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Sec. Land, Livelihoods and Food Security
Aquaponics for Improved Food Security in Africa: A Review
- Faculty of Renewable Natural Resources, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana
Increasing demand on water resources, reduced land water availability, and concerns over food security have spurred the evolution of many innovative and complex food production. An aquaponic system is a productive, innovative, and sustainable fish and vegetable production system that is revolutionizing agriculture in the face of drought, soil fertility losses, and climate change. Aquaponics, as an advanced aquaculture-agriculture system, is expected to improve food security in developing countries. However, as an emerging technology, there is very limited information on the system in Africa. Questions about the ecological and socio-economic sustainability of aquaponics are answered in this comprehensive review. This review considers aquaponics projects in Africa, categorizes the technology by evidences of their effectiveness, fish and plant yields, and juxtaposes the technology within best-use practices to make recommendations that will inform evidence-based policymaking. It also maps the present spatial adoption of the technology in sub-Saharan Africa and highlights the system's contribution to improving food security on the continent. Egypt and South Africa are countries where aquaponics is emerging and being adopted at faster rates and contributing to food security. In West Africa, significantly lower net-discounted benefit-cost ratios were realized when aquaponics systems were constructed using imported materials compared to using locally available materials. Despite aquaponics systems generally having higher start-up costs currently, its potential to be economically viable when undertaken with local materials is very high.
One of the greatest challenges facing the world is how to meet the nutritional needs of a growing human population that is projected to hit 10 billion by 2050. To meet the additional food demands imposed by the nearly 30% population increase, global food production has to increase by as much as 50% (FAO, 2017). Food production will, however, be challenged by factors such as climate change, pollution and degradation of arable lands (Goddek et al., 2019a). According to the projections of Bajželj et al. (2014), despite the development of high yielding crop varieties and enhanced food production methods, current food production trends will not meet the projected global food demand by 2050. The situation will further be exacerbated by reductions in agricultural lands. Between 1970 and 2013, global agricultural lands have decreased by more than 50% (Goddek et al., 2019a). By the end of the 21st century, climate change alone is projected to account to for up to 18% of arable land losses in Africa (Zhang and Cai, 2011) which will negatively affect the
continent's already dire food insecurity situation. These challenges to food production require innovation in food production systems, methods and practices, given that a billion people are already chronically malnourished (Godfray et al., 2010).
Aquaponics is a sustainable food production system that uses circular economy concepts and a biomimetic natural system to minimize input and waste. It is an industrious mechanism that incorporates impeccably with the sustainable growth of intensive agriculture (Tyson et al., 2011; Vermeulen and Kamstra, 2012; Joly et al., 2015). Aquaponics combines two primarily productive systems: recirculating aquaculture system (RAS) and hydroponic cultivation. Recirculating aquaculture involves the farming of fish and crustaceans in a tank, while hydroponic cultivation involves the cultivation of vegetables in a medium other than soil. Aquaponics emerges as a key technology with potential to transform agriculture and enhance food security in the wake of climate change, particularly in arid regions (Conijn et al., 2018).
Aquaponics in one form or another has been practiced for centuries in several countries but the technology still remains less popular compared to traditional food production methods and is largely practiced on small scales by individuals (Junge et al., 2017). The technology is, however, rapidly transforming from a largely backyard technology into industrial-scale production due to practical improvements in design and practice which have significantly increased both fish and crop output capacities and production efficiencies (Bernstein, 2011). Improvements in design and functions have transformed aquaponic systems beyond a water-reuse innovation into an efficient energy and wastewater recycling system (Goddek et al., 2019b). The technology is usually proffered as a solution for efficiently using marginal lands in urban areas for food production. Although the technology has been recommended as a means of addressing some of the food insecurity and nutrition-related challenges in Africa, its adoption across the continent is still very low. This chapter focuses on the adoption of aquaponics technology and reviews published information to highlight the potential of the technology in contributing to food security issues.
Aquaponics Technology in Africa
Aquaponics systems are fairly new to countries in Africa and as expected, there are a few published information (including gray literature) on the subject obtained through online search on Google Scholar and Scopus and also by an international survey conducted in 2014 where only a single response each was received from Ghana and South Africa (Love et al., 2015). The bubble plot for the number of aquaponic publications in different African countries is shown in Figure 1. A total of 82 publications on aquaponics were found from 15 African countries. Egypt, South Africa and Kenya (23, 20, and 14 publications, respectively) are the countries that appear to have widely adopted the technology in Africa. Except for Nigeria that had nine publications on aquaponics, the remaining countries had between 1 and 3 publications. The low adoption of aquaponic technology can be linked to low penetration of innovative fish production systems such as recirculating aquaculture systems that are an integral part of aquaponic systems. Adoption rates (based on the number of publications found) appear to correlate with the scale and development of aquaculture in the different countries. Egypt, Nigeria, Kenya and South Africa are major contributors to the continent's aquaculture production. Water scarcity could also be driving widespread adoption of aquaponics in an arid country like Egypt. In arid regions, circulation of water between the RAS and hydroponics units can result in a remarkable water re-use efficiency rate of 95–99% (Dalsgaard et al., 2013). The following subsections extensively review the adoption of aquaponics on a sub-regional basis across Africa. Although the review covers African sub-regions, the narrative in some instances may be skewed toward the countries that have wide-scale adoption of aquaponics.
Figure 1. Bubble plot showing the number of aquaponic publications in different African countries (bubble color and size indicate the number of studies in each highlighted country).
Water scarcity and food insecurity, combined with human population growth, pose serious challenges to North Africa's agricultural sector. Egypt's population is expected to increase from around 80 million today to around 97 million in 2025 (UN Population data), and current per capita water supply is expected to drop by 40% by 2025 (http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat). According to McCarl et al. (2015), the effect of climate change on Egyptian agriculture might be very devastating. Most of the publications on aquaponics in the regions have thus touted the expansion of the technology as critical to address water scarcity issues (Essa et al., 2008; Soethoudt et al., 2016; El-Essawy et al., 2019). As opposed to traditional agriculture, aquaponics has higher economic potential and less negative effects on groundwater resources (El-Essawy et al., 2019). Commercial aquaponics units that have been coupled with greenhouses to improve crop production have been established in Egypt to grow Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) and olives. The feedbacks on the quality and sizes of fish produced in aquaponic units in Egypt are overwhelmingly positive and the reputation of the technology being a clean process has resulted in it rapidly gaining traction in the retail and wholesale markets (El-Essawy et al., 2019). Comparative studies on vegetable yield in the two commonly used aquaponics systems in Egypt, the deep-water culture (DWC) and sand-bed systems indicate that yields are about 30% higher in the DWC systems although this system uses lower water reuse efficiency (Salem, 2019).
While aquaponics has higher capital and operating costs than traditional agriculture in the short term, it is more profitable in the long run and saves more than 90% of the water wasted by conventional farming techniques in Dalsgaard et al., 2013 and El-Essawy et al., 2019. Profits from aquaponics systems after deducting operational expenditures are also about 30-fold higher than conventional agriculture due to the more efficient use of space and the additional income from the fish (El-Essawy et al., 2019). There is ongoing research to develop and build affordable aquaponics systems that use locally available recyclable materials to lower capital costs. Intermediate bulk containers (1,000 L capacity) are commonly used as fish culture and water treatment units in most of the aquaponics systems in Egypt as a cost-saving measure. While aquaponics has more economic and environmental benefits than drawbacks, there are technical and social limitations in addition to the high start-up investments that must be considered for it to be widely adopted in the arid regions of North Africa. According to Soethoudt et al. (2016), the development of aquaponics in Egypt is constrained by limited experience, technical expertise and scalability issues. Given the high start-up costs, it has been recommended that more research efforts should be targeted at developing units that can easily be adopted by small farms for the production of fish and crops that constitute a significant portion of local diets such as tomatoes (Soethoudt et al., 2016).
