -UPSTREAM_REVISION = "d5eaefc32c3f17cfa5a01d14573f8e4ee7d43385" -UPSTREAM_TEXT_SHA256 = "6c35e1dc0bd35863ddb2f4e43d5bd08264c1fc27affdd60684ab5ecbc5457f63" -UPSTREAM_MANIFEST_SHA256 = "97b5a266b2fd4f043648b7d3c757721cd826c7ca1048301761084b0abdee5c48" -UPSTREAM_EXPECTED = { - "manifest_sha256": UPSTREAM_MANIFEST_SHA256, - "dataset_id": UPSTREAM_DATASET, - "schema_version": "1.0.0", - "record_count": 81_422, - "record_text_sha256": UPSTREAM_TEXT_SHA256, -} -MIN_CHARS = 200 -MIN_POLISH_RATIO = 0.005 -POLISH_RE = re.compile(r"[ąćęłńóśźżĄĆĘŁŃÓŚŹŻ]") -ALPHA_RE = re.compile(r"[^\W\d_]", re.UNICODE) -_SITE_NAME_RE = re.compile( - r"<meta\b(?=[^>]*\bproperty\s*=\s*['\"]og:site_name['\"])(?=[^>]*\bcontent\s*=\s*(['\"])(.*?)\1)[^>]*>", - re.IGNORECASE | re.DOTALL, -) -_TITLE_RE = re.compile(r"<title\b[^>]*>(.*?)", re.IGNORECASE | re.DOTALL) -DYNAWORD_SCHEMA = pa.schema( - [ - ("id", pa.string()), - ("text", pa.string()), - ("source", pa.string()), - ("added", pa.string()), - ("created", pa.string()), - ("token_count", pa.int64()), - ("license", pa.string()), - ("author", pa.string()), - ] -) - - -def _clean_html_text(value: str) -> str: - value = re.sub(r"<[^>]+>", " ", value) - return " ".join(html_module.unescape(value).split()) - - -def publisher_name_from_html(html: str) -> str: - """Extract the human-readable institution name from a tenant homepage.""" - match = _SITE_NAME_RE.search(html) - if match: - return _clean_html_text(match.group(2)) - match = _TITLE_RE.search(html) - if not match: - return "" - title = _clean_html_text(match.group(1)) - prefix, suffix = "Strona główna - ", " - Portal gov.pl" - if title.startswith(prefix) and title.endswith(suffix): - return title[len(prefix) : -len(suffix)].strip() - return "" - - -def _fetch(url: str, attempts: int = 5) -> str: - last_error: Exception | None = None - for attempt in range(attempts): - try: - request = urllib.request.Request( - url, - headers={"User-Agent": "Polish-DynaWord-source-builder/1.0"}, - ) - with urllib.request.urlopen(request, timeout=45) as response: - return response.read().decode("utf-8", "replace") - except (OSError, TimeoutError, http.client.HTTPException) as error: - last_error = error - time.sleep(2**attempt) - raise RuntimeError(f"Could not fetch {url}: {last_error}") - - -def refresh_publishers(tenants: list[str], output: Path) -> dict[str, str]: - """Fetch and freeze one verified display name for every source tenant.""" - publishers: dict[str, str] = {} - failures: list[str] = [] - for index, tenant in enumerate(sorted(set(tenants)), 1): - url = f"https://samorzad.gov.pl/web/{tenant}" - try: - name = publisher_name_from_html(_fetch(url)) - except RuntimeError: - name = "" - if not name: - failures.append(tenant) - else: - publishers[tenant] = name - print(f"publishers {index}/{len(set(tenants))}: {tenant} -> {name or 'FAILED'}") - if failures: - raise RuntimeError( - "Publisher-name refresh incomplete; retry before release: " - + ", ".join(failures) - ) - output.parent.mkdir(parents=True, exist_ok=True) - output.write_text( - json.dumps( - { - "schema_version": "1.0.0", - "source": "tenant homepage og:site_name", - "publishers": publishers, - }, - ensure_ascii=False, - indent=2, - sort_keys=True, - ) - + "\n", - encoding="utf-8", - ) - return publishers - - -def load_publishers(path: Path) -> dict[str, str]: - data = json.loads(path.read_text(encoding="utf-8")) - publishers = data.get("publishers") - if data.get("schema_version") != "1.0.0" or not isinstance(publishers, dict): - raise ValueError(f"Invalid publisher manifest: {path}") - if not all(isinstance(k, str) and isinstance(v, str) and v.strip() for k, v in publishers.items()): - raise ValueError(f"Empty or invalid publisher in {path}") - return publishers - - -def _file_sha256(path: Path) -> str: - digest = hashlib.sha256() - with path.open("rb") as handle: - for chunk in iter(lambda: handle.read(1024 * 1024), b""): - digest.update(chunk) - return digest.hexdigest() - - -def verify_upstream_release( - input_path: Path, - manifest_path: Path, - expected: dict[str, object] = UPSTREAM_EXPECTED, -) -> dict: - """Fail closed unless input exactly matches the pinned published release.""" - input_path = input_path.resolve() - manifest_path = manifest_path.resolve() - raw_manifest = manifest_path.read_bytes() - if hashlib.sha256(raw_manifest).hexdigest() != expected["manifest_sha256"]: - raise ValueError("Upstream manifest hash mismatch") - manifest = json.loads(raw_manifest) - for key in ("dataset_id", "schema_version", "record_count", "record_text_sha256"): - if manifest.get(key) != expected[key]: - raise ValueError(f"Upstream manifest {key} mismatch") - - artifact_paths: list[Path] = [] - artifact_records = 0 - for artifact in manifest.get("artifacts", []): - path = (manifest_path.parent / artifact["path"]).resolve() - if path.parent != input_path: - raise ValueError(f"Upstream artifact outside input directory: {path}") - if not path.is_file(): - raise ValueError(f"Missing upstream artifact: {path}") - if path.stat().st_size != artifact["bytes"]: - raise ValueError(f"Upstream artifact size mismatch: {path.name}") - if _file_sha256(path) != artifact["sha256"]: - raise ValueError(f"Upstream artifact hash mismatch: {path.name}") - if pq.ParquetFile(path).metadata.num_rows != artifact["records"]: - raise ValueError(f"Upstream artifact row-count mismatch: {path.name}") - artifact_paths.append(path) - artifact_records += artifact["records"] - - actual_paths = sorted(path.resolve() for path in input_path.glob("*.parquet")) - if sorted(artifact_paths) != actual_paths: - raise ValueError("Upstream artifact set differs from manifest") - if artifact_records != expected["record_count"]: - raise ValueError("Upstream artifact record total mismatch") - - source_dataset = ds.dataset([str(path) for path in actual_paths], format="parquet") - if source_dataset.schema.names != manifest["record_fields"]: - raise ValueError("Upstream Parquet schema differs from manifest") - source_rows = source_dataset.to_table(columns=["record_id", "text"]).to_pylist() - if len(source_rows) != expected["record_count"]: - raise ValueError("Upstream dataset record count mismatch") - source_rows.sort(key=lambda row: row["record_id"]) - if len({row["record_id"] for row in source_rows}) != len(source_rows): - raise ValueError("Upstream record IDs are not unique") - text_digest = hashlib.sha256() - for row in source_rows: - text_digest.update(row["record_id"].encode()) - text_digest.update(b"\0") - text_digest.update(row["text"].encode()) - text_digest.update(b"\n") - if text_digest.hexdigest() != expected["record_text_sha256"]: - raise ValueError("Upstream record-text digest mismatch") - return manifest - - -def normalize_record( - source: dict, - publishers: dict[str, str], - token_count: int, - added: str, -) -> tuple[dict, dict]: - tenant = str(source["tenant"]) - try: - publisher = publishers[tenant] - except KeyError as error: - raise KeyError(f"No publisher name for tenant {tenant}") from error - record_id = f"{SOURCE}_{source['record_id']}" - created = source.get("published_date") or "" - source_url = str(source["source_url"]) - final_url = str(source.get("final_url") or source_url) - row = { - "id": record_id, - "text": str(source["text"]), - "source": SOURCE, - "added": added, - "created": str(created), - "token_count": int(token_count), - "license": LICENSE, - "author": publisher, - } - attribution = { - "id": record_id, - "title": str(source.get("title") or ""), - "source_url": source_url, - "final_url": final_url, - "attribution_url": final_url, - "publisher": publisher, - "tenant": tenant, - "publisher_type": str(source.get("publisher_type") or ""), - "license": LICENSE, - "license_url": LICENSE_URL, - "modified": True, - "modification_notice": ( - "Article text was extracted from the source HTML. This DynaWord " - "release normalizes metadata and may exclude short, non-Polish or " - "duplicate records; the retained text is otherwise unchanged." - ), - } - return row, attribution - - -def _polish_ratio(text: str) -> float: - letters = ALPHA_RE.findall(text) - return len(POLISH_RE.findall(text)) / len(letters) if letters else 0.0 - - -def _text_hash(text: str) -> bytes: - return hashlib.sha256(text.encode("utf-8")).digest() - - -def existing_text_hashes(repo_root: Path, output_path: Path) -> set[bytes]: - """Load exact-text hashes from all existing DynaWord source Parquets.""" - hashes: set[bytes] = set() - output_resolved = output_path.resolve() - for path in sorted((repo_root / "data").glob("*/*.parquet")): - if path.resolve() == output_resolved or path.parent.name == SOURCE: - continue - for batch in pq.ParquetFile(path).iter_batches(columns=["text"], batch_size=4096): - hashes.update(_text_hash(text) for text in batch.column(0).to_pylist() if text) - return hashes - - -def _fsync_path(path: Path) -> None: - with path.open("rb") as handle: - os.fsync(handle.fileno()) - - -def _write_text_synced(path: Path, content: str) -> None: - with path.open("w", encoding="utf-8") as handle: - handle.write(content) - handle.flush() - os.fsync(handle.fileno()) - - -def _validate_staged_release(staged_dir: Path) -> None: - parquet_path = staged_dir / f"{SOURCE}.parquet" - sidecar_path = staged_dir / f"{SOURCE}.attribution.jsonl" - stats = json.loads((staged_dir / f"{SOURCE}.stats.json").read_text()) - table = pq.read_table(parquet_path) - if table.schema != DYNAWORD_SCHEMA or table.num_rows != stats["kept"]: - raise ValueError("Staged Parquet does not match canonical schema or stats") - ids = table["id"].to_pylist() - authors = table["author"].to_pylist() - if len(ids) != len(set(ids)): - raise ValueError("Staged IDs are not unique") - sidecar_count = 0 - with sidecar_path.open(encoding="utf-8") as handle: - for sidecar_count, (line, record_id, author) in enumerate( - zip(handle, ids, authors, strict=True), - 1, - ): - attribution = json.loads(line) - if attribution["id"] != record_id or attribution["publisher"] != author: - raise ValueError("Staged sidecar does not match Parquet order") - if attribution["attribution_url"] != attribution["final_url"]: - raise ValueError("Staged attribution URL is not the fetched final URL") - if sidecar_count != stats["kept"]: - raise ValueError("Staged sidecar count does not match stats") - - -def _replace_release(staged_dir: Path, output_dir: Path) -> None: - """Replace a validated artifact set, restoring the previous set on error.""" - names = ( - f"{SOURCE}.parquet", - f"{SOURCE}.attribution.jsonl", - f"{SOURCE}.stats.json", - ) - backup_dir = staged_dir / "backup" - backup_dir.mkdir() - had_previous: set[str] = set() - for name in names: - destination = output_dir / name - if destination.exists(): - shutil.copy2(destination, backup_dir / name) - _fsync_path(backup_dir / name) - had_previous.add(name) - try: - for name in names: - os.replace(staged_dir / name, output_dir / name) - directory_fd = os.open(output_dir, os.O_RDONLY) - try: - os.fsync(directory_fd) - finally: - os.close(directory_fd) - except BaseException: - for name in names: - destination = output_dir / name - backup = backup_dir / name - if name in had_previous: - os.replace(backup, destination) - elif destination.exists(): - destination.unlink() - raise - - -def build( - input_path: Path, - manifest_path: Path, - repo_root: Path, - publishers_path: Path, - added: str, - refresh: bool, -) -> dict: - manifest = verify_upstream_release(input_path, manifest_path) - source_dataset = ds.dataset(str(input_path), format="parquet") - source_table = source_dataset.to_table( - columns=[ - "record_id", - "source_url", - "final_url", - "tenant", - "publisher_type", - "title", - "text", - "published_date", - ] - ) - records = sorted(source_table.to_pylist(), key=lambda row: row["record_id"]) - tenants = sorted({row["tenant"] for row in records}) - tenant_types = {row["tenant"]: row["publisher_type"] for row in records} - publishers = ( - refresh_publishers(tenants, publishers_path) - if refresh - else load_publishers(publishers_path) - ) - missing = sorted(set(tenants) - set(publishers)) - if missing: - raise RuntimeError(f"Publisher manifest misses {len(missing)} tenants: {missing}") - - output_dir = repo_root / "data" / SOURCE - output_dir.mkdir(parents=True, exist_ok=True) - parquet_path = output_dir / f"{SOURCE}.parquet" - prior_hashes = existing_text_hashes(repo_root, parquet_path) - seen = set(prior_hashes) - - candidates: list[dict] = [] - stats = { - "read": len(records), - "kept": 0, - "drop_short": 0, - "drop_lang": 0, - "drop_dup": 0, - "drop_ocr": 0, - "chars": 0, - "tokens": 0, - "licenses": {LICENSE: 0}, - "authors_with_value": 0, - "publisher_count": len(publishers), - "local_public_tenant_count": sum( - publisher_type != "central" for publisher_type in tenant_types.values() - ), - "central_tenant_count": sum( - publisher_type == "central" for publisher_type in tenant_types.values() - ), - "redirected_urls": 0, - "cross_source_hashes_loaded": len(prior_hashes), - "license": LICENSE, - "upstream_dataset": UPSTREAM_DATASET, - "upstream_revision": UPSTREAM_REVISION, - "upstream_record_text_sha256": UPSTREAM_TEXT_SHA256, - "upstream_manifest_sha256": hashlib.sha256(manifest_path.read_bytes()).hexdigest(), - "upstream_artifact_count": len(manifest["artifacts"]), - } - for record in records: - text = str(record.get("text") or "").strip() - if len(text) < MIN_CHARS: - stats["drop_short"] += 1 - continue - if _polish_ratio(text) < MIN_POLISH_RATIO: - stats["drop_lang"] += 1 - continue - digest = _text_hash(text) - if digest in seen: - stats["drop_dup"] += 1 - continue - seen.add(digest) - record["text"] = text - candidates.append(record) - - import tiktoken - - encoder = tiktoken.get_encoding("cl100k_base") - token_counts = [ - len(tokens) - for tokens in encoder.encode_ordinary_batch( - [record["text"] for record in candidates], num_threads=8 - ) - ] - rows: list[dict] = [] - attribution_rows: list[dict] = [] - for source_row, token_count in zip(candidates, token_counts, strict=True): - row, attribution = normalize_record(source_row, publishers, token_count, added) - rows.append(row) - attribution_rows.append(attribution) - stats["kept"] += 1 - stats["chars"] += len(row["text"]) - stats["tokens"] += token_count - stats["licenses"][LICENSE] += 1 - stats["authors_with_value"] += int(bool(row["author"])) - stats["redirected_urls"] += int( - attribution["source_url"] != attribution["final_url"] - ) - - table = pa.Table.from_pylist(rows, schema=DYNAWORD_SCHEMA) - with tempfile.TemporaryDirectory(prefix=f".{SOURCE}-", dir=output_dir) as temp: - staged_dir = Path(temp) - staged_parquet = staged_dir / f"{SOURCE}.parquet" - staged_sidecar = staged_dir / f"{SOURCE}.attribution.jsonl" - staged_stats = staged_dir / f"{SOURCE}.stats.json" - pq.write_table(table, staged_parquet, compression="zstd", row_group_size=4096) - _fsync_path(staged_parquet) - _write_text_synced( - staged_sidecar, - "".join( - json.dumps(row, ensure_ascii=False, sort_keys=True) + "\n" - for row in attribution_rows - ), - ) - _write_text_synced( - staged_stats, - json.dumps(stats, ensure_ascii=False, indent=2, sort_keys=True) + "\n", - ) - _validate_staged_release(staged_dir) - _replace_release(staged_dir, output_dir) - return stats - - -def main() -> None: - parser = argparse.ArgumentParser() - parser.add_argument("--input", type=Path, required=True, help="directory containing source Parquet shards") - parser.add_argument( - "--manifest", - type=Path, - help="pinned source manifest (default: MANIFEST next to the input directory)", - ) - parser.add_argument("--repo-root", type=Path, default=Path(__file__).resolve().parents[1]) - parser.add_argument("--publishers", type=Path, default=Path(__file__).with_name("samorzad_gov_pl_publishers.json")) - parser.add_argument("--added", required=True) - parser.add_argument("--refresh-publishers", action="store_true") - args = parser.parse_args() - stats = build( - input_path=args.input, - manifest_path=args.manifest or args.input.parent / "manifest.json", - repo_root=args.repo_root.resolve(), - publishers_path=args.publishers, - added=args.added, - refresh=args.refresh_publishers, - ) - print(json.dumps(stats, ensure_ascii=False, indent=2)) - - -if __name__ == "__main__": - main() diff --git a/src/fetch_govpl.py b/src/fetch_govpl.py index 3276fb10297f5582ba294d133e03b306379551c0..9124e628b36c4fd401760c5e33c554f01e594fdf 100644 --- a/src/fetch_govpl.py +++ b/src/fetch_govpl.py @@ -21,15 +21,18 @@ Usage: from __future__ import annotations import argparse, json, re, subprocess, sys, threading, time from concurrent.futures import ThreadPoolExecutor +from html import unescape from pathlib import Path sys.path.insert(0, str(Path(__file__).resolve().parent)) from discover_govpl import BASE, http_get, http_get_url, listing_articles # shared, DRY -from html_text import html_to_text KEY = "govpl" # build_dynaword reads .jsonl.zst MIN_CHARS = 200 # same floor as build_dynaword; skip stubs early +_SCRIPT = re.compile(r"(?is)<(script|style)[^>]*>.*?") +_BLOCK_END = re.compile(r"(?i)|") +_TAG = re.compile(r"<[^>]+>") # Body ends where the editor-content region gives way to gallery/attachments/tags. _END_MARKER = re.compile( r'<[^>]+class="[^"]*(?:attachments|art-tags|tags|social|share|gallery|files)[^"]*"' @@ -37,6 +40,17 @@ _END_MARKER = re.compile( _EDITOR = re.compile(r'
]*>', re.I) +def html_to_text(html: str) -> str: + html = _SCRIPT.sub("", html) + html = _BLOCK_END.sub("\n", html) + html = _TAG.sub("", html) + text = unescape(html) + text = re.sub(r"[ \t]+", " ", text) + text = re.sub(r" *\n *", "\n", text) + text = re.sub(r"\n{3,}", "\n\n", text) + return text.strip() + + def article_body(html: str) -> str: """Text of the article body. gov.pl pages carry the class twice; pick the richest editor-content region and cut at the trailing gallery/attachments. diff --git a/src/fetch_rock_pollub_pl.py b/src/fetch_rock_pollub_pl.py deleted file mode 100644 index bd0e058f63485c4fe51e3d1db2afd124a7041f31..0000000000000000000000000000000000000000 --- a/src/fetch_rock_pollub_pl.py +++ /dev/null @@ -1,720 +0,0 @@ -#!/usr/bin/env python3 -"""Build an auditable pilot from Polish CC BY-SA books in the ROCK repository.""" -from __future__ import annotations - -import argparse -import ast -from collections import Counter -from datetime import datetime, timezone -import hashlib -import json -import os -from pathlib import Path -import pprint -import re -import shutil -import subprocess -import sys -from difflib import SequenceMatcher -import unicodedata - -import requests - -SOURCE = "rock_pollub_pl" -OWN_REPO = "PiotrSty/rock-pollub-pl-books" -TARGET = "SlayerLab/polish-dynaword" -COLLECTION_ID = "a42db069-319d-4d51-88d1-490ee7e6bad8" -API = "https://rock.pollub.pl/server/api" -COLLECTION_URL = "https://rock.pollub.pl/collections/a42db069-319d-4d51-88d1-490ee7e6bad8" -POLICY_URL = "https://wpl.pollub.pl/pl/i/Polityka-publikacyjna/20" -LICENSE = "CC-BY-SA-4.0" -LICENSE_URL = "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/" -FIELDS = ["id", "text", "source", "added", "created", "token_count", "license", "author"] -UA = "ROCKPollubCorpusResearch/0.1 (PiotrSty; open research pilot)" -BOOK_SUBTYPES = {"Monograph", "Handbook", "Workbook"} -MAX_PDF_BYTES = 50 * 1024 * 1024 -EMAIL_RE = re.compile(r"(?i)\b[A-Z0-9._%+-]+@[A-Z0-9.-]+\.[A-Z]{2,}\b") -PHONE_RE = re.compile(r"(?i)(?:\btelefon|\btel\.)\s*:?[ \t]*(?:\+48[ \t]*)?\d(?:[ .-]?\d){8}\b") - - -def now(): - return datetime.now(timezone.utc).isoformat() - - -def digest(value): - if not isinstance(value, bytes): - value = json.dumps(value, ensure_ascii=False, sort_keys=True, separators=(",", ":")).encode("utf-8") - return hashlib.sha256(value).hexdigest() - - -def save(path, value): - path.parent.mkdir(parents=True, exist_ok=True) - path.write_text(json.dumps(value, ensure_ascii=False, sort_keys=True, indent=2) + "\n", encoding="utf-8") - - -def write_lines(path, rows): - path.parent.mkdir(parents=True, exist_ok=True) - path.write_text("".join(json.dumps(row, ensure_ascii=False, sort_keys=True) + "\n" for row in rows), encoding="utf-8") - - -def read_lines(path): - return [json.loads(line) for line in path.read_text(encoding="utf-8").splitlines() if line] - - -def load(path): - return json.loads(path.read_text(encoding="utf-8")) - - -def values(metadata, key): - return [str(item.get("value", "")).strip() for item in metadata.get(key, []) if str(item.get("value", "")).strip()] - - -def request_json(url, params=None, attempts=3): - response = None - for attempt in range(attempts): - response = requests.get(url, params=params, headers={"User-Agent": UA}, timeout=(15, 30)) - if response.status_code not in (429, 500, 502, 503, 504): - response.raise_for_status() - return response.json() - import time - time.sleep(2 ** attempt) - response.raise_for_status() - - -def download(url, path, attempts=3): - response = None - for attempt in range(attempts): - response = requests.get(url, headers={"User-Agent": UA}, timeout=(15, 120), stream=True) - if response.status_code not in (429, 500, 502, 503, 504): - response.raise_for_status() - with path.open("wb") as handle: - for block in response.iter_content(1024 * 1024): - if block: - handle.write(block) - return - import time - time.sleep(2 ** attempt) - response.raise_for_status() - - -def embedded(payload, name): - return payload.get("_embedded", {}).get(name, []) - - -def normalize(text): - text = unicodedata.normalize("NFKC", text or "").replace("\u00ad", "").replace("\u200b", "") - text = re.sub(r"[\x00-\x08\x0b\x0c\x0e-\x1f\x7f]", "", text) - lines = [re.sub(r"[ \t\xa0]+", " ", line).strip() for line in text.splitlines()] - lines = [line for line in lines if not re.fullmatch(r"\d{1,4}", line)] - text = "\n".join(lines) - text = re.sub(r"(?<=\w)-\n(?=[a-ząćęłńóśźż])", "", text) - text = re.sub(r"(?= limit: - break - if not candidate(item): - continue - item_id = item["uuid"] - metadata = item["metadata"] - try: - print(f"Inspecting candidate {item_id}: {item.get('name', '')}", flush=True) - pdf = choose_pdf(item_id) - pdf_rights = values(pdf.get("metadata", {}), "dc.rights") - if LICENSE.replace("-", " ") not in pdf_rights and "CC-BY-SA 4.0" not in pdf_rights: - raise ValueError("original PDF bitstream lacks CC-BY-SA 4.0 evidence") - if int(pdf.get("sizeBytes", 0)) > MAX_PDF_BYTES: - raise ValueError(f"PDF exceeds pilot limit of {MAX_PDF_BYTES} bytes") - download(pdf["_links"]["content"]["href"], temp_pdf) - if temp_pdf.stat().st_size != int(pdf.get("sizeBytes", 0)): - raise ValueError("downloaded PDF byte count differs from repository metadata") - pdf_bytes = temp_pdf.read_bytes() - repository_checksum = pdf.get("checkSum") or {} - if repository_checksum.get("checkSumAlgorithm") == "MD5" and hashlib.md5(pdf_bytes).hexdigest() != repository_checksum.get("value"): - raise ValueError("downloaded PDF MD5 differs from repository metadata") - decoded, page_count, page_failures = extract_pdf(temp_pdf) - path = raw / f"{item_id}.txt" - path.write_text(decoded, encoding="utf-8") - selected.append({ - "item_id": item_id, "title": item.get("name", ""), "handle": item.get("handle"), - "landing_url": f"https://rock.pollub.pl/entities/publication/{item_id}", - "metadata": metadata, "authors": values(metadata, "dc.contributor.author"), - "editors": values(metadata, "dc.contributor.editor"), "issued": values(metadata, "dc.date.issued"), - "subtype": values(metadata, "dc.subtype"), "isbn": values(metadata, "dc.identifier.isbn"), - "eisbn": values(metadata, "dc.identifier.eisbn"), "item_license": values(metadata, "dc.rights"), - "pdf": {"id": pdf["uuid"], "name": pdf["name"], "bytes": pdf.get("sizeBytes"), - "checksum": pdf.get("checkSum"), "sha256": digest(pdf_bytes), "rights": pdf_rights, - "content_url": pdf["_links"]["content"]["href"]}, - "extracted_text": {"extractor": "pdfplumber", "bytes": path.stat().st_size, - "sha256": digest(path.read_bytes()), "page_count": page_count, - "page_failures": page_failures}, - "observed_at": now(), "decoded_characters": len(decoded), - }) - print(f"Acquired {len(selected)}/{limit}: {item.get('name', '')}", flush=True) - except Exception as error: - rejected.append({"item_id": item_id, "title": item.get("name", ""), "reason": str(error)}) - print(f"Skipped {item_id}: {error}", flush=True) - finally: - temp_pdf.unlink(missing_ok=True) - page += 1 - collection = request_json(f"{API}/core/collections/{COLLECTION_ID}") - inventory = {"source": SOURCE, "collection_id": COLLECTION_ID, "collection_url": COLLECTION_URL, - "collection_sha256": digest(collection), "collection_archived_items": collection.get("archivedItemsCount"), - "policy_url": POLICY_URL, "license": LICENSE, "limit": limit, "query_pages": pages, - "selected": selected, "acquisition_rejections": rejected, "observed_at": now(), - "target_reached": len(selected) == limit} - save(out / "inventory.json", inventory) - print(json.dumps({"selected": len(selected), "target": limit, "target_reached": len(selected) == limit, - "rejected_during_acquisition": len(rejected)}, ensure_ascii=False, indent=2)) - - -def shingles(text): - words = re.findall(r"\w+", text.casefold()) - return {" ".join(words[index:index + 5]) for index in range(max(0, len(words) - 4))} - - -def audit_overlap(out): - import pyarrow.parquet as pq - from huggingface_hub import HfApi, HfFileSystem - - inventory = json.loads((out / "inventory.json").read_text(encoding="utf-8")) - fs = HfFileSystem() - revision = HfApi().dataset_info("SlayerLab/polish-dynaword").sha - remote = f"datasets/SlayerLab/polish-dynaword@{revision}/data/biblioteka_nauki/biblioteka_nauki.parquet" - with fs.open(remote, "rb") as handle: - table = pq.read_table(handle, columns=["id", "attribution"]) - target = [] - for row in table.to_pylist(): - parts = row["attribution"].split(" | ") - title = parts[2] if len(parts) >= 4 else row["attribution"] - target.append((row["id"], row["attribution"], normalize_title(title))) - results = [] - for record in inventory["selected"]: - title = normalize_title(record["title"]) - exact = [{"id": row_id, "attribution": attribution} for row_id, attribution, normalized in target - if title and title in normalized] - fuzzy = [] - if not exact: - ranked = sorted(((SequenceMatcher(None, title, normalized).ratio(), row_id, attribution) - for row_id, attribution, normalized in target), reverse=True)[:3] - fuzzy = [{"score": score, "id": row_id, "attribution": attribution} - for score, row_id, attribution in ranked if score >= 0.90] - results.append({"item_id": record["item_id"], "title": record["title"], - "exact_title_matches": exact, "fuzzy_title_matches": fuzzy}) - report = {"target": "SlayerLab/polish-dynaword:data/biblioteka_nauki", "target_revision": revision, - "method": "normalized title substring; fallback SequenceMatcher >= 0.90 over attribution", - "target_rows": table.num_rows, "candidate_records": len(results), - "records_with_exact_title_match": sum(bool(row["exact_title_matches"]) for row in results), - "records_with_fuzzy_title_match": sum(bool(row["fuzzy_title_matches"]) for row in results), - "text_overlap": "not tested; target-wide text dedup remains an integration gate", - "observed_at": now(), "results": results} - save(out / "overlap_audit.json", report) - print(json.dumps({key: report[key] for key in ("target_rows", "candidate_records", - "records_with_exact_title_match", "records_with_fuzzy_title_match")}, ensure_ascii=False, indent=2)) - - -def build(out): - import pyarrow as pa - import pyarrow.parquet as pq - import tiktoken - from langid.langid import LanguageIdentifier, model - - inventory = json.loads((out / "inventory.json").read_text(encoding="utf-8")) - encoder = tiktoken.get_encoding("cl100k_base") - identifier = LanguageIdentifier.from_modelstring(model, norm_probs=True) - identifier.set_languages(["pl", "en", "de", "uk", "ru"]) - rows, attribution, decisions, seen, features = [], [], [], {}, {} - pii = Counter() - added = inventory["observed_at"][:10] - for record in inventory["selected"]: - path = out / "raw_text" / f"{record['item_id']}.txt" - payload = path.read_bytes() - if digest(payload) != record["extracted_text"]["sha256"]: - raise ValueError("text checksum mismatch: " + record["item_id"]) - text = normalize(payload.decode("utf-8-sig")) - letters = len(re.findall(r"[A-Za-zĄĆĘŁŃÓŚŹŻąćęłńóśźż]", text)) - replacement = text.count("\ufffd") - if replacement: - text = text.replace("\ufffd", "[UNREADABLE_GLYPH]") - language, confidence = identifier.classify(text[:30000]) if text else ("unknown", 0.0) - reason = "" - if len(text) < 5000: - reason = "too_little_extractable_text" - elif letters / max(len(text), 1) < 0.55: - reason = "low_letter_ratio" - elif replacement > 5 or replacement / max(len(text), 1) > 0.00001: - reason = "excessive_unreadable_glyphs" - elif language != "pl" and confidence >= 0.95: - reason = "non_polish" - text, emails = EMAIL_RE.subn("[REDACTED:EMAIL]", text) - text, phones = PHONE_RE.subn("[REDACTED:PHONE]", text) - pii.update(email=emails, labelled_phone=phones) - normalized_key = " ".join(text.casefold().split()) - if not reason and normalized_key in seen: - reason = "normalized_duplicate" - current_features = shingles(text) - duplicate_of = None - duplicate_score = 0.0 - if not reason: - for other_id, other_features in features.items(): - score = len(current_features & other_features) / max(len(current_features | other_features), 1) - if score >= 0.90: - reason, duplicate_of, duplicate_score = "near_duplicate", other_id, score - break - row_id = f"{SOURCE}_{record['item_id']}" - decision = {"id": row_id, "selected": not bool(reason), "reason": reason or "include", - "language": language, "language_confidence": float(confidence), "characters": len(text), - "letter_ratio": letters / max(len(text), 1), "replacement_characters": replacement} - if duplicate_of: - decision.update(duplicate_of=duplicate_of, jaccard=duplicate_score) - decisions.append(decision) - if reason: - continue - seen[normalized_key] = row_id - features[row_id] = current_features - author = "; ".join(record["authors"] or record["editors"] or ["Politechnika Lubelska"]) - created = record["issued"][0] if record["issued"] else "unknown" - row = {"id": row_id, "text": text, "source": SOURCE, "added": added, "created": created, - "token_count": len(encoder.encode_ordinary(text)), "license": LICENSE, "author": author} - rows.append(row) - attribution.append({"id": row_id, "title": record["title"], "author": author, - "authors": record["authors"], "editors": record["editors"], "publisher": "Politechnika Lubelska", - "subtype": record["subtype"], "issued": record["issued"], "isbn": record["isbn"], "eisbn": record["eisbn"], - "landing_url": record["landing_url"], "handle": record["handle"], "license": LICENSE, - "license_url": LICENSE_URL, "license_policy_url": POLICY_URL, - "license_evidence": {"item": record["item_license"], "pdf_bitstream": record["pdf"]["rights"]}, - "pdf": record["pdf"], "extracted_text": record["extracted_text"], "text_sha256": digest(text.encode("utf-8")), - "transformations": ["pdfplumber page extraction", "Unicode/whitespace normalization", - "page-number-only removal", "line-wrap repair", "limited email/labelled-phone redaction"]}) - root = out / "hf_repo" - (root / "data").mkdir(parents=True, exist_ok=True) - (root / "artifacts").mkdir(exist_ok=True) - schema = pa.schema([(field, pa.int64() if field == "token_count" else pa.string()) for field in FIELDS]) - pq.write_table(pa.Table.from_pylist(rows, schema=schema), root / "data/train-00000-of-00001.parquet", compression="zstd") - write_lines(root / "artifacts/attribution.jsonl", attribution) - write_lines(root / "artifacts/decisions.jsonl", decisions) - sample = sorted(rows, key=lambda row: digest(("sample:" + row["id"]).encode()))[:12] - write_lines(root / "artifacts/sample.jsonl", sample) - inventory_public = dict(inventory) - save(root / "artifacts/inventory.json", inventory_public) - stats = {"pilot_limit": inventory["limit"], "discovered_collection_items": inventory["collection_archived_items"], - "acquired": len(inventory["selected"]), "kept": len(rows), "rejected": len(decisions) - len(rows), - "tokens": sum(row["token_count"] for row in rows), "characters": sum(len(row["text"]) for row in rows), - "author_coverage": sum(bool(row["author"]) for row in rows) / len(rows) if rows else 0, - "sample_count": len(sample), "added": added} - overlap_path = out / "overlap_audit.json" - overlap = json.loads(overlap_path.read_text(encoding="utf-8")) if overlap_path.exists() else None - if overlap: - save(root / "artifacts/overlap_audit.json", overlap) - target_audit_path = out / "target_audit.json" - target_audit = load(target_audit_path) if target_audit_path.exists() else None - if target_audit: - save(root / "artifacts/target_audit.json", target_audit) - qa = {"scope": f"pilot target {inventory['limit']}; acquired {len(inventory['selected'])}; not a completeness claim", - "target_reached": inventory.get("target_reached", len(inventory["selected"]) == inventory["limit"]), - "license_gate": "CC-BY-SA-4.0 in item and matched PDF bitstream metadata", - "pii_pattern_matches": dict(pii), "exact_dedup": True, "near_dedup": "exact 5-word-shingle Jaccard >= 0.90 within pilot", - "biblioteka_nauki_overlap": overlap or "pending title comparison", "cross_source_dedup": "pending target integration", - "benchmark_overlap": "pending", "limitations": ["PDF extraction may flatten tables and equations", - "third-party figures and quoted material are not included as images but textual excerpts require review", - "isolated PDF extraction replacement characters are represented as [UNREADABLE_GLYPH]", - "pattern checks are not comprehensive de-identification", "pilot yield must not be extrapolated without a full inventory run"]} - save(root / "artifacts/stats.json", stats) - save(root / "artifacts/qa.json", qa) - run = {"id": "run:" + digest({"script": digest(Path(__file__).read_bytes()), "inventory": digest(inventory)}), - "protocol": "protocol:rock-pilot-v1", "started_at": inventory["observed_at"], "finished_at": now(), - "success": True, "actor": "actor:codex", "stats": stats} - save(root / "artifacts/run.json", run) - checksum_exclusions = {"artifacts/checksums.json", "artifacts/ontology.json"} - checks = {path.relative_to(root).as_posix(): digest(path.read_bytes()) for path in sorted(root.rglob("*")) - if path.is_file() and path.relative_to(root).as_posix() not in checksum_exclusions} - save(root / "artifacts/checksums.json", checks) - evidence_id = "evidence:qa:" + digest(qa) - inventory_evidence_id = "evidence:inventory:" + digest(inventory) - overlap_evidence_id = "evidence:overlap:" + digest(overlap) if overlap else None - target_evidence_id = "evidence:target-audit:" + digest(target_audit) if target_audit else None - source_version = "version:source:" + digest({"inventory": inventory, "texts": [item["extracted_text"]["sha256"] for item in inventory["selected"]]}) - dataset_version = "version:dataset:" + digest(checks) - ontology = {"schema": "slayer-research-ontology-profile-v1", - "objects": [{"id": "object:source:rock-pollub", "type": "Source"}, {"id": "object:dataset:rock-pollub-pl-pilot", "type": "Dataset"}], - "versions": [{"id": source_version, "object": "object:source:rock-pollub", "content_address": source_version.rsplit(":", 1)[-1]}, - {"id": dataset_version, "object": "object:dataset:rock-pollub-pl-pilot", "content_address": dataset_version.rsplit(":", 1)[-1]}], - "protocols": [{"id": "protocol:rock-pilot-v1", "procedure": "item+PDF rights gate, matched repository text, normalization, PII patterns, exact/near dedup"}], - "runs": [run], "evidence": [ - {"id": inventory_evidence_id, "observation_type": "source_inventory", - "artifact": "artifacts/inventory.json", "content_address": digest(inventory), "produced_by": run["id"]}, - {"id": evidence_id, "observation_type": "pilot_qa", "payload": qa, "produced_by": run["id"]}, - ] + ([{"id": overlap_evidence_id, "observation_type": "metadata_overlap_audit", - "artifact": "artifacts/overlap_audit.json", "content_address": digest(overlap), - "produced_by": run["id"]}] if overlap else []) + - ([{"id": target_evidence_id, "observation_type": "target_registry_audit", - "artifact": "artifacts/target_audit.json", "content_address": digest(target_audit), - "produced_by": run["id"]}] if target_audit else []), - "claims": [{"id": "claim:pilot-eligibility", "statement": "Retained pilot records have Polish book metadata and CC BY-SA 4.0 evidence at item and matched PDF-bitstream level.", - "supported_by": [inventory_evidence_id, evidence_id], "falsification_condition": "A retained record lacks Polish book metadata or either rights assertion."}, - {"id": "claim:no-title-overlap-detected", "statement": "No exact or near title match was detected against the current Biblioteka Nauki attribution column.", - "supported_by": [overlap_evidence_id] if overlap else [evidence_id], - "falsification_condition": "The recorded comparison contains a match, or a rerun against the pinned target version finds one."}, - {"id": "claim:not-registered-at-audit", "statement": "The source key and a matching ROCK/Pollub proposal were absent from the pinned DynaWord registry and discussion list at audit time.", - "supported_by": [target_evidence_id] if target_audit else [evidence_id], - "falsification_condition": "The pinned registry or recorded discussion list contains this source."}, - {"id": "claim:training-value-untested", "statement": "Training benefit and full-corpus novelty remain untested hypotheses.", - "supported_by": [evidence_id], "falsification_condition": "A controlled ablation and target-wide overlap analysis establish those properties."