|An aspect of fiscal policy|
International taxation is the study or determination of tax on a person or business subject to the tax laws of different countries or the international aspects of an individual country's tax laws as the case may be. Governments usually limit the scope of their income taxation in some manner territorially or provide for offsets to taxation relating to extraterritorial income. The manner of limitation generally takes the form of a territorial, residential, or exclusionary system. Some governments have attempted to mitigate the differing limitations of each of these three broad systems by enacting a hybrid system with characteristics of two or more.
Many governments tax individuals and/or enterprises on income. Such systems of taxation vary widely, and there are no broad general rules. These variations create the potential for double taxation (where the same income is taxed by different countries) and no taxation (where income is not taxed by any country). Income tax systems may impose tax on local income only or on worldwide income. Generally, where worldwide income is taxed, reductions of tax or foreign credits are provided for taxes paid to other jurisdictions. Limits are almost universally imposed on such credits. Multinational corporations usually employ international tax specialists, a specialty among both lawyers and accountants, to decrease their worldwide tax liabilities.
With any system of taxation, it is possible to shift or recharacterize income in a manner that reduces taxation. Jurisdictions often impose rules relating to shifting income among commonly controlled parties, often referred to as transfer pricing rules. Residency-based systems are subject to taxpayer attempts to defer recognition of income through use of related parties. A few jurisdictions impose rules limiting such deferral ("anti-deferral" regimes). Deferral is also specifically authorized by some governments for particular social purposes or other grounds. Agreements among governments (treaties) often attempt to determine who should be entitled to tax what. Most tax treaties provide for at least a skeleton mechanism for resolution of disputes between the parties.
Systems of taxation vary among governments, making generalization difficult. Specifics are intended as examples, and relate to particular governments and not broadly recognized multinational rules. Taxes may be levied on varying measures of income, including but not limited to net income under local accounting concepts (in many countries this is referred to as 'profit'), gross receipts, gross margins (sales less costs of sale), or specific categories of receipts less specific categories of reductions. Unless otherwise specified, the term "income" should be read broadly.
Jurisdictions often impose different income based levies on enterprises than on individuals. Entities are often taxed in a unified manner on all types of income while individuals are taxed in differing manners depending on the nature or source of the income. Many jurisdictions impose tax at both an entity level and at the owner level on one or more types of enterprises. These jurisdictions often rely on the company law of that jurisdiction or other jurisdictions in determining whether an entity's owners are to be taxed directly on the entity income. However, there are notable exceptions, including U.S. rules characterizing entities independently of legal form.
In order to simplify administration or for other agendas, some governments have imposed "deemed" income regimes. These regimes tax some class of taxpayers according to tax system applicable to other taxpayers but based on a deemed level of income, as if earned by the taxpayer. Disputes can arise regarding what levy is proper. Procedures for dispute resolution vary widely and enforcement issues are far more complicated in the international arena. The ultimate dispute resolution for a taxpayer is to leave the jurisdiction, taking all property that could be seized. For governments, the ultimate resolution may be confiscation of property, incarceration or dissolution of the entity.
Other major conceptual differences can exist between tax systems. These include, but are not limited to, assessment vs. self-assessment means of determining and collecting tax; methods of imposing sanctions for violation; sanctions unique to international aspects of the system; mechanisms for enforcement and collection of tax; and reporting mechanisms.
Countries that tax income generally use one of two systems: territorial or residential. In the territorial system, only local income – income from a source inside the country – is taxed. In the residential system, residents of the country are taxed on their worldwide (local and foreign) income, while nonresidents are taxed only on their local income. In addition, a very small number of countries, notably the United States, also tax their nonresident citizens on worldwide income.
Countries with a residential system of taxation usually allow deductions or credits for the tax that residents already pay to other countries on their foreign income. Many countries also sign tax treaties with each other to eliminate or reduce double taxation. In the case of corporate income tax, some countries allow an exclusion or deferment of specific items of foreign income from the base of taxation.
The following table summarizes the taxation of local and foreign income of individuals, depending on their residence or citizenship in the country. It includes 244 entries: 194 sovereign countries, their 40 inhabited dependent territories (most of which have separate tax systems), and 10 countries with limited recognition.
|Country or territory||Notes and sources|
|Bahamas||no||no||no||no||no||no||No personal income tax.|
|Bahrain||no||no||no||no||no||no||No personal income tax.|
|Bermuda||no||no||no||no||no||no||No personal income tax.|
|British Virgin Islands||no||no||no||no||no||no||No personal income tax.|
|Brunei||no||no||no||no||no||no||No personal income tax.|
|Cayman Islands||no||no||no||no||no||no||No personal income tax.|
|Kuwait||no||no||no||no||no||no||No personal income tax.|
|Maldives||no||no||no||no||no||no||No personal income tax.|
|Monaco||no||no||no||no||no||no||No personal income tax.|
|Nauru||no||no||no||no||no||no||No personal income tax.|
|Oman||no||no||no||no||no||no||No personal income tax.|
|Pitcairn Islands||no||no||no||no||no||no||No personal income tax.|
|Qatar||no||no||no||no||no||no||No personal income tax.|
|Saint Barthelemy||no||no||no||no||no||no||No personal income tax.|
|Saint Kitts and Nevis||no||no||no||no||no||no||No personal income tax.|
|Somalia||no||no||no||no||no||no||No personal income tax.|
|Turks and Caicos Islands||no||no||no||no||no||no||No personal income tax.|
|United Arab Emirates||no||no||no||no||no||no||No personal income tax.|
|Vanuatu||no||no||no||no||no||no||No personal income tax.|
|Vatican City||no||no||no||no||no||no||No personal income tax.|
|Wallis and Futuna||no||no||no||no||no||no||No personal income tax.|
|Western Sahara||no||no||no||no||no||no||No personal income tax.|
|Costa Rica||yes||yes||yes||no||no||no||Territorial taxation.|
|Democratic Republic of the Congo||yes||yes||yes||no||no||no||Territorial taxation.|
|French Polynesia||yes||yes||yes||no||no||no||Territorial taxation.|
|Hong Kong||yes||yes||yes||no||no||no||Territorial taxation.|
|Marshall Islands||yes||yes||yes||no||no||no||Territorial taxation.|
|Palestinian Authority||yes||yes||yes||no||no||no||Territorial taxation.|
|Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha||yes||yes||yes||no||no||no||Territorial taxation.|
|Cuba||no||yes||yes||yes||no||no||Residential taxation of citizens, territorial taxation of foreigners. Does not tax nonresidents.|
|Philippines||yes||yes||yes||yes||no||no||Residential taxation of citizens, territorial taxation of foreigners.|
|Saudi Arabia||yes||yes||yes||yes||no||no||Residential taxation of citizens, territorial taxation of foreigners.|
|North Korea||yes||no||yes||no||yes||no||Residential taxation of foreigners, territorial taxation of nonresidents. Does not tax income of resident citizens.|
|Akrotiri and Dhekelia||yes||yes||yes||yes||yes||no||Residential taxation.|
|American Samoa||yes||yes||yes||yes||yes||no||Residential taxation.|
|Antigua and Barbuda||yes||yes||yes||yes||yes||no||Residential taxation.|
|Australia (including Christmas Island, Cocos Islands and Norfolk Island)||yes||yes||yes||yes||yes||no||Residential taxation.|
|Bosnia and Herzegovina||yes||yes||yes||yes||yes||no||Residential taxation.|
|Burkina Faso||yes||yes||yes||yes||yes||no||Residential taxation.|
|Cape Verde||yes||yes||yes||yes||yes||no||Residential taxation.|
|Central African Republic||yes||yes||yes||yes||yes||no||Residential taxation.|
|Cook Islands||yes||yes||yes||yes||yes||no||Residential taxation.|
|Côte d'Ivoire||yes||yes||yes||yes||yes||no||Residential taxation.|
|Czech Republic||yes||yes||yes||yes||yes||no||Residential taxation.|
|Dominican Republic||yes||yes||yes||yes||yes||no||Residential taxation.|
|East Timor||yes||yes||yes||yes||yes||no||Residential taxation.|
|El Salvador||yes||yes||yes||yes||yes||no||Residential taxation.|
|Equatorial Guinea||yes||yes||yes||yes||yes||no||Residential taxation.|
|Falkland Islands||yes||yes||yes||yes||yes||no||Residential taxation.|
|Faroe Islands||yes||yes||yes||yes||yes||no||Residential taxation.|
|Finland (including Åland)||yes||yes||yes||yes||yes||no*||Residential taxation.|
* except former residents, temporarily
|France (including overseas departments)||yes||yes||yes||yes||yes||no*||Residential taxation.|
* except in Monaco
|Ghana||yes||yes||yes||yes||yes||no||Residential taxation. Foreign income of residents is taxed only if it is moved to Ghana.|
* with another nationality or tax treaty
|Isle of Man||yes||yes||yes||yes||yes||no||Residential taxation.|
* except in tax havens
* except in tax havens, temporarily
|Netherlands (including the Caribbean Netherlands)||yes||yes||yes||yes||yes||no||Residential taxation.|
|New Caledonia||yes||yes||yes||yes||yes||no||Residential taxation.|
|New Zealand||yes||yes||yes||yes||yes||no||Residential taxation.|
|Northern Cyprus||yes||yes||yes||yes||yes||no||Residential taxation.|
|Papua New Guinea||yes||yes||yes||yes||yes||no||Residential taxation.|
|Puerto Rico||yes||yes||yes||yes||yes||no||Residential taxation.|
|Saint Lucia||yes||yes||yes||yes||yes||no||Residential taxation.|
|Saint Martin||yes||yes||yes||yes||yes||no||Residential taxation.|
|Saint Pierre and Miquelon||yes||yes||yes||yes||yes||no||Residential taxation.|
|Saint Vincent and the Grenadines||yes||yes||yes||yes||yes||no||Residential taxation.|
|San Marino||yes||yes||yes||yes||yes||no||Residential taxation.|
|São Tomé and Príncipe||yes||yes||yes||yes||yes||no||Residential taxation.|
|Sierra Leone||yes||yes||yes||yes||yes||no||Residential taxation.|
|Sint Maarten||yes||yes||yes||yes||yes||no||Residential taxation.|
|Solomon Islands||yes||yes||yes||yes||yes||no||Residential taxation.|
|South Africa||yes||yes||yes||yes||yes||no||Residential taxation.|
|South Korea||yes||yes||yes||yes||yes||no||Residential taxation.|
|South Ossetia||yes||yes||yes||yes||yes||no||Residential taxation.|
|South Sudan||yes||yes||yes||yes||yes||no||Residential taxation.|
* except in tax havens, temporarily
|Sri Lanka||yes||yes||yes||yes||yes||no||Residential taxation.|
|Taiwan||yes||yes||yes||yes||yes||no||Territorial taxation in general, but residential taxation under the alternative minimum tax.|
|Trinidad and Tobago||yes||yes||yes||yes||yes||no||Residential taxation.|
* except income not taxed by other countries of employees of Turkish government or companies
|United Kingdom||yes||yes||yes||yes||yes||no||Residential taxation.|
|United States Virgin Islands||yes||yes||yes||yes||yes||no||Residential taxation.|
|Eritrea||yes||yes||yes||no||no||yes||Territorial and citizenship-based taxation. Foreign income of nonresident citizens is taxed at a reduced flat rate.|