The idea of aquaponics may be useful to southern African countries that have limited agricultural production resources (water and fertile croplands), high urbanization rate and exponentially increasing urban poverty (Mchunu et al., 2018). In South Africa, aquaponics has been viewed as having the potential to rehabilitate degraded coal mining sites (Botha, 2014). Another factor that has encouraged the adoption of aquaponics in South Africa is the near-collapse of freshwater pond aquaculture because outside environmental conditions do not allow cultured fish to independently establish economically viable populations (Swap et al., 2002). Water temperatures often fall below the tolerable minima required by the common aquaculture species on the continent including the Nile tilapia (Van der Waal, 2000). For year-round fish production, aquaponics installation in Southern Africa will require temperature control mechanisms or adjustments to efficiently operate. Heating costs in aquaculture generally contribute significantly to production costs.
Aquaponics is, however, an emerging but rapidly evolving practice in South Africa (Love et al., 2014, 2015; Mchunu et al., 2018). Fish stocking densities usually range from 15 to 19 kgm−3, which is low and suggests small-scale or subsistence nature of most of the systems (Sace and Fitzsimmons, 2013). The wide-scale adoption of these small units is, however, very critical in addressing some of the food security issues in the country. Magazines and news articles on aquaponics in South Africa are very common and highlight the potential of the technology on hobby, small-scale and commercial levels. Commercial aquaponics in South Africa has an intensive outlook and usually adopts fish stocking densities between 60 and 200 kgm−3 in 5,000 m3 tanks (FAO, 2014). The increased interest in aquaponics could also be because of the recent drought, food safety concerns, land reforms and increasing population size (Van der Waal, 2000; Faber et al., 2011; Mabhaudhi et al., 2013; Mchunu et al., 2018).
Most aquaponics operations started as aquaculture farms and then evolved to aquaponics (El-Essawy et al., 2019) and this is true for most of the South Africa establishments. Commercial aquaponics practitioners in South Africa have very good access to vegetable and fish markets (Mchunu et al., 2018). Vegetable are, however, harvested at higher frequencies of every 1–3 months compared to fish which are usually harvested at periods >6 months (Love et al., 2014, 2015). The plant component of most aquaponic system in South Africa comprise mostly salad greens, lettuce, basil, herbs, pepper, cucumber, beans and peas, tomatoes, carrots flowers and ornamental plants. While fruity vegetables have a higher economic value and return, most farmers raised leafy vegetables (salad greens, lettuce, basal, and herbs). Because of their low agronomic requirements, leafy vegetables use fewer nutrients than fruity vegetables (Rakocy et al., 2004) and grow fast when all nutrients are supplied (FAO, 2014). Moreover, leafy vegetables can be raised in higher density (up to 30 plants m−2) than fruity vegetables, which usually grown at a maximum density of 8 plants m−2 (USAID, 2013; FAO, 2014). These plants are grown in growth medium be, nutrient film technique and deep water culture production systems. Fish sales from aquaponics are quite popular because of perceived higher product quality, growing food insecurity and dietary lifestyle changes (Faber et al., 2011; Mchunu et al., 2019). Species of tilapia and trout are the commonly raised fish in typical South African aquaponic systems (Mchunu et al., 2018). Other less popular fish include catfishes, bass, bluegill, and some ornamental species. The Nile tilapia is the most dominant species cultured in South African aquaponics (FAO, 2014; Love et al., 2014, 2015). Tilapia grows well in a recirculating tank culture with higher tolerance to fluctuating water conditions such as pH, temperature, oxygen, and dissolved solids; tilapia can tolerate a wide range of water temperatures (9–42.5°C), dissolved oxygen as low as 0.1 mgL−1, and unionized ammonia concentration of 2.4 mgL−1 (D'Amato et al., 2007). The lower percentages for other fish species can be attributed to limiting environmental conditions in South Africa. Fish stocking densities commonly range between 15 and 19 kgm−3 although in some intensive systems densities can be >50 kgm−3 (Mchunu et al., 2018).
The nationwide survey of aquaponics users in South Africa by Mchunu et al. (2018) revealed that practitioner experiences ranged from 1 to 10 years and highlighted aquaponics as a new technology in the country. Most systems were self-constructed by the operators, sometimes with extension service assistance from the Department of Agriculture. Growth medium beds are the dominant method of crop production in South Africa (Mchunu et al., 2018) because it does not require setting up independent biofilters to remove excess nutrients from the water as the bed itself acts as a biofilter (Hu et al., 2015). Nutrient film techniques and the deep-water culture systems usually require independent biofiltration systems to facilitate nitrification, which add to the installation costs. Gravel media are the dominant method of crop production, as it is easily accessible and readily available compared to other media (Sikawa and Yakupitiyage, 2010). The flood and drain system is a cheap, simple, and easy to use method to return dissolved nutrients to the rearing tank, while giving plants enough time to take up the nutrients (FAO, 2014).
Feasibility studies have been conducted in Namibia to assess the viability of setting up aquaponics systems to enhance food security, sustainability, income generation, and as an educational resource (Rego et al., 2020). About 430,000 Namibians are reported to be food insecure as almost 70% of food is imported from South Africa (FAO, 2020). In this Namibian case, aquaponics is one of the most efficient way to combat food security (Rego et al., 2020). Aquaponic and hydroponic systems use water effectively to provide sustainable agriculture. Besides food security, aquaponics will be a sustainable agricultural system in Namibia during droughts (Rego et al., 2020). The trial runoff the prototype system indicated that tilapia and koi are the best suited fish species for aquaponics development in Namibia (Rego et al., 2020). Rego et al. (2020) found out that aquaponics would have a compound annual growth rate of 12.5% in Namibia. The study concluded that aquaponics is a lucrative agricultural system to invest in due to short- and long-term profit margins and potential local market expansions.
Facing a growing human population, inefficient traditional food production methods and unreliable rainfall, Zimbabwe is considering aquaponics as a viable means to avert famine (Marimbona and Mushiri, 2019). To offset the problem of frequent power outages and ensure continuous running of water and air pumps, a prototype aquaponics system powered by a standalone solar photovoltaic (PV) system has been tested in Zimbabwe. A 1.6 kW solar PV array produced enough output to run a combined electrical load of 293.2 W from a water pump, an aerator and electronics devices. The system used an Arduino based system to automatically monitor the temporal changes in pH, temperature and water flow velocity. The system was designed to be scalable and easy to set up in different localities.
Literature on aquaponics in West Africa is limited compared to the Northern and Southern regions of Africa. Although internet search produces information on aquaponics from four West African countries, only a few of the publications contained enough information to be included in the review. The Sustainable Aquaponics for Nutritional and Food Security in Urban Sub-Saharan Africa (SANFU), a small-scale pilot project in Lagos, Nigeria, conducted an experiment to collect data on key variables to bring a small-scale aquaponics system to a productive and economically feasible level (Benjamin et al., 2020). This information had been up until this project been largely lacking for the sub-region. The prototype SANFU aquaponics system that was set up using relatively expensive foreign sourced components can yield about 28 kg of fish and 3 kg of vegetables per annum with a nitrogen outflow of 48.5 g. This corresponds to a rather unfavorable net discounted benefit-cost rate (DBCR) of 0.08 over a 20-year period. A similar system was setup constructed using locally sourced components had a significantly higher DBCR of 1.12. However, it is anticipated that the yield from the fish harvested can be 10 times the experimental yield if optimum real-life stocking and planting densities are considered (Benjamin et al., 2020). The SANFU study highlights the possibility of using locally available materials and increasing the chances of low-income individuals to set up small-scale aquaponic systems and contribute to food and nutrition security.