}], - "actors": [{"id": "actor:piotrsty", "type": "Contributor"}, {"id": "actor:politechnika-lubelska", "type": "Organization"}, - {"id": "actor:codex", "type": "Agent"}], - "relations": [{"source": dataset_version, "predicate": "DERIVED_FROM", "target": source_version}, - {"source": dataset_version, "predicate": "GENERATED_BY", "target": run["id"]}] + - ([{"source": dataset_version, "predicate": "VALIDATED_AGAINST", - "target": "hf:dataset:SlayerLab/polish-dynaword@" + target_audit["revision"]}] - if target_audit else []), - "pending": ["Biblioteka Nauki text overlap", "full collection inventory", "cross-source deduplication", - "benchmark contamination check", "legal review of third-party textual excerpts", "controlled training ablation"]} - save(root / "artifacts/ontology.json", ontology) - print(json.dumps(stats, ensure_ascii=False, indent=2)) - - -def verify(out): - import pyarrow.parquet as pq - root = out / "hf_repo" - table = pq.read_table(root / "data/train-00000-of-00001.parquet") - rows = table.to_pylist() - stats = json.loads((root / "artifacts/stats.json").read_text(encoding="utf-8")) - decisions = read_lines(root / "artifacts/decisions.jsonl") - attribution = read_lines(root / "artifacts/attribution.jsonl") - sample = read_lines(root / "artifacts/sample.jsonl") - assert table.column_names == FIELDS - assert len(rows) == stats["kept"] == len(attribution) - assert len(decisions) == stats["acquired"] - assert sum(item["selected"] for item in decisions) == len(rows) - assert sum(row["token_count"] for row in rows) == stats["tokens"] - assert all(row["source"] == SOURCE and row["license"] == LICENSE and row["author"] for row in rows) - assert all(EMAIL_RE.search(row["text"]) is None for row in rows) - by_id = {row["id"]: row for row in rows} - assert len(sample) == stats["sample_count"] and all(by_id[row["id"]] == row for row in sample) - manifest = json.loads((root / "artifacts/ontology.json").read_text(encoding="utf-8")) - evidence = {item["id"] for item in manifest["evidence"]} - assert all(item["falsification_condition"] and set(item["supported_by"]) <= evidence for item in manifest["claims"]) - checks = json.loads((root / "artifacts/checksums.json").read_text(encoding="utf-8")) - assert "artifacts/checksums.json" not in checks and "artifacts/ontology.json" not in checks - assert all((root / relative).is_file() and digest((root / relative).read_bytes()) == checksum - for relative, checksum in checks.items()) - for item in manifest["evidence"]: - if item.get("artifact"): - artifact = root / item["artifact"] - assert artifact.is_file() and digest(json.loads(artifact.read_text(encoding="utf-8"))) == item["content_address"] - print(json.dumps({"verified": True, **stats}, ensure_ascii=False, indent=2)) - - -def checksum_map(root): - excluded = {"artifacts/checksums.json", "artifacts/ontology.json"} - return {path.relative_to(root).as_posix(): digest(path.read_bytes()) for path in sorted(root.rglob("*")) - if path.is_file() and path.relative_to(root).as_posix() not in excluded} - - -def registry(base): - tree = ast.parse(base) - node = next(item.value for item in tree.body if isinstance(item, ast.Assign) - and any(isinstance(target, ast.Name) and target.id == "SOURCES" for target in item.targets)) - if SOURCE in ast.literal_eval(node): - raise ValueError("source already registered") - entry = { - "file_key": SOURCE, - "pretty": "ROCK Politechnika Lubelska - Polish academic books", - "license": LICENSE, - "license_spdx": LICENSE, - "traceable": "Each retained book has CC BY-SA 4.0 evidence in both the item record and matched original-PDF bitstream metadata; URLs, checksums, attribution and exclusions are preserved.", - "upstream": COLLECTION_URL, - "provenance": f"Fetched directly from the official ROCK repository by src/fetch_{SOURCE}.py; only the fail-closed eight-record subset with item- and PDF-level rights evidence is included.", - "domain": "academic/technical", - "created": "2023-2026", - "is_ocr": False, - "custom_datasheet": True, - } - offset = sum(len(line) for line in base.splitlines(keepends=True)[:node.lineno - 1]) + node.col_offset + 1 - return base[:offset] + "\n " + repr(SOURCE) + ": " + pprint.pformat( - entry, width=96, sort_dicts=False).replace("\n", "\n ") + "," + base[offset:] - - -def prepare(out, target_revision): - root = out / "hf_repo" - (root / "src").mkdir(parents=True, exist_ok=True) - shutil.copy2(Path(__file__), root / f"src/fetch_{SOURCE}.py") - shutil.copy2(Path(__file__).with_name("rock_pollub_requirements.txt"), root / "src/requirements.txt") - shutil.copy2(Path(__file__).with_name("test_rock_pollub_contribution.py"), root / "src/test_rock_pollub_contribution.py") - stats = load(root / "artifacts/stats.json") - notice = f"""# Notice and attribution - -Source collection: {COLLECTION_URL} -Publisher policy: {POLICY_URL} - -The eight retained books expose `{LICENSE}` in both the item record and the metadata of the matched original PDF bitstream. Per-record authors, titles, source URLs, license evidence and source-file checksums are preserved in `artifacts/attribution.jsonl` and `artifacts/inventory.json`. - -Transformations: PDF text extraction with pdfplumber, Unicode and whitespace normalization, page-number-only removal, line-wrap repair, limited email and labelled-phone redaction, and within-source exact/near deduplication. Images are excluded. Isolated unreadable PDF glyphs are represented as `[UNREADABLE_GLYPH]`. Attribution and ShareAlike obligations remain applicable. -""" - (root / "NOTICE.md").write_text(notice, encoding="utf-8") - readme = f"""--- -license: cc-by-sa-4.0 -language: -- pl -task_categories: -- text-generation -configs: -- config_name: default - data_files: - - split: train - path: data/train-00000-of-00001.parquet ---- - -# ROCK Politechnika Lubelska PL books - -A fail-closed Polish academic-book subset extracted from the official ROCK repository of Lublin University of Technology. - -- Retained books: {stats['kept']} -- Text characters: {stats['characters']:,} -- Tokens: {stats['tokens']:,} (`cl100k_base` proxy) -- Author coverage: {stats['author_coverage']:.1%} -- License: CC BY-SA 4.0, confirmed for every retained item and matched PDF bitstream -- Source period: 2023-2026 - -The acquisition target was 20 books, but only eight passed the conservative per-file rights gate. The other inspected candidates are not included. See `NOTICE.md` and `artifacts/` for attribution, decisions, the source inventory, deterministic complete-record samples, QA, checksums, overlap audit and Slayer ontology manifest. - -## Limitations - -PDF extraction can flatten tables and equations. Two isolated unreadable glyphs were marked explicitly. Pattern-based PII checks are not comprehensive de-identification. No title overlap was detected against the pinned `biblioteka_nauki` attribution column, but target-wide text deduplication, benchmark checks and controlled training ablations remain pending. -""" - (root / "README.md").write_text(readme, encoding="utf-8") - build(out) - verify(out) - if load(out / "target_audit.json")["revision"] != target_revision: - raise ValueError("target audit revision mismatch") - - -def hf_token(): - value = os.environ.get("HF_TOKEN") - if not value and os.name == "nt": - import winreg - with winreg.OpenKey(winreg.HKEY_CURRENT_USER, "Environment") as key: - value = winreg.QueryValueEx(key, "HF_TOKEN")[0] - if not value or not value.startswith("hf_"): - raise ValueError("HF_TOKEN unavailable") - return value - - -def all_files(root): - return [path for path in sorted(root.rglob("*")) if path.is_file() - and "__pycache__" not in path.parts and ".pytest_cache" not in path.parts] - - -def assemble_pr(out, base, source_commit): - root = out / "hf_repo" - pr = out / "dynaword_pr" - data = pr / "data" / SOURCE - data.mkdir(parents=True, exist_ok=True) - (pr / "src").mkdir(exist_ok=True) - (pr / "artifacts").mkdir(exist_ok=True) - shutil.copy2(root / "data/train-00000-of-00001.parquet", data / f"{SOURCE}.parquet") - for name in ("attribution.jsonl", "decisions.jsonl", "sample.jsonl", "stats.json", "qa.json", "overlap_audit.json"): - shutil.copy2(root / "artifacts" / name, data / f"{SOURCE}.{name}") - shutil.copy2(root / "NOTICE.md", data / "NOTICE.md") - shutil.copy2(root / "README.md", data / f"{SOURCE}.md") - shutil.copy2(root / "artifacts/ontology.json", pr / f"artifacts/{SOURCE}_ontology_manifest.json") - shutil.copy2(Path(__file__), pr / f"src/fetch_{SOURCE}.py") - shutil.copy2(Path(__file__).with_name("rock_pollub_requirements.txt"), pr / f"src/{SOURCE}_requirements.txt") - shutil.copy2(Path(__file__).with_name("test_rock_pollub_contribution.py"), pr / "src/test_rock_pollub_contribution.py") - (pr / "src/sources.py").write_text(registry(base), encoding="utf-8") - stats = load(root / "artifacts/stats.json") - description = f"""## Add eight Polish academic books from ROCK - -Adds `{SOURCE}`: **{stats['kept']} complete books and {stats['tokens']:,} measured `cl100k_base` proxy tokens** from the official ROCK repository of Lublin University of Technology. - -Source dataset: https://huggingface.co/datasets/{OWN_REPO}/tree/{source_commit} - -### Data sample - -- [{stats['sample_count']} deterministic complete-record samples](https://huggingface.co/datasets/{OWN_REPO}/blob/{source_commit}/artifacts/sample.jsonl) -- [Per-record attribution, source URLs and item/PDF rights evidence](https://huggingface.co/datasets/{OWN_REPO}/blob/{source_commit}/artifacts/attribution.jsonl) -- [Fail-closed acquisition inventory and exclusions](https://huggingface.co/datasets/{OWN_REPO}/blob/{source_commit}/artifacts/inventory.json) - -### Rights and method - -Every retained record exposes CC BY-SA 4.0 in both the ROCK item record and the matched original PDF bitstream metadata. The publisher policy, source URLs, checksums and attribution are preserved. The acquisition target was 20 records; only these eight passed the conservative per-file gate. Text was extracted with pdfplumber, normalized, checked for limited PII patterns, and exact/near-deduplicated within source. - -### Overlap and Slayer ontology - -No exact or fuzzy title match was detected against all 42,071 rows of `biblioteka_nauki` at pinned DynaWord revision `{load(out / 'overlap_audit.json')['target_revision']}`. This is metadata evidence, not target-wide text deduplication. The manifest separates content-addressed source/dataset Versions, Protocol, Run, Evidence, falsifiable Claims, Actors and typed lineage. Cross-source text deduplication, benchmark checks, review of quoted third-party text and controlled training ablations remain pending. This PR proposes a source, not a merged or stable release. -""" - (out / "pr_description.md").write_text(description, encoding="utf-8") - return pr - - -def publish(out): - from huggingface_hub import CommitOperationAdd, HfApi - - api = HfApi(token=hf_token()) - if api.whoami()["name"].casefold() != "piotrsty": - raise ValueError("unexpected HF account") - target = api.dataset_info(TARGET) - registry_url = f"https://huggingface.co/datasets/{TARGET}/resolve/{target.sha}/src/sources.py" - response = requests.get(registry_url, headers={"User-Agent": UA}, timeout=(15, 60)) - response.raise_for_status() - base = response.text - discussions = list(api.get_repo_discussions(TARGET, repo_type="dataset")) - matching = [{"num": item.num, "title": item.title, "status": item.status} - for item in discussions if "rock" in item.title.casefold() or "pollub" in item.title.casefold()] - if SOURCE in base or matching: - raise ValueError("ROCK source registration or proposal already exists") - target_audit = {"repository": TARGET, "revision": target.sha, "registry_sha256": digest(base.encode("utf-8")), - "discussion_count": len(discussions), "matching_discussions": matching, "observed_at": now()} - save(out / "target_audit.json", target_audit) - prepare(out, target.sha) - root = out / "hf_repo" - receipt_path = out / "publication.json" - receipt = load(receipt_path) if receipt_path.exists() else {} - if not receipt: - if api.repo_exists(OWN_REPO, repo_type="dataset"): - raise ValueError("own HF repository already exists without this run receipt") - api.create_repo(OWN_REPO, repo_type="dataset", private=True) - receipt = {"source_repo": OWN_REPO, "target_main_revision": target.sha, "created_at": now()} - save(receipt_path, receipt) - if receipt["target_main_revision"] != target.sha: - raise ValueError("target main changed since publication started; inspect before continuing") - if not receipt.get("source_commit"): - result = api.create_commit(OWN_REPO, repo_type="dataset", - commit_message="Add validated eight-book ROCK Polish corpus", - operations=[CommitOperationAdd(path_in_repo=path.relative_to(root).as_posix(), path_or_fileobj=str(path)) - for path in all_files(root)]) - receipt["source_commit"] = result.oid - save(receipt_path, receipt) - source_revision = receipt["source_commit"] - if not any(item.name == "v1.0.0" for item in api.list_repo_refs(OWN_REPO, repo_type="dataset").tags): - api.create_tag(OWN_REPO, repo_type="dataset", tag="v1.0.0", revision=source_revision) - api.update_repo_settings(OWN_REPO, repo_type="dataset", private=False) - pr = assemble_pr(out, base, source_revision) - subprocess.run([sys.executable, "-m", "pytest", "-q", str(pr / "src/test_rock_pollub_contribution.py")], check=True) - if not receipt.get("pr_url"): - result = api.create_commit(TARGET, repo_type="dataset", parent_commit=target.sha, create_pr=True, - commit_message="Add eight CC BY-SA 4.0 Polish academic books from ROCK", - commit_description=(out / "pr_description.md").read_text(encoding="utf-8"), - operations=[CommitOperationAdd(path_in_repo=path.relative_to(pr).as_posix(), path_or_fileobj=str(path)) - for path in all_files(pr)]) - receipt.update({"tag": "v1.0.0", "pr_url": result.pr_url, "pr_commit": result.oid, "published_at": now()}) - save(receipt_path, receipt) - print(json.dumps(receipt, ensure_ascii=False, indent=2)) - - -def audit(out): - from huggingface_hub import HfApi, hf_hub_download - - api = HfApi(token=False) - receipt = load(out / "publication.json") - info = api.dataset_info(OWN_REPO) - if info.private or info.sha != receipt["source_commit"]: - raise ValueError("source repo visibility or revision mismatch") - tags = api.list_repo_refs(OWN_REPO, repo_type="dataset").tags - if not any(item.name == receipt["tag"] and item.target_commit == info.sha for item in tags): - raise ValueError("release tag mismatch") - number = int(receipt["pr_url"].rsplit("/", 1)[-1]) - discussion = api.get_discussion_details(TARGET, number, repo_type="dataset") - pr_info = api.dataset_info(TARGET, revision=f"refs/pr/{number}") - if not discussion.is_pull_request or pr_info.sha != receipt["pr_commit"]: - raise ValueError("PR identity mismatch") - checked = [] - cache = out / "remote_cache" - for repo, revision, root in ((OWN_REPO, info.sha, out / "hf_repo"), (TARGET, pr_info.sha, out / "dynaword_pr")): - for path in all_files(root): - name = path.relative_to(root).as_posix() - remote = Path(hf_hub_download(repo, name, repo_type="dataset", revision=revision, - token=False, cache_dir=str(cache))) - if digest(remote.read_bytes()) != digest(path.read_bytes()): - raise ValueError("remote mismatch: " + name) - checked.append({"repo": repo, "revision": revision, "path": name, - "sha256": digest(remote.read_bytes())}) - result = {"observed_at": now(), "source_revision": info.sha, "pr_revision": pr_info.sha, - "pr_status": discussion.status, "target_main_revision": api.dataset_info(TARGET).sha, - "verified_files": checked} - save(out / "publication_audit.json", result) - shutil.rmtree(cache, ignore_errors=True) - print(json.dumps({**result, "verified_files": len(checked)}, ensure_ascii=False, indent=2)) - - -if __name__ == "__main__": - parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(description=__doc__) - parser.add_argument("--output", type=Path, required=True) - parser.add_argument("--limit", type=int, default=20) - parser.add_argument("command", choices=["acquire", "audit_overlap", "build", "verify", "publish", "audit"]) - args = parser.parse_args() - acquire(args.output, args.limit) if args.command == "acquire" else globals()[args.command](args.output) diff --git a/src/fetch_sejm_api.py b/src/fetch_sejm_api.py deleted file mode 100644 index 258120261756583c9fb932fde8f4c31ef66d4061..0000000000000000000000000000000000000000 --- a/src/fetch_sejm_api.py +++ /dev/null @@ -1,601 +0,0 @@ -#!/usr/bin/env python3 -"""Build a reproducible, ontology-backed Polish DynaWord Sejm API contribution.""" - -from __future__ import annotations - -import argparse -import ast -import collections -import datetime as dt -import hashlib -import json -import os -import pathlib -import re -import shutil -import sys -from typing import Any, Iterable - -sys.path.insert(0, str(pathlib.Path(__file__).resolve().parent)) - -SOURCE_NAME = "sejm_api" -SOURCE_REPOSITORY = "PiotrSty/sejm-speeches-corpus" -SOURCE_RELEASE = "v1.0.1" -TARGET_REPOSITORY = "SlayerLab/polish-dynaword" -SOURCE_LICENSE = "public-domain (official documents)" -START_DATE = "2023-01-01" -EXPECTED_FIELDS = ( - "id", "text", "source", "added", "created", "token_count", "license", "author" -) -SOURCE_FIELDS = ( - "text", "speaker", "date", "term", "source_url", "char_count", "word_count", "has_events" -) -COPYRIGHT_ACT = "https://eli.gov.pl/api/acts/DU/2025/24/text/O/D20250024.pdf" -OPEN_DATA_ACT = "https://eli.gov.pl/api/acts/DU/2023/1524/text.html" -SEJM_API = "https://api.sejm.gov.pl/" -SEJM_API_DOCUMENTATION = "https://api.sejm.gov.pl/sejm.html" -COMMIT_PATTERN = re.compile(r"^[0-9a-f]{40}$") - - -class ContributionError(ValueError): - """Raised when the contribution cannot meet its declared contract.""" - - -def canonical_sha256(value: Any) -> str: - payload = json.dumps( - value, ensure_ascii=False, sort_keys=True, separators=(",", ":") - ).encode("utf-8") - return hashlib.sha256(payload).hexdigest() - - -def sha256_file(path: pathlib.Path) -> str: - digest = hashlib.sha256() - with path.open("rb") as stream: - for chunk in iter(lambda: stream.read(1024 * 1024), b""): - digest.update(chunk) - return digest.hexdigest() - - -def stable_document_id(row: dict[str, Any]) -> str: - material = "\x1f".join( - str(row.get(field, "")).strip() for field in ("date", "term", "speaker", "text") - ) - return f"{SOURCE_NAME}_{hashlib.sha256(material.encode('utf-8')).hexdigest()}" - - -def text_fingerprint(text: str) -> str: - return hashlib.sha1(text.encode("utf-8")).hexdigest() - - -def normalize_source_row( - row: dict[str, Any], *, start_date: str, added_date: str, encoder: Any -) -> tuple[dict[str, Any], dict[str, Any]] | None: - missing = set(SOURCE_FIELDS) - set(row) - if missing: - raise ContributionError(f"missing required source fields: {sorted(missing)}") - try: - created = dt.date.fromisoformat(str(row["date"])[:10]).isoformat() - threshold = dt.date.fromisoformat(start_date) - dt.date.fromisoformat(added_date) - except ValueError as exc: - raise ContributionError("source, threshold and addition dates must be ISO dates") from exc - if dt.date.fromisoformat(created) < threshold: - return None - - text = str(row["text"]).strip() - author = str(row.get("speaker", "")).strip() - source_url = str(row.get("source_url", "")).strip() - term = str(row.get("term", "")).strip() - if len(text) < 200: - raise ContributionError("source speech violates DynaWord's 200-character minimum") - if not author: - raise ContributionError("source speech lacks the promised speaker attribution") - if not source_url.startswith("https://api.sejm.gov.pl/"): - raise ContributionError(f"unexpected source URL: {source_url!r}") - if term not in {"9", "10"}: - raise ContributionError(f"unexpected post-2022 parliamentary term: {term!r}") - - document_id = stable_document_id(row) - document = { - "id": document_id, - "text": text, - "source": SOURCE_NAME, - "added": added_date, - "created": created, - "token_count": len(encoder.encode_ordinary(text)), - "license": SOURCE_LICENSE, - "author": author, - } - attribution = { - "id": document_id, - "source_url": source_url, - "speaker": author, - "created": created, - "term": term, - "has_events": bool(row["has_events"]), - "word_count": int(row["word_count"]), - "char_count": int(row["char_count"]), - "provider": "Kancelaria Sejmu RP", - "source_release": f"hf://datasets/{SOURCE_REPOSITORY}@{SOURCE_RELEASE}", - } - return document, attribution - - -def registry_source_end_date(registry: str, source_name: str) -> str: - pattern = re.compile( - rf'^\s{{4}}["\']{re.escape(source_name)}["\']\s*:\s*\{{' - rf'(?P.*?)^\s{{4}}\}},?', - flags=re.MULTILINE | re.DOTALL, - ) - match = pattern.search(registry) - if not match: - raise ContributionError(f"existing parliamentary source missing from registry: {source_name}") - dates = re.findall(r"\d{4}-\d{2}-\d{2}", match.group("body")) - if not dates: - raise ContributionError(f"source {source_name} has no documented date range") - return max(dates) - - -def assert_temporal_novelty(registry: str, start_date: str) -> dict[str, str]: - threshold = dt.date.fromisoformat(start_date) - end_dates = { - name: registry_source_end_date(registry, name) - for name in ("parliamentary", "parlamint_pl") - } - overlapping = { - name: value for name, value in end_dates.items() - if dt.date.fromisoformat(value) >= threshold - } - if overlapping: - raise ContributionError(f"candidate date range overlaps registered sources: {overlapping}") - return end_dates - - -def insert_source_registry_entry(registry: str, *, end_date: str) -> str: - if re.search(r'^\s{4}["\']sejm_api["\']\s*:', registry, flags=re.MULTILINE): - raise ContributionError("sejm_api already exists in the DynaWord source registry") - marker = ' "parlamint_pl": {' - if registry.count(marker) != 1: - raise ContributionError("cannot safely locate the existing parlamint_pl registry entry") - entry = ( - ' "sejm_api": {\n' - ' "file_key": "sejm_api",\n' - ' "pretty": "Sejm API parliamentary speeches (2023 onward)",\n' - ' "license": "public-domain (official documents)",\n' - ' "license_spdx": "LicenseRef-Polish-Official-Documents",\n' - ' "traceable": "Official parliamentary materials excluded from copyright "\n' - ' "under Polish Copyright Act art. 4(2); reusable under "\n' - ' "the Polish Open Data Act arts. 2(12), 5, 14 and 17.",\n' - ' "upstream": "https://api.sejm.gov.pl/",\n' - ' "provenance": "Direct official Sejm API records, preserved with speaker "\n' - ' "attribution and immutable PiotrSty/sejm-speeches-corpus "\n' - ' "v1.0.1 source provenance.",\n' - ' "domain": "political/spoken",\n' - f' "created": "{START_DATE}, {end_date}",\n' - ' "is_ocr": False,\n' - ' },\n' - ) - updated = registry.replace(marker, entry + marker, 1) - ast.parse(updated) - return updated - - -def legal_evidence(*, source_revision: str, target_revision: str) -> dict[str, Any]: - return { - "status": "reviewed-open-official-materials", - "source": SOURCE_NAME, - "dataset_record_license": SOURCE_LICENSE, - "hf_source_license_name": "polish-public-sector-open-statutory-reuse", - "provider": "Kancelaria Sejmu RP", - "official_source": SEJM_API, - "official_source_documentation": SEJM_API_DOCUMENTATION, - "copyright_basis": { - "act": "Polish Copyright and Related Rights Act", - "article": "4(2)", - "finding": "official documents and materials are excluded from copyright", - "url": COPYRIGHT_ACT, - }, - "reuse_basis": { - "act": "Polish Open Data and Reuse of Public Sector Information Act", - "articles": ["2(12)", "5", "6", "14(1)", "15", "17"], - "url": OPEN_DATA_ACT, - }, - "limitations": [ - "privacy and personal-data exceptions", - "third-party rights and provider-specific conditions", - "no upstream Creative Commons grant is asserted", - ], - "pinned_source": f"hf://datasets/{SOURCE_REPOSITORY}@{source_revision}", - "pinned_target_base": f"hf://datasets/{TARGET_REPOSITORY}@{target_revision}", - } - - -def write_json(path: pathlib.Path, payload: Any) -> None: - path.write_text( - json.dumps(payload, ensure_ascii=False, indent=2, sort_keys=True) + "\n", - encoding="utf-8", - ) - - -def source_datasheet( - *, stats: dict[str, Any], source_revision: str, target_revision: str, - prior_sources: dict[str, str], contribution_digest: str -) -> str: - return f"""# sejm_api - -Contemporary official Polish Sejm speeches, supplementing existing parliamentary sources. - -## Dataset description - -- Source (upstream): {SEJM_API} -- Source documentation: {SEJM_API_DOCUMENTATION} -- Domain: political/spoken -- Language: Polish (`pl`) -- License: `{SOURCE_LICENSE}` -- Created (range): {stats['created_min']}, {stats['created_max']} -- Added: {stats['added']} -- Contributor: Piotr Styła (`PiotrSty` on Hugging Face; `PiotrStyla` on GitHub). - -## Licensing — traceable basis - -Official parliamentary documents and materials are excluded from copyright by -article 4(2) of the Polish Copyright Act: {COPYRIGHT_ACT}. - -Reuse of public-sector information is governed by articles 2(12), 5, 6, 14, -15 and 17 of the Polish Open Data Act: {OPEN_DATA_ACT}. - -The per-document value intentionally matches the existing `parliamentary` -source. No unverified upstream Creative Commons license is asserted. - -## Provenance and reproducibility - -- Official provider: Kancelaria Sejmu RP. -- Immutable source release: `{SOURCE_REPOSITORY}@{SOURCE_RELEASE}`. -- Pinned source commit: `{source_revision}`. -- Reviewed DynaWord base commit: `{target_revision}`. -- Rebuild: `python src/fetch_sejm_api.py --help`. -- Source URLs and speech-level provenance are in `sejm_api.attribution.jsonl`. -- Slayer contribution digest: `sha256:{contribution_digest}`. - -## Temporal novelty and deduplication - -`parliamentary` ends on `{prior_sources['parliamentary']}` and registered -`parlamint_pl` ends on `{prior_sources['parlamint_pl']}`. Every contributed -record is dated on or after `{START_DATE}`, so its date range overlaps neither -source. Exact duplicate speech texts within the contribution are removed using -SHA-1 fingerprints; this is not a claim of global cross-domain near-deduplication. - -## Statistics - -| Measure | Value | -|---|---:| -| Source rows inspected | {stats['read']:,} | -| Rows before {START_DATE} | {stats['drop_before_start']:,} | -| Exact duplicate texts removed | {stats['drop_dup']:,} | -| Documents published | {stats['kept']:,} | -| Characters | {stats['chars']:,} | -| Tokens (`cl100k_base` proxy) | {stats['tokens']:,} | -| Documents with speaker attribution | {stats['authors_with_value']:,} | - -Statistics are recomputed from the released Parquet file. The canonical schema -is `id, text, source, added, created, token_count, license, author`. - -## Privacy and limitations - -The upstream release heuristically redacts email addresses, PESEL identifiers -and unambiguous Polish telephone numbers. Public-official names and speech -attribution remain. Regex redaction is not a guarantee of zero personal data. -Downstream users must review applicable privacy, third-party and source terms. -""" - - -def ontology_manifest( - *, stats: dict[str, Any], source_revision: str, target_revision: str, - prior_sources: dict[str, str], parquet_digest: str, sidecar_digest: str, - legal_digest: str, actor: str, run_id: str, git_commit: str -) -> dict[str, Any]: - config = { - "source_release": SOURCE_RELEASE, - "source_revision": source_revision, - "target_base_revision": target_revision, - "start_date": START_DATE, - "added": stats["added"], - "schema_fields": list(EXPECTED_FIELDS), - "tokenizer": "cl100k_base", - "exact_deduplication": "sha1(normalized_text)", - "registered_parliamentary_end_dates": prior_sources, - } - version_digest = canonical_sha256({ - "source": source_revision, - "target": target_revision, - "configuration": config, - "parquet": parquet_digest, - "attribution": sidecar_digest, - "legal_evidence": legal_digest, - "protocol": sha256_file(pathlib.Path(__file__)), - }) - version = f"slayer://version/dataset-source/sejm-api@sha256:{version_digest}" - evidence_ids = { - name: f"slayer://evidence/sejm-api-{name}@sha256:{version_digest[:20]}" - for name in ("record-counts", "temporal-novelty", "author-attribution", "legal-basis", "artifact-digests") - } - evidence = [ - {"id": evidence_ids["record-counts"], "run_id": run_id, - "subject_version": version, "observation_type": "dataset_record_counts", - "payload": {key: stats[key] for key in ("read", "kept", "drop_before_start", "drop_dup", "tokens")}}, - {"id": evidence_ids["temporal-novelty"], "run_id": run_id, - "subject_version": version, "observation_type": "registered_source_date_ranges", - "payload": {"candidate_min": stats["created_min"], "candidate_max": stats["created_max"], - "existing_source_end_dates": prior_sources}}, - {"id": evidence_ids["author-attribution"], "run_id": run_id, - "subject_version": version, "observation_type": "speaker_attribution_coverage", - "payload": {"documents": stats["kept"], "attributed_documents": stats["authors_with_value"]}}, - {"id": evidence_ids["legal-basis"], "run_id": run_id, - "subject_version": version, "observation_type": "official_statutory_reuse_sources", - "payload": {"copyright_act": COPYRIGHT_ACT, "open_data_act": OPEN_DATA_ACT, - "source_documentation": SEJM_API_DOCUMENTATION, - "license": SOURCE_LICENSE, "legal_evidence_sha256": legal_digest}}, - {"id": evidence_ids["artifact-digests"], "run_id": run_id, - "subject_version": version, "observation_type": "artifact_checksums", - "payload": {"parquet_sha256": parquet_digest, "attribution_sha256": sidecar_digest}}, - ] - claims = [ - {"id": f"slayer://claim/sejm-api-temporal-novelty@sha256:{version_digest[:20]}", - "statement": "Every contributed speech postdates both registered parliamentary source ranges.", - "falsification_condition": "Any contributed created date is <= either documented source end date.", - "scope": [version], "supported_by": [evidence_ids["temporal-novelty"]], "asserted_by": actor}, - {"id": f"slayer://claim/sejm-api-full-speaker-attribution@sha256:{version_digest[:20]}", - "statement": "Every contributed document has a non-empty speech-speaker attribution.", - "falsification_condition": "Any contributed document has an empty author field.", - "scope": [version], "supported_by": [evidence_ids["author-attribution"]], "asserted_by": actor}, - {"id": f"slayer://claim/sejm-api-open-official-materials@sha256:{version_digest[:20]}", - "statement": "The source contains official parliamentary materials with documented statutory reuse.", - "falsification_condition": "A record is not an official parliamentary material or an applicable statutory limitation defeats reuse.", - "scope": [version], "supported_by": [evidence_ids["legal-basis"]], "asserted_by": actor}, - ] - return { - "schema_version": "slayer.ai/dataset-source-contribution/v1", - "object": {"id": "slayer://object/dataset-source/slayerlab-polish-dynaword-sejm-api", - "kind": "dataset_source", "name": SOURCE_NAME}, - "version": {"id": version, "digest": f"sha256:{version_digest}"}, - "protocol": {"entrypoint": "python src/fetch_sejm_api.py", "git_commit": git_commit, - "configuration": config}, - "run": {"id": run_id, "actor_id": actor, "git_commit": git_commit, - "inputs": [{"role": "source", "version_id": f"hf://datasets/{SOURCE_REPOSITORY}@{source_revision}"}, - {"role": "target_base", "version_id": f"hf://datasets/{TARGET_REPOSITORY}@{target_revision}"}], - "outputs": [{"role": "dataset_source", "version_id": version}]}, - "relations": [ - {"source_version": version, "predicate": "DERIVED_FROM", - "target_version": f"hf://datasets/{SOURCE_REPOSITORY}@{source_revision}", "introduced_by_run": run_id}, - {"source_version": version, "predicate": "COMPATIBLE_WITH", - "target_version": f"hf://datasets/{TARGET_REPOSITORY}@{target_revision}", "introduced_by_run": run_id}, - ], - "evidence": evidence, - "claims": claims, - "claim_evidence": [ - {"claim_id": claim["id"], "evidence_id": evidence_id, "relation": "SUPPORTS"} - for claim in claims for evidence_id in claim["supported_by"] - ], - "actors": [{"id": actor, "kind": "automation" if actor.startswith("github:") else "human"}], - "attestations": [ - {"type": "schema_valid", "value": True, "fields": list(EXPECTED_FIELDS), "actor_id": actor}, - {"type": "license_policy", "value": "open_public_sector_reuse", "actor_id": actor, - "supported_by": [evidence_ids["legal-basis"]]}, - {"type": "temporal_overlap", "value": "none_for_registered_parliamentary_sources", - "actor_id": actor, "supported_by": [evidence_ids["temporal-novelty"]]}, - {"type": "speaker_attribution", "value": "100_percent", "actor_id": actor, - "supported_by": [evidence_ids["author-attribution"]]}, - ], - } - - -def build_contribution( - source_dir: pathlib.Path, - registry_file: pathlib.Path, - output_dir: pathlib.Path, - *, - source_revision: str, - target_revision: str, - added_date: str, - actor: str, - run_id: str, - git_commit: str, - tests_file: pathlib.Path | None = None, -) -> dict[str, Any]: - if not COMMIT_PATTERN.fullmatch(source_revision): - raise ContributionError("source revision must be an immutable 40-character Git commit") - if not COMMIT_PATTERN.fullmatch(target_revision): - raise ContributionError("target revision must be an immutable 40-character Git commit") - if not registry_file.is_file(): - raise ContributionError(f"target source registry missing: {registry_file}") - registry = registry_file.read_text(encoding="utf-8") - previous_sources = assert_temporal_novelty(registry, START_DATE) - - try: - import pyarrow as pa - import pyarrow.parquet as pq - import tiktoken - except ImportError as exc: - raise ContributionError("building the contribution requires pyarrow and tiktoken") from exc - - schema = pa.schema([ - ("id", pa.string()), ("text", pa.string()), ("source", pa.string()), - ("added", pa.string()), ("created", pa.string()), ("token_count", pa.int64()), - ("license", pa.string()), ("author", pa.string()), - ]) - encoder = tiktoken.get_encoding("cl100k_base") - data_dir = output_dir / "data" / SOURCE_NAME - artifact_dir = output_dir / "artifacts" - src_dir = output_dir / "src" - for directory in (data_dir, artifact_dir, src_dir): - directory.mkdir(parents=True, exist_ok=True) - - parquet_path = data_dir / f"{SOURCE_NAME}.parquet" - attribution_path = data_dir / f"{SOURCE_NAME}.attribution.jsonl" - counter: collections.Counter[str] = collections.Counter({ - "read": 0, "kept": 0, "drop_before_start": 0, "drop_dup": 0, - "drop_short": 0, "drop_lang": 0, "drop_ocr": 0, - "chars": 0, "tokens": 0, "authors_with_value": 0, - }) - years: collections.Counter[str] = collections.Counter() - terms: collections.Counter[str] = collections.Counter() - split_counts: collections.Counter[str] = collections.Counter() - fingerprints: set[str] = set() - created_dates: list[str] = [] - batch_rows: list[dict[str, Any]] = [] - - def flush(writer: Any) -> None: - if batch_rows: - writer.write_table(pa.Table.from_pylist(batch_rows, schema=schema)) - batch_rows.clear() - - with pq.ParquetWriter(parquet_path, schema, compression="zstd") as writer: - with attribution_path.open("w", encoding="utf-8") as attribution_stream: - for split in ("train", "validation"): - input_path = source_dir / "data" / f"{split}.parquet" - if not input_path.is_file(): - raise ContributionError(f"pinned source split missing: {input_path}") - parquet_file = pq.ParquetFile(input_path) - if set(parquet_file.schema_arrow.names) != set(SOURCE_FIELDS): - raise ContributionError(f"unexpected pinned source schema: {parquet_file.schema_arrow.names}") - for batch in parquet_file.iter_batches(batch_size=256): - for row in batch.to_pylist(): - counter["read"] += 1 - normalized = normalize_source_row( - row, start_date=START_DATE, added_date=added_date, encoder=encoder - ) - if normalized is None: - counter["drop_before_start"] += 1 - continue - document, attribution = normalized - fingerprint = text_fingerprint(document["text"]) - if fingerprint in fingerprints: - counter["drop_dup"] += 1 - continue - fingerprints.add(fingerprint) - attribution["source_revision"] = source_revision - attribution["source_split"] = split - attribution_stream.write( - json.dumps(attribution, ensure_ascii=False, sort_keys=True) + "\n" - ) - batch_rows.append(document) - counter["kept"] += 1 - counter["chars"] += len(document["text"]) - counter["tokens"] += document["token_count"] - counter["authors_with_value"] += bool(document["author"]) - years[document["created"][:4]] += 1 - terms[attribution["term"]] += 1 - split_counts[split] += 1 - created_dates.append(document["created"]) - if len(batch_rows) >= 512: - flush(writer) - flush(writer) - - if not counter["kept"]: - raise ContributionError("no post-2022 Sejm speeches were available") - if counter["authors_with_value"] != counter["kept"]: - raise ContributionError("speaker attribution is not complete") - - produced = pq.ParquetFile(parquet_path) - if tuple(produced.schema_arrow.names) != EXPECTED_FIELDS: - raise ContributionError(f"generated Parquet violates DynaWord schema: {produced.schema_arrow.names}") - if produced.metadata.num_rows != counter["kept"]: - raise ContributionError("Parquet row count does not match generated evidence") - - stats: dict[str, Any] = { - **counter, - "license": SOURCE_LICENSE, - "licenses": {SOURCE_LICENSE: counter["kept"]}, - "added": added_date, - "created_min": min(created_dates), - "created_max": max(created_dates), - "by_year": dict(sorted(years.items())), - "by_term": dict(sorted(terms.items())), - "by_source_split": dict(split_counts), - "stats_recomputed_from_parquet": True, - "source_revision": source_revision, - "target_base_revision": target_revision, - } - write_json(data_dir / f"{SOURCE_NAME}.stats.json", stats) - evidence_payload = legal_evidence( - source_revision=source_revision, target_revision=target_revision - ) - legal_path = data_dir / f"{SOURCE_NAME}.license-evidence.json" - write_json(legal_path, evidence_payload) - - manifest = ontology_manifest( - stats=stats, source_revision=source_revision, target_revision=target_revision, - prior_sources=previous_sources, parquet_digest=sha256_file(parquet_path), - sidecar_digest=sha256_file(attribution_path), legal_digest=sha256_file(legal_path), - actor=actor, run_id=run_id, git_commit=git_commit, - ) - contribution_digest = str(manifest["version"]["digest"]).removeprefix("sha256:") - write_json(artifact_dir / "sejm_api_ontology_manifest.json", manifest) - (data_dir / f"{SOURCE_NAME}.md").write_text( - source_datasheet( - stats=stats, source_revision=source_revision, target_revision=target_revision, - prior_sources=previous_sources, contribution_digest=contribution_digest - ), - encoding="utf-8", - ) - (data_dir / "NOTICE.md").write_text( - "# Source attribution\n\n" - "Official materials: Kancelaria Sejmu RP, API Sejmu — https://api.sejm.gov.pl/.\n\n" - "Speech attribution is preserved in `author`; the full source URL is in " - "`sejm_api.attribution.jsonl`.\n\n" - "Corpus preparation and contribution: Piotr Styła (Hugging Face: PiotrSty; " - "GitHub: PiotrStyla).\n\n" - "Reuse follows Polish Copyright Act art. 4(2) and the Polish Open Data Act. " - "No upstream Creative Commons grant is asserted.\n", - encoding="utf-8", - ) - (src_dir / "sources.py").write_text( - insert_source_registry_entry(registry, end_date=stats["created_max"]), - encoding="utf-8", - ) - shutil.copy2(pathlib.Path(__file__).resolve(), src_dir / "fetch_sejm_api.py") - if tests_file is not None: - if not tests_file.is_file(): - raise ContributionError(f"contract test file missing: {tests_file}") - shutil.copy2(tests_file, src_dir / "test_sejm_api_contract.py") - return {"stats": stats, "manifest": manifest, "output": str(output_dir)} - - -def build_parser() -> argparse.ArgumentParser: - parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(description=__doc__) - parser.add_argument("--source-dir", type=pathlib.Path, required=True) - parser.add_argument("--target-registry", type=pathlib.Path, required=True) - parser.add_argument("--output", type=pathlib.Path, required=True) - parser.add_argument("--source-revision", required=True) - parser.add_argument("--target-revision", required=True) - parser.add_argument("--added-date", default=dt.datetime.now(dt.timezone.utc).date().isoformat()) - parser.add_argument("--actor", default="local-user") - parser.add_argument("--run-id", default="local-run") - parser.add_argument("--git-commit", default="uncommitted") - parser.add_argument("--tests-file", type=pathlib.Path) - return parser - - -def main(argv: Iterable[str] | None = None) -> int: - args = build_parser().parse_args(list(argv) if argv is not None else None) - try: - result = build_contribution( - args.source_dir, args.target_registry, args.output, - source_revision=args.source_revision, target_revision=args.target_revision, - added_date=args.added_date, actor=args.actor, run_id=args.run_id, - git_commit=args.git_commit, tests_file=args.tests_file, - ) - except (ContributionError, OSError) as exc: - print(f"error: {exc}", file=sys.stderr) - return 1 - print(json.dumps({ - "stats": result["stats"], - "version": result["manifest"]["version"], - "claims": len(result["manifest"]["claims"]), - "evidence": len(result["manifest"]["evidence"]), - }, ensure_ascii=False, indent=2, sort_keys=True)) - return 0 - - -if __name__ == "__main__": - raise SystemExit(main()) diff --git a/src/fetch_sejm_interpellations.py b/src/fetch_sejm_interpellations.py deleted file mode 100644 index 51787bc2913e2c1eed873a6273f344994efbc9bd..0000000000000000000000000000000000000000 --- a/src/fetch_sejm_interpellations.py +++ /dev/null @@ -1,233 +0,0 @@ -#!/usr/bin/env python3 -"""Fetch Sejm interpellations and written questions into a SpeakLeash-style -.jsonl.zst for build_dynaword.py. - -Official parliamentary materials, outside copyright under art. 4 pkt 2 pr. aut., -same legal basis as the shipped sejm_api shard. HTML body endpoints only — -attachment-only replies (PDFs) and keyless prolongation stubs are skipped. - -Header chrome (nr / recipient / title / signatory / date) is stripped so it -lives in meta, not text. PII scrubbing is SlayerLab/NERGAL, not this repo. - -Usage: - python3 src/fetch_sejm_interpellations.py --out ~/speakleash - python3 src/fetch_sejm_interpellations.py --out ~/speakleash --terms 10 --max-docs 30 -""" -from __future__ import annotations -import argparse, json, re, subprocess, sys, time -from pathlib import Path -from urllib.error import HTTPError, URLError -from urllib.request import Request, urlopen - -sys.path.insert(0, str(Path(__file__).resolve().parent)) -from html_text import html_to_text - -API = "https://api.sejm.gov.pl" -KEY = "sejm_interpellations" -UA = {"User-Agent": "polish-dynaword/0.1 (+research; openly-licensed corpus)", - "Accept": "*/*"} -MIN_CHARS = 200 -DEFAULT_TERMS = (7, 8, 9, 10) # 1–6 time out; see artifacts/source_findings.md -COLLECTIONS = ("interpellations", "writtenQuestions") - -_KIND = { - ("interpellations", False): "interpellation", - ("interpellations", True): "interpellation_reply", - ("writtenQuestions", False): "written_question", - ("writtenQuestions", True): "written_question_reply", -} -_COLLECTION = { - "interpellation": "interpellations", - "interpellation_reply": "interpellations", - "written_question": "writtenQuestions", - "written_question_reply": "writtenQuestions", -} - -_HEAD = re.compile(r"(?is)]*>.*?") -_H1 = re.compile(r"(?is)]*>.*?") -_META_P = re.compile( - r'(?is)]*class="[^"]*(?:int-recipient|int-title|intAuthor|' - r'intDateTresc|intDate)[^"]*"[^>]*>.*?

