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Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, P. M. B. 4000, Ogbomoso, Oyo State, Nigeria
Received date: July 18, 2014; Accepted date: January 30, 2015; Published date: February 06, 2015
Citation: Ojedokun At, Olugbenga SB (2015) An Overview of Low Cost Adsorbents for Copper (II) Ions Removal. J Biotechnol Biomater 5:177. doi:10.4172/2155-952X.1000177
Copyright: © 2015 Olugbenga SB. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
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The effective removal of heavy metals from aqueous wastes is among the most important issues for many industrialized countries. Rapid industrialization and poor effluent treatment processes in many industries have led to a substantial lowering of water quality that is fed to water bodies. Presence of heavy metals is one of the many factors that lower water quality. These heavy metals cause harmful effects on health, increase environmental toxicity and affect the aesthetic quality of water. The use of agricultural products and by-products has been widely investigated as an alternative for costly methods of removing heavy metals from water and wastewater. Modification of agricultural by-products could enhance their natural capacity and add value to these by-products. This review is aimed at investigating the use of low-cost adsorbents as an alternative to expensive activated carbon adsorbents used in removing Cu(II) using batch methods from water and wastewater.
Heavy metals; Adsorbents; Agricultural products; Low cost; Water; Wastewater
Heavy metal pollution produced in industrial wastewater has become a major issue throughout the world. In particular, copper (II) ions, whose effects on human health and aquatic life are regarded as harmful, and of course are not biodegradable; therefore, they must be removed from effluents so as to achieve environmental quality standards. According to U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and WHO, the permissible limit of copper in drinking water is 1.3 and 2.0 mg dm3, respectively . Contamination caused by heavy metals is mostly found in waste waters that emerge from metal plating, mining, and car radiator manufacturing industries. It is also found in areas where fertilizers are intensively used. It is thus important to remove heavy metals from water and wastewater due to their persistence nature amongst others.
Copper is a widely used material. It can be found as contaminant in food. This form of contamination emanates from the use of copper material in the packaging of food. Despite the essential nature of copper to human life and health, it is potentially toxic. For instance, continuous inhalation of copper-containing spray is linked with an increase in lung cancer among exposed workers. Copper is released into the environment in a number of different ways; it finds its way into water-streams resulting in environmental contamination that poses threat to humans, animals, and plants. This can cause serious and complex problem [2,3]. Like other heavy metals, copper in trace amount is necessary for life processes. However, with higher concentrations of this element in the environment and the consequent increase in human intake, copper concentrations have reached toxic levels causing various diseases and disorders such as liver damage, Wilson disease and insomnia . Various technologies for the removal of heavy metals from wastewater had been established and reported by researchers in their works. They include precipitation , flotation , biosorption [7,8], membrane separation , adsorption on minerals [10,11] and adsorption using activated carbon [12,13]. Among the various methods described in literature, adsorption is the most effective method that has been successfully applied in the purification and recovery of Cu (II) ions from effluents due to its high efficiency and easy handling . In spite of its prolific use, activated carbon remains an expensive material since the higher the quality of activated carbon, the greater its cost. The use of complexing agents are also required to enhance the removal performance of activated carbon when used for inorganic matters . This makes the use of activated carbon expensive and thus not suitable for small-scale industries.
There has been an increasing research into finding low-cost adsorbents for the removal of heavy metals from wastewaters. Agricultural by-products which have been studied for this purpose include peat, wood, pine bark, banana pith, cotton seed hulls, peanut shells, hazel nut shell, rice husk, saw dust, wool, orange peel, compost, maize cobs and guava leaves. This review is aimed at investigating the use of low-cost adsorbents as an alternative to expensive activated carbon adsorbents used in removing Cu(II) from water and wastewater.
Effect on man
Copper is a trace element which is essential to living organisms. It is essential for the proper functioning of organs and metabolic processes in humans. Ingestion of high concentrations of copper salts is associated with symptoms relating to abdominal pain, headache, nausea, dizziness, vomiting and diarrhea, tachycardia, respiratory difficulty, hemolytic anemia, massive gastrointestinal bleeding, liver and kidney failure, and death. These symptoms subside when copper in the drinking water source is reduced. Chronic copper poisoning leading to liver failure was reported in a young adult male with no known genetic susceptibility who consumed 30–60 mg/l of copper as a mineral supplement for 3 years .
Effect on Aquatic Life
Excess Cu(II) in water may damage marine and freshwater organisms such as fish and mollusks . Fish species vary in their sensitivity to copper, with the LD50 for 96-h exposure to copper sulphate reported to be in the order of 58 mg per litre for Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) and 70 mg per litre for catfish (Clarias gariepinus) . The chronic effect of sub-lethal concentrations of Cu(II) on fish and other creatures is damage to gills, liver, kidneys and the nervous system. It also interferes with the sense of smell in fish, thus preventing them from choosing good mates or finding their way to mating areas .
Jafar and Shajudha  studied the use of Adathoda vasica stem as adsorbent to remove Cu(II) from industrial waste water. The physicochemical properties of the adsorbent are listed in Table 1 below:
|PROPERTIES||Adathodavasica Activated Carbon|
|Particle size (μm)||0.75|
|Bulk density (g/cm3)||0.79|
|Moisture content (%)||0.601|
|Ash content (%)||11.42|
|Fixed carbon content (%)||73.41|
|Matter soluble in water (%)||2.14|
|Matter soluble in acid (%)||2.8|
|Surface area (m2/g)||120.6|
|Iron content (%)||0.4|
Table 1: The physico-chemical properties of Adathoda vasica stem .
High grade CuSO4.5H2O was used as heavy metal sample. Laboratory experimental investigation was carried out to identify the effect of pH (1.50–5.5), agitation time (30-240 min) varying temperature (30-50°C). Varying biomass quantities (2, 4, 6, 8, 10 g/L) and other co-existing ions were also examined. The adsorption process was tested with pseudo first order–Lagergren equation and first order reversible–Bhattacharya Venkobachar equation. Both Langmuir and Freundlich adsorption isotherm models fitted the experimental data best with regression coefficient r2 > 0.95 for the Cu(II). The adsorption was endothermic and the computation of the parameters ΔG°, ΔH° and ΔS° indicated that the interactions were thermodynamically favorable. The results showed that Adathoda vasica stem carbon (AVSC) was an effective and economical bio-sorbent material for the removal and recovery of heavy metal ions from waste water.
Coconut husk is a low cost adsorbent which is a waste material from coconut. Coconut is abundant in Nigeria and has a high sorption capacity due to its high tannin content. Oyedeji and Osinfade  studied the use of coconut husk as a low-cost natural adsorbent for the removal of Cu(II) from simulated industrial waste effluent. The effects of varying adsorbent loadings, pH, contact time, metal ion concentration and temperature of adsorption on the adsorption process were determined. The adsorption of Cu (II) was maximum (92% ± 2.8) at pH range of 5 - 7, metal ion concentration of 50 ppm, temperature of 50°C and 30 minutes. 1 g of the adsorbent material was found to be optimal for the metal ion; the Freundlich isotherm was found to be suitable for the adsorption of Cu(II).
Okafor et al.  also explored the adsorption capacity of Coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) shell for Cu(II) from aqueous solutions. The effect of various operational parameters such as concentration, pH, temperature and sorption time on the adsorption of Cu(II) was investigated using batch process experiments. The authors found that coconut shell (CNS) can be used as a low cost adsorbent for the removal of Cu(II) in aqueous solution containing low concentrations of the metal. The percentage adsorption was found to depend on the concentration of the adsorbent present, the solution pH, temperature and the sorption. The concentration of the metal ion adsorbed increased with increase in concentrations, increase in contact time, increase in temperature and increase in pH. The rate of adsorption of the metal ions by coconut shell was rapid initially but decreased gradually due to the gradual blocking of the initial available uncovered surface area of the adsorbent. Adsorption for the metal ion increased with increase in metal ion concentration because at low concentrations, the active site on the surface of the adsorbent are not completely covered. Kinetic studies showed that the sorption of the metal ions can best be described by both pseudo-second-order and intra-particle diffusion models while the adsorption characteristics of the adsorbent followed the Freundlich adsorption isotherm. The average value of the activation energy of adsorption for CNS was found to be 3.79KJ/mol which implies that the adsorption of Cu(II) on the adsorbent is physical adsorption mechanism.
The efficacy of coconut tree sawdust (CTS) as alternative low-cost biosorbent for the removal of Cu(II) ions from aqueous solutions was investigated by Wiwid et al. . Batch adsorption studies were carried out to evaluate the effects of solution pH and initial metal concentration on adsorption capacity. The optimum biosorption condition was found at pH 6.0, 0.1 g biomass dosage and at 90 min equilibrium time. The adsorption data were fitted to the Freundlich and Langmuir isotherm models. The adsorption capacity and affinity of CTS was evaluated. The Freundlich constant and separation factor values suggest that the metal ion was favourably adsorbed onto biosorbents. The maximum adsorption capacities estimated from the Langmuir isotherm model was 3.89mg/g. The characterisation studies were performed using Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM), Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectrometer (EDX) and Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrometer (FTIR). It was observed that interaction with the metal ions led to the formation of discrete aggregates on the biosorbents surface. The metal ions bound to the active sites of the biosorbents through either electrostatic attraction or complexation mechanism. The presence of functional groups in the biosorbents favoured metal ion binding. The authors concluded that the use of coconut tree sawdust (which is abundantly available at low-cost) will provide a solution to their disposal.
Gmelina arborea (Verbenaceae) Leaves
Gmelina arborea (White teak) is a fast growing deciduous tree. It is native to India and Burma, but is now planted in many tropical areas due to its good form and growth. It grows on different localities and thrives well in moist fertile valleys with an annual rainfall between 750 and 4500mm and annual mean temperature of 25- 380C. Flowering of the Gmelina arborea tree takes place during February to April while fruiting starts from May onwards up to June.
According to results obtained from various researchers, it was deduced that chemical modification improves metal ion binding capacity of the substrate thereby increasing the rate of metal ion uptake. Jimoh et al  compared the adsorptive capability of citric acid modified and unmodified Gmelina arborea leaves for the removal of Copper ions from aqueous solution. The experiments showed that the adsorption process using Gmelina arborea leaves was dependent on both contact time and initial metal ion concentration. It was observed that acid modified Gmelina arborea bind more metal ion than the unmodified adsorbent at every given time, this is because citric acid increases its sorption capacities. The equilibrium data for Cu (II) ion fitted well into the Freundlich adsorption isotherm, and the linearity of the plot tested the representative nature of adsorption on the adsorbent, and the correlation regression coefficient showed that Cu (II) ion adsorption was favorable using Gmelina arborea leaves.
Pomegranate fruits are widely consumed fresh and in processed forms as juice, jams and wine. Pomegranate peel, a by-product of the pomegranate juice industry is inexpensive. Pomegranate peel is rich in ellagitannins (ETs) such as punicalagin and its isomers, as well as lesser amounts of punicalin (4, 6-gallagylglucose), gallagic acid, ellagic acid (EA) and EA-glycosides . Pomegranate peel is composed of polyphenols, ellagic tannis and gallic and ellagic acids . The sorption of Cu(II) from aqueous solution by using activated carbon produced from pomegranate peel was investigated by El-Ashtoukhy et al . They studied the adsorption capacity of the adsorbent using batch experiments. They also investigated the influence of pH, contact time, metal ions and adsorbent concentrations on the adsorption process. The experimental data obtained were evaluated and fitted using adsorbent equilibrium isotherms, and kinetic models.
The study showed that activated carbon prepared from chemically treated pomegranate peel was an effective adsorbent for the removal of Cu(II) from aqueous solutions. The adsorption process is a function of the adsorbent dosage and concentrations, pH and time of agitation. The effective pH for the Cu(II) removal was 5.8. Equilibrium was achieved practically in 2 h. The equilibrium sorption data are satisfactorily fitted in the order: Freundlich > Temkin > Langmuir. Adsorption kinetics follows pseudo-second order kinetic model. Kinetic results showed that both bulk and intra-particle diffusion are effective adsorption mechanisms. Thus, the results would be useful for the design of wastewater treatment plants for the removal of copper.
Rice (Oryza sativa) waste
Haluk et al.  assessed the ability of low-cost adsorbents such as shells of rice to adsorb Cu(II) from aqueous solution. The effect of the solution pH, temperature, contact time, initial adsorbate concentration and adsorbent doses on the removal of Cu(II) was studied. The thermodynamic parameters for the adsorption Cu(II) have also been computed and discussed. They also studied the kinetics and the factors controlling the adsorption process. Rice shell appeared to be a promising adsorbent for removal of Cu(II) from aqueous solution. Based on their results, they concluded that a process using rice shell for the removal and recovery of a heavy metal is potentially more economical than the current process technology. The adsorption of Cu(II) was dependent on its initial concentrations, the amount of adsorbent, contact time, temperature and pH of the metal solution, maximum removal of Cu(II) on rice shell are at pH about 6.0. The removal of Cu(II) increased with increase in temperature. The isothermal data of Cu(II) adsorption on the adsorbent was modeled by both Freundlich and Langmuir isotherm. These models were used to calculate the capacity of adsorbents for adsorption of Cu(II). The maximum adsorption capacities for Cu (II) on rice shell at 293, 313, and 333K temperature were found to be 9.588, 17.422, and 2.954 mg g-1, respectively.
Nasehir et.al  investigated the adsorption potential of rice husk based activated carbon (RHAC) to remove Cu (II) from aqueous solution using fixed-bed adsorption column. The authors determined the effects of inlet Cu (II) concentration (5-15 mg/l), feed flow rate (10-30 ml/min) and RHAC bed height (30-80 mm) on the breakthrough characteristics of the adsorption system. The highest bed capacity of 34.56 mg/g was obtained using 10 mg/l inlet Cu (II) concentration, 80 mm bed height and 10 ml/min flow rate. The fixedbed adsorption system was found to perform better with lower Cu (II) inlet concentration, lower feed flow rate and higher RHAC bed height. The adsorption data were fitted to three well-established fixed-bed adsorption models namely, Adam-Bohart, Thomas and Yoon-Nelson models. The results fitted well to the Thomas and Yoon-Nelson models with correlation coefficient, R2 ≥ 0.96. The authors discovered that RHAC prepared by ZnCl2 activation was found suitable for Cu (II) removal from aqueous solution using fixed-bed adsorption column.
