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There are many dirt bike trails in Austin, Texas. In this post, we will list the best trail riding locations for dirt bike riders who love to go out and explore new riding locations in the Austin area.
Different riding locations usually come with a unique kind of single track and different terrain styles that will help you with training and getting better at dirt bike riding. But first and foremost, the diversity of the riding locations makes riding dirt bikes interesting.
These dirt bike trails also offer great views and scenery and other activities so the entire family will stay entertained and not just the dirt bike riders.
Some of the best dirt bike trails are within a one-hour drive from downtown Austin, Texas. These are the top 3 dirt bike trails in Austin:
- CTOR aka Central Texas Off Road
- Emma Long Metropolitan Park aka City Park
- Hidden Falls Adventure Park
If you are looking for other dirt bike or ATV locations across United States for best dirt biking trails or motocross or more locations around Austin for dirt bikes or Austin mx locations, check out our dirt bike trail finder. You will find more than 1,000 locations to choose from.
Let’s dive right into it and take a look at the top 3 dirt bike trails near Austin, Texas.
1. Best Dirt Bike Trails in Austin: CTOR aka Central Texas Off Road
CTOR or Central TX Off Road is a great place for dirt bike riding and the winner in our list for the best dirt bike trails in Austin, Texas.
It has rightfully earned its place at the top of our list simply by being the best at most categories, except for accessibility.
This members-only ranch offers anything you can wish for and then some. It has miles and miles of great single tracks from the beginner level to highly advanced riders.
Recommended Rider Levels at CTOR
CTOR offers several types of riding opportunities.
Next to the parking lot, you have a fairly good-sized warm-up loop with fairly sizable jumps that also works great for beginner riders. The trail system has four main loops and the easiest loops, loops 4 and 3, are great for beginners. Harder sections usually are not included in the main loops. Instead, they are marked with a ‘X’ in the sign, for example 2X.
Advanced riders can easily enjoy themselves on loops 2 and 1. And they can rest assured that they are going to find challenging enough trails at CTOR. This is why we love this place so much. While we have conquered a lot that this place has to offer, you start missing it the moment the gate closes behind you. Even after three years!
We recommend CTOR primarily to advanced riders and hard enduro riders. However, it also works well for beginner level riders working their way up to more and more challenging trails.
Amenities Available at CTOR
Shower | Toilet | Camping: Primitive
There are few picnic tables around and plenty of parking space. There is also a shower and a toilet at the property. Usually, this place is not busy to ever have to wait in line to use them.
In addition, you can bring a trailer and also camp out; the owner has few spots to rent. Just remember that this is a members-only ranch so you need to talk to the owner before you can access the place. The gate is always locked.
Accessibility and Pricing Options for CTOR
CTOR is members only. You need to talk to the owner first and arrange to visit the ranch as a guest and then join the membership to ride there. The annual membership is listed at $250 for single members and they also have family plans and other discounts.
Good to Know at CTOR
The property has cows, donkeys, llamas, and large dogs running around. They don’t bother you if you don’t mess with them. On some occasions, we have seen the llamas and donkeys near the trails but they are used to riders and do not generally get spooked or affect your riding.
If you plan to ride loops 4 and 3, use a soft to medium rubber compound with stiffer sidewalls for faster pace. Dirt becomes mud inside the woods, so expect big water puddles right after raining and sloppy conditions for few days.
Loops 2 and 1 contain lots of rocks, ledges, and very loose rubble. So choose soft tire knobs with Tubliss around 5PSI rear and 11PSI front or very soft Mousse for protection. Some of the goat trails have several cactai and punctures are very likely if you’re not careful.
The gate is always locked. So don’t plan on popping by and expect to be let in. Call or contact ahead and talk to the owner.
Location and How To Find CTOR
CTOR is located at Salado, Texas.
It’s about an hour drive north from Austin. Map it out with Google here.
Check out general information about the park here: CTOR.
Don’t forget to call ahead to ride this fantastic dirt bike ranch near Austin for dirt bikes and enduro style riding.
2. Emma Long Metropolitan Park (City Park)
Fantastic location combined with great accessibility makes Emma Long Metropolitan Park the runner-up on our list of best dirt bike trails in Austin, Texas.
Emma Long Metropolitan Park or City Park offers a great practice playground for advanced and technical riders and it’s one of the best dirt bike trails in Austin, Texas.
Even though we only recommend this place for advanced riders, other factors, such as riding style, accessibility, price, and location, placed it high on our list.
The location has one about 5-mile main loop with several smaller offshoots or loops.
Recommended Rider Levels for City Park
We recommend City Park to advanced dirt bike riders. The trail contains mainly ledges as well as rocky and slick limestone climbs. If you are a beginner rider, this place doesn’t really offer you much other than brutal suffering and therefore not fun.
But for riders who love extremely technical and challenging trails, this is a must location! It’s easily accessible and free with the annual Texas State Park sticker. It’s a great practice location that you can hit even after work if you’re local.
We recommend City Park only to advanced riders and hard enduro riders.
Amenities Offered at City Park
There are few picnic tables around the parking lot and plenty of parking space. There is also a toilet in the area but it has often been closed or out of order. Usually this place is not busy.
Accessibility and Pricing at City Park
You can ride here free with the Texas OHV sticker. The City Park is open from 7am to 10pm. No camping allowed.
Good To Know at City Park
This location is popular with mountain bikers. So, make sure you run the one-way loop the correct way. They switch the entry every few years. Look for the large sign that says “START HERE”.
As for the dirt bike tires, use a soft or super soft tire rubber compound here with Mousse or Tubliss for maximum traction. If the terrain is wet or very dry, expect very slippery conditions.
One loop takes between 25 to 60 minutes depending on the rider’s skill level.
It gets very hot in the summer months, so pack water and have a plan ready for breakages. There is a lake close by where you can go cool off after the hot day of trail riding.
If you or someone else gets injured, the location has mapped out markers for emergency personnel to find you on the trail system.Look for red background signs next to the highway leading to the park. Entrances into the trail system have a sign to tell the emergency personnel.
Location and Accessing City Park
Emma Long Metropolitan Park or City Park is located in Austin, Texas. It’s about a 30-minute drive northwestfrom Austin. Map it out with Google here.
Check out general information about the park here: Emma Long Metropolitan Park
Great trails and lots of river beds and obstacles is the reason why Hidden Falls Adventure Park deserves a place on our list of the best dirt bike trails in Austin, Texas.
Hidden Falls Adventure Park is a great place to ride dirt bikes. The park has miles and miles of single track dirt bike riding opportunities in variable styles and difficulties.
In addition to single tracks, the park offers great alternative riding spots that are great for technical practice. We love the river beds and ravines for extreme technical riding opportunities. This is definitely one of the must locations to check for dirt bike trails in Austin.
Recommended Rider Levels at Hidden Falls Adventure Park
We recommend Hidden Falls Adventure Park to all dirt bike riders. You can easily find places for beginners and kids alike and explore the park even with a bigger adventure bike. Bring the whole family and enjoy the park with great amenities.
The three main single track trails, South Loop, Ridge Trail, and North Loop, are fast paced, somewhat technical, and fairly long loops. The South Loop is great for beginners and the North Loop is the most difficult one and a better fit for advanced riders. All loops have cutoffs you can use to bypass the most difficult sections and bailouts when you get tired or need to get back to camp quickly.
We recommend Hidden Falls Adventure Park to all dirt bike riders, beginners, kids, and families.
Amenities at Hidden Falls Adventure Park
Shower | Toilet | Camping: Primitive to cabins and hookups for trailers | Shop | Food Truck
This place has everything you need. The amenities are great, clean, and accessible for anyone visiting the park.
