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MINI REVIEW article
Sec. Decision Neuroscience
Volume 11 - 2017 | https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2017.00492
Neural Coding for Action Execution and Action Observation in the Prefrontal Cortex and Its Role in the Organization of Socially Driven Behavior
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, Unit of Neuroscience, University of Parma, Parma, Italy
The lateral prefrontal cortex (LPF) plays a fundamental role in planning, organizing, and optimizing behavioral performance. Neuroanatomical and neurophysiological studies have suggested that in this cortical sector, information processing becomes more abstract when moving from caudal to rostral and that such processing involves parietal and premotor areas. We review studies that have shown that the LPF, in addition to its involvement in implementing rules and setting behavioral goals, activates during the execution of forelimb movements even in the absence of a learned relationship between an instruction and its associated motor output. Thus, we propose that the prefrontal cortex is involved in exploiting contextual information for planning and guiding behavioral responses, also in natural situations. Among contextual cues, those provided by others' actions are particularly relevant for social interactions. Functional studies of macaques have demonstrated that the LPF is activated by the observation of biological stimuli, in particular those related to goal-directed actions. We review these studies and discuss the idea that the prefrontal cortex codes high-order representations of observed actions rather than simple visual descriptions of them. Based on evidence that the same sector of the LPF contains both neurons coding own action goals and neurons coding others' goals, we propose that this sector is involved in the selection of own actions appropriate for reacting in a particular social context and for the creation of new action sequences in imitative learning.
The lateral prefrontal cortex (LPF) of primates is an anatomically and functionally heterogeneous region that plays a fundamental role in “executive functions”, such as planning, organizing, selecting, and optimizing behaviors based on context and social environment. Neuroimaging studies of humans have suggested that information processing for action planning becomes more abstract when moving from caudal to rostral in the frontal cortex (Fuster, 1997, 2008; Koechlin et al., 2003; Badre and D'Esposito, 2007, 2009; Koechlin and Summerfield, 2007). Koechlin and coworkers, based on fMRI studies in humans, (Koechlin et al., 2003; Koechlin and Summerfield, 2007) suggested that three distinct processes occur: the first, performed by premotor areas, enables the selection of motor responses based on actual sensory stimuli; the second, relying on the caudal LPF, exploits contextual information for the selection of premotor representations; the third, centered on the rostral LPF, participates in the selection of caudal prefrontal representations according to the temporal episode in which the relevant stimuli occur. However, the presence of a hierarchical rostro-caudal organization of the prefrontal cortex is not fully supported by anatomical studies of monkeys focusing on intraprefrontal connections (for a relevant meta-analysis, see Goulas et al., 2014). These data led to a study that reconsidered the LPF's hierarchical organization using an fMRI experiment on humans; the study concluded that the top of the prefrontal processing hierarchy is represented by the middle portion of the LPF (Nee and D'Esposito, 2016). Despite the theoretical differences (partly due to divergent definitions of “hierarchy”), there is general agreement that the core prefrontal region involved in behavior selection and control is located in the central sector of the LPF. This function would require a strict relation between the middle LPF sector and the parieto-premotor circuits subserving sensorimotor transformations. Accordingly, anatomical studies of monkeys have indicated that whereas the rostral LPF (area 10 and the rostral parts of areas 46, 12r, and 9) has mainly intraprefrontal connections, the sector located caudal to it (areas 45A and 45B and the caudal parts of areas 46, 12, and 9) also has strong connections with sensory (e.g., temporal) and sensorimotor (parietal and premotor) areas (Figure 1; Barbas, 1988; Petrides and Pandya, 1999, 2002; Gerbella et al., 2010, 2013; Borra et al., 2011; Saleem et al., 2014).
Figure 1. (A) Lateral view of the macaque brain showing the parcellation of the prefrontal cortex. LPF is subdivided according to Carmichael and Price (1994), except for its caudo-ventral part (Gerbella et al., 2007). Dashed lines indicate the architectonic borders. The colored shadings delimit, within the frontal cortex, three groups of areas possibly involved in the episodic (red) contextual (green) and sensory (blue) control of executive functions (as defined in humans by Koechlin et al., 2003). This attribution is based on functional and anatomical evidence. In particular, areas in red color have mostly intrinsic prefrontal connections, areas in green are strongly connected with the temporal, parietal, and premotor cortex, the sector in blue corresponds to the premotor cortex. More in details, the sector in dark green is connected with hand-related skeletomotor parietal and premotor areas. C, central sulcus; FEF, frontal eye fields; IA, inferior arcuate sulcus; IP, intraparietal sulcus; L, lateral fissure; Lu, lunate sulcus; P, principal sulcus; SA, superior arcuate sulcus; ST, superior temporal sulcus. (B) Example of DLPF neuron showing prominent selectivity for the behavioral goal during choice cue and movement periods. T1–T5 indicate the reached positions; left, and right columns correspond to the trials in which the instructions signal a left or right future target, respectively. Note that each reached position can be to the left or to the right within each pair. When the monkeys is instructed to reach the leftmost target, the activity starts when the behavioral goal is available, and gradually increases toward movement onset, peaking during movement execution. The neuron does not show any activity when the monkey is instructed to reach the rightmost target. Neuronal activity was aligned to the onset of the instruction, choice cue, and GO signal. For each column, the three shaded areas indicate the presentation of the instruction, the appearance and maintenance of the choice cue, respectively (from Yamagata et al., 2012 with permission). (C) Example of a VLPF movement-related neuron discharging during grasping in light (green rasters and histogram) and dark (blue rasters and histogram) in a controlled go-nogo task. The neuron discharge begins when the target object is presented and reaches its maximum during grasping execution. Note that no significant difference was present between the two conditions. Rasters and histograms are aligned with the beginning of object pulling. Purple squares: object presentation; blue triangles: release of the starting position; cyan diamonds: beginning of object pulling; orange squares: reward delivery. (D) Neural discharge of the same neuron shown in (C) during the execution of non-instructed natural reaching-grasping of food. The neuron shows a discharge profile similar to that displayed in the go-nogo task: the response begins slightly before the release of the starting position, peaks during hand-object interaction and ends after grasping accomplishment. Also in this case the neural discharge during grasping does not differ between grasping in light (green) or in darkness (blue). Rasters and histograms are aligned with the hand-food contact (gray circles). Other conventions as in (C). (C,D) Modified from Simone et al. (2015).
In addition to the caudo-rostral functional differences, it is known that the dorsal portion of the LPF receives sensory input from the parietal cortex whereas its ventral sector receives information from the temporal cortex. These two types of input are exploited for spatial and object-based working-memory processing, respectively (Levy and Goldman-Rakic, 2000; Passingham et al., 2000).
Although the importance of working memory has been established by many studies, a recent single-neuron study of monkeys (Riley et al., 2016), using simple presentation of visual stimuli, showed that even in the absence of working-memory requirements, it is possible to distinguish a dorso-ventral, and a caudo-rostral subdivision, with posterior areas selective for sensory stimuli and anterior areas involved in more abstract processing.
Finally, research has identified a difference between the left and right human LPF with respect to motor inhibition, such as that required in the decision to act or withhold an action. A meta-analysis showed that the right ventro LPF is specifically active during motor-inhibition tasks but not in reflexive-reorienting tasks (Levy and Wagner, 2011).
Starting from the considerations outlined above, in this review we first discuss the interplay between the LPF and the parieto-premotor circuits for action planning and execution, both in highly demanding cognitive tasks and in basic everyday behaviors. Then, within this context, we discuss the LPF's role in socially driven actions.
Action Coding in the Prefrontal Cortex
Many studies of the monkey LPF have focused on several aspects of movement planning and the temporal organization of behavior (Fuster, 1997; Saito et al., 2005; Averbeck et al., 2006; Mushiake et al., 2006; Shima et al., 2007; Yamagata et al., 2012; Funahashi and Andreau, 2013; see Miller and Cohen, 2001; Tanji and Hoshi, 2008). The presence of LPF neurons exhibiting movement-related activity has been described mainly in tasks requiring monkeys to make saccades toward specific targets or reach them with the arm (Kubota and Niki, 1971; Niki, 1974a,b; Niki and Watanabe, 1976; Kubota and Funahashi, 1982; Quintana et al., 1988; Funahashi, 1989; Funahashi et al., 1990; Tanila et al., 1992, 1993; Boussaoud and Wise, 1993). In most of these studies, the neural activity preceding movement execution was investigated, but few of them have described the activity during actual execution (Funahashi et al., 1993; Hoshi et al., 1998).