Soybean straw is a lignocellulosic agricultural stalk. It is abundant, inexpensive, and a renewable resource. Over 16 million metric tons of soybeans are produced annually in China , but most of soybean straw is arbitrarily discarded or set on fire. These disposals must result in resource loss and environmental pollution. The exploitation and utilization of soybean straw must bring obvious economic and social benefit to mankind. Bo et al.  modified soybean straw with citric acid after being washed with sodium hydroxide to enhance its ability to adsorb Cu(II), then they investigated the adsorption process as a function of initial pH and concentration of Cu(II). Furthermore, the mechanism of Cu(II) adsorption was studied by Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) analysis and the effect of washing or citric acid modification was assessed.
The amount of Cu(II) adsorbed by soybean straw was increased by modification with citric acid, regardless of whether the samples were base washed or water washed. This is due to the increase in carboxyl groups imparted onto the straw by reaction with citric acid. The Cu(II) uptake increased and percentage adsorption of the Cu(II) decreased with the increase in initial Cu(II) concentration. The Freundlich isotherm fitted the experimental data much better than the Langmuir model, but for the two kinds of citric acid modified soybean straw, there was only a slight deviation from linearity of Langmuir model. The authors suggested that further work should include performing experiments to study the effect of temperature and the thermodynamics, more detailed kinetics, adsorbent regeneration and the ultimate fate of heavy metals once removed from the adsorbent.
Supaporn et. al  studied the efficiency of removing copper ions from copper chloride solution using soybean hulls. The soybean hulls were modified with citric acid, since it is one of several dicarboxylic acids that could form a reactive anhydride upon heating and then combine with various lignocellulosic and proteinaceous components with soybean hulls to add carboxyl for the by-product substrate. Their experiment was divided into two parts. The first part involved the determination of the time to heat soybean hulls that were soaked in citric acid. In the second part, the factors affecting copper ion adsorption by soybean hulls were determined to be initial concentration and pH of the solution, ratio of soybean hulls to copper chloride solution and size of soybean hulls. From the results of experiment, the optimum conditions were to heat for 90 minutes at an initial pH of 4.8. The ratio of soybean hulls to solution is 10 grams per 1 litre. Size of soybean hulls is 602 micrometers and the initial concentration of copper chloride solution is 50 ppm. The copper ion removal efficiency using soybean hulls is 97.68 % under these conditions and the concentration of copper ion had been reduced below the industrial standard (2.0 mg/l). The concentration of Cu(II) in the solution decreased with increasing adsorption time. The higher initial concentration of copper chloride solution resulted less adsorption capacity as shown by a higher Cu(II) concentration remaining in the solution. The reason being, that there was not enough adsorbent to adsorb more Cu(II) in the higher initial concentration of the solution. The concentration of Cu(II) in copper chloride solution increased with an increase in the size of soybean hulls for both solid/solution ratios. The smaller particle size provided more surface area for the adsorption. The ratio of soybean hulls to solution at 1:100 gm/ml showed better adsorption of Cu(II) and could remove Cu(II) below 2 ppm. No results about the kinetic and isothermal studies were provided.
One of the agricultural wastes from the orange juicing industry is orange peel. It is abundant, cheap and readily available. Orange peel is largely composed of cellulose, pectin (galacturonic acid), hemicellulose, lignin, chlorophyll pigments and other low molecular weight compounds, including limonene. These components contain various functional groups, such as carboxyl and hydroxyl, which make orange peel to be a potential adsorbent material for removing metal ions from aqueous solutions. These wastes create increasing disposal and, potentially severe, environmental problems. Without significant processing, Ajmal et al. employed orange peel for metal ions removal from simulated wastewater [33-35].
Several authors reported the use of orange waste as a precursor for the preparation of adsorbent by chemical treatment [35-39]. Ningchuan et al.  reported the preparation of adsorbent from orange peel by means of hydrolysis of the grafted copolymer, which was synthesized by interacting methyl acrylate with cross-linking orange peel to examine its adsorption characteristics for Cu(II) from aqueous solutions. The recovery, regeneration, and comparison test and application studies were conducted to assess the practical utility of the adsorbent. The presence of poly (acrylic acid) on the biomass surface was verified by infrared spectroscopy (IR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and thermogravimetry (TG). Total negative charge in the biomass surface and the zeta potentials were determined.
The surface features of grafted and ungrafted OP were studied by SEM. The SEM micrographs of OP and OPAA are shown in Figure 1. The surface morphology of OP is different from that of OPAA. It can be seen that the surface of the grafted OP is more uneven than that of OP, which indicates that MA is chemically bonded and/or physically adheres to the surface of OP.
The modified biomass was found to have high adsorption capacity and fast adsorption rate for Cu(II). From Langmuir isotherm, the adsorption capacity for Cu(II) was 289.0 mgg−1, which is about 6.5 times higher than that of the unmodified biomass. The kinetics for Cu(II) adsorption followed the pseudo-second-order kinetics. The adsorbent was used to remove Cu(II) from electroplating wastewater and was suitable for repeated use for more than four cycles. Sha et al.  also investigated the use of orange peel in removing copper (II) ion from aqueous solution. The orange peel (OP) was used as raw material to prepare two novel adsorbents: MgOP (Mg2+ type orange peel adsorbent) and KOP (K+ type orange peel adsorbent). The authors employed the use of FTIR and SEM to characterize the adsorbents.
SEM micrographs of the MgOP and KOP are shown in Figure 2. Irregular and porous surfaces could be observed through these micrographs. It can thus be concluded that both adsorbents present an adequate morphology for metal adsorption. The mean diameter of MgOP and KOP was determined as 62 and 58μm, respectively.
The effects of pH, solid/liquid ratio, time and metal ion concentration on the Cu(II) adsorption by these two adsorbents were also investigated. The isotherms data were analyzed using the Langmuir, Freudlich, Temkin and Dubinin–Radushkevich models. Langmuir model provided the best correlation for the adsorption of Cu(II) by both MgOP and KOP, and the mono-layer adsorption capacity forCu(II) removal by MgOP and KOP were 40.37 and 59.77 mg/g, respectively. The adsorption efficiency of Cu(II) increased with the increase in contact time and reached equilibrium within 20 minutes.
The kinetics data were analyzed using four adsorption kinetic models: the pseudo-first and second-order equations, the Elovich equation and intraparticle diffusion equation and pseudo-secondorder equation were found to fit the experimental data very well. Thermodynamic studies showed the spontaneous and exothermic nature of the adsorption of Cu(II) by MgOP and KOP. The results of the investigation showed that orange peel adsorbent has considerable potential for the removal of Cu(II) from aqueous solutions, and K+ type orange peel (KOP) exhibits better adsorption ability than Mg2+ type orange peel (MgOP). For both adsorbents, pH has a great influence on adsorption efficiency.
Chestnut (Castanea sativa spp.) Shell
In Galicia (NW of Spain) there are large plantation areas of chestnut (Castanea sativa spp.), representing, approximately, a 5% (in m3 with bark) of the total wood stock. Chestnut fruit is processed in the food industry for the production of various food products which include marron-glace, chestnut puree, bombons glace, etc. The shell is separated as a waste product in the chestnut peeling process and used as fuel. The composition of this material and its potential for different applications which would suppose its valorization (source of natural antioxidant, adhesive component and tanning agent) were analyzed in previous works [42,43].
The use of chestnut shell treated with formaldehyde was studied by Gonzalo et al. . The effects of the initial concentration, temperature, and pH were investigated using the incomplete 33 factorial design. The adsorption process fitted the Langmuir adsorption isotherm. Also, the Fourier transform Infrared and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopies revealed that carboxyl, hydroxyl, ether, alcoholic, and amino groups were involved in metal ions binding.
The biosorption of Cu(II) onto chestnut shell in a batch adsorber was studied by Yao et al. . The ability of chestnut shell biosorbent to remove Cu(II) from aqueous solution was investigated in equilibrium, kinetics and thermodynamics. The equilibrium data was found to agree well with Langmuir isotherm and Redlich–Peterson isotherm models. The adsorption capacity of chestnut shell for Cu(II) was determined with the Langmuir model and was found to be 12.56mgg−1 at 293 K. The kinetic data were found to obey the pseudosecond- order model. The authors also discovered that intra-particle diffusion was not the sole rate-controlling factor. The negative values of ΔH0 and ΔG0 revealed the exothermic nature and the feasibility of adsorption. The investigation showed that chestnut shell is a promising biosorbent for Cu(II) removal from aqueous solutions.
Junior et al.  reported the use of succinic anhydride modified sugarcane bagasse for treatment of Cu(II) from aqueous solutions. Sugarcane bagasse consists of cellulose (50%), pectin (27%) and lignin (23%). The presence of these three biological polymers causes sugarcane bagasse rich in hydroxyl and phenolic groups and these groups were modified chemically to produce adsorbent materials with new properties. According to the authors, the hydroxyl groups in sugarcane baggase can be converted to carboxylic groups by using succinic acid. During the course of the research, it was observed that sugarcane baggase treated with ethylenediamine and triethylenetetramine displayed an increase in nitrogen content compared to untreated sample. The kinetic studies of the adsorption process revealed that the equilibrium time for Cu(II) onto ethylenediamine and tetraethylenetetramine modified sugarcane bagasses was slower when compared with that modified with NaHCO3.
Two types of chemical modifications on jute fibres and their effectiveness in the removal of Cu(II) were reported by Shukla and Pai . The first modification involved a monochloro triazine type reactive dye, Reactive Orange 13, which was covalently loaded to the cellulosic matrix of jute fibres. The other type of modification involved the oxidation of hydroxyl groups of cellulose present in jute fibres to carboxyl group by using hydrogen peroxide. The reactive dye used for modification contains azo linkage and hydroxyl groups (a situation favourable for the formation of six membered ring chelate with metal ions). The presence of sodium sulphonate groups of the dye molecules attached covalently to the adsorbent also enhanced the metal adsorption capacity. The mechanism of ion-exchange between Na+ of the dyed material and the heavy metal ions can be represented by the following equation:
R(SO3Na)2 + M2+ R(SO3)M + 2Na+
For oxidized jute, the high uptake of heavy metal ions was due to the generation of carboxyl groups (–COOH). The authors reported that oxidation process of jute fibres was carried out under alkaline condition, therefore the carboxyl groups are in the form of carboxylate. The adsorption of heavy metal ions could also take place by ion-exchange mechanism as shown below:
2RCOONa+ + M2+ (RCOO)2M + 2Na+
Based on the Langmuir plots, maximum adsorption capacity for Cu(II) was achieved by dye loaded jute, followed by oxidized jute and unmodified jute. Chemical modification of cellulose fibre to improve its removal performance and adsorption capacity for Cu(II) using ethylenediamine was conducted by Torres et al. . Cellulose consists of active hydroxyl groups present on each monomeric unit of cellulose; therefore cellulose can react with carboxyl and amine groups of organic compounds. Adsorption of heavy metal ions occurred through complexation mechanism in which the amine (–NH2) groups of ethylenediamine take part in the chelation process. It is well known that adsorption of heavy metals by cellulosic wastes depends on the contact time and temperature. Ho and Ofamaja  found that initial concentration of Cu(II) has great effect on the equilibrium time for copper adsorption onto HCl treated palm kernel fibre. The time to reach equilibrium was only 15 min for 50 mg l-1 copper, but increased to 60 min for 200 mg l-1.
The study revealed that Cu(II) adsorption increases with the increase of temperature which indicates that the mobility of Cu(II) increases with increase in temperature. The value of activation energy of 22kJmol-1 suggests that chemisorption was an important process in the adsorption of Cu(II) onto HCl treated palm kernel fibre. Adsorption follows pseudo-second-order kinetic model at all copper concentrations studied.
Three different kinds of tree barks mainly sal (Shorea robusta), mango (Mangifera indica) and jackfruit (Artocarpus integri floria) were modified using hydrochloric acid solution in order to remove Cu(II) from aqueous solutions . Treated barks were able to chelate more Cu(II) than untreated ones. Extraction of soluble organic compounds which coloured the decontaminated solutions was also avoided after pretreatment process. The highest adsorption capacity of Cu(II) was shown by sal bark (51.4 mgg-1), followed by mango (42.6 mgg-1) and jackfruit (17.4 mgg-1). Binding of Cu(II) to the bark occurred through cation exchange mechanism as the pH of the effluent decreased after copper adsorption. It was reported that hydroxyl and carboxyl groups were involved in the adsorption process and the results indicate that chelation of 1 mole of copper generates about 1.6–1.8 moles of hydronium ions. Regeneration of adsorbent was more successful using higher concentration of HCl solution.
Raw rubber wood (Hevea brasiliensis)
Helen and Lima  worked on the adsorption of copper from aqueous solution using Hevea brasiliensis dust. In their study, they compared the adsorption capacity of the modified adsorbent with that of the unmodified adsorbent. The raw rubber wood (Hevea brasiliensis) saw dust (RSD) was modified using phosphoric acid and sodium hydroxide with different impregnation ratios (IR) to improve adsorption capacity for the removal of copper from aqueous solutions. The modified saw dusts using phosphoric acid (PMSD4, IR 1:2) and sodium hydroxide (SMSD3, IR 1:1) were evaluated through SEM and FTIR. Equilibrium and kinetic adsorption studies were carried using RSD, PMSD4 and SMSD3. The effects of various operating variables such as solution pH, adsorbent dose, initial copper concentration, temperature on the removal of copper ions were also studied.
Adsorption equilibrium data were fitted to Langmuir, Freundlich Dubinin–Radushkevich and Temkin isotherm models. The equilibrium data for RSD and SMSD3 were best represented by the Langmuir and Freundlich isotherms. The Dubinin–Radushkevich model gave the best fit for PMSD4. The SMSD3 showed higher adsorption capacity which is 53% to 68% higher than RSD. The data were also fitted to kinetic models such as pseudo first order, pseudo second order, Elovich and intraparticle diffusion models. The adsorption kinetics was found to follow the pseudo second order kinetic model. The optimum pH for the adsorption was 6. The adsorption of the metal ions increased with increasing temperature which indicated that the process is endothermic. Various thermodynamic parameters such as standard enthalpy change (ΔH°), standard entropy change (ΔS°) and standard free energy change (ΔG°) were evaluated. An appreciable increase in adsorption capacity was observed when studies were carried out using SMSD3 to PMSD4 and RSD.