There are picnic tables around the park and plenty of parking space. There are spacious shower and toilet facilities available for use. You can bring a trailer, camp out, or rent a small cabin if you want to spend the entire weekend riding.
The small store sells ice and some drinks and food as well as some spare parts, including even dirt bike tires.
Accessibility and Pricing at Hidden Falls Adventure Park
You can buy day passes or join the membership and everything in between. Opening times vary depending if you are a member of not, so check their site for details. Non-members need to leave the park by 5pm on Sunday and they are usually not able to access to park during weekdays.
Good To Know at Hidden Falls Adventure Park
This location is popular with Jeeps and other full-size trucks. Dirt bikes, however, are allowed to ride anywhere on the marked trails and full-size trails. Some jeep riders are unaware of this and generally don’t care about dirt bikers, so be extra cautious around them.
Non-members need to exit the park by 5pm on Sunday.
Use a soft or super soft tire rubber compound here with Mousse or Tubliss for maximum traction. If the terrain is wet or very dry, expect very slippery conditions.
The main single track loops are about 25 to 60 minutes each depending on the rider’s skill level. The loops have bypasses and exits to get back to camp.
It gets very hot in the summer months, so pack water and have a plan ready for breakages.
Hidden Falls Adventure Park is located about 50 miles northwest from Austin, Texas. It’s about an hour drive northwest from Downtown Austin. Map it out with Google here.
Check out general information about the park here: Hidden Falls Adventure Park
We regularly visit these three dirt bike trails in Austin, Texas. They all offer the type of riding that helps us improve technical skills and they are also conveniently located near us.
If you are new to the dirt bike riding scene in the Central Texas or Austin area, check these locations out and you won’t be disappointed!
Keep the knobs on the trail and blast away!
- Use dirt bike trail finder for more locations around United States. You will love it!
- If you’re near Houston, Texas, check out these dirt bike trails in Sam Houston National Forest.
- Get ready and setup your dirt bike suspension for trail riding with these simple instructions.
Last updated: September 27th, 2022
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Do you need a license to ride a dirt bike in Texas? No, but you will need a Texas OHV decal for your dirt bike when riding at OHV venues on public lands, which can be purchased from the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department.Is it illegal to drive a dirt bike on the road in Texas? ›
To make a bike street legal, the relevant documents should be filled and signed. Register the bike at the DMV and carry the inspection certificate, license, title, and proof of insurance on the bike. There will be a few to register the dirt bike, ranging between $200 to $300.Where is dirt bike capital of the world? ›
"The love of the bike is a worldwide phenomenon and Baltimore is the dirt-bike capital of the world," he proclaims.What state is most popular for motocross? ›
California is the number one place motocross riders from all over the world dream of riding. With its consistent sunshine, huge selection of tracks and the chance to go practicing with your favourite pro riders, So-Cal is undisputedly the global mecca of motocross.What state has the most dirt bikes? ›
No, you cannot ride a dirtbike on a sidewalk. It is illegal and dangerous for pedestrians. Dirt Bikes are meant to be ridden on off-road terrains like mud and dirt.
For most neighborhoods, it's illegal to ride a dirt bike around and you will get ticketed. Dirt bikes are loud and cause a lot of disruption to neighborhoods. And, while there are a few states that allow dirt bikes to be ridden in neighborhoods, it is a very small number.Is it illegal to drive a dirt bike next to the road? ›
It's illegal to ride a dirt bike on public roads, city sidewalks or neighborhoods. Dirt bikes are not street legal in stock form because they are made for “off-road use only” and don't have the equipment needed to legally ride on the road like headlights, taillights, turn signals, insurance, or registration.Can I ride a road bike on dirt trails? ›
Many riders, especially those who are new to cycling, have a misconception that road bikes should only be ridden on pavement. But the truth is, road bikes can be safely ridden on all kinds of road surfaces, including cobblestone, dirt and gravel.Is off-road biking legal? ›
It is illegal to ride any motorbike in public open spaces such as parks, play areas and on pavements. We regularly receive complaints concerning the anti-social and dangerous use of off road motorbikes. Select any card you feel you need to. Once you've done this, use the "See my options" button to get your advice.Is Enduro on and off-road bike? ›
Enduro motorcycles are off-road racing bikes that are used for cross-country competitions, trail riding, rally racing, off-road travel, and just about everything in between. Enduro bikes are specifically built for long-distance racing and are designed to hold up under extreme conditions.What does OHV trail mean? ›
Numerous and diverse opportunities for off-highway vehicle (OHV) recreation exist on BLM-managed public lands. Miles of trails and open areas await all types of OHV enthusiasts.Can a 13 year old ride a dirt bike? ›
Can a 13 year old legally ride a dirt bike? Absolutely. No license is required (In the U.S. or other big countries that I know of) to ride an off road dirt bike. I started when I was 7, so 13 is definitely not too early of an age to begin riding (or too late!).How old do you have to be to ride a dirt bike in Texas? ›
Applicants must be at least 15 years of age and may be restricted to operating a motorcycle with no more than a 250 cubic centimeter piston displacement. This restriction can be removed on the applicants 16th birthday.How do I get a title for a dirt bike in Texas? ›
To title and register your NEV, take the following to your county tax assessor-collector's office: Evidence of ownership, such as a Manufacturer Certificate of Origin or title. A completed Application for Texas Title and/or Registration (Form 130-U) Proof of insurance.Is 125cc street legal in Texas? ›
Examples of Small Street Legal Motorcycles in Texas
Honda Grom (125 cc engine)
Miniature motorcycles are illegal to operate on public roadways. The miniature motorcycles, also known as pocket bikes and pocket rockets, can only be operated on private property. This also applies to unregistered go-carts.
Honda takes the lead with 20.83% of riders preferring this brand in 2021. Yamaha, KTM and Kawasaki are all very close runner ups. Chinese brand Tao takes 2% at equal bottom with Daytona and Gas Gas.What is the most famous dirt bike brand? ›
Honda and Yamaha have long been near the top of all dirt bike brands because they make good performance bikes that are reliable. KTM, however, has been the number 1 of all dirt bike brands that makes the most improvements to all of their dirt bike models.What age is too late for motocross? ›
So how old is too old to start motocross? If you are in good health and shape, then you can learn motocross at any age. There are Motocross racing classes for older ages including 30+, 40+, 50+, and 60+ year old riders. Many racers started Motocross during their 40s & 50s and are doing great.Is motocross the hardest sport in the World? ›
Motocross is a very physically and mentally challenging off-road motorcycle sport, which is raced on natural terrain with man-made obstacles. While undoubtedly the bike does a lot of the work for the rider, to manoeuvre and stay on the 200+ lb machine requires a high level of strength, power and endurance.Is 2-stroke or 4-stroke better for motocross? ›
While a 2-stroke will never offer the torque of a 4-stroke, they come close enough for most weekend riders. Not only that, but they're lighter and tend to be easier to handle, which makes them great for beginners. In addition, 2-stroke bikes require less maintenance than most 4-strokes, saving you time and money.What is the most sold motorcycle in us? ›
U.S. motorcycle manufacturer market share
Harley-Davidson is the number one motorcycle manufacturer in the United States.
Nearby San Francisco didn't get its first protected bike lane until 2010, some 40+ years after Davis. The early 1990s saw Davis institute bike-signal lights, again serving as one of the first cities in the country to adopt such safety measures. It is no wonder that Davis is named the Bicycle Capital of America.What state has most motorcycle deaths? ›
The most dangerous states for motorcycle riders.
|Motorcycle fatalities in 2020||483|
|% change in fatalities from 2019||16%|
|Deaths per 10k motorcycles||12|
The simple answer to the question is that intentionally lifting the front wheel of a moving motorcycle off the ground is illegal in all states.
