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Aedes albopictus life table: environment, food, and age dependence survivorship and reproduction in a tropical area
Parasites & Vectors volume 14, Article number: 568 (2021)
Environmental conditions affect the biology of mosquito vectors. Aedes albopictus is a major vector of many important diseases including dengue, Zika, and chikungunya in China. Understanding the development, fecundity, and survivorship of Ae. albopictus mosquitoes in different environmental conditions is beneficial for the implementation of effective vector control measures.
Aedes albopictus larval and adult life-table experiments were conducted under natural conditions in indoor, half-shaded, and fully shaded settings, simulating the three major habitat types in Hainan Province, a tropical island in the South China Sea. Temperature, humidity, and light intensity were recorded daily. Larval rearing used habitat water and tap water, with and without additional artificial food. Development time, survivorship, pupation rate, and adult emergence rates were monitored. Adult mosquito survivorship and fecundity were monitored daily and reproductive rates were determined, and age-dependent survivorship and reproduction were analyzed.
The pupation time and male and female emergence times were significantly shorter in indoor conditions than in shaded and half-shaded conditions for both tap water with added food and habitat water with added food groups. For habitat water with added food, the shaded environment had the lowest pupation rate among the settings. For tap water with added food group, the shaded environment had the lowest pupation rate. The mean survival time of females was 27.3 ± 0.8 days in the indoor condition, which was significantly longer than that in the half-shaded (18.4 ± 0.6 days) and shaded (13.8 ± 1.2 days) conditions. Adult mortality was age-dependent, and the rate of change in mortality with age was not significantly different among different environmental conditions. The mean net replacement rate (R0) of female mosquitoes showed no significant difference among the three conditions, whereas the per capita intrinsic growth rate (r) in the shaded condition was 42.0% and 20.4% higher than that in the indoor and half-shaded conditions, respectively. Female daily egg mass was also age-dependent in all the settings, decaying exponentially with age.
Our results imply that half-shaded conditions are likely the best natural condition for adult emergence and female reproduction, and food supply is crucial for larval development and pupation. The results provide new avenues for integrated mosquito management in indoor and outdoor areas, especially in half-shaded areas.
Aedes albopictus is a strongly exophagic and exophilic mosquito with high mammalian affinity [1,2,3]. As one of the most invasive mosquito species, it has spread worldwide and emerged as a global public health threat . Aedes albopictus is one of the major vectors of dengue, chikungunya, and Zika viruses, especially within the regions of Southeast Asia [5,6,7]. Control of Aedes-transmitted diseases depends largely on the control of the vectors . Integrated and comprehensive descriptions of the mosquito life traits such as larval development time, adult survivorship, fecundity, and life expectancy in different environmental conditions are important for a better understanding of vector biology, which is necessary for effective vector control.
In the tropics and subtropics, potential Ae. albopictus larval habitats are diverse and include several types of containers, such as vases, flower pots, and retired tires in urban areas [9,10,11,12,13], as well as rubber plantations and agricultural fields (e.g. under banana plants) within the forested areas [14, 15]. Although habitat types may vary among different ecological settings, such as in different areas of urbanization [10, 16], these diverse aquatic habitats can generally be divided into the following four categories: (1) indoor environments, such as flower pots, jars, and water containers, which are common in the tropics and subtropics [17,18,19,20]; (2) semi-shaded environments, for example retired tires and rice fields [21, 22]; (3) nearly fully shaded areas, for example, aquatic habitats within banana fields or forested areas ; and (4) nearly fully open areas, such as drainage ditches and open containers [10, 23]. Similarly, adult Ae. albopictus can be found in diverse places, sometimes indoors although more often outdoors [24,25,26], including forested areas [27, 28]. Studies on Anopheles mosquitoes have found that the four aquatic environmental settings have different impacts on mosquito biology, such as larval development, adult survivorship, and reproductive potential [29,30,31,32,33].
These diverse environments may affect the microclimatic conditions as well as larval food supply, which in turn affects larval development, adult emergence, adult survivorship, and reproductive potential [14, 19, 31, 34]. For example, Alam and Tuno  found that extreme heat and/or extreme low humidity significantly reduced Ae. albopictus female reproductive capacity even if they could take blood meals. In addition to microclimatic conditions [30,31,32], studies of Anopheles mosquitoes found that food addition is important for immature mosquito development and pupation rates [29, 33, 36, 37]. For example, Munga et al.  found that adding food to the habitats in forested areas (nearly fully shaded) could increase Anopheles gambiae pupation rates from 2 to 23%. These previous studies suggest that both microclimatic conditions and food supply are important for larval development and mosquito reproduction. Although the impact of environmental conditions on mosquito life traits has been studied in life-table experiments, with many conducted under laboratory conditions, simulated natural conditions, semi-natural conditions, or even natural conditions [10, 30, 38], and some with in-depth details such as impact on gonotrophic time, reproductive potential, and vectorial capacity [31, 32, 39], it is not known how different environmental conditions affect Ae. albopictus life traits, such as larval development and adult survivorship.
The aim of this study was to evaluate the impact of different environmental conditions (indoor, half-shaded, and fully shaded) and food addition on larval development and adult survival of Ae. albopictus mosquitoes in a tropical area. The results not only provide new insights into the development and survival characteristics of this mosquito vector in tropical areas, but are also useful for implementing effective vector control strategies.
The experiment was conducted in an urban area in Haikou City, Hainan Province, China. The area has a tropical climate, with an annual average temperature of 21.6 °C and annual precipitation of 1980 mm, which is ideal for the development and reproduction of most mosquito species . The larval and adult Ae. albopictus life-table experiments were conducted in three settings: indoor, half-shaded, and fully shaded (Additional file 1: Figure S1). We selected an indoor environment because flower pots and water tanks are usually placed indoors or under the shade and are ideal for mosquito larval breeding in the study area. Larval rearing containers and adult rearing cages were set inside the large microcosms. Experimental microcosms were laid on the ground under the three environmental settings (Additional file 1: Figure S1). All microcosms were covered with insect-proof mesh to prevent mosquito escape or entry. All experiments, including indoor experiments, were conducted in uncontrolled conditions, i.e., temperature, humidity, and light were all under natural conditions. Experiments were not conducted in a fully open setting due to the excessive heat in the area during the middle of summer, which does not allow for Ae. albopictus survival in fully open settings.
Source of mosquitoes
In the first 2 weeks of July 2019, field strains of Ae. albopictus larvae (regardless of stage) were collected from > 20 breeding habitats in several residential areas in Longhua District (19°53′51″ N, 110° 20′12″ E) of Haikou City, Hainan Province, China. Field-collected larvae were placed into a bucket and transferred to the study sites. Larvae were reared in microcosms in the three settings as described above, where abiotic conditions were all natural. Emerged adults were mixed and allowed to mate freely within the experimental cages. This mixing of adults from different habitats reduced the bias due to differences in the larval source and inbreeding. Aedes albopictus adults were identified morphologically under a stereomicroscope using taxonomic keys . The mosquitoes were reared to F1 eggs under semi-field conditions. Eggs were mixed in the rearing basins, then reared in natural habitat water until the start of experiments.
Larval life-table experiments
For each experiment, 30 newly hatched (< 24 h old) larvae were placed in each plastic bucket (16 cm caliber, 16 cm bottom diameter, and 18 cm height). The bucket was set insides the microcosms. Larvae were reared under three rearing conditions: (1) 1.5 L tap water (dechlorinated) stored overnight with added food; (2) 1.5 L habitat water with added food; and (3) 1.5 L habitat water without added food. Five replicates were conducted for each of the three rearing conditions in each of the indoor, half-shaded, and shaded settings. Each day, the surviving larvae were counted, and their stage was recorded. A total of 1350 larvae were used: (30 larvae) × (3 rearing conditions) × (3 environmental settings) × (5 replicates). In the food addition conditions, larvae were fed 1:1 yeast/fish food (by weight) every day, at an average of 0.1 g per bucket per day for all experiments. Water levels in the bucket were checked daily and maintained by adding the same type of water as needed. Water temperature and light intensity were measured using HOBO MX2202 data loggers (Onset Computer Corp., Bourne, MA, USA) placed about 2 cm below the water surface. The pupae were counted and removed daily. The emergence time of each mosquito (male and female) was recorded daily.