The adsorption of copper on unmodified and modified saw dust was found to be dependent on solution pH and temperature, where higher solution pH and temperature would favour the adsorption process. Scanning electron microscopy was used to observe the changes in the surface microstructures of the adsorbents due to the modifications. The scanning electron microscopic (SEM) pictures before and after modification are shown in Fig. 3a, b and c. The SEM observation of RSD (Figure 3a) indicates the common feature of porous and irregular morphology. Pores and internal surface are requisite for an efficient adsorbent. As can be observed from Fig. 3b (PMSD4) and Fig. 3c (SMSD3) there is clear difference in the surface morphology of sawdust after treatment. The difference could be due to the removal of considerable organic by-products and minerals present in the sawdust.
The authors observed that the surface modification of saw dust contributed positively to the development of micropores. Surface was more homogeneous in the case of SMSD3 in comparison to RSD and PMSD4 which shows a more heterogeneous surface. In acid treatment there are considerable small cavities and cracks on the surface forming a system of complicated pore networks. However, the alkali modification reduced the cracks and cavities on the surface of the adsorbent. Thus, the modification using NaOH could enhance the adsorption capacity of saw dust than acid modified and raw sawdust in removing copper from aqueous solutions.
Lentil shell (Lens culinaris Medik)
Haluk et al.  investigated the use of lentil shell (Lens culinaris Medik) as a replacement for current costly methods of removing metals from aqueous solution. The equilibrium adsorption level was determined as a function of the solution pH, temperature, contact time, initial adsorbate concentration and adsorbent doses. Adsorption isotherms of Cu (II) on adsorbents were determined and correlated with Langmuir and Freundlich models.
|Physical characteristics||Percent of the properties|
|Surface area (BET) (m2g-1)||0.19|
|Bulk density (gcm-1)||0.49|
|Particle size (mm)||0.60|
Table 2: Physical characteristics of lentil shell used in the experiment .
The maximum adsorption capacities for Cu (II) on the adsorbent at 293, 313 and 333K were found to be 8.977, 9.510, and 9.588 mg g-1 respectively. To predict the nature of the adsorption process, the thermodynamic parameters such as free energy (ΔG0), enthalpy (ΔH0) and entropy changes (ΔS0) for the adsorption of Cu (II) were computed.
Wheat (Triticum durum Desf) wastes
Haluk et al.  assessed the ability of the shell of wheat (Triticum durum Desf) to adsorb Cu (II) from aqueous solution. The effect of the solution pH, temperature, contact time, initial adsorbate concentration and adsorbent doses on the removal of Cu (II) was studied. The thermodynamic parameters, kinetics and the factors controlling the adsorption process were also studied. The isothermal data of Cu (II) adsorption on the adsorbent can be modeled by both Freundlich and Langmuir isotherm. The maximum adsorption capacities for Cu (II) on the adsorbent at 293, 313 and 333K were found to be 7.391, 16.077, and 17.422 mg g-1 respectively. To predict the nature of the adsorption process, the thermodynamic parameters such as free energy (ΔG0), enthalpy (ΔH0) and entropy changes (ΔS0) for the adsorption of Cu (II) were computed. The kinetics and the factors controlling the adsorption process were also studied. The adsorption of Cu (II) was found to be dependent on its initial concentrations, the amount of adsorbent, time of contact, temperature and pH of the metal solution, maximum removal of Cu (II) on the adsorbent are at pH about 6.0. The removal of Cu (II) increased with increase in temperature. The authors concluded that the wheat shell for the removal and recovery of a heavy metal is potentially more economical than current process technology.
|Chemical characteristics||Percent of the properties|
|Water soluble component (inorganic matter)||18.12|
|Insoluble components (organic matter)||78.85|
|Total loss of ignition||89.28|
Table 3: Chemical characteristics of lentil shell used in the experiment .
|Properties||Percent of the properties|
|Surface area (BET) (m2g-1)||0.67|
|Bulk density (gcm-1)||0.36|
|Particle size (mm)||0.60|
Table 4: Physical characteristics of wheat shell used in the experiment .
|Properties||Percent of the properties|
|Water soluble component (inorganic matter)||22.33|
|Insoluble components (organic matter)||75.14|
|Total loss of ignition||88.45|
Table 5: Chemical characteristics of wheat shell used in the experiment .
Wheat bran is a by-product of wheat milling industries and has been proved to be a good adsorbent for removal of many types of heavy metal ions such as Cu(II). The investigation carried out by Ozer et al.  showed that wheat bran is a good adsorbent for the adsorption of Cu (II) from aqueous solution.
The authors reported that the application of a strong dehydrating agent like sulfuric acid (H2SO4) can have a significant effect on the surface area of the adsorbent, thereby resulting in better efficiency of adsorption of copper ions. It was found that upon treatment with sulfuric acid, wheat bran had a much higher surface area. The authors suggested that acid treatment caused changes in surface area by increasing the conversion of macropores to micropores. Maximum adsorption capacity for Cu(II) ions was reported as 51.5 mg g-1 (at pH 5) and equilibrium time of adsorption was achieved in 30 minutes.
Sawdust is obtained from wood industry. It is an abundant byproduct which is easily available at negligible price. It contains various organic compounds (lignin, cellulose and hemicellulose) with polyphenolic groups that could bind heavy metal ions through different mechanisms. Sciban et al.  conducted an experiment on the efficiency of sawdust in the removal of Cu(II) ion. They treated two kinds of sawdust (poplar and fir wood) with NaOH (fibre-swelling agent) and Na2CO3 solutions and the adsorption capacities were compared with the untreated sawdust. For unmodified sawdust, adsorption followed Langmuir isotherm model. Equivalent amounts of adsorption capacities were recorded by both types of sawdust for Cu(II) ion, although these two adsorbents have different anatomical structure and chemical composition. A marked increase in the adsorption capacity of the adsorbents was noticed after treating with NaOH. The adsorption capacities shown by Langmuir model were 6.92 mg g-1 (poplar sawdust) and 12.70 mg g-1 (fir sawdust).
Increase in the concentration of NaOH for modification purpose however did not cause a significant increase of the adsorption capacity. No greater than 1% of concentration of NaOH solution for modification was suggested by the authors. The temperature of modification was also not a significant factor for the main increase of adsorption capacities of modified sawdust. It was observed that only a slight increase in Cu(II) adsorption occurred when the fir sawdust was treated with NaOH at higher temperature (800C). The authors also found out that the use of Na2CO3 for chemical modification is less efficient than the use of NaOH. This is due to higher number of Na+ ions in 1 g of NaOH compared to 1 g of Na2CO3. Although the authors were able to successfully describe the effect of chemical modification on the adsorption of Cu(II) from the aqueous solution, no detailed work was done on the kinetic studies.
The use of sawdust of poplar tree for Cu(II) from aqueous solution was also studied by Acar and Eren . They reported the effect of sulfuric acid treatment on sawdust of poplar tree in the adsorption process. Sulfuric acid poplar sawdust possessed good removal of 92.4% Cu(II) at pH 5, while untreated sawdust could only removed 47%. The kinetic of copper binding indicated that it is a rapid process and about 70–80% of copper ions removed from the solution in 10 min. The percent of copper removed decreased with increase in metal concentration. The increase in percent of adsorption with adsorbent dose could be due to the increase in surface area and availability of more active sites. The treated poplar sawdust showed maximum adsorption capacity of 13.945 mg g-1 against 5.432 mg g-1 for untreated sawdust and the process fitted Langmuir isotherm model. The maximum adsorption capacity for sulfuric acid treated poplar sawdust is higher than to the value recorded by NaOH treated poplar sawdust reported by Sciban et al. .
Chubar et al.  studied the performance of various kinds of chemically treated cork powder obtained from cork oak tree for the removal of Cu. Treatment of cork powder with salts such as NaCl and CaCl2 caused the conversion of active binding sites from the H+ form to Na+ and Ca2+ form. The salt-modified cork powder showed greater adsorption capacity than the unmodified cork especially at higher heavy metal concentrations. It was also noted that the Na+ form cork recorded a higher adsorption capacity value than the Ca2+ form. This may be due to the different charge of cations whereby the interaction of cork powder binding sites with divalent calcium ions is stronger than the monovalent sodium ions thereby hindering the biosorption reaction of copper. Treatment of cork powder with an alkaline solution (NaOH) at high temperature increased the sorption capacity toward heavy metals by about 33%. A high concentration of NaOH however causes a decrease in the adsorption capacity.
Khan and Wahab  studied the adsorption of copper by concentrated sulfuric acid treated corncobs. It was reported that upon treatment of corncobs with sulfuric acid and heated at 1500C, the pHzpc of the adsorbent reduced from 5.2 (untreated) to 2.7 (treated), and the functional groups present in the adsorbent were mainly –OH, –COOH and –COO-. The maximum adsorption capacity obtained from Langmuir isotherm was 31.45 mg g-1. As a result of low competing effect of protons for the adsorption sites, adsorption was more favoured at higher pH value (4.5). Effect of interfering ions such as Zn(II), Pb(II) and Ca(II) was also studied. It was noticed that copper removal efficiency was reduced by 53%, 27% and 19% in the presence of Pb(II), Ca(II) and Zn(II), respectively. Regeneration study indicated that sulfuric acid treated corncobs can be regenerated by acidified hydrogen peroxide solution and as much as 90% copper could be recovered.
The study on oxidation of corncob by citric acid and nitric acid was carried out by Leyva-Ramos et al. . Modification increased the surface area of the adsorbent. An increase in the amount of oxygen found in corncob was due to more oxygenated groups that were introduced on the adsorbent surface after oxidation. After oxidation, a higher proportion of acidic sites (carboxylic, phenolic and lactonic) were detected. This resulted in a reduction in the pHZPC value. It was observed that the adsorption capacities for citric acid and nitric acid oxidized corncob were much higher than unmodified corncob.
Cassava waste consists of ligands such as hydroxyl, sulfur, cyano and amino which could bind heavy metal ions. Abia et al.  carried out an experiment to determine the optimal concentration of thioglycollic acid (HSCH2COOH) for the removal of Cu(II) ions by cassava waste. It was noticed that the adsorption capacity of the cassava waste was improved as the concentration of thioglycollic acid was increased from 0.5 to 1.0 M due to the increase in sulfhydryl groups, –SH. Adsorption was reported to take place on the cell wall of the biomass. Optimum adsorption of the heavy metal was achieved in less than 30 minutes. However, the authors did not conduct a detail experiment on the kinetic model of adsorption.
Activated carbons derived from peanut husk have been successfully employed for the removal of heavy metals from aqueous solutions . The use of peanut hull carbon (PHC) for the adsorption of Cu (II) from wastewater was studied by Periasamy and Namasivayam ; their comparative study of commercial granular activated carbon (GAC) showed that the adsorption capacity of PHC was 18 times larger than that of GAC. The authors studied the adsorption behavior of peanut husk charcoal with respect to Cu(II) in order to consider its application to the purification of metal finishing wastewater. The batch method was employed; parameters such as pH, contact time, adsorbent dose and metal concentration were studied at an ambient temperature 27± 2°C. The influence of the pH of the metal ion solutions on the uptake levels of the metal ions by the adsorbents used were carried out between pH 4 and pH 11. The optimum pH for copper was 6. An equilibrium time of 2 h was required for the adsorption of Cu (II) onto the adsorbent. Adsorption parameters were determined using both Langmuir and Freundlich isotherms, but the experimental data were better fitted to the Langmuir equation than to Freundlich equation. The authors concluded that peanut husk charcoal is a low-cost adsorbent which holds potential to remove Cu(II) from industrial wastewater.
Loquat (Eriobotrya japonica) leaves
Akl and Nidà  studied the potential of Modified Loquat Leaves (MLL) for the removal of Cu (II) ions from aqueous solutions and electroplating wastewater. Their study was dependent on biosorption process such as pH, initial metal ions concentrations, biosorbent dose, contact time, and temperature. The equilibrium data were analyzed using Langmuir, Freundlich and Temkin isotherms. The authors also determined the characteristic parameters for each isotherm and related correlation coefficients, R2. The Langmuir biosorption isotherms provided the best correlation for the biosorption of Cu (II) onto MLL. The maximum monolayer adsorption capacity of MLL was found to be 33.33 mg of Cu (II)/g of MLL. The kinetic studies followed pseudo second-order equation. The data obtained in the determination of the optimal pH for the effective biosorption of Cu (II) onto MLL revealed the presence of many active sites on MLL surface available to bind with Cu(II) ions at low concentration. The authors concluded that since the MLL is an easily, locally available, low-cost adsorbent and has a considerable high biosorption capacity, it may be treated as an alternative adsorbent for treatment of wastewater containing copper (II) ions. Their results also indicated that MLL biosorbent can be used repeatedly in Cu (II) biosorption.
Adsorption capacities of copper (II) ions on various low-cost adsorbents are presented in Table 6 below:
|Low-cost adsorbents||Adsorption capacities (mg/g)||References|
|Low-rank Turkish coals||1.62||65|
|Grape stalk wastes||0.78||67|
|Citric acid modified soybean hulls||154.90||68|
|Peanut hulls pellets||9.11||70|
|Teak leaves powder||13.14||72|
|Modified rice husk||29||77|
|Raw pomegranate peel||1.3185||78|
|Dye loaded jute||8.40||79|
|Sour orange waste||23.47||82|
|Sour orange waste (NaOH treated)||52.08||82|
|Dehydrated wheat bran||51.51||84|
|Modified orange peel||289||40|
|Formaldehyde modified sawdust (poplar tree)||13.95||55|
|NaOH modified sawdust (poplar tree)||6.92||54|
|Saw dust (fir tree)||12.70||54|
|HCl modified saw dust (oak tree)||3.60||86|
|Reactive orange 13 modifiedsawdust||8.07||87|
|Cassava tuber bark waste||90.90||89|
|HCl modified Indian barks
|Reactive orange modified jute fibre||8.40||90|
|H202 modified jute fibre||7.73||90|
|Unmodified jute fibre||4.23||90|
Table 6: Adsorption capacities of copper (II) ions on various low-cost adsorbents.
Little efforts seem to have been made to carry out a cost comparison between activated carbon and various non-conventional adsorbents . This aspect needs to be investigated further in order to promote large-scale use of non-conventional adsorbents. In spite of the scarcity of consistent cost information, the widespread use of low-cost adsorbents in industries for wastewater treatment applications nowadays are strongly recommended due to their local availability, technical feasibility, engineering applicability, and cost effectiveness. If low-cost adsorbents perform well in removing heavy metals, they can be adopted and widely used in industries not only to minimize cost inefficiency, but also improve profitability.
In addition, if the adsorbents reviewed in this article are found highly efficient for the removal of Cu(II), both the industries, living organisms and the surrounding environment will benefit from the decrease or elimination of the toxicity associated with the metal. Also, these adsorbents can be utilized in the design of adsorption columns. Thus, the use of low-cost adsorbents may contribute to the sustainability of the surrounding environment. Spectroscopic analyses involving Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), X-ray absorption near edge structure (XANES) spectroscopy and extended X-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS) spectroscopy are also important in order to have a better understanding on the mechanism of metal adsorption on modified plant wastes. Undoubtedly, low-cost adsorbents offer a lot of promising benefits for effective removal of Cu(II) from aqueous systems from wastewaters.
The corresponding author acknowledges the support obtained from The World Academy of Science (TWAS) in form of grant; Research Grant number:11-249 RG/CHE/AF/AC_1_UNESCO FR: 3240262674.
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domain: chemistry


