An aircraft carrier is a type of warship serving as a seagoing airbase. They are equipped with full-length flight decks, and they can recover aircraft as well as carry them, arm and deploy them. These ships are expensive to build but are critical assets and have seen a lot of improvements and developments in their structure since their inception in the early twentieth century. There isn’t a single definition of for an aircraft carrier as there are several variants of this type of vessel.
Table of Page Contents
- 10. HMS Queen Elizabeth- UK
- 9. Admiral Kuznetsov- Russia
- 8. INS Vikramaditya- India
- 7. Sao Paulo- Brazil
- 6. Juan Carlos I- Spain
- 5. Cavour (550)- Italy
- 4. USS America (LHA-6)- United States
- 3. Charles de Gaulle- France
- 2. Liaoning- China
- 1. Nimitz Class- United States
These are the top 10 largest aircraft carriers in the world
10. HMS Queen Elizabeth- UK
The HMS Queen Elizabeth is scheduled to commission early this year and will be the largest warship ever built for the Royal Navy. This ship will be capable of carrying up to forty aircraft and has been named after Queen Elizabeth II. It will be the lead ship of the Queen Elizabeth-class aircraft carriers. The ship is not expected to be fully functional until the year 2020 and will not be fitted with catapults arrestor wires, unlike other large carriers, so it will only operate V/STOL aircraft.
The design of this carrier was to emphasize flexibility and will be suited for 250 Royal Marines and will be able to support them with attack helicopters and troop transports. This ship is the second Royal Navy vessel to bear the name HMS Queen Elizabeth. She will call HMNB Portsmouth home and will begin sea trials in March of this year.
9. Admiral Kuznetsov- Russia
The Admiral Kuznetsov is Russia’s only operational aircraft carrier. It ranked as the second largest carrier and was built by Black Sea Shipyard, which is the only manufacturer of their carriers. This ship is considered an aircraft cruiser as she carries missiles in Russian classification and serves as the flagship for the Russian Navy. Originally commissioned to be the lead ship of her class, she turned out to be the only other ship in the Russian Navy in this class. Varyag had been planned but never completed or commissioned and was eventually sold to the Republic of China.
Kuznetsov was named after the Admiral of the Fleet of the Soviet Union and has a displacement of more than 40,000 tons but is able to reach more than 55,000 tons when at full military capacity. It had originally been named, Riga and then launched as, Leonid Brezhnev. The carrier went on to be renamed, Tbilisi when it embarked on its sea trials, and finally received the name of, Admiral Kuznetsov.
8. INS Vikramaditya- India
INS Vikramaditya entered into the Indian Navy for service in 2013. It has been named in honor or Vikramaditya who was a legendary first century BC emperor of Ujjain, India. This vessel was originally built as Baku and its first commission was in 1987. This carrier was with the Soviet and Russian Navies before they decommissioned it in 1996 as the expenses to keep her maintained were becoming too high. India purchased her in January 2004 after a lot of negotiations.
The INS Vikramaditya completed her successful sea trials in July 2013 and her aviation trials in September of 2013. In November of 2013, she was formally commissioned at a ceremony at Severodvinsk, Russia after extensive reconstruction efforts. She has a displacement of over 45,000 tons. This is a larger full load displacement than what she was originally designed for. She was re-fabricated with extensive re-cabling done to support new radars and sensors. The elevators were also upgraded, and two restraining stands were fitted to allow combat aircraft to reach full power before making a ski-jump take-off.
7. Sao Paulo- Brazil
The Sao Paulo is currently in service with the Brazilian Navy and was first commissioned in 1963 by the French Navy. It was transferred to Brazil in 2000 where she became the new flagship of the Brazilian Navy. The Sao Paulo was built in France between 1957 and 1960 where she served the French Navy as the Foch. Brazil purchased her for $12 million (US dollars) in 2000 without any aircraft being part of the price.
The Sao Paulo has a displacement of more than 24,000 tons but is able to reach more than 32,000 tons at full military capacity. In December of 2014, it was decided this ship could no longer continue service until 2039 which by then will make it an 80-year-old ship. This carrier has suffered from issues which make it impossible to operate for more than three months at a time before it requires more repairs and maintenance.
6. Juan Carlos I- Spain
The Juan Carlos I is considered a multi-purpose warship in the Spanish Navy and is similar in design to the American Wasp-class amphibious assault ship. This ship also has the addition of a ski jump and will be equipped with an AV-8B Harrier II attack aircraft. It will be primarily used as a plane carrier and has been named in honor of the current King of Spain, Juan Carlos I. This new vessel will play a significant role in the fleet as it will be the platform that will also support the mobility of the Marines and strategic transport of ground troops.
The design of the Juan Carlos I was approved in September of 2003. Its flight deck is over 600 feet and has eight landing spots. This is the first ship in the Spanish Navy that will use diesel-electric propulsion which connects both types of diesel and the new technology gas turbine. The carrier will hold approximately 900 Navy personnel with their equipment and almost 1,200 soldiers.
5. Cavour (550)- Italy
The Cavour is an Italian carrier and the Italian Navy’s newest flagship. This ship has been named after Camillo Benso who was an Italian politician and statesman and was launched in July of 2004. The design of this carrier is to combine fixed wing V/STOL and helicopter air operations. It will also hold command and control operations and transport civil and military personnel along with heavy vehicles. The hanger on the Cavour can double as a vehicle hold and will fit up to 24 main battle tanks or a large number of lighter vehicles.
The Cavour has a displacement of more than 27,000 tons but is capable of more than 30,000 tons when at full capacity. The Italian Navy had planned to replace 16 of its Harriers with 15 Lockheed Martin F-35B Lightning II. The schedule was not definite, but they proposed to modify the Cavour to hold the F-35Bs by 2016. It was planned to support ten of the F-35Bs in the hanger, and six more parked on the deck.
4. USS America (LHA-6)- United States
The USS America is the fourth warship from the United States and will be the first amphibious assault ship for the U.S. Navy. Named for the country she supports, this ship was delivered in 2013 and replaced the USS Peleliu of the Tarawa class. Her role is to be the flagship of an expeditionary strike group or the amphibious group which will carry Marines from the expeditionary unit into battle. The design of the carrier is based on USS Makin Island so she does not have a well deck which will allow for more room for aviation facilities.
The USS America is an improved version of its model with well deck being removed it allows for an extended hangar deck with significantly wider bay areas which were fitted with an overhead crane for maintenance on aircraft. Other improvements completed include an onboard hospital, more aviation fuel capacity and more aviation support spaces.
3. Charles de Gaulle- France
The Charles de Gaulle is the flagship of the French Navy, and she also holds the title for the largest warship in Western Europe. She holds other titles including; the first French nuclear-powered surface vessel, first nuclear-powered carrier outside of the U.S., and the tenth French aircraft carrier. The ship has been named after Charles de Gaulle and French general and statesman. This warship is a CATOBAR-type carrier using 75 m C13.3 steam catapults at the bow and another at the front of the landing area. The ship has a displacement of more than 37,000 tons and can reach more than 42,000 tons at full capacity.
The characteristics of this carrier allow it operate American aircraft such as the F/A-18E/F Super Hornet and the C-2 Greyhound which operate from American carrier vessels. The Charles de Gaulle replaced the Foch in 2001 after the replacement was identified in the mid-1970s. In 1989 the hull was laid down, and the carrier was put into construction in 1994 which fell behind due to starved funding. It wasn’t until May of 2001 before is was commissioned.
2. Liaoning- China
The Liaoning is the People’s Liberation Army Navy’s first commissioned aircraft carrier. Classified as a training ship, the Liaoning was intended to make it possible for the Navy to practice with transport usage. This ship was originally the Admiral Kuznetsov in the Soviet Navy and launched their service in 1988. It was later renamed Varyag. The People’s Republic of China purchased the stripped hulk of the Vargag and towed it to the Dalian Shipyard in China. She was completely rebuilt and went through sea trials before being commissioned in 2012 and renamed the Liaoning.
The Liaoning is armed with Type 1030 CIWS, HQ-10 missiles, and anti-submarine warfare rocket launchers. It is capable of displacing more than 59,000 and is powered by steam turbine propulsion. The flight deck on this carrier can hold up to 50 aircraft which includes helicopters and fixed wing planes.
1. Nimitz Class- United States
The Nimitz Class has a displacement of 97,000 tons when fully loaded. This is the world’s largest aircraft carrier and the first in the class deployed in 1975. Each of the Nimitz Class carriers has been designed to stay in service for 50 years and need only one mid-life overhaul. Each of these ships is more than 20 stories above the water and can hold more than 3,000 of ship’s company, 500 crew members, and 1,500 air wing.
The ten carriers making up the Nimitz Class were all constructed at the Newport News Shipbuilding Company, and the lead one was commissioned in May of 1975. The tenth carrier in the Class was approved in January of 2009. These ships have all participated in a significant number of conflicts across the world including Iran, the Gulf War, and Afghanistan.
One of the biggest assets during wartime is the aircraft carriers. Since they have been put into use, these ships have made a significant impact for the defense of many countries. These are the top 10 largest aircraft carriers in the world and some that have made the biggest differences in their countries wartime strategies.


Norfolk Manslaughter: Family "Let Down" By Sentence
25 January 2013, 15:37 | Updated: 25 January 2013, 15:51
Angela Phillips died two days after being admitted to hospital with head injuries after an incident at her family home outside Norwich in June 2012.
Today (Friday, January 25) Angela's husband, 39-year-old Thomas Crompton, was sentenced to seven and a half years in prison for manslaughter.
Crompton, previously of Manor Farm Cottages, Arminghall Lane, Arminghall, was found guilty of having assaulted his wife, 34-year-old Angela Crompton (Phillips), after an argument on Monday 11 June 2012 causing such severe head injuries that she died two days later in Addenbrooke's Hospital.
He was found not guilty of murder by the jury at Norwich Crown Court following a nine day trial - but guilty of her manslaughter due to loss of control.
Detective Chief Inspector Neil Firm, of Norfolk Constabulary, said: "Now Crompton has been sentenced we hope Angela's family can start to get some closure to this tragic incident.
"This was a complex, emotive and difficult case for all parties concerned and it demonstrates that violence is never the answer to any domestic argument. The actions of Crompton have had widespread and devastating consequences for the children and family of Angela and Thomas."