Yamagata et al. (2012) investigated the role of neurons of the dorsal and ventral LPF (DLPF and VLPF) in movement planning and execution based on arbitrary cues and learned rules. The monkeys were instructed to reach with the arm the rightmost or leftmost target (out of the two presented) based on a previous visual cue. The targets could be presented in six different location pairs. In the first phase of the task, the discharge of VLPF neurons was related mainly to the features of the instruction cues and their behavioral meaning (i.e., the right or left member of the pair). In the subsequent phases, the neurons encoded the spatial location of the target pair specifying the action to be performed. DLPF-neuron discharge was modulated by the behavioral meaning during the period between the giving of an instructing cue and the target's appearance. Interestingly, behavioral meaning modulated DLPF and VLPF neural discharge during movement execution as well (Figure 1B). In the same study, the activity of dorsal premotor (PMD) neurons was compared with that of prefrontal neurons. Most PMD neurons discharge since the beginning of the trials in relation to the behavioral meaning of the instructing cues and continue to discharge until action execution. Thus, this experiment identified a sort of continuum between premotor and prefrontal functions in which, although the premotor cortex has a predominantly motor role and the prefrontal cortex a more abstract role, these roles are partially shared by the two regions.
These results leave open the issue of whether prefrontal neurons are also involved in the control of natural actions. It is well-known that natural actions rely strongly on the sensorimotor transformations provided by parieto-premotor circuits. In particular, the visuomotor integration for reaching is subserved by dorso-dorsal and ventro-dorsal circuits. The former connect superior parietal areas with PMD, the latter inferior parietal areas with the ventral premotor cortex (PMV) (see Rizzolatti and Matelli, 2003). Visuomotor transformations for grasping rely mainly on an inferior parietal-PMV network (see Rizzolatti et al., 2014), although a superior parietal-PMD network also plays a role (see Galletti and Fattori, 2017). Interestingly, both the parietal and premotor nodes of these circuits are also connected with specific prefrontal sectors (see Borra et al., 2017). In phylogenetic terms, these connections may have originally developed in order to control complex behaviors in relation to rich physical and social environments, which require several functions, such as planning distal goals, selection between different alternatives, action sequencing, retrieval from memory, and setting social rules (see Genovesio et al., 2014). In this context, it is likely that the capacity of the prefrontal cortex to deal with abstract functions emerged from the control over the sensorimotor circuits involved in daily behavior.
Seminal evidence of the LPF's involvement in controlling basic sensorimotor functions was provided by Tanila and coworkers (Tanila et al., 1992, 1993), who investigated prefrontal neural properties in the absence of specific tasks and described, in addition to sensory responses, neurons discharging during somatic and eye movements. In particular, somatomotor neurons were concentrated in the middle third of the VLPF, whereas oculomotor neurons were located more caudally.
More recent evidence in this direction was found by Simone et al. (2015), who recorded VLPF neurons in several tasks that, although partly based on learned rules, required monkeys to perform natural reaching-grasping actions. The main task consisted in a go-nogo paradigm, instructed by two differently colored lights. The monkeys had to fixate on the instructing light, and then one of three objects of different sizes and shapes was presented. In the nogo condition, the monkeys had to maintain fixation on the object; in the go condition, they were required, after a delay, to reach for and grasp the object. The reaching-grasping actions were performed in different contextual conditions, e.g., in darkness (in the absence of visual control over hand-object interaction) or on the basis of object memory. Another condition required the monkeys to perform actions in the absence of abstract learned rules; i.e., they could freely reach for and grasp food. The results showed that a specific VLPF sector (including areas 46 and 12) contains neurons that discharge during the execution of goal-directed reaching-grasping actions. Some of these neurons exhibited grip selectivity, and some responded to object observation as well. The movement-related response of these neurons was present in both light and darkness (Figure 1C) and thus was not dependent on visual control over hand-object interaction. They also discharged in a similar way when the object had to be grasped on the basis of memory. Moreover, the authors found that the same neurons that discharged when the monkey was performing the controlled task were active when the monkey grasped food in a natural, as opposed to an instructed, condition (Figure 1D). These data indicate that in addition to implementing abstract rules for complex behavioral responses, VLPF neurons are involved in the control and execution of natural actions. In view of these motor properties and LPF connections with the premotor and parietal cortex, the researchers have compared the properties of the movement-related neurons of these cortical regions. This line of investigation has revealed important similarities in the time course of the discharge, which generally encompasses a motor act (grasping) or even a sequence of motor acts forming the whole action (grasping and pulling). However, there are also important differences: in the VLPF, there are substantially fewer grip-selective neurons than in the parietal and premotor areas, and all the studied VLPF grip-selective neurons lack specificity during object presentation. These differences indicate that VLPF neurons have a marginal role, if any, in visuomotor transformation for grasping.
The above consideration lead to the idea that the neuron discharge during action execution recorded in LPF by Simone et al. (2015) can represent the behavioral goal, namely taking possession of an object. This view is similar to that proposed by previous studies (Hoshi et al., 1998; Saito et al., 2005; Mushiake et al., 2006; Yamagata et al., 2012) based on the learned association between arbitrary stimuli and behavioral outcomes; thus, this understanding of behavioral goals could apply to both natural and learned actions. Within this framework, the VLPF's role in action organization would be keeping active the goal of motor acts represented in the parieto-premotor circuits. These circuits would have a crucial role in the sensorimotor transformations necessary to achieve the goal of the motor acts and, in turn, could provide the VLPF with continuous feedback on goal acquisition during the unfolding of actions. Notably, if the VLPF can access these basic representations of motor goals, it could enable this region to build new actions through learning (see below for a possible mechanism). This conclusion is supported by a recent study (Bruni et al., 2015) in which VLPF neurons were recorded in a task requiring monkeys to perform two different action sequences, i.e., grasping for eating and grasping for placing. The results showed that a higher percentage of movement-related neurons showed a preference for the learned action (grasp-to-place) than for the most natural action (grasp-to-eat).
Coding of Social Information in the Prefrontal Cortex
The prefrontal cortex receives strong visual and auditory inputs from the temporal cortex (Barbas, 1988; Boussaoud et al., 1990; Romanski et al., 1999; Petrides and Pandya, 2002; Saleem and Kondo, 2008; Gerbella et al., 2010, 2013; Borra et al., 2011; Saleem et al., 2014). Among the connected temporal areas, some appear to provide information about biological stimuli. One of the most represented inputs is related to faces, which, as is well-known, are processed in specific temporal sectors (Gross et al., 1972; Perrett et al., 1982; Tsao, 2006; see Tsao and Livingstone, 2008). This input is provided to areas 45 A and 12, where neurons selective for faces have been recorded (Ó Scalaidhe, 1997; Ó Scalaidhe et al., 1999). In these same areas, there are also neurons that discharge while conspecifics' vocalizations are being listened to. Their activity is typically modulated when visual information about the vocalizing face is provided together with the sound (Sugihara et al., 2006; Romanski and Diehl, 2011). The need for this association is demonstrated also by the finding that when the vocalization is congruent with the presented face, the neuron discharge is higher than when the two stimuli are incongruent (Diehl and Romanski, 2014).
Interestingly, it has been shown that neurons in area 45A are related to the production of other monkeys' vocalization. Some of these neurons exhibit mainly a prevocal or perivocal activity and respond also during passive listening to the recorded monkeys calls playbacked (Hage and Nieder, 2015). This suggests that in the monkey prefrontal cortex, at least with respect to vocalization, there is, in addition to multisensory integration, the possibility of audio-vocal integration that could be important for social interactions and, perhaps, lead ultimately to language evolution.
Social interactions rely not only on facial and vocal communication, but also on the understanding of others' actions and the prediction of their outcomes. Thus, if the prefrontal cortex has a role in social interaction, one could predict the presence of neurons sensitive to others' bodily actions. In recent years, it has been shown that this may be the case for brachio-manual actions. Nelissen et al. (2005), in an fMRI monkey experiment, identified a VLPF activation during the observation of grasping actions contrasted with the observation of static controls or scrambled stimuli. The activated areas included areas 46, 45A, and 45B. A similar pattern of activation was recently confirmed by Sliwa and Freiwald (2017).