Adult life-table experiments
Newly emerged (< 24 h) adults were used in the adult life-table experiments, with protocols similar to those described in previous studies [30, 34]. Briefly, 40 female and 40 male adult mosquitoes within 24 h post-emergence were placed in a microcosm (32.5 cm × 26.5 cm × 26.5 cm). The microcosm was covered with nylon mesh to prevent the mosquitoes from escaping. Five replicates were used for each of the three environmental settings. The mosquitoes were provided with 10% glucose daily, and from day 5 and every 7 days thereafter, a mouse was placed in each cage for approximately 3 h for blood-feeding of mosquitoes. The cages were examined daily to count the number of living and dead mosquitoes, and the dead mosquitoes were removed. Eggs laid in each cage were collected using moist filter paper and counted daily under a microscope. HOBO MX2301A and MX2202 data loggers (Onset Computer Corp., Bourne, MA, USA) were placed inside the cages to record hourly temperature, relative humidity, and light intensity during the entire duration of the experiment.
Egg hatching rate observation
Briefly, 100 eggs collected from the field within 7 days were placed in a 200-ml plastic cup with the addition of 100 ml tap water (dechlorinated) and stored overnight. The cup was covered with nylon mesh to prevent the emerged mosquitoes from escaping. Five replicates (500 eggs in total) were used for each of the three environmental settings. The cups were examined daily until day 7 to count the number of hatched larvae, and larvae were removed daily.
One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to determine the differences in larval development time, emergence rate, adult mosquito survival time, and average number of eggs laid per female during its life-time in the indoor, half-shaded, and shaded settings and between different food supply status under different settings. The post hoc Tukey honestly significant difference (HSD) test was used to determine the significance of differences among the three settings. Daily average temperature, light intensity, and relative humidity were calculated from the hourly records.
Adult survivorship was evaluated using Kaplan–Meier survival analysis . The log-rank test was used to compare the difference in survival curves between different settings. One-way ANOVA with post hoc Tukey HSD test was used to determine the differences in water temperature, water light intensity, air temperature, air light intensity, relative humidity, larval development time, emergence rate, adult mosquito survival time, egg hatching time, and daily mean production (log-transformed eggs/female/day) among the indoor, shaded, and half-shaded settings. Student’s t-test was used to compare differences in the rates of change in age-dependent mortality and age-dependent egg mass between different experimental settings. All statistical analysis was carried out using JMP 9.0 statistical software (JMP, SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC, USA).
Variations in the experimental conditions
Water temperature and light intensity during the larval experiments
Water temperature and light intensity under the shaded, half-shaded, and indoor settings are shown in Table 1. The temperature in indoor (29 °C) settings was significantly higher than that in the shaded (27.2 ºC) and half-shaded (27.6 °C) settings (ANOVA, F(2, 147) = 66.68, P < 0.0001; Tukey HSD, P < 0.05). However, in our indoor environment, we did not use any artificial light source, and thus relied solely on natural light, which resulted in the lowest light intensity in the indoor setting in all experiments (Table 1). Among the three treatment groups, the light intensity in the half-shaded setting was significantly higher than that in the other two settings (ANOVA, F(2, 1101) = 262.74, P < 0.0001; Tukey HSD, P < 0.05).
Air temperature, relative humidity, and light intensity in the adult experiments
Air temperature, relative humidity, and light intensity for the adult experiments are shown in Fig. 1 and Table 3. The temperature indoors was significantly higher than that in the shaded and half-shaded settings (ANOVA, F(2, 143) = 79.48, P < 0.0001; Tukey HSD, P < 0.05). The relative humidity in shaded conditions was significantly higher than that in the other settings (ANOVA, F(2, 143) = 596.31, P < 0.0001; Tukey HSD, P < 0.05). The light intensity in the half-shaded area was significantly higher than that in the other settings (ANOVA, F(2, 134) = 158.50, P < 0.0001; Tukey HSD, P < 0.05).
Egg hatching rate and time
The egg hatching rates in the shaded, half-shaded, and indoor settings were 67.8% ± 4.6%, 52.4% ± 8.6%, and 67.6% ± 2.1%, respectively (ANOVA, F(2, 12) = 2.36, P = 0.137) (Fig. 2a). However, the egg hatching time under indoor conditions was statistically longer than that under both the shaded and half-shaded conditions (ANOVA, F(2, 12) = 24.85, P < 0.0001; Tukey HSD, P < 0.05) (Fig. 2b).
Immature and adult development time
In the tap water with added food group, the average larval-to-pupal development times were 6.0 ± 0.1 days, 6.0 ± 0.1 days, and 5.2 ± 0.1 days for the shaded, half-shaded, and indoor settings, respectively (Table 2). The larval-to-pupal development time under indoor conditions was significantly shorter than that under shaded and half-shaded conditions (ANOVA, F(2, 426) = 54.32, P < 0.0001; Tukey HSD, P < 0.05). In most cases, female and male adult development time in indoor settings was significantly shorter than that under shaded and half-shaded settings (female development time: ANOVA, F(2, 129) = 9.65, P = 0.0001; Tukey HSD, P < 0.05; male development time: ANOVA, F(2, 136) = 42.27, P < 0.0001; Tukey HSD, P < 0.05) (Table 2). In the habitat water without added food group, larval-to-pupal development time and female and male adult development time were long compare to the other two treatments, and they were not significantly different among shaded, half-shaded, and indoor settings (larval-to-pupal development time: ANOVA, F(2, 62) = 0.54, P = 0.583; female development time: ANOVA, F(2, 19) = 0.23, P = 0.8003) (Table 2). For both the habitat water with added food and tap water with added food groups, the average larval-to-pupal development time and female and male adult development time in the indoor setting were significantly shorter than that in the shaded and half-shaded settings (habitat water with added food group: average larval-to-pupal development time: ANOVA, F(2, 398) = 40.68, P < 0.0001, Tukey HSD, P < 0.05; female development time: ANOVA, F(2, 192) = 42.68, P < 0.0001, Tukey HSD, P < 0.05; male development time: ANOVA, F(2, 201) = 54.69, P < 0.0001, Tukey HSD, P < 0.05 / tap water with added food group: average larval-to-pupal development time: ANOVA, F(2, 426) = 54.32, P < 0.0001, Tukey HSD, P < 0.05; female development time: ANOVA, F(2, 129) = 9.65, P = 0.0001, Tukey HSD, P < 0.05; male development time: ANOVA, F(2, 136) = 42.27, P < 0.0001, Tukey HSD, P < 0.05).
Pupation and adult emergence rates
In the tap water with added food group, no significant differences in the pupation rates were observed among the three study settings (ANOVA, F(2, 12) = 1.18, P = 0.345) (Fig. 3a). In contrast, within the same treatment group, the adult emergence rates differed significantly among different settings, with the indoor setting having the highest emergence rates (88.0 ± 1.7%) and the fully shaded setting having the lowest emergence rates (40.0 ± 2.1%) (ANOVA, F(2, 12) = 79.56, P < 0.0001; Tukey HSD, P < 0.05) (Fig. 3d). In the habitat water without added food group, both pupation rates and adult emergence rates were < 30%, and the half-shaded setting had the highest pupation (28.0 ± 5.8%) and adult emergence (21.3 ± 5.3%) rates (pupation rate: ANOVA, F(2, 12) = 6.87, P = 0.0103; Tukey HSD, P < 0.05; adult emergence rate: ANOVA, F(2, 12) = 12.10, P = 0.0013; Tukey HSD, P < 0.05) (Fig. 3b and e). Once food was added to the habitat water, both pupation and adult emergence rates increased markedly, and their differences among settings became less significant (ANOVA, Tukey HSD, at significance level of 0.05) (Fig. 3c and f).