In Ghana, the implementation of aquaponic systems is slow and reports on aquaponics is very scarce. The most notable aquaponics project in Ghana was a collaborative project between a Ghanaian and Brazilian research institute, which was aimed at increasing smallholder food production through implementation of water conserving aquaponics-based food systems ensuring all-year-round food production for enhanced nutrition to the smallholder farmer (Frimpong et al., 2017). Aquaponics system may be configured to be fully recirculating or decoupled systems, and in the case of the project in Ghana, it was a decoupled system. Decoupled aquaponic are designed to culture the fish and plants as separate units whereby water is used to culture fish and the effluents supplied to the plants without circulating the water back to the fish (Karimanzira et al., 2017). In the Ghana trial, effluents from the fish production was administered to maize plots. This resulted in a maize yield of 2.3 t/ha (Table 1), which is higher than the maize yield range for Ghana of 1.5–1.7 t/ha (Ragasa et al., 2013). Decoupled designs allow more flexibility in customizing and optimizing the water chemistry in the effluents from the fish culture before supply to plants through supplementation of low or absent nutrients (Goddek et al., 2019b). Adding digesters to decoupled aquaponics systems can facilitate the microbial conversion of phosphorus in fish waste into orthophosphates that can be utilized by plants, with high recovery rates (Goddek et al., 2019b).
From literature, it is apparent that aquaponics is a recent concept in East Africa. Most of the East African aquaponics trials are concentrated in Kenya. Adoption of new farming technologies that can increase climate resilience has been proposed as a way to increase food security in East Africa, particularly for subsistence farmers (Bryan et al., 2013). In Kenya, productivity of main crops such as maize is declining due to infestation of army worms, land degradation, unpredictable weather events such as prolonged dry conditions and continuous splitting of land between inheritors (Henze and Ulrichs, 2015). Food security in the 21st century requires new, innovative and sustainable food production systems that can increase crop yields using limited land and water resources with little impact on the environment and biodiversity (Pearson, 2007).
To offset the high cost of fish feed which can account for up to 70% of fish production costs (Obirikorang et al., 2020), the black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) has been experimentally included in fish feeds as substitutes for the expensive fishmeal for use in aquaponics systems in Ethiopia (Koop, 2016). Black soldier fly feeds could be suitable for use in aquaponics systems based on positive effects in optimizing fish and plant growth (Koop, 2016). van Gorcum et al. (2019) conducted an exploratory study into the demand side of the Kenyan market and consumer perceptions for aquaponically produced food products in Nairobi. Majority of the respondents in that study were willing to pay more for aquaponics products mainly because they perceived them to be fresher, healthier and free of pesticides. Based on the results of the market survey there appears to be a potential for marketing aquaponics products and the adoption of the system could represent an approach to bypass seasonal production issues due to Kenya's erratic climatic conditions. Besides market value and customer acceptance, the plants used in aquaponics are chosen based on their abilities to sufficiently recover nutrients for growth. Sweet wormwood, pigweed and pumpkin in the hydroponic component of aquaponics systems for the intensive production of Nile tilapia are able to take up nearly 74% of nitrate from the effluents from the fish production units (Gichana et al., 2018).
The challenges to establishing aquaponics projects in East Africa include lack of electricity in many rural areas, cost and access to fish feed which is the one important and most expensive inputs into the system, high set-up cost; which hinders many farmers from adopting aquaponics as most do not have access to agricultural loans. The lack of expertise and long-term planning as well as challenges related to changing customary practices undermine diffusion and adoption of new methods, tools and technologies (van Gorcum et al., 2019).
Food Security Issues in Africa
The United Nation's 2030 development agenda outlines 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) including SDG 2 which aims to address all forms of hunger and nutritional insecurity issues over the next decade (United Nations, 2015). Although significant progress has been made, food insecurity is still a key issue globally and over 1 billion people suffer from starvation, undernutrition and malnutrition. A disproportionate number of the people experiencing food insecurity are natives of developing countries. Whilst some African countries made significant gains in Millennium Development Goal targets such as “ending extreme poverty and hunger” and “reducing by half the proportion of people who suffer from hunger” by 2015, the large continental picture is patchy and the overall progress slow (FAO, 2015). Food insecurity reached catastrophic dimensions in some areas of Africa, particularly in the Horn of Africa and southern Madagascar (Sasson, 2012), and in some central African countries, the number of undernourished people has more than doubled since 1990 due to the synergistic effect of population growth, political instability and civil wars (FAO, 2015). West Africa has reduced the number of undernourished people by 60% since 1990 and is highlighted as one of the most successful sub-regions south of the Sahara (Hall et al., 2017). Eastern and Southern Africa also made significant progress in reducing the number of people facing food insecurity (FAO, 2015).
Food insecurity transcends insufficient food production, availability, and intake and also relates to the quality and nutritional composition of the food. Fish has often been promoted in many nutritional campaigns as a “rich food for poor people” (Beveridge et al., 2013), and plays an important role in improving Africa's food security and nutritional status. The potential of fish in improving the food security and nutritional status of rural poor, particularly of women and young children is well highlighted (Aiga et al., 2009; Longley et al., 2014; Thilsted et al., 2016; Bennett et al., 2018; Akuffo et al., 2020). Sensitization interventions tailored toward caregiver utilization of food sources like fish to improve child malnutrition has also positively affected fish consumption patterns (Bandoh et al., 2018). Africa's human population is the fastest growing in the world, with the population projected to reach 2.4 billion in 2050 from the present count of 1.1 billion (United Nations, 2015). This directly translates into more than half of the projected global population increase between now and 2050 being born in Africa. Africa's role in achieving SDG 2 is key to mitigating global food insecurity and several governments and sub-regional unions have made commitments to increase agricultural budgets and invest in technical solutions, high yielding crop varieties and sustainable agriculture (Sasson, 2012).
Contribution of Aquaponics to Food Security in Africa
The current discussions on food security and sustainable food production have highlighted the “water-energy-food nexus” approach as key to analyzing and managing the interactions among global resource systems (Scott et al., 2015). The nexus approach acknowledges the interconnectedness of land, water, energy, capital and labor and their associated drivers (Joyce et al., 2019). An important element of the food security agenda in most African countries is to adopt a practice or programme that directly supports food insecure people to achieve some level of food self-sufficiency, particularly nutrition security. Mchunu et al. (2017) highlights the immense potential of aquaponics systems in ensuring food security in many areas in Africa through the provision of fish and vegetables. Fish is very important to human nutrition and health and is projected to play an essential role in the food security and nutrition discussions (Beveridge et al., 2013). The role of cultured fish in ensuring food security discussion is quite recent, and has become crucial in the face of stagnated outputs from natural waters. Even in small quantities, fish can improve the nutritional profiles of human diets by contributing essential amino acids which are often deficient in plant ingredients (FAO, 2014). The healthy macro- and micronutrient profiles of fish highlight its important role in improving malnutrition, especially among children, pregnant and lactating women (Simler et al., 2005; Béné et al., 2015). Many African nations are promoting fish culture as the answer to some of their current and future food production challenges (Robaina et al., 2019). However, the expansion of fish production through conventional earthen ponds and floating cages is constrained by several factors including limited land and water spaces, reduced water availability and concerns over environmental impact (Badiola et al., 2012). Production system diversification with particular emphasis on intensive recirculating systems including aquaponics are thus vital to the increasing fish production to meet the growing human population (Thilsted et al., 2016). Aquaponics systems have generally been projected as an innovative food system that effectively manages the food-water-energy-nexus and exceeds traditional paradigms and can resolve some of the complexities arising from sustainability and food security issues (Werner et al., 2015).