Recently, monkeys were trained to observe videos showing biological movements and object motion, and VLPF neuronal activity was contemporarily recorded (Simone et al., 2017). Biological movements included goal-directed actions performed by monkeys or humans (e.g., reaching-grasping of food/objects) and non-goal-directed movements performed by humans (e.g., extending an arm or pantomiming the grasping action). The main result was that in the caudal part of areas 12 and 46 and in area 45A, there are neurons responding to the observation of arm movements, the majority of them selectively coding one of the presented stimuli (Figure 2A). Most of these selective neurons discharged more strongly during the observation of reaching-grasping actions. In order to assess whether the neural discharge to action observation was strictly dependent on visual information, a control task was run in which different parts of the videos were obscured. Interestingly, the response of most of the tested neurons was unaffected by the obscuration. Thus, the interpretation of the selective discharge of these neurons was that they mainly code the goal of the action as opposed to its visual description. This type of coding is similar to that proposed for parietal and premotor mirror neurons.
Figure 2. (A) Upper part: example of VLPF neuron responding the observation of videos depicting biological actions. The neuron discharges exclusively during the observation of a monkey grasping a piece of food from a third person perspective. The vertical dashed lines indicate the beginning and the end of the video presentation. The activity is aligned on the beginning of the video. Lower part: distribution of penetrations containing video selective neurons (red circles) in the LPF cortex of a macaque monkey. The green circles represent the penetrations in which movement-related neurons were recorded. The position of the sulci is based on the penetrations depth. O: Orbital reflections. Other abbreviations as in Figure 1. (Modified from Simone et al., 2017). (B) Upper part: example of a prefrontal neuron responding to the observation of videos depicting mounting behaviors (M1, M2). In this condition the neural discharge is significantly higher than that recorded during the observation of videos showing grooming behaviors (G1, G2) or monkeys not interacting (NC1, NC2). F, fixation period. M, movie period. Lower part: location of the sites in which Grooming (blue) and Mounting (red) neurons were recorded in LPF cortex. Abbreviations as in Figure 1. (Modified from Tsunada and Sawaguchi, 2012 with permission).
In addition, this study demonstrated that VLPF neurons can code other features of the observed action, such as the agent (human or monkey) or the perspective from which the action was observed (first- or third-person perspective). In fact, the most effective actions were those performed by a monkey, especially from the first-person perspective (40% of the neurons classified as selective for only one stimulus). A slight preference for this perspective was found also in mirror neurons (see below) of the ventral premotor area F5, which were recorded during monkeys' observation of videos depicting grasping actions performed by another monkey from three different perspectives (Caggiano et al., 2011).
Neurons coding others' actions have been widely described in the premotor and parietal cortex. These neurons (mirror neurons) respond to both the observation and execution of motor acts and are thus considered to play a crucial role in action understanding (Gallese et al., 1996; Rizzolatti et al., 1996; Fogassi et al., 2005; Rozzi et al., 2008; Kraskov et al., 2009; Yoshida et al., 2011; Maeda et al., 2015). The VLPF neurons described above (Simone et al., 2017) could be part of a wider action-observation network. In support of this view, a portion of them also discharged when the monkey was performing a grasping action (12% of the visually responsive neurons that were tested also for their motor properties).
The goal-centered coding of VLPF neurons that respond to action observation appears to be related to that proposed for neurons that discharge during reaching-grasping execution. This raises the general question of whether these two categories of neurons could be involved in a common function. Further studies aimed at describing these prefrontal neurons' functional features and their potential differences with the functional features of parietal and premotor mirror neurons will improve our understanding of the VLPF's role in action understanding and response planning.
Behavioral Role of Prefrontal Neurons Related to Action Observation
Recent studies of the prefrontal cortex have highlighted the importance of social information related to the visual appearance and outcome of others' actions (Tsunada and Sawaguchi, 2012; Falcone et al., 2015; Sliwa and Freiwald, 2017). Concerning single-neuron studies, Tsunada and Sawaguchi (2012) recorded monkey VLPF neurons during the observation of videos showing conspecifics grooming or mounting another monkey and, as a control, the observation of videos in which several monkeys were present but not interacting. They found that 35% of neurons responding during video presentation were selective for grooming or mounting, since they did not respond during the observation of videos depicting non-interacting monkeys (Figure 2B). Notably, the monkeys in this experiment were required simply to observe the scene; thus, it can be concluded that prefrontal neurons respond also when the monkey is not required to exploit the observed stimulus, as was shown by Simone et al. (2017). In another electrophysiological study, Falcone et al. (2015) instructed monkeys to perform a non-matching-to-sample task in which they had to reach a left or right target on a screen, based on the target chosen in the previous trial by themselves or by a human agent. Thus, monkeys had to keep track of the outcome of others' actions to complete the task. In the prefrontal cortex (including areas 46v and 12), they found neurons encoding the agent (monkey or human), the agent's future goal position, and the agent's previous goal position. Among the neurons encoding the human's future goal, some responded to both agents and others only to the human agent's future goal. The authors interpreted the discharge of the latter neurons as a predictive activity concerning the other agent's behavior, and they proposed that the prefrontal cortex is involved in the social-interactive aspects of action coordination and, in particular, in monitoring others' choices.
As a whole, these studies suggest that the prefrontal cortex can use social information to categorize others' behavior and to exploit it in order to guide one's own behavior. The presence in the same region of neurons involved in the observation and execution of goal-directed natural actions is in line with this view. The link between observed and executed actions may lead to the ability to react appropriately to others' actions, e.g., organizing competitive or cooperative actions, or to the ability to reproduce the observed action. The latter capacity is the basis for imitative behavior. Although in adult monkeys there is no clear evidence of true imitation, it is known that they show facilitation behavior, which involves an increase in the frequency of an action when witnessing a conspecific performing it (Visalberghi and Addessi, 2000; Ferrari et al., 2005). In facilitation behavior, it is very likely that mirror neurons are involved in the recognition of others' motor acts, but the complex behavioral reaction of the observer is likely guided by another cortical region responsible for the organization of the action sequence. This role may be played by the prefrontal cortex. It should be noted that in humans, imitative learning involves both the parieto-premotor mirror system and area 46 (Buccino et al., 2004).
To sum up, the LPF receives from the parietal and premotor cortex information about the goal of motor acts belonging to one's own motor repertoire and from the temporal cortex visual descriptions of others' actions, and it contains neurons that encode the final behavioral goal (Saito et al., 2005; Falcone et al., 2015). Thus, the visual description of an action can activate the representation of both the behavioral goal and the goals of the motor acts employed to achieve it. This process may be the basis for the selection of own actions suitable for reacting in a particular social context (in both monkeys and humans) and for building new sequences constituted of known motor acts to reach a new final behavioral goal (imitative learning in humans). This proposal requires two further experimental validations: (1) the study of LPF neurons' response during the organization of a behavioral response to others' actions, and (2) the evaluation of the effect of LPF inactivation on behavioral planning based on social context.
LF and SR critically revised the literature and wrote the paper.
This work was supported by Ministero dell'Istruzione, dell'Università e della Ricerca (PRIN prot. 2010 MEFNF7), European Commission Grant Cogsystems FP7-250013, Interuniversity Attraction Poles (IAP) P7/11.
Conflict of Interest Statement
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
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Keywords: behavioral goal, action observation, social interaction, imitation, executive functions, context, monkey
Citation: Rozzi S and Fogassi L (2017) Neural Coding for Action Execution and Action Observation in the Prefrontal Cortex and Its Role in the Organization of Socially Driven Behavior. Front. Neurosci. 11:492. doi: 10.3389/fnins.2017.00492
Received: 07 June 2017; Accepted: 22 August 2017;
Published: 07 September 2017.
Edited by:Paul E. M. Phillips, University of Washington, United States
Reviewed by:Vijay Mohan K. Namboodiri, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, United States
Masataka Watanabe, Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Medical Science, Japan
Copyright © 2017 Rozzi and Fogassi. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.
*Correspondence: Stefano Rozzi, email@example.com