Effects of different environmental conditions on adult mosquito survivorship
Both males and females had significantly different survival patterns under different environmental settings (log-rank tests, all P < 0.05) (Fig. 4). The mean longevity of male mosquitoes was 17.3 ± 0.6 days in the half-shaded setting, which was significantly longer than that in the indoor (13.8 ± 0.3 days) and shaded (12.7 ± 1.2 days) settings (ANOVA, F(2, 12) = 8.36, P = 0.0053; Tukey HSD, P < 0.05; Table 3). The mean longevity of females was 27.3 ± 0.8 days under the indoor condition, which was significantly longer than that under the half-shaded (18.4 ± 0.6 days) and shaded (13.8 ± 1.2 days) conditions (ANOVA, F(2, 12) = 60.06, P < 0.0001; Tukey HSD, P < 0.05; Table 3).
We found that both male and female adult mosquito mortality is age-dependent regardless of environmental conditions (Fig. 5). Significant positive values of slope (the rate of change in mortality with age) in the model suggested that the mortality rate was higher in older mosquitoes than in the younger ones (Fig. 5, Table 3). For female mosquitoes, the rates of change in mortality with age were similar between the shaded and half-shaded conditions (t-test, t(53) = 0.44, P = 0.660), marginally different between indoor and half-shaded conditions (t-test, t(73) = 1.97, P = 0.053), and significantly higher indoors than in shaded areas (t-test, t(66) = 2.02, P = 0.048) (Table 3). However, for male mosquitoes, the rates of change in mortality with age were similar among the three settings (t-tests, all P > 0.05) (Table 3).
Effects of different environmental conditions on mosquito reproduction
Female reproductive duration was the longest in the indoor setting (51.6 ± 0.75 days), followed by the half-shaded setting (39.2 ± 0.37 days), and shortest under the shaded conditions (29.2 ± 1.11 days) (ANOVA, F(2, 12) = 194.72, P < 0.001; Tukey HSD, P < 0.05, Table 3). In contrast, female daily mean production, measured as average eggs laid per female per day, was the lowest under the indoor conditions, similar under outdoor conditions, but marginally non-significant in daily mean production among different settings (ANOVA, F(2, 96) = 3.03, P = 0.053; Tukey HSD, P > 0.05, Table 3).
In addition, we found that female daily egg mass production was age-dependent in all settings (Fig. 6). Significant positive slope values (the rate of change in egg mass with age) in the model suggested that older mosquitoes had lower egg mass production than the younger ones (Fig. 6). The rates of change in egg mass with age were similar between the shaded and half-shaded settings (t-test, t(50) = 1.57, P = 0.123, Fig. 6), but significantly lower under the indoor conditions compared to those in the half-shaded (t-test, t(71) = 2.01, P < 0.05) and shaded (t-test, t(65) = 3.22, P < 0.01) conditions (Fig. 6).
Overall, despite the differences in life span and reproductive duration of female mosquitoes in different environmental conditions, no significant difference was found in the mean net reproductive rates (R0) among these three settings (ANOVA, F(2, 12) = 2.79, P = 0.101, Table 3). However, the per capita intrinsic growth rates (r) were significantly different among the three settings, with the highest in the shaded areas and lowest in the indoor setting (ANOVA, F(2, 12) = 38.50, P < 0.0001; Tukey HSD, P < 0.05, Table 3).
Understanding the biology of mosquito vectors and exploiting their survival behavior in nature is important in implementing an integrated approach for the control and management of mosquitoes. Development times and survivorship of various stages of mosquitoes under different environments are of particular importance, as they affect the vectorial capacity, which is tightly linked to mosquito-borne disease transmission [42,43,44,45]. In our study, Ae. albopictus life trait parameters were established; age-specific mortality and age-specific egg mass models were constructed to predict the survivorship and fecundity capacity of the mosquito under different environmental conditions. Many of the details regarding Ae. albopictus female survivorship and reproduction under different environmental condition were reported for the first time. For example, female reproductive duration and daily mean reproduction have never been reported.
Indoor, outdoor, and different shading status in outdoor environments have different impacts on microclimate, such as temperature and humidity, which in turn affects vector ecology [10, 46,47,48,49,50]. In this study, we found that shading significantly increases humidity but reduces temperature. In contrast, indoor environments reduce humidity but have less impact on temperature. These differences may have profound impacts on larval development and adult survivorship and reproduction [30, 31, 33, 35]. Although the indoor average temperature of 29.7 °C was about 3 °C higher than that in the shaded area, temperatures under all three settings were within the range of optimal temperature for Aedes development and survival [37, 39, 46]. In addition, the average humidity was 75.6% in the indoor setting, which is within the WHO recommended range for laboratory mosquito rearing , whereas the humidity was close to 100% in all shaded settings, likely due the frequent rainfall in the study area, and may not be conducive for adult survival. Temperature and relative humidity are two of the most important abiotic factors influencing the development and survival of insects. Very high temperature may increase mosquito mortality . Relative humidity can also influence mosquito abundance under field conditions [53, 54]. In this study, we observed constant high temperature in indoor settings, with an overall average of about 30 °C and maximum likely reaching 32 °C. However, adult females survived for the longest time, indicating that the impact of temperature alone on adult survival is limited. Further study is needed to illustrate how the combination of temperature and humidity impacts adult survivorship.
The most significant effect of shading is light intensity, with half-shading allowing for the strongest sunlight. In Anopheles studies, scientists have found that nearly full shading may completely prevent adult mosquito emergence, although the key driving factor is food availability [29, 33, 36]. In all laboratory experiments, there is usually a light/dark setting, for example, 12 h/12 h in a day or other similar settings [38, 39, 46]. In our indoor environment, we did not use any artificial light source, and thus relied solely on natural light. As a result, light intensity was very low, although the photoperiod with light was usually around 12–13 h. In the fully shaded area, light period and intensity were similar to indoors. In reality, there is daytime light in residential or office indoor environments, which may support larval development in container habitats such as flower pots. However, whether and to what extent these low light intensities affect larval development and pupation is not clear. Adding food to habitat water significantly increased pupation rate and accelerated larval development in all three conditions tested. In Anopheles experiments, shading was found to significantly reduce habitat biotic mass such as algae, which is the key food source for Anopheles larvae [36, 55]. The mechanisms by which low light intensity affects Aedes larval food sources warrant further investigation. Nonetheless, it is clear that shading status is critical for larval development.
Most of the previous life-table studies used artificial food as the larval food source [30, 31, 46]. A few studies found that food supply is a key factor in larval development and pupation. For example, Munga and colleagues found that in a forested area with nearly full shading, pupation was completely prevented without adding food to the artificial habitat. Furthermore, even in a half-shaded farmland area, the pupation rate can be significantly enhanced after adding food to the habitats , and adult development time is prolonged without adding food to habitats [29, 33]. Our results corroborate previous findings for Aedes aegypti [36, 48] and Anopheles darlingi .