Food insecurity issues in urban areas have been projected to become worsen in Africa (König et al., 2016) leading to significant deficits in the food supply infrastructure and the creations of what has been aptly termed “food deserts” (Beaulac et al., 2009). Aquaponics implemented either as commercial enterprise or as community intervention can enhance local food production capacities (König et al., 2016). The technology is presently an emerging but rapidly growing one in Africa which is well-suited to alleviate some of the negative consequences of climate change and population growth, particularly in urban centers (Robaina et al., 2019). In the Western Cape of South Africa, aquaponics systems have been set up in urban landscapes in response to the increasing levels of food insecurity (Milliken and Stander, 2019). Poor households have been assisted to set up different scales of backyard aquaponics systems to augment food self-sufficiency and incomes. Some have in addition to growing fish and crops, added the production and sale of fingerlings and seedlings. According to Milliken and Stander (2019), increasing popularity of urban food production through aquaponics as a way to reconnect urban residents with food production improved the food self-sufficiency of these low-income communities. In space-limited urban areas, food security can be enhanced by adopting more efficient growing technologies such as vertical farming (Khandaker and Kotzen, 2018).
The drier and water-scarce regions of Africa, particularly those with limited arable lands can benefit from aquaponics given to meet food self-sufficiency while reducing environmental footprints. As part of the measures to meet the millennium development goal of eradicating extreme poverty and hunger and of ensuring environmental stability in Egypt, the country targeted aquaculture and aquaponics as viable options (United Nations, 2015). The significance of fish in Egypt's food security discussions typically correlates with increasing demands for dietary animal protein (Zwirn, 2002). Aquaponics technology has been piloted and implemented as part of the country's solution to reducing the volumes of food imports. The increased promotion of sustainable food production technologies in Egypt and other North African countries is partly as a result of the social and political unrest the region faced following periods of food insecurity and increasing food prices. To dampen the effects of fluctuating world food prices and its impacts on citizens, particularly the impacts felt by the rural poor of that country, national agencies in charge of fisheries and aquaculture have piloted small-scale aquaponics systems in rural areas and report of favorable uptake of the technology (Goada et al., 2015). There have been several private establishments in Egypt offering scalable aquaponics models aimed at improving household food self-sufficiencies. Large-scale aquaponics farms have also been established across the country, especially in the regions with pervasive water problems and limited availability of arable land. Although presently the continent-wide adoption rate of aquaponics is low, there is a high potential for increased uptake of the technology if the installation components are sourced from local materials (Benjamin et al., 2020). While most of the narrative in this section highlights the contribution of aquaponics to food security, it should be seen as a complementary technology to conventional aquaculture and agriculture since it is presently well-suited for the culture of a few fish species and has not been optimally proven to be able to support the growing of most key staple foods.
Climate Change, Land and Water Resource Issues
In addition to population growth, climate change is projected to significantly affect food security in Africa over the coming decades and there is robust evidence suggesting that climate change impacts will be more severe in developing countries (Tschakert, 2007). Sub-Saharan Africa is predicted to be worst affected by climate change due to the already elevated air temperatures, reliance on rain-fed agriculture and fragile local economies (Niasse et al., 2004). About 600 million people in sub-Saharan Africa will be predisposed to food insecurity and malnutrition by 2060 because 60–90 million hectares of the land is expected to experience intense drought (Sasson, 2012). Farmers have increasingly made efforts to adapt to climate change through shifting planting seasons and planting draught-resistant crop varieties but the current trends in yield improvements will not match the projected global food demand by 2050, suggesting a necessary expansion of food production areas (Bajželj et al., 2014). Expansion in agricultural land, however, appears to be impossible due to the widespread land degradation and other environmental problems. Between 1970 and 2013, the availability of agricultural land globally has decreased by more than 50% (World Bank, 2018).
Climate change is also expected to impact water availability in Sub-Saharan Africa and this will affect water-dependent livelihoods such as aquaculture. Aquaculture is the fastest growing animal sector in the world and has been identified as an important sector to successfully address the challenges to global food security arising out of the increasing human population and climate change (National Research Council of the National Academies, 2015). However, aquaculture is likely to be affected by climate change, particularly temperature increments. Unlike other farmed animals, all cultured fish species for human consumption are poikilothermic. Consequently, any increase and/or decrease of the temperature of fish habitats could have a significant influence on general metabolism and hence the rate of growth and total production.
Increased frequency and severity of droughts, floods and extreme weather events are expected to affect water availability, food security, health, infrastructure and thus overall development. Water stress leading to decreased water availability in major rivers and lakes in Asia and Africa as reported by IPCC (2007) can significantly affect both cage and pond-based aquaculture by reducing water availability and/or retention times. The predicted increases in the occurrence of extreme weather events can also lead to significant economic losses resulting from damaged fish cages and fish escapes. Due to high poverty levels, the reliance on rain or natural water bodies as water sources and the lack of access to technology and improved aquaculture practices, these impacts are likely to be severely felt in the major aquaculture regions of Africa. This coupled with conventional food production systems facing limitations for further expansion due to lack of space, reduced water availability and heightened concerns over environmental impact (Goddek et al., 2019a), has led to progressive adoption of controlled food production systems. In this context, aquaponics as a food production system that recycles nutrient and waste can address food security issues, particularly for arid regions or areas with poor agricultural soils (Goddek and Körner, 2019). As a hybrid technology, aquaponics can also mitigate some of the effects of climate change on food production.
There is no simple solution to ensuring food security, but technological innovations in food production systems can directly support food insecure people to achieve some level of food self-sufficiency, particularly nutrition security. With current food production goals no longer aimed at simply maximizing productivity but optimizing outputs across different production systems, aquaponics technology holds an immense potential in ensuring food security in many parts of Africa. Household and commercial aquaponics establishments in Egypt and South Africa have been directly linked with ensuring food security in rural and urban settings. The continent-wide adoption of aquaponics positively correlates with the level of aquaculture output. Egypt, Nigeria, Kenya and South Africa who are major contributors to the continent's aquaculture in Africa are also countries leading in adoption of aquaponics. As the continent's population continues to increase and the threats of food insecurity heightens, aquaponics represents a promising technology for producing both high-quality fish protein and vegetables in ways that utilize substantially less land, less energy and less water while also minimizing chemical and fertilizer inputs that are used in conventional food production. It is, however, imperative that more research is directed at developing low-cost aquaponics systems that can easily be adopted by low- and middle-income Africans.
The paper was initiated KO, BG, and WS. KO wrote the first version, provided by inputs from WS, BG, GA, and WA. All authors provided valuable inputs participated in discussions and reviewed the final draft and read and approved the final manuscript.
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.
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Keywords: agri-aquaculture, aquaculture, aquaponics, fish, plants, sustainable agriculture
Citation: Obirikorang KA, Sekey W, Gyampoh BA, Ashiagbor G and Asante W (2021) Aquaponics for Improved Food Security in Africa: A Review. Front. Sustain. Food Syst. 5:705549. doi: 10.3389/fsufs.2021.705549
Received: 05 May 2021; Accepted: 30 July 2021;
Published: 20 August 2021.
Edited by:Felix Kwabena Donkor, University of South Africa, South Africa
Reviewed by:Therese Mwatitha Gondwe, Independent Researcher, Lilongwe, Malawi
Elliot Alhassan, University for Development Studies, Ghana
Copyright © 2021 Obirikorang, Sekey, Gyampoh, Ashiagbor and Asante. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