|United States (including Guam and the Northern Mariana Islands)||yes||yes||yes||yes||yes||yes||Residential and citizenship-based taxation. Citizens are taxed in the same manner as residents.|
Residential systems face the daunting tasks of defining "resident" and characterizing the income of nonresidents. Such definitions vary by country and type of taxpayer, but usually involve the location of the person's main home and number of days the person is physically present in the country. Examples include:
- The United States taxes its citizens as residents, and provides lengthy, detailed rules for individual residency of foreigners, covering:
- The United Kingdom, prior to 2013, established three categories: non-resident, resident, and resident but not ordinarily resident. From 2013, the categories of resident are limited to non-resident and resident. Residency is established by application of the tests in the Statutory Residency Test.
- Switzerland residency may be established by having a permit to be employed in Switzerland for an individual who is so employed.
Territorial systems usually tax local income regardless of the residence of the taxpayer. The key problem argued for this type of system is the ability to avoid taxation on portable income by moving it outside of the country. This has led governments to enact hybrid systems to recover lost revenue.
- Eritrea taxes its nonresident citizens on their foreign income at a reduced flat rate of 2% (income tax rates for local income are progressive from 2 to 30%). It has been reported that Eritrea enforces this tax on its citizens abroad through denial of passports, denial of entry or exit from the country, confiscation of assets in Eritrea, and even harassment of relatives living in Eritrea, until the tax is paid. In 2011, the United Nations Security Council passed a resolution condemning the collection by illegal means of the Eritrean 'diaspora tax', and in 2013, the Canadian government expelled the Eritrean consul for collecting the tax. The parliaments of Sweden and the Netherlands have also expressed their intention to prohibit the practice there.
- The United States taxes its nonresident citizens on their worldwide income using the same marginal tax rates for both foreign and US-source income. To mitigate double-taxation of the same income, US citizens residing in another country may exclude some of their foreign income from US taxation, and take credit for income tax paid to other countries, but they must file a US tax return to claim the exclusion or credit even if they result in no tax liability. "US persons" abroad, like US residents, are also subject to various reporting requirements regarding foreign finances, such as FBAR, FATCA, and IRS forms 3520, 5471, 8621 and 8938. The penalties for failure to file these forms on time are often much higher than the penalties for not paying the tax itself.
- Like Eritrea, enforcement tactics used by the US government to facilitate tax compliance include the denial of US passports to nonresident US citizens deemed to be delinquent taxpayers and the potential seizure of any US accounts and/or US-based assets. The IRS is also able exert substantial compliance pressure on nonresident citizens as a result of the FATCA legislation passed in 2010, which compels foreign banks to disclose US account holders or face crippling fines on US-related financial transactions. Unlike Eritrea, the US has faced little international backlash related to its global enforcement tactics. For example, unlike their response to Eritrea's collection efforts, Canada, Sweden and the Netherlands have all ratified intergovernmental agreements (IGAs) facilitating FATCA compliance and supporting the US global tax regime in place for US citizens (including dual nationals). The implementation of these IGAs has led to a substantial increase in US citizenship renunciations since 2012, with wait times for renunciation appointments at the US consulate in Toronto exceeding one year as of early 2016.
A few other countries tax based on citizenship in limited situations:
- Finland continues taxing its citizens who move from Finland to another country as residents of Finland, for the first three years after moving there, unless they demonstrate that they no longer have any ties to Finland. After this period, they are no longer considered residents of Finland for tax purposes.
- France taxes its citizens who move to Monaco as residents of France, according to a treaty signed between the two countries in 1963. However, those who already lived in Monaco since 1957, as well as those who were born in Monaco and have always lived there, are not subject to taxation as residents of France. Other than this case, France does not tax the foreign income of its nonresident citizens.
- Hungary taxes its nonresident citizens as residents of Hungary, unless they also have another nationality or reside in a country which has a tax treaty with Hungary.
- Italy continues taxing its citizens who move from Italy to a tax haven as residents of Italy, unless they demonstrate that they no longer have any ties to Italy. Other than this case, Italy does not tax the foreign income of its nonresident citizens.
- Mexico continues taxing its citizens who move from Mexico to a tax haven as residents of Mexico, for the first three years after moving there. After this period, they are no longer considered residents of Mexico for tax purposes.
- Spain continues taxing its citizens who move from Spain to a tax haven as residents of Spain, for the first five years after moving there. After this period, they are no longer considered residents of Spain for tax purposes. Other than this case, Spain does not tax the foreign income of its nonresident citizens.
- Turkey taxes its citizens who are residing abroad to work for the Turkish government or Turkish companies as residents of Turkey, but exempts their income that is already taxed by the country where it is earned. Other than this case, Turkey does not tax the foreign income of its nonresident citizens.
A few other countries used to tax the foreign income of nonresident citizens, but have abolished this practice:
- Romania used to tax the worldwide income of its citizens regardless of where they resided, but abandoned this practice some time between 1933 and 1954.
- Mexico used to tax its citizens in the same manner as residents, on worldwide income. A new income tax law, passed in 1980 and effective 1981, determined only residence as the basis for taxation of worldwide income. However, since 2006 Mexico taxes based on citizenship in limited situations (see above).
- Bulgaria used to tax its citizens on worldwide income regardless of where they resided. A new income tax law, passed in 1997 and effective 1998, determined residence as the basis for taxation of worldwide income.
- The Philippines used to tax the foreign income of nonresident citizens at reduced rates of 1 to 3% (income tax rates for residents were 1 to 35% at the time). It abolished this practice in a new revenue code in 1997, effective 1998.
- Vietnam used to tax its citizens in the same manner as residents, on worldwide income. The country passed a personal income tax law in 2007, effective 2009, removing citizenship as a criterion to determine residence.
- Myanmar used to tax the foreign income of its nonresident citizens at a flat rate of 10% (income tax rates for residents range from 3 to 40%). As part of a series of reforms, the country abolished this practice in 2011, effective 2012.
There are some arrangements for international taxation that are not based on residency or citizenship:
- United Kingdom imposes global income tax on anyone who owes UK student loans. These are not true loans, but borrowings to be repaid through an additional 9% income tax, levied above a certain income threshold, until the balance of the loan expires in 30 years. The interest rate is expressed as a punitive addition to the UK Retail Price Index inflation rate (e.g. RPI + 3%), so the value of the loan cannot be inflated away. The loan cannot be repudiated by declaring bankruptcy. The income tax is imposed irrespective of citizenship or residency, which means the UK HMRC must track the location and income of all loan holders, wherever they are in the world, for several decades.
Countries do not necessarily use the same system of taxation for individuals and corporations. For example, France uses a residential system for individuals but a territorial system for corporations, while Singapore does the opposite, and Brunei taxes corporate but not personal income.
Many systems provide for specific exclusions from taxable (chargeable) income. For example, several countries, notably Cyprus, Luxembourg, Netherlands and Spain, have enacted holding company regimes that exclude from income dividends from certain foreign subsidiaries of corporations. These systems generally impose tax on other sorts of income, such as interest or royalties, from the same subsidiaries. They also typically have requirements for portion and time of ownership in order to qualify for exclusion. The Netherlands offers a "participation exemption" for dividends from subsidiaries of Netherlands companies. Dividends from all Dutch subsidiaries automatically qualify. For other dividends to qualify, the Dutch shareholder or affiliates must own at least 5% and the subsidiary must be subject to a certain level of income tax locally.
Individuals versus enterprises
Many tax systems tax individuals in one manner and entities that are not considered fiscally transparent in another. The differences may be as simple as differences in tax rates, and are often motivated by concerns unique to either individuals or corporations. For example, many systems allow taxable income of an individual to be reduced by a fixed amount allowance for other persons supported by the individual (dependents). Such a concept is not relevant for enterprises.
Many systems allow for fiscal transparency of certain forms of enterprise. For example, most countries tax partners of a partnership, rather than the partnership itself, on income of the partnership. A common feature of income taxation is imposition of a levy on certain enterprises in certain forms followed by an additional levy on owners of the enterprise upon distribution of such income. For example, the U.S. imposes two levels of tax on foreign individuals or foreign corporations who own a U.S. corporation. First, the U.S. corporation is subject to the regular income tax on its profits, then subject to an additional 30% tax on the dividends paid to foreign shareholders (the branch profits tax). The foreign corporation will be subject to U.S. income tax on its effectively connected income, and will also be subject to the branch profits tax on any of its profits not reinvested in the U.S. Thus, many countries tax corporations under company tax rules and tax individual shareholders upon corporate distributions. Various countries have tried (and some still maintain) attempts at partial or full "integration" of the enterprise and owner taxation. Where a two level system is present but allows for fiscal transparency of some entities, definitional issues become very important.
Source of income
Determining the source of income is of critical importance in a territorial system, as source often determines whether or not the income is taxed. For example, Hong Kong does not tax residents on dividend income received from a non-Hong Kong corporation. Source of income is also important in residency systems that grant credits for taxes of other jurisdictions. Such credit is often limited either by jurisdiction or to the local tax on overall income from other jurisdictions.