Notably, we found little effect of water source (i.e. tap water vs. habitat water) on the larval life-table studies once additional food supplement was available. In most studies, especially in laboratory settings, tap water is standard for larval rearing. In our study, in addition to tap water, we used water collected from the habitats in the microcosms, which is similar to Munga and colleagues’ experiments . In both cases, not adding food to the artificial habitats resulted in larval development times which were extremely long (no food vs. food: 28 days vs. 11 days) and pupation rates that were extremely low (0% vs. 20%) . This finding of food limitation in natural habitat water is puzzling, as theoretically, habitat water should be able to support larval development. This result may be explained by the changes in biotic and abiotic content in the habitat water after the water was transferred from the field habitats to the artificial habitats where larvae were reared: the habitat water used in the experiments was no longer in the original habitat water. For example, in the case of An. gambiae experiments , the major food source, green algae, may not grow well in artificial habitats, and thus the food supply is disrupted [29, 36]. In addition, microbiological content may have changed after water was transferred to a semi-natural environment, which could reduce the food supply for Ae. albopictus. Altogether, these findings suggest that transferring natural habitat water into artificial habitat for larval rearing may fundamentally change the water biotic and abiotic content, which inhibits larval pupation. One potential solution may be to frequently replace the “used” habitat water with freshly collected natural habitat water. However, the effects of habitat water transfer on larval food supply and solutions for maintaining natural larval food supplies in habitat water need further investigation.
It is also worth noting the relatively long adult mosquito life span and reproductive period in our study. We found that female adult Ae. albopictus mosquitoes can live up to 70 days indoors and that reproduction can continue for more than 50 days. This information is extremely important in assessing the risk of Aedes-borne disease transmission. It has been reported that An. gambiae adults can live for up to 90 days indoors . Thus, our finding of Ae. albopictus living for up to 70 days may be expected. In this study, the reproductive period of Ae. albopictus females in the shaded areas, whether half-shaded or fully shaded, was about 30 days and over 50 days, respectively, in the indoor environment; therefore, a very old female could still produce eggs, indicating the importance of old females. We believe this information is important when assessing disease transmission risk. However, the net reproductive rates of Ae. albopictus females were similar among the three settings, which indicated that both indoor and outdoor conditions in the study area can maintain Ae. albopictus population reproduction. This is the first field study to reveal that Ae. albopictus has similar reproductive capacity both indoors and outdoors.
We also reported age-dependent mortality rates and age-dependent reproductive capacity of adult Ae. albopictus. For both male and female Ae. albopictus, the mortality rates increased when they were aged, which is similar to that in An. gambiae and Ae. aegypti [57,58,59]. Likewise, female Ae. albopictus laid fewer eggs when they aged, a phenomenon consistent with a previous study . We also found that the amount of lifetime egg mass of female Ae. albopictus in our study, conducted in a tropical area, was higher than that in a similar study conducted in Guangzhou, a subtropical city in southern China , potentially due to the difference in environmental and climatic conditions, since both were conducted in semi-natural conditions.
For life-table studies, regardless of whether they are conducted in laboratory controlled or semi-natural conditions, adult mosquitoes are usually fed glucose solution every day. Sugar solution serves as the basic food of adults . Blood meals are also provided periodically to support the progeny, with protein for egg development. This may range from slightly to very different from natural mosquito diets, such as organic matter and protein from leaf/flower nectar or a blood meal source. The difference in the impact on adult survival is not clear between sugar-fed mosquitoes and mosquitoes fed with flower or leaf nectar. The current extent of our understanding is that adult mosquitoes’ primary food source is flower/leaf nectar, and female mosquitoes need protein (usually from a blood meal source) before they can lay eggs [62, 63]. In this study, the blood-feeding interval with mouse blood was 1 week, but it is unknown how the selected blood-feeding interval could affect adult survivorship and fecundity. Some studies report feeding of mosquitoes every day [59, 64], some every other day , and some once every 3 days . The impact of the blood-feeding interval on mosquito survivorship and fecundity warrants further investigation. Furthermore, other studies on different mosquitoes have reported that the blood meal source affected the feeding and reproductive capacity of females [65,66,67,68]. The impact of different blood sources on Ae. albopictus survivorship and reproduction is unknown. However, since we used the same blood source and same feeding intervals during all experiments, the resulting female survivorship and reproductive characteristics are comparable within this study.
One limitation of this study is that we did not evaluate Ae. albopictus in fully open larval habitats. Most Anopheles studies have found that openness better supports larval development and larval pupation due to the direct sunlight, which increases the larval food supply [29, 33, 55]. However, summer in our study area is very hot, and temperatures under direct sunlight can easily reach 35 °C, which may not be conducive to larval development and adult reproduction of Ae. albopictus . In addition, both Ae. albopictus larvae and adult mosquitoes have been found to hide to avoid direct expose to sunlight [13, 69, 70]. Therefore, conducting life-table experiments under direct sunlight may not be necessary, as Ae. albopictus would likely avoid these habitats. In fact, almost no Anopheles studies have been conducted in fully open areas [30, 31].
Another limitation is the study sites used. In our study, only one indoor, shaded, and half-shaded site each were used. This may compromise the generalizability of the findings. However, as we conducted five replications of experiments at each site, the conclusion of the study may not be significantly affected. Nonetheless, a more systematic study should be conducted in the future to explore the impact of habitat conditions on mosquito ecology.
The results of this study indicate that different environmental conditions affect Ae. albopictus immature development time and adult emergence rates, as well as adult mosquito survivorship and reproduction. Life-table experiments in different ecological settings is one way to examine these relationships. Although its design is perhaps oversimplified, it reduces other confounding factors. Overall, a half-shaded environment provides potentially the most conducive conditions for Ae. albopictus larval development, adult emergence rates, and female reproduction, although adult mosquitoes may live longer indoors. Our findings provide insight into the potential influence of indoor and shading conditions on the biology of Ae. albopictus.
Availability of data and materials
All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article and its supplementary information files.
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We wish to thank Jiaquan Zou and Zongyi Shao for their assistance with the field immature mosquito collection. We wish to thank Brook Jeang at the University of California, Irvine for her assistance with editing this manuscript.
This study was supported by Hainan Provincial Natural Science Foundation of China (820RC653), Major Science and Technology Program of Hainan Province (ZDKJ202003), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (82060379, 32160015, 81660345), China Scholarship Council fellowship (201808460069), Natural Science Foundation of Guizhou (1441), Research project of Hainan academician innovation platform (YSPTZX202004), and Foundation of Guizhou Medical University (20NSP004).
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No specific permits were required for the field studies. For mosquito collection in residential areas, oral consent was obtained from owners at all sampling localities. Mice were used for feeding the mosquitoes in strict accordance with the recommendations in the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals of the National Institutes of Health and guidelines of Guizhou Medical University on experimental use of mice. All of the animals were handled according to approved institutional animal care and use committee (IACUC) protocols (1800029) of Guizhou Medical University. The use of mice for mosquito rearing has been approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee of Guizhou Medical University (1900017 and 2100191).
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Cui, G., Zhong, S., Zheng, T. et al. Aedes albopictus life table: environment, food, and age dependence survivorship and reproduction in a tropical area. Parasites Vectors 14, 568 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13071-021-05081-x

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We held a free flood modelling webinar Thursday 11 May 2017 hosted by the International Centre of Excellence in Water Resources Management (ICE WaRM).
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We return again with a different theme this week and it is that most of us spend our time looking at photographs that surprise us and capture our attention, some make us laugh, others reflect and others make us dream.
Today we continue with the photography contest CAPTURING FEELINGS, EMOTIONS AND MOMENTS; week # 3 this contest tries to capture a special moment where we find emotions and feelings that attract us and now we will test our ability to find emotional and sentimental expressions through photography. This week's theme is:
The contest is very simple; You just have to capture a photograph that shows a fun moment, where you can appreciate the fun of either an adult or a child, where the main expression is fun.
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The photograph must be allusive to a moment of fun or where the person is having fun. only one photograph per contest.
