API base stock classification.
Lubricants have been used by humans for thousands of years in their simple machines such as wheel-axle bearings and sledges. Modern machines are much more complicated and are composed of many different machine elements which are in relative motion under varying loads, speeds and temperatures. Industrial lubricants are significant for all kinds of industries whether machine building, chemical, textile, wood, food-processing, automotive, or wind power. Today’s lubricants have evolved to a complex mixture of chemical structures that ensure not only lower friction but also provide various other functionality such as lower wear, improved heat transfer, sealing, as well as control of soot, impurities, sludge and deposit formation in the mechanical equipment. Lubricant research and development has become indispensable in automotive engines and drive trains as these have been rapidly advancing towards smaller sizes, increased power, better fuel economy and lesser emissions. Development of lubricant additives and lubricant formulation has led to extended service intervals, enhanced fuel efficiency and improved machine durability. Future trends of lubricant development and use in the Industry 4.0 era and rise of electric vehicles look promising where several stakeholders already have taken their first steps.
- lubricant additives
- base oil
- solid lubricant
Lubricants have been in use for hundreds of centuries and are essential to our survival. Natural lubricants such as saliva and synovial fluid lubricate the food for easy mastication and reduce wear and tear of our joints respectively. Cooking oils prevent sticking of food onto frying pans and baking trays at the same time as conducting heat. Ancient Egyptians used lubricants to slide large stone blocks for building the great pyramids while the Romans used lubricant on the axles of their chariots . Ancient lubricants were plant and animal based natural oils. With the onset of industrial revolution and our reliance on metal-based machinery and engines, petroleum-based lubricants witnessed a growth.
Modern lubricants are far more complex and perform various other functions in addition to lubricating such as cleaning, cooling, and sealing. The primary function of most lubricants is to reduce friction and this property is known as lubricity. A lubricant can be used in solid form, semi-solid, liquid form or gaseous form. Examples of solid lubricants are graphite and Molybdenum disulphide (MoS2), semi-solid lubricants are greases, and liquid are automobile engine oil. Depending on the requirements of a said application, the physical state of lubricant is chosen. For example, in space environments where liquid lubrication is not feasible due to vacuum, solid lubricants are chosen. Air bearing are preferred in applications in machine tool applications where precision is of primary importance such as cutting and finishing of optical lenses. Greases are used where a liquid oil would not remain in position due to its tendency to flow or when a sealing action is needed to prevent water-ingress in addition to lubrication. Today’s lubricants are designed and packaged to meet specific requirements for specific applications by lubricant formulators. The lubricant for automobile transmission and drive train has different requirements to satisfy compared to lubricant for an internal combustion engine or turbines. Further depending upon the type of turbines viz. gas, steam or hydraulic, the lubricant needs to be designed.
2. Lubricant composition
Typically, industrial lubricants contain 70-90% base oils and the rest is additives . Base oils impart primary vital properties of the lubricant such as viscosity, viscosity stability, thermal stability, solvency, low temperature flow and volatility, oxidation stability. Additives have been used in lubricating oil since the 1920s and the demand for lubrication has resulted in continuous growth in the size of the market (USD 14.35 billion in 2015) with huge investments in research and development to design and formulate superior lubricants that meets present and future environmental regulations and consumer expectations. Despite this, lubricant formulation has mostly remained an art. This is because blending a new formulation for optimizing viscosity and obtaining optimum performance through performance tests for friction and emissions is much easier than testing for parameters, such as impact on engine wear, sludge build-up and piston cleanliness which require long duration engine tests. For example, during the development of Castrol’s engine oil, ‘Edge with Titanium Fluid Strength Technology’, over 2400 unique formulations were engine-tested for an equivalent of 1.9 million miles.
To understand the need for additives, one must understand the implication of the Stribeck curve shown in Figure 1. Machine elements such as engine bearings work in hydrodynamic lubrication regime where the major function of the lubricant is to maintain its viscosity at all temperatures while ensuring a thick fluid film to keep the two contacting surfaces in relative motion separated at all loads and speeds. Rolling element bearings work on elasto-hydrodynamic lubrication (EHL) where the contacting surfaces deform elastically and there is a very thin film separation. Cams and tappets work in the boundary lubrication regime where there is substantial metal to metal contact. And in the reciprocating motion of engine piston rings, all four kinds of lubrication regime occur.
Classical lubrication theory assumes that a lubricating oil is a Newtonian fluid with a fixed viscosity and the contacting surfaces to be rigid. George Osborne Reynolds approached the fluid film hydrodynamic lubrication using mathematical and physical approach (1886) to predict friction, film thickness and load carrying capacity . In the real world, oils undergo shear thinning and behave as a non-Newtonian fluid due to heat and pressure developed at the contact. Furthermore, real surfaces are rough and can undergo elastic as well as local plastic deformation under fluid pressure. The EHL theory was developed by H.M. Martin (in 1916) and later by Ertel (in 1939) and Grubin (in 1949), Petrusevich (in 1951), Dowson and Higginson (in 1959), Dowson and Hamrock (in 1977) for predicting traction, load carrying capacity and film thickness in heavily loaded contacts . The non-Newtonian behavior of thin films under high pressure and lower rolling speeds has guided lubricant formulators to consider the shear-stress/shear-strain behavior, pressure-viscosity dependence of the lubricant as these are closely linked to the molecular properties of the oil composition. On the Stribeck curve, when the speed is very low, the friction is governed by the chemistry of the lubricant molecules i.e. the molecular structure and orientation. It was W. B. Hardy (in 1920), who coined the term boundary lubrication and later with Ida Doubleday (in 1922) established the basic concepts of boundary lubrication theory . The boundary lubrication properties such as friction and film thickness at the interface of two surfaces are affected by the force fields of molecules in relation to their structure and polarity. Hence, formulators add boundary film additives to reduce friction in this regime . Additives must also reduce wear, as in this regime, the two surfaces in relative motion are in contact hence prone to significant wear. Furthermore, additives need to counter the side effects of continuous as well as intermittent use of the lubricant such as they need to control heat, deposit formation, prevent foam formation, prevent fouling and corrosion due to water ingress, prevent wear, increase film strength under concentrated contacts, control greenhouse gas emissions. Therefore, as high as 30% content of modern automotive lubricants are chemical additives while some industrial oils may only contain 1% or less.
2.1 Base oil
A typical petroleum-based oil with no additive is called a base oil or base stock . The generation of base stock starts with the identification and selection of a good petroleum crude followed by atmospheric distillation, vacuum distillation and solvent processing. Solvent processing has two processes viz. solvent extraction, and solvent dewaxing where undesirable molecules are separated where as in hydroprocessing undesirable molecules are converted to desirable ones. Hydroprocessing a general term for conversion of less desirable crude fractions into good quality feedstock using catalyst and hydrogen at high temperature and pressure. This can be categorized as hydrofinishing, hydrotreating and hydrocracking according to increasing order of severity. Another process called hydrodewaxing is required to remove long chain linear paraffins, isomerize straight chains to branched chains which improves the pour point. Only 10 % of crudes are converted to base stocks for lubricants, hence the refinery owners call the shots regarding the choice of crudes to be converted to base oils while balancing the cost, yield and demand relative to all the other refinery products. However, to satisfy lubricant performance demands under severe operating conditions, high quality base stocks are needed. The lubricant manufactures (refinery owner can also be lube manufacturer) buy these base stocks and other chemical compounds and formulate their lubricant for example SAE15W40 or ILSAC GF-5, meeting standards set by Original Equipment Manufacturers (OEMs), professional bodies, and international institutions like American Petroleum Institute (API), International Lubricant Standardization and Approval Committee (ILSAC), Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) to name a few.
Owing their origin to petroleum crudes, lubricant base stocks are also mixtures of long chain hydrocarbons containing three types of chemical groups. i.e. paraffins, naphthenes and aromatics. The paraffins can be further classified into branched or straight chains. The chain length and branching affects the melting point and crystallization temperature of the paraffins. During the production of lube base stock, most of the unsaturated bonds, paraffin wax and sulfur content are removed, however depending on the severity of hydroprocessing, some wax, unsaturates and sulfur may remain. Base Stocks have been classified into 5 categories by the API according to the presence of saturates, sulfur content and viscosity as shown in Table 1. Group I, II and III are derived from petroleum crude while Group IV is reserved for Polyalphaolefins (PAO) which are synthesized from gaseous hydrocarbons. Group V is for all other base stocks that are not included in other four groups such as mineral based napthenics, synthetic esters, polyglycols, silicones, polybutenes, phosphate esters etc. These oils are designed for severe performance requirements.
|Type||Saturates (%)||Sulfur (%)||Viscosity index|
|Group I||Solvent refined||<90||>0.03||80 to <120|