' -) -_AUTHOR_P = re.compile(r'(?is)]*class="[^"]*intAuthor[^"]*"[^>]*>(.*?)

') -_AUTHOR_LABEL = re.compile(r"^(Zgłaszający|Odpowiadający):\s*", re.I) -_ATTACH_LINE = re.compile( - r"(?i)^(?:Treść odpowiedzi znajduje się w załączniku\.?|Załączniki|" - r"\(podpisane elektronicznie\).*|.*\.pdf)\s*$" -) - - -def should_fetch_reply(reply: dict | None) -> bool: - if not reply: - return False - key = reply.get("key") - if not key: - return False - return not reply.get("onlyAttachment") - - -def body_url(term, collection, num, reply=None) -> str: - base = f"{API}/sejm/term{term}/{collection}/{num}" - if reply: - return f"{base}/reply/{reply['key']}/body" - return f"{base}/body" - - -def _author_from_html(html: str) -> str: - m = _AUTHOR_P.search(html) - if not m: - return "" - return _AUTHOR_LABEL.sub("", html_to_text(m.group(1))).strip() - - -def extract_body(html: str) -> str: - html = _HEAD.sub("", html) - html = _H1.sub("", html) - html = _META_P.sub("", html) - text = html_to_text(html) - lines = [ln for ln in text.splitlines() if not _ATTACH_LINE.match(ln.strip())] - return "\n".join(lines).strip() - - -def normalize_document(kind: str, item: dict, html: str, reply: dict | None = None): - """Listing item + body HTML → {text, meta}, or None if thin / stub.""" - text = extract_body(html) - if len(text) < MIN_CHARS: - return None - collection = _COLLECTION[kind] - term = item.get("term") - num = item.get("num") - author = _author_from_html(html) - if not author and reply: - author = (reply.get("from") or "").strip() - date = (reply or {}).get("receiptDate") or item.get("receiptDate") or "" - meta = { - "url": body_url(term, collection, num, reply), - "term": term, - "num": num, - "kind": kind, - "title": item.get("title") or "", - "date": date, - "author": author, - } - if reply: - meta["reply_key"] = reply.get("key") or "" - return {"text": text, "meta": meta} - - -def _get(url, tries=4): - last = None - for i in range(tries): - try: - with urlopen(Request(url, headers=UA), timeout=45) as r: - return r.read(), dict(r.headers) - except (HTTPError, URLError, TimeoutError) as e: - last = e - if isinstance(e, HTTPError) and e.code in (404, 500): - break - time.sleep(1.5 * (i + 1)) - return None, {"error": repr(last)} - - -def _get_json(url): - raw, hdrs = _get(url) - if raw is None: - return None, hdrs - return json.loads(raw), hdrs - - -def iter_listing(term, collection, page_size): - offset = 0 - while True: - url = f"{API}/sejm/term{term}/{collection}?limit={page_size}&offset={offset}" - items, hdrs = _get_json(url) - if items is None: - raise RuntimeError(f"list failed after retries: {url} ({hdrs.get('error')})") - if not items: - return - yield from items - offset += len(items) - if len(items) < page_size: - return - - -def main(argv=None) -> int: - ap = argparse.ArgumentParser() - ap.add_argument("--out", default="~/speakleash") - ap.add_argument("--terms", default="7,8,9,10", - help="comma-separated Sejm terms (default 7-10)") - ap.add_argument("--collections", default="interpellations,writtenQuestions") - ap.add_argument("--page-size", type=int, default=50) - ap.add_argument("--max-docs", type=int, default=0, help="stop after N kept rows") - args = ap.parse_args(argv) - - terms = [int(t) for t in args.terms.split(",") if t.strip()] - collections = [c.strip() for c in args.collections.split(",") if c.strip()] - out_dir = Path(args.out).expanduser() - out_dir.mkdir(parents=True, exist_ok=True) - jsonl = out_dir / f"{KEY}.jsonl" - - done = set() - if jsonl.exists(): - for ln in jsonl.open(encoding="utf-8"): - try: - done.add(json.loads(ln)["meta"]["url"]) - except Exception: - pass - print(f"resume: {len(done):,} already fetched") - - kept = seen = skipped = 0 - t0 = time.time() - with jsonl.open("a", encoding="utf-8") as fo: - for term in terms: - for collection in collections: - print(f"term {term} {collection}", flush=True) - for item in iter_listing(term, collection, args.page_size): - jobs = [(False, None)] - for reply in item.get("replies") or []: - if should_fetch_reply(reply): - jobs.append((True, reply)) - for is_reply, reply in jobs: - url = body_url(term, collection, item.get("num"), reply) - seen += 1 - if url in done: - continue - raw, hdrs = _get(url) - if raw is None: - skipped += 1 - print(f" WARN skip {url} {hdrs.get('error')}", - file=sys.stderr, flush=True) - continue - kind = _KIND[(collection, is_reply)] - rec = normalize_document( - kind, item, raw.decode("utf-8", "replace"), reply - ) - done.add(url) - if rec: - fo.write(json.dumps(rec, ensure_ascii=False) + "\n") - kept += 1 - else: - skipped += 1 - if seen % 200 == 0: - print(f" seen {seen:,} kept {kept:,} skip {skipped:,} " - f"{seen / max(time.time() - t0, 1):.1f}/s", flush=True) - if args.max_docs and kept >= args.max_docs: - break - if args.max_docs and kept >= args.max_docs: - break - if args.max_docs and kept >= args.max_docs: - break - if args.max_docs and kept >= args.max_docs: - break - - print(f"fetched {kept:,} new docs ({skipped:,} skipped); compressing...", flush=True) - subprocess.run( - ["zstd", "-19", "-f", "--rm", str(jsonl), "-o", str(out_dir / f"{KEY}.jsonl.zst")], - check=True, - ) - print(f"wrote {out_dir / (KEY + '.jsonl.zst')} in {round(time.time() - t0)}s") - return 0 - - -if __name__ == "__main__": - raise SystemExit(main()) diff --git a/src/fetch_wiktionary_examples.py b/src/fetch_wiktionary_examples.py deleted file mode 100644 index 31839a8b61299a090a29938d764d09f8c8749212..0000000000000000000000000000000000000000 --- a/src/fetch_wiktionary_examples.py +++ /dev/null @@ -1,269 +0,0 @@ -#!/usr/bin/env python3 -"""Build the `wiktionary_examples` source from the official Polish Wiktionary dump. - -Extracts usage-example sections (`{{przykłady}}`) from Polish-language entries -of pl.wiktionary.org and emits a `.jsonl.zst` file in the format expected by -`src/build_dynaword.py` (fields: text / license / author). - -Unlike most sources in this registry, this one is NOT routed through -SpeakLeash's redistribution — it is parsed directly from the Wikimedia dump. -The `provenance` field in sources.py records this. - -One document = one headword; all its example sentences are concatenated, -newline-separated, in source order. Citation attribution found in -`{{źródło|...}}` templates is stripped from the text and written to a -side-car file for auditing (not part of the corpus). - -Only the standard library is required for parsing; `zstandard` is used for -output compression (falls back to plain .jsonl with a warning). - -Usage: - # download the dump yourself, then: - python3 src/fetch_wiktionary_examples.py \ - --dump plwiktionary-latest-pages-articles.xml.bz2 \ - - - # dump URL: - # https://dumps.wikimedia.org/plwiktionary/latest/plwiktionary-latest-pages-articles.xml.bz2 -""" -from __future__ import annotations - -import argparse -import bz2 -import html -import json -import re -import sys -from pathlib import Path -from xml.etree import ElementTree as ET - -SOURCE_NAME = "wiktionary_examples" -LICENSE = "CC-BY-SA-3.0" -AUTHOR = "Wikimedia contributors" - -# Gates mirrored from build_dynaword.py so the preview count matches the build. -MIN_CHARS = 200 -MIN_EXAMPLE_CHARS = 10 - -# `== ({{język polski}}) ==` opens the Polish section of an entry. -PL_HEADING = re.compile(r"^==\s*(.+?)\s*\(\{\{język polski\}\}\)\s*==\s*$", re.M) -NEXT_HEADING = re.compile(r"^==[^=]", re.M) - -# Blocks run until the next top-level `{{template}}` marker. -EXAMPLES_BLOCK = re.compile( - r"\{\{przykłady\}\}(.*?)(?=\{\{[a-ząćęłńóśźż]+\}\}|\Z)", re.S -) -# Numbered lines: `: (1.1) ` -NUMBERED_LINE = re.compile(r"^:\s*\(([\d.]+)\)\s*(.+?)\s*$", re.M) -SENSE_NUMBER = re.compile(r"\(\d+\.\d+\)") - -CITATION_FIELDS = ("autor", "tytuł", "tytul", "rozdział", "rozdzial", "rok", "isbn") - - -def split_templates(text: str) -> tuple[str, list[str]]: - """Remove `{{...}}` spans, counting braces so nested templates are handled. - - A regex cannot do this correctly: `{{źródło|tytuł={{...}}}}` occurs in the - dump and a non-greedy match closes at the wrong brace pair. - """ - kept: list[str] = [] - removed: list[str] = [] - i = 0 - while i < len(text): - if text.startswith("{{", i): - depth, j = 0, i - while j < len(text): - if text.startswith("{{", j): - depth += 1 - j += 2 - elif text.startswith("}}", j): - depth -= 1 - j += 2 - if depth == 0: - break - else: - j += 1 - removed.append(text[i:j]) - i = j - else: - kept.append(text[i]) - i += 1 - return "".join(kept), removed - - -def describe_citation(template: str) -> str: - """Flatten a `{{źródło|autor=…|tytuł=…}}` template into a readable string.""" - fields: dict[str, str] = {} - for chunk in template.strip("{}").split("|")[1:]: - if "=" in chunk: - key, value = chunk.split("=", 1) - fields[key.strip().lower()] = value.strip() - parts = [fields[k] for k in CITATION_FIELDS if fields.get(k)] - return " | ".join(parts) - - -def unlink(text: str) -> str: - """`[[target|label]]` -> label, `[[word]]` -> word, external links -> label.""" - for _ in range(5): - stripped = re.sub(r"\[\[([^\[\]|]*)\|(.*?)\]\]", r"\2", text) - stripped = re.sub(r"\[\[([^\[\]|]+?)\]\]", r"\1", stripped) - if stripped == text: - break - text = stripped - # Safety net for malformed nesting, e.g. `[[zaskoczyć|zaskoczył[y]]]`. - text = re.sub(r"\[\[[^\[\]]*?\|", "[[", text) - text = text.replace("[[", "").replace("]]", "") - text = re.sub(r"\[https?://\S+\s+([^\]]+)\]", r"\1", text) - text = re.sub(r"\[https?://\S+\]", "", text) - text = re.sub(r"https?://\S+", "", text) - return text - - -def clean(text: str) -> str: - """Strip wiki and HTML markup. Square brackets are kept deliberately: - `[…]` marks an omission and `[= gloss]` an editorial insertion — both are - philological convention inside quotations, not markup residue.""" - text = re.sub(r"]*>.*?", "", text, flags=re.S) - text = re.sub(r"]*/>", "", text) - text = re.sub(r"<[^>]+>", "", text) - text = unlink(text) - text = re.sub(r"'{2,}", "", text) - text = html.unescape(html.unescape(text)) # some entities are double-encoded - text = text.replace("\u00a0", " ") - text = SENSE_NUMBER.sub("", text) - text = re.sub(r"\s+", " ", text) - return text.strip(" -–—•\t") - - -def polish_section(wikitext: str) -> tuple[str, str] | None: - match = PL_HEADING.search(wikitext) - if not match: - return None - headword = match.group(1).strip() - rest = wikitext[match.end():] - end = NEXT_HEADING.search(rest) - if end: - rest = rest[: end.start()] - return headword, rest - - -def examples_and_citations(section: str) -> tuple[list[str], list[str]]: - match = EXAMPLES_BLOCK.search(section) - if not match: - return [], [] - examples, citations = [], [] - for _, raw in NUMBERED_LINE.findall(match.group(1)): - without_templates, templates = split_templates(raw) - for template in templates: - if template.startswith(("{{źródło", "{{zrodlo")): - described = describe_citation(clean(template)) - if described: - citations.append(described) - sentence = clean(without_templates) - if len(sentence) >= MIN_EXAMPLE_CHARS: - examples.append(sentence) - return examples, sorted(set(citations)) - - -def iter_pages(dump_path: Path): - """Yield (namespace, wikitext) for every page, streaming the bz2 dump.""" - with bz2.open(dump_path, "rb") as handle: - for _, element in ET.iterparse(handle, events=("end",)): - if element.tag.rsplit("}", 1)[-1] != "page": - continue - values = {} - for child in element.iter(): - tag = child.tag.rsplit("}", 1)[-1] - if tag in ("ns", "text") and tag not in values: - values[tag] = child.text - yield (values.get("ns") or "").strip(), values.get("text") or "" - element.clear() - - -def main() -> None: - parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(description=__doc__) - parser.add_argument("--dump", required=True, - help="plwiktionary-latest-pages-articles.xml.bz2") - parser.add_argument("--out", default=".", - help="directory to write .jsonl.zst into") - parser.add_argument("--min-chars", type=int, default=MIN_CHARS, - help=f"document length gate (default {MIN_CHARS}, " - "matching build_dynaword.py)") - args = parser.parse_args() - - dump_path = Path(args.dump).expanduser() - if not dump_path.exists(): - sys.exit(f"dump not found: {dump_path}") - out_dir = Path(args.out).expanduser() - out_dir.mkdir(parents=True, exist_ok=True) - - pages = entries = with_examples = with_citations = 0 - documents: list[tuple[str, str]] = [] - citation_index: list[dict] = [] - - for namespace, wikitext in iter_pages(dump_path): - pages += 1 - if pages % 100_000 == 0: - print(f" {pages:,} pages scanned, {entries:,} Polish entries", - flush=True) - if namespace != "0": - continue - section = polish_section(wikitext) - if section is None: - continue - entries += 1 - headword, body = section - examples, citations = examples_and_citations(body) - if not examples: - continue - with_examples += 1 - if citations: - with_citations += 1 - citation_index.append({"headword": headword, "citations": citations}) - documents.append((headword, "\n".join(examples))) - - kept = [(h, t) for h, t in documents if len(t) >= args.min_chars] - chars = sum(len(t) for _, t in kept) - - print() - print(f"pages scanned: {pages:,}") - print(f"Polish entries: {entries:,}") - print(f"entries with examples: {with_examples:,}") - print(f"entries with attribution: {with_citations:,}") - print(f"documents >= {args.min_chars} chars: {len(kept):,}") - print(f"characters: {chars:,}") - - payload = "\n".join( - json.dumps({"text": text, "license": LICENSE, "author": AUTHOR}, - ensure_ascii=False) - for _, text in kept - ) + "\n" - - plain = out_dir / f"{SOURCE_NAME}.jsonl" - plain.write_text(payload, encoding="utf-8") - - try: - import zstandard as zstd - except ImportError: - print(f"\nwrote {plain} — install `zstandard` (or run `zstd {plain.name}`) " - "to produce the .jsonl.zst the build expects") - else: - compressed = out_dir / f"{SOURCE_NAME}.jsonl.zst" - compressed.write_bytes(zstd.ZstdCompressor(level=10).compress( - payload.encode("utf-8"))) - plain.unlink() - print(f"\nwrote {compressed}") - - audit = out_dir / f"{SOURCE_NAME}.citations.jsonl" - audit.write_text( - "\n".join(json.dumps(row, ensure_ascii=False) for row in citation_index) + "\n", - encoding="utf-8", - ) - print(f"wrote {audit} (attribution audit trail, not part of the corpus)") - print() - print(f"next: python3 src/build_dynaword.py --sources {SOURCE_NAME} " - f"--speakleash-dir {out_dir} --out .") - - -if __name__ == "__main__": - main() diff --git a/src/html_text.py b/src/html_text.py deleted file mode 100644 index cb3730d3a71dd4f7da0b65d88c93d41e79fb451a..0000000000000000000000000000000000000000 --- a/src/html_text.py +++ /dev/null @@ -1,23 +0,0 @@ -"""Shared HTML → text for fetchers. Block tags become newlines; inline tags drop.""" -from __future__ import annotations -import re -from html import unescape - -_SCRIPT = re.compile(r"(?is)<(script|style)[^>]*>.*?") -_BLOCK_END = re.compile( - r"(?i)|" -) -_TAG = re.compile(r"<[^>]+>") - - -def html_to_text(html: str) -> str: - if not html: - return "" - html = _SCRIPT.sub("", html) - html = _BLOCK_END.sub("\n", html) - html = _TAG.sub("", html) - text = unescape(html).replace("\r\n", "\n").replace("\r", "\n") - text = re.sub(r"[ \t]+", " ", text) - text = re.sub(r" *\n *", "\n", text) - text = re.sub(r"\n{3,}", "\n\n", text) - return text.strip() diff --git a/src/make_docs.py b/src/make_docs.py index f62e7013eff33cc8a905cc6c73f3e1817c0a592d..c239459cb4a14847a04efae9d351b0b98bee0641 100644 --- a/src/make_docs.py +++ b/src/make_docs.py @@ -1,490 +1,330 @@ -#!/usr/bin/env python3 -"""Generate Dynaword documentation: per-source datasheets + README + CHANGELOG + LICENSE. - -Reads sources.py + data//.stats.json (written by build_dynaword.py). -Only sources whose registry `release` is set and <= VERSION count toward release -totals; sources on main awaiting a release are listed separately and excluded, so -merging a new source cannot silently redefine a published total. -Implements the "Documented" principle (datasheets, Gebru et al. 2021) and the -aggregate README table (paper 2508.02271). -""" -from __future__ import annotations -import json, subprocess, sys -from pathlib import Path - -sys.path.insert(0, str(Path(__file__).resolve().parent)) -from sources import SOURCES, EXCLUDED, ADDED - -ROOT = Path(__file__).resolve().parent.parent -VERSION = "0.2.5" -RELEASE_DATE = "2026-08-14" -CONTACT = "k.wikiel@gmail.com" # notice-and-takedown / data-removal requests - -# Dupochron: documented good-faith provenance + no-warranty + takedown + PII. -DISCLAIMER = f"""## Personal & sensitive data -This corpus contains **only** text that its upstream sources already published -under open licenses or as official public-domain record. It therefore includes -names and statements of **public figures acting in a public capacity** — e.g. -parliamentary speakers (PPC), authorities named in legal acts (EUR-Lex), and -people described in encyclopedic articles (Wikipedia/Wikisource). No private, -non-public personal data was collected or added. If you are a data subject and -want content concerning you removed, contact **{CONTACT}** — it will be dropped -from the next version (see retroactive-removal policy below). - -## Disclaimer & legal -- **Provenance in good faith.** Per-source licenses are reproduced *as documented - by the upstream sources and by SpeakLeash* (the intermediate aggregator), to the - best of our knowledge. We make no independent legal warranty about the copyright - status of any individual document. -- **No ownership claim.** This release is a *curated, license-reviewed, documented - aggregation*. We claim no ownership of the underlying texts; rights remain with - the original authors/rightsholders under their respective licenses. -- **Provided "as is"**, without warranty of any kind, express or implied. This is - not legal advice. -- **Your compliance is yours.** Downstream users must satisfy each upstream - license themselves — in particular **CC-BY-SA-4.0 attribution and share-alike** - for derivatives of this dataset, and attribution to the upstream sources and to - SpeakLeash. -- **Notice-and-takedown.** Any source or rightsholder raising a substantiated - objection can have material removed: contact **{CONTACT}**; it is dropped from - the next version and recorded in the CHANGELOG. Removal is retroactive - going-forward (prior immutable snapshots/commits may persist). -""" - - -def write_text(path, text): - """Write UTF-8, preserving the file's existing line endings. - - README.md and CHANGELOG.md are stored CRLF (last regenerated on Windows). - Writing LF from another OS would rewrite every line, burying the real change - in a whole-file whitespace diff. - """ - text = text.replace("\r\n", "\n") - if path.exists() and b"\r\n" in path.read_bytes(): - text = text.replace("\n", "\r\n") - path.write_bytes(text.encode("utf-8")) - - -def parse_version(text): - """'0.2.10' -> (0, 2, 10), so releases order numerically rather than lexically.""" - return tuple(int(part) for part in text.split(".")) - - -def load_stats(name): - f = ROOT / "data" / name / f"{name}.stats.json" - return json.loads(f.read_text()) if f.exists() else None - - -def datasheet(name, cfg, st): - added = cfg.get("added") or ADDED - license_rows = "" - licenses = st.get("licenses") or {} - if licenses: - top = sorted(licenses.items(), key=lambda item: -item[1])[:20] - license_rows = "\n\n## Per-document license metadata\n| license | documents |\n|---|---:|\n" - license_rows += "\n".join(f"| `{k or 'UNKNOWN'}` | {v:,} |" for k, v in top) - author_note = "" - if "authors_with_value" in st: - author_note = ( - f"\n\nAuthor metadata present for **{st.get('authors_with_value', 0):,}** " - "documents. Empty values mean the upstream record did not expose a " - "machine-readable author field." - ) - legal_note = cfg.get("legal_note", "") - if legal_note: - legal_note = f"\n\n## Legal scope note\n{legal_note}" - source_note = "" - if st.get("stats_recomputed_from_parquet"): - source_note = "\n\nStatistics were recomputed directly from the released parquet file." - return f"""# {name} - -{cfg['pretty']} - -## Dataset description -- **Source (upstream):** {cfg['upstream']} -- **Domain:** {cfg['domain']} -- **Language:** Polish (pl) -- **License:** `{cfg['license']}` -- **Created (range):** {cfg['created']} -- **Added:** {added} - -## Licensing — traceable basis -{cfg['traceable']} - -## Provenance -{cfg.get('provenance', f"Pulled from SpeakLeash's public redistribution " - f"(`speakleash-ds-pub`, key `{cfg.get('speakleash_key')}`) of the upstream source " - f"above. SpeakLeash credited as intermediate aggregator; upstream " - f"license/attribution preserved.")} - -## Statistics -| documents | characters | tokens (tiktoken proxy) | -|---:|---:|---:| -| {st['kept']:,} | {st['chars']:,} | {st['tokens']:,} | -{license_rows}{author_note}{legal_note}{source_note} - -## Filters applied (build_dynaword.py) -Minimal, per Dynaword guidelines (heavy filtering left to downstream use): -- drop documents < 200 chars: **{st.get('drop_short', 0):,}** -- drop non-Polish (diacritic ratio): **{st.get('drop_lang', 0):,}** -- exact cross-source dedup (sha1): **{st.get('drop_dup', 0):,}** -- OCR alpha-ratio < 0.70 (OCR sources only): **{st.get('drop_ocr', 0):,}** -- read {st.get('read', st['kept']):,} → kept {st['kept']:,} - -Token counts are a fast tiktoken (cl100k) proxy (~1% off Llama-3); the canonical -Llama-3 count is computed at release. -""" - - -def committed_sources(): - """Source names whose data/ directory is committed -- i.e. actually on main. - - make_docs reads the working tree, so an uncommitted data// would be - written into the README as a source "on main" and linked to a path that 404s - for everyone else. None when git cannot answer, which disables the check - rather than the tool. - """ - try: - out = subprocess.run(["git", "ls-tree", "-d", "--name-only", "HEAD", "data/"], - cwd=ROOT, capture_output=True, text=True, check=True).stdout - except (OSError, subprocess.CalledProcessError): - return None - return {line.rstrip("/").split("/")[-1] for line in out.split()} - - -def main(): - current = parse_version(VERSION) - committed = committed_sources() - rows, pending, tot_doc, tot_tok, tot_chr = [], [], 0, 0, 0 - for name, cfg in SOURCES.items(): - st = load_stats(name) - if not st: - print(f" ! no stats for {name}"); continue - # Sources with a hand-authored datasheet (rich provenance, per-source add - # date) opt out of template regeneration to avoid clobbering it. - if not cfg.get("custom_datasheet"): - write_text(ROOT / "data" / name / f"{name}.md", datasheet(name, cfg, st)) - # The datasheet is written above, before this check: a contributor - # generates it in the same commit that adds the data, so it cannot - # require the data to already be committed. - if committed is not None and name not in committed: - print(f" ! {name}: data/{name}/ is not committed - datasheet written, " - "but left out of the README") - continue - release = cfg.get("release") - if release is None or parse_version(release) > current: - # Built and on main, but not admitted to this release: never counted. - pending.append((name, cfg, st)) - continue - rows.append((name, cfg, st)) - tot_doc += st["kept"]; tot_tok += st["tokens"]; tot_chr += st["chars"] - rows.sort(key=lambda r: -r[2]["tokens"]) - pending.sort(key=lambda r: -r[2]["tokens"]) - - tbl = "\n".join( - f"| [{n}](data/{n}/{n}.md) | {c['pretty']} | `{c['license']}` | " - f"{s['kept']:,} | {s['tokens']/1e6:,.1f}M |" - for n, c, s in rows) - excl = "\n".join(f"| `{k}` | {v} |" for k, v in EXCLUDED.items()) - unreleased = "" - if pending: - unreleased_rows = "\n".join( - f"| [{n}](data/{n}/{n}.md) | {c['pretty']} | `{c['license']}` | " - f"{s_['kept']:,} | {s_['tokens']/1e6:,.1f}M |" - for n, c, s_ in pending) - unreleased = ( - "\n## Sources on main, not yet released\n" - f"Built and documented, but **not** part of v{VERSION} and excluded from " - "every total above. They join a release when a CHANGELOG entry admits " - "them.\n\n" - "| source | description | license | documents | tokens |\n" - "|---|---|---|---:|---:|\n" - f"{unreleased_rows}\n") - phrase_frequency = "" - phrase_path = ROOT / "artifacts" / "pattern_frequency_hf_snippet.md" - if phrase_path.exists(): - snippet = phrase_path.read_text().replace( - "## Phrase frequency in corpus (token-normalized)\n\n", "" - ) - phrase_frequency = ( - "\n## Results\n\n" - "### Corpus phrase frequency (normalized by tokens)\n\n" - "Raw counts and token-normalized shares are regenerated from the " - "current Parquet files with `src/pattern_frequency_report.py`.