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Maps, photos and statistics of Yutacoyo, a beautiful tiny town of 6 inhabitants of the State of Oaxaca
The town of Yutacoyo is located in the Municipality of Pinotepa de Don Luis (in the State of Oaxaca). There are 6 inhabitants. In the list of the most populated towns of the whole municipality, it is the number #9 of the ranking. Yutacoyo is at 405 meters of altitude.
Do you want to locate the town of Yutacoyo? You can find it at 1.1 kilometers, in direction Northeast, from the town of Pinotepa de Don Luis, which has the largest population within the municipality. To enjoy the Yutacoyo location through satellite images, at the bottom of our webpage you have an interactive map.
Where is Yutacoyo? How to get there? Map
Online map of Yutacoyo (Oaxaca) to be able to get to and make trips around this town. With the zoom controls you can zoom in (+) or out (-) to locate the village.
Need to locate a certain Yutacoyo building on a satellite photo? In this link we have an updated image, where you can see the streets and houses of the village.
The population of Yutacoyo (Oaxaca) is 6 inhabitants
|Year||Female Inhabitants||Male inhabitants||Total population|
According to the 2010 official census, in the town there were 8 males and 10 females. The female/male ratio is 1.250, and the fertility rate is 3.71 children per woman. Of the total population, 0.00% comes from outside the State of Oaxaca. 27.78% of the population is illiterate (25.00% of men and 30.00% of women). The level of schooling is 4.17 (5 in men and 3.33 in women).Indigenous culture in Yutacoyo
100.00% of the population is indigenous, and 77.78% of the inhabitants speak one of the indigenous languages. 27.78% of the population speaks one of the indigineous languages, but not Spanish.Unemployment and the economy in Yutacoyo
38.89% of the inhabitants (more than 12 years) are economically active (62.50% of the men, and 20.00% of the women).Housing and infrastructure in Yutacoyo
In Yutacoyo there are 6 dwellings. 20.00% of the dwellings have electricity, 0.00% have piped water, 0.00% have toilet or restroom, 0.00% have a radio receiver, 0.00% a television, 0.00% a fridge, 0.00% a washing-machine, 0.00% a car or a van, 0.00% a personal computer, 0.00% a landline telephone, 0.00% mobile phone, and 0.00% Internet access.
Satellite photo of Yutacoyo
With the satellite map of Yutacoyo will I be able to look for my location? Yes, access the map, zoom in and see the surroundings of this town and the municipality of Pinotepa de Don Luis. You can search free satellite map (2023) of Yutacoyo.
Population pyramid of Yutacoyo (Oaxaca)
In Yutacoyo there is a very characteristic age structure of the population, which you can see in the following population pyramid, with data from 2005. After analyzing the demographic data of Yutacoyo, separated by men and women, and also by age groups, we can analyze what the future of the population in this town will be like.
Photos of Yutacoyo
Would you like to see what this town looks like and enjoy landscape photos of Yutacoyo? We have located on the Internet several beautiful images of places and locations nearby, so you can see the beauty of this Mexican town. Some are artistic photos and others are simply panoramic photos taken by amateurs and friends who simply like Yutacoyo.
Enjoy photos of Yutacoyo at this link
Vote for Yutacoyo
Do you like Yutacoyo or don't you like it very much? Now you can vote for Yutacoyo to let everyone know about it. Use these stars ("0" you don't like it much, "5" you like it a lot) to rate it with your opinion.
>>> Map with all the towns within the municipality of Pinotepa de Don Luis
>>> Click here to see more towns in the State of Oaxaca (statistics, photos, maps, restaurants, hotels,...) <<<
Other towns in the Municipality of Pinotepa de Don Luis
- Barrio de las Piedras (82 inhabitants)
- Chikuako (- inhabitants)
- Cruz Blanca (- inhabitants)
- Duatiavi (- inhabitants)
- El Hule (- inhabitants)
- Hierba Santa (56 inhabitants)
- La Palma (95 inhabitants)
- San Martín (20 inhabitants)
- Tecueteyu (- inhabitants)
- Xinichikoo (3 inhabitants)
- Yucundio (Cerro de Dios) (24 inhabitants)
- Yutachiquehue (- inhabitants)
- Yutacoyo (6 inhabitants)
- Yutandikava (- inhabitants)
- Yutatío (22 inhabitants)

domain: geography


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Fushimi, the stage for the prominent figures like Sakamoto Ryoma and Shinsengumi police force during the late Edo period is also known as the town of sake. The rows of willow trees with the distinctive white walls of traditional sake breweries has been one of Kyoto’s representative sceneries. The neighborhood near the white-walled Gekkeikan Okura Sake Museum preserved an abundance of precious documents related to sake brewing―here you can delve deep into the history of Japanese Sake. After visiting the sake brewery, try out some sake products such as Ginjo sake and plum wine at“Kikisake-Dokoro (Sake Tasting Place)”. Why not bring some of the collections displayed at the shop home as a souvenir?
Since the 17th century, a low-temperature environment has been regarded as preferable for sake brewing and thus sake was often brewed in the coldest season (a method known as Kanzukuri). Thanks to the advancement in technology, sake is now being made all year round.The Gekkeikan Brewery was the first to brew in every season in the industry and is known as a pioneer of technological innovation.
Appreciating the seasonal flowers and go on a Jikkokubune Boat Ride around the sake brewery where you will be embraced by the scent of fermented rice and steamed rice―Fushimi’s sake-brewing district surely has a lot more to offer even in seasons other than winter.


Veteran British comic Barry Cryer had to abandon a stand-up gig in Britain over the weekend (16-17Feb13) after he fell off the stage.
Paramedics were called to the Regal Theatre in Worcestershire, England, on Saturday night (16Feb13) to treat the 77 year old following the tumble, which occurred while he was performing his one-man show.
He was treated for cuts and bruises, and decided to call off the remainder of the performance.
Theatre manager Ian Little says of the incident, "Due to the dazzle from the lights Barry lost sight of the exit into the theatre wings and fell from the side of the stage. Luckily he only only suffered a slight cut to his hand."
A post on the venue's website adds, "Barry Cryer and his management would like to thank the audience for their understanding and warm wishes after the show had to be abandoned."


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Our thanks to Stuart for this. An extract:
Senior social workers and police officers falsified and destroyed records after Kids for Cash UK exposed evidence of harm to a twelve-year-old Derby boy whose mother was found by a court to have made multiple false allegations of domestic violence…
David Gale of Kids for Cash UK said, “Our investigations have confirmed that the mother subjected the child to a prolonged period of severe psychological abuse despite the authorities admitting to having received clear independent evidence pointing to the harm being caused. It is clear from the documentary evidence that we have gathered that senior officers within Derby City Council and Derbyshire Constabulary have failed in their statutory duty to ensure that they have procedures in place to secure evidence and to ensure that official records are not falsified by officers seeking to avoid blame. The latest evidence suggests that the police, Derby City Council Children’s Services, and the Crown Prosecution Service have colluded to prevent their failures from coming to light.”
Following Kids for Cash UK’s analysis of five years’ of raw statistical data, gained through Freedom of Information requests served on the Ministry of Justice, an epidemic of false claims relating to domestic violence in the East Midlands has been exposed. [our emphasis] The Ministry of Justice has confirmed that it recently launched a nationwide investigation into legal aid fraud related to false claims of domestic violence. That investigation is starting in Derbyshire.
If everyone who read this gave us just £1 – or even better, £1 monthly – we could change the world. Click here to make a difference. Thanks.

domain: law


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Clinician and scientist who established that adult heath is influenced by nutrition during pregnancy and infant exposure to infection
Professor David Barker helped to change the face of medicine with a series of key discoveries that radically shifted the consensus on the causes of diseases from cancer to diabetes. In what became known as the “Barker hypothesis”, he argued that health in later life could be determined by maternal nutrition during pregnancy and by exposure to infection during infancy. Such thinking, now widely accepted, was a challenge to the view that chronic diseases are caused by bad genes and an unhealthy adult lifestyle.
Barker’s discoveries created a whole new field of research, but his preoccupation in his later years