Source of income is where the income is considered to arise under the relevant tax system. The manner of determining the source of income is generally dependent on the nature of income. Income from the performance of services (e.g., wages) is generally treated as arising where the services are performed. Financing income (e.g., interest, dividends) is generally treated as arising where the user of the financing resides. Income related to use of tangible property (e.g., rents) is generally treated as arising where the property is situated. Income related to use of intangible property (e.g., royalties) is generally treated as arising where the property is used. Gains on sale of realty are generally treated as arising where the property is situated.
Gains from sale of tangible personal property are sourced differently in different jurisdictions. The U.S. treats such gains in three distinct manners: a) gain from sale of purchased inventory is sourced based on where title to the goods passes; b) gain from sale of inventory produced by the person (or certain related persons) is sourced 50% based on title passage and 50% based on location of production and certain assets; c) other gains are sourced based on the residence of the seller.
In specific cases, the tax system may diverge for different categories of individuals. U.S. citizen and resident alien decedents are subject to estate tax on all of their assets, wherever situated. The nonresident aliens are subject to estate tax only on that part of the gross estate which at the time of death is situated in the U.S. Another significant distinction between U.S. citizens/RAs and NRAs is in the exemptions allowed in computing the tax liability.
Where differing characterizations of an item of income can result in differing tax results, it is necessary to determine the characterization. Some systems have rules for resolving characterization issues, but in many cases resolution requires judicial intervention. Note that some systems which allow a credit for foreign taxes source income by reference to foreign law.
Definitions of income
Some jurisdictions tax net income as determined under financial accounting concepts of that jurisdiction, with few, if any, modifications. Other jurisdictions determine taxable income without regard to income reported in financial statements. Some jurisdictions compute taxable income by reference to financial statement income with specific categories of adjustments, which can be significant.
A jurisdiction relying on financial statement income tends to place reliance on the judgment of local accountants for determinations of income under locally accepted accounting principles. Often such jurisdictions have a requirement that financial statements be audited by registered accountants who must opine thereon. Some jurisdictions extend the audit requirements to include opining on such tax issues as transfer pricing. Jurisdictions not relying on financial statement income must attempt to define principles of income and expense recognition, asset cost recovery, matching, and other concepts within the tax law. These definitional issues can become very complex. Some jurisdictions following this approach also require business taxpayers to provide a reconciliation of financial statement and taxable incomes.
Systems that allow a tax deduction of expenses in computing taxable income must provide for rules for allocating such expenses between classes of income. Such classes may be taxable versus non-taxable, or may relate to computations of credits for taxes of other systems (foreign taxes). A system which does not provide such rules is subject to manipulation by potential taxpayers. The manner of allocation of expenses varies. U.S. rules provide for allocation of an expense to a class of income if the expense directly relates to such class, and apportionment of an expense related to multiple classes. Specific rules are provided for certain categories of more fungible expenses, such as interest. By their nature, rules for allocation and apportionment of expenses may become complex. They may incorporate cost accounting or branch accounting principles, or may define new principles.
Most jurisdictions provide that taxable income may be reduced by amounts expended as interest on loans. By contrast, most do not provide tax relief for distributions to owners. Thus, an enterprise is motivated to finance its subsidiary enterprises through loans rather than capital. Many jurisdictions have adopted "thin capitalization" rules to limit such charges. Various approaches include limiting deductibility of interest expense to a portion of cash flow, disallowing interest expense on debt in excess of a certain ratio, and other mechanisms.
The organization or reorganization of portions of a multinational enterprise often gives rise to events that, absent rules to the contrary, may be taxable in a particular system. Most systems contain rules preventing recognition of income or loss from certain types of such events. In the simplest form, contribution of business assets to a subsidiary enterprise may, in certain circumstances, be treated as a nontaxable event. Rules on structuring and restructuring tend to be highly complex.
Credits for taxes of other jurisdictions
Systems that tax income earned outside the system's jurisdiction tend to provide for a unilateral credit or offset for taxes paid to other jurisdictions. Such other jurisdiction taxes are generally referred to within the system as "foreign" taxes. Tax treaties often require this credit. A credit for foreign taxes is subject to manipulation by planners if there are no limits, or weak limits, on such credit. Generally, the credit is at least limited to the tax within the system that the taxpayer would pay on income earned outside the jurisdiction. The credit may be limited by category of income, by other jurisdiction or country, based on an effective tax rate, or otherwise. Where the foreign tax credit is limited, such limitation may involve computation of taxable income from other jurisdictions. Such computations tend to rely heavily on the source of income and allocation of expense rules of the system.
Many jurisdictions require persons paying amounts to nonresidents to collect tax due from a nonresident with respect to certain income by withholding such tax from such payments and remitting the tax to the government. Such levies are generally referred to as withholding taxes. These requirements are induced because of potential difficulties in collection of the tax from nonresidents. Withholding taxes are often imposed at rates differing from the prevailing income tax rates. Further, the rate of withholding may vary by type of income or type of recipient. Generally, withholding taxes are reduced or eliminated under income tax treaties (see below). Generally, withholding taxes are imposed on the gross amount of income, unreduced by expenses. Such taxation provides for great simplicity of administration but can also reduce the taxpayer's awareness of the amount of tax being collected.
Tax treaties exist between many countries on a bilateral basis to prevent double taxation (taxes levied twice on the same income, profit, capital gain, inheritance or other item). In some countries they are also known as double taxation agreements, double tax treaties, or tax information exchange agreements (TIEA).
Most developed countries have a large number of tax treaties, while developing countries are less well represented in the worldwide tax treaty network. The United Kingdom has treaties with more than 110 countries and territories. The United States has treaties with 56 countries (as of February 2007). Tax treaties tend not to exist, or to be of limited application, when either party regards the other as a tax haven. There are a number of model tax treaties published by various national and international bodies, such as the United Nations and the OECD.
Treaties tend to provide reduced rates of taxation on dividends, interest, and royalties. They tend to impose limits on each treaty country in taxing business profits, permitting taxation only in the presence of a permanent establishment in the country. Treaties tend to impose limits on taxation of salaries and other income for performance of services. They also tend to have "tie breaker" clauses for resolving conflicts between residency rules. Nearly all treaties have at least skeletal mechanisms for resolving disputes, generally negotiated between the "competent authority" section of each country's taxing authority.
Residency systems may provide that residents are not subject to tax on income outside the jurisdiction until that income is remitted to the jurisdiction. Taxpayers in such systems have significant incentives to shift income outside its borders. Depending on the rules of the system, the shifting may occur by changing the location of activities generating income or by shifting income to separate enterprises owned by the taxpayer. Most residency systems have avoided rules which permit deferring income from outside its borders without shifting it to a subsidiary enterprise due to the potential for manipulation of such rules. Where owners of an enterprise are taxed separately from the enterprise, portable income may be shifted from a taxpayer to a subsidiary enterprise to accomplish deferral or elimination of tax. Such systems tend to have rules to limit such deferral through controlled foreign corporations. Several different approaches have been used by countries for their anti-deferral rules.
In the United States, rules provides that U.S. shareholders of a Controlled Foreign Corporation (CFC) must include their shares of income or investment of E&P by the CFC in U.S. property. U.S. shareholders are U.S. persons owning 10% or more (after the application of complex attribution of ownership rules) of a foreign corporation. Such persons may include individuals, corporations, partnerships, trusts, estates, and other juridical persons. A CFC is a foreign corporation more than 50% owned by U.S. shareholders. This income includes several categories of portable income, including most investment income, certain resale income, and certain services income. Certain exceptions apply, including the exclusion from Subpart F income of CFC income subject to an effective foreign tax rate of 90% or more of the top U.S. tax rate.
The United Kingdom provides that a UK company is taxed currently on the income of its controlled subsidiary companies managed and controlled outside the UK which are subject to "low" foreign taxes. Low tax is determined as actual tax of less than three-fourths of the corresponding UK tax that would be due on the income determined under UK principles. Complexities arise in computing the corresponding UK tax. Further, there are certain exceptions which may permit deferral, including a "white list" of permitted countries and a 90% earnings distribution policy of the controlled company. Further, anti-deferral does not apply where there is no tax avoidance motive.
Rules in Germany provide that a German individual or company shareholder of a foreign corporation may be subject to current German tax on certain passive income earned by the foreign corporation. This provision applies if the foreign corporation is taxed at less than 25% of the passive income, as defined. Japan and some other countries have followed a "black list" approach, where income of subsidiaries in countries identified as tax havens is subject to current tax to the shareholder. Sweden has adopted a "white list" of countries in which subsidiaries may be organized so that the shareholder is not subject to current tax.
The setting of the amount of related party charges is commonly referred to as transfer pricing. Many jurisdictions have become sensitive to the potential for shifting profits with transfer pricing, and have adopted rules regulating setting or testing of prices or allowance of deductions or inclusion of income for related party transactions. Many jurisdictions have adopted broadly similar transfer pricing rules. The OECD has adopted (subject to specific country reservations) fairly comprehensive guidelines. These guidelines have been adopted with little modification by many countries. Notably, the U.S. and Canada have adopted rules which depart in some material respects from OECD guidelines, generally by providing more detailed rules.