\n\n" - f"{snippet}" - ) - - readme = f"""--- -license: cc-by-sa-4.0 -language: -- pl -pretty_name: Polish DynaWord -task_categories: -- text-generation -size_categories: -- 1M **v{VERSION} stable** · {tot_doc:,} documents · **{tot_tok/1e9:.2f}B tokens** -> (tiktoken proxy; canonical Llama-3 count at release) · {len(rows)} sources -> Updated: **{RELEASE_DATE}** - -> **v0.3-dev experimental track** · quality/diversity workflow, source-gate -> validation and candidate-data audits. This is development work, not a released -> corpus version, and it does not replace the v{VERSION} stable parquets. - -> **Europeana validation artifact (2026-07-10)** · a separate reproducible -> 810-document direct-ingestion sample stored under the legacy path -> `previews/v0.3.1/europeana.parquet`. It is not a full dataset release. - -## Releases - -### Stable releases - -| version | status | documents | tokens | notes | -|---|---|---:|---:|---| -| `v0.2.5` | stable release | {tot_doc:,} | {tot_tok/1e9:.2f}B | Adds community-contributed `samorzad_gov_pl` with institution-level author attribution and a URL-bearing attribution sidecar. | -| `v0.2.4` | previous stable | 4,246,429 | 9.60B | Expanded `european_hplt_v3_pl` to WDS bins 10-5 (+1.49M docs / 2.04B tok); phone PII-scrub hardening (independent dual-lens) + cross-source dedup (zero-overlap). | -| `v0.2.3` | previous stable | 2,710,974 | 6.88B | Adds community-contributed `european_hplt_v3_pl`, `global_voices` and `nkjp1m`. | -| `v0.2.2` | previous stable | 2,579,963 | 6.36B | Added community-contributed `govpl`: 88,190 docs / 80.7M tokens. | -| `v0.2.1` | previous stable | 2,491,773 | 6.28B | 12-source corpus with `license` and `author` metadata columns; added `1000_novels`. | -| `v0.2.0` | previous stable | 2,490,773 | 6.22B | Provenance-first corpus from 11 open/official sources. | - -![Stable dataset size by version](artifacts/dataset_size_by_version.png) - -### Development and validation artifacts - -| name | type | scope | notes | -|---|---|---|---| -| `v0.3-dev` | experimental development track | workflow and candidate audits | Quality remix, legal-source caps, source QA, deduplication and direct-upstream ingestion. Not a corpus release. | -| `Europeana validation artifact 2026-07-10` | reproducible sample | 810 documents / 140,042 tokens | Stored at the legacy path `previews/v0.3.1/europeana.parquet`; preserves per-record rights and creator metadata. Not a corpus release. | - -### Version details - -#### v0.2.5 — current stable - -Added `samorzad_gov_pl`: **72,771 documents / 41,154,506 cl100k-proxy -tokens** from 246 Polish local public institutions and one central platform -tenant. The contribution preserves the publishing institution as `author`, -discovered and fetched article URLs in an attribution sidecar and the verified -platform-wide CC-BY-SA-4.0 basis. - -#### v0.2.4 — previous stable - -Expanded `european_hplt_v3_pl` from WDS bins 10+9 to **WDS bins 10-5** (added -quality bins 8/7/6/5 and further WDS-9 shards): **+1,493,384 documents / -2,043,141,874 cl100k-proxy tokens**, 100% CC0-1.0. Includes a phone PII-scrub -hardening pass (v12b) verified by two independent lenses (a systematic -recall-gap masked by pipeline self-report was caught pre-release), and -cross-source deduplication against the existing WDS-10+9 shards (exact-dup 0, -near-dup overlap 0.0000%, byte-verified) — resolving the "downstream near-dedup -remains" caveat from the original release. - -#### v0.2.3 — previous stable - -Community expansion release. Adds `european_hplt_v3_pl` from -[PR #5](https://huggingface.co/datasets/SlayerLab/polish-dynaword/discussions/5) -and `global_voices` from -[PR #7](https://huggingface.co/datasets/SlayerLab/polish-dynaword/discussions/7), -plus `nkjp1m` from -[PR #8](https://huggingface.co/datasets/SlayerLab/polish-dynaword/discussions/8). -The complete 16-source release contains **2,710,974 documents / -6,881,277,362 cl100k-proxy tokens**, summed from the released per-source parquet -statistics. - -#### v0.2.2 — previous stable - -Added `govpl` from -[PR #9](https://huggingface.co/datasets/SlayerLab/polish-dynaword/discussions/9): -88,190 Polish government press releases collected directly from 133 gov.pl -ministry and agency subsites. - -#### v0.2.1 — previous stable - -Introduced the canonical eight-column release schema: -`id, text, source, added, created, token_count, license, author`. Added -`1000_novels` from -[PR #1](https://huggingface.co/datasets/SlayerLab/polish-dynaword/discussions/1) -and recomputed all release statistics from parquet files. - -#### v0.2.0 — initial stable corpus - -The provenance-first baseline: 11 reviewed open or official sources, -2,490,773 documents and 6.22B proxy tokens. - -#### v0.3-dev — experimental quality workflow - -Candidate-only work on a better-balanced training mixture: legal-source caps, -temperature sampling, source QA, deduplication and direct-upstream ingestion. -It is not a replacement for the stable corpus. - -#### Europeana validation artifact — 2026-07-10 - -A separate reproducible 810-document Europeana sample preserving per-record -rights and creator metadata. It does not change stable-release totals. -`v0.3.1-preview` remains only as the legacy storage-path label. - -## What this dataset contributes -The raw texts come from existing open corpora (redistributed via SpeakLeash and, -where applicable, fetched from upstream). **The value added here is the curation, -not the bytes**, following the Dynaword methodology: - -1. **License review per source** — each source vetted for an *openly-licensed, - traceable* legal basis (documented in its datasheet); sources that fail the - review are **excluded with a stated reason** (see table below), not silently - kept. This is the core editorial work. -2. **Filtering & normalization** — minimal, reproducible gates (short-doc, - non-Polish, exact cross-source dedup, OCR garble) applied uniformly to one - clean schema: `id, text, source, added, created, token_count, license, author`. -3. **Documentation** — a datasheet per source (Gebru et al. 2021) + this card, - so provenance and licensing are auditable rather than assumed. -4. **Reproducibility & versioning** — `src/` rebuilds the corpus from sources; - new sources and removals are tracked in the CHANGELOG. - -Credit for the underlying texts belongs to the upstream sources and to SpeakLeash -as the redistributing aggregator; this release does not claim ownership of them -(see Disclaimer). - -## Contributors - -| contributor | contribution | release / PR | -|---|---|---| -| [Kacper Wikieł](https://huggingface.co/kacperwikiel) | Project maintainer; corpus curation, source and license review, release engineering, documentation, validation and reproducible build workflow. | all releases | -| [Bart Kobyliński](https://huggingface.co/bartoszkobylinski1) | Added `1000_novels`; expanded Biblioteka Nauki and Europeana ingestion with per-document license and author metadata. | `v0.2.1`, [PR #1](https://huggingface.co/datasets/SlayerLab/polish-dynaword/discussions/1) | -| [Paweł Puzio](https://huggingface.co/ppuzio) | Built `govpl`: subsite discovery, direct ingestion pipeline, dataset artifact, contract tests and documentation. | `v0.2.2`, [PR #9](https://huggingface.co/datasets/SlayerLab/polish-dynaword/discussions/9) | -| [Arkadiusz Słota](https://huggingface.co/Maggio33) | Built & expanded `european_hplt_v3_pl`: HPLT v3 WDS 10+9 (PR #5) then WDS 10-5 expansion (+1,493,384 docs / 2.04B tok), modular cleaning pipeline, phone-recall PII-scrub (v12b, independent dual-lens), cross-source dedup-vs-base (zero-overlap), validation and documentation. | `v0.2.3` (PR #5), `v0.2.4` | -| [Dawid Majewski](https://huggingface.co/dawidmajewski) | Added the reviewed Global Voices Polish corpus; built `samorzad_gov_pl` with direct acquisition, institution attribution, licensing evidence, release artifact and reproducible conversion. | `v0.2.3`, [PR #7](https://huggingface.co/datasets/SlayerLab/polish-dynaword/discussions/7); `v0.2.5` | -| [1am](https://huggingface.co/1am) | Added `nkjp1m`: the manually annotated 1-million-word NKJP subcorpus, direct fetch/build pipeline, source documentation and release artifact. | `v0.2.3`, [PR #8](https://huggingface.co/datasets/SlayerLab/polish-dynaword/discussions/8) | - -Contributions are credited when they add a verifiable dataset artifact, pipeline, -validation, documentation or release work. A merged discussion with no resulting -files is not listed as a data contribution. - -## Guiding principles -1. **Open & traceable licensing** — every source is *openly licensed* with a documented - legal basis (see each datasheet's "traceable basis"), not a vague "public domain". -2. **Reproducibility** — `src/build_dynaword.py` rebuilds the corpus from sources. -3. **Documented** — a datasheet per source under `data//`. -4. **Extensibility** — versioned; new sources via PR. - -## Sources -| source | description | license | documents | tokens | -|---|---|---|---:|---:| -{tbl} -| **total** | | | **{tot_doc:,}** | **{tot_tok/1e6:,.1f}M** | -{unreleased} -## Method -Only **human-authored** text — no synthetic, machine-translated, or auto-transcribed -data. Gates are intentionally minimal (drop short docs, non-Polish, exact duplicates, -OCR garble); heavy quality filtering and mix-weighting are left to downstream training. -Evaluation-set decontamination is applied/marked separately. Schema: -`id, text, source, added, created, token_count, license, author`. The `license` -and `author` columns are per-document metadata when upstream exposes them; older -sources use the source-level license and an empty author field. - -## v0.3 quality roadmap and current status - -The v0.2.x raw corpus is intentionally provenance-first, but its token mix is too -heavy in legal/parliamentary language for natural general pretraining. The v0.3 -workflow therefore separates **source inclusion** from **training mix**: - -- cap `eurlex + parliamentary + dziennik_ustaw` to roughly **10-20%** of training - tokens combined; -- use source-level temperature sampling (`sqrt`, alpha `0.5`) instead of raw - token-proportional sampling; -- add traceably licensed contemporary/natural Polish: open web, academic prose, - cultural heritage text, guides, technical documentation/blogs, Q&A, and - dialogue/instruction data; -- run aggressive exact, normalized, and near-duplicate removal; -- reserve the final **5-15%** of training for higher-quality sources rather than - the largest sources; -- evaluate per-source perplexity and style contamination, not only global loss. - -Current v0.3 source-ingestion status: - -- `biblioteka_nauki`: included from the direct-upstream rebuild with - per-document license and author metadata. -- `europeana`: prepared in the source registry as a direct-upstream rebuild - target with per-record rights statements and creator metadata; raw SpeakLeash - Europeana remains excluded. -- Europeana release policy: split conservatively at pre-1929 records for - US-sensitive downstream reuse, and keep later/unknown records separately - labeled or held until legal review. -- `european_hplt_v3_pl`: WDS bins 10-5 are included in v{VERSION} after contract - validation. HPLT packaging is CC0, while underlying crawled web documents can - carry independent rights; downstream near-dedup and web-content review remain - recommended before training. - -Current review artifacts: - -- `configs/source_candidates_v0_3.json` — candidate decisions and license policy. -- `artifacts/source_license_review_v0_3.md` — source-by-source license review. -- `artifacts/source_candidate_audit_v0_3.md` — generated Hugging Face metadata audit. -- `artifacts/training_mix_v0_3.md` — example 1B-token training mix with legal sources capped at 15%. -- `artifacts/bartek_source_ingestion_plan_2026-07-02.md` — PR contract for - Biblioteka Nauki and Europeana ingestion. - -## Excluded sources (transparency) -Sources we reviewed and **deliberately left out** — part of the curation: - -| source | reason | -|---|---| -{excl} - -{DISCLAIMER} -## License & attribution -Released under **CC-BY-SA-4.0** (copyleft inherited from CC-BY-SA sources such as -Wikipedia/Wikisource/Wolne Lektury). Attribution due to each upstream (see datasheets) -and to **SpeakLeash** as the intermediate aggregator. Retroactive-removal policy: a -source that raises an objection is dropped from subsequent versions, recorded in the -CHANGELOG. - -## Reproduce -```bash -python3 src/build_dynaword.py --all --speakleash-dir --out . -python3 src/make_docs.py -``` -{phrase_frequency} -""" - write_text(ROOT / "README.md", readme.rstrip("\n") + "\n") - - # CHANGELOG is append-only release history. Documentation regeneration must - # never erase earlier releases or hand-reviewed legal/release notes. - changelog_path = ROOT / "CHANGELOG.md" - changelog = changelog_path.read_text() if changelog_path.exists() else "# Changelog\n" - heading = f"## v{VERSION} ({RELEASE_DATE})" - if heading not in changelog: - entry = ( - f"{heading}\n\n" - f"- Current release totals after parquet recount: {len(rows)} sources, " - f"{tot_doc:,} docs, {tot_tok:,} tokens (tiktoken cl100k proxy).\n\n" - ) - changelog = changelog.replace("# Changelog\n", f"# Changelog\n\n{entry}", 1) - write_text(changelog_path, changelog) - - write_text( - ROOT / "LICENSE", - "Polish DynaWord is released under Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0\n" - "International (CC-BY-SA-4.0): https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/\n\n" - "Per-source upstream licenses and attribution are documented in each\n" - "data//.md datasheet.\n") - - print(f"docs written: README + CHANGELOG + LICENSE + " - f"{len(rows) + len(pending)} datasheets") - print(f"release v{VERSION}: {len(rows)} sources" - + (f" | on main, unreleased: {len(pending)}" if pending else "")) - print(f"TOTAL {tot_doc:,} docs | {tot_tok/1e9:.2f}B tok | {tot_chr/1e9:.1f}B chars") - - -if __name__ == "__main__": - main() +#!/usr/bin/env python3 +"""Generate Dynaword documentation: per-source datasheets + README + CHANGELOG + LICENSE. + +Reads sources.py + data//.stats.json (written by build_dynaword.py). +Implements the "Documented" principle (datasheets, Gebru et al. 2021) and the +aggregate README table (paper 2508.02271). +""" +from __future__ import annotations +import json, sys +from pathlib import Path + +sys.path.insert(0, str(Path(__file__).resolve().parent)) +from sources import SOURCES, EXCLUDED, ADDED + +ROOT = Path(__file__).resolve().parent.parent +VERSION = "0.2.2" +CONTACT = "k.wikiel@gmail.com" # notice-and-takedown / data-removal requests + +# Dupochron: documented good-faith provenance + no-warranty + takedown + PII. +DISCLAIMER = f"""## Personal & sensitive data +This corpus contains **only** text that its upstream sources already published +under open licenses or as official public-domain record. It therefore includes +names and statements of **public figures acting in a public capacity** — e.g. +parliamentary speakers (PPC), authorities named in legal acts (EUR-Lex), and +people described in encyclopedic articles (Wikipedia/Wikisource). No private, +non-public personal data was collected or added. If you are a data subject and +want content concerning you removed, contact **{CONTACT}** — it will be dropped +from the next version (see retroactive-removal policy below). + +## Disclaimer & legal +- **Provenance in good faith.** Per-source licenses are reproduced *as documented + by the upstream sources and by SpeakLeash* (the intermediate aggregator), to the + best of our knowledge. We make no independent legal warranty about the copyright + status of any individual document. +- **No ownership claim.** This release is a *curated, license-reviewed, documented + aggregation*. We claim no ownership of the underlying texts; rights remain with + the original authors/rightsholders under their respective licenses. +- **Provided "as is"**, without warranty of any kind, express or implied. This is + not legal advice. +- **Your compliance is yours.** Downstream users must satisfy each upstream + license themselves — in particular **CC-BY-SA-4.0 attribution and share-alike** + for derivatives of this dataset, and attribution to the upstream sources and to + SpeakLeash. +- **Notice-and-takedown.** Any source or rightsholder raising a substantiated + objection can have material removed: contact **{CONTACT}**; it is dropped from + the next version and recorded in the CHANGELOG. Removal is retroactive + going-forward (prior immutable snapshots/commits may persist). +""" + + +def load_stats(name): + f = ROOT / "data" / name / f"{name}.stats.json" + return json.loads(f.read_text()) if f.exists() else None + + +def datasheet(name, cfg, st): + license_rows = "" + licenses = st.get("licenses") or {} + if licenses: + top = sorted(licenses.items(), key=lambda item: -item[1])[:20] + license_rows = "\n\n## Per-document license metadata\n| license | documents |\n|---|---:|\n" + license_rows += "\n".join(f"| `{k or 'UNKNOWN'}` | {v:,} |" for k, v in top) + author_note = "" + if "authors_with_value" in st: + author_note = ( + f"\n\nAuthor metadata present for **{st.get('authors_with_value', 0):,}** " + "documents. Empty values mean the upstream record did not expose a " + "machine-readable author field." + ) + legal_note = cfg.get("legal_note", "") + if legal_note: + legal_note = f"\n\n## Legal scope note\n{legal_note}" + source_note = "" + if st.get("stats_recomputed_from_parquet"): + source_note = "\n\nStatistics were recomputed directly from the released parquet file." + return f"""# {name} + +{cfg['pretty']} + +## Dataset description +- **Source (upstream):** {cfg['upstream']} +- **Domain:** {cfg['domain']} +- **Language:** Polish (pl) +- **License:** `{cfg['license']}` +- **Created (range):** {cfg['created']} +- **Added:** {ADDED} + +## Licensing — traceable basis +{cfg['traceable']} + +## Provenance +{cfg.get('provenance', f"Pulled from SpeakLeash's public redistribution " + f"(`speakleash-ds-pub`, key `{cfg.get('speakleash_key')}`) of the upstream source " + f"above. SpeakLeash credited as intermediate aggregator; upstream " + f"license/attribution preserved.")} + +## Statistics +| documents | characters | tokens (tiktoken proxy) | +|---:|---:|---:| +| {st['kept']:,} | {st['chars']:,} | {st['tokens']:,} | +{license_rows}{author_note}{legal_note}{source_note} + +## Filters applied (build_dynaword.py) +Minimal, per Dynaword guidelines (heavy filtering left to downstream use): +- drop documents < 200 chars: **{st.get('drop_short', 0):,}** +- drop non-Polish (diacritic ratio): **{st.get('drop_lang', 0):,}** +- exact cross-source dedup (sha1): **{st.get('drop_dup', 0):,}** +- OCR alpha-ratio < 0.70 (OCR sources only): **{st.get('drop_ocr', 0):,}** +- read {st.get('read', st['kept']):,} → kept {st['kept']:,} + +Token counts are a fast tiktoken (cl100k) proxy (~1% off Llama-3); the canonical +Llama-3 count is computed at release. +""" + + +def main(): + rows, tot_doc, tot_tok, tot_chr = [], 0, 0, 0 + for name, cfg in SOURCES.items(): + st = load_stats(name) + if not st: + print(f" ! no stats for {name}"); continue + (ROOT / "data" / name / f"{name}.md").write_text(datasheet(name, cfg, st)) + rows.append((name, cfg, st)) + tot_doc += st["kept"]; tot_tok += st["tokens"]; tot_chr += st["chars"] + rows.sort(key=lambda r: -r[2]["tokens"]) + + tbl = "\n".join( + f"| [{n}](data/{n}/{n}.md) | {c['pretty']} | `{c['license']}` | " + f"{s['kept']:,} | {s['tokens']/1e6:,.1f}M |" + for n, c, s in rows) + excl = "\n".join(f"| `{k}` | {v} |" for k, v in EXCLUDED.items()) + phrase_frequency = "" + phrase_path = ROOT / "artifacts" / "pattern_frequency_hf_snippet.md" + if phrase_path.exists(): + snippet = phrase_path.read_text().replace( + "## Phrase frequency in corpus (token-normalized)\n\n", "" + ) + phrase_frequency = ( + "\n## Results\n\n" + "### Corpus phrase frequency (normalized by tokens)\n\n" + "Raw counts and token-normalized shares are regenerated from the " + "current parquet files with `src/pattern_frequency_report.py`.\n\n" + f"{snippet}" + ) + + readme = f"""--- +license: cc-by-sa-4.0 +language: +- pl +pretty_name: Polish DynaWord +task_categories: +- text-generation +size_categories: +- 1M **v{VERSION} stable** · {tot_doc:,} documents · **{tot_tok/1e9:.2f}B tokens** +> (tiktoken proxy; canonical Llama-3 count at release) · {len(rows)} sources +> Updated: **{ADDED}** + +> **v0.3.0-preview in progress** · quality/diversity remix workflow, legal-style +> downweighting, and filtered contemporary Polish web candidates. Biblioteka +> Nauki and Europeana are prepared as source-ingestion PR targets with +> per-document `license` and `author` metadata, but they are not part of this +> stable parquet release yet. + +## Versions + +| version | status | documents | tokens | notes | +|---|---|---:|---:|---| +| `v0.2.1` | stable release | {tot_doc:,} | {tot_tok/1e9:.2f}B | 12-source stable corpus with `license` and `author` metadata columns; adds `1000_novels`. | +| `v0.2.0` | previous stable | 2,490,773 | 6.22B | Provenance-first corpus from 11 open/official sources. | +| `v0.3.0-preview` | workflow + candidate data in progress | candidate-only | TBD | Biblioteka Nauki, Europeana, and HPLT/Common Corpus style expansion pending per-source QA, dedup, and legal review. | + +## What this dataset contributes +The raw texts come from existing open corpora (redistributed via SpeakLeash and, +where applicable, fetched from upstream). **The value added here is the curation, +not the bytes**, following the Dynaword methodology: + +1. **License review per source** — each source vetted for an *openly-licensed, + traceable* legal basis (documented in its datasheet); sources that fail the + review are **excluded with a stated reason** (see table below), not silently + kept. This is the core editorial work. +2. **Filtering & normalization** — minimal, reproducible gates (short-doc, + non-Polish, exact cross-source dedup, OCR garble) applied uniformly to one + clean schema: `id, text, source, added, created, token_count, license, author`. +3. **Documentation** — a datasheet per source (Gebru et al. 2021) + this card, + so provenance and licensing are auditable rather than assumed. +4. **Reproducibility & versioning** — `src/` rebuilds the corpus from sources; + new sources and removals are tracked in the CHANGELOG. + +Credit for the underlying texts belongs to the upstream sources and to SpeakLeash +as the redistributing aggregator; this release does not claim ownership of them +(see Disclaimer). + +## Contributors + +- **Kacper Wikieł** — corpus curation, release engineering, documentation, and + reproducible build workflow. +- **Bart Kobyliński** — source expansion work for Biblioteka Nauki and Europeana, + including per-document license/author metadata collection and rebuild planning. + +## Guiding principles +1. **Open & traceable licensing** — every source is *openly licensed* with a documented + legal basis (see each datasheet's "traceable basis"), not a vague "public domain". +2. **Reproducibility** — `src/build_dynaword.py` rebuilds the corpus from sources. +3. **Documented** — a datasheet per source under `data//`. +4. **Extensibility** — versioned; new sources via PR. + +## Sources +| source | description | license | documents | tokens | +|---|---|---|---:|---:| +{tbl} +| **total** | | | **{tot_doc:,}** | **{tot_tok/1e6:,.1f}M** | + +## Method +Only **human-authored** text — no synthetic, machine-translated, or auto-transcribed +data. Gates are intentionally minimal (drop short docs, non-Polish, exact duplicates, +OCR garble); heavy quality filtering and mix-weighting are left to downstream training. +Evaluation-set decontamination is applied/marked separately. Schema: +`id, text, source, added, created, token_count, license, author`. The `license` +and `author` columns are per-document metadata when upstream exposes them; older +sources use the source-level license and an empty author field. + +## v0.3 quality roadmap and current status + +The v0.2.x raw corpus is intentionally provenance-first, but its token mix is too +heavy in legal/parliamentary language for natural general pretraining. The v0.3 +workflow therefore separates **source inclusion** from **training mix**: + +- cap `eurlex + parliamentary + dziennik_ustaw` to roughly **10-20%** of training + tokens combined; +- use source-level temperature sampling (`sqrt`, alpha `0.5`) instead of raw + token-proportional sampling; +- add traceably licensed contemporary/natural Polish: open web, academic prose, + cultural heritage text, guides, technical documentation/blogs, Q&A, and + dialogue/instruction data; +- run aggressive exact, normalized, and near-duplicate removal; +- reserve the final **5-15%** of training for higher-quality sources rather than + the largest sources; +- evaluate per-source perplexity and style contamination, not only global loss. + +Current v0.3 source-ingestion status: + +- `biblioteka_nauki`: prepared in the source registry as a direct-upstream + rebuild target with per-document license and author metadata; not included in + v{VERSION} parquets yet. +- `europeana`: prepared in the source registry as a direct-upstream rebuild + target with per-record rights statements and creator metadata; raw SpeakLeash + Europeana remains excluded. +- Europeana release policy: split conservatively at pre-1929 records for + US-sensitive downstream reuse, and keep later/unknown records separately + labeled or held until legal review. +- `ashtok897/european-hplt-v1`: candidate workflow exists, but web-crawl + provenance, dedup, QA, and final mix weighting are still pending before stable + inclusion. + +Current review artifacts: + +- `configs/source_candidates_v0_3.json` — candidate decisions and license policy. +- `artifacts/source_license_review_v0_3.md` — source-by-source license review. +- `artifacts/source_candidate_audit_v0_3.md` — generated Hugging Face metadata audit. +- `artifacts/training_mix_v0_3.md` — example 1B-token training mix with legal sources capped at 15%. +- `artifacts/bartek_source_ingestion_plan_2026-07-02.md` — PR contract for + Biblioteka Nauki and Europeana ingestion. + +## Excluded sources (transparency) +Sources we reviewed and **deliberately left out** — part of the curation: + +| source | reason | +|---|---| +{excl} + +{DISCLAIMER} +## License & attribution +Released under **CC-BY-SA-4.0** (copyleft inherited from CC-BY-SA sources such as +Wikipedia/Wikisource/Wolne Lektury). Attribution due to each upstream (see datasheets) +and to **SpeakLeash** as the intermediate aggregator. Retroactive-removal policy: a +source that raises an objection is dropped from subsequent versions, recorded in the +CHANGELOG. + +## Reproduce +```bash +python3 src/build_dynaword.py --all --speakleash-dir --out . +python3 src/make_docs.py +``` +{phrase_frequency} +""" + (ROOT / "README.md").write_text(readme) + + (ROOT / "CHANGELOG.md").write_text( + f"# Changelog\n\n## v{VERSION} ({ADDED})\n\n" + f"- Released a stable metadata-schema update: " + f"`id, text, source, added, created, token_count, license, author`.\n" + f"- Current release totals after parquet recount: {len(rows)} sources, " + f"{tot_doc:,} docs, {tot_tok/1e9:.2f}B tokens (tiktoken proxy).\n" + f"- Added `1000_novels` as a stable CC-BY-4.0 literature source.\n" + f"- Added source registry entries and PR contract for future " + f"`biblioteka_nauki` and `europeana` ingestion with per-document " + f"license/author metadata. These sources are not included in v{VERSION} " + f"parquets yet.\n" + f"- Credited Bart Kobyliński for source expansion work on Biblioteka " + f"Nauki and Europeana metadata/rebuild preparation.\n" + f"- Kept raw SpeakLeash Europeana excluded unless a direct rebuild " + f"preserves per-record rights metadata.\n" + f"- Sources: {', '.join(n for n, _, _ in rows)}.\n" + f"- Excluded (see README): {', '.join(EXCLUDED)}.\n") + + (ROOT / "LICENSE").write_text( + "Polish DynaWord is released under Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0\n" + "International (CC-BY-SA-4.0): https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/\n\n" + "Per-source upstream licenses and attribution are documented in each\n" + "data//.md datasheet.\n") + + print(f"docs written: README + CHANGELOG + LICENSE + {len(rows)} datasheets") + print(f"TOTAL {tot_doc:,} docs | {tot_tok/1e9:.2f}B tok | {tot_chr/1e9:.1f}B chars") + + +if __name__ == "__main__": + main() diff --git a/src/pattern_frequency_report.py b/src/pattern_frequency_report.py index ef54d0b01b8b6f540289c3d34fe1f33affa0973e..03c97f590a359becc0dc1ec3982cad93755b9a2b 100644 --- a/src/pattern_frequency_report.py +++ b/src/pattern_frequency_report.py @@ -45,10 +45,7 @@ def count_patterns_for_source(parquet_path: Path) -> dict[str, int]: for rg in range(pf.num_row_groups): table = pf.read_row_group(rg, columns=["text"]) - # A single large source row group can exceed Arrow's 2 GiB utf8 - # offset limit after lower-casing. Use 64-bit string offsets before - # applying any text kernels so community-contributed web shards scale. - text = pc.cast(table["text"], "large_string") + text = table["text"] text = pc.utf8_lower(text) text = pc.replace_substring_regex(text, pattern="\\r?\\n", replacement=" ") diff --git a/src/plot_version_growth.py b/src/plot_version_growth.py deleted file mode 100644 index ce5e954edf767a3ace3771d7defb6f501f5ca0ef..0000000000000000000000000000000000000000 --- a/src/plot_version_growth.py +++ /dev/null @@ -1,80 +0,0 @@ -#!/usr/bin/env python3 -"""Plot stable Polish DynaWord corpus growth across released versions.""" - -from pathlib import Path - -import matplotlib.pyplot as plt -from matplotlib.ticker import FuncFormatter - - -ROOT = Path(__file__).resolve().parent.parent -OUTPUT = ROOT / "artifacts" / "dataset_size_by_version.png" - -VERSIONS = ["v0.2.0", "v0.2.1", "v0.2.2", "v0.2.3", "v0.2.4", "v0.2.5"] -DOCUMENTS = [ - 2_490_773, - 2_491_773, - 2_579_963, - 2_710_974, - 4_246_429, - 4_319_200, -] -TOKENS = [ - 6_221_393_871, - 6_281_911_234, - 6_362_577_363, - 6_881_277_362, - 9_597_908_067, - 9_639_062_573, -] - - -def millions(value, _position): - return f"{value / 1_000_000:.1f}M" - - -def billions(value, _position): - return f"{value / 1_000_000_000:.1f}B" - - -def main(): - plt.style.use("seaborn-v0_8-whitegrid") - fig, axes = plt.subplots(1, 2, figsize=(12, 4.8)) - - panels = [ - (axes[0], DOCUMENTS, "Documents", millions, lambda v: f"{v / 1_000_000:.3f}M", "#2563eb"), - (axes[1], TOKENS, "Tokens (cl100k proxy)", billions, lambda v: f"{v / 1_000_000_000:.3f}B", "#0f766e"), - ] - - for axis, values, ylabel, formatter, labeler, color in panels: - axis.plot(VERSIONS, values, marker="o", linewidth=2.5, color=color) - axis.fill_between(VERSIONS, values, alpha=0.12, color=color) - axis.set_ylabel(ylabel) - axis.yaxis.set_major_formatter(FuncFormatter(formatter)) - axis.spines[["top", "right"]].set_visible(False) - axis.grid(axis="x", visible=False) - padding = (max(values) - min(values)) * 0.3 or max(values) * 0.02 - axis.set_ylim(min(values) - padding, max(values) + padding) - - for version, value in zip(VERSIONS, values): - axis.annotate( - labeler(value), - (version, value), - xytext=(0, 9), - textcoords="offset points", - ha="center", - fontsize=9, - fontweight="bold", - color=color, - ) - - fig.suptitle("Polish DynaWord — stable dataset growth by version", fontsize=15) - fig.tight_layout() - OUTPUT.parent.mkdir(parents=True, exist_ok=True) - fig.savefig(OUTPUT, dpi=180, bbox_inches="tight") - plt.close(fig) - print(OUTPUT) - - -if __name__ == "__main__": - main() diff --git a/src/render_sample.py b/src/render_sample.py deleted file mode 100644 index 87aad13372323bd7c343e7477f3d013595f6d800..0000000000000000000000000000000000000000 --- a/src/render_sample.py +++ /dev/null @@ -1,66 +0,0 @@ -"""Render a few parquet rows as readable markdown for a PR description. - -Usage: python3 src/render_sample.py data//.parquet [-n 3] [--max-chars 800] - -Each document becomes a fenced block: metadata as `key: value` lines, a blank -line, then the text with real newlines, truncated with `[…]`. -""" -import argparse -import random -import re - -import pyarrow.parquet as pq - - -def sample_rows(path, n, seed=0): - """n rows from distinct random row groups (seeded), so a 2B-token shard isn't read whole.""" - pf = pq.ParquetFile(path) - if pf.num_row_groups == 0 or n <= 0: - return [] - rng = random.Random(seed) - groups = rng.sample(range(pf.num_row_groups), min(n, pf.num_row_groups)) - per_group = -(-n // len(groups)) # ceil: few row groups -> several rows each - rows = [] - for g in sorted(groups): - batch = pf.read_row_group(g).to_pylist() - rows += rng.sample(batch, min(per_group, len(batch))) - return rows[:n] - - -def truncate(text, max_chars): - text = text.strip() - if len(text) <= max_chars: - return text - cut = text[:max_chars] - space = max(cut.rfind(" "), cut.rfind("\n")) - return (cut[:space] if space > 0 else cut).rstrip() + " […]" - - -def fmt_value(v): - if isinstance(v, (list, tuple)): - return ", ".join(fmt_value(x) for x in v) - if hasattr(v, "isoformat"): - return v.isoformat() - return str(v) - - -def render_doc(row, max_chars): - meta = [f"{k}: {fmt_value(v)}" for k, v in row.items() if k != "text"] - body = "\n".join(meta) + "\n\n" + truncate(row.get("text") or "", max_chars) - longest = max((len(m) for m in re.findall(r"`+", body)), default=0) - fence = "`" * max(3, longest + 1) - return f"{fence}\n{body}\n{fence}" - - -def render(path, n=3, max_chars=800, seed=0): - return "\n\n".join(render_doc(r, max_chars) for r in sample_rows(path, n, seed)) - - -if __name__ == "__main__": - ap = argparse.ArgumentParser(description=__doc__, formatter_class=argparse.RawDescriptionHelpFormatter) - ap.add_argument("parquet") - ap.add_argument("-n", type=int, default=3) - ap.add_argument("--max-chars", type=int, default=800) - ap.add_argument("--seed", type=int, default=0) - a = ap.parse_args() - print(render(a.parquet, a.n, a.max_chars, a.seed)) diff --git a/src/rock_pollub_pl_requirements.txt b/src/rock_pollub_pl_requirements.txt deleted file mode 100644 index eb4e41da6cafdc62c85ec3e45ac95a8578685da2..0000000000000000000000000000000000000000 --- a/src/rock_pollub_pl_requirements.