|Group II||Hydrofinished||≥90||≤0.03||80 to <120|
|Group V||Synthetics and naphthenics and other stocks not included in Group I, II, III or IV||—||—||—|
2.1.1 Application based on properties of base oil
Group I base oils are processed by solvent processing in which wax and multiring aromatics are removed while some sulfur and aromatics remain. These base oils are typically used in marine and diesel engine oils, heat transfer oils, hydraulic oils, conventional greases, industrial gear oils, and machine tool oils. These oils have high solvency, very high viscosity but poor viscosity index. The maximum operating temperature is 93°C.
Group II base stocks have undergone catalytic conversion to remove wax, aromatics and sulfur compounds. These base oils are used as automotive engine oil, automatic transmission fluid, gear oils and turbine oils. The maximum operating temperature of these base stocks is 121°C.
Group III base oils are similar to Group II oils but have a higher viscosity index. The severity of hydroprocessing removes any ring structures, as a result, its solvency is poor. These base oils are used in premium passenger vehicles, automatic transmission fluids, and food grade lubricants. The maximum operating temperature is 121°C.
Group IV oils are synthetically produced Polyalphaolefins from low molecular weight organic material. They have uniform molecular structures. They provide excellent high temperature performance and oxidation stability and therefore used in high performance engine and gear applications, heavy duty industrial compressor, power transmission fluid, hydraulic fluid, heat transfer fluid and in bearings as greases or liquid or lubricants. A wide range of viscosity grades of PAOs can be produced by varying the number of olefin molecules linked together. PAOs have a maximum operating temperature of 132°C.
Group V base stocks can be either naphthenic or synthetic in origin. The naphthenics provide very good low temperature performance and hence are used in applications which operate in a narrow temperature range such as transformer oil, process oils, grease. These oils have high solubility and available in a wide range of viscosities. The synthetics on the other side vary widely in their types and properties. These include polyglycols, silicones, polybutenes, organic esters, phosphate esters and they are used as compressor oils, brake fluids, heat transfer oils, aviation engine oil. Their maximum operating temperature is dependent on the nature of their molecular structure. Silicon oils are known to have a maximum operating temperature of 232°C.
Finally, Group II+ and Group III+ are two types of base stocks that are not included in the original API classification. The plus refers to increase in viscosity index (VI) in the higher limit of the API specification. Group II+ has VI minimum between 110 and 115 and Group III+ has minimum VI somewhere between 130 and 140.
As mentioned previously, mineral oils are mixtures of hydrocarbons containing paraffins, naphthenics and aromatics of various structures and carbon numbers ranging between 20 to 40+, at varying amounts depending on their degree of refining and processing. Typical composition of various API groups have been identified, but their exact structures are still not known. There is a considerable variability in the performance among the mineral origin base oils owing to the source of the crude. Therefore, lubricant manufactures conduct performance tests on their formulations to ascertain satisfactory performance with any new base stock in the same API category.
2.2 Lubricant additives
The primary function of Lubricant additives is to improve the properties of the base stock under different operating conditions and the high performance requirements of any machinery. Lubricant additives are chemical components that need to blend well with the base oil to function as a single fluid. Additive manufactures often sell several additives combined into an additive package and diluted with a base oil at a higher concentration. The additive package is then dosed into the lubricant blend by the lubricant manufacturer at an appropriate treat rate to give the desired performance. The concentration of various additives is constrained by various factors such as their primary function (for example dispersancy, wear protection and so on), their synergetic or antagonistic behaviour with other additives, and regulations set by industry bodies.
In a nutshell, lubricant additives can be categorized into various kinds based on their general roles of performance improvement and service life extension. First category are additives that impart new properties to the lubricant also known as surface protective additives. Examples include antiwear additives, extreme pressure additives, corrosion inhibitors, detergents and dispersants. The second kind of additives enhance the existing properties already present in the lubricant hence known as performance additives. Viscosity index improvers, viscosity modifiers, friction modifiers, pour point depressants belong to this type. The third type of additives known as lubricant protective additives, are the ones that counteract the negative effects or changes that take place during the service life of the lubricant. These include antifoamants and, antioxidants. In this chapter only the major types of lubricant additives are discussed. Other additives such as demulsifiers, emulsifier, biocides may be added depending on the intended applications.
2.2.1 Types of lubricant additives
188.8.131.52 Pour point depressants
As the name indicates, these are additives that reduce the pour point of the lubricant, i.e. the lubricant remains in liquid state and maintains its fluidity (pourability) at lower temperatures than without these additives. Usually as temperature decreases, paraffin molecules in the oil start to crystallize as wax (below 50°C) and the oil loses its ability to flow by gravity or to be pumped under pressure. This also affects the viscosity of the oil. Additives such as alkylaromatic polymers and polymethacrylates prevent wax crystal growth by modifying the interface between the wax and the oil molecules, to a certain extent thus lowering the pour point by about 20–30°F (11–17°C). These are present up to a fraction of a percent in all paraffin-based lubricants that lubricate machine elements such as bearings, gears exposed to cold start and cold (winter) operating temperatures. Modern multi-grade engine oils/motor oils composed of partly synthetic oil and partly mineral oil along with these additives, have pourpoints as low as −32°C.
184.108.40.206 Viscosity index improvers
Viscosity index improvers (VII) also known as viscosity modifiers are additives that prevent the oil from losing its viscosity at high temperatures which is a natural tendency of any liquid. These additives are available in all shapes and sizes and quality . Polymethylmethacrylates, olefin copolymers, hydrogenated poly(styrene-co-butadiene or isoprene), esterified polystyrene-co-maleic anhydride are commonly used VIIs. The large oil soluble flexible polymer molecules uncoil and spread out as temperature increases thereby increasing the viscosity as shown in Figure 2. Furthermore, their numerous branches entangle with those of other neighboring molecules. By doing this, these macromolecular structures can trap and control smaller oil molecules, thus increasing the viscosity of the lubricant.
Permanent and temporary shear thinning of VII-thickened formulations can also occur depending upon the quality of the VII. In heavy duty application, due to the large compressive pressure between the two mating surfaces, VII polymer molecules, tend to align with each other and get “squashed” or even get chopped to small pieces under high shear conditions. When the polymer coils elongate and become aligned in the direction of the flow the viscosity temporarily drops resulting in reduced oil film thickness. After the lubricant leaves the contact between the mating parts, the polymer coils return to their original shape and the viscosity of the lubricant returns to normal. This phenomenon is referred to as temporary shear-thinning. However, under further high shear rates, the long and flexible polymer chains can be cut or ruptured or pulled and ripped apart into smaller chains by molecular scission. Unfortunately, once this has occurred, the broken polymer chains cannot re-form into the single large chain and this causes the oil to permanently lose viscosity leading to a reduction in oil film thickness, oil film failure and an increase in wear. This phenomenon is referred to as permanent shear-thinning.
220.127.116.11 Anti-wear agent
Anti-wear additives are additives that prevent two-body wear of the metallic countersurfaces in the boundary lubrication regime where the film thickness is small and there is asperity - asperity contact. These additives are polar in nature which enables them to attach to the metallic surfaces followed by tribochemical or mechanochemical reactions to form an anti-wear film. This newly formed film undergoes wear and formation at the top layers thus protecting the underlying metallic surface. As these additives form films by chemical reactions, they get used up and the amount of antiwear additives present in the lubricant reduces with time. These are typically phosphorous compounds. Zinc dialkyldithiophosphate (ZDDP) is the most common, the most researched and has been used since the 1940s . Its use has been reduced in passenger vehicles in the last decade due to zinc metal causing poisoning of the catalyst in the exhaust gas catalytic convertor. ZDDP also provide antioxidant and corrosion-inhibition properties to the lubricant. Owing to the multi functionality of ZDDP, finding its replacement has been challenging because molybdenum-based additive such MoDTC (molybdenum dithiocarbamate) or MoDDP (molybdenum dithiophosphate) molecules cannot work as antioxidant. On the other hand, ash-less antiwear additives such as hindered phenols and amines are very expensive and are required in larger quantities. Till date, ZDDP is considered as the most cost-effective antioxidant and antiwear additive available, and the alternatives are currently very expensive.
Antioxidants or oxidation inhibitors prevent the oxidation of the components of the base oil there by increasing the life of the lubricant. Oxidation of the lubricant molecules occur at all temperatures but at higher temperatures, it is accelerated. The presence of wear particles, water, and other contaminants also promote Oxidation of the lubricant molecules which then leads to formation of acids and sludge. The acids may further cause corrosion in the metallic parts while the sludge formation increases the viscosity of the lubricant. Almost every lubricating oil and grease contains antioxidants and examples include Zincdialkyldithiophosphates, hindered phenols, sulphurized phenols, and aromatic amines. These compounds decompose peroxides and terminate free-radical reactions that occur in the lubricant. These are sacrificial in nature hence their quantity gets reduced with time.