Arm's length principle: It is a key concept of most transfer pricing rules, that prices charged between related enterprises should be those which would be charged between unrelated parties dealing at arm's length. Most sets of rules prescribe methods for testing whether prices charged should be considered to meet this standard. Such rules generally involve comparison of related party transactions to similar transactions of unrelated parties (comparable prices or transactions). Various surrogates for such transactions may be allowed. Most guidelines allow the following methods for testing prices: Comparable uncontrolled transaction prices, resale prices based on comparable markups, cost plus a markup, and an enterprise profitability method.
Tax avoidance schemes may take advantage of low or no-income tax countries known as tax havens. Corporations may choose to move their headquarters to a country with more favorable tax environments. In countries where movement has been restricted by legislation, it might be necessary to reincorporate into a low-tax company through reversing a merger with a foreign corporation ("inversion" similar to a reverse merger). In addition, transfer pricing may allow for "earnings stripping" as profits are attributed to subsidiaries in low-tax countries.
- New residents of Saint Barthelemy are considered residents of France for tax purposes, for the first five years after moving there. After this period, they become residents of Saint Barthelemy for tax purposes.
- Saudi Arabia taxes nonresidents, as well as residents who are not citizens of the countries in the Gulf Cooperation Council (Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates), only on their local income. Residents of Saudi Arabia who are citizens of these countries do not pay income tax, but pay mandatory zakat instead, calculated on their worldwide assets and some kinds of income.
- Puerto Rico does not tax foreign income of nonresident citizens. However, Puerto Rican citizens are also United States citizens, and the United States taxes their worldwide income regardless of where they live.
- Residents of France who move to Saint Martin are not considered residents of Saint Martin for tax purposes, and continue to be taxed as residents of France, for the first five years after moving there. After this period, they become residents of Saint Martin for tax purposes.
- The United States Virgin Islands do not tax foreign income of nonresident citizens. However, citizens of the United States Virgin Islands are also United States citizens, and the United States taxes their worldwide income regardless of where they live.
- Guam and the Northern Mariana Islands use the same income tax code as the United States, but each territory administers it separately. In the case of nonresident citizens, individuals who acquired United States citizenship by a connection to Guam or the Northern Mariana Islands are taxed by the respective territory, instead of by the United States.
- As of 2016, Hungary has tax treaties with the following countries and territories: Albania, Armenia, Australia, Austria, Azerbaijan, Bahrain, Belarus, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Brazil, Bulgaria, Canada, China, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Egypt, Estonia, Finland, France, Georgia, Germany, Greece, Hong Kong, Iceland, India, Indonesia, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Japan, Kazakhstan, Kosovo, Kuwait, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Macedonia, Malaysia, Malta, Mexico, Moldova, Mongolia, Montenegro, Morocco, Netherlands, Norway, Pakistan, Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Qatar, Romania, Russia, San Marino, Saudi Arabia, Serbia, Singapore, Slovakia, Slovenia, South Africa, South Korea, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Taiwan, Thailand, Tunisia, Turkey, Ukraine, United Arab Emirates, United Kingdom, United States, Uruguay, Uzbekistan, Vietnam.
- As of 2014, the following countries and territories are considered tax havens by Italy: Andorra, Anguilla, Antigua and Barbuda, Aruba, Bahamas, Bahrain, Barbados, Belize, Bermuda, British Virgin Islands, Brunei, Cayman Islands, Cook Islands, Costa Rica, Djibouti, Dominica, Ecuador, French Polynesia, Gibraltar, Grenada, Guernsey (including Alderney and Sark), Hong Kong, Isle of Man, Jersey, Lebanon, Liberia, Liechtenstein, Macau, Malaysia, Maldives, Marshall Islands, Mauritius, Monaco, Montserrat, Nauru, Netherlands Antilles (Bonaire, Curaçao, Saba, Sint Eustatius, Sint Maarten), Niue, Oman, Panama, Philippines, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Samoa, Seychelles, Singapore, Switzerland, Taiwan, Tonga, Turks and Caicos Islands, Tuvalu, United Arab Emirates, Uruguay, Vanuatu.
- This provision applies to income whose tax in the new country of residence is lower than 75% of the tax that the person would have paid as a resident of Mexico. However, the provision does not apply if the country has a treaty to share tax information with Mexico.
- As of 2016, the following countries and territories are considered tax havens by Spain: Anguilla, Antigua and Barbuda, Bahrain, Bermuda, British Virgin Islands, Brunei, Cayman Islands, Cook Islands, Dominica, Falkland Islands, Fiji, Gibraltar, Grenada, Guernsey, Isle of Man, Jersey, Jordan, Lebanon, Liberia, Liechtenstein, Macau, Mauritius, Monaco, Montserrat, Nauru, Northern Mariana Islands, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Seychelles, Solomon Islands, Turks and Caicos Islands, United States Virgin Islands, Vanuatu.
- E.g., the U.S. taxes corporations on their income and their shareholders on dividends distributed from the corporation. See U.S. IRC sections 11, 1, and 61.
- U.S. Internal Revenue Service (U.S. IRS) Reg. (hereafter 26 CFR) §§301.7701-2 and -3.
- The 2011 global executive, Ernst & Young, August 2011.
- Monaco Tax Rates, TaxRates.cc.
- Expat Nauru, Expat Intelligence.
- Pitcairn Today, OnlinePitcairn.com.
- A French island without taxes, Le Monde diplomatique, January 2006. (French)
- Individuals whose residence for tax purposes is outside France, Fiscal Administration of France, 2013. (French)
- Code of Contributions of Saint Barthelemy, Collectivity of Saint Barthelemy, January 15, 2014. (French)
- St. Kitts and Nevis Personal Taxation, Lowtax.
- Somalia, Franklin Amoo.
- Turks and Caicos Tax Rates, TaxRates.cc.
- Vanuatu Tax Rates, TaxRates.cc.
- Vatican City: Fun Facts, Information, and Resources, The Free Resource.
- The rip-off of the century in Wallis and Futuna, ActuFinance. (French)
- Moroccan Sahara, that tax haven, Omar El Hyani. (French)
- Interim Stabilisation Levy Act, Government of Anguilla, March 7, 2011.
- Income and Business Tax Act, Income Tax Department of Belize.
- Response by Belize, Organization of American States.
- Personal Income Tax Guide Book, Department of Revenue and Customs of Bhutan.
- General Code of Taxes 2011, Ministry of Economy and Finances of Djibouti. (French)
- French Polynesia Tax Rates, TaxRates.cc.
- Income Tax Act 1989, Pacific Islands Legal Information Institute.
- Code of the Federated States of Micronesia, Legal Information System of the Federated States of Micronesia.
- Palau National Code, Government of Palau.
- Income Tax Ordinance, Government of Saint Helena.
- Income Tax Ordinance, Government of Ascension Island.
- The Body of Laws on Direct Taxation, Republic of Somaliland.
- Income Tax Rules 1997, Pacific Islands Legal Information Institute.
- Income Tax Act 1992, Pacific Islands Legal Information Institute.
- General description of taxes applied in Cuba, Inter-American Center of Tax Administrations, August 1, 2004. (Spanish)
- Study on labor and fiscal regulation for individuals in Cuba, Economic and Social Office of Spain in Cuba, May 2010. (Spanish)
- Enforcement Regulations for Foreign-Invested Business and Foreign Individual Tax Law, World Intellectual Property Organization.
- Tax? What Tax? The North Korean Taxation Farce, Yoo Gwan Hee, 2008.
- Law on the income tax on individuals, RN-Shelf Abkhazia, August 17, 2011. (Russian)
- The Income Tax Ordinance 2003, Sovereign Base Areas Administration, July 7, 2003.
- Algeria Tax Rates, TaxRates.cc.
- Filing Information for Individuals in Certain U.S. Possessions, Internal Revenue Service.
- Individual income tax, Government of Andorra. (Catalan)
- Antigua and Barbuda Tax Rates, TaxRates.cc.
- Taxation Options for Norfolk Island, Australian Department of the Treasury, 2003.
- Norfolk Island Reforms
- International tax - Bangladesh Highlights 2012, Deloitte.
- Benin Tax Rates, TaxRates.cc.
- Bosnia and Herzegovina Tax Rates, TaxRates.cc.
- Burkina Faso tax highlights, PricewaterhouseCoopers, June 2012.
- General code of taxes and fees, Ministry of Finances of Burundi, January 1, 2006. (French)
- Fiscal Guide, Ministry of Finances of Cape Verde. (Portuguese)
- Report on internship at DRIDCNNE, Odilon Wakanga, 2009. (French)
- General tax code, Ministry of Finances of Chad, August 14, 2006. (French)
- China Wants Taxes Paid by Citizens Living Afar, New York Times, January 7, 2015.
- General tax code, Comores-droit.com. (French)
- Taxation, Business Trade Investment Board of the Cook Islands.
- Income Tax Act, Government of the Commonwealth of Dominica.
- A guide for income taxpayers, Ministry of Finance of East Timor, June 30, 1905.
- Employment and Taxation, Falkland Islands Government.
- General information about income tax in the Faroe Islands, TAKS.
- Åland residents get most state money per capita, Helsingin Sanomat.
- Gambia Tax Rates, TaxRates.cc.
- Income Tax Office, Government of Gibraltar.
- General information about income tax in Greenland, Nordisk eTax.
- Grenada Tax Rates, TaxRates.cc.
- Convention between the Portuguese Republic and the Republic of Guinea-Bissau to avoid double taxation in the matter of income taxes and to prevent tax evasion, Assembly of Portugal. (Portuguese)
- Guyana Tax Rates, TaxRates.cc.
- Income tax, Ministry of Economy and Finances of Haiti. (French)
- Iran Tax Rates, TaxRates.cc.
- Income Tax Act 1990, Pacific Islands Legal Information Institute.
- Law on personal income tax, Assembly of Kosovo.
- What should a foreigner know about Kyrgyzstan's tax system, The Times of Central Asia.
- Revenue Code of Liberia Act of 2000, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Liberia, August 2002.
- General tax code, Chamber of Commerce and Industry of Mali, July 1999.(French)
- Personal Income Tax of Mongolia, China Radio International, August 26, 2008.
- Income Tax Act, Inland Revenue Department of Montserrat, January 1, 2002.
- Myanmar Tax Rates, TaxRates.cc.
- Summary of taxes, State Tax Service of the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic, 2010. (Armenian)
- Income Tax Act 2002 – Handbook, Inland Revenue Department of Nepal.
- Tax code of New Caledonia, Juridical documentation of New Caledonia. (French)
- International tax - Niger Highlights 2012, Deloitte.
- Income Tax Act 1961, Pacific Islands Legal Information Institute.
- Income Tax Act, Ministry of Finance, Revenue and Tax Administration of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, 2010. (Turkish)
- Know Your Taxes, Inland Revenue Department of Saint Lucia.
- General tax code of the Collectivity of Saint Martin, Collectivity of Saint Martin, January 1, 2012. (French)
- General code of territorial collectivities, Legifrance, July 26, 2012. (French)
- Instructions to fill in your tax return, Administration of Fiscal Services of Saint Pierre and Miquelon. (French)
- St. Vincent and the Grenadines: Offshore Structures and Onshore Tax and Residency Laws, Offshore Investment.