domain: psychology


text:
News feature: Iceberg ahead!
Just speaking to Nicki Rowlands makes you realise how passionate she is about raising awareness of oral cancer. Perfect 32 dental practice in Beverly, East Yorkshire, has seen the number of cases locally skyrocketing. One of their patients, Jacqui Alland, lost her father to the disease after he underwent intense treatment.
Jacqui explains: ‘Dad suffered horrendous facial disfigurement from his oral cancer, losing his nose, upper jaw and a great portion of his cheeks,’ she continues, ‘By the time it was detected the damage was so debilitating, it had a major impact on the remainder of his life, as well as his family and friends.’
Under the surface
It became clear to Nicki – and the team at Perfect 32 – that some kind of early detection system was needed – ‘once a lesion is visible it generally means the cancer is fairly advanced. Early detection is key with this disease and we wanted to be able to make earlier referrals,’ said Nicki. So, Perfect 32 introduced the Velscope into the practice as an adjunct to the traditional mouth cancer exam.
According to Nicki, ‘The iceberg scenario epitomises the situation.’ She explains that what’s going undetected under the surface is potentially lethal, and that’s where the Velscope comes into play. It is a system which allows the dentist to carry out a mucosal examination using fluorescence, seeing beneath the surface to detect abnormalities which could be missed by a visual exam.
The Velscope costs around £3,500, a small sum in comparison with most dental equipment, and, as she says: ‘It’s worth every penny if we just save one life a year.’ Referrals by the practice are now up by 50%.
Alongside the well-known causes of oral cancer – smoking and alcohol consumption – recent studies show links between the human papilloma virus (HPV) and the disease. This has caused the rate of oral cancer to increase in younger patients – particularly females in their 20s – as it is transmitted by oral sex. So, how does the team at Perfect 32 broach the subject with their patients?
Nicki explains: ‘It is difficult because it is so sensitive and we don’t want to scare people. We have newspaper articles on our notice boards for patients to read as well as the official Velscope leaflets. We only use information from authentic sources or clinical advice from our dentists or the clinical health advisor.
‘People need to know oral cancer is a killer,’ she adds, which is why the practice is holding a free screening day for patients to support the cause.
Perfect 32 ran a free oral screening day last year, which proved to be such a success that it spilt over to a second day. This year, the same popularity is anticipated, but they are more prepared. Nicki says it is better planned this year; they have told all of their NHS patients about it, sent leaflets and posters, and mentioned the screening on their appointment slips.
Alongside this, West Hull Community Radio has also helped the Perfect 32 team promote their message, so a large response is expected and the screenings may end up running across three or four days.
Jacqui said: ‘Oral cancer screening is vital and if dad had accessed this service maybe he would not have had to receive such invasive surgery. If the screening prevents just one person having to go through such a terrible experience it is well worth it.’
Patients cannot simply turn up on the day, time slots have to be booked in advance for staff to cope with the numbers. On the extra screening days patients will be offered the exam for half price, Nicki explains: ‘Due to our overheads, we can only afford to run one completely free day, after that it’s half price, which is still a big incentive.’
Perfect 32 is a mixed practice, and offers annual screening to its private patients at a cost of £40, a small price to pay for a potentially life saving examination. However, patients still seem to need that extra push, which is why the free, or half price, screening days are popular.
‘It concerns me that so many people do not understand how essential oral cancer screening is and how valuable it can be in eliminating the horrendous consequences of undetected oral cancers,’ commented Jacqui.
The dentists at Perfect 32 still carry out the traditional mouth cancer exam under normal lighting conditions.
‘This is absolutely essential’ says Nicki, but they combine this with the Velscope for a more thorough screening. Nicki stresses that it is not a diagnostic tool, it is used for detection and patients with abnormalities are referred to the Hull Royal Infirmary for a diagnosis.
The hospital knows that Perfect 32 has a Velscope and so the dentists at the practice have a good working relationship with the consultant there, Martin Cope, and patients are seen within a few weeks.
Essential in avoiding that iceberg.
Nicki Rowlands is happy to offer advice to anyone looking to run their own oral cancer screening days, she can be contacted on 01482 863 667 or at [email protected]