Defoamants or antifoaming agents are additives that prevent the lubricant from forming a foam and speed up the collapse of the foam if it does form. Foaming occurs because of constant mixing of the oil with air or other gases leading to air entrapment. Foam disrupts cooling of parts as it is not a good conductor of heat. It reduces the load carrying capacity and the lubricant flow leading to excessive engine wear. Silicone polymers such as polymethylsiloxane at a few parts per million and organic copolymers such as alkoxy aliphatic acids, polyalkoxyamines, polyethylene glycols, and branched polyvinyl ethers, at higher concentration are widely used in mineral oils. The antifoaming agents are essentially insoluble in the lubricant hence they need to be finely dispersed in the lubricant. These droplets attach themselves to the entrapped air bubbles and aid in forming bigger bubbles (via coalesce). The larger bubbles rise readily to the surface followed by bursting to release the trapped air. Bursting occurs by thinning of the air bubble film as the additive spreads due to its low surface tension.
18.104.22.168 Friction modifiers
Friction modifiers are used in engine oil and transmission oil to alter the coefficient of friction that would be experienced between the sliding parts when only the base oil is present. Friction reduction results in improved fuel economy. Organic and sulfurised fatty acids, amines, amides, imides, high molecular weight organic phosphorus and phosphoric acid esters are added to the range between 0.1 and 1.5% in finished lubricants as friction modifiers. Glyceryl monooleates and Molybdenum compounds such as MoDTC and MoDTP also function as friction modifiers. They preferentially adsorb very strongly on to the metallic surface. The head of the friction modifier is attracted to the metal surface and the long tail with at least 10 carbon atoms remains solubilized in the oil as shown in Figure 3 . The chemical structure and the polarity of the molecules play a major role in the friction reduction. Ionic lubricants , a class of ionic liquids that are room-temperature molten salts consisting of cations and anions are also very good surface additives. The polarity of head group provides for strong surface adsorption. The physical, chemical and tribological properties of ionic liquids can be tailored to suit a wide variety of applications ranging from its use as polymer brushes in biological application, or as water soluble or oil soluble lubricant additive.
Detergents keep surfaces free of deposits and neutralize corrosive acids formed due to oxidation. These molecules are chemical bases consisting of a polar substrate and a metal oxide or hydroxide . Metallo-organic compounds of calcium and magnesium phenolates, phosphates, salicylate and sulfonates are recommended. Overbased detergents are used in marine engine lubricants to neutralize large amounts of acidic components produced by fuel combustion or oil oxidation. Ash (burning of organometallic species) and soot particles (largely carbon with sulfur adsorbed) is formed by burning of the oil in internal combustion engines. Ash can then form unwanted residues at high temperatures or simply deposit on surfaces. The deposit precursors particles are insoluble in the oil and have greater affinity for detergent molecules. The additive molecules cling to the surface of the particle and envelop it thereby also acting as dispersants and prevent those particles to agglomerate and to later settle as deposits. A detergent additive is normally used in conjunction with a dispersant additive.
Dispersants are used mainly in engine oil along with detergents to keep engines surfaces clean and free of deposits . Dispersants keep the insoluble soot particles and the precursors of deposits in the internal combustion engine finely dispersed or suspended in the lubricant even at high temperatures. These suspended particles are subsequently removed by oil filtration or oil change. Thus, dispersants minimize damage to engine surfaces and formation of high temperature deposits. Generally, polymeric and ashless dispersants are used today such as polymeric alkylthiophosphonates, alkylsuccinimides, succinic acid esters/amides, and their borated derivatives as well as organic complexes containing nitrogen compounds.
22.214.171.124 Corrosion and rust inhibitor
Corrosion and rust inhibitors are additives that reduce or eliminate rust (corrosion of iron and steel) and corrosion by neutralizing acids and forming a protective film, either adsorbed or chemically bonded on the metal surfaces. Preferential adsorption of polar constituent on metal surface forms the protective film that prevents corrosive materials such as organic acids from reaching and attacking the metal. These are usually compounds having a high polar attraction towards metal surfaces such as succinates, alkyl earth sulfonates, metal phenolates, fatty acids, amines as well as zincdithiophosphates. Some of these inhibitors are specific to protecting certain metals. Hence, an oil may contain several types of corrosion inhibitors.
126.96.36.199 Extreme pressure (EP) additives
Extreme Pressure additives are required to reduce friction, control wear and prevent severe surface damage in heavy duty application of gears and bearings at high temperatures and pressures. They are also known as antiscuffing additives. They react chemically with metallic surfaces to form a sacrificial surface film that prevents the welding and subsequent seizure of asperities at the metal-to-metal contact. Additionally, they contribute to smoothing of the surfaces as these are formed at contact asperities and the load is then distributed uniformly over a greater contact area, thus reducing the severity of wear and ensuring effective lubrication. Effectiveness of EP additives relies on their reactivity and their ability to readily form thick surface films at high loads and high contact temperatures that are created at the mechanical contacts. These additives usually contain sulfur and phosphorus compounds and chlorine or boron compounds. Ashless EP additives such as dithiocarbamates, dithiophospates, thiolesters, phosphorothioates, thiadiazoles, aminephosphates, phosphites may be preferred in some applications where chlorine may cause corrosion.
Other additives such as demulsifiers, emulsifier, biocides are added to meet specific requirements. Emulsifiers are used as a binder between oil and water molecules in oil-water-based metal-working fluids to help create a stable oil-water emulsion. Without the emulsifier, oil and water will separate out from each other due to differences in specific gravity and interfacial tension. On the other hand, demulsifiers are used to separate oil-water emulsions. Demulsification and removal of the aqueous phase from the oil-based lubricant minimizes harmful effects such as corrosion, foaming and cavitation from occurring. Biocides may be added to water-based lubricants to control the bacterial growth.
Lubricating grease are a class of lubricant that do not flow like a fluid but bleed (release oil) when squeezed between contacting surfaces. They have a gel like consistency and can be described as a solid or semifluid like material and in some cases can be used in vertical or overhead applications because they can have good drip resistance due to their Non-Newtonian rheological properties. They are particularly useful in applications that are sealed for life; for example bearings and remote gearboxes. Functionality of greases include sealing out contamination and water ingress, prevent corrosion, compatible with polymers and elastomers, provide antiwear and extreme pressure load protection while reducing friction. Greases have three main components: fluid, thickener and additives .
A typical grease consists of 75-95% fluid base stock, 2-25% thickener and 0-25% additives. The base stock is chosen based on the required applications. Hence, the fluid can be petroleum based for most automotive and industrial application, synthetic based for low and high temperature application or may be wax based (no flow) for high load caring capacity. The thickeners are metal soaps which are created using the fundamental reaction of an acid and a base. Calcium based soaps have been the simplest and earliest used thickeners with a maximum operating temperature between 60 and 70°C. In the last decade, calcium sulfonate greases, polyurea greases, aluminum complex greases, lithium complex greases, sodium complex greases, and clay-based greases have received general acceptance due to their higher service temperatures of more than 150°C. However, each having their own set of pros and cons. For example, calcium-based greases do not perform well over a wide range of temperature, sodium based have deteriorated performance in the presence of water. Clay and polyurea based greases are used for high temperature (service temperatures of 190-220°C) and application that have limited relubrication access. The third component of greases are additives. Commonly used additives are listed below.
Extreme Pressure additives
Rust and corrosion inhibitor
Tackifiers (adhesive agents)
Tackifiers are additives that increase the adhesive property of the grease or the lubricant. They prevent the lubricant from flinging off the metal surface during rotational movement. To be acceptable to the manufacturers and the end users the greases must be free of offensive odor and have a desirable color. Therefore, odorants and dyes are added to the grease. Although these have little effect on the grease performance, their appeal to senses has an impact on the product selection.
Greases have the unique ability to incorporate liquid as well solid additives. Solid additives such as molybdenum disulphide (MoS2), graphite, hexaboron nitride and polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) in the form of fine dispersed powder (nano and micro particles) have been used in lubricants and greases to provide ultralow friction and wear protection. Solid additives provide a physical separation between two contacting surfaces when fluid is unable to provide load support. The lattice structure of these solid lubricants plays an important role in transferring a thin low shear layer on the metal surfaces especially where load is high, and speed is low.
2.4 Solid lubricants