text:
Comfort over style! Dressed down Bar Refaeli goes make-up free as she jets back to LA from Israel
As a supermodel she's always polished, preened and ready for the camera.
Well, not quite always.
Bar Refaeli put comfort over style for once as she went make-up free for her flight back to LA on Saturday.
Comfort over style: Bar Refaeli is spotted arriving on a flight at LAX airport in Los Angeles, California, on Saturday
Dressed down in slacks and a T-shirt, and with not even a hint of mascara, the superstar looked decidedly unlike her public persona.
But while she may not have been catwalk ready, Bar certainly looked as if she'd made sure to have a comfy flight.
'Have a relaxing Saturday,' she had earlier tweeted to fans. 'I'm going to spend it on a plane.'
'Have a relaxing Saturday,' she had earlier tweeted to fans. 'I'm going to spend it on a plane'
But despite spending long hours in the sky Bar is sure not to have had too stressful a time as she relaxed in first class.
The 28-year-old was jetting back to her LA home after spending the Jewish New Year with her family in her native Israel.
Busy Bar will find herself enjoying lots more long haul flights in the coming months.
As she normally is! Bar tweeted this picture to fans to remind them of her model form
For while she has made her home in the U.S. since finding fame, the model is set to host Israel's version of the X Factor.
As the country's most famous modelling export Bar was surely a shoe-in for the job.
And a newly released trailer shows her sizzling alongside Simon Cowell, who will not be a judge on the new show.
Head turner: The Israeli model struts into a run-down diner to meet Simon Cowell in a scene from a trailer for Israeli X Factor
Instead the panel includes Ivri Lider, an Israeli pop star and part of the duo TYP also known as The Young Professionals and Shiri Maimon, a singer and actress who represented Israel in the Eurovision Song Contest 2005.
Completing the panel are Rami Fortis - considered a pioneer of Israeli Punk rock - and finally Moshe Peretz, an Israeli Mizrahi Pop singer-songwriter and composer.
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domain: celebrity