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,7 +0,0 @@ -requests==2.32.5 -pdfplumber==0.11.9 -pyarrow==23.0.1 -tiktoken==0.12.0 -langid==1.1.6 -huggingface_hub>=0.36,<2 -pytest>=8,<10 diff --git a/src/samorzad_gov_pl_publishers.json b/src/samorzad_gov_pl_publishers.json deleted file mode 100644 index fd8e18f815662f17a236cf3779757fd86e422fb0..0000000000000000000000000000000000000000 --- a/src/samorzad_gov_pl_publishers.json +++ /dev/null @@ -1,253 +0,0 @@ -{ - "publishers": { - "bajka-konstantynow": "Przedszkole nr 3 BAJKA w Konstantynowie Łódzkim", - "bursa-ostrowiec": "Bursa Szkolna w Ostrowcu Świętokrzyskim", - "bursa-zambrow": "Bursa Szkolna Nr 1 w Zambrowie", - "centrum-kultury-i-promocji-gminy-bobowa": "Centrum Kultury i Promocji Gminy Bobowa", - "ckz1-jaslo": "Centrum Kształcenia Zawodowego Nr 1 w Jaśle", - "cuw-deblin": "Centrum Usług Wspólnych w Dęblinie", - "cuw-ostrowiec": "Centrum Usług Wspólnych w Ostrowcu Świętokrzyskim", - "dps-w-barczewie": "DPS w Barczewie", - "dps-zielonka": "DPS Zielonka", - "gmina-augustow": "Gmina Augustów", - "gmina-bobowa": "Gmina Bobowa", - "gmina-bodzechow": "Gmina Bodzechów", - "gmina-bransk": "Gmina Brańsk", - "gmina-branszczyk": "Gmina Brańszczyk", - "gmina-brzyska": "Gmina Brzyska", - "gmina-buczkowice": "Gmina Buczkowice", - "gmina-budzyn": "Gmina Budzyń", - "gmina-chlopice": "Gmina Chłopice", - "gmina-chodziez": "Gmina Chodzież", - "gmina-ciepielow": "Gmina Ciepielów", - "gmina-ciezkowice": "Gmina Ciężkowice", - "gmina-dlutow": "Gmina Dłutów", - "gmina-dobron": "Gmina Dobroń", - "gmina-gielniow": "Gmina Gielniów", - "gmina-goraj": "Gmina Goraj", - "gmina-gorzno": "Gmina Górzno", - "gmina-grajewo": "Gmina Grajewo", - "gmina-grodzisko-dolne": "Gmina Grodzisko Dolne", - "gmina-hazlach": "Gmina Hażlach", - "gmina-jablonna-lacka": "Gmina Jabłonna Lacka", - "gmina-janowiec-wielkopolski": "Gmina Janowiec Wielkopolski", - "gmina-jaslo": "Gmina Jasło", - "gmina-kalwaria-zebrzydowska": "Gmina Kalwaria Zebrzydowska", - "gmina-kamieniec-zabkowicki": "Gmina Kamieniec Ząbkowicki", - "gmina-klodawa-wielkopolskie": "Gmina Kłodawa wielkopolskie", - "gmina-kluczewsko": "Gmina Kluczewsko", - "gmina-kobiele-wielkie": "Gmina Kobiele Wielkie", - "gmina-kobior": "Gmina Kobiór", - "gmina-konstantynow-lodzki": "Gmina Konstantynów Łódzki", - "gmina-korczew": "Gmina Korczew", - "gmina-krasnopol": "Gmina Krasnopol", - "gmina-krempna": "Gmina Krempna", - "gmina-krzyz-wielkopolski": "Gmina Krzyż Wielkopolski", - "gmina-lanckorona": "Gmina Lanckorona", - "gmina-leczyce": "Gmina Łęczyce", - "gmina-lezajsk": "Gmina Leżajsk", - "gmina-lubenia": "Gmina Lubenia", - "gmina-lutocin": "Gmina Lutocin", - "gmina-lutomiersk": "Gmina Lutomiersk", - "gmina-luzino": "Gmina Luzino", - "gmina-margonin": "Gmina Margonin", - "gmina-medyka": "Gmina Medyka", - "gmina-miasto-mordy": "Gmina i Miasto Mordy", - "gmina-mokobody": "Gmina Mokobody", - "gmina-mucharz": "Gmina Mucharz", - "gmina-olszanka": "Gmina Olszanka", - "gmina-pokrzywnica": "Gmina Pokrzywnica", - "gmina-raba-wyzna": "Gmina Raba Wyżna", - "gmina-radzanow": "Gmina Radzanów", - "gmina-repki": "Gmina Repki", - "gmina-rojewo": "Gmina Rojewo", - "gmina-ruda-maleniecka": "Gmina Ruda Maleniecka", - "gmina-rudka": "Gmina Rudka", - "gmina-sawin": "Gmina Sawin", - "gmina-siedlce": "Gmina Siedlce", - "gmina-siepraw": "Gmina Siepraw", - "gmina-skape": "Gmina Skąpe", - "gmina-skorzec": "Gmina Skórzec", - "gmina-smykow": "Gmina Smyków", - "gmina-somianka": "Gmina Somianka", - "gmina-stryszow": "Gmina Stryszów", - "gmina-swierklaniec": "Gmina Świerklaniec", - "gmina-szastarka": "Gmina Szastarka", - "gmina-tyczyn": "Gmina Tyczyn", - "gmina-tymbark": "Gmina Tymbark", - "gmina-wielgomlyny": "Gmina Wielgomłyny", - "gmina-wieniawa": "Gmina Wieniawa", - "gmina-wierzbica": "Gmina Wierzbica", - "gmina-wietrzychowice": "Gmina Wietrzychowice", - "gmina-wisniew": "Gmina Wiśniew", - "gmina-wymiarki": "Gmina Wymiarki", - "gmina-zabrodzie": "Gmina Zabrodzie", - "gmina-zwolen": "Gmina Zwoleń", - "gminna-biblioteka-publiczna-w-pokrzywnicy": "Gminna Biblioteka Publiczna w Pokrzywnicy", - "gminne-przedszkole-w-wierzbicy": "Gminne Przedszkole w Wierzbicy", - "gminny-klub-dzieciecy-w-gzowie": "Gminny Klub Dziecięcy w Gzowie", - "gminny-osrodek-pomocy-spolecznej-w-lutomiersku": "Gminny Ośrodek Pomocy Społecznej w Lutomiersku", - "gok-lutomiersk": "Gminny Ośrodek Kultury w Lutomiersku", - "gops-augustow": "GOPS Augustów", - "gops-baranowo": "GOPS Baranowo", - "gops-buczkowice": "GOPS Buczkowice", - "gops-ciezkowice": "GOPS Ciężkowice", - "gops-dobron": "GOPS Dobroń", - "gops-hajnowka": "GOPS Hajnówka", - "gops-klukowo": "GOPS Klukowo", - "gops-korczew": "GOPS Korczew", - "gops-krupski-mlyn": "GOPS Krupski Młyn", - "gops-lanckorona": "GOPS Lanckorona", - "gops-mokobody": "GOPS Mokobody", - "gops-mszana-dolna": "GOPS Mszana Dolna", - "gops-opatow": "GOPS Opatów", - "gops-pokrzywnica": "GOPS Pokrzywnica", - "gops-pszczolki": "GOPS Pszczółki", - "gops-sabnie": "GOPS Sabnie", - "gops-siedlce": "GOPS Siedlce", - "gops-wapno": "GOPS Wapno", - "gops-wysokie-mazowieckie": "GOPS Wysokie Mazowieckie", - "gops-zabrodzie": "GOPS Zabrodzie", - "gops-zbroslawice": "GOPS Zbrosławice", - "gov": "Gov.pl", - "lo-turek": "I Liceum Ogólnokształcące im. Tadeusza Kościuszki w Turku", - "lo1-sandomierz": "I Liceum Ogólnokształcące Collegium Gostomianum w Sandomierzu", - "maz-wierzbica": "Gmina Wierzbica (woj. mazowieckie)", - "mazowieckie-centrum-rehabilitacji-stocer-sp-z-oo": "Mazowieckie Centrum Rehabilitacji \"Stocer\" Sp. z o.o.", - "mgops-janowiec-wielkopolski": "MGOPS Janowiec Wielkopolski", - "mgops-kaczory": "MGOPS w Kaczorach", - "mgops-szepietowo": "MGOPS Szepietowo", - "mgops-w-twardogorze": "MGOPS w Twardogórze", - "mgops-witnica": "MGOPS Witnica", - "miasto-chelm": "Miasto Chełm", - "miasto-chodziez": "Miasto Chodzież", - "miasto-i-gmina-kaczory": "Miasto i Gmina Kaczory", - "miasto-i-gmina-lipsko": "Miasto i Gmina Lipsko", - "miasto-lubawa": "Miasto Lubawa", - "miasto-rybnik": "Miasto Rybnik", - "miejskie-przedszkole-nr-3-w-sokolowie-podlskim": "Miejskie Przedszkole nr 3 w Sokołowie Podlaskim", - "mig-solec": "Miasto i Gmina Solec nad Wisłą", - "mops-chodziez": "MOPS Chodzież", - "mops-dabrowa-bialostocka": "MOPS Dąbrowa Białostocka", - "mops-konstantynow-lodzki": "MOPS Konstantynów Łódzki", - "mops-mragowo": "MOPS Mrągowo", - "mops-rumia": "MOPS Rumia", - "mops-szczecinek": "MOPS Szczecinek", - "mops-zgierz": "MOPS Zgierz", - "pcpr-dabrowa-tarnowska": "PCPR Dąbrowa Tarnowska", - "pcpr-goldap": "PCPR Gołdap", - "pcpr-hajnowka": "PCPR Hajnówka", - "pcpr-konskie": "PCPR Końskie", - "pcpr-kutno": "PCPR Kutno", - "pcpr-ostrowiec-swietokrzyski": "PCPR Ostrowiec Świętokrzyski", - "pcpr-proszowice": "PCPR Proszowice", - "pcpr-sandomierz": "PCPR Sandomierz", - "pcpr-zambrow": "PCPR Zambrów", - "pop-starachowice": "Państwowe Ognisko Plastyczne w Starachowicach", - "popppidm-polkowice": "POPPPiDM w Polkowicach", - "poradnia-pp-hajnowka": "Poradnia Psychologiczno-Pedagogiczna w Hajnówce", - "powiat-bialostocki": "Powiat Białostocki", - "powiat-bielski": "Powiat Bielski", - "powiat-dabrowski": "Powiat Dąbrowski", - "powiat-garwolin": "Powiat Garwoliński", - "powiat-goldapski": "Powiat Gołdapski", - "powiat-gorlicki": "Powiat Gorlicki", - "powiat-hajnowski": "Powiat Hajnowski", - "powiat-jasielski": "Powiat Jasielski", - "powiat-konecki": "Powiat Konecki", - "powiat-krasnicki": "Powiat Kraśnicki", - "powiat-kutnowski": "Powiat Kutnowski", - "powiat-lipski": "Powiat Lipski", - "powiat-losicki": "Powiat Łosicki", - "powiat-makowski": "Powiat Makowski", - "powiat-mragowo": "Powiat Mrągowo", - "powiat-nowomiejski": "Powiat Nowomiejski", - "powiat-oleski": "Powiat Oleski", - "powiat-olesnicki": "Powiat Oleśnicki", - "powiat-ostrowiecki": "Powiat Ostrowiecki", - "powiat-polkowicki": "Powiat Polkowicki", - "powiat-proszowicki": "Powiat Proszowicki", - "powiat-pruszkowski": "Powiat Pruszkowski", - "powiat-przasnyski": "Powiat Przasnyski", - "powiat-siedlecki": "Powiat Siedlecki", - "powiat-siemiatycki": "Powiat Siemiatycki", - "powiat-sokolowski": "Powiat Sokołowski", - "powiat-swiebodzinski": "Powiat Świebodziński", - "powiat-wloclawski": "Powiat Włocławski", - "powiat-wolominski": "Powiat Wołomiński", - "powiat-zambrowski": "Powiat Zambrowski", - "powiatowe-centrum-pomocy-rodzinie-w-skarzysku-kamiennej": "Powiatowe Centrum Pomocy Rodzinie w Skarżysku Kamiennej", - "pp7-ostrowiec": "Przedszkole Publiczne nr 7 w Ostrowcu Świętokrzyskim", - "ppp-wloszczowa": "Poradnia Psychologiczno-Pedagogiczna we Włoszczowie", - "pppp-w-stoku-lackim": "Powiatowa Poradnia Psychologiczno-Pedagogiczna w Stoku Lackim", - "przedszkole-cikowice": "Gminne Przedszkole w Cikowicach", - "przedszkole-kaczory": "Publiczne Przedszkole w Kaczorach", - "przedszkole-nr1-rumia": "Słoneczna Jedynka Przedszkole Nr 1 w Rumi", - "przedszkole-rumia": "Przedszkole pod Topolą w Rumi", - "przedszkole3-hajnowka": "Przedszkole Nr 3 z Oddziałami Integracyjnymi im. Żubra Pompika w Hajnówce", - "psds-w-staporkowie": "PŚDS w Stąporkowie", - "pzdp-cieszyn": "Powiatowy Zarząd Dróg Publicznych w Cieszynie", - "pzopo-makowmaz": "Powiatowy Zespół ds. Obsługi Szkół i Placówek Oświatowych w Makowie Mazowieckim", - "scdn-kielce": "ŚCDN Kielce", - "smbusko-zdroj": "Szkoła Muzyczna I stopnia im. Krzysztofa Pendereckiego w Busku-Zdroju", - "sp-damienice": "Szkoła Podstawowa im. Króla Kazimierza Wielkiego w Damienicach", - "sp-kolakowskiego-domanowo": "Szkoła Podstawowa im. por. Izydora Kołakowskiego w Domanowie", - "sp-labowa": "Szkoła Podstawowa im. Św. Franciszka z Asyżu w Łabowej", - "sp-lysakow": "SP im. Franciszka Nawrota w Łysakowie", - "sp-nowawies": "Szkoła Podstawowa im. Ks. Kardynała Stefana Wyszyńskiego w Nowej Wsi", - "sp-pieczyska": "Szkoła Podstawowa w Pieczyskach", - "sp-pogwizdow": "Szkoła Podstawowa im. gen. Józefa Bema w Pogwizdowie", - "sp-raczyce": "Szkoła Podstawowa w Raczycach", - "sp-radoszyce": "Szkoła Podstawowa im. gen. bryg. Antoniego Hedy Szarego w Radoszycach", - "sp-sybirakow-netta": "Szkoła Podstawowa im. Sybiraków w Netcie", - "sp-szydlow": "Szkoła Podstawowa im. Adama Mickiewicza w Szydłowie", - "sp-tluszcz": "Szkoła Podstawowa im. Jana Pawła II w Tłuszczu", - "sp-w-dabrowicy": "Szkoła Podstawowa im. Mikołaja Kopernika w Dąbrowicy", - "sp-zarnow": "Szkoła Podstawowa im. Jana Pawła II w Żarnowie", - "ssp-wodzislaw": "Samorządowa Szkoła Podstawowa im. Wojska Polskiego w Wodzisławiu", - "szkola-nr1-rumia": "Szkoła Podstawowa Nr 1 im. Józefa Wybickiego w Rumi", - "szkola-nr10-rumia": "Szkoła Podstawowa Nr 10 im. Jana Brzechwy w Rumi", - "szkola-nr4-rumia": "Szkoła Podstawowa Nr 4 im. Janusza Korczaka w Rumi", - "szkola-nr7-rumia": "Szkoła Podstawowa Nr 7 im. Karola Wojtyły w Rumi", - "szkola-nr8-rumia": "Szkoła Podstawowa Nr 8 im. ks. Stanisława Ormińskiego w Rumi", - "szkola-podstawowa-im-doroty-gellner-w-pobylkowie-duzym": "Szkoła Podstawowa im. Doroty Gellner w Pobyłkowie Dużym", - "szkola-podstawowa-im-jana-pawla-ii-w-holonkach": "Szkoła Podstawowa im. Jana Pawła II w Holonkach", - "szkola-podstawowa-im-krolowej-jadwigi-w-tluszczu": "Szkoła Podstawowa im. Królowej Jadwigi w Tłuszczu", - "szkola-podstawowa-im-ks-jana-twardowskiego-w-gzowie": "Szkoła Podstawowa im. Ks. Jana Twardowskiego w Gzowie", - "szkola-podstawowa-nr-1-im-juliusza-slowackiego-w-trzciance": "Szkoła Podstawowa Nr 1 im. Juliusza Słowackiego w Trzciance", - "szkola-podstawowa-w-radomysli": "Szkoła Podstawowa w Radomyśli", - "szkola-podstawowa-w-smiarach": "Szkoła Podstawowa im. Jana Pawła II w Śmiarach", - "wombb": "RODN \"WOM\" w Bielsku-Białej", - "zespol-obslugi-szkol-i-przedszkoli-w-wilkowicach": "Zespół Obsługi Szkół i Przedszkoli w Wilkowicach", - "zespol-oswiatowy-w-wisniewie": "Zespół Oświatowy w Wiśniewie", - "zespol-oswiatowy-w-zelkowie-kolonii": "Zespół Oświatowy w Żelkowie-Kolonii", - "zespol-szkol-nr-3-w-przytkowicach": "Zespół Szkół Nr 3 w Przytkowicach", - "zespol-szkol-uslugowych-i-spozywczych-w-jasle": "Zespół Szkół Usługowych i Spożywczych w Jaśle", - "zlobek-chodow": "Żłobek Gminny w Chodowie", - "zo-pruszyn": "Zespół Oświatowy w Pruszynie", - "zo-stok-lacki": "Zespół Oświatowy im. Jana Pawła II w Stoku Lackim", - "zow-strzala": "Zespół Oświatowo-Wychowawczy w Strzale", - "zow-w-bialkach": "Zespół Oświatowo-Wychowawczy w Białkach", - "zpo-dziebaltow": "Zespół Placówek Oświatowych w Dziebałtowie", - "zs-chorzelow": "Zespół Szkół w Chorzelowie", - "zs-kostomloty-drugie": "Zespół Szkół w Kostomłotach Drugich", - "zs-podleszany": "Zespół Szkół w Podleszanach", - "zs-trzesn": "Zespół Szkół w Trześni", - "zs-wmielecka": "Zespół Szkół w Woli Mieleckiej im. J. M. Ossolińskiego", - "zs2-wagrowiec": "Zespół Szkół nr 2 im. ppłk. dr Stanisława Kulińskiego w Wągrowcu", - "zsg-baczkow": "Zespół Szkół Gminnych im. Adama Mickiewicza w Baczkowie", - "zsg-bogucice": "Zespół Szkół Gminnych im. H. Sienkiewicza w Bogucicach", - "zsg-nieszkowice-male": "Zespół Szkół Gminnych im. Jana Pawła II w Nieszkowicach Małych", - "zsg-nieszkowice-wielkie": "Zespół Szkół Gminnych im. Lotników Polskich w Nieszkowicach Wielkich", - "zsg-proszowki": "Zespół Szkół Gminnych w Proszówkach", - "zsg-siedlec": "Zespół Szkół Gminnych im. Bohaterów Westerplatte w Siedlcu", - "zsg-stanislawice": "Zespół Szkół Gminnych w Stanisławicach", - "zso-rumia": "Zespół Szkół Ogólnokształcących w Rumi", - "zsp-brzeznica": "Zespół Szkolno-Przedszkolny w Brzeźnicy", - "zsp-ksiaznice": "Zespół Szkolno-Przedszkolny w Książnicach", - "zsp-rydzow": "Zespół Szkolno-Przedszkolny w Rydzowie", - "zsp-rzedzianowice": "Zespół Szkolno-Przedszkolny w Rzędzianowicach" - }, - "schema_version": "1.0.0", - "source": "tenant homepage og:site_name" -} diff --git a/src/sources.py b/src/sources.py index 463c4d167e1293d53fd6278d8f3fd42660df49ce..ced1f10331916aeb97a2ee72bde27948f55dab70 100644 --- a/src/sources.py +++ b/src/sources.py @@ -1,533 +1,309 @@ -"""Source registry for Polish DynaWord. - -Each entry = one openly-licensed, *traceable* human-text source (paper 2508.02271, -principle: open+traceable licensing). The `traceable` field documents WHY the -license holds (not just "it's public domain") — e.g. statutory basis or upstream -license — as required by the Dynaword guidelines. - -Provenance note: data is pulled from SpeakLeash's public redistribution -(iDrive e2 bucket) of these upstream sources; SpeakLeash is credited as the -intermediate aggregator, upstream license/attribution is preserved per source. -""" - -# clean-6: passed the copyright review (2026-06-15). open_subtitles excluded -# (derivative of copyrighted film dialogue — same lesson as Danish Gigaword). -# Large cultural/academic sources require per-record rights metadata and should -# be rebuilt from direct upstream/export scripts rather than blind SpeakLeash pulls. -SOURCES = { - "uzp_orzeczenia_pl": { - "added": "2026-09-17", - "release": None, - "file_key": "uzp_orzeczenia_pl", - "pretty": "UZP Orzeczenia - KIO/SO/SA/SN public-procurement rulings", - "license": "public-domain (official documents)", - "license_spdx": "LicenseRef-Polish-Official-Documents", - "traceable": "Every retained ruling links to its /Home/Details landing URL, PDF URL and sha256; organ, document type, signature, issue date, chairman, purchaser and key provisions are kept per record.", - "upstream": "https://orzeczenia.uzp.gov.pl/", - "provenance": "Enumerated deterministically via the service's kind-filtered /Home/GetResults pagination matching server-reported totals; per-document /Home/Details metadata and /Home/PdfContent PDFs fetched, extracted with pypdf, normalized, PII patterns redacted, language/quality filtered and within-source deduplicated. Polish Copyright Act art. 4(2): official documents are not subject to copyright; UZP search service republishes KIO/SO/SA/SN rulings in public procurement matters.", - "domain": "legal/judicial", - "created": "2009-2026", - "is_ocr": False, - "custom_datasheet": True, - }, - 'rock_pollub_pl': {'file_key': 'rock_pollub_pl', - 'pretty': 'ROCK Politechnika Lubelska - Polish academic books', - 'license': 'CC-BY-SA-4.0', - 'license_spdx': 'CC-BY-SA-4.0', - 'traceable': 'Each retained book has CC BY-SA 4.0 evidence in both the item record and ' - 'matched original-PDF bitstream metadata; URLs, checksums, attribution and ' - 'exclusions are preserved.', - 'upstream': 'https://rock.pollub.pl/collections/a42db069-319d-4d51-88d1-490ee7e6bad8', - 'provenance': 'Fetched directly from the official ROCK repository by ' - 'src/fetch_rock_pollub_pl.py; only the fail-closed eight-record subset with ' - 'item- and PDF-level rights evidence is included.', - 'domain': 'academic/technical', - 'created': '2023-2026', - 'is_ocr': False, - 'custom_datasheet': True}, - "wikipedia": { - "added": "2026-07-02", - "release": "0.2.0", - "speakleash_key": "plwiki", - "pretty": "Polish Wikipedia", - "license": "CC-BY-SA-3.0", - "license_spdx": "CC-BY-SA-3.0", - "traceable": "Wikimedia dumps explicitly released under CC-BY-SA 3.0; " - "attribution to contributors + share-alike preserved.", - "upstream": "https://dumps.wikimedia.org/plwiki/latest/", - "domain": "encyclopedic", - "created": "2001-01-15, 2026-06-14", - "is_ocr": False, - }, - "wikisource": { - "added": "2026-07-02", - "release": "0.2.0", - "speakleash_key": "plwikisource", - "pretty": "Polish Wikisource", - "license": "CC-BY-SA-3.0", - "license_spdx": "CC-BY-SA-3.0", - "traceable": "Wikimedia dumps under CC-BY-SA 3.0; underlying texts are " - "public-domain works transcribed by the community.", - "upstream": "https://dumps.wikimedia.org/plwikisource/latest/", - "domain": "books/source-texts", - "created": "2005-01-01, 2026-06-14", - "is_ocr": False, - }, - "wiktionary_examples": { - "added": "2026-07-19", - "release": None, - "file_key": "wiktionary_examples", - "pretty": "Polish Wiktionary usage examples", - "provenance": "Parsed directly from the official Wikimedia dump " - "(plwiktionary-latest-pages-articles.xml.bz2); not routed " - "through SpeakLeash. Usage-example sections of Polish-language " - "entries extracted and grouped one document per headword.", - "license": "CC-BY-SA-3.0", - "license_spdx": "CC-BY-SA-3.0", - "traceable": "Wikimedia dumps explicitly released under CC-BY-SA 3.0; " - "attribution to contributors + share-alike preserved. " - "Derived subset: usage-example sections from Polish-language " - "entries only, grouped one document per headword.", - "upstream": "https://dumps.wikimedia.org/plwiktionary/latest/", - "domain": "lexicographic", - "created": "2004-03-22, 2026-08-15", - "is_ocr": False, - }, - "eurlex": { - "added": "2026-07-02", - "release": "0.2.0", - "speakleash_key": "eurlex_corpus", - "pretty": "EUR-Lex (EU legal acts, Polish)", - "license": "CC-BY-4.0", - "license_spdx": "CC-BY-4.0", - "traceable": "EU documents reusable under Commission Decision 2011/833/EU; " - "normative acts fall outside copyright (PL art. 4 pr. aut.). " - "Reuse authorised with source acknowledgement.", - "upstream": "https://eur-lex.europa.eu", - "domain": "legal", - "created": "1952-01-01, 2024-12-31", - "is_ocr": False, - }, - "parliamentary": { - "added": "2026-07-02", - "release": "0.2.0", - "speakleash_key": "PPC_corpus", - "pretty": "Polish Parliamentary Corpus (Sejm/Senat)", - "license": "public-domain (official documents)", - "license_spdx": "CC-BY-4.0", - "traceable": "Parliamentary proceedings are official documents outside " - "copyright (PL art. 4 pr. aut.); PPC redistributed by IPI PAN " - "under CC-BY-4.0.", - "upstream": "http://clip.ipipan.waw.pl/PPC", - "domain": "political/spoken", - "created": "1991-01-01, 2019-12-31", - "is_ocr": False, - }, - "sejm_api": { - "added": "2026-08-22", - "custom_datasheet": True, - "release": None, - "file_key": "sejm_api", - "pretty": "Sejm API parliamentary speeches (2023 onward)", - "license": "public-domain (official documents)", - "license_spdx": "LicenseRef-Polish-Official-Documents", - "traceable": "Official parliamentary materials excluded from copyright " - "under Polish Copyright Act art. 4(2); reusable under " - "the Polish Open Data Act arts. 2(12), 5, 14 and 17.", - "upstream": "https://api.sejm.gov.pl/", - "provenance": "Direct official Sejm API records, preserved with speaker " - "attribution and immutable PiotrSty/sejm-speeches-corpus " - "v1.0.1 source provenance.", - "domain": "political/spoken", - "created": "2023-01-01, 2026-07-03", - "is_ocr": False, - }, - "sejm_interpellations": { - "release": None, - "file_key": "sejm_interpellations", - "pretty": "Sejm interpellations and written questions (terms 7–10)", - "license": "public-domain (official documents)", - "license_spdx": "LicenseRef-Polish-Official-Documents", - "traceable": "Official parliamentary materials excluded from copyright " - "under Polish Copyright Act art. 4(2); reusable under " - "the Polish Open Data Act arts. 2(12), 5, 14 and 17.", - "upstream": "https://api.sejm.gov.pl/", - "provenance": "Fetched from api.sejm.gov.pl HTML body endpoints by " - "src/fetch_sejm_interpellations.py (interpellations + " - "writtenQuestions, terms 7–10). Header chrome stripped into " - "meta; attachment-only and keyless replies skipped; " - "PII via SlayerLab/NERGAL, not this repo.", - "domain": "political/written", - "created": "2011-11-08, 2026-09-04", - "is_ocr": False, - "custom_datasheet": True, - }, - "parlamint_pl": { - "added": "2026-07-19", - "release": None, - "file_key": "parlamint_pl", - "pretty": "ParlaMint-PL (parliamentary debates, 2015-2022)", - "license": "CC-BY-4.0", - "license_spdx": "CC-BY-4.0", - "traceable": "ParlaMint 3.0 corpora released under CC-BY 4.0 (CLARIN.SI " - "handle 11356/1486); parliamentary proceedings are also " - "official documents (PL art. 4 pr. aut.).", - "upstream": "http://hdl.handle.net/11356/1486", - "provenance": "Fetched directly from the CLARIN.SI plain-text edition " - "(ParlaMint-PL.tgz) by src/fetch_parlamint.py; one session " - "transcript per document, utterance IDs stripped. Modern " - "spoken register, complements the older PPC (1991-2019).", - "domain": "political/spoken", - "created": "2015-01-01, 2022-12-31", - "is_ocr": False, - }, - "wolne_lektury": { - "added": "2026-07-02", - "release": "0.2.0", - "speakleash_key": "wolne_lektury_corpus", - "pretty": "Wolne Lektury (school readings)", - "license": "CC-BY-SA-4.0 / Wolna Sztuka 1.3", - "license_spdx": "CC-BY-SA-4.0", - "traceable": "Wolne Lektury publishes under CC-BY-SA 4.0 or Free Art " - "License; texts are public-domain classics + cleared works.", - "upstream": "https://wolnelektury.pl/api/books/", - "domain": "literature", - "created": "1500-01-01, 2024-12-31", - "is_ocr": False, - }, - "wikinews": { - "added": "2026-07-02", - "release": "0.2.0", - "file_key": "plwikinews", # fetched from Wikimedia dumps, NOT via SpeakLeash - "pretty": "Polish Wikinews", - "license": "CC-BY-2.5", - "license_spdx": "CC-BY-2.5", - "traceable": "Wikinews content is released under CC-BY 2.5; attribution to " - "contributors preserved.", - "upstream": "https://pl.wikinews.org/", - "provenance": "Fetched directly from the official Wikimedia dump " - "(plwikinews-latest-pages-articles) by src/fetch_wikimedia.py; " - "mainspace only, wikitext stripped via mwparserfromhell.", - "domain": "news", - "created": "2005-01-01, 2025-12-31", - "is_ocr": False, - }, - "wikivoyage": { - "added": "2026-07-02", - "release": "0.2.0", - "file_key": "plwikivoyage", - "pretty": "Polish Wikivoyage (travel guides)", - "license": "CC-BY-SA-3.0", - "license_spdx": "CC-BY-SA-3.0", - "traceable": "Wikivoyage content is released under CC-BY-SA 3.0; " - "attribution + share-alike preserved.", - "upstream": "https://pl.wikivoyage.org/", - "provenance": "Fetched directly from the official Wikimedia dump " - "(plwikivoyage-latest-pages-articles) by src/fetch_wikimedia.py; " - "mainspace only, wikitext stripped via mwparserfromhell.", - "domain": "travel", - "created": "2012-01-01, 2025-12-31", - "is_ocr": False, - }, - "wikibooks": { - "added": "2026-07-02", - "release": "0.2.0", - "file_key": "plwikibooks", - "pretty": "Polish Wikibooks (open textbooks)", - "license": "CC-BY-SA-3.0", - "license_spdx": "CC-BY-SA-3.0", - "traceable": "Wikibooks content is released under CC-BY-SA 3.0; " - "attribution + share-alike preserved.", - "upstream": "https://pl.wikibooks.org/", - "provenance": "Fetched directly from the official Wikimedia dump " - "(plwikibooks-latest-pages-articles) by src/fetch_wikimedia.py; " - "mainspace only, wikitext stripped via mwparserfromhell.", - "domain": "instructional", - "created": "2004-01-01, 2025-12-31", - "is_ocr": False, - }, - "wikiquote": { - "added": "2026-07-02", - "release": "0.2.0", - "file_key": "plwikiquote", - "pretty": "Polish Wikiquote (quotations)", - "license": "CC-BY-SA-3.0", - "license_spdx": "CC-BY-SA-3.0", - "traceable": "Wikiquote content is released under CC-BY-SA 3.0; " - "attribution + share-alike preserved.", - "upstream": "https://pl.wikiquote.org/", - "provenance": "Fetched directly from the official Wikimedia dump " - "(plwikiquote-latest-pages-articles) by src/fetch_wikimedia.py; " - "mainspace only, wikitext stripped via mwparserfromhell.", - "domain": "quotations", - "created": "2005-01-01, 2025-12-31", - "is_ocr": False, - }, - "eltec_pol": { - "added": "2026-07-02", - "release": "0.2.0", - "file_key": "eltec_pol", - "pretty": "ELTeC-pol (European Literary Text Collection, Polish)", - "license": "CC-BY-4.0", - "license_spdx": "CC-BY-4.0", - "traceable": "ELTeC corpora are released under CC-BY 4.0 by the COST Action " - "'Distant Reading for European Literary History' (CA16204).", - "upstream": "https://github.com/COST-ELTeC/ELTeC-pol", - "provenance": "Fetched directly from the COST-ELTeC/ELTeC-pol GitHub " - "repository (level1 TEI) by src/fetch_eltec.py; reading text " - "extracted from TEI paragraphs.", - "domain": "literature", - "created": "1840-01-01, 1920-12-31", - "is_ocr": False, - }, - "dziennik_ustaw": { - "added": "2026-07-02", - "release": "0.2.0", - "file_key": "dziennik_ustaw", # fetched