In order to ride on public lands in Texas (or any land developed by a state grant) you need to have an OHV decal on your vehicle (this includes ATVs, UTVs, Dirt Bikes, Scooters, and Street Legal Motorcycles). Decals can be obtained at Coyote Powersports.What is a street legal dirt bike called? ›
A street legal dirt bike is simply called a dual sport bike. It doubles as a street bike and a dirt bike because it's plated and legal for riding on the road/street, but has knobby tires and long-travel suspension for off-road riding.What should you not do while riding a dirt bike? ›
Dirt Bike Riding Tips
Never ride under the influence of alcohol or drugs. Supervise riders younger than 16; dirt bikes are not toys. Never permit youngsters to ride dirt bikes that are too tall or too powerful for their capabilities. Don't ride alone on remote trails.
Yes, you need to apply for a UK provisional driving licence. To ride on public roads, you must have a provisional licence first and then complete the Compulsory Basic Training (CBT) course.What is a green sticker dirt bike? ›
What is a Green Sticker? A Green Sticker is similar to highway registration except it allows California residents to operate their OHV off-highway on lands that are open and accessible to the public for OHV recreation.Will 2 stroke bikes be banned? ›
This was done to allow RTO officials to renew fitness certificates issued to these rickshaws. At the moment, there is no ban on two-stroke motorcycles, as no Indian RTO has the authority to impose a ban on vehicles, according to a report in Zigwheels.What is a red sticker dirt bike? ›
The Red Sticker is for motorcycles and ATVs model year 2003 and newer that fail to meet the emission standard established by the California Air Resources Board. If the vehicle has a 3 or a C in the eighth position of the Vehicle Identification Number, then it does not meet the emission standards.Are 2022 dirt bikes red sticker? ›
While the Red Sticker riding season will still exist for the 2003-2021 air emissions non-compliant OHVs with Red Stickers, it will be unlawful for the model year 2022 and newer vehicles to ride on public lands except during sanctioned closed course events.Can you ride a dirt bike on the sidewalk in Texas? ›
No, you cannot ride a dirtbike on a sidewalk. It is illegal and dangerous for pedestrians. Dirt Bikes are meant to be ridden on off-road terrains like mud and dirt. They also do not have safety features like mirrors and warning horns to alert pedestrians when you are behind them.Is it legal to drive dirt bikes on roads? ›
You mustn't drive one on a public road unless you're at least 16 years old and have a driving licence. You can only drive one on private land if the landowner allows you to drive there.
Street-legal dirt bikes must also have functional mirrors, lights and a windshield — along with other equipment conventional vehicles possess. If your dirt bike isn't street legal, you might be able to convert it to a street-legal model, but only if it already meets the state's emissions requirements.Can you ride a dirt bike without insurance? ›
The quick answer is that if you ride your off road bike anywhere other than on private land – yes you do need insurance. Even if you only ever use your dirt bike on public roads to get to a track or field, it's a legal requirement that you have, at the very least, third party insurance coverage.Can police seize off-road bikes? ›
“The police have powers under the Road Traffic Act 1988 and the Police Reform Act 2002 to seize vehicles being used… illegally without a valid driving licence or insurance or in an antisocial manner.” That includes motorbikes.How fast can 250cc dirt bikes go? ›
If you are a pro at dirt bike riding and you want to experience real power while riding, then get a 250cc dirt bike. 250cc dirt bike delivers powerful acceleration with high performance. Depending on the type of engine, a 250cc dirt bike comes at a maximum speed of between 55 to 70 mph (90-113 km/h).How many cc is a street legal bike? ›
But, you can generally know what the size requirements for your bike should be based on motorcycle size requirements. However, if you are planning on riding on the highway, you will have to have at least a 150cc dirt bike.


Nigeria Employers’ Consultative Association (NECA) has examined some implications of the President Muhammadu Buhari re-election to businesses. This is even as the Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC) has issued a Certificate of Return to the president confirming his re-election for another four years.
In his address to the press in Lagos, the Director-General, Mr. Timothy Olawale stated that “The Presidential election has been won and lost and we believe it is time to put aside politics and let governance take centre stage. Having followed keenly the thrust of President Buhari-led administration, we do not expect any deviation from the administration’s policies”.
While stating some of the business implications of President Buhari’s re-election, he noted that “Much surprises are not expected judging by the direction of the current administration since its inception, hence, we expect to see more of policy stability. The Federal Government has shown a sustained commitment to the implementation of the Economic Growth Recovery Plan (ERGP) and we expect this to continue. Stability of different economic policies, continued focus on the different social investment programmes such as the trader-moni, etc, which are deemed pro-poor and sustenance or deepening of the government’s engagement with the private sector through the quarterly Presidential Forum amongst others.”.
Furthermore, the Director-General stated that “Infrastructural development has also been an area of focus for this administration and we expect the completion of major infrastructural projects all over the country. We are also witnessing a steady progress in the Export Expansion Grant, which supports exporters in the expansion of their businesses. We expect the Presidential Enabling Business Environment Council (PEBEC) to step up the implementation of its mandate and the implementation of the Ease of Doing Business policy. We, however, hope that the passage and implementation of the 2019 budget will be given due attention as we are already in the 3rd month of our fiscal year, not forgetting that several business decisions are tied to the passage of the budget”.
Expressing concerns of businesses as regard a worrisome trend in the first four years of the administration, he posited that “regulatory gangstarism reached a new height in the first four years of the administration. As the President was making efforts to ease the challenges of doing business in Nigeria, some regulatory agencies were stifling businesses, discouraging entrepreneurial propensity of small and medium scale entities and inadvertently creating the environment for job losses. While drawing the attention of the President to this anathema, he said “the President must ensure that this trend is brought to a stop. A collaborative engagement of the private sector and creation of an environment for it to thrive is the only panacea to the raging threat of unemployment in our nation”
Concluding his remarks, Mr. Olawale averred that “this government has another four years opportunity to reverse the negative trends and prognosis associated with the nation in the last four years. Concerted efforts must be made to revive moribund industries, support struggling enterprises, create a responsible regulatory regime and focus on inclusive growth for the rapid development of our nation.”


RAISING CAIN (1992)
The wife of a prominent child psychologist suspects her husband has an unhealthy scientific obsession with their child, unaware her husband suffers from multiple personality disorder...
Smarting from the critical and commercial disaster of The Bonfire of the Vanities (1990), director Brian De Palma retreated to the genre that made him famous: suspense. The result was Raising Cain, which he also wrote, inspired by an idea to make a suspense movie set in a children’s playground. It evolved into something of a grab bag of thriller and B movie tropes—most obviously the idea of a serial killer suffering from multiple personality disorder. It’s a hoary cliche, few can deny, but one De Palma still had enormous fun with.
The killer in question is one Dr. Carter Nix (John Lithgow), a child psychologist married to the beautiful Jenny (Lolita Davidovich) in a quiet corner of suburbia with their young daughter Amy. On the surface, Carter appears to be an intelligent and ordinary man, but other troubling personalities lurk within his psyche—most notably beatnik Cain, a swaggering alter ego who surfaces to help Carter murder young mothers and steal their children. It transpires that Nix is the son of a more prominent psychologist (also played by Lithgow in makeup) who had controversial theories about the development of human personality during childhood, and is continuing his late father’s work in secret.