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The purchasing of materials. Its mandate is to regulate and coordinate the conditions of service of staff in the United Nations common system, while promoting and maintaining high standards in the international civil service. There are, however, more nuanced ways to tell the tale. Departments may pay higher salaries to some civil servants  and other officials in order to recruit people with specialist skills – for example, in commercial activities. They are allocated to departments, known as Directorates-General (DGs), each covering one or more related policy areas. Pressure for reform led to official formulations of basic qualifications for different posts; appointments and promotions boards were established within each department to prevent or obstruct overt political favouritism and nepotism; and salary scales were introduced for different grades to provide a civil servant with increments for good service while still holding the same post. Competitions differ notably among the state, the 17 autonomous communities and the city councils, and the "funcionarios de carrera" and "personal laboral" examinations vary in difficulty from one location to another. Find more ways to say civil servant, along with related words, antonyms and example phrases at Thesaurus.com, the world's most trusted free thesaurus. Navigate parenthood with the help of the Raising Curious Learners podcast. civil service commission (or equivalent) whose functions include maintaining the work and rights of civil servants at arm's length from potential politicisation or political interference. Martin Reynolds CMG is a British civil servant and a former British ambassador. This category covers government employees and officials who personally make political contributions, as well as public entities that lobby the federal government. In executing this important role, each civil servant (Khmer: មន្រ្តីរាជការ, Montrey Reachkar) is Candidates are expected to have completed a lengthy program of academic work for professional qualification and a period of subsequent training in a variety of public institutions under official supervision. For a public officials who try to function as a professional, the demands of law, his duty, impartiality, due process, provides a productive ground in which ethical dilemmas arises. Civil servant definition is - a member of a civil service.  The law does not allow servants to upgrade or downgrade posts internally; they need to be selected in separate external entrance examinations. There was considerable pressure in Canada in the 1970s to ensure a more equitable distribution of federal civil service posts between the English- and French-speaking populations.  On the other hand, John Browne, in the 1854 debate mentioned above, 'argued that elegant writing had become an end in itself, and the stultifying effect of this on the Chinese civil service had contributed in no small measure to China's failure to develop its early lead over Western civilisations': Coolican, p107. In between, civil servants, as in ancient times, continue to collect taxes and perform state functions that cannot be trusted to, or done by, social (voluntary) or private market … The government publishes new pay tables for federal employees every year. Each had its own system, but in general, staff were appointed through patronage or outright purchase. This was made known on Sunday by the head of service of the federation, Folasade Yemi-Esan, in a circular marked HCSF/109/S.1/120, which was entitled “unauthorised circulation of official documents/information on social media”. In Ireland, public sector employees such as teachers or members of the country's police force, An Garda Síochána are not considered to be civil servants, but are rather described as "public servants" (and form the public service of the Republic of Ireland). The Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act established a modern civil service in the United States, and by the turn of the 20th century almost all Western governments had implemented similar reforms. Civil Servants are considered as the back bone of the administration. By the 19th century, it became increasingly clear that these arrangements were falling short.  "The proposal for establishing this college came, significantly, from members of the East India Company's trading post in Canton, China. ... the conventional wisdom is that this divide was the work of Sir Stafford Northcote and Sir Charles Trevelyan, but once you start poking around in the archives the story turns out to be rather more complicated. ... "Local campaign officials are becoming election-week celebrities. To reduce regulations. The Chinese system was often admired by European commentators from the 16th century onward. The influence senior civil servants may wield over policy and the need for them to work in close harmony with ministers induce all governments to insist on complete freedom of choice in appointments, even when, as in Great Britain, the freedom is rarely invoked. Yes a civil servant can invest in the stock market however speculation is not allowed.Please go through this, it has all the information you are looking for. Deregulate. In a debate in the unelected chamber of the UK parliament on March 13, 1854, John Browne 'pointed out [clearly with some disdain ] that the only precedent for appointing civil servants by literary exams was that of the Chinese government': Coolican (2018), ch.5: The Northcote-Trevelyan Report, pp106-107. Early Roman emperors, for example, set their household slaves and freedmen much of the task of administering the Empire, The federal civil service consists of all employees of the crown except for ministers' exempt staff, members of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, and members of the Canadian Armed Forces as they are not civil servants. The conventional written examination is dispensed with also in such European countries as Finland, Switzerland, the Netherlands, and Portugal, as well as the German Länder, or states. Civil servants are in charge of a rich menu of government activities ranging from artificially ‘seeding clouds’ in the sky to induce rainfall, to operating schools, or administrating programs for the increasing number of aged people. Beamte has been a title for government employees for several centuries in German states, but became a standardized group in 1794. government officials, officialdom - people elected or appointed to administer a government. A subordinate who is employed by a civil servant is a servant of the Crown and not of the person employing him. This class of state bureaucrats in the Song period were far less aristocratic than their Tang predecessors. When civil servants are the officials hired by the government for its different ministries for the proper implementation of government policies and programs, whereas public servants are designated or elected member of the government for social or public services. , As of 2014, there are currently 15 federal executive branch agencies and hundreds of subagencies.. Civil servants are those who are employed by 'the Crown'. Autocratic systems of government (such as monarchies) can favour appointments to administrative positions on the basis of nepotism, patronage and favoritism, with close relationships between political and administrative figures. “The government will, over time, have a ready database of competencies of each civil servant and can use this to post the most qualified and competent person in a given position. The modern civil service is undoubtedly much more efficient than its predecessors, but the quality of policy making, and support for Ministers, is generally reckoned to be patchy. , In December 2011, the government of Rajoy announced that civil servants have to serve a minimum 37.5 working hours per week regardless of their place or kind of service.. How to use civil servant in a sentence. civil servant - a public official who is a member of the civil service civil service - government workers; usually hired on the basis of competitive examinations functionary , official - a worker who holds or is invested with an office . obligated to act according to the law and is guided by public policy pronouncements. , The Public Service in Germany (Öffentlicher Dienst) employed 4.6 million persons as of 2011[update]. Inspired by the #MeToo movement, a civil servant says there was a government cover-up of a former official allegedly sexually harassing her eight years ago. In 1853 the Chancellor of the Exchequer William Gladstone, commissioned Sir Stafford Northcote and Charles Trevelyan to look into the operation and organisation of the Civil Service. All about Civil Servant Definition. an important official in a government, especially someone who is in charge of a particular department. They are all right and they are all wrong. Public sector employees such as those in education and the NHS are not considered to be civil servants. Be on the lookout for your Britannica newsletter to get trusted stories delivered right to your inbox. "The origins of the British civil service are better known. Civil servants work within a constitutional framework known as the Westminster Model which requires them to be politically impartial whilst being principally accountable only to Ministers within the current government.They also work within a wide range of ethical and other constraints which are taken very seriously by both senior staff and the wider public. They’re too busy to notice.," 6 Nov. 2020 Fauci, ... "South Korea wants mothers to work, to bolster the labour force," 17 Oct. 2020 The civil servant leading the government’s border Brexit preparations, Emma Churchill, told lawmakers earlier this … The Common Statute of Civil Servants is the primary legislative framework for the Civil Service in Cambodia. Threatening the President of the United States is a felony under 18 U.S.C. By signing up for this email, you are agreeing to news, offers, and information from Encyclopaedia Britannica. 