domain: medical


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In order to determine if phytotelmata in sympatric bamboos of the genus Guadua might be colonized by different types of arthropods and contain communities of different complexities, the following objectives were formulated: (1) to analyze the structure and species richness of the aquatic macroinvertebrate communities, (2) to comparatively analyze co-occurrences; and (3) to identify the main predators. Field studies were conducted in a subtropical forest in Argentina, where 80 water-filled bamboo internodes of Guadua chacoensis (Rojas Acosta) Londoño and Peterson (Poales: Poaceae) and G. trinii (Nees) Nees and Rupr. were sampled. Morphological measurements indicated that G. chacoensis held more fluid than G. trinii. The communities differed between Guadua species, but many macroinvertebrate species used both bamboo species. The phytotelmata were mainly colonized by Diptera of the families Culicidae and Ceratopogonidae.
Phytotelmata (gr. phyton = plant, telma = pond) occur in a large number of terrestrial plants that hold water in places such as stems, sheathing leaves, and flowers (Frank and Lounibos 1983). Extensive lists of types of phytotelmata have been presented by Fish (1983) and Machado-Allison et al. (1985), although only a few types have been extensively studied. Bromeliads, pitcher plants, treeholes, and bamboo internodes have been among the most studied phytotelmata (e.g., Kitching 1971; Istock et al. 1975; Louton et al. 1996; Frank and Lounibos 2009) because their fauna may include dipteran vectors of diseases (Anosike et al. 2007), and because they are suitable for studies on ecological systems (e.g., Yee 2007). Treeholes and bamboo were termed as dendrotelmata (gr. déndron = tree, telma = pond) due to characteristics that differentiate them from other phytotelmata. The main feature that distinguishes them is that the pool is formed in the trunk or woody stem (Lozovei 1998), in contrast with the other plants that are herbaceous. Arguably, bamboos constitute the simplest phytotelmata from the viewpoint of their architecture. Each internode has the shape of a hollow cylinder, with smooth and vertical walls, and both ends are closed. The pool is formed when the internode is filled with rainwater (Kovac and Streit 1996) or the exudates of the bamboo (Lozovei 1998). Rainwater falls within the internodes either when the top is cut, which may give rise to two types of bamboo-stump pools, open, or semi-closed (Sunahara and Mogi 1997), or when the culm is injured by an insect borer such a chrysomelid (Macdonald 1962) or curculionid (Kovac and Azarae 1994) beetle. It must be emphasized that closed internodes accumulate fluids but become phytotelmata only when drilled or injured, allowing female insects to enter and lay eggs (Lozovei 1998).
Studies of the effect of habitat size in treeholes and bamboo stumps showed that the size of the opening determines the rate of entry of leaf litter, which increases with phytotelm capacity (Sota 1996). In turn, an increase in the capacity of the habitat should lead to increases in biomass and the number of metazoan inhabitants. Furthermore, it was demonstrated that the stability of phytotelmata has an additional effect on community structure, due to the effect of stability of the aquatic environment. Stability is influenced by hole depth (Sota et al. 1994), as small deep holes are more stable than large shallow holes (Sota 1996). Therefore, the number of individuals and species composition varies with the capacity of the treehole. Thus, mosquito species whose egg stages are not resistant to drought colonize more stable treeholes than species with drought-resistant eggs (Bradshaw and Holzapfel 1983). The stability of the aquatic micro-environment in bamboo internodes could be greater than the stability in treeholes or bamboo stumps because the opening area where rainwater enters is generally small and lateral on internodes, as opposed to stumps that have a larger opening area facing up, like those of many treeholes. On the other hand, water-holding capacity of internodes will not depend on their length, but on the height where the side hole is.
Many studies have been conducted on bamboo phytotelmata, addressing different aspects of the communities, mainly communities from stumps. For example, the species richness in an altitudinal gradient (Sota and Mogi 1996) was studied, as well as the seasonal occurrence and distribution patterns of mosquitoes in bamboo groves (Sunahara and Mogi 1997) and the variability of intra and interspecific competition of mosquitoes in stumps (Sunahara and Mogi 2002). The communities of aquatic macrofauna of internodes were studied in a lowland tropical forest (Louton et al. 1996), but there are no studies comparing the communities living in internodes of sympatric bamboo species. From observations made during a study on the diversity of Culicidae and Ceratopogonidae that inhabit phytotelmata in the subtropical region of Argentina (Campos et al. 2011), it was found that two species of the bamboo genus Guadua had differences in morphology and presumably are able to accommodate different detritus. Therefore, it was speculated that the species richness and community structure of macroinvertebrates could be different. To substantiate this hypothesis, the following objectives were formulated: (1) to compare the structure and species richness of the aquatic macroinvertebrate communities in two sympatric species of bamboo; (2) to compare the co-occurrence of aquatic macroinvertebrates between the two bamboos species, and (3) to identify the main predators in the aquatic communities of both bamboos.
Materials and Methods
Study area and bamboo species
Field studies were conducted from 15–19 March 2007 in Iguazú National Park (25° 39′ S, 54° 18′ W), located in the northwest of Misiones Province, Argentina, by the Iguazú River on the border of Brazil. The park is situated in the Paranaense forest ecoregion (Dinerstein et al. 1995), which has a topography and drainage pattern dominated by a basaltic plateau, reaching altitudes of 700 m a.s.l. The dominant vegetation corresponds to the semi-deciduous forest, and the climate is subtropical, characterized by dry winters and wet summers, with an annual rainfall of 1,500– 2,000 mm. The mean temperature varies from 16–22° C (APN 2009).
Iguazú National Park holds two kinds of bamboo (Poaceae), woody (Bambuseae) and herbaceous (Olyreae). Guadua Kunth, Merostachys Sprengel, and Chusquea Kunth are the three genera of woody native bamboo (Probambu 2011), but only Guadua and Merostachys species, whose stems are hollow, produce phytotelmata. In this study, Guadua (Rojas Acosta) Londoño and Peterson (Poales: Poaceae) and G. trinii (Nees) Nees and Rupr. were sampled, but Merostachys clausenii Munro was not sampled, because at the end of 2006 this species bloomed (it occurs approximately every 30 years, followed by a massive die-off, leaving large areas deforested). Both species of Guadua grow in the forest, mainly in low places near streams. Guadua chacoensis is dominant and grows in clumps occupying big areas, while G. trinii grows in small clumps scattered in the forest. However, both bamboos are often found together.
The preferred method for sampling internodes of bamboo is to cut the internode into sections to remove all contents. However, in our study, a different method was used because the bamboos were in an area of biodiversity conservation. For this reason, only the aquatic macroinvertebrates were considered in this research, and the terrestrial macroinvertebrates that use the internodes as refuge were not considered.
The study was carried out in early fall, after the summer rainfall. Thirty-nine water-filled bamboo internodes of G. chacoensis and 41 of G. trinii were sampled. Standing water containing macroinvertebrate inhabitants was extracted with a pooter (aspirator) attached to a lift pump, and the volume of water was measured. Because the diameters of the natural holes of the internodes were in some cases smaller than the suction hose, new larger (2.5 cm) holes were made with a drill, just above the level of the original holes. Internodes were washed and re-extracted several successive times with clean tap water until no macroinvertebrates or sediments were observed in the extracted water. No bamboo stumps were considered for this study.
All macroinvertebrates were killed in the field and preserved in 80% commercial ethyl alcohol, except some immature forms, which were carried alive to the laboratory in individual plastic tubes to be reared and identified. After removal of all macroinvertebrates, the fluid extracted (original siphoning plus washes) from the internodes was filtered, and the sediment was dried at 60° C for 48 hr, and weighed on a microbalance accurate to 0.01 mg.
The inner diameter; depth (de) (measured from bottom to level of the hole); wall thickness; height; and total length (l) of each bamboo internode and size of holes in the wall were measured. The percentage of the length of the internodes able to hold water was calculated as 100de / l. Capacity (c) of each internode was determined as πi2de / 4 (Sota and Mogi 1996). Water and air temperature were measured before water extraction with a digital thermometer equipped with a probe, and pH was measured with a portable pH meter after extraction.
Taxonomic resolution was attempted to species level, and for this reason some late instar larvae and pupae of insects recognized as different morphospecies were grown to adulthood. Culicidae were identified by the author using the keys of Darsie (1985), Ceratopogonidae were identified by a specialist, and the other taxa were identified to order or family using the keys of Stehr (1987, 1991).
Significant variation in the water volume, pH, and sediment among Guadua species was tested with Student (t) and Mann-Whitney tests (U).
Principal component analysis was used to study physical, chemical, and morphological variations of bamboo phytotelmata (Ter Braak and Smilauer 1998). All data were standardized previous to analysis (Ter Braak 1986). A complementary non-parametric Mann-Whitney test was used to estimate differences and their significance between variables.
To graph the frequency distribution of the size of the holes in the bamboo internodes, they were categorized into seven classes: 0–5, 5.1– 10, 10.1–15, 15.1–20, 20.1–25, 25.1–30, and 30.1–35 mm.
The diversity of macroinvertebrates from each Guadua bamboo was measured by Shannon-Wiener index (H') (Magurran 1988), and differences between H' indexes calculated for each Guadua species were tested with Student's t-test (Zar 1996). The evenness (E) of the numbers of taxa in each sample was estimated using Pielou's index (Pielou 1975). The dominance of taxa in both Guadua species was studied using the Berger-Parker index (Magurran 1988), which was calculated for each internode. Differences in d indexes among Guadua species were tested by Student' s t-test (Zar 1996).
To examine interespecific associations among macroinvertebrates within each bamboo species, the C8 coefficient, which varies from +1 to -1 (Hulbert 1969), was used, and significance association was tested by χ2 corrected for continuity.
Mean ± standard deviation of morphometric data from 81 internodes of two bamboo phytotelmata from subtropical forest, Misiones Province, Argentina.
Multiple regression analyses were used to study the effect of abiotic parameters of each bamboo phytotelmata on all macroinvertebrates, and on mosquitoes in particular. Height of the internodes, capacity, size of inlet hole, water volume held, pH, and debris were considered as independent variables, and number of individuals and number of taxa were the response variables. Dependent variables were transformed as square root (), and independent variables as log10, before analysis to accommodate assumptions of normality and homogeneity of variance (Zar 1996). Collinearity was tested by the variance inflation factor (VIF), and correlation between the residuals by the Durbin-Watson statistic (D) (Santos and Luque 1996). Variables that showed collinearity were excluded from analysis (Phillipi 1993). Complementary correlation coefficients of Spearman (rs) were calculated between number of mosquitoes per genera and pH for the two bamboos.