Raising Cain received mixed reviews back in 1992. It wasn’t the unequivocal return to form De Palma needed it to be, but has become an interesting footnote in his career; championed in some quarters as a cult classic released at the wrong time, into a world not quite ready for it, blighted by creative compromises De Palma shouldn’t have made. Interestingly, this Arrow Video release contains the superior “Director’s Cut”, which is actually a misnomer because it’s a fan edit from Dutch filmmaker Peet Gelderblom. A lifelong De Palma enthusiast, Gelderblom re-cut Raising Cain to reflect an earlier draft of De Palma’s original screenplay, and the director himself was instrumental in getting it added to this release for the wider world to see.
Therefore, it’s clearly De Palma’s preferred version, which he’s helped make “official”, and one that certainly improves the flow of the story and gives it a more contemporary rhythm. However, this cut isn’t a perfect repair—as it front loads Jenny’s affair with old flame Jack (Steven Bauer) before we get any hint that her husband is insane, which doesn’t quite work.
However, it’s only fair to review the movie that was originally released into cinemas, and Raising Cain is ultimately too strange and tonally inconsistent to work. De Palma is a gifted director and anything with his fingerprints on it will benefit, to a certain extent. Raising Cain may not work as a cohesive piece of entertainment, but there are shots, scenes, and sequences that are very cinematic and daring. The movie often feels like a pastiche of the psychological thriller genre, with tongue-in-cheek humour you’re never sure is intentional. There are a few moments with a pair of city detectives that’s a hair’s breadth away from becoming a Naked Gun deleted scene.
It’s like De Palma can’t quite take any of this seriously, if only on a subconscious level, which creates a goofy tone that probably confused cinema audiences but now feels experimental and subversive. It helps that Lithgow was cast as the lead, as the actor has always flitted between agreeable and deplorable characters in his career. There’s an agreeable tension seeing Lithgow mix both together as Carter/Cain, with a few other personalities besides—although the others don’t get enough screen time to really make an impact. It’s more of a straightforward Jekyll & Hyde situation, dramatically, and the added complications just seem to get in the way too often than not. If De Palma really wanted to do a multiple personality story, it seems like it was beyond him in terms of finding a good structure to support that aim.
Still, the movie’s concept and its off-kilter construction allows De Palma to experiment and play with ideas and imagery. Raising Cain feels like a tapestry of dreams, floating across each other like clouds, creating jolts of horror whenever they bump into one another—my favourites being the crash zoom into a patient on a hospital bed with their eyes fixed open staring at a television, the Lynchian moment when a little boy walks out of a public toilet to speak to Cain in a freakishly adult voice, and Jenny’s frightening dream of being impaled in a car crash. And, of course, this being De Palma, there are plenty of his trademark homages to the work of Alfred Hitchcock — such as a murder involving a woman trapped inside the back of a car being slowly submerged into a lake.
Raising Cain was only a modest hit at the ’92 box office, but I’m glad it’s had an afterlife in cineaste circles. I don’t think it’s worthy of reappraisal for the better, as the structure isn’t great, and the conflicting tones are an issue, but the performances are very good and De Palma’s expert eye means the camerawork is a delight. A film of great individual moments, but overall an entertaining mess.
writer & director: Brian De Palma.
starring: John Lithgow, Lolita Davidovich, Steven Bauer & Frances Sternhagen.


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The aim of this European report is to provide transparency about the legislation on sex work throughout Europe and its impact on the human rights of sex workers, including their access to public health services. The report assesses legislation and policy developments on sex work, migration and health policies on a national and European level and includes a critical evaluation of the various approaches relating to the interrelated issues of sex work, migration and health.
- 5 results found
- (-) Economic Empowerment
- (-) Labour
Sex Work Migration Health - A report on the intersections of legislations and policies regarding sex work, migration and health in Europe
This manual has three main objectives: to present examples of good practice for health and social service providers offering care for migrant and mobile sex workers working in both indoor and outdoor settings, to present examples of different experiences of HIV/STI prevention strategies, as well as introducing and facilitating implementation of innovative tools for specific outreach methodology, peer education, campaigns for clients and advocacy campaigns, to increase and expand good practice actions targeting sex worker and their clients.
This report summarises the findings of a human rights project conducted by the Sex Workers Project in 2007 and 2008 to explore the impacts and effectiveness of anti-trafficking approaches in the United States. These approaches include anti-trafficking raids and vice raids targeting sex work conducted by local law enforcement agencies in different cities. It is among the first efforts since the passage of the Trafficking Victims Protection Act of 2000 to give voice to the perspectives of trafficked persons and sex workers who have experienced anti-trafficking raids. A total of 46 people were interviewed for the report.
Rights Not Rescue: A Report on Female, Male, and Trans Sex Workers' Human Rights in Botswana, Namibia, and South Africa
The criminalisation of sex work in Botswana, Namibia, and South Africa leaves sex workers vulnerable to sexual and physical abuse, as well as extortion, from law enforcement officers such as police and border guards. Human rights violations and a lack of safe and supportive working conditions render sex workers particularly vulnerable to HIV. These are some of the findings of this report on the health and rights challenges confronted by female, male, and transgender sex workers in Botswana, Namibia, and South Africa.
This edition of the Canadian magazine "Constellation" goes into detail on how to stay safe while doing sex work - legally, physically, emotionally, sexually, and financially. It is filled with information & articles including how to work with clients as a masseuse, how to respond to police involvement, and how to plan & save money.
Content is in English and French.

domain: sociology


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domain: design


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Relational spirituality and dispositional forgiveness: a structural equations model.
Forgiveness is considered a virtue in a diverse array of spiritual and religious traditions (Rye, Pargament, Ali, Beck, Dorff, Hallisey, Narayanan, & Williams, 2000; Sandage, Hill, & Vang, 2003). As a historian of the Christian tradition, Martin Marty (1998) described forgiveness as a central theme in the ethos or character of Christian spirituality. Empirical studies of forgiveness have increased exponentially in the past twenty years (Worthington, 2005). McCullough, Bono, and Root (2007) defined forgiveness psychologically as "a suite of prosocial changes in one's motivations toward an interpersonal transgressor such that one becomes less avoidant of and less vengeful toward the transgressor" (and, perhaps, more benevolent as well; McCullough, Worthington, & Rachal., 1997, p. 491). This definition emphasizes the motivational dynamics and prosocial nature of forgiveness. Forgiveness is a response to interpersonal conflict that involves the regulation of negative emotions and also represents a potentially compassionate alternative to seeking revenge or simply distancing oneself from an offender (McCullough et al., 1997; McCullough, Rachal, Sandage, Worthington, Brown, & Hight, 1998). While many studies have investigated the forgiveness of a specific offender or "state forgiveness," a smaller number of studies have studied trait or dispositional forgiveness (Witvliet, 2005). It is trait forgiveness that would correspond to the theological ideal of forgiveness as a virtue in Christian spirituality (Jones, 1995; Shults & Sandage, 2003).
Forgiveness, Religiosity, and Relational Spirituality
Since forgiveness has historically been associated with numerous spiritual and religious traditions, it makes sense that dispositional forgiveness has been positively associated with several measures of religious commitment, intrinsic religiosity, church attendance and spiritual well-being across several studies (for overviews, see Sandage & Jankowski, in press; Tsang, McCullough, & Hoyt, 2005). Yet this growing body of empirical research on forgiveness in the psychology of religion shows vast individual differences in forgivingness among those who are highly religious. Moreover, emerging studies that have examined spiritual developmental factors in relation to forgiveness have started to offer a more complex and nuanced picture. For example, Tsang et al. (2005) found endorsing forgiving or merciful God images was positively associated with forgiving others and negatively associated with avoidant motivations of unforgiveness. Webb and colleagues (2005) also found loving God concepts were positively correlated with dispositional forgiveness while controlling God concepts showed the inverse effect. Strelan, Acton, and Patrick (2009) found that spiritual disappointment with God was negatively correlated with dispositional forgiveness, spiritual well-being, and spiritual maturity and positively correlated with depression and stress in a sample of Australian churchgoers. Dispositional forgiveness also mediated the relationship between spiritual disappointment with God and spiritual well-being. The authors suggested those who are experiencing spiritual disappointment may have increased vulnerability to depression and reduced spiritual well-being but this might be mitigated by a predisposition toward forgiveness and a mature relational ability to tolerate ambiguity. Conversely, some people might become chronically disappointed in God with diminished spiritual and mental health if they lack capacities for forgiveness and spiritual maturity.