'The Crown', for this purpose at least, does not include Her Majesty herself - so those employed by the Monarch are not civil servants. The wise civil servant who was ready to refuse a Trump executive order would do well to talk with a lawyer beforehand. After advent of New Public Administration, it became necessary to eliminate the draconian misconceptions prevailing in the society regarding public administration. Being a Government Official or related to a Government Official could influence or could be perceived to influence your decision-making and jeopardise your reputation and that of Shell. The civil service in Spain (función pública) is usually considered to include all the employees at the different levels of the Spanish public administration: central government, autonomous communities, as well as municipalities. Embassy. In most countries the term refers to employees selected and promoted on the basis of a merit and seniority system, which may include examinations. "civil servant" übersetzt von Englische ins Französisch inklusiv Synonyms, Definitionen und zusammenhängende Wörter. Civil engineers specialize in the construction of roads, bridges, dams, tunnels, sewage and water systems. Police officers and staff are also not civil servants. The labor laws and social insurance for civil servants are different from private workers; even between government branches (like different states or cities), the law and insurance differ. It was ideally suited to literary candidates. As the powers of monarchs and princes declined and as, in some countries, their sovereignty was denied them, appointment became a matter of personal choice by ministers and heads of departments. When someone says they are a civil service employee or a civil servant, it means that person works for a government agency, whether it be federal, state, or local.Each government entity is responsible for its own employment system, takes care of its own personnel needs, and engages in different hiring practices. Judges are not Beamte but have similar rights too. The rank according to the examination score is used for filling the vacancies. The posts that fall under the rules of the U.S. merit system are not grouped into a small number of general classes but have individual job specifications and entry qualifications. More recent figures can be found at SEAT. The recruits are university graduates (or above) selected through a rigorous system of examinations, called the Civil Services Examination (CSE) and its technical counterpart known as the Engineering Services Examination (ESE) both conducted by the Union Public Service Commission (UPSC).  Public servants are organized into hired salaried employees (Arbeitnehmer), appointed civil servants (Beamte) and soldiers. U.S. state and local government entities often have competitive civil service systems that are modeled on the national system, in varying degrees.  Although most federal agencies are based in the Washington, D.C. region, only about 16% (or about 284,000) of the federal government workforce is employed in this region. Learn term:civil service = service as a government official with free interactive flashcards. It also had a great international influence and was adapted by members of the Commonwealth. The chief civil servant at the Department for Education has been sacked following the row over A-level and GCSE results in England. The civil service are the public officials who advise and assist Government Ministers in the running of their Departments. Hong Kong and Macau have separate civil service systems: The civil service in France (fonction publique) is often incorrectly considered to include all government employees including employees of public corporations, such as SNCF. Government Corporation. Threatening government officials of the United States is a felony under federal law. Such is the situation in France, where entry into the higher civil service is channeled through specialist schools, or grandes écoles, of which the École Nationale d’Administration and the École Polytechnique are the most important. These international civil servants do not resort under any national legislation (from which they have immunity of jurisdiction) but are governed by internal staff regulations. Civil service, the body of government officials who are employed in civil occupations that are neither political nor judicial. The employment is usually lifelong (that is, until age about retirement). Certain senior civil service positions, including some heads of diplomatic missions and executive agencies, are filled by political appointees. Immunity of Government Officers Sued as Individuals for Official Acts The general rule at common law was that in order for a government official to be protected by absolute immunity for common law torts, not only did the official have to be acting within the outer perimeter of his/her official duties, but the conduct at issue also had to be discretionary in nature. A Civil Service Commission was also set up in 1855 to oversee open recruitment and end patronage, and most of the other Northcote–Trevelyan recommendations were implemented over some years. In order to ensure the progress of the country it is essential to strengthen the administration by protecting civil servants from political and personal influence. Career civil servants (not temporary workers or politicians) are hired only externally on the basis of entrance examinations (Portuguese: concurso público). One thing common to both a civil servant and a public servant is the fact that they are both officials in government departments, and though they are termed servants, they are actually bred and brought up to feel superior to common people. chief minister: the political leader of a state in India or of a territory in Australia. Department of the Treasury. Summary; Totals; Background; Lobbying; Money to Congress; Contributors; Recipients; News; This category covers government employees and officials who personally make political contributions, as well as public entities that lobby the federal government. The entry into the State Civil Services is through a competitive examination conducted by every state public service commission. Pros and Cons of Public Employment Civil Servants are opted by the government departments through the competitive exams like Public Service Commission and Central Service Commission, while public servants are chosen by department written test and interviews. He … Controversies about the institution of the Civil Service in Greece are widespread. Service on Government Officers in Official Capacity, Agencies Service upon an officer, sued in his/her official capacity, or upon an agency or corporation of the United States is accomplished by serving the United States (see USAM 4-2.310), and by sending a copy of the summons and of the complaint by registered or certified mail to the officer, agency, or corporation. Typically, they concern the allegedly large numbers of public employees, the lack of adequate meritocracy in their employment, the strong ties that significant portions of public employees maintain with political parties and the clientelism that this relationship incubates, internal inequalities of wages among public employees, and inequalities of the high income of public employees relevant to that of private sector workers. We aim to have:  The extent of civil servants of a state as part of the "civil service" varies from country to country. Civil servants in Brazil (Portuguese: servidores públicos) are those working in the executive, legislative, and judicial branches of the Federal, state, Federal District or municipal governments, including congressmen, senators, mayors, ministers, the president of the republic, and workers in government-owned corporations. A civil servant or public servant is a person employed in the public sector by a government department or agency. Published 4 November 2019 Last updated 23 January 2020 — see all updates The advent of widespread printing in the Song period allowed many more examination candidates access to the Confucian texts whose mastery was required for passing the exams. Federal Employee Salaries. councillor. Resources - Resources for civil servants and government officials The UK government has consistently produced excellent resources on how best to deal with risk and evidence within the civil service and policy worlds, and yet the inevitable changes in government and staff mean that these excellent sources of advice are often lost within a short number of years. Recruitment in many European countries corresponded to the national educational systems: the highest class of civil servants entered service after graduation from a university, the executive class after full completion of secondary school, the clerical class after the intermediate school examination. , In Canada, the civil service at the federal level is known as the Public Service of Canada, with each of the ten provincial governments as well as the three territorial governments also having their own separate civil services. The increment covers government employees, security persons, teachers and state-owned corporation staffers.It was during the premiership of current Prime Minister KP Sharma Oli in 2073 BS that salary of the civil servants had last been increased. They are employed by public bodies (Körperschaften des öffentlichen Rechts), such as counties (Kreise), states, the federal government, etc. Learn more. (5 U.S.C. Updates? They start shirking work, do not do their work as per rules and orders and indulge in other kinds of misconduct. ... Gladstone warmly supported other aspects of the report but criticised its limited attack on patronage. Civil service definition, those branches of public service concerned with all governmental administrative functions outside the armed services. In several countries the establishment of these special classes caused some difficulties because their salary scales had to be linked with those of competing professional groups outside the service. Civil Servants/Public Officials. A business that the federal government runs. Song-dynasty China (960–1279) standardised competitive examinations as a basis for civil-service recruitment and promotion, and in the 19th century administrations in France and Britain followed suit. The system was finally abolished by the Qing government in 1905 as part of the New Policies reform package. In the United States, the Rogers Act of 1924 unified the overseas service itself, but the civil servants of the State Department in Washington, D.C., continued to be regarded as part of the federal civil service. The federal government is the nation's single largest employer, although it employs only about 12% of all government employees, compared to 24% at the state level and 63% at the local level. Firstly, it should be understood that Section 79 of CPC is a procedural provision and hence, it does not deal with rights and liabilities enforceable by or against the government . Civil (or public) servants work for government departments, and answer to the government, not a political party. The organisation of the Irish Civil Service is very similar to the traditional organization of the British Home Civil Service, and indeed the grading system in the Irish Civil Service is nearly identical to the traditional grading system of its British counterpart. Civil service, the body of government officials who are employed in civil occupations that are neither political nor judicial. See more. The civil service are the public officials who advise and assist Government Ministers in the running of their Departments. Civil service employees, often called civil servants or public employees, work in a variety of fields such as teaching, sanitation, health care, management, and administration for the federal, state, or local government. A Qing photograph of a government official with Mandarin Square in the front. Health and safety engineers also are civil servants, helping keep the public safe by working side by side with civil engineers. civil service - government workers; ... A senior civil servant appreciated the government's step and said there is a need to streamline the issues of bureaucracy and all civil servants desire to get their … public servant definition: 1. a government employee 2. a government employee 3. an elected official or someone employed by…. 