domain: agronomy


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Fargo Force Comeback Falls Short Against Tri-City
Force continue struggles
FARGO, N.D — The Fargo Force got down 2-0 in the second period to the western conference leading Tri-City Storm and the comeback fell short in the third period, 3-2.
It’s the Force’s tenth loss in the loss of November and thirteenth on the season.
Force will look to split the series Saturday night at Scheels Arena at 6:05.

domain: news


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This issue features reports from: American Association for Cancer Research meeting April 14-18, 2007 Los Angeles, CA BIO International Convention May 6-9, 2007 Boston, MA
Click here to view as PDF.
â–º AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR CANCER RESEARCH
April 14-18, 2007 Los Angeles, CA
Reports by John D. Zoidis, MD
New Research in Malignant MesotheliomaNovel Biomarkers May Make Early Detection in High-Risk Patients Possible, and Onconase May Have Potential as a Chemopreventive Agent
Ranpirnase (Onconase®) may have potential as a chemopreventive agent, according to world-renowned malignant mesothelioma (MM) researcher Michele Carbone, MD, PhD, Professor and Director of the Thoracic Oncology Program and Clinical Professor of Pathology at the University of Hawaii’s Cancer Research Center of Hawaii and Chairman of the Alfacell Thoracic Advisory Board, who moderated a series of poster presentations at the annual meeting of the American Association for Cancer Research, Los Angeles, CA, April 14-18, 2007.
Dr. Carbone highlighted the growing worldwide problem of asbestos exposure and its link to MM. He presented data showing that early detection in patients at high risk for developing MM is becoming more prevalent as a result of recently recognized biological markers, including soluble mesothelin-related protein (SMRP) and osteopontin (OPN).
Dr. Carbone and his team of investigators evaluates whether these novel biomarkers could identify MM in its early stages in high-risk persons in Cappadocia, Turkey, where 50% of all deaths are caused by MM. Fresh sera were collected from 69 healthy persons ≥30 years of age, at 3 month intervals, and compared to sera from 11 individuals with a confirmed diagnosis of MM. A separate cohort of 12-year-old frozen sera from 72 apparently healthy villagers and 8 with known MM were also analyzed. Excellent discrimination for SMRP and OPN between healthy and MM was seen. For the 12-year-old sera, the SMRP and OPN sensitivity and specificity were preserved. The investigators concluded that SMRP and OPN are ex¬traordinarily promising markers for identifying early-stage MM in high-risk cohorts.
Dr. Carbone also discussed the favorable toxicity profile and well-documented mechanism of action of Onconase, which directly affects the ubiquitin-proteasome proteolytic (UPP) pathway—the biomolecular pathway that has been shown to cause asbestos-related carcinogenesis. The elucidation of this pathway and future clinical testing may lead to the use of Onconase as a chemopreventive agent to potentially prevent the onset of MM, or reduce the doses of cytotoxic agents needed in patients who develop the disease.
According to Dr. Carbone, “The potential of Onconase as an early, first-line preventative treatment for mesothelioma is an exciting development that we plan to investigate through clinical trials. With approximately more than 25 million asbestos exposure cases reported worldwide, we believe that Onconase might play a greater role in the treatment protocols for a much larger population than was originally envisioned for this dismal disease.”
Onconase is a therapeutic product candidate based on Alfacell’s proprietary ribonuclease (RNase) technology. Onconase is a natural protein isolated from the leopard frog, and has been shown in preclinical models to target cancer cells while sparing normal cells. Onconase triggers apoptosis, the natural death of cells, via multiple molecular mechanisms of action.
Bavituximab Equivalent Generates Curative Immune Responses as Part of a Vaccine-Like Regimen in Preclinical Models of Aggressive Glioma
The results of preclinical studies evaluating the antitumor responses to 2aG4—a mouse equivalent to the Peregrine Pharmaceuticals’ antiphosphatidylserine (anti-PS) antibody bavituximab—were presented at the annual meeting of the American Association for Cancer Research, Los Angeles, CA.
Anionic phospholipids, primarily PS, become exposed on the external surface of vascular endothelial cells in tumors, providing an excellent marker for tumor vascular targeting. Dr. Jin He and colleagues at the University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX explored the possibility of enhancing the immunogenicity of irradiated glioma cells by treating them with 2aG4 in vitro.
In previous research, Dr. He and colleagues treated rats with orthotopic glioblastoma with single-fractionated radiation combined with 2aG4. The treatment resulted in a marked prolongation of survival time and some tumor cures (15%). Surviving animals were immune to intracerebral challenge with live, untreated F98 glioma cells. These findings suggested that PS on tumor cells might be suppressing the host immune response to the tumor cells and that blocking PS with 2aG4 restored immunogenicity.
In the current study, Dr. He and his team evaluated the possibility of enhancing the immunogenicity of irradiated F98 glioma cells by treating them with 2aG4 in vitro. A 57% long-term survival rate was observed in the 2aG4 group, versus a rate of 16% for rats immunized in the control antibody group. The superior survival in the 2aG4 group was statistically significant (P < 0.01). In addition, the antibody-coated F98 glioma cells were able to elicit specific T-cell responses, based on enhanced production of tumor-reactive interferon-gamma (IFN-γ)—producing T cells and increased cytotoxicity of T cells on F98 gliomas. The investigators concluded that anti-PS antibody treatment of tumor cells may enhance cross-presentation of tumor antigens as well as the generation of glioma-specific T cells by dendritic cells. Anti-PS antibody treatment might therefore be combined with radiosurgery in clinical settings to treat brain tumor patients.
The key role of the bavituximab equivalent’s anti-PS activity in protecting these animals was illustrated by the fact that a group receiving irradiated control antibodies that did not block PS only achieved a 16% long- term survival rate. These data may have profound clinical significance because the glioma cells used in the study are a highly aggressive variety, and a 2aG4 vaccine-like regimen resulted in a strong immune response to the cancer, which was not seen in the controls.
Steven W. King, President and CEO of Peregrine, remarked, “These exciting data suggest a potential new application for bavituximab and our anti-PS antibody platform as part of a cancer vaccine regimen that aims to restore the ability of the patient’s own immune system to recognize and fight cancer. Based on these promising results, we are continuing our evaluation of these vaccine-like regimens containing bavituximab for potential application to a variety of cancers.”
Bavituximab is a targeted monoclonal antibody that binds to a PS, which is normally located on the inside of cells, but which becomes exposed on the outside of the cells that line the blood vessels of tumors. Once bound to tumor blood vessels, bavituximab alerts the body’s immune system to attack the blood supply of the tumor, thereby resulting in tumor-cell death. PS blockers may have the potential to help reverse this suppression and enable the immune system to attack the cancer more effectively. As an anticancer immunotherapeutic agent, bavituximab may have broad potential in a wide variety of solid cancers. It is currently in Phase Ia cancer safety trials as monotherapy and in a Phase Ib trial in combination with docetaxel and other chemotherapy agents in patients with advanced solid cancers, including carcinoma of the prostate, breast, and lung.
â–º BIO International Convention
May 6-9, 2007 Boston, MA
Reports by Diane West
Survey: Biotech-Based Disease Cures “A Top National Issue”General Public and Biotech Leaders View Curing Disease More Urgent than Terrorism, Immigration Issues
National security concerns, including terrorism and illegal immigration, take a back seat when it comes to finding cures for cancer and other serious diseases, according to a recent nationwide survey of public citizens and leaders in the biotech industry.
The findings were announced at the May 2007 BIO International Convention held in Boston this year.
According to the survey, conducted by the Public Opinion Strategies and Peter D. Hart Research Associates groups, 78% of 800 registered U.S. voters who participated in a telephone poll this spring considered finding cures for serious diseases such as cancer, Parkinson’s, Alzheimer’s, HIV/AIDS and MS a “top national issue.” Concern over this issue was tied with improving public education, followed closely by improving the economy and job creation (77%). Defending the country against terrorism and stemming illegal immigration came in fourth at 71%. The survey had a margin of error of 3.5%.
“The results of this poll show strong public support for our industry,” according to Biotechnology Industry Organization president Jim Greenwood. The survey results, he added, were consistent with the 2007 meeting’s theme: “New Ideas. Bold Ventures. Global Benefits.”
Oncology-related patient and health advocacy groups represented at the Convention included the American Association for Cancer Research, The Leukemia & Lymphoma Society, the National Breast Cancer Coalition Fund and the Prostate Health Education Network.
Understanding of Biotech, Cost of Access Impacts Public Opinion
Only 45% of public survey participants initially said they viewed the field of biotechnology “favorably”, but this figure shot up to 86% when participants were told biotechnology had the potential to extend the quality of life for patients with serious disease like cancer. Additionally, 80% of the public survey respondents said full access to biologically—engineered medicines should be extended to Medicare and Medicaid patients. Fourteen percent viewed the increased cost to the government of providing this kind of universal access to advanced treatments as “troubling.” (Notably, 54% of the public respondents were male and earning more than $100K per year).
Biotech Leaders Interested in Curing Disease, Keeping Government Regs Out
Much like the public survey participants, some 2,000 biotech professionals surveyed indicated a strong interest in finding cures for serious diseases, with 94% saying they were optimistic about finding cures for many within the next two decades. However, a majority of biotech leaders think “regulatory burdens” (i.e., government oversight) would impede their progress, with 71% indicating they want government to stay out of innovation whenever possible, including such controversial topics as stem cell research. Still, 59% of industry leaders said they want increased federal funding for biomedical research.
The four-day 2007 BIO International Convention drew over 22,000 attendees from almost all states in the U.S. and 64 countries worldwide; one-third conference attendees hailed from outside of the U.S. Attendance was up almost 15% from the previous year and included keynote speakers such as actor Michael J. Fox, who founded the Michael J. Fox Foundation for Parkinson’s Research several years after being diagnosed with the condition himself, and Queen Noor of Jordan, whose husband, King Al-Hussein of Jordan, died in 1998 after a battle with non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma.
Biotech Leader Calls Patient, Industry Support The “Only Way” To Combat Cancer
President of BIO says government must support research without overly zealous regulation of the industry if cancer cures are to be discovered
The head of an industry organization representing over 1,000 biotechnology companies, academic institutions, and other affiliates worldwide says patients, scientists, and industry must support a political environment conducive to drug discovery if diseases like cancer are to be beaten.
Oncology & Biotech News
“Continued innovation is the only way to make progress against cancer,” James C. Greenwood, president and CEO of the Biotechnology Industry Association told . “Physicians, biomedical innovators and patients need to advocate for a regulatory environment that supports innovation through strong intellectual property protection, access to investment capital and fair pricing to enable innovators to recover development costs and invest in new research.”
Mr. Greenwood’s comments come as the fight for the presidency of the United States in 2008 is well underway, with topics such as stem-cell research and vaccines against sexually transmitted cancers often making their way into debates among candidates.
A regulatory environment which both invests in discovery while not imposing heavy regulation of the industry will, Mr. Greenwood says, lead to ground-breaking cancer cures. “Emerging advances will soon enable us to place nanoparticles inside tumors to image and attack tumors,” he says. Additionally, he says “advances in gene therapy will enable scientists to ‘switch off’ cancer cells, and “nanosensors will enable us to simultaneously test for hundreds or even thousands of different biomolecules in a drop of blood.”
The record-breaking turnout and panel discussions at May’s BIO 2007 meeting, Mr. Greenwood says, “demonstrated that biotechnology innovation continues to completely reinvent cancer prevention, detection and treatment, moving us ever closer to our vision of making cancer obsolete.”