Solid lubricants on their own are vital to niche applications such as space missions, satellites release and deployment mechanisms. Vacuum and microgravity of space eliminates the use of liquid lubricants. The importance of a thin film of solid lubricant can be emphasized on the fact that the success of an entire mission can be compromised if the, receiver and transmitter antennas or solar arrays packed securely during launch fail to release smoothly with precision due to extreme friction of a deployment mechanism. Solid lubricants can be used at low temperatures as well as at high temperatures where the liquid lubricant may solidify or vaporize respectively. Even at extreme pressures where liquid lubricant will be squeezed out, solid lubricants are used. However, solid lubricants are not limited to extreme conditions . A wide variety of low friction coatings are used in various engineering applications that require high electrical and thermal conductivities, low wear rates and high lubricity at all operating temperatures. Newer engineered coatings have increased complexity and have transitioned from single or multi component structures to nanostructured and functional gradient structures.
The most recognized polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) coating is Teflon® discovered in 1938 at DuPont. These are highly linear fluorocarbon molecules. They offer a low friction surface with moderate wear. They have low chemical reactivity and low surface energy. PTFE on its own performs best at low loads and wears rapidly at higher loads; hence they need reinforcements to increase strength and load bearing capacity. Such materials are called composite materials.
2.4.2 Carbon based materials
Carbon based materials such as graphite in both micro and nano forms is a popular solid lubricant additive whereas diamondlike carbon (DLC) makes excellent low friction coatings. However, they have different mechanisms of friction reduction. Graphite has hexagonal crystal structure which has the intrinsic property of easy shear. DLC exhibits high hardness and low friction due to an amorphous structure that combines graphitic and diamond phases. They can be doped with hydrogen or nitrogen for achieving desirable properties. Recently, a series of patents on superlubricity of nano-diamonds and graphene films have been filled .
Molybdenum disulphide are transition-metal dichalcogenides like Tungsten disulphide (WS2) work on the mechanism of interlamellar shear between covalently bonded hexagonal basal planes like that of graphite. Their performance is affected by moisture content .
Apart from the advantages mentioned earlier, solid lubricants also have a few disadvantages. They have less ability to carry away heat and contaminants away from the contact. They have poor self-healing properties, and they are not easily entrained into tribological contacts.
3. Application methods
After the selection of a suitable lubricant, its application method i.e. its delivery to the mechanical components such as gears, bearings, cams, tappets, chains, guideways and couplings of a machine or engine in correct quantity is considered. Liquid lubricants are applied to the machine elements by two methods. First type is called ‘all loss method’ while second type is called ‘reuse method’ . In all loss method a small quantity of lubricant is applied periodically and the lubricant after use, gradually leaks away to waste. In reuse method, elaborate lubricating systems are designed to feed the required quantity of lubricant to various machine elements of the system. The lubricant after leaving the machine components is collected, cooled then filtered and recirculated to lubricate the machine components again. Most open gears, ropes, guideways, chains and rolling element bearings (except sealed for life rolling element bearings) are lubricated by all loss method. Nearly all grease lubricated elements also are lubricated by this method. Some devices used for all loss lubrication method include hand-held oiling device, grease gun, drop feed cups, wick feed cups, wick oilers, pad oilers, mechanical force feed lubricators, airline oilers and automatic or semiautomatic spray units. Reuse method of lubricant application has the oil circulating through a network of pipes that is pressurized by a pump or aided by gravity. However, closed oil sump systems employ splash oiling, bath oiling or ring oiling methods. Centralized lubricant application systems can reduce the quantity of lubricant usage as well as labour costs. Automobiles use an oil mist lubrication system to lubricate various machine elements of the engine and drive train. Considerations with regards to the lubricant characteristics and composition are required while designing a compatible system. Oil condition monitoring and routine checks are vital for the longevity of the machine elements lubricated by any method.
Solid lubricants on the other hand are applied as powder dispersed in a liquid lubricant or in a solid phase matrix. They can be also applied as a thin film coating. The coatings are made by various methods such as dip coating, thermal spraying, and cold. More robust ways of coating includes chemical vapor deposition or physical vapor deposition methods. Electrochemical processes are used for producing coatings of polymer-based solid lubricants and their composites.
4. Lubricant analysis
Lubricant analysis primarily refers to the characterization and evaluation of the lubricant for various physical, chemical and performance properties in all stages of its life cycle. For solid lubricants and coatings, the analysis includes determining the composition and structure by using a range of spectroscopic and microscopic observation methods as well as measuring the coating consistency and thickness applying non-destructive evaluation techniques. Standardized tribological lab tests are used to evaluate their performance. Once a candidate material is identified, larger-scale bench testing, such as engine tests, are conducted.
For liquid lubricants, characterization is done to a much larger extent due to the large variety of applications and the implication of chemistry of the formulated oils on the machine elements performance and the overall performance of the entire equipment/machine or engine. The lubricant analysis can be classified as physical and chemical characteristics evaluation, Performance test evaluation and Engine Test evaluation as summarized in Table 2 . Additionally, end users also develop their in-house in-service lubricant analysis to monitor and maintain the condition of the lubricant. The objective of such analysis is to ensure optimum performance, achieve expected life of the equipment as well as the lubricant flowing through it.
|Physical and chemical characteristics||Performance test evaluation||Engine test evaluation|
|Color||Oxidation Tests||Oxidation stability and bearing corrosion protection|
|Density and API gravity||Thermal Stability||Single cylinder high Temperature tests|
|Carbon Residue||Foaming Tests||Multi cylinder high temperature tests|
|Flash point||Corrosion and Rust Protection Test||Multi cylinder low temperature tests|
|Neutralization Number||EP and Antiwear Test||Rust and corrosion protection tests|
|Total Acid Number||Emulsion and Demulsibility Test||Oil Consumption rates and volatility|
|Total Base Number||Emission and protection of emission control systems|
|Pour Point||Fuel Economy|
5. Future trends
Current automotive lubricants are optimized for internal combustion engines and drive trains. Electric vehicles (EVs) which use electric motors possess new challenges of lubrication such as high-power density of the small gear box which require efficient cooling. Hydro lubricants and synthetic gear oils are excellent candidates for such application but may pose sealing issues which requires innovative solutions. Lubricants are also required in the rolling element bearings of EVs that must stop electro-erosion caused by high frequency high energy discharges by being conductive. Ionic liquids are having shown good performance in preventing built up of potential .
The future for lubricants formulation, manufacturing and end-use is oriented towards efficiency in terms of cost and time, customized and optimized for each individual tribo-system and run reliably for even longer drain interval time. New industrial lubricants must meet stringent regulations and guarantee ecological sustainability, and climate change actions. Hence, new lubricants will contribute to ‘Green Tribology’.
Tribology of lubricants plays a significant role in technology and economics of industrial development. As the fourth industrial revolution ‘Industry 4.0’ (combines automation with the internet of things) is in progress, several concepts can be extended to lubricant and lubricant additive development and evaluation. For example new electronic smart sensors can be used for lubricant analysis and condition monitoring. The information of various performance parameters can be stored as data and transferred to the stakeholders and decision-making points using the information and communication technologies involved in Industry 4.0. such as internet and wireless connections to and via several electronic devices. Continuous monitoring can also aid in corrective measures. In-service lubricant performance testing and evaluation generates big quantities of data from various equipment and sensors. Therefore, ‘Big Data’ concepts can be applied in several ways. One such example can be combining lubricant data with machine data, another can be correlation study of amount of soot produced, change in oil viscosity, friction, wear of an engine. The benefits of Industry 4.0 include shorter lubricant development time, reduced number of trials, lubricant performance prediction through chemical and physical modeling and simulations. This will transform product development process from being empirically driven to using data and simulation driven approach.
Lubricants are vital for the tribological life of the machine elements. As modern machine elements are required to perform in heavy-duty applications in a wide range of environments, newer, better and environmentally sustainable lubricants are required to be designed. Lubricant additives are therefore considered as lubrication engineering design components. Lubricant additives are designed and optimized to meet the performance requirements of the equipment or engine. Various types of lubricant additives and their functional properties were discussed. They are designed to provide oxidation resistance, high temperature viscosity, energy and fuel efficiency among others. Lubricant or grease therefore are a complex mixture of several components blended carefully together to meet the performance requirements. The different components can have synergistic or antagonistic effects due to chemical interactions or competition at the metal surface or among themselves. Therefore, formulation of lubricants requires considerable expertise and expensive performance testing. Green Tribology and Industry 4.0 era will steer the lubricant development, use and disposal.
This chapter could not be published without the exceptional support of Prof. Paul B. Davies (University of Cambridge, UK) and substantial industry inputs and scrutiny by Mr. Tony D. Smith (Castrol, UK).