Significant variation in the abundances of macroinvertebrates inhabiting internodes among holes of different sizes was tested with a one way-analysis of variance. If significant variation was detected, a posteriori comparisons were performed to identify significant differences between groups.
The proportion of both Guadua species containing immatures of Toxorhynchites species in internodes with a hole entry less and greater than 10 mm of diameter was compared by Gadj. test.
Bamboo internodes as micro-habitats
Eighty bamboo internodes were measured, 39 of which were from G. chacoensis and 41 from G. trinii (Table 1). The lengths of the internodes of both Guadua species were not significantly different (U= 1655; n = 39–42; p = 0.6). Internal diameter, wall thickness, capacity, water volume, sediment, and proportion of internode length able to hold water were significantly greater in G. chacoensis than in G. trinii (U Diameter = 2414; U Thickness = 2418; U Capacity = 2391; U Water = 2380.5; U Sediment = 2130; U Proportion = 2044; n = 39–42; p < 0.001). The pH was acid in both bamboos but not was significantly different (U = 1401.5; n = 34–38; p = 0.071). In both bamboos, the small holes dominated, as 61.5% of the internodes of G. trinii had holes less than 5 mm, while 64.1% of G. chacoensis had holes ranging from 5.1–10 mm. However, the holes in G. chacoensis were located significantly higher than those in G. trinii (U Hole diameter = 1994.5; U Height of hole = 1990.5; n = 39–42; p < 0.001). Water temperature and difference between air and water temperatures in both Guadua species were not significantly different (t water temperature = 0.0273; df = 79; p = 0.978; U Air/water temperature = 1385.5; n = 39–42; p = 0.044).
The first three axes of principal component analysis explained 87.5% of the total variance. The first, second, and third axes explained 62.6%, 18.2%, and 6.7% respectively, and are associated with the variables shown in Table 2. The principal component analysis ordination diagram (Figure 1) shows two clusters segregated along CC1. On negative axis 1, all except two G. trinii internodes are grouped, while on positive axis 1 the majority of G. chacoensis internodes are found, showing that they are bigger and hold more water and sediment than G. trinii internodes. All variables are positively correlated with axis 1 except for water temperature and pH. The capacity and the volume of water held in the internodes are the variables best correlated with axis 1 (r2 = 0.90 and 0.86 respectively). The pH of the water retained in both bamboos was acidic (Table 1), and the greater variability was observed in G. chacoensis (C. VG. chacoensis = 33.6%; C.V G. trinii = 22.3%). The principal component analysis diagram shows that the pH of G. trinii is more likely to be more acid than in G. chacoensis, however significant differences were not observed (Table 1).
Eigenvalues and correlation coefficients (r2) of parameters associated with the axes obtained in principal component analysis.
The number of individuals collected from G. chacoensis and G. trinii was 1,752 and 1,073 respectively, distributed by taxonomic group as shown in Table 3. The number of individuals per internode was higher and significantly different (U = 1921; n = 39, 41; p < 0.001) in G. chacoensis (Mean = 44.9; SD = 36.8) than in G. trinii (Mean = 26.2; SD = 32.1).
The total number of taxa identified was 18 from G. chacoensis and 20 from G. trinii; however, for analyses, 17 and 19 respectively were considered because larvae of 2 species of Toxorhynchites were indistinguishable (Table 3). Mean number of taxa by individual internode was 4.6 (± SD 1.4) and 4 (± SD 1.8) for G. chacoensis and G. trinii respectively, but they were not statistically different (U = 1766; n = 39, 41; p = 0.07). The maximum number of taxa found in an internode was 8 for both bamboo species.
Taxonomic classification of the aquatic macro-invertebrates inhabiting two bamboos species from subtropical forest, Misiones Province, Argentina.
Taxa mainly were represented by immature insects. Diptera was the order best represented in the bamboo communities, with Culicidae as the dominant family, followed by Ceratopogonidae. Richness of Culicidae species was higher in G. chacoensis (n = 9) than in G. trinii (n = 5), while no difference was observed between bamboos with respect to Ceratopogonidae. Coleoptera were occasionally present in the communities, being represented mainly by species of semi-aquatic habitats, such as scirtids and chelonariids.
Eleven taxa were present in both species of bamboo, and 6 were unique to G. chacoensis and 8 to G. trinii (Table 3). Regarding the taxa unique to each bamboo, G. chacoensis hosted a greater number of species of Culicidae while G. trinii hosted more species belonging to other dipterous families.
The 2 Guadua phytotelmata were significantly different (t = -35.46; df = 48; p < .001) in terms of the diversity and evenness of macroinvertebrates occurring in them. The diversity was greater in G. trinii (H' = 2.03; E = 0.69) than in G. chacoensis (H' = 1.74; E = 0.61). The Berger-Parker index of dominance (d) was not significantly different (t = -1; df = 78; p = 0.33) between G. trinii (d = 0.60 ± 0.20) and G. chacoensis (d = 0.56 ± 0.17). Morisita-Horn index of similarity was high (CMH = 0.80) because the internodes of both Guadua species shared most of the taxa.
Four values of the species association coefficient (C8) for taxa inhabiting G. chacoensis were significant between species of mosquitoes, and 5 between mosquitoes and other dipterans. Toxorhynchites spp. (Diptera: Culcidae) was negatively associated with Sabethes aurescens (Lutz) (C8 = -1, p < 0.05) and Wyeomyia codiocampa Dyar and Knab (C8 = -0.43, p < 0.01), while S. aurescens and W. codiocampa showed maximum positive association (C8 = 1, p < 0.05). On the other hand, both species of Sabethes (S. identicus Dyar and Knab and S. aurescens) were not associated (C8 = 0, p <0.05). Cg significant values for associations between other dipterans and species of culicids were: Syrphidae showed a slight positive association with Toxorhynchites spp. (C8 = 0.10, p < 0.05) but was not associated with Wyeomyia serrata (Lutz) (C8 = 0, p < 0.05). Cg values for species of Ceratopogonidae related to Wyeomyia sp. 1 and Runchomyia reversa (Lane and Cerqueira) Were low and positive (C8 S. enigma-Wyomyia sp. 1 = 0.32, p < 0.01; C8 C. bambusicola-R. reversa = 0.43, p <0.05); in contrast, the association between Dixidae and R. reversa was high and negative (C8 = -1, p < 0.05).
Two C8 values were significant among taxa in G. trinii. Ceratopogonidae, Stilobezzia enigma Ronderos, Spinelli, and Borkent and Forcipomyia sp. (C8 = 0.60, p < 0.001), and Scatopsidae and Dolichopodidae (C8 = 0.50, p < 0.01) showed significant positive associations. In G. trinii, no associations were observed between species of Culicidae in contrast to G. chacoensis.
Abiotic parameters effects on aquatic communities
All morphological variables were used for the analysis, as no collinearity was detected (VIFG. chacoensis < 1.86; VIFG. trinii < 1.96). Durbin-Watson test for independence of residuals detected no autocorrelation between variables for both bamboos (G. chacoensis: DN° indiv. = 2.3; DN° Taxa = 2.2; G. trinii: DN° indiv. = 2.3; DN° Taxa = 1.9). The multiple regression model for G. chacoensis explained 42% of abundance variation of macroinvertebrates and was significant (F = 3.59; df = 6, 30; p < 0.01), but, the model was not significant for the number of taxa (r2 = 0.25; F = 1.67; df = 6, 30; p = 0.16). By contrast, for G. trinii, the number of individuals and the number of taxa were significant (FN° indiv. = 3.62; df = 6, 34; p < 0.01; FN°Taxa = 5.91; df = 6, 34; p < 0.001), and the model explained 39 and 51% respectively of the variation of these variables.
Coefficient and Student's t-test results (significant differences) from the multiple regression analysis from transformed data between macroinvertebrate individuals and number of taxa against abiotic variables of two bamboo phytotelmata.
Coefficient and Student's t-test result (significant differences) from the multiple regression analysis from transformed data between number of mosquitoes and number of species against abiotic variables of two bamboo phytotelmata.
The number of individuals in the community that lived in the internodes of G. chacoensis was positively correlated with the volume of water and the height of the internodes. For G. trinii, the volume of water and the detritus correlated positively with both the number of individuals and the number of taxa (Table 4).
The independent variables regressed against species of mosquitoes were not autocorrelated for either species of bamboo (G. chacoensis: DN° mosq. = 2.2; DN° species = 2, G. trinii: DN° mosq. = 1.8; DN° species = 1.8). The multiple regression model for G. chacoensis was significant (F = 2.90; df = 6, 30; p < 0.05) and explained 37% of the variation of abundance and number of species. For G. trinii, it explained 42% of the variation of the abundance of mosquitoes and 26% of the variation of the number of species, but was only significant for abundance (FN° mosq. = 4.1; df = 6, 34; p < 0.01; FN° species = 2.90; df = 6, 34; p = 0.1).
The abundance of mosquitoes and the number of species that inhabited internodes of G. chacoensis was correlated with pH, while for abundance of mosquitoes in G. trinii the correlated variables were the water volume and the height of the internodes, and for the number of species the water volume (Table 5).
As previous studies on bamboo internodes (e.g., Kurihara, 1959, 1983) showed that the occurrence of the species of mosquitoes is related to the pH of the standing water in bamboo internodes, the correlation coefficients were calculated for the number of mosquitoes per genera that made up the community of both species of Guadua phytotelmata. Although all species of mosquitoes were found in internodes with pH ranging from strongly acidic to alkaline, no significant correlations were observed in any of them (G. chacoensis: rs, Toxorhynchites spp. = 0.13, p = 0.15, n = 23, rs, Wyeomyia spp. = -0.15, p = 0.44, n = 27; rs, R. reversa = 0.17, p = 0.39, n = 26; rs, Sabethes spp. = -0.32, p = 0.75, n = 4; G. trinii: rS, Wyeomyia spp. = 0.13, p = 0.49, n = 31; rS, R. reversa = -0.10, p = 0.66, n = 22). All species were predominately in internodes with an acidic pH.
Seven predators were identified from both species of bamboo: Toxorhynchites bambusicolus (Lutz and Neiva), T. guadeloupensis (Dyar and Knab), R. reversa, S. aurescens, S. identicus, Culicoides bambusicola (Lutz), and Corethrella sp. Species of Toxorhynchites are the biggest predators in the internodes, R. reversa, S. aurescens, S. identicus are medium and potential facultative predators (as are other species of Sabethes) (Lozovei and Luz 1976, Machado-Allison 1986), and C. bambusicola and the Corethrellidae are the smallest.
Because the species of Toxorhynchites are the largest predators in both G. chacoensis and G. trinii, it was of interest to compare the occupancy of the internodes with different size entry holes in these species. Respectively, 59 and 46.3% of internodes of G. chacoensis and G. trinii were inhabited by larvae of Toxorhynchites spp. All internodes contained 1 larva, except 1 G. chacoensis contained two. Most internodes with Toxorhynchites had entry holes of less than 10 mm. There were no larvae of Toxorhynchites in internodes with entry holes of 20–30 mm, and only 1 larva was collected from internodes of G. chacoensis with a hole greater than 30 mm (Figure 2). The smallest inlet size in an internode where a Toxorhynchites larva was found was 3 mm in a G. trinii. However the proportion of internodes with entry holes less than 10 mm containing Toxorhynchites larvae was not significantly different from internodes with entry holes greater than 10 mm for both G. chacoensis (G adj. = 0.02, p > 0.50) and G. trinii (G adj. = 0.42, p > 0.50).
To determine whether prey abundance was affected by the presence of the predator Toxorhynchites in each internode of both bamboo species, the numbers of individual prey collected from these two habitats were compared. Mann-Whitney rank tests showed no significant differences between the number of prey in internodes with or without Toxorhynchites larvae (U G. chacoensis = 302, n Min. = 16, n Max. = 23, p = 0.62; U G. trinii = 421, n Min. = 19, nMax. = 22, p = 0.57).
Bamboo internodes as micro-habitat