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Dr. Raye Mitchell is a social entrepreneur working to change the way change is made.
She is an award winning humanitarian and both a trainer in the field of leadership as a social entrepreneur leadership and a practicing social entrepreneur as the Chief Social Entrepreneur (“CSE”) of The New Reality B-Corp, a California benefits corporation. (“NRB”) a Certified Social Impact Enterprise™, a boutique legal and business firm providing expertise and services for social entrepreneurs and social impact ventures.
Dr. Raye Mitchell is the founder of the New Reality Foundation, Inc., and CEO at the Winning Edge Institute Inc. She is a power and influence expert, attorney, author, speaker and activist. Mitchell is a member of the Time’s Up Legal Defense Fund network providing legal support for women and girls affected by harassment. Mitchell has received national acclaim for her work mentoring women and girls of color to beat the odds and excel as leaders.
She is a graduate of Harvard Law School, the University of Southern California (USC), the USC Sol Price School of Public Policy (B.S.) and the USC Marshall School of Business (MBA). She is a native of Los Angeles, California.
BPM: What made you want to become a writer? How long have you been writing?
I have considered myself a storyteller and writer all my life in one form or another. In spite of this, a different question is when did I decide to go public with this passion and persistent drive to be a writer of non-fiction and fiction works and why?
As a marketing and branding professional and litigation attorney in the entertainment industry, I was always involved in persuasive writing, storytelling and trying to get others to listen to the stories of my clients. But, several years ago, my inside voice that craved to be a writer succeeded in overtaking my outside voice that consistently focused on perfecting my skills as an entrepreneur, businesswoman, and an attorney. Upon reflection, it is now clear that I had been fully engaged as a creative writer all the time by merging my professional commitment to advocating, justice, and fairness by writing about my experiences with the civil justice system and persuading juries to return justice for my clients in situations of injustice.
BPM: How do you think you’ve evolved creatively?
I think I have evolved creatively by honing my craft as a writer in multiple sectors by and expanding my creative decision-making zone-which is my way of saying I have permitted myself to write. outside of my comfort zone. I am always yearning to learn how to write better and how to take unique writing skills from one sector and apply to another. It is my way of shaking myself up to find a new perspective on a familiar storyline.
BPM: Do you view writing as a kind of spiritual practice?
Yes. I went public with my creative writing projects in about 2010. I gained my courage when I was so humbled and yet inspired by my humbled encounter with an apparently homeless woman, Margie, I began assembling a collection of words of self-respect and success from notable female role models, past and present and produced an anthology based on quotes to inspire and inform. The story of Margie first appeared in my first significant book entitled, The Evolution of Brilliance: Voices Celebrating the Importance of Women“.
The story of Margie began outside a high-profile restaurant in Atlanta, Georgia. Margie approached me outside of this very expensive restaurant. For some reason, Margie, who appeared to be homeless, singled me out of a group of at least twenty people. Looking me directly in the eye, she said, “Can you help me?” She was carrying a cup meant to collect loose change. Assuming myself to be polite and assuming she only sought money, I turned to leave and simply said, “Sorry. I cannot help tonight.” I turned to leave. Margie stepped in closer, and the men in my group started to make a protective move, but we all stopped. Margie then said, “Can I ask you something?”
“Yes,” I replied. Without hesitation, she added, “How can you say you cannot help me when you do not know what help I need?”
I stopped, and for the first time that night, I looked into Margie’s eyes and made a personal connection, realizing that she may have just been trying to advance her life utilizing the only tools she had at her disposal. I said, “You know, you are right. What help do you need?” All Margie wanted was prayer and the chance to be counted as a person in this world as she strived to rebuild her life. Even though I was a stranger and she knew nothing about me, I was humbled that she entrusted me with her simple request for help. Margie’s story and my decision to be a published writer thus came to life in 2011.
I turn to my writing to tell stories about experiences and stories that sometimes you just want to share with God because God has no judgment. I want to write stories about our experiences as Black women and girls being judged and how we deal with that burden and opportunity to rise above the judgment.
BPM: How has writing impacted your life?
My writing has helped me be a better person. My quest to shift gears from being a full-time entertainment attorney with my law firm to being a full time humanitarian and writer has not been easy. I thus began translating these challenges, hurdles, setbacks and disappointments into my creative energy to tell the story. I then discovered the personal power of telling the story, no matter how difficult the journey. My writing has transformed my sense of well-being and wellness. My writing has also helped me find another way to merge my passion for helping others, especially women and girls with my technical skills as a writer, storyteller, and even a persuader.
BPM: What was one of the most surprising things you learned in creating your books?
The most surprising thing I have learned in crafting my books is that one story leads to another story and so I have to find the discipline to keep each story contained and interesting without giving away the elements of the next story. It is entertaining to have this connected series of creative storylines.
BPM: How do you find or make time to write? Are you a plotter or a pantster?
I steal time to make it happen, and I collapse time from other events to give myself thinking and writing time. As an example of collapsing time, I will save my favorite shows, movies and audiobooks to enjoy while I am working out and on the treadmill. I will steal time from other events and obligations by becoming more efficient in getting those projects completed. Mostly, I see myself as a writer first, and all else second.
I am very focused on my writing right now. I think I am a combination of plotter and punster. When a concept comes to me, I immediately write the contours of the story down on any piece of paper, iPhone or iPad I can find. I can even think of a quick title to frame my concept. Then, this sounds funny; I secure the URL for the name of the book, check a little around the Internet to see if the idea has been written before and then put it all away. I rarely start writing, and I let it simmer for a while. I have no shortage of stuff to write.
BPM: How did you choose the genre you write in? Have you considered writing in another genre?
I rarely start out by thinking about which genre to in because I start with stories inspired by and or based on facts. I let the story decide the genre-nonfiction, creative nonfiction or traditional fiction. I tend to stay away from genres that I would not read myself or genres where I have no life experience, and I don’t know anyone who has life experience in that segment. Finally, there are those genres that just don’t move my interest to learn more about romance novels, war, true murder crime, or police dramas.
BPM: Tell us about your most recent non-fiction work. Available on Nook and Kindle?