text:
One of the PlayStation VR’s best launch titles is about to get better. A new patch has been released for Battlezone adding support for the upcoming PlayStation 4 Pro console with graphical improvements offering a “offering a crisper, more vibrant experience”, including improved dynamic lighting in the cockpit view and reflections.
Furthermore, the patch also adds new changes that improve the balancing of the game along with a few bug fixes. You can find the full changelog below.
BATTLEZONE 1.02 Patch Notes
Added PS4 Pro support
– Improved dynamic lighting in the Cobra cockpit
– Difficulty randomisation more even throughout campaign
Bug, performance fixes and other changes
– Fixed a rare framerate hitch during hangar sequence
– Minor enemy behaviour tweaks
A remake of the Atari original, Battlezone features intense first person tank combat action with stylised retro graphics, a proceedural campaign and four player co-op. The PS4 Pro will be released November 10th.

domain: game


In a study published in Scientific Reports, scientists from Osaka University have developed a new technique for improving the accuracy of laser beam shaping--which is critical for producing the desired shapes to respond to various needs. Current conventional methods of laser beam shaping include Diffractive Optical Element (DOE) and computer-generated hologram (CGH) as a typical adaptive method—both however result in wavefronts becoming deformed after shaping.
Square flattop beam profiles made by: (a) Diffractive Optical Element (DOE), (b) vertical phase grating (conventional method), (c) virtual diagonal phase grating (new method). Credit: © 2019 Nakata Y. et al., Scientific Reports
However, recent studies have developed a universal beam shaping technique at high accuracy to be used for various lasers from ultraviolet to near-infrared domain. The new method for adaptive laser beam shaping uses phase grating encoded on a spatial light modulator (SLM) with spatial-frequency filtering in the Fourier plane in a 4f system.
Watch this video below of a conventional method of laser beam shaping:
The method involves extracted and residual components to overlap through a virtual diagonal phase grating in the Fourier plane which cuts the high spatial-frequency (HSF) component from the extracted component and limits the flatness and the edge steepness of the resultant beam shape.
Corresponding author Yoshiki Nakata says, "Our method, which allows for optimization of beam shaping by improving resolution and accuracy, will contribute to a wide field, including basic research, manufacturing and medical engineering. In conventional beam shaping systems, beam shaping accuracy can be significantly enhanced at no extra cost simply by changing the spatial frequency filter and phase grating encoded on an SLM."
Source: Science Daily