domain: news


text:
Welcome to the world of social influence! Imagine having an arsenal of tactics at your disposal to captivate and persuade others. From the power of persuasion to the art of manipulation, these tactics can be used to shape opinions, inspire action, and influence behavior. In this article, we will explore the fascinating realm of social influence tactics and how they can be harnessed for both personal and professional success.
In today’s fast-paced and interconnected world, the ability to influence others is a highly sought-after skill. Whether you’re a marketer, a leader, or simply someone looking to make an impact, understanding the arsenal of social influence tactics is essential. From the subtle use of body language to the persuasive power of storytelling, these tactics can help you navigate social interactions and achieve your desired outcomes. So, grab a seat and get ready to unlock the secrets of social influence that will take your communication skills to the next level. Let’s dive in!
The Arsenal of Social Influence Tactics is a powerful tool for creating impact in the digital world. These tactics encompass various strategies and techniques that can be used to influence and persuade others on social media platforms. From creating compelling content to leveraging the power of influencers, the Arsenal provides a comprehensive approach to engage and captivate your target audience.
The Arsenal of Social Influence Tactics: Unleashing the Power of Persuasion
The world of social influence is vast and dynamic, filled with a myriad of tactics that can be utilized to sway opinions, change behavior, and make a lasting impact. In this article, we will explore the arsenal of social influence tactics that are employed by marketers, advertisers, and individuals alike. From the art of storytelling to the science of scarcity, these tactics have proven to be effective in capturing attention, evoking emotions, and ultimately influencing decisions. So buckle up and prepare to discover the secrets behind the power of persuasion.
The Power of Storytelling: Crafting Narratives that Resonate
Storytelling is an age-old technique that has the ability to captivate and engage audiences on a deep emotional level. By weaving a narrative that is relatable, compelling, and authentic, storytellers can effectively convey their message and leave a lasting impression. Whether it’s through a brand’s origin story or a personal anecdote, storytelling has the power to humanize the message and connect with individuals on a personal level.
In the realm of social influence, storytelling serves as a vehicle to shape perceptions, influence beliefs, and ultimately drive actions. By harnessing the power of storytelling, marketers can create a sense of empathy, build trust, and establish a strong emotional connection with their target audience. It allows them to tap into the core values, desires, and aspirations of individuals, making their message more relatable and memorable.
The Science of Scarcity: Creating a Sense of Urgency
One of the most effective social influence tactics is the principle of scarcity. When something is perceived as rare, limited, or exclusive, it instantly becomes more desirable. By leveraging the concept of scarcity, marketers can create a sense of urgency and drive individuals to take immediate action.
The psychology behind scarcity lies in our innate fear of missing out (FOMO). When we believe that an opportunity is scarce or time-limited, we feel compelled to act quickly in order to secure it. This tactic can be seen in limited-time offers, exclusive memberships, and one-time deals. By highlighting the limited availability of a product or service, marketers can tap into our fear of missing out and trigger a sense of urgency that drives immediate action.
In addition to scarcity, social proof is another powerful tactic that influences decision-making. When we see others engaging with a product, service, or idea, we are more likely to follow suit. This is because we tend to trust the opinions and behaviors of others, especially when we perceive them as similar to ourselves. By showcasing testimonials, reviews, and endorsements from satisfied customers or influential figures, marketers can leverage social proof to enhance their credibility and persuade others to adopt their point of view.
The Impact of Authority: Influencing Through Expertise
Authority plays a significant role in social influence, as individuals are more likely to trust and follow the guidance of someone who is perceived as knowledgeable and credible. From influencers to industry experts, those who possess authority can effectively shape opinions and sway decisions.
When individuals perceive someone as an authoritative figure, they are more likely to comply with their requests or recommendations. This is known as the authority bias, and it stems from our tendency to assume that those in positions of power or expertise possess superior knowledge or judgment. By leveraging authority, marketers can position themselves or their brand as trusted sources of information, increasing their influence and persuasiveness.
The Art of Reciprocity: Giving to Receive
Reciprocity is a powerful social influence tactic that taps into our innate desire to repay favors. When someone does something kind or helpful for us, we feel obligated to reciprocate the gesture. This principle is often employed in marketing strategies, where brands offer free samples, trials, or gifts with the expectation of receiving something in return.
By offering something of value upfront, marketers can create a sense of indebtedness and increase the likelihood of future purchases or actions. This tactic not only strengthens brand loyalty but also fosters positive relationships with customers, as they feel valued and appreciated.
In conclusion, the arsenal of social influence tactics is vast and varied, each with its own unique power to captivate, persuade, and shape behavior. From the art of storytelling to the science of scarcity, these tactics tap into the fundamental drivers of human psychology, influencing our thoughts, emotions, and actions. By understanding and harnessing these tactics, marketers and individuals can unlock the power of persuasion and create lasting impact in a world driven by social influence. So go forth and wield the arsenal of social influence tactics with wisdom and responsibility, making a positive difference in the lives of others.
Key Takeaways: The Arsenal of Social Influence Tactics
- 1. Social influence tactics are powerful techniques used to persuade and influence others.
- 2. These tactics include reciprocity, scarcity, authority, consistency, and social proof.
- 3. Reciprocity involves giving something to others in order to receive something in return.
- 4. Scarcity creates a sense of urgency by highlighting limited availability or time constraints.
- 5. Authority relies on the credibility and expertise of influential figures to sway opinions.
Frequently Asked Questions
What are social influence tactics?
Social influence tactics refer to the strategies and techniques used to persuade or influence others in social situations. These tactics can be employed in various contexts, such as marketing, politics, and interpersonal relationships. They often involve subtle psychological cues and manipulation to shape the beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors of individuals or groups.
Examples of social influence tactics include reciprocity, scarcity, authority, social proof, and likability. Reciprocity involves giving something to someone in the hope that they will feel obligated to reciprocate. Scarcity leverages the perception of limited availability to increase desirability. Authority relies on the credibility and expertise of a person or source to influence others. Social proof utilizes the principle of conformity by showing that others are engaging in a particular behavior. Likability involves gaining influence through building rapport, trust, and similarity with others.
How are social influence tactics used in marketing?
In marketing, social influence tactics are employed to persuade consumers to purchase products or services. Marketers often tap into the principles of reciprocity, scarcity, authority, social proof, and likability to influence consumer behavior. For example, offering free samples or trials creates a sense of reciprocity, where consumers feel obligated to reciprocate the favor by making a purchase.
Scarcity is used by emphasizing limited-time offers or limited stock availability to create a sense of urgency and drive immediate action. Marketers also leverage the authority of experts or celebrities to endorse their products or services, enhancing credibility and influencing consumer decisions. Social proof is utilized by showcasing testimonials, reviews, or user-generated content to demonstrate that others have had positive experiences with the brand. Finally, likability is established through relatable and engaging marketing campaigns that build an emotional connection with consumers.
Can social influence tactics be used unethically?
While social influence tactics can be powerful tools when used ethically, they can also be employed unethically to manipulate or deceive others. Unethical use of social influence tactics often involves exploiting vulnerabilities or biases in individuals to gain control or advantage.
For example, using guilt or shame to pressure someone into making a decision or taking an action can be considered unethical. Similarly, manipulating social proof by fabricating testimonials or reviews is deceptive and undermines trust. It is important to use social influence tactics responsibly, respecting the autonomy and well-being of others.
How can individuals protect themselves from social influence tactics?
To protect themselves from social influence tactics, individuals can develop awareness and critical thinking skills. Being aware of common tactics such as reciprocity, scarcity, authority, social proof, and likability can help individuals recognize when they are being influenced.
It is also important to question the motives behind persuasive messages and consider alternative perspectives. Developing a healthy skepticism and seeking diverse sources of information can help individuals make informed decisions rather than being swayed by manipulative tactics.
Are social influence tactics always effective?
Social influence tactics can be powerful, but their effectiveness depends on various factors such as the target audience, context, and the credibility of the influencer. Not all tactics work equally well in every situation.
Individuals have different susceptibility to influence, and some may be more resistant or skeptical towards persuasive attempts. Additionally, the ethical considerations and transparency of the tactics employed can also impact their effectiveness. It is crucial to understand the dynamics at play and tailor the tactics accordingly to maximize their impact.
Social Influence Tactics: Conformity
Final Summary: Mastering the Arsenal of Social Influence Tactics
In this digital age, social influence has become a powerful tool for individuals and businesses alike. From social media to content marketing, the arsenal of social influence tactics is vast and ever-evolving. Throughout this article, we have explored various strategies and techniques that can help you harness the power of social influence and achieve your goals.
One key takeaway is the importance of building a strong online presence. By creating valuable content and engaging with your audience, you can establish yourself as an authority in your field and gain the trust and loyalty of your followers. Additionally, leveraging the power of social proof, such as testimonials and user-generated content, can further enhance your influence and credibility.
Another crucial aspect is the art of persuasion. Understanding the psychology behind social influence can enable you to craft compelling messages that resonate with your target audience. From employing scarcity and urgency to tapping into emotional triggers, these tactics can motivate action and drive desired outcomes.
Furthermore, the role of influencers cannot be understated. Collaborating with influential individuals in your industry can significantly expand your reach and amplify your message. By leveraging their established networks and credibility, you can tap into new audiences and gain valuable exposure.
Ultimately, mastering the arsenal of social influence tactics requires a combination of creativity, strategic thinking, and adaptability. As the digital landscape continues to evolve, staying updated on emerging trends and tools is essential. By harnessing the power of social influence, you can elevate your online presence, build meaningful connections, and achieve your desired outcomes. So, go forth and wield the power of social influence to make a lasting impact in the digital realm!
Remember, the key to success lies in understanding your audience, crafting compelling messages, and embracing the power of social influence in all your endeavors. Now, armed with this knowledge, it’s time to unleash your influence and conquer the digital world. Good luck!