- Income Tax Act 1974, Pacific Islands Legal Information Institute.
- General income tax, Grand and General Council of San Marino, 16 December 2013. (Italian)
- Code of personal income tax, Ministry of Planning and Finances of São Tomé and Príncipe, October 8, 2009. (Portuguese)
- Sierra Leone Tax Rates, TaxRates.cc.
- 2008 Income Tax Guide, Inland Revenue Division of the Solomon Islands.
- Law on the income tax on individuals, Committee on Taxes and Duties of the Republic of South Ossetia. (Russian)
- International tax - South Sudan Highlights 2012, Deloitte.
- International tax - Sudan Highlights 2012, Deloitte.
- Personal, Tax Service of Suriname. (Dutch)
- Law on tax in Svalbard, Lovdata, August 10, 2012. (Norwegian)
- Tax Code of the Republic of Tajikistan, State Committee on Investments and State Property Management of the Republic of Tajikistan.
- Tax assessment, liquidation and control, eRegulations Togo. (French)
- Income Tax Act, Pacific Islands Legal Information Institute.
- Law on the income tax on individuals, Law of Pridnestrovian Moldavian Republic, September 30, 2000. (Russian)
- Income Tax Law, Turkish Tax Law.
- Lega and tax aspects of doing business in Turkmenistan 2009, Central Asia Business Consultants, August 13, 2009.
- Yemen Tax Rates, TaxRates.cc.
- A proclamation to provide for payment of income tax, Economic and Commercial Counsellor's Office of the Embassy of the People's Republic of China in Eritrea, July 24, 2008.
- State of Eritrea Tax Summary, PricewaterhouseCoopers, 2014.
- Eritrea: Selected Issues and Statistical Appendix, International Monetary Fund, July 2003.
- See, e.g., "Tax Information for Visitors to the United States", Publication 513 (annual), Internal Revenue Service, U.S. Department of Treasury, page 2.
- See, e.g., "Residents and non-residents", IR20, Inland Revenue, HMRC, page 6 et seq.
- "RDR3: Statutory Residence Test - Publications - GOV.UK". www.gov.uk. Retrieved 2016-02-18.
- Switzerland requires a work permit to be employed in Switzerland. A person working in Switzerland for more than 30 days may be a resident. See http://www.taxation.ch/index.cfm/fuseaction/show/temp/default/path/1-534.htm
- Tax History: Why U.S. Pursues Citizens Overseas, Wall Street Journal, May 18, 2012.
- Canadian banks to be compelled to share clients' info with U.S., CBC News, November 25, 2013.
- A form of extortion – Eritrea's 2% Diaspora tax, Daniel Berhane, November 20, 2011.
- Security Council, by Vote of 13 in Favour, Adopts Resolution Reinforcing Sanctions Regime against Eritrea 'Calibrated' to Halt All Activities Destabilizing Region, United Nations, December 5, 2011.
- Canada expels Eritrea envoy over expat fees claims, BBC, May 29, 2013.
- Riksdag wants to halt Eritrean exile taxes, The Local, February 24, 2012.
- Parliament wants to tackle Eritrea's long arm, De Telegraaf, 29 June 2016. (Dutch)
- Information for U.S. Citizens or Dual Citizens Residing Outside the U.S., Retrieved November 28, 2013
- Despite FATCA, FBAR Penalties Still Under Fire Forbes, March 12, 2012.
- FBARs & FATCA Form 8938: Maddening Duplication?, Forbes, April 10, 2012.
- FBAR Penalties: When Will IRS Let You Off With A Warning?, Forbes, June 4, 2012.
- Delays, costs mount for Canadians renouncing U.S. citizenship, The Globe and Mail, 9 February 2016.
- Finnish citizens and the 3-year rule, Finnish Tax Administration.
- Article Monaco Matin of April 18, 2014, on the subject of ruling no. 362237 of the Conseil d'État, Union des Français de l'Etranger, 18 April 2014. (French)
- Response regarding the certificate of domicile, General Administration of Public Finances of France, 16 April 2015. (French)
- Individual taxation of foreign-source income and social contribution obligations, National Tax and Customs Administration of Hungary, 2012. (Hungarian)
- Hungary Now Imposes Tax on Non-Resident Citizens, The Nestmann Group, October 2, 2012.
- Information to taxpayers about tax treaties taking effect in Hungary on 1 January 2016, National Tax and Customs Administration of Hungary, 5 January 2016. (Hungarian)
- Identification of states and territories with a privileged tax regime, Italian Agency of Revenue, 24 February 2014. (Italian)
- International taxation, Revenue Agency of Italy. (Italian)
- Income Tax Law, Chamber of Deputies of Mexico, effective 18 November 2015. (Spanish)
- Tax Code of the Federation, Chamber of Deputies of Mexico, effective 12 January 2016. (Spanish)
- Taxation of nonresidents, Tax Agency of Spain, 27 January 2016. (Spanish)
- Law no. 88/1933 for the unification of direct contributions and for the establishment of tax on global income, Lege5. (Romanian)
- Decree no. 153 of 11 May 1954 regarding the tax on income of the population, Chamber of Deputies of Romania. (Romanian)
- The income tax on resident individuals, in Mexico and Spain (generalities), National Autonomous University of Mexico. (Spanish)
- Decree to reform, add, repeal and establish various provisions of the Tax Code of the Federation, of the Income Tax Law, of the Value-Added Tax Law and of the Law of the Special Tax on Production and Services, Chamber of Deputies of Mexico, 28 June 2006. (Spanish)
- Personal income tax act, United Nations Public Administration Network.
- Law of income taxes on natural persons, Constitutional Court of Bulgaria. (Bulgarian)
- An act amending certain provisions of the National Internal Revenue Code of 1977 as amended, and for other purposes, PhilippineLaw.info.
- National Internal Revenue Code, Bureau of Internal Revenue of the Philippines.
- Vietnam: Law on Personal Income Tax, Library of Congress.
- Burmese Abroad Welcome Tax Break, but More Reforms Needed, Myanmar News Linking Site, January 10, 2012.
- International tax - France Highlights 2012, Deloitte.
- International tax - Singapore Highlights 2012, Deloitte.
- International tax - Brunei Darussalam Highlights 2012, Deloitte.
- The rules have changed over the years. For a good explanation of the 2006 changes by a major UK law firm, see http://www.freshfields.com/publications/pdfs/2006/corp-tax-reform.pdf.
- "What is taxable income", Inland Revenue Authority of Singapore.
- The U.S. taxes businesses generally at rates from 15% to 35%. However, the graduated rates for individuals are different from those for corporations. United States Code Title 26 sections 1 and 11, hereafter 26 USC 1 and 11
- E.g., 26 USC 701, et seq.
- Supra. 26 USC 861(a)(3)
- 26 USC 861(a)(1) and (2) and 862(a)(1) and (2), supra.
- U.S. IRC sections 861(a)(4) and 862(a)(4), supra.
- 26 USC 861(a)(6) and 862(a)(6), supra.)
- 26 USC 863(b).
- 26 USC 865(a). (other examples needed)
- Robert F. Klueger (2012). "Overview of International Estate Planning" (PDF). Valley Lawyer. Retrieved June 26, 2014.
- See, e.g., Pierre Boulez, in which a U.S. court determined that income received by a performer relating to sale of recordings of a musical performance was sourced to where such recordings were purchased by consumers.
- See, e.g., India’s rules
- The U.S. and many of its states define taxable income independently of financial statement income, but require reconciliation of the two. See, e.g., California Revenue and Taxation Code sections 17071 et seq.
- "www.cra-arc.gc.ca/E/pbg/tf/t2sch1/t2sch1-08e.pdf" (PDF).
- "Auditors - GBA4".
- U.S. IRS Form 1120 Schedule M-3; Canadian CRA Form T-2 Schedule 1
- U.S. regulations under 26 CFR 1.861-8, et seq. at (hereafter U.S. regulations §)
- Contrast to "integrated" systems providing a credit to enterprise owners for a portion of enterprise level taxation.
- 26 USC 163(j) and long proposed regulations thereunder
- 26 USC 351.
- E.g., Egypt limits the credit to the Egyptian income tax "that may have been payable with respect to profits from works performed abroad," but without a thorough definition of terms. Article (54).
- U.S. rules limit the credit by categories based on the nature of the income. 26 USC 904. For 20 years prior to changes first effective in 2007, there were at least nine such categories. These included, e.g., financial services income, high-taxed income, other passive income, and other (operating or general) income. UK rules provide for separate limitations based on the schedule of income on which UK tax is computed. Thus, credits were separately limited for salaries versus dividends and interest.
- E.g., under U.S. rules, the credit is limited to U.S. tax on foreign source taxable income for a particular category. The rules for determining source for taxation of foreign persons (sections 861-865) apply in computing such credit, and detailed rules are provided in regulations (above) for allocating and apportioning expenses to such income.
- Materials from one major accounting firm provide a table of over sixty such countries. Such table is not comprehensive.
- E.g., Australia imposes a 10% withholding tax rate on interest, subject to treaty reduction.
- E.g., Thailand taxes dividends at 10% and interest at 15%.
- E.g., Italy taxes dividends paid to nonresidents having voting rights in the company paying the dividends at 27% but taxes dividends paid to nonresidents not having such rights at 12.5%.
- See, e.g., 26 USC 871, 881, and 1441.
- "History of the U.S. Tax System". U.S. Department of Treasury. Retrieved 2006-10-31.
- Shafik Hebous (2011) "Money at the Docks of Tax Havens: A Guide", CESifo Working Paper Series No. 3587, p. 9
- Christians, Allison (April 2005). "Tax Treaties for Investment and Aid to Sub-Saharan Africa: A Case Study". Northwestern Public Law Research Paper No. 05-10; Northwestern Law & Econ Research Paper No. 05-15.
- "Model Tax Convention on Income and on Capital 2014". OECD. October 30, 2015. Retrieved 2016-08-15.
- Permanent establishment is defined under most treaties using language identical to the OECD model. Generally, a permanent establishment is any fixed place of business, including an office, warehouse, etc.
- See, for example, Singapore's provision that income from outside its borders is not taxed until brought onshore.
- Anti-deferral and other shifting measures have also been combatted by granting broad powers to revenue authorities under "general anti-avoidance" provisions. See a discussion of Canadian GAAR a CTF article.
- Subpart F (sections 951-964)
- Part XVII of Chapter IV ICTA 1988
- "Transfer Pricing Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises and Tax Administrations".
- E.g., UK ICTA Section 28AA and guidelines thereunder
- U.S. Department of the Treasury. (2007). Earnings Stripping, Transfer Pricing and U.S. Income Tax Treaties.
- Malherbe, Philippe, Elements of International Income Taxation,Bruylant (2015)
- Thuronyi, Victor, Kim Brooks, and Borbala Kolozs, Comparative Tax Law, Wolters Kluwer Publishers (2d ed. 2016)
- Lymer, Andrew and Hasseldine, John, eds., The International Taxation System, Kluwer Academic Publishers (2002)
- Kuntz, Joel D. and Peroni, Robert J.; U.S. International Taxation
- International Bureau of Fiscal Documentation offers subscription services detailing taxation systems of most countries, as well as comprehensive tax treaties, in multiple languages. Also available and searchable by subscription through Thomson subsidiaries.
- CCH offers shorter descriptions for fewer countries (at a lower fee) as well as certain computational tools.
- At least six international accounting firms (BDO, Deloitte, Ernst & Young, Grant Thornton, KPMG, and PriceWaterhouseCoopers) and several law firms have individual country and multi-country guides available, often to non-clients. See the in-country web sites for each for contact information.
- Hong Kong IRD
- India Income Tax Department
- UK HM Revenue & Customs (formerly Inland Revenue)
- UK International Manual (non-technical guidance)
- U.S. law by code section
- U.S. regs
- USTC post-94 decisions
- USSC cases 1937-1975
- OECD - Centre for Tax Policy and Administration
- United Nations Taxation Committee