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Dutch government loses landmark ruling
24th June 2015
A landmark ruling in the Hague has found the Dutch government guilty of creating an illegal climate policy. The news comes after the first climate change liability suit was brought against the government under human rights and tort law.
Those in lawyer jobs in Britain and across the world would have been watching the case closely, after it was first announced in this previous article that nearly 900 citizens were bringing forward a class action of the government’s failure to reduce carbon emissions sufficiently. Three judges ruled that the government’s plans to reduce emissions by just 14-17 percent compared to 1990 levels were illegal and they would have to instead cut emissions by 25 percent within five years.
The case was brought forward by the Urgenda movement as they stated that the Dutch government “Knowingly contributed” to a breach of the 2C maximum target for global warming, as reported here. Judges also ordered the government to pay all of Urgenda’s costs.
Image Credit: Takver (flickr.com)

domain: politics


An SQL Server Agent object, which performs an action when the value of a performance monitor counter satisfies a condition. The action performed can be to send e-mail, pager, or Net Send messages, or to run an SQL Agent job.
A disk read I/O where the requester must wait for the disk read operation to complete. In SQL Server, the requesting session waits while the page is read from disk. This is normally the most common type of read operation in SQL Server.
Most modifications to data and index pages are made in the Buffer Cache, and after the change has been recorded in the Log, the user can continue without having to wait for the data and index pages to be written to disk. However, certain operations, such as create index, bulk insert, and restore, can require the user to wait for the data and index writes to complete.
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Americans speak — and they don’t like the nuclear deal
What is intriguing about the poll of 2,159 registered voters — conducted by Harris for CAPS, the Center for American Political Studies at Harvard University — is its mix of demographics and political parties. Thirty-six percent were Democrat, 32 percent Republican, 28 percent independent and 4 percent from other parties. Of those polled, 85 percent of Republicans, 71 percent of independents and 57 percent of Democrats said the deal should be renegotiated.
This highlights several critical issues. It is not only American politicians on both sides of the aisle who argue that the current terms of the nuclear agreement are faulty, but regular citizens also support such an argument.
This can have significant policy implications for the Trump administration with regards to implementing its Iran strategy.
The support from both the Congress and the American people grants President Donald Trump much more leverage to continue with his position toward the Iranian regime, and to renegotiate the deal. In fact, if the Trump administration were to succeed in revoking the current deal and negotiating a new one with a more efficient mechanism to monitor the Iranian regime’s nuclear program, his popular vote would go up.
On the other hand, in the eyes of the majority of the American people, maintaining the current nuclear deal would point to Trump’s failure in conducting a successful and informed foreign policy toward Tehran’s regime.
In addition, the 70 percent support for renegotiating the 2015 Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action indicates that despite Hassan Rouhani’s Machiavellian smiles and soft tone on the international stage, the American people do not trust the regime or buy its lies. It is the underlying ideology of the Iranian regime that continues to peek out, showing its true face as an untrustworthy player.
People can see the nuclear agreement did not “positively contribute to regional and international peace and security,” as it claimed. Iran’s military influence, expansion and interventions have increased since the nuclear agreement, in Iraq, Lebanon, Syria and Yemen. Most recently Iranian diplomats were caught and expelled from Kuwait for links to spying and terror by trying to create proxies in Kuwait. With the newfound sanctions relief and rising oil prices, the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC) has more money than ever to spend on its allies, including Syrian President Bashar Assad, and its militias.
People can see that the nuclear deal has not made America and the world safer. It has not served US national interests either. The Supreme Leader, Ayatollah Ali Khamenei and the senior ranks of the IRGC have ratcheted up anti-American sentiments and policies. This includes Iranian vessels approaching and harassing US Navy ships in an aggressive and unsafe manner, detaining and humiliating US navy sailors, spreading their videos on almost every social media platform, and arresting more Iranian-Americans. The Islamic Republic backs almost more than half of the region’s militias, and Tehran supports militias whose core mission is to harm Americans and harm US national security interests. What Daesh does appears to be done on a larger scale by the IRGC.
A new poll of US voters of all political persuasions gives Donald Trump the support he needs to take a tough line with Iran.
Dr. Majid Rafizadeh
Furthermore, the poll shows that majority of Americans believe the Iranian regime has already violated the deal. Harvard-Harris co-director Mark Penn said: “Americans see Iran as a bad actor on all fronts and substantial majorities believe this agreement is being violated and never should have gone into effect without a Senate vote.”
This is not only imaginary thinking among the public. There is proof. According to German intelligence, the Iranian regime has attempted to buy nuclear technology 32 times since 2015. Obtaining nuclear or ballistic missile technology is in direct violation of the nuclear deal. The Iranian regime has also exceeded the limits in heavy water, which can be used for developing nuclear bombs, several times.
More fundamentally, the poll reveals that majority of the voters believe that the Iran nuclear deal should be approved by the Senate. This means that it would require a two-thirds Senate majority, according to the US constitution. This is intriguing because Barack Obama and John Kerry skirted the public and the Senate by labeling the nuclear agreement as a “political agreement” rather than a treaty. The nuclear agreement with Iran should be regarded as a treaty.
Congressmen should pursue the demands of the majority of their constituents, which is renegotiating the nuclear deal. They can pass related legislation, which would strengthen Trump’s position with other members of the P5+1 to make the JCPOA better. If the Iranian regime does not agree to such an initiative, then the Congress has solid grounds to re-impose nuclear-related sanctions.
In a nutshell, the American public, which was in favor of the nuclear agreement in 2015, has realized that the Iranian regime is manipulating the world. Their strong opinions against the nuclear agreement are striking. The Trump administration should grasp this opportunity of strong public support to advance his Iran strategy. This can raise his popular vote and be his foreign policy accomplishment and legacy.
• Dr. Majid Rafizadeh is a Harvard-educated Iranian-American political scientist. He is a leading expert on Iran and US foreign policy, a businessman and president of the International American Council. Twitter: @Dr_Rafizadeh
Disclaimer: Views expressed by writers in this section are their own and do not necessarily reflect Arab News' point-of-view


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I found this feature the most impressive new film so far at the Leeds International Film Festival. It is part of the Official Selection programme and it will be interesting to learn how the Jury rate it. This is a portmanteau film with three love stories. The director and writer Dalibor Matanić is quoted in the Festival Catalogue:
“As a filmmaker I have been long intrigued by the ever-present inter-ethnic hatreds in the Balkan region, and conflicts rooted in war, religion or politics. With this film, I wanted to explore three separate stories of a Croatian boy and girl from a Serbian family, across three decades. The stories all take place in the same location, in the sun-scorched villages, and the young lovers are always in their early twenties. Using the lens of these three stories, I wanted to tease out the accumulated atmosphere of evil that smoulders among the damaged communities in the region.”
The films are set respectively in 1991, 2001 and 2011. The leading characters are played across the stories by the same actors, who are excellent, especially Tihana Lazovic and Goran Markovic. The characters in each story are discrete but certain characteristics re-appear to good effect. The setting is a coastal area, with low hills and a lake [probably connected to the sea] in which the characters swim. The area is semi-rural and rather different from the city of Zagreb, to which one couple plan to flee.
The film is beautifully photographed by Marko Brdar. The range of close-ups to long shots is exemplary in presenting the characters and situation. There are some fine tracking shots and the use of Steadicam for tracks and simulated hand-held shots. The sound track is equally good. There are distinctive musical themes and songs, though the latter are not translated in the subtitles.
There are visual motifs which provide suggestive comment. At various time the characters swim in the lake: once a single person, then a couple, then a whole crowd. And there is fine underwater camera work at this point. Cars are also important in the plot and setting. The buildings are evocative, first the traditional houses, then derelict buildings, then finally a series of new builds. In one fine repeated shot a young woman sits in an exterior passage as a lone dog lopes by. A different dog appears in another sequence, again with a lone character, suggesting their alienation from others.
The catalogue suggest that ‘love can finally take root’. I felt that the final resolution is ambiguous, leaving a poetic question mark over this journey through two decades of confluent.
The film runs for 123 minutes, it did not seem that long. It is in widescreen colour with English sub-titles. And it is showing again at the Hyde Park Picture House on Thursday November 12th at 8.30 p.m.

domain: entertainment


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I have a face skin problem I have so many spots on my face I use many types of medicine but they can not solve my problem.
How could I get rid from dark circles? I am doing night shift job is that the reason it occurs to me? After I come to home I fall to sleep 6-6.5 hours only how I can sleep more suggest me.
Hai my age is 27. I am working in IT Concern. around 12 hours sitting in a same place. For the past few days I can see blood in motion. What is the problem? What treatment I have to do?
My mother suffering from blood sugar fasting is 243 and p p is 383 and she has a planus planus skin doses Dr. please suggest me what should I do.
Some of my friends used'skinlite' cream for fairness and they succeed. I heard that skinlite causes side effects, do they have side effects, can I use it?
I am suffering from sores and not getting recover since 1 year from any medical doctor, homeopathic or ayurvedic doctor please help me out.
WHAT DOES A DERMATOLOGIST DO?
A dermatologist is a doctor who specializes in treating the:
- Mucous membranes (e.g., lining inside the mouth, nose, and eyelids.)
Dermatologists diagnose and treat more than 3,000 different diseases. These diseases include skin cancer, eczema, acne, psoriasis, and nail infections.
Dermatologists also improve the appearance of their patients' skin, hair, and nails. For example, a dermatologist can help patients:
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Dermatologists see patients of all ages — from newborns to people older than 100 years of age. Many patients read on internet and apply medicines without consulting dermatologist which aggravates problems and leads more damage to skin,hair and nails.So it is advisable to visit a qualified dermatologist before using any medicine.

domain: health


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Geniuses like Duke Ellington, Charlie Parker, or Theolonius Monk shaped the face of jazz. When they were young, they acquired their skills by listening for hours to scratchy records of older musicians, by imitating their solos, and by surviving the tough competition in jazz bars. Those who were able to assert themselves were in business. Those who failed to move the guests in smoky jazz clubs had to give up. Today, young jazz musicians seem to have it easier. Not only do they have access to a huge number of recordings, they also have the opportunity to take formal training. Both German and American conservatories offer elaborate courses in jazz. What good, however, does formal training do for the development of creativity and personality, and where are all the jazz musicians with a diploma in their pocket going to work? These kinds of questions were raised last week (Jan. 10-13) at the annual conference of the International Association of Jazz Educators in New York, where approximately 7,000 teachers, students, music agents, and professional musicians exchanged thoughts and phone numbers. Georg Hirsch attended.
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domain: artistic


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|Published:||Aug 29, 2013 5:17 PM EDT|
|Updated:||Aug 29, 2013 5:17 PM EDT|
WEST PALM BEACH, Fla. (AP) - A major Florida citrus grower has been fined after a state investigation found it illegally sprayed pesticide that caused the death of millions of honeybees.
The Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services fined Ben Hill Griffin Inc. $1,500 last week.
The Palm Beach Post (http://goo.gl/VWjxv6 ) reports that beekeepers have argued since at least 2006 that citrus growers have at times illegally sprayed pesticides to kill the Asian citrus psyllid. The tiny insect spreads greening, a lethal and widespread citrus disease that is devastating groves. But beekeepers say their honey-making insects have been killed along with psyllids.
A Florida Agriculture and Consumer Services Department spokeswoman says the action against Ben Hill Griffin is the first case in recent years where a pesticide application by a grower was determined to be the cause of a bee kill.
Information from: The Palm Beach (Fla.) Post, http://www.pbpost.com
(Copyright 2013 The Associated Press. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten or redistributed.)
- Three hospitalized after early morning Cape Coral crash
- Lee deputies searching for 7-Eleven robber
- Lee deputies investigating death on Bokeelia
- Fort Myers criminal defense attorney commits suicide
- Charlotte County deputies investigate shooting at a party
- Mom accused of driving into surf goes before judge
- Fort Myers Beach Shrimp festival happening this weekend

domain: news


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The North African country received numerous loans from several international institutions in 2019.
Rabat – Morocco’s external debt reached MAD 334.96 billion ($34,366 million) by the third quarter of 2019, the public external debt statistical bulletin September 2019 announced.
The statistics show that the North African country has faced with heavy external debt throughout the six past years.
The statistics indicated that already Morocco faced an external debt of more than $30 billion in 2014.
The external debt increased gradually throughout the six last year to reach nearly $36 billion in 2017. National debt reached more than $35 billion in the second quarter of 2019, to move downward slightly to $34,366 million by the third quarter.
Morocco has received numerous loans from international institutions, including the World Bank.
In November 2019, the bank announced that it had approved a new $300 million loan to support the strengthening of “Morocco’s municipalities” as part of Morocco’s reforms to upgrade public administrations.
The bank also loaned Morocco $500 million to promote Morocco’s education sector less than a month ago.
In December 2019, Morocco received several other loans, including $150 million from France, €100 million from the African Development Bank, and €401.5 million from the EU Investment Bank.
Top bankers in Morocco have warned about the increasing external debt, including Abdellatif Jouahri, the governor of Morocco’s central bank, Bank al-Maghrib.