domain: sociology


With the recent news that Secretary of Defense Jim Mattis will be vacating his position sooner than originally stated in his resignation letter, Deputy Secretary of Defense Patrick M. Shanahan will be stepping into the Acting SECDEF role on January 1, 2019. President Trump will now be actively engaged in finding a full-time permanent replacement. Shanahan, interestingly, came to the position of Deputy SECDEF under Mattis from the American multinational aerospace defense corporation The Boeing Company, and has no prior military or government service.
The current and growing outcry regarding that last detail is as interesting as the fact itself. Given that the Secretary of Defense is, according to Title 10 of the United States Code (which empowers the position), “the principal assistant to the President in all matters relating to the Department of Defense,” it is generally assumed that the SECDEF comes from a military background. And this assumption is incorrect.
Including incoming Acting Secretary of Defense Shanahan, the United States has had 29 Secretaries of Defense since the establishment of the office in 1947. This number includes 26 actual Secretaries, and three Acting Secretaries. This number also includes Donald Rumsfeld, who served as both the 13th and 21st SECDEF (under Presidents Gerald Ford and George W. Bush, respectively), twice.
The reason both the lack of Shanahan’s military service and the outcry over that lack are interesting, is due to the fact that 9 of the total 29 serving Secretaries of Defense lack[ed] prior military service. That’s essentially one-third of all the SECDEFs. Shanahan will be the ninth.


text:
Queen Victoria’s Children’s Book To Be Published
To my dear Mamma. This, my first attempt at composition, is affectionately and dutifully inscribed by her affectionate daughter, Victoria.
By the time she died in 1901, Queen Victoria had survived five assassination attempts, given birth to nine children, and reined for 64 years, the longest of any British monarch in history. But by the time she turned 11, she had already written a children’s book. And on June 22, The Adventures of Alice Laselles will hit bookshelves — nearly 200 years after it was written.
In Alice, the beribboned protagonist is sent away to boarding school, and must solve the mystery of “who put the cat in Miss Dunscombe’s kitchen.” Along the way she encounters a “poor little French orphan,” the daughter of a rich London banker, and lots of pastel. The book includes Victoria’s illustrations, restored and updated (and a little bit eerie).
Written for a homework assignment, the book offers a window into the mind of an assiduous future royal who “studied with private tutors and spent her free time with her dolls and her governess.” A bit bleak, perhaps, but conducive to precocity. And after two centuries spent chilling in the royal archives at Windsor, Alice will surely be thrilled to see the light day.

domain: library


Uniphore call center survey: People prefer people over tech
Customer service centers are struggling with 50 per cent higher hold times since the beginning of the COVID-19 lockdowns and artificial chat technologies are widely disliked with 76 percent of callers expecting a live person. The findings are from a survey commissioned by Silicon Valley startup Uniphore.
The explosion in call center volume is due to people needing critical information due to effects of COVID lockdowns of businesses and government offices. It is expected to rise further as vaccines begin to roll out and travel and work restrictions change.
Uniphore provides AI-based conversational automation technologies designed to understand speech and aid staff in providing the right responses for each caller.
The company’s philosophy is to use technology to augment the skills of call center staff rather than replace them.
Umesh Sachdev, CEO and co-founder of Uniphore, says he is not surprised by the failure of chatbots to please consumers because humans have a significant advantage over any machine.
“Humans have the ability to express empathy — a machine cannot. It can say the right words but it cannot fake authenticity,” says Sachdev. Humans also have emotional intelligence which machine intelligence will likely never have.
Uniphore says that the survey reveals the importance of call centers for future business prosperity with six out of ten people likely to recommend a company if they had a positive experience.
A positive experience for the majority (76 percent) means speaking with a live human. Only 8 percent responded that they would prefer not to talk with a person. And only one in four said they had a positive experience with a chatbot or voice assistant.
Sachdev says its AI technology is able to take care of many caller issues in real-time in the background. For example, if someone calls and says they want to cancel a credit card the system can understand the request and near-instantly perform the action.
And as soon as the caller has finished speaking the live agent can say, “It’s done. We just cancelled your credit card.”
Similarly, the Uniphore system can furnish a live agent with the necessary information on their screen to answer a caller’s query — in real-time. This can help with another top complaint: 53% of callers spend more than 30 minutes on hold
“A key advantage is that call center staff don’t need to go through a three-month training course, they become productive much faster,” says Sachdev.
Uniphore can understand 100 languages. Its security is based on a database of voice-prints which are unique signatures and can quickly verify identities of callers — and also verify the live agents’ identity.
The survey was completed in the third week of November from a random sampling of 1,078 US adults.
The distaste for artificial chat technologies could be generational. A survey published by BankMyCell, a retailer of used gadgets, found that 75% of millennials hate making phone calls and 81% would prefer a chatbot than a human.