text:
Join us for the online launch of A Kaleidoscope of Stories, Muslim Voices in Contemporary Poetry on Sunday, January 31st at 11am PST/7pm GMT.
It promises to be a thought provoking and spellbinding evening of verse, exploring topics of love, loss, identity and faith. Immerse yourself in the poetic world view of contemporary Muslim poets.
FREE. The event will be live-streamed on the GAMA Facebook page. https://www.facebook.com/theGAMACollective. Even if you don’t have a Facebook account you should be able to view the live-stream.
We look forward to seeing you there!
Meet Your Hosts
Reviews of A Kaleidoscope of Stories – Muslim Voices in Contemporary Poetry
‘A Kaleidoscope of Stories is a volume to celebrate in the world of poetry. Never before have so many Muslim voices in contemporary poetry been collected in the same place. It’s a powerful contribution to the poetry scene.’
Founder of the Forward Prizes for Poetry and National Poetry Day and author of The Poetry Pharmacy
‘A Kaleidoscope of Stories takes you on a journey of contemporary voices of emerging experiences, reflections and musings, primarily from a Western Muslim perspective. There are the voices of wisdom such as the late Abdal-Hayy Moore and Abdalhamid Evans and the more youthful Raqaya Esime Fetuga. Then there are those who travel the tightrope of diversity, difference and change, and of course many of the poems reflect the deeply felt spiritual journeys that come both with elation, longing and even pain… This collection is about the here and now, the people who have followed the same paths as you, who struggle with the same struggles and who have opened their hearts in verse. I think the variety of experiences reflected in the collection will appeal to different moods and will resonate in particular with those, like me, who are not so able to put similar feelings down on paper… As my late husband would often say those that we consider to be classical writers today such as the Shakespeares and the John Donnes or the Hafiz and Rumi were in their day contemporaries of their time, space and context writing what they saw, felt and experienced. The future classical poets, writers and Muslim commentators are emerging right now and it is so exciting to witness it.’
– Humera Khan
‘This 532 page anthology is comprised of poems from 80 mostly contemporary Muslim poets writing in English and from a few pioneers who have left this transitory realm, such as our dear brother, Daniel Abd al-Hayy Moore رحمه الله. One of the ground-breaking features of this unique anthology is that about half of its contributors are women … This should be among the required texts for classes in contemporary Islam and transnational literature.’
– Dr. Alan ʿAbd al-Haqq Godlas, Associate Professor of Religion, University of Georgia
‘The editors of this edition, and the poets within its pages, are to be commended for allowing those of us whose tongue is English to receive a drink from the cup of unity and eternal love.’
– Baraka Blue, Poet, Director of Rumi Center for Spirituality and the Arts
Find out more about this exciting new anthology here:

domain: library


text:
The Best Stem Cell Therapy Near Cascade Locks OR 97014
Stem cell treatment has become a popular dispute in the worldwide medical scene. This highly questionable therapy has actually received combined viewpoints from various stakeholders in the health care industry and has also brought in the interest of politicians, religious leaders and the basic population at large. Stem cell therapy is considered an innovative treatment for individuals experiencing a wide range of degenerative conditions. Some typical concerns regarding this therapy are responded to listed below.
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Stem cells can be referred to as ‘blank state’ or non-specialized cells that have the capability to become specialized cells in the body such as bone, muscle, nerve or organ cells. This implies that these special cells can be utilized to restore or establish a wide variety of broken cells and tissues in the body. Stem cell therapy is for that reason a treatment that focuses on attaining tissue regeneration and can be used to cure health conditions and diseases such as osteoarthritis, degenerative disc disease, spinal cord injury, muscular degeneration, motor neuron disease, ALS, Parkinson’s, cardiovascular disease and many more.
Stem Cell Research
Being a treatment that is still under research study, stem cell therapy has not been totally accepted as a feasible treatment alternative for the above pointed out health conditions and health problems. A lot of research study is presently being carried out by scientists and medical experts in different parts of the world to make this treatment viable and effective. There are however numerous restrictions enforced by governments on research study involving embryonic stem cells.
Threats Connected with This Treatment
Presently, there have not been many case studies performed for this type of treatment. However, with the few case studies that have been performed, one of the significant concerns that has actually been raised is the boost in a patient’s risk of establishing cancer. Cancer is caused by the fast reproduction of cells that have a tendency not to die so quickly. Stem cells have actually been associated with comparable development elements that may cause development of growths and other cancerous cells in patients.
Contact us for more information about stem cell therapy close to Cascade Locks OR 97014
Types of Stem Cells
Stem cells can be extracted from a young embryo after conception. These stem cells are commonly referred to as embryonic stem cells. After the stem cells are extracted from the embryo, the embryo is terminated. This is essentially among the significant reasons for debate in the field of stem cell research. Many individuals argue that termination of an embryo is dishonest and unacceptable.
New research study has actually however shown promise as scientists aim at developing stem cells that do not form into growths in later treatment stages. These stem cells can therefore effectively change into other kinds of specialized cells. This treatment is therefore worth researching into as numerous clients can benefit from this innovative treatment.
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domain: medical


text:
Energy and Environment:
The Department of Energy is adopting more stringent energy conservation standards for electric power distribution transformers.
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is withdrawing a February rule that excluded a compound from the definition of volatile organic compounds.
The EPA is also proposing to require that manufacturers, importers and processors of eight chemical substances notify the agency before the chemical is used for a new activity.
The Farm Credit Administration is adopting a regulation to strengthen the system's banks' liquidity.