directly, NOT via SpeakLeash - "pretty": "Dziennik Ustaw + Monitor Polski (Polish primary legislation)", - "license": "public-domain (official documents)", - "license_spdx": "CC0-1.0", - "traceable": "Normative acts and their official drafts are not subject to " - "copyright (PL art. 4 ustawy o prawie autorskim). Published by " - "the state; reuse unrestricted.", - "upstream": "https://api.sejm.gov.pl/eli/acts", - "provenance": "Fetched directly from the Sejm ELI API (text.html per act) " - "by src/fetch_eli.py — a native source, not redistributed via " - "SpeakLeash. Full provenance: each act's `meta.url` is its ELI " - "address, resolvable on api.sejm.gov.pl.", - "domain": "legal", - "created": "1918-01-01, 2025-12-31", - "is_ocr": False, - }, - "govpl": { - "added": "2026-07-19", - "release": "0.2.2", - "file_key": "govpl", # fetched directly from gov.pl, NOT via SpeakLeash - "pretty": "gov.pl — Polish government press releases", - "license": "CC-BY-SA-4.0", - "license_spdx": "CC-BY-SA-4.0", - "traceable": "All textual content on gov.pl is published under CC-BY-SA " - "4.0 (site footer: \"Treści tekstowe publikowane w serwisie " - "… są udostępniane na licencji CC BY-SA 4.0\"). Authored and " - "hosted by the Polish government, which holds the right to " - "license it — same open family as Polish Wikipedia.", - "upstream": "https://www.gov.pl/", - "provenance": "Ministry/agency press releases fetched directly from gov.pl " - "(editor-content per article, HTML stripped) by " - "src/fetch_govpl.py. Subsites + their non-uniform news-section " - "paths are enumerated by src/discover_govpl.py into the " - "committed manifest src/govpl_subsites.json (gov.pl has no " - "sitemap/API). Each record's meta.url resolves on gov.pl.", - "domain": "government", - # actual min/max of article dates in the fetched corpus (90,124 dated). - "created": "2005-09-26, 2026-07-19", - "is_ocr": False, - }, - "samorzad_gov_pl": { - "added": "2026-08-14", - "release": "0.2.5", - "file_key": "samorzad_gov_pl", - "pretty": "samorzad.gov.pl — Polish public-sector institutions", - "license": "CC-BY-SA-4.0", - "license_spdx": "CC-BY-SA-4.0", - "traceable": "The shared samorzad.gov.pl platform footer publishes textual " - "content under CC BY-SA 4.0. Every retained v0.1 source page " - "referenced the shared footer script; audiovisual media and " - "attachment bytes are not redistributed.", - "upstream": "https://huggingface.co/datasets/dawidmajewski/samorzad-gov-pl-articles", - "provenance": "Converted reproducibly from the published v0.1 source dataset " - "by src/clean_samorzad_gov_pl.py. The source was collected " - "directly from public samorzad.gov.pl pages across 246 local " - "public institutions and one central platform tenant. " - "Institution display names are frozen " - "from each tenant homepage's og:site_name metadata and stored " - "as DynaWord author values; discovered, fetched and attribution " - "URLs plus license details are preserved in the sidecar.", - "domain": "local government, education, social services and culture", - "created": "2020-2026 for 21,892 dated records; 59,530 source records undated", - "is_ocr": False, - "custom_datasheet": True, - }, - "biblioteka_nauki": { - "added": "2026-06-27", - "custom_datasheet": True, - "release": "0.2.4", - "file_key": "biblioteka_nauki_pl_corpus", - "pretty": "Biblioteka Nauki", - "license": "per-record upstream license", - "license_spdx": "MIXED", - "traceable": "Documents are accepted only when the direct upstream record " - "exposes a reusable license. The parquet carries the " - "per-document `license` and `author` fields from the upstream " - "metadata collected by the source-specific rebuild script.", - "upstream": "https://bibliotekanauki.pl/", - "provenance": "Fetched directly from Biblioteka Nauki via the contributor " - "rebuild script, not from the SpeakLeash redistribution. " - "License and author metadata are checked document by document " - "before normalization into the DynaWord schema.", - "domain": "academic", - "created": "unknown", - "is_ocr": False, - }, - "europeana": { - "release": None, - # Direct rebuild output from fetch_europeana.py, never the raw - # SpeakLeash Europeana aggregate. - "file_key": "europeana", - "pretty": "Europeana Polish records", - "license": "per-record public-domain/open rights statement", - "license_spdx": "MIXED", - "traceable": "Documents are accepted only with per-record Europeana rights " - "metadata classified as public-domain/open. Public-domain " - "status is jurisdiction-sensitive; downstream users must " - "check their local legal requirements.", - "upstream": "https://www.europeana.eu/", - "provenance": "Fetched directly from Europeana via the contributor rebuild " - "script, preserving per-record rights and creator metadata. " - "The raw SpeakLeash aggregate remains insufficient because " - "it does not carry enough rights evidence for release.", - "domain": "cultural heritage", - "created": "unknown", - "is_ocr": True, - "legal_note": "Europeana public-domain statements are primarily evaluated " - "for Poland/EU. For US reuse, records created/published " - "before 1929 are the conservative release slice; later " - "records should remain separately labeled or held until " - "legal review confirms their US status.", - }, - "nkjp1m": { - "added": "2026-06-15", - "custom_datasheet": True, - "release": "0.2.3", - "file_key": "nkjp1m", - "pretty": "The manually annotated 1-million word subcorpus of the National Corpus of Polish", - "license": "CC-BY", - "license_spdx": "CC-BY-4.0", - "traceable": "The NKJP download page (clip.ipipan.waw.pl) states the manually annotated 1-million-word subcorpus (Podkorpus Milionowy NKJP 1.2) is available under a CC-BY licence; attribution to the NKJP Consortium (IPI PAN) preserved. The page states 'CC-BY' with no version, normalized to CC-BY-4.0 for SPDX. The CC-BY licence covers the corpus text; NKJP's separate tools are GPL and are not included here.", - "upstream": "https://clip.ipipan.waw.pl/NationalCorpusOfPolish", - "provenance": "Downloaded the IPI PAN tarball (NKJP-PodkorpusMilionowy-1.2.tar.gz) directly by src/fetch_njkp.py, one row per TEI
passage (its paragraphs joined by newlines, ellipsis markers stripped). The same minimal gates as build_dynaword.py are applied per passage (drop < 200 chars, drop non-Polish by diacritic ratio, exact sha1 dedup; the OCR gate is inapplicable). Per-document 'created' is the sample's TEI publication date () where the header records one. Normalized into the DynaWord schema; cl100k token counts via tiktoken (encode_ordinary), and the stats are recomputed from the written parquet.", - "domain": "mixed (balanced reference corpus)", - "created": "1957-2008 (recorded for 6,581 of 18,381 documents; per-document in the created column)", - "is_ocr": False, - }, - "european_hplt_v3_pl": { - "added": "2026-07-14", - "release": "0.2.3", - "file_key": "european_hplt_v3_pl", - "pretty": "HPLT v3.0 Polish (web, top WDS bins 10-5)", - "license": "CC0-1.0", - "license_spdx": "CC0-1.0", - "traceable": "HPLT v3.0 Terms of Use license the data packaging under CC0-1.0 " - "(hplt-project.org/datasets/v3.0; HF card HPLT/HPLT3.0). HPLT does not " - "own the underlying web text; notice-and-takedown applies and downstream " - "legal/provenance review remains the user's responsibility.", - "upstream": "https://data.hplt-project.org/three/sorted/pol_Latn/", - "provenance": "Fetched directly from the HPLT v3 distribution (pol_Latn shards " - "10_1, 9_1-9_4, 8_1-8_4, 7_1-7_4, 6_1-6_2, 5_1-5_2 [WDS 10 down to 5]) by " - "src/clean_hplt_v3.py + run_pipeline.py, NOT via SpeakLeash. Filtered: " - "lang=pol_Latn + prob>=0.80, MT-prob<0.20, register in ID/OP/HI/IN/NA, " - "min 400 chars / 80 words, boilerplate/adult/legalish drop, length cap " - "120k chars, CJK-mojibake drop, wikipedia/wikisource/wikimedia + file-host " - "domains excluded, per-domain cap. Phone->[Telefon] / email+national-ID->[PII] " - "PII (phones/emails/IDs, and PERSON on this web shard) was applied " - "at fetch; the scrubber now lives at SlayerLab/NERGAL, not this repo. " - "Token counts via tiktoken cl100k.", - "domain": "web", - "created": "2012-01-01, 2024-12-31", - "is_ocr": False, - "legal_note": "Web-crawl derived: accept_after_web_review. HPLT is globally " - "deduplicated upstream and WDS quality-sorted. Cross-source near/" - "containment dedup vs the existing WDS-10+9 base shards was performed " - "for the WDS 8-5 + extra-9 expansion: exact-dup=0, near-dup overlap=" - "0.0000% (byte-verified). Copyright recurs at all lengths in web crawl. " - "Parity with the accepted european-hplt-v1 CC0 basis.", - "custom_datasheet": True, - }, - "1000_novels": { - "added": "2026-07-02", - "release": "0.2.1", - "speakleash_key": "1000_novels_corpus_CLARIN-PL", - "pretty": "1000 Novels Corpus (CLARIN-PL)", - "license": "CC-BY-4.0", - "license_spdx": "CC-BY-4.0", - "traceable": "The 1000 Novels Corpus is released under Creative Commons " - "Attribution 4.0 International by CLARIN-PL / Wrocław University " - "of Technology, with attribution to the corpus authors and " - "maintainers.", - "upstream": "https://clarin-pl.eu/dspace/handle/11321/312", - "domain": "literature", - "created": "unknown", - "is_ocr": False, - # Datasheet is contributor-committed (added 2026-07-02); skip regeneration - # so the global ADDED stamp does not overwrite the real add date. - "custom_datasheet": True, - }, - "global_voices": { - "added": "2026-07-15", - "release": "0.2.3", - # Data contributed directly (PR #7): no in-repo fetch/build script and a - # hand-authored datasheet. Registered for the source table + release totals; - # the datasheet stays contributor-owned via custom_datasheet. - "file_key": "global_voices", - "pretty": "Global Voices Polish", - "license": "CC-BY-3.0", - "license_spdx": "CC-BY-3.0", - "traceable": "CC BY 3.0 verified from the article-level license link published " - "with each retained Global Voices article; each record carries " - "CC-BY-3.0 metadata and per-document author/translator attribution " - "in global_voices.attribution.jsonl.", - "upstream": "https://pl.globalvoices.org/", - "domain": "civic media, news and public-interest journalism", - "created": "2008-11-04, 2023-05-24", - "is_ocr": False, - "custom_datasheet": True, - }, - - - - "kultura_bez_barier_pl": { - "added": "2026-09-07", - "release": None, - "file_key": "kultura_bez_barier_pl", - "pretty": "Kultura bez Barier PL (accessibility guides)", - "license": "CC-BY-SA-3.0", - "license_spdx": "CC-BY-SA-3.0", - "traceable": "The official Fundacja Kultury bez Barier publication catalogue " - "presents the linked foundation-authored publications as CC BY-SA " - "3.0; catalogue HTML, raw PDFs, source URLs and SHA-256 digests are " - "preserved as evidence. Catalogue-level declaration only — an " - "embedded per-PDF license assertion is not claimed.", - "upstream": "https://kulturabezbarier.org/publikacje/", - "provenance": "Fetched directly from the official catalogue by " - "src/build_kultura_bez_barier_pl.py; pdfplumber page-text " - "extraction, page-number removal, line-wrap/hyphen repair, " - "Unicode/whitespace normalization, limited PII-pattern redaction, " - "exact and seeded near dedup. 12 publications discovered, 9 " - "retained (3 rejected for rights/authorship conflicts with a " - "third-party project partner); attribution, selection decisions " - "and checksums preserved in the sidecar files.", - "domain": "accessibility/disability guides", - "created": "2017-11-20, 2024-04-19", - "is_ocr": False, - "custom_datasheet": True, - }, -} - -# Fallback stamp for a source with no recorded "added" date of its own. -ADDED = "2026-07-19" -EXCLUDED = { - "open_subtitles_corpus": "Derivative of copyrighted film/TV dialogue; " - "OpenSubtitles uploads largely unlicensed. Same copyright lesson as " - "Danish Gigaword's OpenSubtitles (paper 2508.02271). Not openly licensed.", - "europeana_eu_pl_corpus_raw_speakleash": "Aggregated items with mixed " - "per-record rights (PD / CC-BY-NC / rights-reserved). The raw " - "SpeakLeash redistribution is excluded; only a direct rebuild preserving " - "per-record rights metadata may be included.", - "1000_novels_corpus_CLARIN-PL": "CC-BY-4.0 label, but 'novels' likely include " - "in-copyright contemporary works; verify titles/years on CLARIN handle " - "11321/312 before inclusion.", - "project_gutenberg_pl_corpus": "Only 31 PL books (4.3MB) — PG is ~99% English; " - "Polish PD literature already covered by wolne_lektury + wikisource (so " - "near-redundant after dedup). Dropped to avoid the PD-in-EU per-work check " - "(PG claims PD-in-US only) for negligible token gain.", -} +"""Source registry for Polish DynaWord. + +Each entry = one openly-licensed, *traceable* human-text source (paper 2508.02271, +principle: open+traceable licensing). The `traceable` field documents WHY the +license holds (not just "it's public domain") — e.g. statutory basis or upstream +license — as required by the Dynaword guidelines. + +Provenance note: data is pulled from SpeakLeash's public redistribution +(iDrive e2 bucket) of these upstream sources; SpeakLeash is credited as the +intermediate aggregator, upstream license/attribution is preserved per source. +""" + +# clean-6: passed the copyright review (2026-06-15). open_subtitles excluded +# (derivative of copyrighted film dialogue — same lesson as Danish Gigaword). +# Large cultural/academic sources require per-record rights metadata and should +# be rebuilt from direct upstream/export scripts rather than blind SpeakLeash pulls. +SOURCES = { + "wikipedia": { + "speakleash_key": "plwiki", + "pretty": "Polish Wikipedia", + "license": "CC-BY-SA-3.0", + "license_spdx": "CC-BY-SA-3.0", + "traceable": "Wikimedia dumps explicitly released under CC-BY-SA 3.0; " + "attribution to contributors + share-alike preserved.", + "upstream": "https://dumps.wikimedia.org/plwiki/latest/", + "domain": "encyclopedic", + "created": "2001-01-15, 2026-06-14", + "is_ocr": False, + }, + "wikisource": { + "speakleash_key": "plwikisource", + "pretty": "Polish Wikisource", + "license": "CC-BY-SA-3.0", + "license_spdx": "CC-BY-SA-3.0", + "traceable": "Wikimedia dumps under CC-BY-SA 3.0; underlying texts are " + "public-domain works transcribed by the community.", + "upstream": "https://dumps.wikimedia.org/plwikisource/latest/", + "domain": "books/source-texts", + "created": "2005-01-01, 2026-06-14", + "is_ocr": False, + }, + "eurlex": { + "speakleash_key": "eurlex_corpus", + "pretty": "EUR-Lex (EU legal acts, Polish)", + "license": "CC-BY-4.0", + "license_spdx": "CC-BY-4.0", + "traceable": "EU documents reusable under Commission Decision 2011/833/EU; " + "normative acts fall outside copyright (PL art. 4 pr. aut.). " + "Reuse authorised with source acknowledgement.", + "upstream": "https://eur-lex.europa.eu", + "domain": "legal", + "created": "1952-01-01, 2024-12-31", + "is_ocr": False, + }, + "parliamentary": { + "speakleash_key": "PPC_corpus", + "pretty": "Polish Parliamentary Corpus (Sejm/Senat)", + "license": "public-domain (official documents)", + "license_spdx": "CC-BY-4.0", + "traceable": "Parliamentary proceedings are official documents outside " + "copyright (PL art. 4 pr. aut.); PPC redistributed by IPI PAN " + "under CC-BY-4.0.", + "upstream": "http://clip.ipipan.waw.pl/PPC", + "domain": "political/spoken", + "created": "1991-01-01, 2019-12-31", + "is_ocr": False, + }, + "parlamint_pl": { + "file_key": "parlamint_pl", + "pretty": "ParlaMint-PL (parliamentary debates, 2015-2022)", + "license": "CC-BY-4.0", + "license_spdx": "CC-BY-4.0", + "traceable": "ParlaMint 3.0 corpora released under CC-BY 4.0 (CLARIN.SI " + "handle 11356/1486); parliamentary proceedings are also " + "official documents (PL art. 4 pr. aut.).", + "upstream": "http://hdl.handle.net/11356/1486", + "provenance": "Fetched directly from the CLARIN.SI plain-text edition " + "(ParlaMint-PL.tgz) by src/fetch_parlamint.py; one session " + "transcript per document, utterance IDs stripped. Modern " + "spoken register, complements the older PPC (1991-2019).", + "domain": "political/spoken", + "created": "2015-01-01, 2022-12-31", + "is_ocr": False, + }, + "wolne_lektury": { + "speakleash_key": "wolne_lektury_corpus", + "pretty": "Wolne Lektury (school readings)", + "license": "CC-BY-SA-4.0 / Wolna Sztuka 1.3", + "license_spdx": "CC-BY-SA-4.0", + "traceable": "Wolne Lektury publishes under CC-BY-SA 4.0 or Free Art " + "License; texts are public-domain classics + cleared works.", + "upstream": "https://wolnelektury.pl/api/books/", + "domain": "literature", + "created": "1500-01-01, 2024-12-31", + "is_ocr": False, + }, + "wikinews": { + "file_key": "plwikinews", # fetched from Wikimedia dumps, NOT via SpeakLeash + "pretty": "Polish Wikinews", + "license": "CC-BY-2.5", + "license_spdx": "CC-BY-2.5", + "traceable": "Wikinews content is released under CC-BY 2.5; attribution to " + "contributors preserved.", + "upstream": "https://pl.wikinews.org/", + "provenance": "Fetched directly from the official Wikimedia dump " + "(plwikinews-latest-pages-articles) by src/fetch_wikimedia.py; " + "mainspace only, wikitext stripped via mwparserfromhell.", + "domain": "news", + "created": "2005-01-01, 2025-12-31", + "is_ocr": False, + }, + "wikivoyage": { + "file_key": "plwikivoyage", + "pretty": "Polish Wikivoyage (travel guides)", + "license": "CC-BY-SA-3.0", + "license_spdx": "CC-BY-SA-3.0", + "traceable": "Wikivoyage content is released under CC-BY-SA 3.0; " + "attribution + share-alike preserved.", + "upstream": "https://pl.wikivoyage.org/", + "provenance": "Fetched directly from the official Wikimedia dump " + "(plwikivoyage-latest-pages-articles) by src/fetch_wikimedia.py; " + "mainspace only, wikitext stripped via mwparserfromhell.", + "domain": "travel", + "created": "2012-01-01, 2025-12-31", + "is_ocr": False, + }, + "wikibooks": { + "file_key": "plwikibooks", + "pretty": "Polish Wikibooks (open textbooks)", + "license": "CC-BY-SA-3.0", + "license_spdx": "CC-BY-SA-3.0", + "traceable": "Wikibooks content is released under CC-BY-SA 3.0; " + "attribution + share-alike preserved.", + "upstream": "https://pl.wikibooks.org/", + "provenance": "Fetched directly from the official Wikimedia dump " + "(plwikibooks-latest-pages-articles) by src/fetch_wikimedia.py; " + "mainspace only, wikitext stripped via mwparserfromhell.", + "domain": "instructional", + "created": "2004-01-01, 2025-12-31", + "is_ocr": False, + }, + "wikiquote": { + "file_key": "plwikiquote", + "pretty": "Polish Wikiquote (quotations)", + "license": "CC-BY-SA-3.0", + "license_spdx": "CC-BY-SA-3.0", + "traceable": "Wikiquote content is released under CC-BY-SA 3.0; " + "attribution + share-alike preserved.", + "upstream": "https://pl.wikiquote.org/", + "provenance": "Fetched directly from the official Wikimedia dump " + "(plwikiquote-latest-pages-articles) by src/fetch_wikimedia.py; " + "mainspace only, wikitext stripped via mwparserfromhell.", + "domain": "quotations", + "created": "2005-01-01, 2025-12-31", + "is_ocr": False, + }, + "eltec_pol": { + "file_key": "eltec_pol", + "pretty": "ELTeC-pol (European Literary Text Collection, Polish)", + "license": "CC-BY-4.0", + "license_spdx": "CC-BY-4.0", + "traceable": "ELTeC corpora are released under CC-BY 4.0 by the COST Action " + "'Distant Reading for European Literary History' (CA16204).", + "upstream": "https://github.com/COST-ELTeC/ELTeC-pol", + "provenance": "Fetched directly from the COST-ELTeC/ELTeC-pol GitHub " + "repository (level1 TEI) by src/fetch_eltec.py; reading text " + "extracted from TEI paragraphs.", + "domain": "literature", + "created": "1840-01-01, 1920-12-31", + "is_ocr": False, + }, + "dziennik_ustaw": { + "file_key": "dziennik_ustaw", # fetched directly, NOT via SpeakLeash + "pretty": "Dziennik Ustaw + Monitor Polski (Polish primary legislation)", + "license": "public-domain (official documents)", + "license_spdx": "CC0-1.0", + "traceable": "Normative acts and their official drafts are not subject to " + "copyright (PL art. 4 ustawy o prawie autorskim). Published by " + "the state; reuse unrestricted.", + "upstream": "https://api.sejm.gov.pl/eli/acts", + "provenance": "Fetched directly from the Sejm ELI API (text.html per act) " + "by src/fetch_eli.py — a native source, not redistributed via " + "SpeakLeash. Full provenance: each act's `meta.url` is its ELI " + "address, resolvable on api.sejm.gov.pl.", + "domain": "legal", + "created": "1918-01-01, 2025-12-31", + "is_ocr": False, + }, + "govpl": { + "file_key": "govpl", # fetched directly from gov.pl, NOT via SpeakLeash + "pretty": "gov.pl — Polish government press releases", + "license": "CC-BY-SA-4.0", + "license_spdx": "CC-BY-SA-4.0", + "traceable": "All textual content on gov.pl is published under CC-BY-SA " + "4.0 (site footer: \"Treści tekstowe publikowane w serwisie " + "… są udostępniane na licencji CC BY-SA 4.0\"). Authored and " + "hosted by the Polish government, which holds the right to " + "license it — same open family as Polish Wikipedia.", + "upstream": "https://www.gov.pl/", + "provenance": "Ministry/agency press releases fetched directly from gov.pl " + "(editor-content per article, HTML stripped) by " + "src/fetch_govpl.py. Subsites + their non-uniform news-section " + "paths are enumerated by src/discover_govpl.py into the " + "committed manifest src/govpl_subsites.json (gov.pl has no " + "sitemap/API). Each record's meta.url resolves on gov.pl.", + "domain": "government", + # actual min/max of article dates in the fetched corpus (90,124 dated). + "created": "2005-09-26, 2026-07-19", + "is_ocr": False, + }, + "biblioteka_nauki": { + "file_key": "biblioteka_nauki_pl_corpus", + "pretty": "Biblioteka Nauki", + "license": "per-record upstream license", + "license_spdx": "MIXED", + "traceable": "Documents are accepted only when the direct upstream record " + "exposes a reusable license. The parquet carries the " + "per-document `license` and `author` fields from the upstream " + "metadata collected by the source-specific rebuild script.", + "upstream": "https://bibliotekanauki.pl/", + "provenance": "Fetched directly from Biblioteka Nauki via the contributor " + "rebuild script, not from the SpeakLeash redistribution. " + "License and author metadata are checked document by document " + "before normalization into the DynaWord schema.", + "domain": "academic", + "created": "unknown", + "is_ocr": False, + }, + "europeana": { + # Direct rebuild output from fetch_europeana.py, never the raw + # SpeakLeash Europeana aggregate. + "file_key": "europeana", + "pretty": "Europeana Polish records", + "license": "per-record public-domain/open rights statement", + "license_spdx": "MIXED", + "traceable": "Documents are accepted only with per-record Europeana rights " + "metadata classified as public-domain/open. Public-domain " + "status is jurisdiction-sensitive; downstream users must " + "check their local legal requirements.", + "upstream": "https://www.europeana.eu/", + "provenance": "Fetched directly from Europeana via the contributor rebuild " + "script, preserving per-record rights and creator metadata. " + "The raw SpeakLeash aggregate remains insufficient because " + "it does not carry enough rights evidence for release.", + "domain": "cultural heritage", + "created": "unknown", + "is_ocr": True, + "legal_note": "Europeana public-domain statements are primarily evaluated " + "for Poland/EU. For US reuse, records created/published " + "before 1929 are the conservative release slice; later " + "records should remain separately labeled or held until " + "legal review confirms their US status.", + }, + "nkjp1m": { + "file_key": "nkjp1m", + "pretty": "The manually annotated 1-million word subcorpus of the National Corpus of Polish", + "license": "CC-BY", + "license_spdx": "CC-BY-4.0", + "traceable": "The NKJP download page (clip.ipipan.waw.pl) states the manually annotated 1-million-word subcorpus (Podkorpus Milionowy NKJP 1.2) is available under a CC-BY licence; attribution to the NKJP Consortium (IPI PAN) preserved. The page states 'CC-BY' with no version, normalized to CC-BY-4.0 for SPDX. The CC-BY licence covers the corpus text; NKJP's separate tools are GPL and are not included here.", + "upstream": "https://clip.ipipan.waw.pl/NationalCorpusOfPolish", + "provenance": "Downloaded the IPI PAN tarball (NKJP-PodkorpusMilionowy-1.2.tar.gz) directly by src/fetch_njkp.py, one row per TEI
passage (its paragraphs joined by newlines, ellipsis markers stripped). The same minimal gates as build_dynaword.py are applied per passage (drop < 200 chars, drop non-Polish by diacritic ratio, exact sha1 dedup; the OCR gate is inapplicable). Per-document 'created' is the sample's TEI publication date () where the header records one. Normalized into the DynaWord schema; cl100k token counts via tiktoken (encode_ordinary), and the stats are recomputed from the written parquet.", + "domain": "mixed (balanced reference corpus)", + "created": "1957-2008 (recorded for 6,581 of 18,381 documents; per-document in the created column)", + "is_ocr": False, + }, + "european_hplt_v3_pl": { + "file_key": "european_hplt_v3_pl", + "pretty": "HPLT v3.0 Polish (web, top WDS bins 10-9)", + "license": "CC0-1.0", + "license_spdx": "CC0-1.0", + "traceable": "HPLT v3.0 Terms of Use license the data packaging under CC0-1.0 " + "(hplt-project.org/datasets/v3.0; HF card HPLT/HPLT3.0). HPLT does not " + "own the underlying web text; notice-and-takedown applies and downstream " + "legal/provenance review remains the user's responsibility.", + "upstream": "https://data.hplt-project.org/three/sorted/pol_Latn/", + "provenance": "Fetched directly from the HPLT v3 distribution (pol_Latn shards " + "10_1 [WDS=10] and 9_1 prefix [WDS=9]) by src/clean_hplt_v3.py, NOT via " + "SpeakLeash. Filtered: lang=pol_Latn + prob>=0.80, MT-prob<0.20, register " + "in ID/OP/HI/IN/NA, min 400 chars / 80 words, boilerplate/adult/legalish " + "drop, length cap 120k chars, CJK-mojibake drop, wikipedia/wikisource/" + "wikimedia + file-host domains excluded. Token counts via tiktoken cl100k.", + "domain": "web", + "created": "2012-01-01, 2024-12-31", + "is_ocr": False, + "legal_note": "Web-crawl derived: accept_after_web_review. HPLT is globally " + "deduplicated upstream and WDS quality-sorted; only top bins used. " + "Copyright recurs at all lengths in web crawl, so per-source near/" + "containment dedup vs existing sources is left to downstream per " + "Dynaword guidelines. Parity with the accepted european-hplt-v1 CC0 basis.", + }, +} + +ADDED = "2026-07-19" +EXCLUDED = { + "open_subtitles_corpus": "Derivative of copyrighted film/TV dialogue; " + "OpenSubtitles uploads largely unlicensed. Same copyright lesson as " + "Danish Gigaword's OpenSubtitles (paper 2508.02271). Not openly licensed.", + "europeana_eu_pl_corpus_raw_speakleash": "Aggregated items with mixed " + "per-record rights (PD / CC-BY-NC / rights-reserved). The raw " + "SpeakLeash redistribution is excluded; only a direct rebuild preserving " + "per-record rights metadata may be included.", + "1000_novels_corpus_CLARIN-PL": "CC-BY-4.0 label, but 'novels' likely include " + "in-copyright contemporary works; verify titles/years on CLARIN handle " + "11321/312 before inclusion.", + "project_gutenberg_pl_corpus": "Only 31 PL books (4.3MB) — PG is ~99% English; " + "Polish PD literature already covered by wolne_lektury + wikisource (so " + "near-redundant after dedup). Dropped to avoid the PD-in-EU per-work check " + "(PG claims PD-in-US only) for negligible token gain.", +} diff --git a/src/test_build_uzp_orzeczenia_pl.py b/src/test_build_uzp_orzeczenia_pl.py deleted file mode 100644 index fef6ce2c0e52aff23694f7aef52e42fb3960babf..0000000000000000000000000000000000000000 --- a/src/test_build_uzp_orzeczenia_pl.py +++ /dev/null @@ -1,146 +0,0 @@ -import importlib.util -from pathlib import Path - - -SCRIPT = Path(__file__).with_name("build_uzp_orzeczenia_pl.py") -SPEC = importlib.util.spec_from_file_location("build_uzp_orzeczenia_pl", SCRIPT) -MODULE = importlib.util.module_from_spec(SPEC) -SPEC.loader.exec_module(MODULE) - - -def results_page(ids, counts="35694,34412,1277,3,2"): - items = "".join( - f'
' - f' Krajowa Izba Odwoławcza' - f'