Megan Thee Stallion is unhappy with her record company and is suing them over wording in her contract.
Megan says 1501 Certified Entertainment classified her November release Something for Thee Hotties as a mixtape and not an album. That means the music doesn't qualify for Meg's "Minimum Recording Commitment" for the label.
The parameter for what contractually qualifies as an album is the length. The label says the recording must be 45 minutes, and Something for Thee Hotties is 45 minutes and two seconds.
Megan wants a non-monetary judgment so that the release can count toward fulfilling her contract. [Pitchfork]


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The chairman of Community Board 12’s Economic Development Committee said a series of new business-oriented initiatives will be coming out in the next few weeks and months.
Speaking on Feb. 19 at CB 12’s regular meeting at the Robert Ross Johnson Family Life Center in St. Albans, Committee Chairman Glenn Greenidge said they hope to soon have a comprehensive survey. He said they will craft it to be in-depth.
“Most business surveys ask ‘Do you like this? Do you like that,’” Greenidge said. “We want to have appreciative inquiry questions. We don’t want a survey that just elicits yes and no answers.”
He said the aim is not only to get a list of changes business owners want to see but also what they consider to be assets in the district’s business community.
He said they also are working on forming one or more merchants’ associations, and forming a community credit union.
Those interested in further information may contact Greenidge through the Community Board office in Jamaica at (718) 658-3308.

domain: economics


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This article analyzes the various corporate tax registration deadlines specified in Federal Tax Authority Decision No. 3 of 2024 in detail. It discusses the timeline for resident and non-resident companies as well as individuals. The implications of late registration are also highlighted. Thus, for Taxable Persons to effectively meet corporate tax registration deadlines and to ensure compliance, it is advisable to avail of the expert services of top Tax Consultants in UAE.
Timeline for Resident Corporates
The first category covered under the timeline is resident juridical persons, which refers to companies incorporated or registered in the UAE under local laws. For these entities, the deadline to submit a tax registration application depends on the month and year of issuance of their commercial license.
By Commercial License Date
Companies incorporated before March 1, 2024, must register for tax based on the date printed on their commercial license (also called trade license). Table 1 below shows the registration deadline for resident companies falling under each license issuance month in 2024:
Table 1: Tax Registration Deadlines for Resident Companies by License Date
|Date of license issuance
|Deadline to submit a tax registration
|January 1 - January 31
|May 31, 2024
|February 1 - February 28/29
|June 30, 2024
|March 1 - March 31
|June 30, 2024
|April 1 - April 30
|July 30, 2024
|May 1 - May 31
|July 31, 2024
|June 1 - June 30
|August 31, 2024
|July 1 - July 31
|September 30, 2024
|August 1 - August 31
|October 31, 2024
|September 1 - September 30
|October 31, 2024
|October 1 - October 31
|November 30, 2024
|November 1 - November 30
|November 30, 2024
|December 1 - December 31
|December 31, 2024
|No commercial license
|Within 3 months of decision
By Date of Incorporation
Resident corporations incorporated or recognized under UAE laws on or after March 1, 2024 have 3 months from their date of establishment to complete tax registration. This applies to companies set up across all business activities and free zones.
Timeline for Non-Resident Corporates
Any juridical person not incorporated in the UAE is considered a non-resident for corporate tax purposes. The key deadlines are:
Companies Meeting Permanent Establishment Criteria
Companies permanently established in the UAE need to register within 9 months of establishing presence or 6 months from March 1, 2024, whichever comes later.
A company that has a fixed or permanent place in the UAE through which a Non-Resident person wholly or partly conducts business activities
Companies Meeting Nexus Criteria
Companies meeting the nexus criteria but without permanent establishments have 3 months from the decision date to register.
Nexus is established if non-resident business revenues from UAE-based digital services, goods or other transactions exceed an annual revenue threshold of AED 375,000.
Post Decision Incorporations
For non-resident companies establishing a UAE nexus or PE after March 1, 2024, the registration period is 3 months and 6 months respectively from date of meeting tax criteria.
Timeline for Natural Persons
The corporate tax system also applies to individual proprietorships and partnerships conducting commercial activities exceeding a minimum turnover threshold as self-employed persons. Key registration deadlines are:
- Individuals exceeding AED 375,000 annual turnover in 2024 must register by March 31, 2025.
- Individuals commencing business any time in 2024 or beyond have 3 months from establishing taxable presence to complete registration.
Late Registration Penalties
Failure to meet the prescribed timelines can attract fines as high as AED 10,000 of outstanding tax due under the penalties framework issued by the Cabinet. Late registration may also result in blocked services from government agencies and regulators until all taxes are paid.
The FTA has mandated strict compliance with the registration deadlines to enable efficient tax filings and revenue collections from the first year of implementation. Any forms of non-compliance or delay may severely disrupt a company's UAE business license or services.
Extensions and Special Cases
In certain circumstances, the FTA may consider granting extensions to the above standard timelines on written request supported by sufficient cause. For example, companies undergoing mergers, acquisitions or restructuring activities near the deadline may qualify.
Companies registered as tax exempt under the free zone or other regulations also require an exception approval from the Ministry of Finance to be excluded from tax registration. Startups and SMEs below certain turnover levels can avail incentives like tax rebates or exemptions.
FAQs on Corporate Tax Registration
Q1. What information is required for tax registration?
The registration form requires basic details like trade name, activities, owner details, financial particulars and contact information. Supporting documents like commercial licenses, and articles of association may need to be provided.
Q2. How long does the registration process take?
In most routine cases without complexities, the online registration takes 1-2 business days for approval on submission of complete information before the deadline. Approvals may take longer during peak workload periods.
Q3. Can the deadline be extended due to some issue?
Businesses facing genuine problems in meeting deadlines due to document delays, system errors, etc. can write to the FTA requesting an extension. Valid reasons with supporting proof will be considered on a case-to-case basis.
Q4. What happens if a company misses the registration deadline?
Missing the deadline can result in late fees of AED10,000. Critical services may also be disrupted until all arrears are cleared. It is advisable to plan registration well in advance.
Q5. How soon after registration do tax compliances begin?
Once registration is approved, the business must begin maintaining proper books of accounts and tax records from the first day of the financial year for filing annual tax returns and GST returns as applicable. The initial return filing deadlines are also provided.
The corporate tax regime introduced in the UAE aims to boost compliance among businesses and generate non-oil revenues for funding infrastructure projects and economic growth initiatives. Timely registration as per the outlined deadlines in FTA Decision No. 3 of 2024 is crucial for enabling efficient tax administration and avoiding penalties. It is recommended businesses across industries understand their category and plan registrations well in advance to avoid last-minute troubles. The UAE tax authority has developed robust but simple systems to facilitate smooth and prompt compliance by all taxpayers.
Read More: Top Corporate Tax Consultants in Dubai