Similarly, Sandage and Jankowski (in press) found dispositional forgiveness was negatively correlated with spiritual instability (a relational spirituality measure based on traits of Borderline Personality Disorder; Hall & Edwards, 2002) among Christian graduate students, and this effect was mediated by differentiation of self. That is, students who were more differentiated tended to be more forgiving and less prone to the polarization of spiritual instability, probably due to capacities for self-regulation. Davis, Hook, and Worthington (2008) also investigated forgiveness, relational spirituality, and capacities for coping drawing on the relational spirituality model of Shults and Sandage (2006). Shults and Sandage (2006) defined relational spirituality broadly as "ways of relating to the sacred" (p. 161). Spirituality emerges as people relate to the developmental and existential challenges of making sacred meaning by activating internal working models or relational schemas (Hill & Hall, 2002). In theistic spiritual traditions, the Sacred includes personal Divine beings with whom humans can relate, and it is this Trinitarian form of relational spirituality that Marty (1998) associated with Christian forgiveness. Yet people can relate to God and the sacred in a variety of ways, including surrender, avoidance, secure trust, disappointment, questioning, conflict, and a myriad of other relational categories. Rather than viewing spirituality in a metaphysical fashion as "all good," a relational approach to spirituality focuses on the variety of ontological expressions through which people relate to the sacred.
In their study, Davis et al. (2008) found that the security of attachment to God predicted forgiveness of others and this relation was mediated by forms of religious coping and the extent to which an offense was viewed as a desecration. Viewing an offense as a desecration worked against forgiving the offender. This group of studies suggests that differing forms of relational spirituality can be positively and negatively associated with forgiving others with a need for further research to clarify these differing patterns.
Prayer and Forgiveness
Prayer is a central spiritual practice in many spiritual traditions and a useful form of coping and attachment behavior for research on relational spirituality forgiveness. Attachment researchers have conceptualized prayer as an attachment behavior of seeking communication and connection with the sacred as a safe haven function (Kirkpatrick, 2005). Prayer is practiced in diverse forms that have correlated with individual differences in relational spirituality. For example, Byrd and Boe (2001) tested attachment security in relation to self-reports of three forms of prayer (a) colloquial (conversational), (b) meditative (contemplative), and (c) petitionary (help-seeking) in a sample of college students. Attachment avoidance was negatively correlated with colloquial and meditative forms of prayer, suggesting those who distance from attachment will be less likely to practice these intimate forms of spiritual connection than those who are more comfortable with relational closeness, in general. Anxious attachment was positively correlated with petitionary prayer only. This suggests those whose attachment system becomes hyperactivated under stress might engage in a lot of help-seeking prayer but not more intimate forms of prayer.
While both forgiveness and prayer have each been topics of wide empirical study in recent years, it is curious that the two have so rarely been studied together (McMinn, Fervida, Louwerse, Pop, Thompson, Trihub, & McLeod-Harrison, 2008). McMinn et al. conducted an exploratory qualitative study of prayer and forgiveness in a largely Christian adult sample and found that "inward prayer" of seeking close connection and conversation with God was frequently mentioned as helpful for forgiving others. Their coding of "inward prayer" shows similarities to the colloquial and meditative categories of prayer in the Byrd & Boe (2001) study. They called for quantitative research in this area using well-validated prayer typologies to differentiate forms of prayer that might be more and less helpful in relation to forgiveness.
Gratitude and Forgiveness
The trait or disposition of gratitude has been defined as "a generalized tendency to recognize and respond with grateful emotion to the roles of other people's benevolence in the positive experiences and outcomes that one obtains" (McCullough, Emmons, & Tsang, 2002, p. 112). Like forgiveness, gratitude has been considered a virtue across many religious and spiritual traditions (Emmons, 2007). Several scholars have explicitly linked gratitude and forgiveness as part of a healthy relational spirituality within Christian traditions. Theologian L. Gregory Jones (1995) described forgiving others as part of spiritual holiness which "is to be a reflection of our gratitude for God's forgiving love for us and friendship with us" (p. 184). Philosopher Robert Roberts (1995, 2004) noted a conceptual symmetry between resentment and gratitude suggesting they are opposing traits of character. The person who feels a need to be superior to others will lack gratitude and maintain resentment or unforgiveness. Roberts also argued that gratitude can be a motivator of forgiving others through a generous orientation of benevolent reciprocity and a general willingness or agency to be attached with others (also, see Karen, 2001). Jones and O'Neil (2003), writing from the contemplative Christian tradition, suggested gratitude is "one key to the palace of forgiveness" (p. 89) and "giving and receiving forgiveness is one of the primary skills of the grateful heart" (p. 220). Worthington (2003) theorized that gratitude is spiritually and psychologically linked to empathy and humility and is a motivator of altruistic forms of forgiveness. This linking of gratitude and forgiveness can also be seen implicitly in the Apostle Paul's instruction to "be kind to one another, tenderhearted, forgiving one another, as God in Christ has forgiven you" (Ephesians 4:32). Paul says forgiving and loving others can be motivated by the gift or "fragrant offering" of Christ's sacrificial love (Eph. 5:2) and goes on to call for "always giving thanks to God" (Eph. 5:20).
To date, there has been limited empirical research on gratitude and forgiveness. Dispositional forgiveness was positively correlated with two measures of gratitude in one study (McCullough et al., 2002). Witvliet, Worthington, Root, Sato, Ludwig, and Exline (2008) found experimental evidence that increases in forgiveness were concurrent with increases in gratitude and empathy. Psychologically, gratitude and forgiveness both build upon a securely attached capacity for empathy or taking the perspective of others (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007).
Relational Spirituality Model of Dispositional Forgiveness
The present study tests a relational spirituality model of dispositional forgiveness (Shults & Sandage, 2003, 2006) in a sample of adult graduate students at an Evangelical Protestant university. The relational spirituality model used here draws on Wuthnow (1998) in viewing spiritual development as a dialectical process of dwelling and seeking. Wuthnow described the spiritual landscape in North America since the 1950s as a movement primarily from spiritualities of dwelling increasingly toward spiritualities of seeking. Spiritual dwelling involves attaching to a particular community and tradition for spiritual support and teaching, and historically this was typically provided by a religious group. Spiritual seeking involves a process of open questing and journeying toward new spiritual experiences and understandings within or beyond the formal boundaries of particular religious institutions. This seeking or questing often arises from (or even creates) interpersonal conflicts that involve dilemmas of forgiveness. Rather than categorizing people as spiritual dwellers or seekers, the relational spirituality models recognizes dwelling and seeking are dimensions of spiritual development that can be assessed in all persons. A recent longitudinal study based on this model found that many participants in a seminary context increased in both spiritual dwelling and seeking across a two-year period (Williamson & Sandage, 2009).