text:
Valentine’s Day is coming soon. It is important time for you to show your heart to your beloved ladies. Watches with the meaning of accompanying can be good choices. I believe that the pink copy Harry Winston Premier Precious Love watches must catch the hearts of the ladies.
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domain: design


text:
By: Funny Or Die
Two people wake up together the morning after a wild night and they try to put together the pieces.
Starring Lauryn Kahn & Jake Szymanski
Written & Directed by Lauryn Kahn
Produced by Christin Trogan
Director of Photography & Edited by Elliot Dickerhoof
Also featuring Steven Leeds & Erin Brown
Production Assistants: Ross Buran, Taylor Robinson, & Michael Gabriel

domain: artistic


text:
I am far from the most organised when it comes to preparing for Christmas, but the recently released Christmas themed Dinky stencils have at least started me on my way. As you can see I have decided to make some Christmas tags with 2 very different techniques.
Here’s what I did:-
The first pair of tags have been made on acetate. I started by first die cutting my tags from an A4 sheets of acetate.
I then stencilled through the Bubble Tree stencil using Cosmic Shimmer texture paste in both Deep Red and Gold Pearl. To ensure the stencil didn’t move on the acetate I held it in place with low tack masking tape, this also stopped any of the paste getting onto the acetate where I didn’t want it. I left these then overnight to totally dry. Once they were dry I added Tim Holtz Christmas Time Remnant Rubs, you get a sheet of black and a sheet of white in the pack. I then tied coordinating ribbon through the tag.
These were not the easiest to photograph but hopefully you get the idea. There is also a fabulous shimmer to the trees from the paste which sadly the photograph doesn’t really show.
2nd pair of tags have been made using the Dinky Trees background stencil on the 3” x 5” Gelli Plate. Using PaperArtsy Fresco Finish paints and after playing with several prints I decided I liked the softness of the ghost prints. A ghost print being layering a layer of acrylic paint over the remnants of design left by the previous print and then pulling them both off together. I chose quite funky non traditional colours for these tags. I cleaned my brayer each time onto a piece of white cardstock, this piece of card was then die cut with the tag die to be my background. I then die cut the trees out of pink card stock and die cut my sentiments in a linen white cardstock, added few self-adhesive pink stars, again finished off with coordinating ribbon.
2 very different styles of tags
What I used:-
Cosmic Shimmer Texture Paste – Deep Red & Pearl Gold
PaperArtsy Fresco Paints – Limelight, Bougainvillea, Caribbean sea, Teresa Green
Tim Holtz Thinlits Die – Handwritten Holidays
Adhesive Star Gems
White Linen Card
Cosmic Shimmer Acrylic Glue for the die cuts
Tim Holtz Alteration Tag and Bookplate Die
See you all next Tuesday


text:
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domain: library


text:
Did you draw?
It is time to start checking the cards and application status. A lot of states are trickling in. There are reports tonight of Utah’s draws hitting the credit cards, so check your online statements. Idaho also posted their Moose, Sheep, and Mtn. Goat results. Best of luck to all of you…and let us know how it goes.

domain: hobby


text:
The mu1 opioid receptor gene, OPRM1, has long been a high-priority candidate for human genetic studies of addiction. Because of its potential functional significance, the non-synonymous variant rs1799971 (A118G, Asn40Asp) in OPRM1 has been extensively studied, yet its role in addiction has remained unclear, with conflicting association findings. To resolve the question of what effect, if any, rs1799971 has on substance dependence risk, we conducted collaborative meta-analyses of 25 datasets with over 28,000 European-ancestry subjects. We investigated non-specific risk for "general" substance dependence, comparing cases dependent on any substance to controls who were non-dependent on all assessed substances. We also examined five specific substance dependence diagnoses: DSM-IV alcohol, opioid, cannabis, and cocaine dependence, and nicotine dependence defined by the proxy of heavy/light smoking (cigarettes-per-day > 20 vs. a parts per thousand currency sign10). The G allele showed a modest protective effect on general substance dependence (OR = 0.90, 95 % C.I. [0.83-0.97], p value = 0.0095, N = 16,908). We observed similar effects for each individual substance, although these were not statistically significant, likely because of reduced sample sizes. We conclude that rs1799971 contributes to mechanisms of addiction liability that are shared across different addictive substances. This project highlights the benefits of examining addictive behaviors collectively and the power of collaborative data sharing and meta-analyses.
Association of the oprm1 variant rs1799971 (a118g) with non-specific liability to substance dependence in a collaborative de novo meta-analysis of European-ancestry cohorts
Schwantes-An, T-H., Zhang, J., Chen, L-S., Hartz, S. M., Culverhouse, R. C., Chen, X., Coon, H., Frank, J., Kamens, H. M., Konte, B., Kovanen, L., Latvala, A., Legrand, L. N., Maher, B. S., Melroy, W. E., Nelson, E. C., Reid, M. W., Robinson, J. D., Shen, P-H., ... Saccone, N. L. (2016). Association of the oprm1 variant rs1799971 (a118g) with non-specific liability to substance dependence in a collaborative de novo meta-analysis of European-ancestry cohorts. Behavior Genetics, 46(2), 151-169. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10519-015-9737-3

domain: literature


This year holds potential up to be one of Wyoming’s biggest years for new fish records. During the first few months of 2013, anglers have already set five new state records.
To enter a fish for consideration for a Wyoming state record, the following rules must be followed:
• The fish must be weighed on a scale certified for legal trade. Scales in post offices or places of commerce are usually all certified. The scale in your tackle box is not. The weighing must be witnessed by two people other than the applicant.
• Fish caught at private clubs, from fish hatchery waters, or on private ponds not accessible to the public for angling are ineligible.
• Fish must be caught on rod, reel, and line; or pole and line; and hooked (no snagging) using legal methods.
• The species must be verified by the Game and Fish Department. The identity of most fish is usually obvious, but there are certain species such as lake trout, splake, brook trout, walleye, sauger, and some of the sunfish species that could easily be mistaken.
• Fish must be taken during the legal open season of the water where caught.
The department advises having the fish officially weighed as quickly as possible. A large fish will lose moisture over time which can add up to enough weight loss to keep a fish from becoming a new state record.
Record entry forms are found on the Game and Fish website wgfd.wyo.gov. Anglers can contact Game and Fish regional offices or headquarters (307-777-4600) for more information.
Visit wgfd.wyo.gov for a listing of Wyoming’s fish records.
source: Wyoming Game and Fish


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We’re looking forward to welcoming school groups (7th grade and up) to the Americans and the Holocaust exhibition.
Register here for Americans and the Holocaust for a one-hour time slot on Tuesdays, Wednesdays, or Fridays between 10:00 a.m.-2:00 p.m.
The maximum capacity is 60 students per time slot.
Visiting the Exhibition
- School group visits are self-guided under the direction of the teacher.
- We encourage the use of the Teacher Guide to prepare for and guide your session. (Please note that the suggested activity requires print materials which you must bring with you).
- Library staff and volunteers will be available to welcome you and assist throughout your visit.
- Please plan for 30-60 minutes to view the exhibit and to engage your students.
Directions and Parking
- Albertsons Library is in the heart of the Boise State Campus.
- Parking is limited. School bus drop-off is recommended.
- See Directions and Parking for on-campus options.


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Alan Lea’s novel Hermetica was published by Detritus Books on 1 October 2021.
Alan kindly answered a few of my questions.
1. Tell us a little about Hermetica.
Hermetica starts off with Dase finding a piece of newspaper that shouldn’t be there. Dase is a passenger on a generation ship that’s going to take a few hundred years to make it to another star system. They’ve spent their entire life on this ship and they’re not going to live long enough to see the destination. They’re confused; they’ve never seen paper before, and the things written on the paper don’t seem to make sense. They begin questioning their role on the ship, which is managed by AI, completely compartmentalized. It’s a life, an authority, Dase has always chafed under, but now they’re beginning to take steps to define their own path.
2. What inspired the book?
I wrote Hermetica during the first confinement, so that experience of claustrophobia is certainly present in the book (it’s not a claustrophobic read, though! I would say it’s an expansive narrative, with most of the barriers getting broken down, though I can’t say how without giving a bunch of spoilers).
However, Dase’s experience with control and marginalization actually has nothing to do with the pandemic, but with my own lifelong history of madness, of not fitting in with our society’s norms around mental health. Another factor that left its mark on the book are all these figures with immense power in our world who really do not care how many people die as a consequence of their greed and selfishness.
3. Are you a plan, plan, plan writer or do you sit down and see where the words take you?
I go on long walks and parts of the manuscript come to me almost intact, and as I’m writing more parts reveal themselves. As a result, my editing process rarely leads to big structural changes, it’s much more about fine-tuning the diction or adding some more subtle elements to complement or counterbalance the main thrust of the story.
However, I’ve had to do more planning with certain other manuscripts of mine that are still unpublished, like aligning the chronology for a fantasy manuscript with a great many characters, or tightly mapping the plot for another story with a strong element of mystery. And then there’s world-building, but that’s more like a parallel writing process, a book beneath the book, rather than a planning process.
4. Is there anything about the process of publishing a book that surprised you?
I knew not to expect the publishing industry to be some pure temple of literary passions, but even with my cynicism, my critical take, I was surprised at times to find amidst all the bureaucracy, all the monopolization, the marketing, the imperative of the bottom line, how frequently the story itself was absent from the entire process of publishing.
Going with a small publisher was a much nicer experience, and I hope to be surprised by our ability to distribute the book despite the game being, in many ways, rigged. Crossing my fingers.
5. What do you do when you aren’t writing? What do you do to relax and get away from it all?
I like to paint the town red, light fires, spark processes of creativity. I like to travel and share with strangers. I love to walk in the mountains, in the woods. I love to cook for friends. Garden. There might be a cat who owns a good piece of my time.
6. If you could only read one book for the rest of your life which book would it be?
In such a scenario I would probably dedicate the rest of my life to fighting whatever nefarious dictator or power structure were denying me access to more books, so I might not have the opportunity to read that one book, whatever it were.
In any case, Dase, my protagonist, would like to remind me that when we’re offered limited options, there’s always another choice.
7. I like to end my Q&As with the same question so here we go. During all the Q&As and interviews you’ve done what question have you not been asked that you wish had been asked – and what’s the answer?
Why are we writing books at the end of the world?
Hopefully it’s not for distraction, not an opiate. For me it’s an effort to give the world a chance, to make it through this catastrophe and to grow back in a healthier way. That’s at least part of why I’m channelling these stories, I think. Also, as an act of defiant hope: if the world were going to end tomorrow, today I’d plant a tree, that sort of thing.
About the Book
When Dase finds an old news article behind the wall panel of their module–an article from a different world–everything starts to unravel. Who’s going to believe Dase, when everyone knows they’re a little crazy? And who is even in charge of Hermetica? In a universe of total surveillance and parallel worlds, consensus reality isn’t what you think.