domain: law


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Arrived after long flight from the US to be told that the hotel didn't have our reservation even though we had e-mail communications with them confirming it. We went through Cheap tickets and got a great rate which the hotel didn't want to honor so they rented our rooms out. When we arrived they had already found us two rooms in another hotel which indicated to us that this was planned. Cheap tickets did refund us our money. Make sure to contact your hotel directly and then that isn't a garauntee that they will honor it.
- Official Description (provided by the hotel):
- The Athens Cypria Hotel is a friendly, quiet and cozy 4 Star property. Ideally situated in the heart of Athens approximately 150 meters from Syntagma Square offers a fine base for exploring all the city's attractions. One of the most well-known shopping places in the city, Ermou Street, is adjacent to the hotel, whereas the old town of Plaka and Acropolis are just a few minutes walk away. Psiry area, the most well-known place in Athens for night entertainment, is also within easy walking distance, where Greek Restaurants and Taverns, Bars and Theatres are found. The hotel consists of 115 rooms which have been specially designed to ensure guest personal comfort and relaxation. Most of them have balconies and some with a view to Acropolis. The rooms are equipped with air-condition / heating, fully stocked mini-bar (consumption charged), high speed internet access (free of charge), satellite TV, Russian (Channel 1) and Chinese (CCTV) satellite channels available. electronically locked safe-box (free of charge), direct dial telephone, radio and hairdryer, all included in room prices. The American buffet breakfast, included in room rates, is served in the breakfast room at 7 a.m. till 10.30 a.m with freshly prepared hot and cold breakfast selections. The Annabel Café Bar, in a welcoming and congenial atmosphere offers tempting cocktails and a wide selection of wines, cold or hot beverages, snacks, salads, ice-creams but also local and international sweets / desserts, thus being an ideal place for lunch. ... more less
- Reservation Options:
- TripAdvisor is proud to partner with Booking.com, Expedia, Hotels.com, LoveHolidays, Priceline, Ebookers, Odigeo, TripOnline SA, Bookgreece.com, Traveltool, S.L.U., Cancelon, Evoline ltd, HotelQuickly and Hotel.de so you can book your Athens Cypria Hotel reservations with confidence. We help millions of travellers each month to find the perfect hotel for both holiday and business trips, always with the best discounts and special offers.
- Also Known As:
- Cypria Athens

domain: travel


Man, this band would’ve fit golden-era Lookout Records like a glove. Luckily, there are lots of labels around that specialize in this particular brand of catchy power punk. The bigger ones like Red Scare and the ever growing Recess, and smaller ones like All For Hope Records, who have unleashed Civil War Rust’s “The Fun & The Lonely” upon the listening public.
My first exposure to Civil War Rust, as, I assume, was most people’s outside out of the band’s Bay area homestead, was as part of AMP Magazine’s free Cross Pollination comp from a couple years ago, which you can still grab here.
Their featured song “Hymns of the Canary” (great title) was a little rough around the edges (it was a demo version, a cleaner, tighter version appears on the album), but was well written and catchy as hell, with healthy doses of gang vocal stylings and some cool guitar parts.
Hitting go on “The Fun & The Lonely” and hearing lead-off song “Whipping Star” come charging through the headphones makes good on the promise of “Hymns” with better sounding production and tighter performance. That performance and songwriting really comes together on the song “Mayday” delivering one of the catchiest, and grittiest, songs on the record.
A few songs later the tunes all start to mush together somewhat and the chugging rhythms, melodies and vocal work threaten to become forgettable. “Seven Down” saves the album from this fate though by changing the tempo slightly and offering a fresh sounding hook within the same framework of the rest of the album.
By the time the aforementioned “Hymns” and the final song “Diving” (another fresh sounding track) wind the album down, the half an hour-ish runtime feels just about right.
Stylistically, Civil War Rust resemble many without overtly sounding like anyone in particular. With vocals that sound like The Gaslight Anthem’s Brian Fallon being backed by Chris No.2 from Anti-Flag, and hooks that are poppy and clean but lean against a gritty delivery that keeps the whole production dancing on a serrated edge. It gives everything a kind of Polar Bear Club feel, but, you know, less sad.
In some ways, “The Fun & The Lonely” sounds like a first record (first full length anyway) like the band is still trying to find its stride and getting used to itself. It’s good, catchy, fast punk rock though which all points to bigger and better things for a band that gains new followers with every show that they play. They’re a band that will just keep getting better with every subsequent album they release, mark my words.


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Next to the largely famous P 8 (class 38.10) passenger locomotive, the Royal Prussian State Railroad also landed a big success at the beginning of the 20th century with the class T 16 and T 16.1 heavy tank locomotives. Between 1906 and 1924, a proud 1,591 units of this locomotive type with five driving axles were placed in service. With a maximum speed of 60 km/h / 38 mph and an output of over 1,000 horsepower, the class T 16.1 was especially ideal motive power for branch lines with steep grades and for work in large switching yards.
Road number 94 539 left its builder, the Wildau-Berlin Machinery Company, Inc. (formerly L. Schwartzkopff) in 1913 as one of the first units of the improved class T 16.1.
This locomotive was initially based in Kassel and in 1925 it was given road number 94 539 in the German State Railroad's numbering plan. Later, this unit was transferred to the Stuttgart District to Heilbronn, which used it – equipped with counter-pressure brakes – among other things on the Koch Valley Line Waldenburg – Künzelsau – Forchtenberg. There, it was overtaken by a sad fate on September 13, 1944. During an attack from low-flying airplanes, the locomotive received a direct hit destroying the boiler. After that, it was repaired again and turned up – without counter-pressure brakes – in 1949 at Offenburg.
From then on, road number 94 539 served as an industrious switch engine in the switchyards at Offenburg and Mannheim. In the late Fifties, it was even given switching radio communication. Its last years of service were spent at Mannheim. The DB renumbering plan of 1968 even planned the computer-generated road number 094 539-4 for this old-timer of 55 years. This proud class 94.5 however did not experience this modern era. It was retired in advance. The use of the class 94.5 at Mannheim ended in July of 1969, and about five years later, the last five units of the class T 16.1 on the DB left the roster. Moreover, at about the same time as the last locomotives of the class P 8 (38.10).


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Business valuation expert, Jeff Holmberg, CPA, CMA, CVA with Froehling Anderson, Ltd has successfully completed the certification process with the National Association of Certified Valuators and Analysts (NACVA®) to earn the Certified Valuation Analyst (CVA) credential. The CVA credential is granted only to qualified individuals with considerable knowledge in the field of business valuation.
Business valuations establish the worth of a closely held business and are rarely a simple or easy process. Froehling Anderson’s business valuation services help confirm a company’s worth by setting values for all tangible and intangible assets. Valuations can be needed in many situations, including death, divorce, buying or selling a business, creating phantom stock agreements or buy/sell agreements, or performing estate and gift tax planning. Froehling Anderson’s certified business valuation team also has experience in litigation support when business or shareholder values must be determined to settle a case.
“Jeff earning his Certified Valuation Analyst brings an added level of professionalism to our Valuation team. We are thrilled at his accomplishment.” said Gary Dosdall, CPA, ABV and CFO of Froehling Anderson, Ltd.

domain: finance


Under Construction! This article contains unconfirmed details about iSurv1vor: Russia/production Information on this page is unreliable and subject to modification.
If you've found an error, click here to report it.
Sandy confirmed his intention to host season twenty-six during the Final Tribal Council of Andaman. Britti, Joe, Jermaine and Mandy return as Production alongside newcomers Malcolm (Botswana) who hosts the tenth season of iSurv1vor Live!, Noah (Canada & Faroe Islands), O'Henry (Andaman) and Stephanie (Venezuela & Botswana) Jared who previously hosted iL1ve makes his return to Production. Tucker did not return to host but stayed on as Production, making this the first season to have a Production team of eleven. The logo was designed once again by Tucker following from the previous season with the overall premise of players being abandoned in hot places in favor of a colder climate which hasn't been used since Canada.
Sandy during the pre-game phase announced a fourth installment of All-Stars following All-Stars, Tasmania and Macedonia tentatively planned for a Summer 2016 premiere. He also mentioned that AS4 would be the next opening for returning players to compete again.