domain: finance


text:
Enjoy this bold and beautiful inspirational religious art print. It includes the scriptures: “Psalm 46- God is our refuge and strength, an ever-present help in times of trouble. Therefore we will not fear, though the earth give way and the mountains fall into the heart of the sea, though its waters roar and foam and the mountains quake with their surging. He says be still, and know that I am God: I will be exalted among the nations, I will be exalted in the earth. The Lord almighty is with us; the God of Jacob is our fortress.” It has a chalkboard style background with ornate details. The colors used are black and white. The paper surface is smooth matte. This is an art print of my original graphic illustration.
1- 12×16 art print only -unframed $20.00
1- 12×16 art print -framed $65.00
(approximate framed dimensions 14X18)
1-16×24 canvas print 1” gallery wrap $80.00
1-20×30 canvas print 1” gallery wrap $95.00
(Canvas Products are not available for special pricing or discounts.)


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Capela (knee) is questionable for Monday's game against the Pistons, Brad Rowland of the Locked On Podcast Network reports.
Capela missed his first game of the season Saturday, allowing Onyeka Okongwu to start at center. The extent of Capela's injury remains unclear, but he can be considered a game-time call ahead of Monday's 7:30 p.m. ET tipoff.Profile
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Actually, yes, you can… However, you can’t utilize “customary” Classical/nylon guitar strings if your steel-string acoustic is like most– where your ball-end acoustic strings are held set up with bridge pins.
I’ll expect this is the reason you’re asking: Classical guitar strings don’t have these ball ends, and must be tied onto the bridge.
All in all, what can you do?
Some may think their only solution is to join an object to the end of the string – something that can be held set up by the bridge pin. Or on the other hand, some may even endeavor to expel the ball-ends from steel strings and tie them onto the closures of nylon strings.
You really don’t have to do any of that. Nylon ball-end strings to the rescue.
There are really ball end classical guitar strings accessible. They’re prevalent with a great deal of folk guitarists, or anybody just needing to get the mellow, smooth sound of nylon strings on their steel-string acoustic guitar.
What’s more, truly, they are utilized by some Classical guitarists as well, who like the way that they’re so fast and simple to put onto the guitar.
For any classical guitarists out there who may read this post:
You also can utilize ball-end nylon strings on your classical guitar. There’s no law that says you need to utilize customary tie-on nylon strings, regardless of whether you play a costly, top of the line classical guitar.
Some Classical guitarists incline toward the convenience of ball-end strings, so in case you’re not an idealist and are open to ball end strings, try them out.
Nylon strings and the guitar’s setup
According to the remarks individuals have been leaving on the internet, I understood I should point out to everybody that nylon strings behave distinctively and apply diverse forces on a guitar than steel strings.
This implies: On the off chance that you change to nylon strings, you may need to make some modifications or may require a full setup.
When you put nylon strings on an acoustic guitar that was intended for steel strings, you may see one or the greater part of the accompanying:
- The strings buzz unnecessarily.
- The action feels too low (more often than not runs inseparably with humming).
- The external E strings now and then slip off the edges of the fretboard when you’re fretting notes or harmonies.
In case you’re lucky, essentially releasing your truss rod a bit might be all that is needed to settle #1 and #2 above. Nonetheless, it’s more probable that you’ll need a full setup performed to genuinely kill them.
In case you’re encountering #3, you will most unquestionably require your guitar setup (altered, in fact) to play appropriately with nylon strings.
On the off chance that this raid into nylon strings is only an impermanent thing (say, to record just a tune or two) and you intend to change back to steel strings, at that point you might want to tolerate these things and allow your guitar’s setup to sit unbothered.
Then again, if this is an all the more long haul (or changeless) switch, at that point you may need your guitar set up or altered to suit the nylon strings. This could mean having the nut and scaffold altered particularly for nylon strings.
In the event that you do, request that your guitar tech spare your old nut and scaffold saddle, with the goal that you can undoubtedly switch back one day.
Never put steel strings on your classical guitar
In conclusion, never go the other way: don’t put steel strings on a classical guitar or a guitar that was intended to utilize just nylon strings. Without going into specifics, suffice to state you will for all time harm the guitar on the off chance that you do this.
Some things you need to know about classical guitar strings
What is a classical guitar string made of?
Treble strings for classical and flamenco music are produced using nylon, carbon fiber, or a nylon variety known as titanium. The bass strings commonly have stranded nylon centers twisted with copper wire, to which different sorts of plating are connected.
The greater part of these coatings are various types of metals, all of which influence a string’s sound. Harder materials give a brighter sound, milder materials give a hotter sound, and unadulterated metals, for example, silver offer a more “unadulterated” basic and a sound that is all the more full and clear.
The wide assortment of materials and methods utilized today give classical and flamenco players more sonic potential outcomes than any other time in recent memory.
What are the Pros and Cons of nylon strings?
Nylon strings, for example, the Augustine Regal arrangement, offer a warm sonic shading, great sustain, and an adjusted, rich sound. They likewise make it simpler to play vibrato.
Nylon strings aren’t as noisy or ground-breaking as different kinds of strings, and on a few guitars, they may make a sound that goes past rich to sloppy.
What are the Pros and Cons of Carbon Fiber Strings?
Carbon strings, all the more actually known as fluorocarbon, for example, the Savarez 540 HT Classic arrangement, give a brilliant sonic shading, incredible projection, and great sound. Their tuning is steady, and they keep going quite a while.
Be that as it may, their inflection can be conflicting, the sustain is shorter, and their sound can be thin or harsh in comparison with different strings – particularly on some guitars.
What Are the Pros and Cons of Titanium Strings?
Titanium strings, for example, the Galli Titanio, are basically nylon strings with an added substance agent that gives them a somewhat blue “titanium” look and changes their sonic profile.
They have a ground-breaking high end, yet less mid range. Other advantages incorporate a decent sustain and less demanding vibrato.
Their downsides incorporate that their high overtone focus can bring about a ping-like or fragile quality and their tuning is sensitive to temperature changes.


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Angela & Vanessa Simmons Covers Fashizblack January/February 2011
Angela and Vanessa Simmons of the popular urban womenswear sneaker collection Pastry are on the Janaury/February 2011 cover of Fashizblack magazine. (Previous Fashizblack cover girl was R&B songbird Solange Knowles.) The Simmons siblings discuss how they juggle family, life on and off the red carpet and their business ethnics to Fashizblack editorial team. Fashizblack is a popular online French magazine based in Paris which caters to all things African fashion! Great to see the Simmons supporting this publication!
Photographer : MG Oania
Wadrobe stylsit: Sarah Brega
Hairstylist: Mirna Jose
Makeup artist: Risa
For the photo shoot Rev. Run’s daughters (re: Hip-Hop’s first daughters) wore pieces from Genevieve Jones, Ruthie Davis, Kiki De Montparnasse, Rebecca Taylor, American Apparel and Jean Paul Gaultier. Angela wore a pair of color-block Ruthie Davis “Vamp” platforms from the Fall 2010 collection for the photo shoot. Vanessa wore a white dress from South African-born designer and former The Fashion Show contestant Daniella Kallmeyer. Vanessa picked this white bold-shoulder dress with a skinny black belt cinched at the waist from Daniella Kallmeyer Spring 2011 collection. Daniella tweeted back in December that video vixen Amber Rose’s a fan of her collection and jewelry line. By the way South African designers are turning up on the red carpet thanks to Kourtney Kardashian’s Gert-Johan Coetzee strapless dress at the 2011 People’s Choice Awards. Great to see African fashion designers getting support from Hollywood!
Angela Simmons in Ruthie Davis “Angelina” Fall 2010 platforms
Fashizblack Online: http://www.fashizblack.com/
Be sure to flip through Fashizblack’s January/February 2011 edition online!
FASHIZBLACK//RUTHIE DAVIS//DANIELLA KALLMEYER


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I don't sew or quilt. I wanted to state that right from the get-go! I wish I could but I have no talent in that area. So when I sew these no-sew Quilted Christmas Ornaments- I was hooked.
They are so much fun to make and NO sewing!! Eureka! I used fancy trim to cover the pins that are used to make them.
Here is the link to the instructions by Jennifer. She does a fabulous job in her instructions and her ornament is beautiful! She uses Jingle Pops Jelly Rolls. I can't seem to find that since it's July but I am hopeful that I will find it before Christmas. The fabric is gorgeous. In the meantime, I will practice, practice and practice.
Here is a quick shot of some of the things you will need. I used Jelly Roll fabric from Joann's. In fact, most everything you see here - I got at Joann's with a coupon. This is my Christmas in July project! You should give it a try!