wyrok

' - f'

KIO {i}/26

' - f'

07-08-2026

' - f'Wyświetl szczegóły' - f'
' - for i in ids) - return f'' + items - - -def details_page(doc_id=36097, kind="KIO", signature="KIO 3640/26"): - return ( - f' Krajowa Izba Odwoławcza' - f' postanowienie' - f' 07-08-2026' - f' Jan Kowalski' - f' Szpital Miejski' - f' Warszawa' - f' {signature} / umorzenie' - f' art. 568 pkt 2' - f'Pobierz treść PDF' - f'') - - -def test_parse_result_items_extracts_records_and_totals(): - records, totals = MODULE.parse_result_items(results_page([36097, 36096, 36095])) - assert [r["doc_id"] for r in records] == [36097, 36096, 36095] - assert records[0]["organ"].startswith("Krajowa Izba") - assert records[0]["doc_type"] == "wyrok" - assert records[0]["signature"] == "KIO 36097/26" - assert records[0]["issued"] == "07-08-2026" - assert totals == [35694, 34412, 1277, 3, 2] - - -def test_parse_counts_maps_kinds(): - counts = MODULE.parse_counts(results_page([1])) - assert counts == {"ALL": 35694, "KIO": 34412, "SO": 1277, "SA": 3, "SN": 2} - - -def test_parse_details_extracts_metadata_and_pdf_link(): - details = MODULE.parse_details(details_page(), 36097) - assert details["doc_id"] == 36097 - assert details["organ"] == "Krajowa Izba Odwoławcza" - assert details["chairman"] == "Jan Kowalski" - assert details["purchaser"] == "Szpital Miejski" - assert details["signature"] == "KIO 3640/26 / umorzenie" - assert details["pdf_path_url"] == "https://orzeczenia.uzp.gov.pl/Home/PdfContent/36097?Kind=KIO" - assert details["pdf_kind"] == "KIO" - - -def test_parse_details_so_kind(): - details = MODULE.parse_details(details_page(9036, "SO", "X Ga 286/13"), 9036) - assert details["pdf_path_url"].endswith("?Kind=SO") - assert details["pdf_kind"] == "SO" - - -def test_iso_date_dd_mm_yyyy(): - assert MODULE.iso_date("07-08-2026") == "2026-08-07" - assert MODULE.iso_date("03-10-2013") == "2013-10-03" - assert MODULE.iso_date("") == "" - - -def test_normalize_drops_repeated_signature_and_page_numbers(): - raw = "Sygn. akt KIO 1/26\nPierwszy akapit\n3\nSygn. akt KIO 1/26\nDrugi akapit" - out = MODULE.normalize(raw) - assert out.count("Sygn. akt") == 1 - assert "\n3\n" not in "\n" + out + "\n" - assert "Pierwszy akapit" in out and "Drugi akapit" in out - - -def test_normalize_repairs_line_wraps(): - raw = "To jest dłu-\ngi wyraz\noraz kolejna\nlinia tekstu." - out = MODULE.normalize(raw) - assert "długi wyraz" in out - assert "oraz kolejna linia tekstu." in out - - -def test_redact_pii_masks_patterns(): - text = "Kontakt: jan@example.com tel. 601 234 567 PESEL 44051401458 " \ - "rachunek 12 3456 7890 1234 5678 9012 3456 IP 10.0.0.1" - out, counts = MODULE.redact_pii(text) - assert "[REDACTED:EMAIL]" in out - assert "[REDACTED:PHONE]" in out - assert "[REDACTED:ID]" in out - assert "[REDACTED:ACCOUNT]" in out - assert "[REDACTED:IP]" in out - assert "jan@example.com" not in out - assert counts["email"] == 1 and counts["national_identifier"] == 1 - - -def test_redact_pii_compressed_ipv6(): - out, counts = MODULE.redact_pii("adres ::1 oraz 2001:db8::ff00:42:8329 w tekście") - assert "[REDACTED:IP]" in out - assert counts["ipv6"] >= 1 - - -def test_filter_sketch_drops_boilerplate_shingles(): - boiler = MODULE.shingle_sketch("Krajowa Izba Odwoławcza w składzie Przewodniczący") - own_a = MODULE.shingle_sketch("sygnatura sprawa alfa unikalna treść alfa") - own_b = MODULE.shingle_sketch("sygnatura sprawa beta unikalna treść beta") - df = MODULE.shingle_document_frequencies([boiler | own_a, boiler | own_b]) - max_df = 1 # boiler appears in both docs -> df=2 > max_df - filtered = MODULE.filter_sketch(boiler | own_a, df, max_df) - assert filtered <= own_a - assert filtered == own_a - - -def test_near_duplicate_index_matches_exhaustive(): - base = " ".join(f"słowo{i}" for i in range(300)) - near = MODULE.NearDuplicateIndex() - near.add("doc_a", MODULE.shingle_sketch(base)) - hit, score = near.find(MODULE.shingle_sketch(base + " dodatkowy koniec")) - assert hit == "doc_a" and score >= 0.90 - distinct = " ".join(f"inne{i}" for i in range(300)) - assert near.find(MODULE.shingle_sketch(distinct)) == (None, 0.0) - # regression: index must agree with exhaustive pairwise comparison - sketches = {f"d{i}": MODULE.shingle_sketch(" ".join(f"x{i}w{j}" for j in range(200))) - for i in range(30)} - sketches["dup"] = MODULE.shingle_sketch(" ".join(f"x0w{j}" for j in range(200))) - index = MODULE.NearDuplicateIndex() - added = {} - for rid, sk in sketches.items(): - other, score = index.find(sk) - expected = None - for oid, osk in added.items(): - inter = len(sk & osk) - s = inter / max(len(sk) + len(osk) - inter, 1) - if s >= 0.90: - expected = oid - break - assert (other is not None) == (expected is not None), rid - index.add(rid, sk) - added[rid] = sk diff --git a/src/test_hplt_v3_contract.py b/src/test_hplt_v3_contract.py index f6394545a7c751e18d9ad22a621125861c359323..c6e753ced60d0e0b6ce1b2d0f25f6dce040cecf6 100644 --- a/src/test_hplt_v3_contract.py +++ b/src/test_hplt_v3_contract.py @@ -11,8 +11,7 @@ from pathlib import Path import pyarrow as pa, pyarrow.parquet as pq import pyarrow.compute as pc -ROOT = Path(__file__).resolve().parent.parent -D = ROOT / "data" / "european_hplt_v3_pl" +D = Path(r"C:\ProjektyPublic\datasets\hplt_v3_pl\data\european_hplt_v3_pl") PARQUET = D / "european_hplt_v3_pl.parquet" STATS = D / "european_hplt_v3_pl.stats.json" ACCEPTED = {"cc0-1.0", "cc-by-3.0", "cc-by-4.0", "cc-by-sa-3.0", "cc-by-sa-4.0", diff --git a/src/test_render_sample.py b/src/test_render_sample.py deleted file mode 100644 index 97fa9afc6729bb152c483157a3cc97e31327c429..0000000000000000000000000000000000000000 --- a/src/test_render_sample.py +++ /dev/null @@ -1,81 +0,0 @@ -"""Contract for render_sample: readable, deterministic PR-description samples.""" -import datetime -import sys -import tempfile -import unittest -from pathlib import Path - -import pyarrow as pa -import pyarrow.parquet as pq - -sys.path.insert(0, str(Path(__file__).resolve().parent)) - -from render_sample import render, render_doc, sample_rows, truncate - - -def write_parquet(path, n, row_group_size): - table = pa.table({ - "id": [f"src_{i}" for i in range(n)], - "text": [f"Akapit pierwszy {i}.\n\nAkapit drugi." for i in range(n)], - "source": ["src"] * n, - "added": [datetime.date(2026, 7, 19)] * n, - "created": [["2023-11-15", "2026-09-03"]] * n, - "token_count": list(range(n)), - }) - pq.write_table(table, path, row_group_size=row_group_size) - - -class RenderSampleTest(unittest.TestCase): - def setUp(self): - self.tmp = tempfile.TemporaryDirectory() - self.path = Path(self.tmp.name) / "src.parquet" - - def tearDown(self): - self.tmp.cleanup() - - def test_block_layout_matches_pr24_format(self): - row = {"id": "x", "text": "Line one.\n\nLine two.", "added": datetime.date(2026, 7, 19), - "created": ["2023-11-15", "2026-09-03"], "token_count": 5} - self.assertEqual( - render_doc(row, 800), - "```\nid: x\nadded: 2026-07-19\ncreated: 2023-11-15, 2026-09-03\ntoken_count: 5\n\n" - "Line one.\n\nLine two.\n```", - ) - - def test_real_newlines_not_escaped(self): - write_parquet(self.path, 5, 2) - out = render(self.path, n=1) - self.assertIn("\n\nAkapit drugi.", out) - self.assertNotIn("\\n", out) - - def test_truncates_on_word_boundary(self): - self.assertEqual(truncate("alpha beta gamma", 12), "alpha beta […]") - self.assertEqual(truncate("short", 12), "short") - self.assertEqual(truncate("x" * 20, 5), "xxxxx […]") - - def test_fence_outgrows_backticks_in_text(self): - out = render_doc({"text": "code: ```py\nx```"}, 800) - self.assertTrue(out.startswith("````\n") and out.endswith("\n````")) - - def test_deterministic_and_bounded(self): - write_parquet(self.path, 50, 10) - self.assertEqual(render(self.path, n=3, seed=1), render(self.path, n=3, seed=1)) - self.assertEqual(len(sample_rows(self.path, 3)), 3) - ids = [r["id"] for r in sample_rows(self.path, 3)] - self.assertEqual(len(set(ids)), 3) - - def test_fewer_row_groups_than_n(self): - write_parquet(self.path, 6, 6) # one row group - self.assertEqual(len(sample_rows(self.path, 4)), 4) - - def test_n_larger_than_table(self): - write_parquet(self.path, 2, 1) - self.assertEqual(len(sample_rows(self.path, 10)), 2) - - def test_empty_parquet(self): - pq.write_table(pa.table({"id": pa.array([], pa.string()), "text": pa.array([], pa.string())}), self.path) - self.assertEqual(render(self.path), "") - - -if __name__ == "__main__": - unittest.main() diff --git a/src/test_rock_pollub_contribution.py b/src/test_rock_pollub_contribution.py deleted file mode 100644 index 1966cf0c0f598fe6ea70d94e732c7e9de3498f5c..0000000000000000000000000000000000000000 --- a/src/test_rock_pollub_contribution.py +++ /dev/null @@ -1,43 +0,0 @@ -import ast -import json -from pathlib import Path - -import pyarrow.parquet as pq - - -ROOT = Path(__file__).parents[1] -SOURCE = "rock_pollub_pl" -DATA = ROOT / "data" / SOURCE - - -def lines(path): - return [json.loads(line) for line in path.read_text(encoding="utf-8").splitlines() if line] - - -def test_registry_and_dataset_contract(): - module = ast.parse((ROOT / "src/sources.py").read_text(encoding="utf-8")) - node = next(item.value for item in module.body if isinstance(item, ast.Assign) - and any(isinstance(target, ast.Name) and target.id == "SOURCES" for target in item.targets)) - entry = ast.literal_eval(node)[SOURCE] - assert entry["file_key"] == SOURCE - assert entry["license_spdx"] == "CC-BY-SA-4.0" - table = pq.read_table(DATA / f"{SOURCE}.parquet") - assert table.column_names == ["id", "text", "source", "added", "created", "token_count", "license", "author"] - rows = table.to_pylist() - stats = json.loads((DATA / f"{SOURCE}.stats.json").read_text(encoding="utf-8")) - assert len(rows) == stats["kept"] == 8 - assert sum(row["token_count"] for row in rows) == stats["tokens"] == 1177858 - assert all(row["source"] == SOURCE and row["license"] == "CC-BY-SA-4.0" and row["author"] for row in rows) - - -def test_attribution_samples_and_ontology(): - rows = pq.read_table(DATA / f"{SOURCE}.parquet").to_pylist() - attribution = lines(DATA / f"{SOURCE}.attribution.jsonl") - samples = lines(DATA / f"{SOURCE}.sample.jsonl") - assert {row["id"] for row in rows} == {item["id"] for item in attribution} - assert all(item["license_evidence"]["item"] and item["license_evidence"]["pdf_bitstream"] for item in attribution) - assert {row["id"] for row in samples} == {row["id"] for row in rows} - manifest = json.loads((ROOT / f"artifacts/{SOURCE}_ontology_manifest.json").read_text(encoding="utf-8")) - evidence = {item["id"] for item in manifest["evidence"]} - assert all(set(item["supported_by"]) <= evidence and item["falsification_condition"] for item in manifest["claims"]) - assert any(item["predicate"] == "VALIDATED_AGAINST" for item in manifest["relations"]) diff --git a/src/test_samorzad_gov_pl_contract.py b/src/test_samorzad_gov_pl_contract.py deleted file mode 100644 index c2c4ba0789a27ae5f32462d7b16b73ae3062cd95..0000000000000000000000000000000000000000 --- a/src/test_samorzad_gov_pl_contract.py +++ /dev/null @@ -1,209 +0,0 @@ -"""Contract tests for the samorzad.gov.pl contribution.""" -from __future__ import annotations - -import hashlib -import json -import os -import sys -from pathlib import Path - -import pyarrow as pa -import pyarrow.parquet as pq -import pytest - -sys.path.insert(0, str(Path(__file__).resolve().parent)) - -from clean_samorzad_gov_pl import ( - DYNAWORD_SCHEMA, - _replace_release, - normalize_record, - publisher_name_from_html, - verify_upstream_release, -) - - -def test_publisher_name_comes_from_site_name_metadata(): - html = """ - - - Strona główna - inna wartość - Portal gov.pl - - """ - assert publisher_name_from_html(html) == "Szkoła Podstawowa im. Sybiraków w Netcie" - - -def test_publisher_name_falls_back_to_homepage_title(): - html = "Strona główna - Gmina Chłopice - Portal gov.pl" - assert publisher_name_from_html(html) == "Gmina Chłopice" - - -def test_normalize_record_maps_publisher_to_author_and_preserves_provenance(): - source = { - "record_id": "abc123", - "source_url": "https://samorzad.gov.pl/web/gmina-chlopice/przyklad", - "final_url": "https://samorzad.gov.pl/web/gmina-chlopice/przyklad-docelowy", - "tenant": "gmina-chlopice", - "publisher_type": "municipality", - "title": "Przykładowy artykuł", - "text": "Zażółć gęślą jaźń. " * 20, - "published_date": "2024-05-17", - } - row, attribution = normalize_record( - source, - publishers={"gmina-chlopice": "Gmina Chłopice"}, - token_count=123, - added="2026-08-14", - ) - - assert row == { - "id": "samorzad_gov_pl_abc123", - "text": source["text"], - "source": "samorzad_gov_pl", - "added": "2026-08-14", - "created": "2024-05-17", - "token_count": 123, - "license": "CC-BY-SA-4.0", - "author": "Gmina Chłopice", - } - assert attribution["id"] == row["id"] - assert attribution["source_url"] == source["source_url"] - assert attribution["final_url"] == source["final_url"] - assert attribution["attribution_url"] == source["final_url"] - assert attribution["publisher"] == "Gmina Chłopice" - assert attribution["title"] == source["title"] - assert attribution["license_url"] == "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/" - assert attribution["modified"] is True - - -def test_verify_upstream_release_rejects_modified_shard(tmp_path): - data_dir = tmp_path / "data" - data_dir.mkdir() - shard = data_dir / "train.parquet" - pq.write_table( - pa.table({"record_id": ["one"], "text": ["Treść źródłowa"]}), - shard, - ) - text_digest = hashlib.sha256() - text_digest.update("one\0Treść źródłowa\n".encode()) - manifest = { - "schema_version": "fixture-1", - "dataset_id": "fixture/dataset", - "record_count": 1, - "record_fields": ["record_id", "text"], - "record_text_sha256": text_digest.hexdigest(), - "artifacts": [ - { - "path": "data/train.parquet", - "records": 1, - "bytes": shard.stat().st_size, - "sha256": hashlib.sha256(shard.read_bytes()).hexdigest(), - } - ], - } - manifest_path = tmp_path / "manifest.json" - manifest_path.write_text(json.dumps(manifest), encoding="utf-8") - expected = { - "manifest_sha256": hashlib.sha256(manifest_path.read_bytes()).hexdigest(), - "dataset_id": "fixture/dataset", - "schema_version": "fixture-1", - "record_count": 1, - "record_text_sha256": text_digest.hexdigest(), - } - - verify_upstream_release(data_dir, manifest_path, expected) - shard.write_bytes(shard.read_bytes() + b"corrupt") - with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="(size|hash) mismatch"): - verify_upstream_release(data_dir, manifest_path, expected) - - -def test_release_replacement_rolls_back_on_failure(tmp_path, monkeypatch): - names = ( - "samorzad_gov_pl.parquet", - "samorzad_gov_pl.attribution.jsonl", - "samorzad_gov_pl.stats.json", - ) - staged = tmp_path / "staged" - output = tmp_path / "output" - staged.mkdir() - output.mkdir() - for name in names: - (staged / name).write_text(f"new:{name}") - (output / name).write_text(f"old:{name}") - - original_replace = os.replace - failed = False - - def fail_once(source, destination): - nonlocal failed - if Path(source) == staged / names[1] and not failed: - failed = True - raise OSError("injected replacement failure") - original_replace(source, destination) - - monkeypatch.setattr(os, "replace", fail_once) - with pytest.raises(OSError, match="injected"): - _replace_release(staged, output) - assert [(output / name).read_text() for name in names] == [ - f"old:{name}" for name in names - ] - - -def test_canonical_schema_matches_dynaword(): - assert DYNAWORD_SCHEMA == pa.schema( - [ - ("id", pa.string()), - ("text", pa.string()), - ("source", pa.string()), - ("added", pa.string()), - ("created", pa.string()), - ("token_count", pa.int64()), - ("license", pa.string()), - ("author", pa.string()), - ] - ) - - -def test_release_artifact_matches_stats_and_has_institution_authors(): - root = Path(__file__).resolve().parents[1] - data_dir = root / "data" / "samorzad_gov_pl" - parquet_path = data_dir / "samorzad_gov_pl.parquet" - stats_path = data_dir / "samorzad_gov_pl.stats.json" - sidecar_path = data_dir / "samorzad_gov_pl.attribution.jsonl" - - table = pq.read_table(parquet_path) - stats = json.loads(stats_path.read_text(encoding="utf-8")) - attributions = [ - json.loads(line) - for line in sidecar_path.open(encoding="utf-8") - if line.strip() - ] - ids = table["id"].to_pylist() - texts = table["text"].to_pylist() - authors = table["author"].to_pylist() - - assert table.schema == DYNAWORD_SCHEMA - assert table.num_rows == stats["kept"] == len(attributions) - assert stats["authors_with_value"] == stats["kept"] - assert stats["publisher_count"] == 247 - assert stats["local_public_tenant_count"] == 246 - assert stats["central_tenant_count"] == 1 - assert stats["redirected_urls"] == 693 - assert stats["upstream_artifact_count"] == 10 - assert stats["upstream_manifest_sha256"] == ( - "97b5a266b2fd4f043648b7d3c757721cd826c7ca1048301761084b0abdee5c48" - ) - assert set(table["source"].to_pylist()) == {"samorzad_gov_pl"} - assert set(table["license"].to_pylist()) == {"CC-BY-SA-4.0"} - assert len(ids) == len(set(ids)) - assert ids == sorted(ids) - assert len(texts) == len(set(texts)) - assert all(value.strip() for value in authors) - assert all(value > 0 for value in table["token_count"].to_pylist()) - assert stats["chars"] == sum(map(len, texts)) - assert stats["tokens"] == sum(table["token_count"].to_pylist()) - assert [item["id"] for item in attributions] == ids - assert [item["publisher"] for item in attributions] == authors - assert all(item["attribution_url"] == item["final_url"] for item in attributions) - assert sum( - item["source_url"] != item["final_url"] for item in attributions - ) == stats["redirected_urls"] diff --git a/src/test_sejm_api_contract.py b/src/test_sejm_api_contract.py deleted file mode 100644 index 9f10be0ea25ec851c69a337c56245c4d39fb7ba6..0000000000000000000000000000000000000000 --- a/src/test_sejm_api_contract.py +++ /dev/null @@ -1,193 +0,0 @@ -from __future__ import annotations - -import ast -import json -import pathlib -import sys -import tempfile -import unittest - -for candidate in ( - pathlib.Path(__file__).resolve().parent, - pathlib.Path(__file__).resolve().parents[1] / "scripts", -): - if str(candidate) not in sys.path: - sys.path.insert(0, str(candidate)) - -try: - from fetch_sejm_api import ( - ContributionError, EXPECTED_FIELDS, SOURCE_FIELDS, SOURCE_LICENSE, START_DATE, - assert_temporal_novelty, build_contribution, insert_source_registry_entry, - legal_evidence, normalize_source_row, stable_document_id, text_fingerprint, - ) -except ImportError: - from build_dynaword_sejm_api import ( - ContributionError, EXPECTED_FIELDS, SOURCE_FIELDS, SOURCE_LICENSE, START_DATE, - assert_temporal_novelty, build_contribution, insert_source_registry_entry, - legal_evidence, normalize_source_row, stable_document_id, text_fingerprint, - ) - - -REGISTRY = '''SOURCES = { - "parliamentary": { - "created": "1991-01-01, 2019-12-31", - "license": "public-domain (official documents)", - }, - "parlamint_pl": { - "created": "2015-01-01, 2022-12-31", - "license": "CC-BY-4.0", - }, -} -''' - - -class FakeEncoder: - def encode_ordinary(self, text: str) -> list[str]: - return text.split() - - -def sample_row(index: int, *, date: str = "2024-05-10") -> dict[str, object]: - text = ( - f"Panie Marszałku, Wysoka Izbo, wypowiedź numer {index}. " - + " ".join(f"słowo{number}" for number in range(65)) - ) - return { - "text": text, - "speaker": f"Poseł {index}", - "date": date, - "term": "10" if date >= "2023-11-13" else "9", - "source_url": f"https://api.sejm.gov.pl/sejm/term10/videos/{date}", - "char_count": len(text), - "word_count": len(text.split()), - "has_events": index % 2 == 0, - } - - -class DynawordContractTests(unittest.TestCase): - def test_exact_dynaword_schema_and_speaker_attribution(self) -> None: - result = normalize_source_row( - sample_row(1), start_date=START_DATE, - added_date="2026-08-22", encoder=FakeEncoder() - ) - self.assertIsNotNone(result) - document, attribution = result - self.assertEqual(tuple(document), EXPECTED_FIELDS) - self.assertEqual(document["source"], "sejm_api") - self.assertEqual(document["author"], "Poseł 1") - self.assertEqual(document["license"], SOURCE_LICENSE) - self.assertEqual(attribution["id"], document["id"]) - self.assertTrue(attribution["source_url"].startswith("https://api.sejm.gov.pl/")) - - def test_pre_2023_records_are_excluded(self) -> None: - self.assertIsNone(normalize_source_row( - sample_row(2, date="2022-12-31"), start_date=START_DATE, - added_date="2026-08-22", encoder=FakeEncoder() - )) - - def test_first_day_after_parlamint_is_included(self) -> None: - self.assertIsNotNone(normalize_source_row( - sample_row(2, date="2023-01-01"), start_date=START_DATE, - added_date="2026-08-22", encoder=FakeEncoder() - )) - - def test_document_identity_is_stable_and_source_specific(self) -> None: - row = sample_row(1) - self.assertEqual(stable_document_id(row), stable_document_id(dict(row))) - changed = dict(row, speaker="Inny poseł") - self.assertNotEqual(stable_document_id(row), stable_document_id(changed)) - self.assertTrue(stable_document_id(row).startswith("sejm_api_")) - - def test_exact_duplicate_fingerprint_depends_on_text_only(self) -> None: - left = sample_row(1) - right = dict(left, speaker="Inny mówca", date="2025-01-01") - self.assertEqual(text_fingerprint(str(left["text"])), text_fingerprint(str(right["text"]))) - - def test_missing_speaker_rejected(self) -> None: - with self.assertRaisesRegex(ContributionError, "speaker"): - normalize_source_row( - dict(sample_row(1), speaker=""), start_date=START_DATE, - added_date="2026-08-22", encoder=FakeEncoder() - ) - - def test_nonofficial_source_url_rejected(self) -> None: - with self.assertRaisesRegex(ContributionError, "source URL"): - normalize_source_row( - dict(sample_row(1), source_url="https://example.com/speech"), - start_date=START_DATE, added_date="2026-08-22", encoder=FakeEncoder() - ) - - def test_temporal_novelty_against_both_registered_sources(self) -> None: - self.assertEqual(assert_temporal_novelty(REGISTRY, START_DATE), { - "parliamentary": "2019-12-31", - "parlamint_pl": "2022-12-31", - }) - - def test_overlap_with_registered_parlamint_fails_closed(self) -> None: - with self.assertRaisesRegex(ContributionError, "overlaps"): - assert_temporal_novelty(REGISTRY, "2022-01-01") - - def test_registry_entry_is_valid_and_preserves_existing_sources(self) -> None: - updated = insert_source_registry_entry(REGISTRY, end_date="2026-07-03") - ast.parse(updated) - self.assertIn('"sejm_api": {', updated) - self.assertIn('"parlamint_pl": {', updated) - self.assertIn('"created": "2023-01-01, 2026-07-03"', updated) - - def test_legal_evidence_contains_official_sources_and_no_fake_cc(self) -> None: - evidence = legal_evidence(source_revision="a" * 40, target_revision="b" * 40) - self.assertEqual(evidence["dataset_record_license"], SOURCE_LICENSE) - self.assertEqual(evidence["copyright_basis"]["article"], "4(2)") - self.assertIn("no upstream Creative Commons grant is asserted", evidence["limitations"]) - - -class DynawordParquetIntegrationTests(unittest.TestCase): - def test_end_to_end_candidate_preserves_ontology_and_attribution(self) -> None: - try: - import pyarrow as pa - import pyarrow.parquet as pq - import tiktoken # noqa: F401 - except ImportError: - self.skipTest("pyarrow and tiktoken are installed on the release runner") - - with tempfile.TemporaryDirectory() as temporary: - root = pathlib.Path(temporary) - source_dir = root / "source" / "data" - source_dir.mkdir(parents=True) - duplicate = sample_row(1) - train_rows = [ - sample_row(0, date="2022-12-31"), - duplicate, - sample_row(2, date="2025-06-10"), - ] - validation_rows = [dict(duplicate, speaker="Duplikat mówcy")] - for name, rows in (("train", train_rows), ("validation", validation_rows)): - pq.write_table(pa.Table.from_pylist(rows), source_dir / f"{name}.parquet") - registry = root / "sources.py" - registry.write_text(REGISTRY, encoding="utf-8") - output = root / "result" - result = build_contribution( - root / "source", registry, output, - source_revision="a" * 40, target_revision="b" * 40, - added_date="2026-08-22", actor="github:PiotrStyla", - run_id="github-actions:1", git_commit="c" * 40, - tests_file=pathlib.Path(__file__), - ) - self.assertEqual(result["stats"]["read"], 4) - self.assertEqual(result["stats"]["drop_before_start"], 1) - self.assertEqual(result["stats"]["drop_dup"], 1) - self.assertEqual(result["stats"]["kept"], 2) - self.assertEqual(result["stats"]["authors_with_value"], 2) - parquet = pq.read_table(output / "data" / "sejm_api" / "sejm_api.parquet") - self.assertEqual(tuple(parquet.column_names), EXPECTED_FIELDS) - self.assertEqual(parquet.num_rows, 2) - manifest = json.loads( - (output / "artifacts" / "sejm_api_ontology_manifest.json").read_text() - ) - self.assertEqual(len(manifest["claims"]), 3) - self.assertEqual(len(manifest["evidence"]), 5) - self.assertTrue((output / "src" / "fetch_sejm_api.py").is_file()) - self.assertTrue((output / "src" / "test_sejm_api_contract.py").is_file()) - - -if __name__ == "__main__": - unittest.main() diff --git a/src/test_sejm_interpellations_contract.py b/src/test_sejm_interpellations_contract.py deleted file mode 100644 index 01380eb79d3dd50a5a9adda42e8519bc7ada6b2a..0000000000000000000000000000000000000000 --- a/src/test_sejm_interpellations_contract.py +++ /dev/null @@ -1,120 +0,0 @@ -"""TDD contract for Sejm interpellations / written-questions ingestion.""" -import sys -import unittest -from pathlib import Path - -sys.path.insert(0, str(Path(__file__).resolve().parent)) - -from fetch_sejm_interpellations import ( - MIN_CHARS, - normalize_document, - should_fetch_reply, -) - -BODY = ( - "Szanowny Panie Ministrze! " + ("Ogrody działkowe wymagają ochrony prawnej. " * 12) -) - -Q_HTML = f""" -Interpelacja w sprawie ogrodów - -

Interpelacja nr 1

-

do ministra rozwoju i technologii

-

w sprawie sytuacji w rodzinnych ogrodach działkowych

-

Zgłaszający: Katarzyna Osos

-

Data wpływu: 15-11-2023

-

{BODY}

-

Podstawa: decyzja (znak: BPRM.4820.2.3.2020).

- -""" - -R_HTML = f""" -Odpowiedź na interpelację w sprawie ogrodów - -

Odpowiedź na interpelację nr 8

-

w sprawie tzw. specustawy

-

Odpowiadający: minister rodziny Agnieszka Dziemianowicz-Bąk

-

Warszawa, 22-02-2024

-

Szanowny Panie Marszałku, {"odpowiadając informuję jak poniżej. " * 15}

- -""" - -STUB_HTML = """ -Odpowiedź - -

Odpowiedź na interpelację nr 806

-

w sprawie warunków sanitarnych

-

Odpowiadający: sekretarz stanu Krzysztof Kukucki

-

Warszawa, 20-02-2024

-

Treść odpowiedzi znajduje się w załączniku.