Yes. The books will be on Nook and Kindle. I write about women and girls beating the odds. I like to write about power and influence and who has it, how to get it and how to be fair when you have power and influence. 2018 is my most exciting year ever as a writer. I have spent the last two to three years working on a series of nonfiction and creative fiction books that will release in 2018.
All of my works focus on the experiences of women and girls, and how we claim and reclaim our power, influence, and visibility. While the books are nonfiction, I work to speak truth to power by importing personal stories and experiences.
Invisible No More. Empowering Young Black Women and Girls to Rise-Up as Leaders is not a call to action, but a plan of action on how to help strengthen the leadership training programs for our young women and girls. Everybody has a stake in the outcome. When Black girls do well, we all do well.
I have another new release titled, When They Go Low, We Go High. How Women of Color Master the Art of Persuasion to Win Big Battles. We are all familiar with Michelle Obama’s famous quote, “When They Go Low, We Go High.” In my book of the same name, I focus on how women of color get things done and navigate with grace under fire. Michelle Obama is a fellow Harvard Law School alumnae, as with Michelle, I focus our strengths and how we as Black women find the strength to excel in the face of adverse forces.
BPM: What was your hardest scene to write, the opening or the close?
There is an old established African proverb that says, “If you want to know the ending, you have to look at the beginning.” The opening is the challenge. As a trial lawyer, I know that the opening statement is where you grab your jury and tell your story. Decisions are often made at the beginning, and so the hardest scene to write is the opening section. I think that is the make-it or break-it moment for all books, both fiction and nonfiction.
BPM: Share one specific point in your book that resonated with your present situation or journey.
In both Invisible No More and When They Go Low, We Go High, I revisit my journey growing up as a young Black girl, often feeling or made to feel invisible and powerless in the world because I was different; my skin was too dark, I was not the right size, etc. I have come full circle on my journey of self-love and self-acceptance, embracing my unique power and influence and my present journey is focused on helping other young women and girls champion themselves, and rise-up as leaders.
BPM: Is there a specific place/space that you find inspiration in?
It may sound funny, but I find inspiration when I am on the treadmill working out at the gym or working with my personal trainer. My time on the treadmill or working with the trainer is all my time. My mind takes me on journey after journey into the realm of what-if. When I am working with my personal trainer, and he gives me a particularly challenging exercise, I turn the exercise into an experience of one of my characters and envision writing about their efforts to beat the clock, or lift more weights, etc. I love the freedom of exercise, and creative writing merged for my well-being at the same time and space.
BPM: Are there certain characters you would like to go back to, or is there a theme or idea you’d love to work with?
I love writing about all of the BigCompanies and BigLaw firms that I have battled over the years. The lawyers and their clients are all characters in and of themselves. I studied them individually as I prosecuted or defended a case for my client or myself when I was under siege.
My favorite theme is about women and girls and how we rise-up with grace and candor even in some of the most challenging situations.
BPM: Do you want each of your books to stand on their own or do you prefer to write series?
All of my books are intended to stand alone, but if a reader engages all of them, they will discover a through line in the concepts of champion women and girls, faith, determination, and optimism.
BPM: Does writing energize you?
Yes. Writing feeds my soul and fuels me. Writing, like my physical exercise and my mental health well-being exercises, gives me a rush of euphoria and endorphins. Likewise, I get a rush reading excellent writing, whether a screenplay, a novel or great investigative journalism. I have high regard for writers, storytellers and other creative types that help us all transcend our daily realities. All of the proceeds from my books go to support my foundation, The New Reality Foundation, Inc. (www.TheNewReality.org) that helps young Black women and girls.
BPM: Do you believe in writer’s block?
No. I do believe that the right concept and the right energy have to come together at the right time. Sometimes that magic moment can happen on demand. Other times, that magical moment takes time to rise to the surface.
BPM: Do you try to deliver to readers what they want or let the characters guide your writing?
I let the story and the character or participants in the story in the case of nonfiction guide my writing. I try to allow the facts to develop the story, even in creative fiction writing.
BPM: Is there one subject you would never write about as an author? What is it?
Never say never, but I am not inclined to write about satanic, Gothic or gory violence. I don’t see myself writing romance novels or love stories either. I love writing about real-life drama, legal drama and quirky stories of life experiences.
BPM: Is there a certain type of scene that’s harder for you to write than others?
Love scenes, death, and violence are hard for me to capture. Somehow, I have not found that workable moment to write these scenes with an authentic voice and perspective. I used to write love stories, but I have not written such stories in recent years.
BPM: Have you written any other books that are not published?
As mentioned, I have 4-5 books set to publish or release in 2018! I have been on this writing binge, and the books have all been written, most printed and ready to go. Included in my inventory coming forward:
Obstruction of Justice: Finding Grandma’s Bible, a creative nonfiction work, is a story about faith, determination and protecting family legacy and tradition.
How Women Negotiate From a Position of Strength: Protecting Branding and Intellectual Property Rights is the first nonfiction book is a six-part Rise-Up leadership and online training series focused on how women build positive power and influence. Release date May 1, 2018. Other books in the series will release every 6-8 weeks in 2018.
BPM: What projects are you working on at the present?
In addition to my power and influence series on leadership, I am working on my first novel series under the title of The Harvard Litigator (www.TheHarvardLitigator.com). The Harvard Litigator, Zola Penelope Robinson, a Harvard Law School-trained attorney, who is a fixer for the little guy, who leaves the practice of law to work on essential programs protecting women and girls. When something goes wrong, it takes the right woman to fix it. Somehow, she always finds herself back in the practice of law helping former clients, mostly women, and families, dead with some pretty sticky, difficult, dangerous and even deadly situations and cases. Zola’s experiences are all inspired by my true life events and litigation case experiences.
I am working on finishing, Homeless. The Fight to Protect the American Dream of Homeownership. The foreclosure game goes from ruthless to deadly when Zola goes on the run and finds herself homeless as she fights a cutthroat BigBank bent on foreclosing on her client at all costs, including trying to make Zola abandon her clients, give-up the case and disappear for good.
BPM: How can readers discover more about you and your work?
Find all of the books written by Dr. Raye Mitchell
Twitter: @drrayemitchell or https://twitter.com/drrayemitchell
Amazon Link: http://www.amazon.com/author/rayemitchell