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domain: medical


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Meanwhile, Graham’s cousin Jodi, at nineteen, found herself pregnant and struggling with her addictions. She wanted to try to do better than her own mother had, but after just a few weeks, she made a hard decision.
What Khaki and Jodi decided to do would make some people cringe. But adopting little Carolina, and then allowing Jodi to continue as part of that family, turned into the best solution for all. Jodi had her own little trailer, and visited regularly. Later, she moved in with them for a while. Ultimately, Jodi made her own dreams come true when she enrolled in college.
Dear Carolina is the story of that blended family, and alternate narrators, Khaki and Jodi, reveal the struggles, the victories, and the gifts they found along the way. Eventually, Khaki struck a better balance for her life and her family, selling some of the holdings in Manhattan, and continued to include Jodi as part of the family in some fashion or another.
I enjoyed this book and the characters, and the Southern feel was brought out in the cookbooks and canning that Jodi did, as well as the homespun world they all inhabited. 4 stars.

domain: literature


V Rising Weapons Tier List
There are lots of different weapons you can use in V Rising, and they are not all created equal. Some weapons are better than others when it comes to your survival and it is these you should look to acquire. Take a look at our Weapons Tier List to see which weapons are the best in the game.
Without a doubt the best weapons in V Rising are Swords and Slashers, and they should be your first priority when looking to grab a decent weapon. Of the two the Slasher is slightly better in combat, these dual blades give you a lightning-quick dash-in, dash-out attack, as well as the ability to turn invisible due to its Camouflage ability. Although Spears and Crossbows are good for dealing damage to multiple enemies, their downside is they require good aim. Maces, Axes, and Reapers are out shined in many aspects by the other weapons and should only be used as a last resort when nothing better is available. Keep in mind that there will be situations where each weapon is well suited. Although the Mace isn't great in combat, it will smash rocks to bits, while it is recommended you only use the Crossbow when you are part of a party where other members will take up the role of a melee fighter.
S - Tier
The slasher has a three-hit melee attack that deals 27.5% / 27.5% / 35% damage.First Skill - Slasher Skill:
Elusive Strike: dart back and forth at your enemies and deal 60% damage while stunning them for two seconds for every hit.Second Skill - Camouflage:
Enter an invisibility state that increases movement speed by 25% for three seconds. Your first attack in this state deals 80% damage while disabling targeted enemies for 3 seconds. This skill can be interrupted if you use another skill which breaks the camouflage.
A - Tier
The sword has a three-hit melee attack that deals 35% / 35% / 40% damage.First Skill - Whirlwind:
A spinning attack that slashes nearby enemies to deal 35% damage every 0.25 seconds for around 1.1 seconds. It has a cooldown of eight seconds once it's been used.Second Skill - Shockwave:
A projectile attack that launches a shockwave, sending enemies into the sky. Recasting it will teleport the enemies towards you where you can perform three strikes which deal 25% damage per strike. It has a cooldown of 8 seconds, while casting takes 0.6 seconds.
B - Tier
A three-hit ranged melee attack combo dealing 40% / 40% / 50% damage.First skill - A Thousand Spears:
Initiate a multiple stabbing attack that deals 30% damage eight times. Once you've recast this skill during its effect, you will perform a thrusting attack which pushes enemies back and deals 50% damage.Second Skill - Harpoon:
Launches the Spear to pull enemies towards you to deal 70% damage.
Fires an arrow that can inflict 115% damage for each hit.First Skill - Rain of Bolts:
Rain down a barrage of arrows onto enemies for 40% damage and inflicts a 'fading snare' for 1.5 seconds. This skill has an 8-second cooldown period with a cast time of 0.4 seconds.Second Skill - Snapshot:
Launches a quick bolt attack that deals 75% damage, can interrupt any skill or casting, and inflict a 'fading snare' for 2 seconds.
C - Tier
The axe has a three-hit slicing attack that deals 45% / 45% / 55% damage.First Skill - Frenzy:
Dash towards the enemy, hitting them with a 100% damage attack. You can enter a frenzied state that enhances your movement speed by 25% and attack speed by 30% for 0.8 seconds for each successful strike. It has a cooldown period of 8 seconds after being used.Second Skill - X-Strike:
wielding two axes, one in each hand, which can be thrown at enemies in an X-formation to deal 85% damage per hit and slow them down for 1.5 seconds. If both axes intersect and strike an enemy within that intersection, you can disable them for two seconds.
Perform three consecutive swipes dealing 50% damage for the first two swipes and 60% for the final swipe.First Skill - Crushing Blow:
Leap across before slamming the weapon into the ground to deal 110% damage and inflict a 'fading snare' for 2 seconds. This skill grants immunity from knockback as it can't be interrupted once it's being performed.Second Skill - Smack:
Deal 50% damage when smacking enemies with the weapon, which pushes them back and disables them for 1.2 seconds.
Performs three-hit melee attack that deals 50% / 50% / 55% damage but has a good swiping range for any AoE damage.First Skill - Tendon Swing:
Wave the weapon around, dealing 125% damage to enemies within the radius, which knocks them back and inflicts a 'fading snare' for 2 seconds.Second Skill - Howling:
Throws the weapon which spins in an area, dealing 20% damage to all enemies within that radius every 0.25 seconds for 2.5 seconds. The first hit will slow enemies down for 1.5 seconds.
Take a look at our Beginner Tips and Tricks
to get help in V Rising.


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en.infoglobe.cz » Most recent videogalleries » Towns » CZ, Bohemian Switzerland: Jetrichovice and Maria's Outlook
Most recent videogalleries: CZ, Bohemian Switzerland: Jetrichovice and Maria's Outlook
CZ, Bohemian Switzerland: Jetrichovice and Maria's Outlook
heading (paragraph): Towns
A small village in the region of Děčín is one of the centers of the Bohemian Switzerland National Park. The village was founded as a castle, but unfortunately only ruins remained. The tourist destination in the surroundings is the Jetrichovice walls, which are popular among families with children and among climbers. Watching the local prospects of the sunset is just wonderful. Something wonderful for a romantic soul. But be sure to set out to the surroundings.
Text and video: Matouš Vinš
Music: Dexter Britain
Germany, Saxony – A Nun in the Zittau Mountains
Are you looking for a Via Ferrata where you can try all possible traps? There is rock called the Nun on the Czech-German border. A rope is winded around it as well as cramps, ladders, a bridge, overhangs, gorges, and abysses.
Germany – An Activity Weekend at Lusatian Lakes
A great way to spend a sunny summer weekend is a trip to the Lusatian Lakes (Lausitzer Seenland), located in Germany, about two hours by car from Prague.
Germany, Pfaffenstein – Unique Tabletop Mountain in Saxon Switzerland – VIDEO
There are several table mountains in the Bohemian Switzerland. Pfaffenstein is one of the most visited, mainly due to the views and iconic Barbarine rock tower. Let's go up together now.
Germany, Pirna – Gateway to Saxon Switzerland – VIDEO
On the way from Děčín to Dresden, you will not miss the town of Pirna with a populatio nof about 40,000 inhabitants, which serves not only as an ideal gateway to the Saxon Switzerland, but thanks to its beautiful historical center, it is itself a popular cruise destination.
CZ, Decin– Royal Town on the Confluence of the Elbe and Ploucnice Rivers – VIDEO
Just a few kilometers before the Elbe water leaves the Czech Republic, it flows past the majestic Decin Castle. The town itself and its surroundings offer plenty of attractions to visit, in addition to the castle and the Rose Garden, the Labské pískovce PLA and the nearby Bohemian Switzerland.
Germany, Saxon Switzerland – Trek Up to the Tall Mountain Around
Right behind Decin the gates of Saxon Switzerland open. The origin of its name come from the times of two Swiss young men studying in Dresden who said the area reminds them of home.
Germany, Saxon Switzerland– Häntzschelstiege, A Beginner’s Ferrate
Metal sound of carabiners, metal ladder, craps, sharp edges of the rock, unforgettable vista of Labe valley.
Germany, Saxon Switzerland – Pfaffenstein and Barbarine
The beauty of the rocks lays in their grey color, variety, uniqueness, and silence with which they stand in nature. The stone is inanimate but the rock breathes and beats like your heart once you are on the top. We set of to Pfaffenstein mountain and Barbarine rock pinnacle. Both of the localities are along Saxon Switzerland’s most beautiful trail.
Germany, Saxon Switzerland: The World Famous Königstein Fortress
Amazing compound on the rock, a bending of River Elbe, everlasting fame, travellers' lectures, educative travel games for children.
CZ, Svojkov – Tips for Trips in the Surroundings
Svojkov is a small village in the district of Ceska Kupa, on the route between Novy Bor and Zakupy. In the countryside in the north of the village there are two peaks - Tisovy Peak (540 m above sea level) and Slavicek (535 m above sea level). On the north there are the Svojkovske snadstone rocks through which run two tourist trails, red and green.
CZ: Pravcicka Gate – Main Sight in Czech Switzerland – VIDEO
With a span of 26.5 m and a height of 16 m it is the largest sandstone rock gate in Europe. It made Czech Switzerland famous only in our country but also around the globe, so when you go to our youngest national park for a trip, you should not miss the Pravcicka gate.
CZ, Tiske Rocks - Rocky Towers of the Chronicles of Narnia – VIDEO
Near Decin there is the vast rocky area of Tiske Rocks, the westernmost area of the Labske Sandstones. Dozens of grandiose sandstone towers rise as high as 70 meters. If you happen to know the Chronicles of Narnia movies some scenes at the beginning of the Lion, Witch, and Cupboard movie were shot there.
CZ, Bohemian Switzerland – The Youngest of National Parks
The Bohemian Switzerland National Park is a great place to relax and recharge your batteries. The...
Germany, Saxon Switzerland – Rocky Paradise
Saxon Switzerland national park borders Bohemian Switzerland national park situated in the Czech ...
Germany, Sachsen - Pilnitz Chateau and Its Huge Camellia
A trip to Dresden often includes a visit to the former residence of Saxon royal family. There are...
Germany – Saxony, Dresden: A Restored City
In recent times Czechs more and more often visit Dresden. The second largest Saxon city that is w...
Germany, Pirna – Entrance Gate to Saxon Switzerland
Pirna is such a gateway to Saxon Switzerland and is itself a great cruise destination. Its histor...
Germany: Bastei – Iconic Rock Bridge above the Elbe Canyon
Near our borders to Dresden you will find one of the most conspicuous rocky sceneries in Europe. ...
Germany: Pfaffenstein – Unique Tabletop Mountain in the Saxon Switzerland
More and more people are attracted by Bohemian-Saxon Switzerland. Pfaffenstein is one of the most...
CZ, Tiske Rocks – Sandstone Formations from the Chronicles of Narnia
Today we look into a large rock town near the town of Decin. A nature trail rusn through it. Than...
CZ: Pravcicka Gate – The Main Sight in Bohemian Switzerland
The Pravcicka Gate is the largest sandstone gate in Europe. Its majesty is famous for Czech Switz...
Information and warnings on travelling abroad is to be found HERE.
|Today:||tuesday 6. 6. 2023|