40(2) (i) No Government servant shall make, or permit any member of his family or any person acting on his behalf to make, any investment which is likely to embarrass or influence him in the discharge of his official duties.  There are approximately 257,000 federal civil servants (2015), and more than 350,000 employees at the provincial and territorial levels.. Staff members in "non-departmental public bodies" (sometimes called "QUANGOs") may also be classed as civil servants for the purpose of statistics and possibly for their terms and conditions. In the 18th century, in response to economic changes and the growth of the British Empire, the bureaucracy of institutions such as the Office of Works and the Navy Board greatly expanded. British efforts at reform were influenced by the imperial examinations system and meritocratic system of China. Although designed to select entrants with special knowledge or skills for individual posts, this system has been criticized for failing to make the best use of the talent available to the government. Brownlow, Louis, Charles E. Merriam, and Luther Gulick, Coolican, Michael, No Tradesmen and No Women: The Origins of the British Civil Service (2018), White, Leonard D., Charles H. Bland, Walter R. Sharp, and, This page was last edited on 30 November 2020, at 22:59. However, the civil service examinations were practiced on a much smaller scale in comparison to the stronger, centralized bureaucracy of the Song dynasty (960–1279). Senior positions in civil service are listed and named in the Order of Precedence of India. , Historians have explored the powerful role of civil service since the 1840s. Agitation against the spoils system in the United States of America resulted in increasing the independence of the civil service – seen as an important principle in modern times. Influenced by the Chinese imperial examinations, the Northcote–Trevelyan Report of 1854 made four principal recommendations: that recruitment should be on the basis of merit determined through competitive examination, that candidates should have a solid general education to enable inter-departmental transfers, that recruits should be graded into a hierarchy and that promotion should be through achievement, rather than "preferment, patronage or purchase". In Sweden a constitutional provision requires that nearly all public documents (including the proceedings of authorities that make appointments) be open for public inspection, thus providing a check upon corruption or favouritism. The group of Beamte have the most secure employment, and the amount they are paid is set by national pay regulations (Besoldungsordnungen). See more. Cllr abbreviation. In the early 19th century, government jobs were held at the pleasure of the president — a person could be fired at any time. A European view: a mandarin travelling by boat, Baptista van Doetechum, 1604 ... China has had civil servants since at least the Zhou dynasty. In Great Britain, traditionally one of the great advocates of entry by formal examination, the Civil Service Commission relies more on informal tests and a series of interviews and observations and tends to measure the candidate’s intellectual competence by the quality of his university degree. Get exclusive access to content from our 1768 First Edition with your subscription. There is a long history of civil servants who are also literary authors, ... Official Civil Service website; Civil Service Club website; Academic article on the first fifteen years of the Citizen's Charter; The National … The report's conclusions were immediately implemented, and a permanent, unified and politically neutral civil service was introduced as Her Majesty's Civil Service. The Constitution does not mention the civil service but it is vital to the functioning of the state. This included the employment of a bureau of copyists who would rewrite all of the candidates' exams in order to mask their handwriting and thus prevent favoritism by graders of the exams who might otherwise recognize a candidate's handwriting. The ROC constitution specifies that public servant cannot be employed without examination. The median salaries of UK Civil Servants, broken down by region and grade, as of 31 March 2019. Entrance examinations are conducted by several institutions with a government mandate, such as CESPE (which belongs to the University of Brasília) and the Cesgranrio Foundation (which is part of the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro). However, he had already become a well-known poet at age 12, and among other things he went on to such distinction as a profound literati and dramatist that it would not be far-fetched to regard him as China's answer to William Shakespeare: Wang Rongpei and Zhang Ling (eds), The Complete Works of Tang Xianzu (2018). Conduct unbecoming of a government servant, civil servant should conform to the ordinary norms of decency and morality, should not violate laws of the land, perform his official dealings promptly and actions in courteous manner.  After the fall of the Han dynasty, the Chinese bureaucracy regressed into a semi-merit system known as the nine-rank system. The Federal Civil Service is defined as "all appointive positions in the executive, judicial, and legislative branches of the Government of the United States, except positions in the uniformed services."  The examination tested the candidate's memorization of the Nine Classics of Confucianism and his ability to compose poetry using fixed and traditional forms and calligraphy. He was appointed Principal Private Secretary to the Prime Minister in October 2019, having served previously from December 2014 to January 2018 in the same role within the Foreign Office, in part for a duration when the incumbent Prime Minister Boris Johnson was serving as Foreign Secretary. … civil servant - a public official who is a member of the civil service. One who works for a department or agency of the federal government- civil servant.
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domain: politics


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Inscribing Death: Burials, Representations, and Remembrance in Tang China. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press., 2022. [xxiii, 275 pp.]
This nuanced study traces how Chinese came to view death as an opportunity to fashion and convey social identities and memories during the medieval period (200–1000) and the Tang dynasty (618–907), specifically. As Chinese society became increasingly multicultural and multireligious, to achieve these aims people selectively adopted, portrayed, and interpreted various acts of remembrance. Included in these were new and evolving burial, mourning, and commemorative practices: joint-burials of spouses, extended family members, and coreligionists; relocation and reburial of bodies; posthumous marriage and divorce; interment of a summoned soul in the absence of a body; and many changes to the classical mourning and commemorative rites that became the norm during the period. Individuals independently constructed the socio-religious meanings of a particular death and the handling of corpses by engaging in and reviewing acts of remembrance. Drawing on a variety of sources, including hundreds of newly excavated entombed epitaph inscriptions, Inscribing Death illuminates the process through which the living—and the dead—negotiated this multiplicity of meanings and how they shaped their memories and identities both as individuals and as part of collectives. In particular, it details the growing emphasis on remembrance as an expression of filial piety and the grave as a focal point of ancestral sacrifice. The work also identifies different modes of construction and representation of the self in life and death, deepening our understanding of ancestral worship and its changing modus operandi and continuous shaping influence on the most intimate human relationships—thus challenging the current monolithic representation of ancestral worship as an extension of families rather than individuals in medieval China.
Inscribing Death is simply the best book in any language on one of the most important elements of Chinese culture: its mortuary practice. Drawing on a stunning array of primary and secondary sources, including a fine selection of newly available muzhiming (entombed epitaphs), Choo centers her exploration on Tang burial practices that were new or controversial—joint burials, divination, and soul-summoning burials—but her analysis includes the classical sources that were consulted and sometimes recast to solve problems regarding the disposition of the dead. This is, thus, an indispensable resource for those seeking to understand the rich technical mortuary vocabulary of Chinese sources, many discussed here for the first time in a non-Chinese language. But it is Choo’s extensive study of muzhiming, where the dead sometimes speak for themselves, voicing preferences for their burial and remembrance, that gives this study a liveliness and immediacy belied by the title.—Stephen R. Bokenkamp, Arizona State University
Jessey Choo’s rigorous, vivid, and lucidly argued account of Tang Dynasty mourning and burial practice is based on the many thousands of biographical inscriptions engraved in stone (muzhiming), both retrieved and transmitted, now available to scholarship. All specialists of late medieval Chinese religion, social history, and gender studies, as well as students of medieval Chinese canonical scholarship and late medieval literature, will be indebted to her for the scope and clarity of her research. Inscribing Death is a significant contribution to Tang studies.—David L. McMullen, University of Cambridge


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Darren Criss, Jessica Sanchez to Raise Funds for Yolanda Victims
Filipino-Mexican Jessica Sanchez announced she will do a concert and a song to benefit the victims of Typhoon Yolanda. In an interview by ABS-CBN News, the former American Idol finalist revealed the first benefit concert will take place online, www.stageit.com, on Friday night at 5 p.m. Pacific time.
“We’re doing a little mini concert on stageit.com. You can get your tickets on stageit.com and they’re only $10 all the proceeds go to the Red Cross. We’re working on a song right now I just wrote it not too long ago to help with the typhoon victims in the Philippines,” she said.