Macroinvertebrates access internodes through holes caused by the boring activities of animals such as leaf beetles, long-horned beetles, caterpillars, or woodpeckers in the walls of culms (Kovac and Streit 1996), producing holes of different shapes and sizes. The inlet holes of G. chacoensis were smooth, circular drillings (Figure 3a), so they could have been caused by a boring beetle, as the wall of the stem was extremely hard and thick (∼ 3 cm). Moreover, internal galleries were observed when bamboos were cut (Figure 3b). The same circular inlet holes, but of smaller diameter, were observed in G. trinii, although they were accompanied by grooves and irregular holes. This heterogeneity of shapes and sizes could be because the stem of G. trinii was much thinner (∼ 5 mm) than the stem of G. chacoensis, and can be attacked by several species of arthropods.
Factors with significant loading from principal component analyses included internal diameter of internodes and the height of the entry hole, contributing to internode capacity to retain more water and detritus. The water retained in bamboo internodes comes from the plant exudates (Louton et al. 1996) and from runoff during heavy rains (Kovac and Streit 1996), leading to large variations in volume of water held by internodes. Louton et al. (1996) observed that the volume of water in G. weberbaueri had a range from 1–325 mL, and noted stains below the lateral opening which were attributed to frequent overflows, apparently, when internodes are filled with water above the level of the openings. Similar observations were made in G. chacoensis and G. trinii, which showed differences not only in the volumes of water from the internodes of both Guadua, but also between the internodes of each species.
During the present study, spill stains were also noted, as observed by Louton et al. (1996), although the volume of water never exceeded 60% of the capacity of the internodes.
The origin of food resources in the internodes came from the runoff produced when heavy rainwater seeped through the bamboo, and from the faeces, exuviae, and corpses of macroinvertebrates that inhabit them (Personal observation). Among the internodes of G. chacoensis, there was greater variation in the amount of debris retained than observed for G. trinii. The higher variation in G. chacoensis could be related to higher entry holes (as shown in the principal component analysis diagram), allowing the entry of terrestrial invertebrates that use the upper portion of the internodes as a refuge (Louton et al. 1996). These invertebrates would contribute to the debris from defecation and/or food waste (Mogi and Suzuki 1983). Lozovei (2001) mentioned that the water in live internodes is acidic (3.5) or neutral (7.1). Unlike the results of that author, the pH of the water retained in the internodes of both species of Guadua was predominantly acidic (pH: minimum 2.7, mean: ∼ 5), reaching strongly alkaline values (8.3) in G. chacoensis and slightly alkaline (7.7) in G. trinii.
The aquatic communities that inhabit bamboo are mainly composed of immatures of several dipterans (Louton et al. 1996), the Culicidae being the most diverse and most studied family. In the aquatic communities of South American bamboos, the mosquitoes are the principal inhabitants, within which Sabethini is the most diverse and dominant tribe. Approximately 40 species of Culicidae were reported from bamboo phytotelmata, of which 14 and 12 identified and unidentified species, respectively, have been found in Guadua phytotelmata (Louton et al. 1996; Lozovei 1998, 2001; Campos et al. 2011). In a recent study from subtropical Argentina, 9 identified species collected from Guadua were reported (Campos et al. 2011). In the present study, the same species were recorded, except Trichoprosopon pallidiventer (Lutz) and Wyeomyia sabathea Lane and Cerqueira. From the species occurring in Guadua phytotelmata, only Tx. bambusicola and Tr. pallidiventer have been recorded from containers other than bamboo phytotelmata (Campos et al. 2011) in the study area. Other species of mosquitoes (Table 3) can be considered as specialists of bamboo phytotelmata because they were not found in other micro-habitats. It is worth noting that no species of the genus Culex was found in the internodes of bamboos in the present study, as opposed to the abundance found by other authors (Louton et al. 1996; Lozovei 1998, 2001) who studied the fauna inhabiting Guadua bamboo in Brazil and Peru. Of the identified species of Cerato-pogonidae occurring in bamboo phytotelmata, C. bambusicola, (Ronderos and Spinelli 2000) and S. enigma (Ronderos et al. 2012) are inhabitants with no record from other habitats; by contrast, Palpomyia guarani was collected not only from bamboos, but also from treeholes (Ronderos et al. 2004).
Other dipterans present in Neotropical phytotelmata are the Corethrellidae, with 19 species restricted to treeholes and bamboo internodes (Borkent 2008). However, in the present study, only an unidentified species of Corethella, which was the second most abundant Dipteran, was recorded in both species of Guadua phytotelmata.
In a study carried out in Perú, 2.7 taxa per internode of G. weberbaueri were recorded (Louton et al. 1996). By contrast, the results of the present study showed a mean of 4.6 and 4 taxa per internode of G. chacoensis and G. trinii, respectively. The present study showed high species associations, both positive and negative. Negative associations with predators were possible due to asynchronies in occurrence with other macroinvertebrates in the internodes. While the observed positive association occurred between predators and syrphids, this would suggest that they may not be a prey chosen by the predator, possibly due to their larger size or because the syrphids possess some behavior for escaping from predators. The filter feeding Sabethes aurescens and W. codiocampa were strongly associated, suggesting that competition for resources is low. By contrast, both species of Sabethes (S. aurescens and S. identicus) were not associated.
Abiotic parameters effects on aquatic communities
The abundance of macroinvertebrates in the water-filled Guadua was attributed to the size of the perforation on the side of the internodes rather than to the volume of water or the height of the opening above ground, while the number of taxa was not associated with any abiotic parameter of internodes (Louton et al. 1996). The results showed that the volume of water and debris, and to a lesser extent the height of the opening above ground, are parameters that strongly influence the aquatic community. The size of the entry hole to the internodes could function as a mechanism for selecting the size of the individuals rather than their abundance. Louton et al. (1996) analyzed the community of mosquitoes in particular, and found that both the number of individuals and the number of species were significantly correlated with the volume of water. Conversely, Lozovei (2001) noted that the number of mosquitoes depends on the volume of water retained within the internodes. The results of both Guadua studied here are ambiguous. The abundance and richness of species of mosquitoes that developed in the internodes of G. trinii were correlated with the volume of water, while the mosquitoes that developed in G. chacoensis were correlated to pH but not to the volume of water.
The succession of dipteran larvae in the bamboo is likely to occur as a result of successive changes in pH, and it is noted, for example, that the mosquito Aedes flavopictus colonizes internodes when the pH is acidic (pH ∼ 6.2), while Armigeres subalbatus colonizes them when the medium becomes slightly alkaline (pH ∼ 7.7) (Kurihara 1983). No mosquito larvae were found when the pH was less than 5.5 (Kurihara 1959). The results found in the present study, unlike those of Kurihara (1983, 1959), showed that the species of mosquitoes inhabiting the internodes of Guadua bamboo (all Sabethini except Toxorhynchites spp.) were related preferably to acidic water, tolerating pH values well below 5.5 and being less frequent in alkaline water. Similar results were found by Lozovei (2001) in a study on mosquitoes that inhabit Merostachys bamboo internodes in Brazil.
Immatures of Toxorhynchites, Corethrella sp., and C. bambusicola were the main predators in the aquatic communities of both Guadua. Other members of the community, as some genera of mosquitoes of the Sabethini tribe, are suspected to be predators, among them the species of Runchomyia and Sabethes. All these predators, except Toxorhynchites larvae, showed aggregated inter-bamboo distribution. On the contrary, the predator Toxorhynchites, whose cannibalism has been widely documented (e.g., Lounibos et al. 1996; Campos and Lounibos 2000a, b), usually occurred alone in each internode. A similar observation was reported by Kovac and Streit (1996) from bamboo internodes in Malaysia.
Predation by Corethrellidae has been well-documented by Griswold and Lounibos (2006), who studied the effects of predation by Corethrella appendiculata in treeholes. These authors concluded that C. appendiculata larvae change species composition by preferentially consuming a prey type, while Toxorhynchites larvae by reducing prey density, regardless of the species present in the community. In another study, carried out on predatory habits of dipteran larvae inhabiting 'Nepenthes pitchers, it was observed that Corethrella calathicola larvae attack younger culicids and immature ceratopogonids, and when prey are scarce they may develop a cannibalistic behavior (Mogi and Chan 1996). Predation by Corethrella was not examined here, but due to the aforementioned studies, it is assumed it can be a significant predator due to its abundance, mainly in those internodes that are not occupied by Toxorhynchites larvae.
It is known that larval feeding habits of New Word Sabethini are facultative predators or filter feeding (Judd 1996). For example, it was observed in laboratory that the Isostomyia paranensis larvae (sister groups of Runchomyia) prey on other larvae of mosquitoes, grasping the body and sucking the soft tissues without taking the skin (Campos and Zavortink 2010), and Runchomyia frontosa occasionally preys on inhabitants of phytotelmata (Zavortink 1986). Some species of Sabethes are known as facultative predators, preying on culicids, ceratopogonids and other larvae of aquatic dipterans (Lozovei and Luz 1976; Machado-Allison 1976). Predation by R. reversa, S. aurescens, and S. identicus has not been documented. However, due to the fact that their mouthparts are similar to the ones of other species of the same genus (Harbach and Peyton 1993), they could be potential facultative predators in the aquatic communities of Guadua.
On the basis of the results of this article, it is concluded that: (1) G. chacoensis provided more aquatic habitats for the macroinvertebrate community than G. trinii; (2) the entry hole determined directly (by limiting the size of debris) and indirectly (by limiting the size of visitors that provide faeces and corpses to the water) the resource availability; (3) the communities differed between Guadua species, but a large number of macroinvertebrates used both phytotelmata; (4) the richness of species found in both species showed that these phytotelmata were mainly colonized by species of Culicidae and Ceratopogonidae; and (5) the largest predators, which tended to occur singly, were mosquito larvae of the genus Toxorhynchites.
I thank the National Park Administration, Northeast Region, Centro de Investigaciones Ecológicas Subtropicales (CIES) for logistical help and the license to collect. I thank Eduardo Lestani (Facultad de Ciencias Físicas, Exactas y Naturales, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba) for his help in field work, Gustavo Spinelli (Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Museo, Universidad Nacional de La Plata) for taxonomic determination of Ceratopogonidae, and Monica Caviglia (ILPLA) for improvement of the English. I thank Motoyoshi Mogi (Faculty of Medicine, Saga University, Japan) for his comments and suggestions on the preliminary manuscript and anonymous reviewers for their suggestions. This study was supported by Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET). This is a contribution of the Instituto de Limnología: Journal Serie No. 908.
Hulbert's coefficient of association;
coefficient of variation;
Berger-Parker index of dominance;
Shannon-Wiener index of diversity;
Pearson's coefficient of correlation;
Spearman's coefficient of correlation;
variance inflation factor.