Shults & Sandage (2006) predicted that forms of spiritual dwelling would typically correlate positively with warmth-based virtues (Worthington, Berry, & Parrott, 2001) such as forgiveness and gratitude if there is an underlying secure attachment with the sacred. We hypothesize that securely attached forms of prayer (i.e., meditative and colloquial; Byrd & Boe, 2001) will correlate positively with dispositional forgiveness, and this effect will be mediated by dispositional gratitude. This represents a positive relational spirituality of dwelling within the Christian tradition (Jones, 1995; Shults & Sandage, 2003).
Conversely, forms of spiritual seeking will often involve questioning one's tradition, processing disappointments, prioritizing social justice over conciliatory attitudes, and exploring new spiritual experiences. Relationally, spiritual seeking and questing can include conflict with one's family and prior spiritual community. So, certain measures of spiritual seeking can be expected to correlate negatively with forgiveness as psychological processes of deconstruction and individuation or "leaving home" unfold (Shults & Sandage, 2006). Quest religiosity has been used as measure of spiritual seeking in several studies since it focuses on a process orientation of religious conflict, questioning of traditions, tolerating ambiguity and doubt, and valuing openness to new understandings (Sandage, Link, & Jankowski, 2010; Sandage, Hill, & Vaubel, in press; Williamson & Sandage, 2009). We hypothesize that quest religiosity will be negatively correlated with dispositional forgiveness due to measuring this spiritual deconstruction and exploration orientation, and this effect will be mediated by spiritual disappointment with God. Quest religiosity was positively correlated with spiritual disappointment in a prior study (Sandage, Link, & Jankowski, 2010). To our knowledge, quest religiosity and forgiveness have not previously been studied together. Strelan et al. (2009) showed a negative correlation between disappointment with God and dispositional forgiveness, which makes sense within the framework of relational spirituality. Those who are disappointed with God are likely also disappointed with others and may often lack the secure connection with God that is associated with forgiveness. Relationships with both the human and the Divine can involve disappointments which might eventually lead developmentally to a maturing process of de-idealization, which contemplatives have described as the via negativa (negative way) or the "Dark Night of the Soul" (Jones, 2002). In cross-sectional data from an Evangelical Christian context we expect that spiritual disappointment and questing will be negatively associated with forgiveness because spiritual seeking that is associated with disappointment may involve less conciliatory motivations in interpersonal relationships. Spiritual disappointments may prompt spiritual questioning and questing toward new understandings or meaning systems (Paloutzian, 2005).
The participants in this study consisted of masters-level graduate students (N = 203; 56.7% female) from a Protestant-affiliated seminary in North America. This particular seminary reports a student body representing over 50 Christian denominations. Students were recruited through classes and campus announcements, and a packet of measures were completed in exchange for a gift card to an area bookstore. The patricipants ranged in ages from 21-72 with a mean age of 36. The participants described themselves as Euro-American (90.1%), African-American (4.9%), Asian-American (3.0%), Latino/a (1%), Native American (0.5%). Participants reported their masters degree programs as divinity (34.0%), children and family ministry (21.7%), theology (15.8%), marriage and family therapy (13.8%), Christian thought (5.4%), and Christian education (4.4%). Most participants were in their first year of graduate study (48.3%) followed by second year (27.1%), third year (16.3%), and fourth year and beyond (4.9%).
Disposition to Forgive Scale. To measure forgiveness, we had participants complete the 10-item Disposition to Forgive Scale (McCullough et al., 2002). Items were based on McCullough Worthington, and Rachal's (1997) theorizing regarding forgiveness (i.e., that forgiveness involves prosocial changes in avoidance, revenge, and conciliatory motivations). Participants indicated the extent to which they engaged in 10 different responses when people anger or hurt them, including positively worded items (e.g., "I don't hold it against him/her for long") and negatively worded items (e.g., "I will find a way to even the score"), the latter of which we reverse scored. These 10 items had an internal consistency of alpha = .81
Gratitude Questionnaire. In order to measure dispositional gratitude, the 6-item Gratitude Questionnaire (GQ; McCullough, Emmons, & Tsang, 2002) was used. Participants use a Likert scale to rate the statements 1 to 7 (1 = strongly disagree to 7 = strongly agree). Item statements included "I have so much in life to be thankful for" and "I am grateful to a wide variety of people." McCullough et al. (2002) found the GQ to be correlated with observer ratings of gratitude and other self-report measures of gratitude. The GQ had an internal consistency in this study of Cronbach's alpha = .66.
Spiritual Assessment Inventory. Spiritual disappointment was measured with the Spiritual Assessment Inventory (SAI). The SAI is a self-report based on object relations and attachment theories and Judeo-Christian spirituality (Hall & Edwards, 2002; Hall et al., 2007). Measuring the dynamics of one's relationship to God rather than focusing on one's representation of God (Beck, 2006), the SAI is designed to measure an individual's relational orientation toward God in everyday life. For our analyses, we used the seven-item spiritual disappointment scale from the SAI. Those high in spiritual disappointment are thought to experience considerable frustration or grief related to God, and we also considered spiritual disappointment an index of spiritual stress and turbulence based on the positive correlation with both spiritual instability and mental health symptoms in prior research (Sandage, Link, & Jankowski, 2010). Examples of spiritual disappointment items are as follows: "There are times when I feel disappointed with God" (Disappointment) and "There are times when I feel angry at God." Participants are asked to respond using a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (Not At All True) to 5 (Very True), Hall and Edwards (2002) demonstrated construct, convergent, discriminant, and incremental validity of the SAI. The spiritual disappointment scale had an internal consistency in this study of Cronbach's alpha = .91
Quest Scale. The Quest Scale (Batson & Schoenrade, 1991a, 1991b)was used to measure spiritual and religious questing. Batson and Schoenrade characterized quest as a complex religious orientation that values the role of doubt and maintains a tentative, changeable stance toward religious conviction. The twelve items were rated on a scale of 1 to 9 (1 = Strongly Disagree, 9 = Strongly Agree) and included statements such as: "I am constantly questioning my religious beliefs" and reversed scored statement, "I find religious doubts upsetting." In contrast to the internalized commitment orientation of the intrinsic religiosity scale, the quest scale measures a style of relational spirituality that involves questioning one's religious tradition and being open to exploring change. The quest scale has been positively correlated with cognitive complexity and other measures of religious openness and existential motivation, and Quest scores have been found to increase following confrontation with an existential dilemma (for a review, see Beck & Jessup, 2004). The Quest scale had an internal consistency in this study of Cronbach's alpha = .76.
Prayer Scale. To measure relational forms of prayer associated with attachment security, the meditative (or contemplative) and colloquial (conversational) prayer scales developed by Poloma and Pendleton (1989) were used and combined into a single prayer measure. Byrd and Boe (2001) found attachment avoidance was negatively correlated with both the meditative and colloquial prayer scales while the two prayer scales were highly correlated (r = .84). The meditative prayer measure has five items such as "How often do you spend time just 'feeling' or being in the presence of God?" and "How often do you spend time just quietly thinking about God?" We used five of the six items from the original colloquial prayer measure including "How often do you talk with God in your own words?" and "How often do you spend time telling God how much you love him?" We dropped one item from the original colloquial prayer scale ("Ask God to forgive you for your sins") since it could be expected to correlate highly with forgiveness. Each item is rated on a 7-point scale ranging from "never" to "several times per day." The combined prayer scale had an internal consistency in this study of Cronbach's alpha = .86.
Demographic and Correlational Analyses
We began by looking at the relationships between all of our measured variables and gender and age. Ethnicity was not analyzed because of low ns in most cells. Gratitude was the only variable correlated with age ([gamma] = .21, p < .01). Also, women (M = 6.55, SD = .50) tended to be more grateful than men (M = 6.38, SD = .61), t( 160.07) = 2.04, p < .05, in which homogeneity of variance was not assumed because of Levene's test, F = 5.37, p < .05. There were no other significant correlations or mean differences based on age or gender.