Sanchez is set to return to the country, her 3rd time since her American Idol stint, to team-up with Manny Pacquiao for relief efforts.
Meanwhile, Filipino-Irish singer/actor Darren Criss released a video on YouTube campaigning to his fans to make donations for Yolanda victims. For each one who will donate $25 via his website www.darrencriss.com, Criss will send a special postcard that says “You’re Not Alone” with his autograph:
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domain: celebrity


Toyota has been teasing its upcoming hypercar for a while now. First shown by Toyota two years ago as the GR Super Sport Concept, the hypercar looks unlike anything Toyota has ever designed.
Just before the start of the 2020 24 Hour of Le Mans this past weekend, Toyota's upcoming hypercar made its first public appearance at the Circuit de la Sarthe.
Called the GR Super Sport hypercar, it is based on Toyota's Le Mans-winning TS050 Hybrid racer and is set to become a road-going model sometime in the future. We will also get to see a race-prepped variant competing at the FIA's new Le Mans Hypercar (LMH) class next year.
Toyota did not reveal much about the hypercar just yet. The GR Super Sport is still fully wrapped in GR camouflage to hide finer details about the vehicle. Styling-wise, it looks more like an LMP racer instead of a road-going supercar. Interestingly, this specific model is a convertible unlike the concept and the prototype shown in 2019. Both the two previous models featured had a fixed roof. As such, this prototype here is very likely the road-car we will see and even be able to purchase in the future. Do expect a fixed-roof variant to join the convertible in the future.
We still don't know what the powertrain of Toyota's new hypercar will be. Considering that the GR Super Sport is based on Toyota's LMP1 racer, it could a toned-down version of the powertrain found on the TS050 Hybrid. For reference, the TS050 Hybrid features a mid-mounted 2.4-liter twin-turbo V6 paired with an electric motor and produces a total output of 986 horsepower.
Two-time Le Mans winner Alex Wurz gave feedback driving the prototype around Circuit de la Sarthe.
“I could feel the similarities between the GR Super Sport and the TS050 Hybrid in terms of performance, particularly the four-wheel drive and the hybrid system. But the engineers tell me this was only a small taste of the GR Super Sport's true performance so I am super excited to drive it again one day in the near future,” said Wurz.
With Toyota claiming their third straight Le Mans win this 2020, the question now is whether they can continue to do so in 2021 with the new hypercar class.


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text:
Taxable sales up last quarter
Published 09/30/2010, The Jamestown Sun
BISMARCK — North Dak-ota’s oil industry helped boost the state to a 14.6 percent increase in taxable sales and purchases this spring. Tax Commissioner Cory Fong released a key economic report today that says taxable sales and purchases were $3.416 billion during April, May and June compared to $2.982 billion during the same months last year.Word count: 303
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domain: finance


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Ahmed Kathrada Oncologists
Dr Sudeshen Naidoo
Specialist Radiation Oncologist
Dr Naidoo obtained his MBChB at the University of Limpopo and then completed a five-year postgraduate fellowship, FC Rad Onc (SA) at the Charlotte Maxeke Johannesburg Academic Hospital. This involved extensive research on the topic: “The Pattern of Practice for Palliative Radiotherapy in Oesophageal Carcinoma – A Retrospective Analysis.”
Dr Naidoo also acted as a facilitator for 4th and 5th year Medical students at Wits Med School and he was a part of the CMJAH MDT’s for Gynae Oncology, Skin and Breast Cancer.
Passionate about an uncompromising approach to standards in the medical arena, Dr Naidoo is also a member of numerous industry professional associations, including the Health Professions Council of South Africa (HPCSA), the South African Medical Association (SAMA) and the South African Society of Clinical and Radiation Oncology (SASCRO).
Just some of his key achievements includes the fact that he presented at the Wits Multidisciplinary Gastrointestinal Surgical symposium which was held in 2013 on “Selective Internal Radiation Therapy Radioembolisation for advanced Liver Cancer and Liver Metastasis.”
He also conducted further research on Locally Advanced Oesophageal Cancer and Palliative External Beam Radiation with and without High Dose Rate Brachytherapy. His research is set to soon be published locally and internationally.
Ogude Medical Oncologist & Physician
Dr Ogude was born in the city of Nairobi; he attended and completed high school at Sacred Heart College in Johannesburg. He attained his medical degree (MBChB) from the University of The Witwatersrand in 2005.
He then went on to do his internship at Chris Hani Baragwanath hospital and then completed a year’s community service at Charlotte Maxeke Johannesburg Academic Hospital in 2007.
Dr Ogude specialised in Internal Medicine and qualified as a Specialist Physician FCP (SA) in 2011.
He sub-specialised in Medical Oncology at Wits University where he obtained his Cert. Med. Oncology in 2014.

domain: medical


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Environmentalists and opponents of offshore oil and gas drilling are up for a fight regardless of the outcome of November's presidential election. Despite critical opposition, the possibility of drilling off the coast of the Atlantic is being discussed by both the Obama administration and the Romney campaign.
In the wake of the 2010 Deepwater Horizon disaster that killed 11 workers and spewed over two hundred million gallons of oil into the Gulf of Mexico, the Obama administration announced a new plan that closed the majority of the Outer Continental Shelf (OCS)—including the Atlantic coast and eastern swaths of the Gulf of Mexico—to new oil and gas drilling through 2017. The policy specifically prohibited "new offshore drilling" and only allowed lease sales to occur in areas that were already open.
Now, two years after the disaster and barely a month away from his chance for re-election, the Obama administration appears to be charting new policies when it comes to offshore drilling.
Last month, Interior Secretary Ken Salazar announced the federal government's plan for two major offshore leasing sales. One for the western Gulf of Mexico, scheduled for November of this year; and the second for the central Gulf in March of next 2013. As Salazar said in his announcement, “We are moving full speed ahead on the president’s all-of-the-above energy strategy because the exploration and development of the Gulf of Mexico’s vital energy resources will continue to help power our nation and drive our economy.”
And, in what was a more striking shift in policy, the administration announced earlier this year—for the first time in thirty years—that the mid- and south Atlantic coastlines may be open to high-intensity seismic exploration for oil and gas.
Following that decision, the National Resources Defense Council condemned the plan.
"To survey for oil and gas, industry uses powerful air guns that release intense sonic blasts through the water column, which disperse explosive sounds that travel thousands of miles," said NRDC. "The process disrupts the vocal behavior of endangered whales and threatens valuable commercial fish stocks."
Though the current plan is to keep the Atlantic and Pacific coasts off-limits for leasing and drilling for the next five years, the Obama administration has begun an environmental review process that could eventually lead to leasing these areas of the OCS. Opponents of offshore oil drilling call these tests a "gateway drug for drilling."
Not surprisingly, the Republican platform has less meandering path and more aggressive policy towards offshore drilling. The basis for Mitt Romney's energy plan can be found in the “Energy Blueprint for America,” put forth by the Republican Governors Public Policy Committee. The document calls for the lifting of all drilling bans in the Outer Continental Shelf and an immediate opening of the Virginia coastline to oil and gas development.
In reaction to his policy, Friends of the Earth criticized Romney saying, “Governor Romney developed the plan in close collaboration with the fat cat oil executives helping to bankroll his campaign, and it shows. They stand to profit while our communities stand to suffer from more fossil fuel industry pollution."
The Raleigh News Observer reports that Obama's plan may be a bit of a longshot: "Even if Atlantic is open to energy companies, production will not likely get underway for at least a decade. The energy Exploration cycle is heavily regulated and requires seismic testing, environmental assessments, oceanographic mapping, military reviews and other regulatory hurdles before any oil and gas can start flowing."
As for the future of the Atlantic Coastline under the either administration, the fight will continue for those who oppose offshore drilling in the pristine waters of the Atlantic coast.

domain: news