domain: biology


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À propos de ce logement
This place is as awesome as it looks. 180 deg of sea view, pool access, high end finish and (why not) corner apartment. It has an L-shape terrace surrounding the terrace door which is ideal for outdoor entertaining.
- loud music is not permited between the hours of 11pm and 7am
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Greetings fellow traveler. Just like you, I enjoy travelling the four corners of the earth. I believe that the world is too amazingto be lived in just one spot and so, whether for work or for leisure, my life has been a constant packing and unpacking, checking-in and checking-out and most of all saying hello and doing my goodbyes and I do not regret not even one day of it.
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Redoing a room from top to bottom can be a big undertaking. It can involve new floors, new colors, new fabric and many other fun changes. But you can start small. Take a look at these simple ideas that you can start right away.
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Most people have rooms in their homes which they would like to give off the appearance that they seem larger. Light colored walls and ceilings create the illusion of a larger space. Dark colors in small rooms make the room look even smaller that it is.
A quick way to update your space is to focus on accessories. Change out accents and light fixtures in the room. Add some new curtains or tea towels. Not every room will need major changes and you do not need to spend a lot of money.
Not all of your living room furniture has to directly face the TV. You might be better served by having a social area with a couple chairs in a different part of the room. This will be a nice place to relax and converse with a friend over a cup of tea.
Make sure you take everything in your home into consideration, such as your fireplace or tv stands. It can help to ensure that the items on your mantle are balanced properly. If your mantle is unbalanced, it can have a negative effect on the look of your entire room.
Create a collection. The best collections combine three or more interesting and closely related pieces. If you possess three vases then that is considered a collection. Three pictures could also constitute a collection. Group collections together into an interesting display to have a fascinating conversation piece.
When renovating a small home, an excellent suggestion is inserting many mirrors in it. Mirrors are great for making a room look larger and brighter. Find a decorative mirror that matches your furnishings for a beautiful room.
Think about the amount of traffic in a room before you decide on the layout. There should be enough room at all times for people to sit and stand around. You want to avoid traffic jams when you want to enjoy your hard work!
You should not be afraid to make your basement into a living space. A lot of people neglect their basements and get nasty remarks because of this. Go ahead and give your basement a better look with brighter colors and by adding in a mirror or two.
You should try painting your ceiling white if you are trying to create the illusion of space. This special paint has a high gloss that will reflect light back onto the room. If you give it a try in your room, you will surely notice the difference it makes.
Think ahead when planning out how to design small living spaces. First, thing about the limited space. If you have small space problems you need to find ways to maximize your space with multifunction furniture. You can enhance a room’s size by using the right type of lighting.
Once you figure out what it is you want, you can get the supplies you need. You’ll see just how fun interior decorating can be and you’ll want to keep doing it. Start out small, and soon you’ll be on a roll you can’t stop.
Don’t forget to consider the room’s traffic when you’re placing furniture. You should place furniture appropriately throughout the space in order to make it easier for people to maneuver. Although you want your home to look beautiful, it also needs to be functional.

domain: artistic


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Members of the House Education Committee will visit Peabody Middle School and A.P. Hill Elementary School in the City of Petersburg on August 27, 2015 to give members a unique chance to learn more about these schools as well as the overall education landscape in Petersburg.
Legislators will observe classrooms in both Peabody and A.P. Hill, and will then attend a roundtable discussion in A.P. Hill’s gymnasium with teachers from both schools, each school’s principal, the Superintendent and the School Board Chair. This open dialogue will give the legislators an opportunity to receive valuable feedback from Petersburg’s educators.
There will be seating provided for members of the public to observe the roundtable discussion.
WHEN: August 27, 2015. The class observations will take place at Peabody between 1:45 and 2:05 P.M., and at A.P. Hill between 2:30 and 2:50 P.M. The roundtable discussion will be held in the A.P. Hill Gymnasium from 2:55 to 4:00 P.M.
WHERE: Peabody Middle School 725 Wesley St, Petersburg, VA 23803
A.P. Hill Elementary School 1450 Talley Ave, Petersburg, VA 23803
Media Contact: Jay Ell Alexander Public Information Officer City of Petersburg Phone: 804-712-6006