-

Załączniki

-

LUB-OMK.601.1.2024.3.pdf

- -""" - -ITEM = { - "num": 1, - "term": 10, - "title": "Interpelacja w sprawie sytuacji w rodzinnych ogrodach działkowych", - "receiptDate": "2023-11-15", - "from": ["277"], - "to": ["minister rozwoju i technologii"], -} - - -class SejmInterpellationsContractTest(unittest.TestCase): - def test_should_fetch_reply_requires_key_and_html(self): - self.assertTrue(should_fetch_reply({"key": "D2QJNB", "onlyAttachment": False})) - self.assertFalse(should_fetch_reply({"key": "X", "onlyAttachment": True})) - self.assertFalse(should_fetch_reply({"onlyAttachment": False})) - self.assertFalse(should_fetch_reply({"key": None, "onlyAttachment": False})) - self.assertFalse(should_fetch_reply({})) - - def test_question_strips_header_keeps_body_and_file_number(self): - row = normalize_document("interpellation", ITEM, Q_HTML) - self.assertIsNotNone(row) - self.assertEqual(set(row), {"text", "meta"}) - self.assertNotIn("<", row["text"]) - self.assertNotIn("Interpelacja nr 1", row["text"]) - self.assertNotIn("Zgłaszający:", row["text"]) - self.assertNotIn("Data wpływu:", row["text"]) - self.assertNotIn("do ministra rozwoju", row["text"]) - self.assertIn("Ogrody działkowe", row["text"]) - self.assertIn("BPRM.4820.2.3.2020", row["text"]) # not a phone - self.assertGreaterEqual(len(row["text"]), MIN_CHARS) - self.assertEqual(row["meta"]["num"], 1) - self.assertEqual(row["meta"]["term"], 10) - self.assertEqual(row["meta"]["kind"], "interpellation") - self.assertEqual(row["meta"]["author"], "Katarzyna Osos") - self.assertTrue(row["meta"]["url"].endswith("/interpellations/1/body")) - - def test_reply_strips_header_and_records_key(self): - reply = {"key": "D2QJNB", "from": "Minister Agnieszka Dziemianowicz-Bąk", - "receiptDate": "2024-02-22", "onlyAttachment": False} - item = {**ITEM, "num": 8} - row = normalize_document("interpellation_reply", item, R_HTML, reply=reply) - self.assertIsNotNone(row) - self.assertNotIn("Odpowiedź na interpelację nr 8", row["text"]) - self.assertNotIn("Odpowiadający:", row["text"]) - self.assertNotIn("Warszawa, 22-02-2024", row["text"]) - self.assertIn("Szanowny Panie Marszałku", row["text"]) - self.assertEqual(row["meta"]["kind"], "interpellation_reply") - self.assertEqual(row["meta"]["reply_key"], "D2QJNB") - self.assertIn("Dziemianowicz", row["meta"]["author"]) - self.assertTrue(row["meta"]["url"].endswith("/interpellations/8/reply/D2QJNB/body")) - - def test_attachment_stub_is_rejected(self): - reply = {"key": "ABC", "from": "X", "receiptDate": "2024-02-20"} - self.assertIsNone(normalize_document( - "interpellation_reply", {**ITEM, "num": 806}, STUB_HTML, reply=reply - )) - - def test_written_question_url(self): - item = {**ITEM, "title": "Zapytanie w sprawie świadczeń"} - row = normalize_document("written_question", item, Q_HTML) - self.assertTrue(row["meta"]["url"].endswith("/writtenQuestions/1/body")) - self.assertEqual(row["meta"]["kind"], "written_question") - - -if __name__ == "__main__": - unittest.main() diff --git a/src/test_verify_paper_claims.py b/src/test_verify_paper_claims.py deleted file mode 100644 index ea67cc370e759de3e9aa6215e2d1c31a9ef13a09..0000000000000000000000000000000000000000 --- a/src/test_verify_paper_claims.py +++ /dev/null @@ -1,190 +0,0 @@ -#!/usr/bin/env python3 -"""Self-check for src/verify_paper_claims.py against a synthetic mini-repo.""" - -import json -import shutil -import sys -import tempfile -from pathlib import Path - -sys.path.insert(0, str(Path(__file__).resolve().parent)) -import verify_paper_claims as vpc # noqa: E402 - -TEX = r""" -\begin{figure} - \addplot[thick] coordinates {(v0.1.0,1.00)(v0.1.1,3.00)}; - \caption{grew from 1.00 billion tokens and 1 sources (v0.1.0).} -\end{figure} -\begin{abstract} -Release v0.1.1 comprises \num{300} documents and \num{3.00}~billion tokens -from 2 sources. -\end{abstract} -\begin{table} -\begin{tabular}{lrr} -Version & Tokens (billions) & Sources \\ -v0.1.0 & 1.00 & 1 \\ -v0.1.1 & 3.00 & 2 \\ -\end{tabular} -\label{tab:s04-wersje} -\end{table} -\begin{table} -\label{tab:s05-zrodla} -\begin{tabular}{llr} -Source & License & Tokens [M] \\ -\texttt{alpha} & CC0 & 2000.0 \\ -\texttt{beta\_two} & CC-BY-SA-4.0 & 1000.0 \\ -\textbf{Total} & CC-BY-SA-4.0 & \textbf{$\approx$3000} \\ -\end{tabular} -\end{table} -\begin{table} -\label{tab:s10-licencje} -\begin{tabular}{llr} -License family & Representative sources & Tokens [billions] \\ -CC0 & alpha & $2.00$ \\ -CC-BY-SA & beta two & $1.00$ \\ -Total & & $3.00$ \\ -\end{tabular} -\end{table} -This work is pinned to commit \texttt{deadbeef}. -""" - -CHANGELOG = """# Changelog - -## v0.1.1 (2026-01-02) - -- Added `beta_two`. -- Totals: 2 sources, 300 docs, 3.00B tokens. -""" - -README = "| `v0.1.0` | previous stable | 100 | 1.00B | Baseline from 1 open/official sources. |\n" - -GROWTH = """VERSIONS = ["v0.1.0", "v0.1.1"] -DOCUMENTS = [100, 300] -TOKENS = [1_000_000_000, 3_000_000_000] -""" - -STATS = {"alpha": (200, 2_000_000_000), "beta_two": (100, 1_000_000_000)} - -SOURCES = """SOURCES = { - "alpha": {"license": "CC0-1.0", "license_spdx": "CC0-1.0", "release": "0.1.0"}, - "beta_two": {"license": "CC-BY-SA-4.0", "license_spdx": "CC-BY-SA-4.0", "release": "0.1.1"}, -} -""" - - -def registry(root: Path) -> dict: - return vpc.load_registry(root) - - -def edit(path: Path, old: str, new: str) -> None: - text = path.read_text() - assert old in text, f"fixture no longer contains {old!r}" - path.write_text(text.replace(old, new)) - - -def build(root: Path) -> None: - (root / "src").mkdir(parents=True) - (root / "CHANGELOG.md").write_text(CHANGELOG) - (root / "README.md").write_text(README) - (root / "src" / "plot_version_growth.py").write_text(GROWTH) - (root / "src" / "sources.py").write_text(SOURCES) - for name, (docs, tokens) in STATS.items(): - directory = root / "data" / name - directory.mkdir(parents=True) - (directory / f"{name}.stats.json").write_text( - json.dumps({"kept": docs, "tokens": tokens, "license": "CC0"}) - ) - (directory / f"{name}.md").write_text( - f"# {name}\n- **License:** `{registry(root)[name]['license']}`\n" - ) - (root / "paper.tex").write_text(TEX) - - -def run(root: Path) -> int: - return vpc.main(["--tex", str(root / "paper.tex"), "--root", str(root), "--ref", "worktree"]) - - -def scenario(mutate=None) -> int: - root = Path(tempfile.mkdtemp()) - try: - build(root) - if mutate: - mutate(root) - return run(root) - finally: - shutil.rmtree(root) - - -def drop_token_digit(root: Path) -> None: - path = root / "paper.tex" - path.write_text(path.read_text().replace("2000.0", "2500.0")) - - -def wrong_source_count(root: Path) -> None: - path = root / "paper.tex" - path.write_text(path.read_text().replace("v0.1.1 & 3.00 & 2", "v0.1.1 & 3.00 & ---")) - - -def add_source(root: Path, release: str | None) -> None: - directory = root / "data" / "gamma" - directory.mkdir(parents=True) - (directory / "gamma.stats.json").write_text(json.dumps({"kept": 1, "tokens": 1, "license": "CC0"})) - (directory / "gamma.md").write_text("# gamma\n- **License:** `CC0-1.0`\n") - edit(root / "src" / "sources.py", "}\n", - f' "gamma": {{"license": "CC0-1.0", "release": {release!r}}},\n}}\n') - - -def unlisted_source(root: Path) -> None: - add_source(root, "0.1.1") - - -def unreleased_source(root: Path) -> None: - add_source(root, None) - - -def wrong_license(root: Path) -> None: - edit(root / "paper.tex", "CC-BY-SA-4.0 & 1000.0", "CC-BY-4.0 & 1000.0") - - -def datasheet_license_drift(root: Path) -> None: - edit(root / "data" / "alpha" / "alpha.md", "CC0-1.0", "CC-BY-4.0") - - -def undefined_footnote(root: Path) -> None: - edit(root / "paper.tex", "& CC0 &", r"& CC0$^{\dagger}$ &") - - -def family_value_drift(root: Path) -> None: - edit(root / "paper.tex", "& beta two & $1.00$", "& beta two & $1.50$") - - -def incomplete_partition(root: Path) -> None: - edit(root / "paper.tex", "CC-BY-SA & beta two & $1.00$ \\\\\n", "") - - -def unfootnoted_dual_license(root: Path) -> None: - """alpha's content is CC0 but its platform redistributes under CC-BY-4.0.""" - edit(root / "src" / "sources.py", - '"alpha": {"license": "CC0-1.0", "license_spdx": "CC0-1.0"', - '"alpha": {"license": "CC0-1.0", "license_spdx": "CC-BY-4.0"') - - -def stale_growth_series(root: Path) -> None: - path = root / "src" / "plot_version_growth.py" - path.write_text(path.read_text().replace("3_000_000_000", "3_100_000_000")) - - -if __name__ == "__main__": - assert scenario() == 0, "consistent fixture must pass" - assert scenario(drop_token_digit) == 1, "per-source token drift must fail" - assert scenario(wrong_source_count) == 1, "carried-over '---' source count must fail" - assert scenario(unlisted_source) == 1, "source present in repo but not in Table 3 must fail" - assert scenario(stale_growth_series) == 1, "growth series vs composition drift must fail" - assert scenario(unreleased_source) == 0, "a source with release=None is not part of the release" - assert scenario(wrong_license) == 1, "license in Table 3 vs registry must fail" - assert scenario(datasheet_license_drift) == 1, "datasheet vs registry license drift must fail" - assert scenario(undefined_footnote) == 1, "a footnote marker with no definition must fail" - assert scenario(unfootnoted_dual_license) == 1, "an unfootnoted dual license must fail" - assert scenario(family_value_drift) == 1, "a wrong license-family subtotal must fail" - assert scenario(incomplete_partition) == 1, "a license family with no row must fail" - print("ok") diff --git a/src/uzp_orzeczenia_requirements.txt b/src/uzp_orzeczenia_requirements.txt deleted file mode 100644 index a73f76e1a4d39009cb624cd17a8ecf51a1cd06b2..0000000000000000000000000000000000000000 --- a/src/uzp_orzeczenia_requirements.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,7 +0,0 @@ -requests==2.32.5 -pyarrow==23.0.1 -tiktoken==0.12.0 -langid==1.1.6 -pypdf==5.9.0 -huggingface_hub>=1.0,<2 -pytest>=8,<10 diff --git a/src/verify_paper_claims.py b/src/verify_paper_claims.py deleted file mode 100644 index 4917d5ce52151176e9ade53c59ffc84a69455262..0000000000000000000000000000000000000000 --- a/src/verify_paper_claims.py +++ /dev/null @@ -1,637 +0,0 @@ -#!/usr/bin/env python3 -"""Verify the paper's numeric claims against repository ground truth. - -Two checks, matching the two things the paper asserts numerically: - - 1. Release trajectory (Table `tab:s04-wersje` + the hero figure): - tokens and source counts for v0.2.0 -> v0.2.5. - Ground truth: `src/plot_version_growth.py` literals (exact docs/tokens) - and CHANGELOG.md / README.md (source counts per release). - - 2. Corpus composition (Table `tab:s05-zrodla` + the inline totals): - per-source token counts, the source set, and the corpus totals. - Ground truth: `data/*/*.stats.json` at a git ref. - -Usage: - python src/verify_paper_claims.py # ref = pin found in the .tex - python src/verify_paper_claims.py --ref worktree # current working tree - python src/verify_paper_claims.py --tex paper.tex --ref HEAD -""" - -from __future__ import annotations - -import argparse -import ast -import json -import re -import subprocess -import sys -from pathlib import Path - -ROOT = Path(__file__).resolve().parent.parent - -# Printed precision in the paper sets the comparison tolerance. -TOL_BILLIONS = 0.005 # Table 2 / hero figure: 2 decimal places -TOL_MILLIONS = 0.05 # Table 3: 1 decimal place - -OK, FAIL, WARN = "OK", "FAIL", "WARN" - -MARKER = re.compile(r"\$\^\{([^}]*)\}\$") - - -class Report: - def __init__(self) -> None: - self.rows: list[tuple[str, str, str]] = [] - - def add(self, status: str, label: str, detail: str = "") -> None: - self.rows.append((status, label, detail)) - - def num(self, label: str, claimed, actual, tol: float = 0.0) -> None: - if claimed is None: - self.add(WARN, label, "not found in .tex") - elif abs(claimed - actual) <= tol: - self.add(OK, label, f"{claimed} == {actual}") - else: - self.add(FAIL, label, f"paper {claimed} != repo {actual}") - - def section(self, title: str) -> None: - self.rows.append(("", title, "")) - - def render(self) -> int: - width = max(len(label) for _, label, _ in self.rows) + 2 - for status, label, detail in self.rows: - if not status: - print(f"\n=== {label} ===") - else: - print(f" [{status:<4}] {label:<{width}} {detail}") - failures = sum(1 for s, _, _ in self.rows if s == FAIL) - warnings = sum(1 for s, _, _ in self.rows if s == WARN) - print(f"\n{failures} failure(s), {warnings} warning(s)") - return 1 if failures else 0 - - -# -------------------------------------------------------------------------- -# .tex parsing -# -------------------------------------------------------------------------- - -def _unescape(name: str) -> str: - return name.replace("\\_", "_").replace("\\&", "&") - - -def _table_body(tex: str, label: str) -> str: - """Return the body of the table environment carrying \\label{label}.""" - for block in re.findall(r"\\begin\{table\}.*?\\end\{table\}", tex, re.S): - if f"\\label{{{label}}}" in block: - return block - raise LookupError(f"no table with \\label{{{label}}} in the .tex") - - -def parse_hero(tex: str) -> dict[str, float]: - """Version -> tokens (billions) from the pgfplots hero figure coordinates.""" - coords = re.search(r"\\addplot\[[^\]]*\]\s*coordinates\s*\{(.*?)\}", tex, re.S) - if not coords: - return {} - return {v: float(t) for v, t in re.findall(r"\((v[\d.]+),\s*([\d.]+)\)", coords.group(1))} - - -def parse_trajectory_table(tex: str) -> dict[str, tuple[float, str]]: - """Version -> (tokens in billions, source-count cell verbatim).""" - body = _table_body(tex, "tab:s04-wersje") - rows = re.findall(r"^\s*(v[\d.]+)\s*&\s*([\d.]+)\s*&\s*(.+?)\s*\\\\", body, re.M) - return {v: (float(tok), src.strip()) for v, tok, src in rows} - - -def parse_source_table(tex: str) -> tuple[dict[str, float], float | None]: - """(source name -> tokens in millions, declared total in millions).""" - body = _table_body(tex, "tab:s05-zrodla") - sources = { - _unescape(name): float(tok) - for name, tok in re.findall( - r"\\texttt\{([^}]+)\}\s*&.*?&\s*([\d.]+)\s*\\\\", body - ) - } - total_row = re.search(r"\\textbf\{Total\}.*?&.*?&\s*(.+?)\s*\\\\", body, re.S) - total = None - if total_row: - digits = re.search(r"([\d.]+)", total_row.group(1)) - if digits: - total = float(digits.group(1)) - return sources, total - - -def parse_license_rows(tex: str) -> dict[str, tuple[str, set[str]]]: - """Table 3 source rows -> (license cell without its markers, marker names).""" - body = _table_body(tex, "tab:s05-zrodla").split(r"\begin{tabular}")[-1] - rows = {} - for name, cell in re.findall(r"\\texttt\{([^}]+)\}\s*&(.*?)&\s*[\d.]+\s*\\\\", body): - rows[_unescape(name)] = (MARKER.sub("", cell).strip(), _markers(cell)) - return rows - - -def parse_footnote_defs(tex: str) -> set[str]: - """Markers the Table 3 caption actually explains (a definition is followed by ~).""" - caption = _table_body(tex, "tab:s05-zrodla").split(r"\begin{tabular}")[0] - return {m for cell in re.findall(r"(\$\^\{[^}]*\}\$)~", caption) for m in _markers(cell)} - - -def parse_total_license(tex: str) -> str | None: - body = _table_body(tex, "tab:s05-zrodla") - row = re.search(r"\\textbf\{Total\}\s*&\s*(.*?)\s*&", body) - return MARKER.sub("", row.group(1)).strip() if row else None - - -def _markers(cell: str) -> set[str]: - return {m for group in MARKER.findall(cell) for m in re.findall(r"\\([a-zA-Z]+)", group)} - - -def parse_family_table(tex: str) -> tuple[dict[str, float], float | None]: - """Table 5 -> (license family -> tokens in billions, declared total).""" - body = _table_body(tex, "tab:s10-licencje").split(r"\begin{tabular}")[-1] - families, total = {}, None - for label, value in re.findall(r"^\s*([^&\\]+?)\s*&[^&]*&\s*\$?([\d.]+)\$?\s*\\\\", - body, re.M): - if label.strip().lower() == "total": - total = float(value) - elif license_family(label): - families[license_family(label)] = float(value) - return families, total - - -def license_family(text: str) -> str | None: - """The Table 5 partition: like norm_license, but CC0 and public domain split. - - norm_license folds them together because the source table prints either for - the same source; Table 5 reports them as separate families, so a source's - own wording decides which side it lands on. - """ - t = re.sub(r"[`_]", " ", text).upper() - if re.search(r"PER-RECORD|PER-DOCUMENT|MIXED", t): - return "Per-record (mixed)" - if re.search(r"PUBLIC[- ]DOMAIN", t): - return "Public domain" - if "CC0" in t: - return "CC0" - if re.search(r"CC[- ]BY[- ]SA", t): - return "CC-BY-SA" - if re.search(r"CC[- ]BY", t): - return "CC-BY" - return None - - -def parse_inline_claims(tex: str, current: str | None = None) -> dict: - """Claims the prose/captions make about the *current release* totals. - - A claim is skipped when its surrounding sentence scopes it to a different - release or to a partition subtotal, so only whole-release assertions are - compared against the current release's ground truth. - """ - CONTEXT = 160 - SUBTOTAL = re.compile(r"share-alike|partitions?\b") - VERSION = re.compile(r"v\d+\.\d+\.\d+") - - def sweep(pattern: str, cast): - out = set() - for match in re.finditer(pattern, tex): - window = tex[max(0, match.start() - CONTEXT):match.end() + CONTEXT] - if SUBTOTAL.search(window): - continue - if any(v != current for v in VERSION.findall(window)): - continue - raw = next(g for g in match.groups() if g) - out.add(cast(raw)) - return out - - docs = sweep( - r"(?:\\num\{(\d+)\}|(\d[\d\\,]*\d))\s*~?\s*documents", - lambda raw: int(re.sub(r"[^\d]", "", raw)), - ) - # ponytail: floor keeps small unrelated "N documents" counts (held-out set - # sizes) out; scope by section if the paper grows other six-figure claims. - docs = {value for value in docs if value >= 100_000} - - tokens = sweep( - r"(?:\\num\{([\d.]+)\}|\$([\d.]+)\$|([\d.]+))\s*~?\s*billion\s+tokens", - float, - ) - sources = sweep(r"\b(\d+)\s+sources\b", int) - - pin = re.search(r"commit\s+\\texttt\{([0-9a-f]{7,40})\}", tex) - return { - "documents": docs, - "tokens_billions": tokens, - "sources": sources, - "pin": pin.group(1) if pin else None, - } - - -# -------------------------------------------------------------------------- -# Ground truth -# -------------------------------------------------------------------------- - -def load_growth_series(root: Path) -> dict[str, tuple[int, int]]: - """Version -> (documents, tokens) from src/plot_version_growth.py literals.""" - path = root / "src" / "plot_version_growth.py" - tree = ast.parse(path.read_text(encoding="utf-8")) - found: dict[str, list] = {} - for node in tree.body: - if isinstance(node, ast.Assign) and len(node.targets) == 1: - target = node.targets[0] - if isinstance(target, ast.Name) and target.id in {"VERSIONS", "DOCUMENTS", "TOKENS"}: - found[target.id] = ast.literal_eval(node.value) - missing = {"VERSIONS", "DOCUMENTS", "TOKENS"} - found.keys() - if missing: - raise LookupError(f"{path} is missing {sorted(missing)}") - return dict(zip(found["VERSIONS"], zip(found["DOCUMENTS"], found["TOKENS"]))) - - -def load_registry(root: Path) -> dict[str, dict]: - """The SOURCES table from src/sources.py, read without importing the module. - - Always read from the working tree: the registry defines what a release *is*, - independently of the ref the parquet stats are read from. - """ - path = root / "src" / "sources.py" - if not path.exists(): - return {} - for node in ast.parse(path.read_text(encoding="utf-8")).body: - if (isinstance(node, ast.Assign) and len(node.targets) == 1 - and getattr(node.targets[0], "id", None) == "SOURCES"): - return ast.literal_eval(node.value) - return {} - - -def load_release_map(root: Path) -> dict[str, str | None]: - """Source name -> the release it entered. - - Empty when the registry is absent or predates the `release` field, in which - case the CHANGELOG prose stays the only ground truth. - """ - sources = load_registry(root) - if not any("release" in cfg for cfg in sources.values()): - return {} - return {name: cfg.get("release") for name, cfg in sources.items()} - - -def released_at(releases: dict[str, str | None], version: str) -> set[str]: - """Sources belonging to `version`, i.e. admitted at or before it.""" - ceiling = _version_key(version) - return { - name for name, release in releases.items() - if release and _version_key(release) <= ceiling - } - - -def _version_key(version: str) -> tuple[int, ...]: - return tuple(int(part) for part in version.lstrip("v").split(".")) - - -def _changelog_sections(root: Path) -> dict[str, str]: - text = (root / "CHANGELOG.md").read_text(encoding="utf-8") - parts = re.split(r"^## (v[\d.]+[\w.-]*)", text, flags=re.M) - return dict(zip(parts[1::2], parts[2::2])) - - -def load_declared_sources( - root: Path, base_version: str | None = None -) -> tuple[dict[str, int | None], dict[str, list[str]]]: - """Version -> declared source count (None when unrecorded), and sources added.""" - sections = _changelog_sections(root) - counts: dict[str, int | None] = {} - added: dict[str, list[str]] = {} - for version, body in sections.items(): - match = re.search(r"\b(\d+)[-\s]sources?\b", body) - counts[version] = int(match.group(1)) if match else None - added[version] = re.findall( - r"Added (?:the )?(?:community[- ]contributed |community contribution |reviewed )?`([\w.]+)`", - body, - ) - # The first release predates the CHANGELOG; the README release table records it. - if base_version and counts.get(base_version) is None: - readme = (root / "README.md").read_text(encoding="utf-8") - base = re.search( - rf"`{re.escape(base_version)}`.*?(\d+) open/official sources", readme, re.S - ) - if base: - counts[base_version] = int(base.group(1)) - added.setdefault(base_version, []) - return counts, added - - -def load_stats(root: Path, ref: str) -> dict[str, dict]: - """Source name -> parquet stats, read from a git ref or the working tree.""" - stats: dict[str, dict] = {} - if ref == "worktree": - paths = sorted(root.glob("data/*/*.stats.json")) - for path in paths: - stats[path.name.removesuffix(".stats.json")] = json.loads( - path.read_text(encoding="utf-8") - ) - return stats - - listing = subprocess.run( - ["git", "-C", str(root), "ls-tree", "-r", "--name-only", ref, "--", "data/"], - capture_output=True, text=True, check=True, - ).stdout.splitlines() - for rel in sorted(p for p in listing if p.endswith(".stats.json")): - blob = subprocess.run( - ["git", "-C", str(root), "show", f"{ref}:{rel}"], - capture_output=True, text=True, check=True, - ).stdout - stats[Path(rel).name.removesuffix(".stats.json")] = json.loads(blob) - return stats - - -# -------------------------------------------------------------------------- -# Checks -# -------------------------------------------------------------------------- - -def check_trajectory(report: Report, tex: str, root: Path) -> None: - report.section("Check 1 - release trajectory v0.2.0 -> v0.2.5 (Table 2 + hero figure)") - - table = parse_trajectory_table(tex) - hero = parse_hero(tex) - series = load_growth_series(root) - declared, added = load_declared_sources(root, base_version=sorted(series)[0]) - releases = load_release_map(root) - if releases: - for version in sorted(series): - counted = len(released_at(releases, version)) - if declared.get(version) is None: - declared[version] = counted - elif declared[version] != counted: - report.add(FAIL, f"{version} registry vs CHANGELOG", - f"src/sources.py counts {counted}, CHANGELOG says {declared[version]}") - - missing = sorted(set(series) - set(table)) - extra = sorted(set(table) - set(series)) - if missing or extra: - report.add(FAIL, "table covers every release", - f"missing {missing}, unexpected {extra}") - else: - report.add(OK, "table covers every release", f"{len(table)} rows") - - for version in sorted(series): - docs, tokens = series[version] - actual_b = tokens / 1e9 - claimed_b = table.get(version, (None, None))[0] - report.num(f"{version} tokens (B, Table 2)", claimed_b, round(actual_b, 6), TOL_BILLIONS) - report.num(f"{version} tokens (B, hero figure)", hero.get(version), round(actual_b, 6), TOL_BILLIONS) - - # Source counts. "---" in the table means "unchanged from the previous release". - previous: int | None = None - for version in sorted(series): - cell = table.get(version, (None, "?"))[1] - if cell == "---": - claimed = previous - shown = f"--- (carries {previous})" - else: - digits = re.search(r"\d+", cell or "") - claimed = int(digits.group()) if digits else None - shown = str(claimed) - previous = claimed - - truth = declared.get(version) - label = f"{version} source count" - if truth is None: - report.add(WARN, label, f"paper {shown}; no count recorded in CHANGELOG/README") - elif claimed == truth: - report.add(OK, label, f"{shown} == {truth}") - else: - report.add(FAIL, label, f"paper {shown} != repo {truth}") - - if releases: - return # the registry already resolves every release exactly - - # Back-fill unrecorded releases from the next release's "Added `source`" bullets. - versions = sorted(series) - for index, version in enumerate(versions[:-1]): - if declared.get(version) is not None: - continue - following = versions[index + 1] - if declared.get(following) is None: - continue - inferred = declared[following] - len(added.get(following, [])) - report.add( - WARN, - f"{version} source count (derived)", - f"{following} declares {declared[following]} and adds " - f"{len(added.get(following, []))} -> {version} = {inferred}", - ) - - -def check_composition(report: Report, tex: str, root: Path, ref: str) -> None: - report.section(f"Check 2 - corpus composition and totals (Table 3, ref={ref})") - - table, table_total = parse_source_table(tex) - current = sorted(load_growth_series(root))[-1] - claims = parse_inline_claims(tex, current=current) - stats = load_stats(root, ref) - releases = load_release_map(root) - in_release = released_at(releases, current) if releases else set(stats) - - absent = sorted(set(table) - set(stats)) - unlisted = sorted((set(stats) & in_release) - set(table)) - unreleased = sorted(set(stats) - in_release) - listed_but_unreleased = sorted(set(table) & set(unreleased)) - if absent: - report.add(FAIL, "every listed source exists at ref", f"missing from repo: {absent}") - else: - report.add(OK, "every listed source exists at ref", f"{len(table)} sources") - if unlisted: - report.add(FAIL, f"every {current} source is in Table 3", - f"released but missing from Table 3: {unlisted}") - else: - report.add(OK, f"every {current} source is in Table 3", "") - if listed_but_unreleased: - report.add(FAIL, "Table 3 lists only released sources", - f"not in any release: {listed_but_unreleased}") - elif unreleased: - report.add(OK, "Table 3 lists only released sources", - f"correctly excludes {unreleased}") - - listed = [name for name in table if name in stats] - for name in sorted(listed, key=lambda n: -stats[n]["tokens"]): - report.num(f"{name} tokens (M)", table[name], round(stats[name]["tokens"] / 1e6, 6), TOL_MILLIONS) - - sum_tokens = sum(stats[name]["tokens"] for name in listed) - sum_docs = sum(stats[name]["kept"] for name in listed) - - report.num("Table 3 rows sum to its Total row (M)", - round(sum(table[n] for n in listed), 6), - round(sum_tokens / 1e6, 6), TOL_MILLIONS * len(listed)) - report.num("Table 3 Total row (M)", table_total, round(sum_tokens / 1e6, 6), 1.0) - - for value in sorted(claims["documents"]): - report.num(f"prose claim: {value} documents", value, sum_docs) - for value in sorted(claims["tokens_billions"]): - report.num(f"prose claim: {value}B tokens", value, round(sum_tokens / 1e9, 6), TOL_BILLIONS) - for value in sorted(claims["sources"]): - report.num(f"prose claim: {value} sources", value, len(listed)) - - if unreleased: - report.add( - WARN, "totals over ALL sources at ref", - f"{sum(s['kept'] for s in stats.values())} docs / " - f"{sum(s['tokens'] for s in stats.values()) / 1e9:.3f}B tokens " - f"across {len(stats)} sources", - ) - - # Anchor: the trajectory series' last point must equal the composition sum. - series = load_growth_series(root) - last = sorted(series)[-1] - report.num(f"{last} tokens in growth series == Table 3 sum", - series[last][1], sum_tokens) - report.num(f"{last} documents in growth series == Table 3 sum", - series[last][0], sum_docs) - - -def norm_license(text: str) -> tuple[str, str | None]: - """Canonical (family, version) so paper, registry and datasheet can be compared. - - Public domain and CC0 are one family: SPDX spells "official documents are - outside copyright" as CC0-1.0, and the paper prints both as PD. A version of - None means the text states no version, and compares equal to any version -- - the paper abbreviates nkjp1m's CC-BY-4.0 to "CC-BY" on purpose. - """ - t = re.sub(r"[`_]", " ", text).upper() - if re.search(r"PER-RECORD|PER-DOCUMENT|MIXED", t): - return ("MIXED", None) - if re.search(r"CC0|PUBLIC[- ]DOMAIN|\bPD\b", t): - return ("PD/CC0", None) - match = re.search(r"CC[- ]BY(?:[- ](SA))?(?:[- ](\d+\.\d+))?", t) - if match: - return ("CC-BY-SA" if match.group(1) else "CC-BY", match.group(2)) - return (t.strip(), None) - - -def compatible(a: tuple[str, str | None], b: tuple[str, str | None]) -> bool: - """Same family, and same version unless one side states none.""" - return a[0] == b[0] and (a[1] is None or b[1] is None or a[1] == b[1]) - - -def load_datasheet_license(root: Path, name: str) -> str | None: - """The datasheet's declared License line (working tree, not the pinned ref).""" - path = root / "data" / name / f"{name}.md" - if not path.exists(): - return None - match = re.search(r"\*\*License:\*\*\s*(.+)", path.read_text(encoding="utf-8")) - return match.group(1).strip() if match else None - - -def check_families(report: Report, tex: str, root: Path, ref: str) -> None: - """Table 5 must be a complete partition of Table 3 by license family.""" - paper, paper_total = parse_family_table(tex) - registry, stats = load_registry(root), load_stats(root, ref) - releases = load_release_map(root) - if not (paper and registry and releases): - report.add(WARN, "license family table", "no family table or no registry to partition") - return - - repo: dict[str, int] = {} - unclassified = [] - for name in released_at(releases, sorted(load_growth_series(root))[-1]): - cfg = registry[name] - # The row prints the content's own status; SPDX carries the CC0 wording. - family = license_family(str(cfg.get("license", ""))) or license_family(str(cfg.get("license_spdx") or "")) - if family is None: - unclassified.append(name) - else: - repo[family] = repo.get(family, 0) + stats[name]["tokens"] - - if unclassified: - report.add(FAIL, "every source has a license family", f"unclassifiable: {sorted(unclassified)}") - if set(paper) != set(repo): - report.add(FAIL, "Table 5 families match the corpus", - f"paper {sorted(paper)} != repo {sorted(repo)}") - else: - report.add(OK, "Table 5 families match the corpus", f"{len(repo)} families, no source left over") - - for family in sorted(repo, key=lambda f: -repo[f]): - if family in paper: - report.num(f"{family} tokens (B)", paper[family], round(repo[family] / 1e9, 6), TOL_BILLIONS) - report.num("Table 5 Total row (B)", paper_total, round(sum(repo.values()) / 1e9, 6), TOL_BILLIONS) - - -def check_licenses(report: Report, tex: str, root: Path) -> None: - report.section("Check 3 - licenses, footnotes and license families") - - rows = parse_license_rows(tex) - registry = load_registry(root) - if not registry: - report.add(WARN, "license audit", "src/sources.py carries no registry to compare against") - return - - for name in sorted(rows, key=lambda n: n.lower()): - paper, markers = rows[name] - cfg = registry.get(name) - if cfg is None: - report.add(FAIL, f"{name} in registry", "listed in Table 3 but absent from src/sources.py") - continue - - declared = norm_license(str(cfg.get("license", ""))) - spdx = norm_license(str(cfg.get("license_spdx") or cfg.get("license", ""))) - printed = norm_license(paper) - - if compatible(printed, declared) or compatible(printed, spdx): - report.add(OK, f"{name} license", f"{paper} == {cfg.get('license')}") - else: - report.add(FAIL, f"{name} license", - f"paper {paper!r} != registry {cfg.get('license')!r} / {cfg.get('license_spdx')!r}") - - sheet = load_datasheet_license(root, name) - if sheet is None: - report.add(WARN, f"{name} datasheet license", "no **License:** line in the datasheet") - elif not compatible(norm_license(sheet), declared): - report.add(FAIL, f"{name} datasheet license", - f"datasheet {sheet!r} != registry {cfg.get('license')!r}") - - # A source whose content license differs from its redistribution license - # states only half the story in a one-line cell; the footnote carries the rest. - if not compatible(declared, spdx) and not markers: - report.add(FAIL, f"{name} dual license is footnoted", - f"content {cfg.get('license')!r} but redistributed as " - f"{cfg.get('license_spdx')!r}; the row prints only {paper!r}") - - used = {m for _, markers in rows.values() for m in markers} - defined = parse_footnote_defs(tex) - if used - defined: - report.add(FAIL, "every footnote marker is defined", f"used but not explained: {sorted(used - defined)}") - elif defined - used: - report.add(FAIL, "every footnote is used", f"explained but on no row: {sorted(defined - used)}") - else: - report.add(OK, "footnote markers", f"{len(used)} defined and used: {sorted(used)}") - - total = parse_total_license(tex) - strongest = [n for n, (lic, _) in rows.items() if norm_license(lic)[0] == "CC-BY-SA"] - if total is None: - report.add(WARN, "Total row license", "no license cell in the Total row") - elif strongest and norm_license(total)[0] != "CC-BY-SA": - report.add(FAIL, "Total row license", f"{total} does not inherit the share-alike of {sorted(strongest)}") - else: - report.add(OK, "Total row license", f"{total} inherits share-alike from {len(strongest)} sources") - - -def main(argv: list[str] | None = None) -> int: - parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(description=__doc__, - formatter_class=argparse.RawDescriptionHelpFormatter) - parser.add_argument("--tex", default=str(ROOT / "file.tex"), help="paper source") - parser.add_argument("--root", default=str(ROOT), help="repository root") - parser.add_argument("--ref", default=None, - help="git ref for data/*.stats.json, or 'worktree' " - "(default: the commit the .tex pins)") - args = parser.parse_args(argv) - - root = Path(args.root).resolve() - tex = Path(args.tex).read_text(encoding="utf-8") - ref = args.ref or parse_inline_claims(tex)["pin"] or "HEAD" - - report = Report() - check_trajectory(report, tex, root) - check_composition(report, tex, root, ref) - check_licenses(report, tex, root) - check_families(report, tex, root, ref) - return report.render() - - -if __name__ == "__main__": - sys.exit(main())