Please see Table 1 for means and standard deviations of the measures, and the bivariate correlations between them. Note that forgivingness is significantly related to all other measures, positively to prayer and gratitude, and negatively to quest and spiritual disappointment, |rs| [greater than or equal to] .20, ps < .01 In addition, quest and spiritual disappointment are positively correlated, and so are prayer and gratitude.
TABLE 1 Bivariate correlations between measures Prayer Gratitude Quest Sp. Dis. Forgive Prayer 3.87 (.85) Gratitude .44 * 6.48 (.55) Quest -.10 -.13 5.25 (1.21) Spiritual -.10 -.11 .25 * 2.21 Disappointment (.87) Forgivingness .20 * .27 * -.22 * -.31 * 5.15 (.88) Note: Means and standard deviations of the scales on diagonals. * indicates correlations significant at the .01 level.
Structural Equation Model of Relational Spirituality and Forgivingness
We hypothesized that gratitude would mediate the link from prayer to forgivingness (the dwelling path to forgivingness), and spiritual disappointment would mediate the relationship between quest and forgivingness (the seeking path to forgivingness). Please see Figure 1 for a diagram of the proposed model.
[FIGURE 1 OMITTED]
Before testing item parcels were used as the indicator variables. Though there is some debate about the use of item parcels as indicator variables (Little, Cunningham, Shahar, and Widaman, 2002), they are considered preferable to most other options because of desirable psychometric properties they possess (Little, in press). Therefore, consistent with Little's (in press) recommendation, items were assigned to parcels by "balancing," in which each parcel consisted of individual items with item-scale loadings that were high, middle, and low so that no parcel should be a better indicator of the construct than any other.
Figure 2 reveals that all the direct paths in the proposed model are significant. Furthermore the fit of the model is acceptable (CFI = 1.0; RMSEA < .001). The model explains 17.2% of the variance in forgivingness, 8.2% of the variance in spiritual disappointment, and 32.2% of the variance in gratitude. The standardized indirect effect of prayer on forgivingness is .130, and the indirect effect of quest on forgivingness is-.099.
[FIGURE 2 OMITTED]
To examine whether this model was preferred to other similar models, we tested three alternative models. First, we reversed the order of prayer and gratitude in the model. Though the fit of this model was acceptable (CFI = 1.0; RMSEA < .001), the path from prayer to forgivingness was not significant ([beta] = .16, p = .11), thus prayer does not mediate the link of gratitude to forgiveness. Then we tried reversing the order of quest and spiritual disappointment, and again, though the fit of the model was acceptable (CFI = 1.0; RMSEA < 001), the direct path of quest to forgivingness was not significant ([beta] = -.14, p = .18). From this data, quest is not a plausible mediator of spiritual disappointment and forgivingness.
Finally, we attempted a reverse model in which all the paths of the original model were turned the other direction. This model fit the data well (CFI = 10; RMSEA < .001), and all paths were significant. Please see Figure 3 for a diagram of the reverse model with standardized path scores. The model explains 13.4% of the variance in spiritual disappointment, 7.3% of the variance in gratitude, 8.3% of the variance in quest, and 32.4% of the variance in prayer. The standardized indirect effect of forgivingness on prayer is .154, and the indirect effect of forgivingness on quest is -.105.
[FIGURE 3 OMITTED]
In conclusion, either the original model or the reverse model seem to be the best models as explanations of the underlying data.
The results provide initial support for a theoretical model of relational spirituality and forgiveness in a sample of adult graduate students in a Christian context. More specifically, gratitude mediated the positive relationship between prayer and forgiveness while spiritual disappointment mediated the negative relationship between quest and forgiveness. Since the original and reverse model both fit the data quite well, linear causality cannot be determined and might be clarified through experimental or longitudinal designs. These present findings are consistent with the relational model of spirituality developed by Shults and Sandage (2006) suggesting that forms of spiritual dwelling would be consistent with the virtues of forgiveness and gratitude, while spiritual seeking and questing would often be related to spiritual disappointment and a less conciliatory approach to relationships. This study also extends research on spirituality and forgiveness by (a) investigating both positive and negative associations between spirituality variables and forgiveness, (b) studying an adult sample (mean age = 35.82 years) that is older than most prior research in this area, and (c) engaging theology and psychology in testing an interdisciplinary theoretical model.
The results contribute to some emerging research linking dispositional gratitude and dispositional forgiveness as warmth-based virtues (Worthington et al., 2001) related to capacities for empathy and other prosocial emotions and secure styles of attachment (Mikulincer, Shaver, & Slav, 2006; Mikulincer & Shaver, 2010; Sandage & Worthington, 2010). From an attachment framework, prayer activates the attachment system and associated forms of relational spirituality. The forms of prayer measured in this study tend to be correlated with the capacities for secure attachment that can be expected to lead to gratefulness and a "reciprocating self" that can both give and receive relational benefits (Balswick, King, & Reimer, 2005, pp. 48-49). These secure forms of prayer may help self-regulate negative emotions in the context of interpersonal conflict leading to positive altruistic emotions of gratitude and forgiveness. These forms of prayer could also serve a spiritual safe haven function involving a feeling a safe connection with God to buffet the anxiety of relational conflict and promote generosity (Sommerfeld, 2010). This hypothesis could be tested in future research using attachment to God or other God image measures and would fit with the Davis et al. (2008) findings on attachment to God and forgiveness. The reverse model also suggests that dispositional forgiveness might promote gratitude and more secure forms of prayer.
The present results provide the first empirical evidence of gratitude as a mediator of prayer and forgiveness. While the cross-sectional design of the present study leads us to be cautious about interpreting causation, these findings are consistent with other studies indicating a close connection between gratitude and forgiveness (Toussaint & Friedman, 2009; Witvliet et al., 2007). Peterson and Seligman (2004) include them as core virtues or character strengths in their positive psychology handbook. Worthington (1998) has included gratitude inductions in his empirically-supported REACH psychoeducational forgiveness intervention, and he suggested grateful positive emotions can impact working memory and contribute to an "empathic projection" or shared humanity with an offender that facilitates forgiveness. Future intervention studies might specifically test the effects of gratitude on forgiveness.
The mediator effect for gratitude also empirically validates the work the theologians and philosophers cited above who posited a close connection between gratitude and forgiveness within Christian relational spirituality (Jones, 1995; Jones & O'Neil, 2003; Roberts, 1995, 2004). Roberts specifically described gratitude and forgiveness as forms of benevolent reciprocity. Shults also theologically connects relational spirituality, gratitude and forgiveness in suggesting "the gratitude and joy that emerge from sharing in divine grace provide an ontological stability that enables redemptive forgiveness" (Shults & Sandage, 2003, p. 219). Sorenson (1996) identified gratitude as a central virtue in the Christian tradition and one that can be theoretically linked with healthy generosity, giving toward others, and a theology of grace. If forgiveness is understood spiritually as a gift from God, then the connection between prayer, dispositional gratitude, and forgiveness makes sense theologically and psychologically.