Seamless 430 Stainless Steel Pipe Suppliers
- Size Range: From 4mm4mm to 800mm800mm
- Wall Thickness Range: From 1mm to 150mm (SCH10-XXS)
- Length Options: 4000mm, 5800mm, 6000mm, 12000mm, or as required.
- Finish: 2B, BA,4K,8K, NO.1,2D,3#, HL
- Type: Round, square, rectangular, hexagonal, flat, angle
- Technique: Cold rolled, hot rolled
product description of Seamless 430 Stainless Steel Pipe
The Seamless 430 Stainless Steel Pipe(430 stainless steel seamless pipe/seamless ss pipe) is a versatile and corrosion-resistant product, primarily composed of 18% chromium, 8% nickel, and small amounts of various elements. It exhibits exceptional corrosion resistance when properly polished. This pipe is easy to form, weld, and machine at elevated temperatures while maintaining strength and heat tolerance. It finds applications in diverse industries, including food processing, transportation, and furnace combustion chambers. Its uses extend to automotive trim, nitric acid plant equipment, restaurant appliances, and more. Overall, it is a reliable choice for various industrial needs.
specification of Seamless 430 Stainless Steel Pipe
Chemical Components Of Seamless 430 Stainless Steel Pipe
physical property Of Seamless 430 Stainless Steel Pipe
|Density, g/cm3 (lb/in.3)||7.8 (0.28)|
|Melting point, °C (°F)||1425-1510 (2600-2750)|
|Specific heat capacity, J/kg · K (Btu/lb · °F)||460 (0.11) at 0-100 °C (32 to 212 °F)|
|Electrical resistivity, μΩ·m||0.60 at 20 ℃|
|Magnetic permeability||600-1100 (Approximate)|
|Elastic modulus (Modulus of elasticity), GPa (10 6 psi)||200 (29.0)|
|Thermal diffusivity, mm2/s||7.3|
|Thermal conductivity, W/m · K (Btu/ft · h · °F)||26.1 (15.1), at 100 ℃ (212 °F); 26.3 (15.2), at 500 ℃ (932 °F)|
|Coefficient of thermal expansion, μm/m · °C (μin./in. · °F)||10.4 (5.8), at 0-100 ℃ (32-212 °F); 11.0 (6.1), at 0-315 ℃ (32-600 °F); 11.4 (6.3), at 0-538 ℃ (32-1000 °F)|
mechanical property Of 430 Stainless Steel Seamless Pipe
|Tensile strength, MPa (ksi), ≥||415 (60) for Bar, Annealed, hot-finished or cold-finished; 450 (65) for Sheet, Plate and Strip|
|Yield strength, MPa (ksi), ≥||207 (30) for Bar, Annealed, hot-finished or cold-finished; 275 (40) for Sheet, Plate and Strip|
|Elongation in 50 mm, %, ≥||20 for Bar, Annealed, hot-finished or cold-finished; 16 for Sheet, Plate and Strip|
|Reduction in area, %, ≥||45|
characteristics of Seamless 430 Stainless Steel Pipe
The key characteristic of the Seamless 430 Stainless Steel Pipe lies in its material composition. Crafted from stainless steel 430, this pipe is an austenitic alloy meticulously formulated to provide exceptional performance. Its composition includes 18% chromium and 8% nickel, elements that fortify its resistance to corrosion and tarnishing. In addition to these primary components, the inclusion of minor elements such as carbon, phosphorus, nitrogen, silicon, and molybdenum plays a crucial role in enhancing its durability and overall strength. This meticulously engineered material composition ensures that the 430 Stainless Steel Seamless Pipe excels in providing long-lasting, reliable, and corrosion-resistant performance in a variety of applications.
The exceptional corrosion resistance of the Seamless 430 Stainless Steel Pipe is a product of its meticulous composition. This remarkable pipe exhibits remarkable resistance to corrosion, making it an ideal choice for environments with high corrosion potential. When subjected to thorough polishing or buffing processes, its corrosion resistance is further enhanced. Through these surface treatments, the pipe’s surface becomes smoother and more impervious to corrosive agents. This advanced resistance to corrosion ensures that the Seamless 430 Stainless Steel Pipe maintains its structural integrity and appearance even in challenging, corrosive conditions, making it a reliable and durable choice for a wide range of applications.
The 430 Stainless Steel Seamless Pipe exhibits remarkable formability and weldability. This is attributed to its unique composition and structural characteristics. While the welding process necessitates higher temperatures, the pipe’s inherent machinability, bendability, and formability allow for versatile and precision shaping to meet specific requirements. This quality enables manufacturers to tailor the pipe to various applications, making it a valuable choice in industries demanding complex or customized components. Its ability to undergo machining, bending, and forming processes with ease ensures that it can adapt to diverse manufacturing needs while maintaining structural integrity and performance.
The Seamless 430 Stainless Steel Pipe is characterized by its exceptional strength, which stems from its unique composition and structural properties. This strength enables the pipe to endure significant pressure and tension, rendering it a robust choice for applications in demanding and, at times, hazardous environments. Its structural integrity, combined with its impressive strength, ensures that it can withstand various stresses, making it a reliable and durable component in challenging industrial settings. Whether facing extreme pressures or tension, this stainless steel pipe exhibits the resilience necessary for reliable performance, thus contributing to its widespread application in diverse industries.
The Seamless 430 Stainless Steel Pipe exhibits exceptional heat tolerance, which is attributed to its specific alloy composition and structural characteristics. This heat resistance is a crucial feature, as it enables the pipe to maintain its structural integrity and functionality even when exposed to elevated temperatures. Notably, this stainless steel pipe is capable of withstanding higher temperature environments, making it suitable for a range of applications in industries where heat is a prevalent factor.
The lightweight nature of the pipe further contributes to its suitability for applications where weight constraints are essential. Despite its lightweight design, it maintains its structural integrity and reliability when subjected to increased heat levels, demonstrating its resilience and capacity to handle higher-temperature conditions.
Moreover, in dry air environments, the pipe exhibits good heat resistance, ensuring that it can perform effectively in such conditions. This feature enhances its versatility and expands its application range, particularly in industries that involve processes generating heat or operating in high-temperature settings.
In summary, the heat tolerance of the 430 Stainless Steel Seamless Pipe, combined with its lightweight design and resistance to dry air environments, makes it a valuable component for applications demanding reliable performance in elevated-temperature conditions.
application of Seamless 430 Stainless Steel Pipe
Automotive Trim and Molding
The excellent formability of the Seamless 430 Stainless Steel Pipe positions it as a preferred material for automotive trim and molding applications. In this industry, the pipe's malleable nature plays a vital role in achieving intricate and precisely designed automotive components. Its capacity to be seamlessly formed and molded into desired shapes ensures the production of high-quality trim and molding elements that not only enhance the aesthetic appeal of vehicles but also contribute to their overall structural integrity. This application underscores the versatility and reliability of the 430 Stainless Steel Seamless Pipe in the automotive sector, where precision and durability are paramount.
Gutters and Downspouts
The Seamless 430 Stainless Steel Pipe finds valuable application in the construction industry, specifically in gutters and downspouts. Its remarkable corrosion resistance and inherent strength make it an ideal choice for channeling rainwater and ensuring structural durability. By effectively resisting corrosion even in demanding outdoor conditions, the pipe contributes to the long-lasting performance of gutters and downspouts, safeguarding buildings from potential water damage. This application underscores the seamless integration of stainless steel 430 into essential components of the construction sector, where weathering and structural integrity are of utmost concern.
Seamless 430 Stainless Steel Pipe plays a pivotal role in the appliance industry, particularly in dishwasher manufacturing. Its exceptional corrosion resistance and remarkable formability make it an ideal choice for dishwasher linings. These qualities ensure that the pipe can withstand the harsh conditions of dishwashing, including exposure to hot water, steam, and detergents. By using 430 stainless steel seamless pipe for dishwasher linings, manufacturers can deliver durable and hygienic appliances that provide long-lasting performance and reliability for consumers. This application highlights the essential role of stainless steel in enhancing the quality and longevity of household appliances.
Element Supports and Fasteners
Seamless 430 Stainless Steel Pipe finds valuable application in the production of element supports and fasteners. Thanks to its exceptional strength and remarkable formability, this stainless steel pipe is an ideal choice for creating sturdy and reliable components used in various industrial equipment and machinery. Whether as element supports in heating systems or as fasteners securing critical parts, the pipe's properties ensure structural integrity and long-term performance. Its capacity to withstand both mechanical stress and environmental factors makes it a crucial material for enhancing the durability and efficiency of industrial systems.
Comparing 430 Stainless Steel Seamless Pipe to 304 Stainless Steel Pipe:
- 430 Stainless Steel: Composed of 18% chromium and 8% nickel, with added elements for corrosion resistance.
- 304 Stainless Steel: Comprises 18% chromium and 8% nickel but includes higher nickel content for improved corrosion resistance.
- 430 Stainless Steel: Offers good corrosion resistance but is less resistant than 304, making it more suitable for less corrosive environments.
- 304 Stainless Steel: Demonstrates excellent corrosion resistance and is the preferred choice for highly corrosive settings.
- 430 Stainless Steel: Commonly used in automotive trim, molding, and less demanding applications.
- 304 Stainless Steel: Ideal for applications requiring high corrosion resistance, such as food processing, chemical industry, and marine environments.
- 430 Stainless Steel: Generally more cost-effective than 304 stainless steel due to its lower nickel content.
- 430 Stainless Steel: Exhibits good formability and is suitable for bending and forming.
- 304 Stainless Steel: Highly formable, making it versatile for various shaping and welding processes.
- 430 Stainless Steel: Offers good weldability with standard techniques.
- 304 Stainless Steel: Known for its excellent weldability, ensuring strong and durable joints.
When considering 430 stainless steel seamless pipes compared to 304 stainless steel pipes, it’s essential to evaluate their specific corrosion resistance requirements and intended applications. Stainless steel pipe suppliers can provide guidance based on your project’s needs.
Comparing 430 Stainless Steel Seamless Pipe to 316 Stainless Steel Pipe:
- 430 Stainless Steel: Contains 18% chromium and 8% nickel, suitable for general applications.
- 316 Stainless Steel: Comprises 16-18% chromium, 10-14% nickel, and 2-3% molybdenum, offering superior corrosion resistance.
- 430 Stainless Steel: Provides good corrosion resistance, suitable for less demanding environments.
- 316 Stainless Steel: Highly corrosion-resistant, making it ideal for marine, chemical, and corrosive environments.
- 430 Stainless Steel: Used in automotive trim, molding, and less corrosive settings.
- 316 Stainless Steel: Preferred for applications where exceptional corrosion resistance is vital, including marine equipment, pharmaceuticals, and chemical processing.
- 430 Stainless Steel: Generally more cost-effective than 316 stainless steel due to the lower nickel and molybdenum content.
- 430 Stainless Steel: Offers good formability, making it suitable for bending and shaping.
- 316 Stainless Steel: Less formable than 430, yet maintains its corrosion resistance.
- 430 Stainless Steel: Shows good weldability using standard techniques.
- 316 Stainless Steel: Requires more attention during welding but still allows strong and durable joints.
When choosing between 430 and 316 stainless steel seamless pipes, consider the corrosion resistance needed for your specific application. Stainless steel pipe suppliers can offer guidance based on your project’s requirements.
Stainless steel 430 is generally not considered food grade due to its lower nickel content, which can result in reduced corrosion resistance in contact with certain foods. For applications where food-grade stainless steel is essential, it’s advisable to choose stainless steel types like 304 or 316. Stainless steel pipe suppliers can provide guidance on selecting the most suitable material for food-related applications.
Yes, 430 stainless steel seamless pipes can be used outside. They have good resistance to atmospheric corrosion and can withstand outdoor exposure. Stainless steel pipe suppliers can provide recommendations for specific outdoor applications to ensure the best performance and longevity.
Yes, a magnet will stick to 430 stainless steel. This is because 430 stainless steel is a ferritic stainless steel alloy, which is magnetic. It’s important to note that while it’s magnetic, it still retains many of the corrosion-resistant properties of stainless steel, making it suitable for various applications. Stainless steel pipe suppliers can provide further information on its magnetic properties and applications.


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Best-selling in Fiction Books
Save on Fiction Books
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About this product
- DescriptionThe new vel by Alexis Wright, whose previous vel Carpentaria won the Miles Franklin Award and four other major prizes including the ABIA Literary Fiction Book of the Year Award. The Swan Book is set in the future, with Aboriginals still living under the Intervention in the rth, in an environment fundamentally altered by climate change. It follows the life of a mute teenager called Oblivia, the victim of gang-rape by petrol-sniffing youths, from the displaced community where she lives in a hulk, in a swamp filled with rusting boats, and thousands of black swans driven from other parts of the country, to her marriage to Warren Finch, the first Aboriginal president of Australia, and her elevation to the position of First Lady, confined to a tower in a flooded and lawless southern city. The Swan Book has all the qualities which made Wright's previous vel, Carpentaria, a prize-winning best-seller. It offers an intimate awareness of the realities facing Aboriginal people; the wild energy and humour in her writing finds hope in the bleakest situations; and the remarkable combination of storytelling elements, drawn from myth and legend and fairy tale.
- Author BiographyAlexis Wright's previous novel, Carpentaria, won the Miles Franklin Award in 2007.
- Author(s)Alexis Wright
- PublisherGiramondo Publishing Co
- Date of Publication01/01/2015
- SubjectGeneral & Literary Fiction
- Place of PublicationArtarmon
- Country of PublicationAustralia
- ImprintGiramondo Publishing Co
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domain: literature