domain: travel


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Farm Fresh has added two more flavours to its low-fat yogurt drink in Malaysia. The two new flavours are Fruit Punch and Lychee Litchi. Fruit Punch contains lychee, mint and pineapple as well as the probiotic goodness of yogurt. Both products are available in 200ml and 700ml pack sizes.
It is interesting to see the addition of mint into the yogurt drink to improve the flavour and drinking experience.


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Fix Yourself First with Dr. Kristie
By Kristie Overstreet
To listen to an audio podcast, mouse over the title and click Play. Open iTunes to download and subscribe to podcasts.
Are you tired of waiting on people in your life to change? If you are ready to improve your personal and professional relationships, then this show is for you. Dr. Kristie Overstreet brings her skills as a clinical sexologist, psychotherapist, certified sex therapist, and real-world relationship expert to help you improve your relationships with yourself and others by focusing on self-change versus waiting for others to change.
||CleanEp 7 How to Find Yourself When Your Feeling Lost with Kacie Main||On this episode, I had the pleasure of speaking with Kacie Mann, author of I Gave Up Men For Lent. She shares her journey of going within herself during a time of feeling lost and her realization of needing to fix herself first. Our conversation...||2/13/2019||Free||View in iTunes|
||CleanEp 6 How to Detach from Emotional Vampires in Your Life||Have you ever been around a person that seems to drain your energy? You are left feeling tired or irritated. Emotional vampires are those people that latch onto you and suck the life out of you. Whether it's your personal or professional life, these...||2/4/2019||Free||View in iTunes|
||CleanEp 5 How to Create Boundaries that Work||Your personal boundaries can make or break a relationship. Learn to define your boundaries, why they are important, how to create, and maintain them. Don't let codependency keep you from having healthy boundaries.||1/23/2019||Free||View in iTunes|
||CleanEp 4 Learn to Trust Yourself First||Do you make bad decisions and listen to others opinion versus your own? It's time to learn to trust yourself even though you make mistakes in life. Learn about the four main reasons why not trusting yourself is a problem and tips on how to fix your...||1/7/2019||Free||View in iTunes|
||CleanEp 3 How to Say No and Stop People Pleasing||Are you struggling with confidence or feel you were more confident in the past? Every area of your life is affected by confidence and it's your responsibility to improve it. Dr. Kristie shares how to get your confidence back with actionable tips and...||1/1/2019||Free||View in iTunes|
||CleanEp 2 How to Get Your Confidence Back||Are you struggling with confidence or feel you were more confident in the past? Every area of your life is affected by confidence and it's your responsibility to improve it. Dr. Kristie shares how to get your confidence back with actionable tips and...||1/1/2019||Free||View in iTunes|
||CleanEp 1 Embrace the Need to Fix Yourself First||Gone are the days of waiting for your partner or people in your life to change. If you are tired of feeling disappointed in others and ready to get the life you deserve, it's time to embrace the need to fix yourself first. In this episode, Dr. Kristie..||1/1/2019||Free||View in iTunes|
I don’t typically listen to self help, but Dr. Christie does a wonderful job of succinctly packaging life lessons into a short amount of time.
“Be the change that you wish to see in the world.” ― Mahatma Gandhi
This is an awesome podcast! You must listen to this podcast if you have any reason to want to fix others. Fix yourself first and the world will change around you. Thank you Dr. Kristie for this terrific resource.
The podcast is supported by a website and a library of supporting articles. Plus the full transcript is available on the her website. This gives us the resources we need to make positive change.
Thank you Dr. Kristie!
Dr. Kristie finds a way into your heart in every episode - she is dedicated and a true talent every person who’s looking to make their mark on the world NEEDS to listen to NOW!

domain: psychology


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Currently, I have had two Fraxel treaments, with my third one coming up in about three weeks. The pain, to me, was bad but not the worst I've felt. I was given a valium to take & a pain medication to take an hour before the procedure...neither did much good so the pain medication was increased.
I have not noticed a difference at all, in pore size, fine lines that I had, or small sun/brown spots I had....they all still exist. However, it is a series of treatments (four total that I have paid for), and the results are suppose to be best seen @ 3 months after the fourth treatment. I am hopeful.
The first treatment left my face looking like a sunburn for about 24 hours. The second treatment left my face looking sunburned for about a week (the intensity was increased), and my face now easily flushes.
I had CO2 laser treatment just around my eyes a few years back. The pain after the procedure was UNBAREABLE! It stayed blood red around my eyes for about 3 months after the treatment! To this day, around my eyes where the laser was done is still lighter than the rest of my face. However, after about six months of healing, the results were awesome!!! The fine lines around my eyes are gone! I just couldn't bare to have it done all over my face, which is why I am trying Fraxel.
So far, Fraxel has not been worth the money/pain, but I will see after the fouth treatment. Perhaps it will be...I hope so!


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Unit A3.6 Buttermarket Shopping Centre, Ipswich, IP1 1DT
Japanese-inspired restaurant located in Ipswich Town Centre.
Japanese-inspired restaurant located in the Buttermarket Shopping Centre in the heart of Ipswich.
Spice enthusiasts can enjoy the much-loved prawn firecracker, and the tofu chilli salad offers a fresh and crunchy treat. Those after a light bite can enjoy small plates such as chicken gyozas or edamame shaken with chilli and salt, alongside an extensive choice of fresh juices, desserts and beverages. There's also a range of dishes designed especially for kids.
For guests who fancy a quick bite, the iconic wagamama canteen-style benches will grace the new restaurant, but for a longer dining experience to enjoy with friends, breakout areas and booths have been brought in.
wagamama’s delicious food is also available to take-out.

domain: food


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April 19, 2013
Spain’s gaming regulator has announced it will allow the country's licensed online gambling operators to offer slots and exchange betting, although no specific launch date has been provided for either product. Friday’s announcement by the Dirección General de Ordenación del Juego (DGOJ) comes after two lengthy rounds of industry consultations,...
Betfair latest to exit Poland
March 28, 2017


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This Sunday we’re riding through the new state seat of Newtown from King St to Redfern Park and launching the BlackSpot cycling safety app.
Meet at The Hub (next to Newtown Neighbourhood Centre on King St) and cycle with Jenny, local Greens Councillors and bike activists through the new state electorate of Newtown to Redfern Park. At Redfern Park there will be a picnic morning tea and the local launch of the BlackSpot App, an app specifically developed to help cyclists pin-point dangerous areas and send alerts.
Meet 10am at The Hub (next to Newtown Neighbourhood Centre) for the ride
Meet 11am at Redfern Park for the Picnic and BlackSpot App Launch

domain: geography


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Today was the last day of my getaway and I think I might have been okay if I had returned home today.
I didn’t ride very far at all. I visited the small town of Brunsbüttel, where the Nord-Ostsee-Kanal reaches the Elbe. Then I went to Friedrichskoog, to take another look at the North Sea, though I only really got to check out the Wadden Sea again. The tide was out and here it means it is very far out.
Indeed, people have been known to get stuck in the Wadden Sea after they’d gone too far out and didn’t manage to return before the tide returned. If that happens to you and you’re lucky, the coast guard will find you and bring you back. If you are unlucky, you can die out there.
I didn’t venture out into the Wadden Sea, mostly because it would have been inconvenient to pull up my biker pants and carry my boots along with my helmet and jacket as well. It also wouldn’t have been a lot of fun to trudge with so much stuff out there.
Still, the views were impressive, and the weather played along nicely today. Not much wind and intermittent sun and clouds.
I was only out for a few hours, however, and I’m ready to go home.
Of course, I could continue to travel forever, but work is calling me back and I must admit, so is my bed. I just don’t sleep the same when I’m travelling.
I enjoyed my getaway. I did a lot of riding, and the weather was good for the most part. I am likely going to have the opportunity to get away for weekend here or there during the next two months. But it does depend on the weather and my funds.
My bike is due for its yearly inspection next month as well, which will cost again.
Now the only question is, where to next?