Spiritual disappointment mediated the relationship between quest religiosity and dispositional forgiveness. The negative correlation between spiritual disappointment and forgiveness is consistent with the prior findings of Strelan et al. (2009). While Strelan et al. tested an atheoretical regression model, the relational spirituality model used in the present study frames this pathway from quest to spiritual disappointment to forgiveness as a pattern related to spiritual seeking. That is, questing often involves questioning, doubting, or deconstructing prior spiritual understandings and exploring or seeking new possibilities for spiritual meaning (Batson et al., 1993; Paloutzian, 2005). Questing or seeking may arise from disappointments or conflicts in prior forms of relational spirituality, which can be at least temporarily disruptive to relationships both with other humans and the Divine (Jones, 2002). The reverse model also suggests that low levels of dispositional forgiveness might contribute spiritual disappointments that lead to questing for new understanding.
Prior studies have shown (a) experimental evidence that exposure to tragedy can increase questing (Krauss & Flaherty, 2001), and (b) a curvilinear pattern with moderate levels of family triangulation being associated with the highest levels of questing (Heiden Rootes, Jankowski, & Sandage, 2010). These findings support the idea that existential and relational conflicts may be related to questing and searching for new spiritual meaning. Disappointed questers appear to be less conciliatory and forgiving than those who are spiritually dwelling securely through intimate forms of prayer and gratitude. This could be due to the loss of prior spiritual ideals among those who acknowledge spiritual disappointment (Jones, 2002), or it could be that disappointed questers tend to value other strengths (e.g., authenticity, justice, assertiveness) over forgiveness. Spiritual writer Yancey (1988) suggested people are often disappointed in God for seeming unfair, silent, or hidden, all of which might bear upon a person's ability to relate to God as a source of attachment security and forgiveness in times of conflict and distress. Future research is needed to replicate the quest and forgiveness effect and determine the contextual factors might contribute to the mediator effect for spiritual disappointment.
While some might read the model tested in this study (Figure 2) as demonstrating a "good" spiritual pattern on the top (positive association from prayer to gratitude to forgiveness) and a "bad" spiritual pattern on the bottom (negative association from quest to spiritual disappointment to forgiveness), the relational spirituality model and interdisciplinary reflection would suggest a less evaluative interpretation of these different forms of relating to the sacred. Numerous biblical passages, most notably Psalms of lament, validate the realities of acute spiritual questioning and disappointment, particularly in the face of conflict, tragedy, and loss (e.g., Psalm 55, 82, 88; Matthew 27:46; 2 Corinthians 2:8-9). In his theology of forgiveness, Jones (1995) even suggested an integration of lament and forgiveness:
not all situations of brokenness call for specific words of forgiveness or requests for forgiveness. In the face of inexplicable tragedy, Christians might be called on to endure (as did Job), we might well lament the destructive consequences of an unfortunate accident ... or we might issue a plaintive cry for deliverance from specific oppressive circumstances (as do a number of Psalms). In any of these situations, anger and frustration are certainly understandable and can indeed be signs of the depth of our longing for the consummation of God's kingdom. (pp. 230-231)
In a parallel and dialectical fashion, Wolterstorff (2002), writing from the Dutch neo-Calvinist theological tradition, suggested an integration of gratitude and lament in saying, "Gratitude and lament belong together as intrinsic components in the Calvinist way of responding and living in the world" (p. 271). Could it be possible that some people actually integrate mature capacities to balance gratitude and forgiveness with disappointment and questing? The present study does not answer this question, nor does it answer the question of how people might shift the balance from a predominance of disappointment to a predominance of gratitude (Muller, 1992). However, it is worth noting that quest religiosity and spiritual disappointment were not significantly correlated with prayer or gratitude, suggesting they represent relatively orthogonal forms of relational spirituality. Qualitative research with individuals high in questing and disappointment who are also high in secure forms of prayer and gratitude would be interesting.
Limitations and Future Research
Several limitations of the present study are worth highlighting. The sample was comprised of mostly European-American graduate students in a Christian context and research within other spiritual traditions and more ethnically-diverse samples is needed (Sandage & Williamson, 2005). Forgiveness is considered a virtue across many religious traditions, so there are many opportunities for tradition-specific studies of forgiveness. These results should also not be generalized to clinical populations that might have experienced more severe forms of trauma, and it is not fair to compare the post-traumatic challenges of forgiveness to those who are seeking to forgive less severe injuries and disappointments. Second, the cross-sectional design limits our ability to understand changes in forgiveness over time. Longitudinal research is necessary to test the effects of these spiritual variables on forgiveness, including the possibility of non-linear and diverse patterns of change. Experimental studies could also test interventions to facilitate gratitude and securely-attached forms of prayer in studies of forgiveness or interventions to help people resolve spiritual struggles and disappointments in constructive ways. Other forms of spiritual practice (e.g., mindfulness) could also be tested in relation to gratitude and forgiveness. Third, we did not measure empathy in this study, which has also been found to mediate between other variables and forgiveness in previous research (McCullough et al., 1998; Sandage & Worthington, 2010). Future studies could test the differential effects of empathy and gratitude on forgiveness, as well as other possible mediator variables (e.g., humility). Fourth, while studies have now established negative correlations between forgiveness and both spiritual instability (Sandage & Jankowksi, 2010) and spiritual disappointment (Strelan et al., 2009), future studies might further investigate how these two forms of spiritual struggle or variables like cynicism (Macaskill, 2007) could represent differing challenges to forgiveness. Fifth, it has also been theorized that at high levels of spiritual development, spiritual seeking or questing can involve less anxiety and conflict than at lower levels of spiritual development (Shults & Sandage, 2006). So, future research might investigate other quest measures that could relate to differing forms of spiritual seeking and possibly show different relationships with forgiveness (Beck & Jessup, 2004). Use of implicit measures of relational spirituality could also advance research in this area beyond the limits of self-report measures (Hall, Fujikawa, Halcrow, Hill, & Delaney, 2009). Sixth, from a relational perspective, forgiveness emerges (or does not) within the complex, intersubjective dynamics of two subjects (Shults & Sandage, 2003) and yet our design in this study only measured the experience of individuals. Finally, future interdisciplinary and integrative research on relational spirituality and forgiveness could benefit from engagement with biblical and theological scholars regarding Jesus' seemingly dialectical teachings related to forgiveness and interpersonal conflict. On the one hand, Jesus extols the value of practicing forgiveness (Matthew 5:12-15, 18:21-35) while he also instructs his disciples in less conciliatory and even antagonistic relational postures in certain contexts in the interest of spiritual questing (e.g., Luke 9:5, 57-62; 12:49-53; 14:26).
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SANDAGE, STEVEN, J. Address: Bethel University, 3949 Bethel Dr, St Paul, MN 55112. Title: Associate Professor of Marriage and Family Studies. Degrees: M.Div (Trinity Evangelical Divinity School), PhD in Counseling Psychology (Virginia Commonwealth University). Specializations: spirituality, positive psychology, intercultural development, and couples therapy.
WILLIAMSON, IAN. Address: Social and Behavioral Sciences New Mexico Highlands University 205 Hewett Hall Las Vegas, NM 87701 USA. Email Address: email@example.com. Title: Associate Professor. Degree: Ph.D. in Social Psychology at University of Minnesota. Specializations: Forgiveness, Positive Psychology, Spirituality.
STEVEN J. SANDAGE
New Mexico Highlands University
This project was supported by a grant from the Fetzer Institute (#2266). Please address correspondence to Steven J. Sandage, Ph.D., Bethel University, P.O. Box 7029, 3900 Bethel Dr. St. Paul MN 55112. Email:firstname.lastname@example.org.
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|Author:||Sandage, Steven J.; Williamson, Ian|
|Publication:||Journal of Psychology and Theology|
|Date:||Dec 22, 2010|
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Richard Grenell, the gay Trump administration cabinet member, has decided not to enter the California recall election.
On Thursday Grenell told Fox News host Sean Hannity he declined to seek the governorship in order to continue to “push forward this America First agenda.”
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