domain: literature


text:
Women celebrate International Women's Day at rally in Alexandria
ALEXANDRIA, Va. (WJLA) —
Women gathered for a rally to celebrate International Women's Day Thursday in Alexandria, Virginia.
Prominent leaders in the Alexandria community spoke during the event addressing several topics including equal rights, and the need for women in leadership roles.
Celebrations were held by women across the world Thursday to demand equality, respect, and empowerment.
ABC7's Anna-Lysa Gayle has more on this story in the above video.

domain: sociology


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If not you may be like me and make a one with an extended stick you discover in the yard. You’re also going to want some bungee cord or rope, sold at hardwood stores. You might use rope however be very cautious – you don’t want to jerk your dogs neck after they catch the toy. The ‘prey’ may be anything from a stuffed toy to an empty water bottle, as long as you possibly can tie it to the rope you ought to be nice. Take your outdated, gnarly kitchen towels and put them to good use. Lower two slits along the scale of a towel, equidistant from each other, and cease chopping about an inch from the very best. Then braid the towel as you’ll verify my web site hair.
Cheap Puppy Toys In Other Cultures.
It’s really easy to make with green felt and a few pillow stuffing. Add ornaments if you want with embroidery thread and customize nonetheless you want.
Making your individual DIY pet toys is so much better than importing extra junk from abroad. So a lot of these imports can comprise nasty chemicals that can hurt our pets. Some of those ideas can be nice for horse toys, as properly.
Although cats could be pretty choosy about toys, canine are sometimes greater than keen to play with any object they can get their paws on. That means you will have to be notably cautious when monitoring your dog’s playtime to forestall any “unscheduled” actions. For canines and different pets, toys are not a luxury, however a necessity. Make certain you play within their limits and bear in mind to always supervise your canine with any toys or items of kit, be they homemade or shop bought. I didn’t want to take up the sport or something, however thought it may be enjoyable to try some agility ideas at home.
We have a big fat differ of Canine Toys and positively one factor for everyone. We now have our glorious value for money PetPlanet line along with Canine Video games designed to boost cognitive development. Plus the ever normal Tug Toys and Boredom Breakers. Place the ball inside the sock to the toe-finish, after which tie a knot simply above the ball to seal it inside. Most doubtless the most inexpensive, finest, and handiest DIY pet toy you may also make. Take a tennis ball, an old t-shirt and a pair of scissors to make an lovable ball tug toy.
You can make this in any size and even get inventive with the form if you want. You just need a chew toy, which you may make from any of the opposite projects in this collection. Soak the chew toy in rooster broth after which toss within the freezer for a bit. Once it’s frozen, give it to your doggie and he’ll have hours of chewable and attractive fun. Here’s another nice canine chew toy made from fleece. If you don’t have any fleece leftover from other initiatives, you’ll be able to pick it up at any craft store or Wal-Mart and it’s really inexpensive. This toy is nice as a result of it’s simple to make and your little furry friend will adore chasing and chewing in your do-it-yourself toy.
Looking for a really simple method to entertain your dog? Dog puzzles are an effective way to offer your canine some extra psychological stimulation. And the most effective part is that discount dog toy this muffin tin puzzle is really easy to make. The solely thing that’s left is tying the ‘prey’ to the other finish of the line. Caution – don’t play this recreation with growing puppies, it’s very tough on the joints.
This colorful decide is very designed for smaller canines. It’s additionally manufactured from nontoxic and washable supplies, so it’s protected and easy to keep clear. It’s also earned a four.three-star rating after over four,000 critiques. Amazon shoppers give this pick a four.3-star rating after almost 8,000 reviews, and it is simple to see why. This chew toy by Benebone uses one hundred% actual meat from USA-raised pigs, and it comes in multiple sizes to go well with totally different dog breeds. Plus, besides bacon, this toy is available in hen and peanut flavors too.
The Single Most readily useful Strategy To Use For Cheap Pet Toys Unmasked
Have your pup ingesting the beloved fizzy drink beside you, or at least chewing on a facsimile of 1, for the last word millennial second. This durable plush toy is great for chewing, fetching, and picture ops; plus, it comes with the squeaking feature dogs love, and it boasts a four.6-star score. If your dog loves fetch, contemplate combining the Chuckit! This lightweight yet sturdy plastic ball thrower will help you to play fetch so long as your pup’s up for it and may even allow you to throw the ball farther.
Problems with Your Cheap Puppy Toys
And, maintaining your canine’s safety in mind, I’ve known as out firms that explicitly state that their toys are made with nontoxic supplies as nicely. Nothing ruins a squeaky toy sooner than a micro-gap. This crocodile is full of sixteen noise-makers, so the sound will final whether or not you prefer it or not.

domain: hobby


text:
Hate to break to you but Iron Man is significantly better than its sequel in my opinion anyway. (Many others agree.)
Iron Man is one of my absolute favourite movies!
Iron Man 2 was not as good, I can't quite understand why, I think Iron Man's awesomeness was diluted among a few other minor things.
I missed the heavy CGI Iron Man suit look from the original, it's not the only thing though.
Still a good movie though! Just can't beat the original in this case.
I hope Iron Man 3 will at least be better than 2.
You'll still enjoy it, it just might have a little less replay value.
You be the judge of that, enjoy it.
I'm bad at being a movie critic lol.
"Sometimes you gotta run before you can walk." - Tony Stark, Iron Man.

domain: entertainment


The state of Texas is opposing a federal commission’s decision to give Mexico water from the Rio Grande. State officials say after a historic drought Texas can not afford to give away such a precious resource.
Texas is still recovering from a drought that has severely depleted the state’s water resources. So the Texas Agriculture Commissioner Todd Staples is among those challenging a decision by the International Boundary and Water Commission to give Mexico water from the Rio Grande. And they are asking President Barack Obama to intervene on their behalf. The worst one-year drought in Texas history has caused more than 7 billion dollars in losses to the agricultural industry.
Texas officials say the federal commission’s decision harms the state’s drought plans, wastes water and “sets a dangerous precedent of catering to Mexico’s demands for water.”


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Breathable Pet Dog Carrier Bag for Large Dogs Golden Retriever Bulldog Backpack Adjustable Big Dog Travel Bags Pets Products
Applicable Dog Breed:
Return & Warranty
- 100% Secure payment with SSL Encryption.
- If you're not 100% satisfied, let us know and we'll make it right.
- Orders ship within 5 to 10 business days.
- Tip: Buying 2 products or more at the same time will save you quite a lot on shipping fees.

domain: pet


text:
Paul Lovell achieved two things when he released his self-published update of the wartime classic Spitfires Over Malta. Firstly, he brought an historically valuable book, written by an Australian and New Zealander who flew in the defence of Malta, back to the spotlight and in front of several new generations of readers. Breathing new life into old books, particularly those written by aircrew during the war, by preserving the original text (their voice) but adding contextual research, appendices and further research is a favourite subject of mine. The story feels more complete, more commemorative, if done well ... and Paul has done SOM so very well.
That brings me to the second point. The book includes so much extra information, and photographs, in addition to the original, slim 1940s edition, that it is now more than 370 pages long. Paul, as editor, but really the third author of course, matched the quality of his research with the quality of the books production. SOM is a paperback but is printed on the highest quality paper stock. This means it is heavy! Coupled with the superb cover, this literally makes for a weighty and beautiful book in the hand or on the shelf. The entire package is the equivalent of a Siren's call. I very much doubt there would be any WW2 aircrew enthusiast who, budget aside, would pass up adding SOM to their library.
The book continues to sell well and has been featured favourably in several historic aviation magazines around the world. The main selling point online is currently Amazon but due to privacy issues Paul has been unable to reply to postage enquiries made by those outside of the UK. He is, of course, keen to speak with anyone, anywhere in the world, interested in purchasing the SOM as he knows they will fall in love with the book just as he did when he found an original edition at a car boot sale several years ago (the purchase that started this odyssey).
Paul's details are below. I also have his postal address so please enquire if you would like to send him more traditional correspondence! For convenience, I have include my email below as well.
Paul Lovell - plovell.24ATbtinternet.com (replace the "AT" with @ of course)
Andy Wright - aircrewbooksATiinet.net.au
Spitfires Over Malta, the most stunning aircrew paperback to be produced in the past couple of years, is available direct from Paul for 15.99 GBP plus postage worldwide.


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Dragon Age II - first game that requires 3.56
Dragon Age II - first game that requires 3.56 –
just noticed that the game got leaked and the info states that you need fw 3.56
▀██▄▄▄▄▄▄ n o t e s
Be aware: This is the first game with Firmware v3.56
no, not the first. kthxbai
What other games need 3.56 to play then ? First game Iv heard of that needs 3.56.
Originally Posted by alkar
it is said that just changing param.sfo it works
MLB 11 and Fight Night Championship EU version also require 3.56.
Originally Posted by STRATEGIZER
No also Fight Night Champion
Who said that? did he also tested it
Originally Posted by ironhide666
Originally Posted by Glottis
I would be very surprised if that or the spoofer worked otherwise we wouldn't have been modding eboots back on 3.41
Originally Posted by Mbb
Still got dragon age: ultimate collection to play so not to fussed
it seems that we need our consoles spoofed to 3.56 from cfw 3.55
idk about 3.41


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Experience the motorcycle trip of a lifetime. Discover the world with Edelweiss Bike Travel and explore the most fascinating routes, ride on the newest motorcycles and enjoy the guidance of experienced Edelweiss tour guides.
This motorcycle tour meanders through six continents in one go and gives all participants the opportunity to discover our planet step by step. In spite of this being a gigantic undertaking it is a dream that is the ultimate for every motorcycle touring enthusiast.
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September, 5nd, 2015
Another great day is over, it was a rest-no-rest day, we went in the "terra del mutor" , the italian motor valley, had a full immersion of italian motor culture, we visit the museum of Ferrari ( in Maranello ) and Ducati (in bologna) so ...
September, 4nd, 2015
Riding day 3: Salzburg - Kals It is time to leave Salzburg and although the group loved the city, everybody is eager to ride some real mountain roads. Harald, unlucky on the first day, had blue sky today and was able to ...
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domain: geography