text:
Pet Cages, Carriers & Houses,elegant dog kennel buildings
|Cage, Carrier & House Type:||Cages||Application:||Dogs|
|Feature:||Eco-Friendly,Stocked||Place of Origin:||Tianjin China (Mainland)||Brand Name:||LEMAY/ OEM|
|Model Number:||LMB554||Name:||dog kennel buildings||Size:||5' x 5' x 4'|
|Surface treatment:||Powder coating||Color:||Black||Package:||carton box|
|Advantage:||great quality dog kennel buildings||MOQ:||10 PCS||Style:||
Fashion dog kennel buildings in garden or yard
|Payment terms:||T/T , L/C ,Escrow|
|Packaging Detail:||1 piece/carton box|
|Delivery Detail:||35 days|
dog kennel buildings
1.5' x 5' x 4' dog kennel buildings
2.Easy to transport
3.Powder coating finish
dog kennel buildings
Pre-assembled panels make set up quick and easy for consumers;
Modular design provides extra versatility for customization;
Preferred and used by top breeders;
Industry leading quality;
construction of dog kennel buildings
Commercial grade steel frame
Square tube design
Welded wire mesh
surface treatment of dog kennel buildings
Powder coating is a type of coating that is applied as a free-flowing, dry powder. The main difference between a conventional liquid paint and a powder coating is that the powder coating does not require a solvent to keep the binder and filler parts in a liquid suspension form.
Powder coatings can produce much thicker coatings than conventional liquid coatings without running or sagging.
Powder coating overspray can be recycled and thus it is possible to achieve nearly 100% use of the coating.
package of dog kennel buildings
All components of each set dog kennel buildings are packed in one 5-ply corrugated cardboard color box.
5 boxes on 1 wooden pallet (fumigation) with paper corner protection and PE film.
This kind of package provides great protection to the dog cage when they are transferred.
rust protection of dog kennel buildings
2-step powder coating process.
After welding, the complete panel is galvanized, and then powder coated.
Eliminating sharp edges, and adding extra rust prevention.
Specification of dog kennel buildings
|Product Name||dog kennel buildings|
|Wire Mesh diameter||50x100x3.0mm|
|Assembly size||5' x 5' x 4'|
|Package Detail||1 pc / Carton box|
|Production Capacity||5000 pcs / Month|
|Lead time||7 ~ 30 days|
|Payment||T/T , L/C|

domain: pet


The state of Florida is poised to leave $820 million in federal pandemic food assistance for over 2 million hungry children on the table without immediate action by the Department of Children and Families, caution Florida Policy Institute, Florida Impact, No Kid Hungry, Second Harvest Food Bank of Central Florida and Feeding Tampa Bay.
Second Harvest Food Bank is urging Central Floridians who are upset by the state’s inaction to let Governor Ron DeSantis know by completing an online petition. Each time someone adds their name, an email is sent directly to the Florida Governor and Lt. Governor. The petition calls on Gov. DeSantis “to particpate in the Summer Electronic Benefit Program, or Summer EBT, to provide over 2 million of Florida’s children with the nutritious meals they need to grow and thrive.”
This assistance provides federal funding at no cost to states to provide grocery benefits to children who missed out on free or reduced-price meals while their school or child care facilities were closed during the summer. Summer P-EBT has strong, bipartisan support. Most states, including Alabama, Arkansas, Louisiana, South Carolina, and Texas, have already been approved to use these federal funds to feed hungry children.
Meanwhile, Florida is one of only a handful of states that appears to have made no effort to get the summer program off the ground.
Since summer feeding programs only reach 1 in 5 children who receive free or reduced-price meals at school, Summer P-EBT is a way to ensure that children in participating states do not go hungry while school is out. With summer wrapped up and school now in session, Florida families have already carried much of the burden of meal costs for their children over the summer in the absence of school meals. However, there is still an opportunity to get relief for families: summer P-EBT benefits can be provided retroactively, and the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) is still accepting applications from states to run these vital programs.
“It’s not too late for the state to get these funds to children in families with low income,” said Sadaf Knight, CEO of the nonpartisan, nonprofit Florida Policy Institute. “Although fall is fast approaching, this program would still help families who are playing catch up from the summer due to added food and other pandemic-related costs.”
If Florida accepts available funds, the program would provide families with low income approximately $6.82 a day to spend on a child’s meals or a total of about $375 per child. Benefits from Summer P-EBT can only be used to purchase food.
Florida’s children continue to experience hunger and other hardships exacerbated by the financial impact of the pandemic. In a survey of Florida households conducted by the Census Bureau from June 23, 2021, through July 5, 2021, 14 percent of adults living with children reported that their kids were not eating enough because the household could not afford food. Thirteen percent of renters said that they were not caught up on rent, and 30 percent reported that they were having trouble paying for their household’s usual expenses.
Children of color are disproportionately harmed by delaying Summer P-EBT. Nation-wide, roughly 51 percent of children in Black households, 47 percent in Latino households, and 30 percent in white households live in families that have trouble covering usual living expenses, such as food, housing, car payments, and medical expenses. The end result is that the delay in delivering Summer P-EBT only heightens racial disparities.
The longer Florida waits to submit its plan, the longer families across the state will have to wait for this critical grocery benefit.
“Federal benefits like Summer P-EBT will be essential as our state continues to rebuild from this crisis. Making sure families can afford to buy the food they need when they need it is one of the most efficient, effective ways to prevent kids from going hungry. Those benefits are spent at local grocery stores and markets, funneling dollars directly back into Florida’s economy” said Sky Beard, Director of No Kid Hungry Florida.
“No parent should have to feel the stress of not being able to provide enough food for their children,” said Kim Johnson, CEO of Florida Impact to End Hunger.
Florida still has time to launch Summer P-EBT to feed kids. However, state policymakers must act quickly to implement this critical nutrition program.


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When the sum of 8 and 5 is subtracted from the product of 8 and 5,what is the difference?
Step 1 of 3
L32 - 3 Riemann Sums, Deﬁnite Integral, and Area: If f(x) ≥ 0o n[ a,b] y = f(x) a b If f(x) ≤ 0form...
Textbook: Saxon Math, Course 1
Author: Stephan Hake
The full step-by-step solution to problem: 1 from chapter: 13 was answered by , our top Math solution expert on 03/16/18, 04:35PM. The answer to “When the sum of 8 and 5 is subtracted from the product of 8 and 5,what is the difference?” is broken down into a number of easy to follow steps, and 19 words. Saxon Math, Course 1 was written by and is associated to the ISBN: 9781591417835. This full solution covers the following key subjects: . This expansive textbook survival guide covers 120 chapters, and 3595 solutions. This textbook survival guide was created for the textbook: Saxon Math, Course 1, edition: 1. Since the solution to 1 from 13 chapter was answered, more than 233 students have viewed the full step-by-step answer.

domain: library


text:
NBF Accident Law
Experienced personal injury attorneys fighting for justice, serving clients in the Seattle Metro Area and throughout Washington state.
At NBF Accident Law, we take deep pride in putting our clients first. We will carefully listen to your concerns and goals, making sure you feel heard and valued at every turn. Within two weeks of accepting your case, we’ll provide you with a short, straightforward analysis of your case and our strategy for winning. Our attorneys recognize that pursuing a personal injury claim is a significant and somewhat stressful undertaking, which is why we strive to keep you informed as much as possible. You will have direct telephone access to your attorney as we work on your case, ensuring that you feel like our partner in this process.
When you hire us, you obtain the benefits of working with all of our attorneys. Our team has handled over 1,000 personal injury cases, and we have over 100 years of combined legal experience among us. Our comprehensive experience gives us the tools and knowledge we need to advocate on your behalf. Additionally, we have spent years on the other side of this process, defending parties from personal injury claims. This deep familiarity with all sides of the legal process allows us to move your case forward with better care and confidence. We know what it takes to win.
If you are ready to discuss your personal injury case with a trusted and experienced Seattle personal injury lawyer, we invite you to contact our office at your earliest convenience to get started.


Long path ahead for Rehoboth merging ordinance
- Rehoboth Beach Commissioners discussed an ordinance that would relieve some confusion surrounding merging and unmering lots.
- The criteria for automatic merger and how to notify people were key talking points.
- It will be a slow process moving forward, commissioners said.
The Rehoboth Beach Board of Commissioners reviewed a draft ordinance that would clarify the process surrounding merging and unmerging lots in the city at a workshop meeting.
The draft was a good starting point to an issue that has affected the city’s Building and Licensing Department, Board of Adjustment and Planning Commission, some commissioners said, but there is still a lot of work left to do.
“We have a long way to go and there are many discussion points,” Commissioner Stan Mills said at the Aug. 4 meeting.
Mills, who has led the effort, spent roughly two hours going through the draft ordinance in a presentation.
Mills said the ordinance will codify the city’s current unmerging policy, according to the presentation, “When circumstances causing a merger have been abated, the city’s Building and Licensing Department will no longer advise property owners that a subdivision by the Planning Commission is necessary to unmerge the lots.”
Discussion first picked up when Mills reviewed the topic of automatic merger — scenarios in which two lots will be automatically combined. Two or more lots under common ownership are combined when they are used as one parcel, through the placement of a structure or other improvements, such as a handicap ramp that crosses a property line or a house that straddles a property line.
Lots would also be automatically merged if they are used as one parcel. Mills provided scenarios such as an art studio being on one lot, but many classes are conducted outdoors on the other lot.
“Someone owns a lot and they put a swing set next door for their kids. That’s merged. That’s crazy,” Commissioner Stan Mills said.
The third situation in which lots would automatically combine is if they must in order to comply with the code — for example, homes that are built too close to property lines and need more space to meet side yard setback requirements. The criteria for automatic merging should be reviewed further, Mills said.
Another major discussion point was the notification of residents whose lots may be affected — at first, it was suggested that the city send out a letter to every resident informing them of the new ordinance, but that might cause confusion, some said.
“You’re going to turn this town upside down,” Mayor Sam Cooper said. “You’re going to raise so many questions with so few answers.”
Other factors, such as what to do with irregular sized lots, were discussed during the meeting. Because the issue is a zoning matter, it will require a public hearing Mills said, and the commissioners have a lot of work ahead crafting the ordinance.
“This is a very challenging ordinance to try to address everything. When you do one thing it causes another,” Mills said. “The path forward is going to be slow, frankly.”
The issue will likely be on September’s workshop agenda for continued discussion.
302-537-1881, ext. 207
On Twitter @rachaelpacella