Prestack Kirchhoff depth migration is commonly used in borehole seismic imaging, where there is uneven illumination due to the limitations of the source-receiver geometry. A new vertical seismic profile (VSP) migration/imaging workflow has been established that incorporates the structure-dip information derived from a newly developed structure tensor analysis into the existing VSP Kirchhoff migration/imaging technique. This allows us to better image the structures in the vicinity of a borehole and the far-field dipping events away from the borehole. We tested the workflow with the HESS salt model. The results were compared with those from reverse time migration, which found that Kirchhoff migration combined with structure-dip information not only reduced ambiguities of the imaging result but also allowed for imaging dip structures (e.g., fault) in the far region from the borehole. This allows for imaging dip structures and provides a useful extension of existing VSP imaging capabilities using Kirchhoff migration.


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A sturdy ribbed material of wool, cotton, or wool and cotton, often with an embossed finish, utilized for clothes and furniture.
A thick woollen material, watered or with embossed numbers, used in upholstery, for curtains, etc.
A thick woolen fabric, watered or with embossed figures; -- found in upholstery, for curtains, etc.
A fabric of wool, or often of cotton and wool, similar to tammy, generally watered, but sometimes plain. Its useful for petticoats, bathing-dresses, etc., therefore the weightier attributes for curtains.
huge textile of wool (or wool and cotton fiber) used mostly in upholstery or for curtains


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Uncovering the Mystery of Martha Crawford Heitzmann: Her Fascinating Life Story Revealed
Martha Crawford Heitzmann was an exceptional woman who lived an extraordinary life. She was a well-known American author, pianist, and soprano, who was born in 1859 in Springfield, Ohio. Her life was full of adventures, travels, and unrelenting dedication to her passion for music and writing. In this post, we will delve deeper into the life and times of Martha Crawford Heitzmann and uncover her many accomplishments.
Section 1: Early Life and Education
Martha Crawford Heitzmann was born into a family of musicians and artists. Her father, Charles Freeman Crawford, was a well-known painter, and her mother, Elizabeth Barney Crawford, was a soprano and music teacher. From a young age, Martha showed an exceptional talent for music and was trained in classical music by her mother. She also had a passion for writing and would spend hours scribbling stories and poems in her diary.
In 1877, Martha graduated from Smith College with a degree in music. She went on to study at the Boston Conservatory of Music and later joined the New England Conservatory of Music. During this time, she honed her skills as a pianist and soprano and started performing in concerts and operas.
Section 2: The Musician and Performer
Martha Crawford Heitzmann was an accomplished musician and performer. She performed in several operas and concerts across the United States, including a performance at the White House for President Benjamin Harrison. She was also a piano teacher and taught at several music schools in Boston.
Martha was known for her exceptional talent and her ability to convey emotion through her music. She was a soprano with a powerful voice and performed both classical and contemporary music.
Section 3: The Writer
Martha Crawford Heitzmann was not only a musician and performer but also a prolific writer. She wrote several books, including ‘The Breath of the Gods,’ ‘The Opened Shutters,’ and ‘The Pursuit of Phyllis.’ Her books were well-received and celebrated for their vivid characterization and beautiful storytelling.
Martha’s writing was inspired by her travels and her love for nature. She often wrote about her experiences in Europe and the American West, and her love for the outdoors is evident in much of her work.
Section 4: The Traveler
Martha Crawford Heitzmann was an avid traveler and visited several countries during her lifetime. She traveled extensively throughout Europe, visiting countries such as Italy, France, and Germany. She was fascinated by the culture and history of these countries and often wrote about her experiences in her books.
Martha also traveled to Africa and the American West, where she experienced life on the frontier. Her travels greatly influenced her writing, and many of her books are set in exotic locations.
Section 5: The Feminist and Philanthropist
Martha Crawford Heitzmann was a feminist and philanthropist who believed in the power of education. She was an advocate for women’s rights and believed that education was the key to women’s emancipation.
Martha was also a philanthropist and donated her time and money to various causes. She was a member of several charitable organizations, including the Massachusetts Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals.
Section 6: The Legacy
Martha Crawford Heitzmann passed away in 1947, but her legacy lives on. Her books continue to be read and appreciated by people all over the world, and her music continues to inspire musicians and performers.
Martha’s life was a testament to the power of passion, dedication, and hard work. She was a woman ahead of her time and broke many barriers in her field. Her legacy serves as an inspiration to many, and her contributions to music and literature will always be remembered.
Section 7: FAQs
Q1: What was Martha Crawford Heitzmann’s most famous book?
A1: Martha Crawford Heitzmann wrote several books, but her most famous book is ‘The Breath of the Gods.’
Q2: What was Martha Crawford Heitzmann’s profession?
A2: Martha Crawford Heitzmann was a musician, performer, and writer.
Q3: What made Martha Crawford Heitzmann’s books unique?
A3: Martha Crawford Heitzmann’s books were celebrated for their vivid characterization and beautiful storytelling.
Q4: Which countries did Martha Crawford Heitzmann visit during her lifetime?
A4: Martha Crawford Heitzmann traveled extensively throughout Europe, Africa, and the American West.
Q5: What were Martha Crawford Heitzmann’s philanthropic activities?
A5: Martha Crawford Heitzmann was a philanthropist and donated her time and money to various causes, including animal welfare.
Q6: What was Martha Crawford Heitzmann’s belief about education?
A6: Martha Crawford Heitzmann believed in the power of education and was an advocate for women’s rights.
Q7: When did Martha Crawford Heitzmann pass away?
A7: Martha Crawford Heitzmann passed away in 1947.
Martha Crawford Heitzmann was a remarkable woman who lived a life of passion, dedication, and purpose. She was a musician, performer, writer, traveler, feminist, and philanthropist, whose contributions to music and literature continue to inspire people all over the world. Her life serves as a testament to the power of pursuing one’s passions and breaking barriers, and her legacy will always be remembered. As we celebrate the life and achievements of Martha Crawford Heitzmann, let us all be inspired to pursue our passions and make a positive impact on the world.


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Best Songs of All Time
The Contenders: Page 15
This song sounds so flawed I want to rip its American apparel underwear
5 seconds of summer is just as confusing as one D. Are they in love with the same girl or is it one of them who likes her?!
Oh good lord not this band this isn't proper music I swearV 3 Comments
The pet shop boys at their best great atmosphere on their first hit
THIS IS UNREAL, HOW IT COULD BE? :O RADIOHEAD ON 148TH PLACE AND ENRIQUE IGLESIAS ON 146TH? OH MY GOD, THIS IS THE BEST SONG I'VE HEARD EVER, ARE YOU CRAZY?
This song will never bore you and when you sing it, you will fell release. The tune is rightly expression of the lyrics. It deserves to be on top of the list. It is a rare piece.
Love the emotion of the vocal and the lyric, it is really rare to find song like this. Sadly undervalued in this chart.
Incredibly lyrical and it makes you feel sad - maxican03V 6 Comments
Many of the songs in this list are 'Rock' songs, but for those who love the James Bond Movie Series, the theme song from 'Goldfinger' as performed by the powerful vocalist, Shirley Bassey, and written by John Barry, Don Black, Anthony Newley And Leslie Bricusse should definitely be included in this best song list. To this day, few other artists have attempted this song because they simply can not match Shirley Bassey's powerful rendition.
Lots of good songs here, but this one stands out! Contains more energy and attitude than all the rock songs listed
The BEST James Bond Theme Song of all time! After 45 years, few other artists have even attempted this song because they know they can't beat Shirley Bassey's rendition.
White and Nerdy is a fantastic song, It is much better than ChamillionR. It should be in the top 15 at least...
come on guys how many white guys do u know that can actually pull that off and still be a hit....... keep thinking about it exactly not that many. - shashasls
Weird al is the BEST! There should be a lot more of his songs in the top 100. - anonymous
Funny song and sung pretty well by Weird Al.V 1 Comment
the best song ever by the best band ever..you dare to say there's a better drummer than Neil Peart!!
Lol 367? This should be at least top 50. This song is a milestone in learning to play drums (or guitar or bass) if you can play this you're pretty damn good.
No, Niel is one of the best drummer ever, no argue what so ever, but don�'t forget 2112 album though.
One of the most powerful songs with one of the most important messages
Best song ever great meaning but how does kei$ha make the list she suck like tim tok is horrible
why is this all the way at 341? its one of the best modern songs and pretty much sums up todays youth
Classic tune, classic Arctic Monkeys!
650! Are you kidding me! - neel9248
Um, this along with A Certain Romance is one of the top 100 songs ever made. And this is coming from a guy who listens to all types of music including Otis Redding, Nine Inch Nails, Justin Timberlake, Velvet Underground, Radiohead, Beatles, Led Z. , and Lorde.
It's a shame that this is so low and that 650 songs are above this. It's not the greatest song ever, What's Going On (Marvin Gaye) is, but this is an ATROCITY! Please vote this up, it brought back rock and roll to the 2000's.
Arctic Monkeys are like the 2nd coming of the Beatles, and the only reason you disagree with me is because you haven't heard all their material yet, please listen to them, they are the best today, along with Arcade Fire.
Pink Floyd's greatest song, one of the greatest classic rock songs of all time. Can't believe it's not even on the list yet. TEACHER, LEAVE THOSE KIDS ALONE!
One of the greatest songs of all time, I'd say it challenges Bohemian Rhapsody
This list is bull if it doesn't respect this track
If this list doesn't have this song in the top 10, the list isn't complete.V 11 Comments
You've gotta be crazy not to include this song.V 1 Comment
This song is amazing. It was one of the best songs in that year. It has a meaningful message. Sia's vocals are FANTASTIC! David Guetta and Sia make GREAT songs! It should be at least in the 70-80
Amazing song! I don't understand, all my relatives hate this song and I'm the only one who likes it! Best song ever!
Best song ever taylor swift sucks
Totally agree with the person who liked turn me on.V 4 Comments
It's one of the most devastating songs I've ever heard. He builds the story beautifully until he completely breaks your heart with "now those memories come back to haunt me, they haunt me like a curse...is a dream a lie if it don't come true, or is it something worse? " The theme of the song, the lyrics, melody and the way Bruce feels it and sings it all make this song a masterpiece. This one deserves to be in top 30!
It is a really good song and should definitely be put on the list for people to vote for. It is a major part of his music career and should be shared throughout the world.
Less than David Guetta. No words. Just... sad.
This song is so powerful. Best song ever.
Beautiful song with touching lyrics
Paradise, Viva la Vida, and We are the Champions are the best songs of all time
The Best Song EverV 3 Comments
Just an amazing song, love it!
This song is awesome. Why is it so far from top 10?
It's the final countdown! - htoutlaws2012
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List StatsUpdated 27 Feb 2017
11 years, 104 days old
Top Remixes (706)
2. Bohemian Rhapsody - Queen
3. Highway to Hell - AC/DC
2. Fireflies - Owl City
3. Blank Space - Taylor Swift
2. When the Levee Breaks - Led Zeppelin
3. A Quick One, While He's Away - The Who
View All 706


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Four Hundred Years of Dolls, Drudges, Helpmates and Heroines.
By Gail Collins.
Illustrated. 556 pp. New York:
William Morrow. $27.95.
A GENERATION ago, ''America's Women'' amounted to 10 words (and one letter): Susan B. Anthony, Clara Barton, Helen Keller, Betsy Ross, Harriet Tubman. On a good day, or perhaps as an admonition, a Salem witch might be thrown in. There was more to be said about the country's soybean crop. If it is a sign of the times that Gail Collins has devoted 556 pages to the subject, it is an even healthier sign of the times that she offers up celebration rather than polemic. Her rousing epic amounts less to a story of how women have shaped America -- finally, it seems, we might rest our case -- than to how America has shaped her women.
Collins's history begins with an image of which she is fond: a woman surveying the vast wilderness of the New World from the deck of a ship. The first to do so happens to be pregnant. On a summer day 33 years before the arrival of the Mayflower, Eleanor Dare would give birth to the first English child born in America. She may or may not have made peace with the American Indians already living on Roanoke Island; she then passes silently, demurely, into oblivion. Collins's history ends in the middle of Fifth Avenue, 383 years later. John Lindsay has denied Betty Friedan's demonstrators permission to parade, requesting that they confine themselves to the sidewalk. On Aug. 26, 1970, Friedan surveys the crowd swelling around her, one that has defied all expectation, and issues a battle cry with which, as it turns out, American woman have had an ambivalent relationship since Eleanor Dare first sighted land: ''Take the street!'' she commands.
Collins visits every frontier separating those two summer days: plantation management, magazine publishing, head-to-toe bathing, cattle drives, the department store, drug addiction, temperance, divorce, college education, the voting booth, self-absorption, birth control, short hair, Kotex, the wheel of a car, green bean casserole, bra-burning, pro tennis. It is not always a pretty story. One woman hurls herself from the deck of the Mayflower without ever setting foot on land. Colonial diapering is a subject on which the less said the better; it was a gamy world to begin with. In the far West, the white settlers leveled the same criticism against the Mexicans that the Mexicans leveled against the Indians: the women did all the work. The suffragists could hardly have been more vile to black women, perceived as a political liability. The civil rights and women's movements collided repeatedly, victims of competing agendas. Even in the early 19th century, women apologized for their success. They douched with Lysol, happy to advertise itself as an antidote to ''calendar fear.'' And in their first national showing at the polls, they put Warren Harding -- one of the greater embarrassments among American presidents -- in the White House.
Happily and not, it is also a familiar story. A New England man who beats his wife to a pulp is granted a reprieve. In one Boston case an accusation of witchcraft grew out of a wealthy widow's spat with her carpenter, evidently the 17th-century equivalent of misplacing legal files or acting on a stock tip. (It was remarkable that nearly all the accused hailed from the prosperous side of town.) And it turns out that America has a long history of prenuptial pregnancy. In the midst of the good suffragist fight, Elizabeth Cady Stanton had baby-sitter troubles. You could get a man with a gun, but it took something you can't fake -- a mean blueberry pie, say -- to keep him. Then as now, women's lives have been endangered by morals not their own: the decorous obstetrician who averted his eyes from his patient's nether regions did her untold harm.
It is in grappling with that contortionism that Collins, the editorial page editor of The New York Times, reveals her evenhandedness. The 19th-century obstetrician bungled as much because of women's modesty as because of the constraints of his profession. If there is a villain in this tale she may just wear a skirt; as Collins sees it, we have repeatedly tripped ourselves up. The enemy is not so much the other half of the human race as the mixed messages, our love-hate relationship with hearth and home. (Collins is particularly incisive on the very different struggle of the African-American woman, whose early battle was to not to go out but to stay in.) It seems it is never too late to be dumb and helpless again: remember that earth-shattering 1986 Newsweek story, which made it easier for a 40-year-old single woman to meet a terrorist than a husband? You have to wonder why Tom Ridge hasn't dusted that one off.Continue reading the main story
What has saved us time and again is the economy. Collins's is a tale of imprudence and dissent and defiance but it is also a tale of forces greater even -- who knew there was one? -- than a woman's will. Ladylike behavior has been regularly defined by exigency; necessity has been the mother of emancipation. The hordes of Southern mosquitoes that produced young l7th-century widows produced very resourceful businesswomen. The Revolution brought with it the short-lived right to vote in New Jersey. Every war in which America has engaged has spelled social and political and economic opportunities for women. The Depression brought an end to federal restrictions against birth control. (In U.S. v. One Package of Japanese Pessaries, the text of which, I am delighted to report, is available online.) Polio gave us Eleanor Roosevelt; World War II got Maya Angelou a job as a San Francisco streetcar conductor. Collins sees the freedom to work for decent wages as the single greatest force behind the change in the status of America's women; how are you going to get them back on the farm once they've learned stenography?
Historical forces do not take center stage here however, generously reserved for the heroines of the tale. Collins encourages her cast to speak for themselves, at least as distinctly as any woman has ever been allowed to. She dusts off the icons and tracks down those who have flown under the radar: the 17th-century surgeons, the cattle owners, the proto-Annie Oakleys, the Revolutionary soldiers. (One husband got a war pension.) This she does without ever losing sight of the bigger picture, and without flogging anyone with a thesis that might minimize her contributions. She is a master of the effortless glide from the individual to the collective experience and back again, with the result that her narrative is as broad as it is deep, pleasing proportions in a book, if not in a soccer mom or a vampire slayer. Only a spoilsport would point up any lacunae, of which here are mine: Who established women's colleges, and why did they do so? Twice a day every day my Massachusetts school bus took me past Susan B. Anthony's birthplace, but where is the female figure who loomed largest over my childhood? Surely Barbie can't be missing from these pages.
Twiggy puts in an appearance, however, and it's impossible to quibble with someone who is equally gifted at parsing hapless Lucy and defiant Rosa, who imaginatively connects four centuries' worth of dots to produce a marvel of pointillisme. The feat is all the more impressive in that the history with which Collins conjures is, in itself, sprawling and contradictory; geography and race further divide the female universes. And no one has ever accused women of being consistent. Here we are, bumping up against glass ceilings, and some of us still prefer the pinch of the glass slipper. The immensely accomplished Louisa Adams sat in her husband's White House and titled her autobiography ''Adventures of a Nobody.'' Women fought for the vote in order to ban alcohol -- in other words to keep their men at home -- when their own struggle was in large part to escape the house. To have worked these tales of New World bravery into a seamless text is in itself a bravura accomplishment. It also happens to make for a story more complex, and more inspiring, than anything Harriet or Susan B. could have imagined. Who knew that women had a sunnier future as switchboard operators because men tended to talk back to customers?Continue reading the main story