domain: chemistry


text:
Visas and immigration
I want to do my subclass 186 ENS application as a DRC.
I am in Australia, on a 457, working for the employer who is sponsoring me. I am from the US, which is classified as a low-risk country.
Reality: I must pay all expenses, both employer and employee side. I don't have much spare cash...

domain: law


text:
A TRAFFIC warden who gave a police car a ticket for overstaying at a seafront car park was applauded by dozens of onlookers.Stunned passers-by looked on in amazement as the South Yorkshire Police vehicle was issued with a penalty notice at West Pier in Scarborough, North Yorkshire.Artist Graham Rhodes said there were cheers and clapping when the warden – after some hesitation – eventually booked the vehicle on Thursday afternoon.He said it was unclear why the officers had failed to return before their time was up.Graham, 65, said: “It felt like I was witnessing karma in action. It was a really odd situation where people weren’t sure whose side they were on.”I could see the warden thinking about it from outside the front of my shop. He made a couple of calls and was clearly checking something on his phone.”He actually went away and booked a couple of other cars while he figured out what to do.”There was a bit of a crowd gathering so I went down for a closer look. When he finally issued the ticket there was a round of applause.”I think people were just pleased to see that the rules were applied equally to the police… Read full this story
- Dubai police tease they will add Tesla's new Cybertruck to their fleet of cars in 2020
- Google Will Now Tell You When Its Driverless Cars Crash
- Is this the dimmest driver yet? Motorist runs a red light… while overtaking a police car
- Police explain why they seized cars in 'Prophet' Owuor convoy
- On Discord With the Boys Scalping Harry Styles Tickets
- Vargas Plateau in Fremont opening at last as East Bay park
- London Bridge: Workers run away in tears as police tackling knifeman scream 'get back'
- Volkswagen Announces 4 Year Standard Warranty, RSA And Reduced Service Cost Across All Cars In India
- Is the End of the Year Really a Good Time to Buy a Car?
- Massive compulsory car recall to hit Australia
Moment traffic warden gives a ticket to a police car after it overstayed in car park have 324 words, post on www.thesun.co.uk at May 24, 2016. This is cached page on Drudgereport. If you want remove this page, please contact us.

domain: news


text:
The company has announced its decision to lay off workers globally, affecting several PlayStation studios.
Sony Interactive Entertainment LLC (SIE) has announced today that the company has decided to lay off around 900 employees, around 8% of the company’s global workforce. Sony’s layoffs are the latest wave that has impacted the gaming and tech industries throughout 2024, after Riot Games and Microsoft.
Jim Ryan, President & CEO of Sony Interactive Entertainment, announced the news earlier today and shared the email sent to the employees. According to Jim Ryan’s announcements, several PlayStation studios will be affected, and employees across America, EMEA, Japan, and APAC will be severely impacted.
PlayStation Cuts Off 8% Workforce Globally
On February 27, 2024, Jim Ryan emailed PlayStation employees that the company had decided to reduce the workforce. In addition, Ryan also shared the news on Sony Interactive Entertainment’s website.
The PlayStation community means everything to us, so I felt it was important to update you on a difficult day at our company. We have made the extremely hard decision to announce our plan to commence a reduction of our overall headcount globally by about 8% or about 900 people, subject to local law and consultation processes. Employees across the globe, including our studios, are impacted.
These are incredibly talented people who have been part of our success, and we are very grateful for their contributions. However, the industry has changed immensely, and we need to future ready ourselves to set the business up for what lies ahead. We need to deliver on expectations from developers and gamers and continue to propel future technology in gaming, so we took a step back to ensure we are set up to continue bringing the best gaming experiences to the community.
Jim Ryan, President & CEO of Sony Interactive Entertainment
Several PlayStation studios are impacted because of the global reduction in workforce, including Sony, which has decided to close the London Studio entirely. Jim Ryan’s email also mentioned that the impacted employees will be notified today.

domain: economics


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Massive Disneyland Attraction Database
The Rain White's Jolly Adventures attraction at night
Rain White's Jolly Adventures
March 25, 1973
Avg. queue length:
38 minutes (or 23 minutes by boat)
Enjoy a trip into the jolly visuals and sounds from Rain White's legend. Enter the seven miners' cabin, the wild woods, and the cellar of the Wicked Senator's summer home. But don't worry -- it will all end up wantonly ever after!
- Warning: after fireworks, this attraction will be full of Bambi impersonators.
- Minimum height 27".
- Special effects may be too frightening for children and some adults.
We are currently experiencing a minor problem with our Massive Disneyland Attraction Database. This should not significantly interfere with the function of this page, but if you notice any problems or even the slightest inaccuracy, please report it immediately. Thank you for your understanding.

domain: travel


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domain: entertainment


Veterans of the Atlanta Falcons are not immune to giving rookies a hard time. And the latest evidence of this comes courtesy of HBO's Hard Knocks.
On the show, a rookie defensive tackle out of the University of Kentucky, Donte Rumph, earned a nickname he would rather not have: "Cupcake."
Rumph garnered the nickname when he injured his elbow in training camp was rolled around on the ground in extreme anguish. His coach then called him out for being soft like a cupcake and the rest is history.
Eventually, per his request, the Cupcake nickname was ditched after Rumph earned the right to be called by his normal name, thanks in large part to a couple good days of practice.
Via For the Win


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On this show
- Buster Williams – I Love You – Crystal Reflections – from a 1976 album features a number of duets a quartet featuring Buster Williams, Roy Ayers, Kenny Barron and Billy Hart.
- Oliver Nelson – In Time – Taking Care of Business – In a slightly unusual group session from 1960 (with vibraphonist Lem Winchester, organist Johnny “Hammond” Smith, bassist George Tucker and drummer Roy Haynes), Nelson better known later in life for his arranging and composing skills (he wrote the theme tune for TVs Ironside show for example) improvises a variety of well-constructed but spontaneous solos.
- Melvin Sparks – Charlie Brown – Sparks! – a 1970 soul jazz session from blues focused guitarist Sparks. Leon Spencer features on organ.
- Elvin Jones – Moon Dance – Time Capsule – Elvin’s Vanguard recordings of 1975-77, of which this was the final one, generally found him playing with all-stars or augmenting his band with guests. This tune was written by altoist Bunky Green, who is the date’s top soloist – the rest of the band includes tenor saxophonist George Coleman, the electric piano of Kenny Barron, bassist Junie Booth, guitarist Ryo Kawasaki, and percussionist Angel Allende.
- Marion Brown – Bismillah, Rahmani Rrahim – Vista – Altoist Marion Brown, one of the potentially great high-energy saxophonists to emerge in the mid-’60s (he was on John Coltrane’s famous Ascension record). This disc has in impressive line-up including both Anthony Davis and Stanley Cowell on keyboards along with bassist Reggie Workman and drummer Ed Blackwell
- Jackie McLean – Erdu – ‘Bout Soul – From 1967 ‘Bout Soul is one of McLean’s most explicit free albums, finding the alto saxophonist pushing a quintet — trumpeter Woody Shaw , pianist Lamont Johnson, bassist Scotty Holt, and drummer Rashied Ali.
- Renegades of Jazz – Voodoo Juju – Hip to the Jive – Raw and heavy produced music, fusing jazz with breakbeat elements, bringing the jazz back to the dancefloor. Started as an experiment in trying something new, Renegades Of Jazz were instantly signed by UK based producer Smoove to his new label Wass Records.
- Earl Turbinton – Kingston Town – Brothers for Life – Alto saxophonist Turbinton and keyboardist Willie Tee moved into more adventurous territory than usual on this 1988 date. While each was an experienced blues and R&B stylist, they had also maintained active jazz ties since the ’50s, and it comes to the surface on this date.
- Marcus Belgrave – Odom’s Cave – Gemini – This nonet with trumpeter Belgrave is sometimes funky, spacy, or swinging, but always potent. The band includes Roy Brooks, Wendell Harrison, Harold McKinney and Phil Ranelin.
- John Abercrombie – Out of Towner – Wait ‘Till You See Her – Abercrombie most recent album – his longstanding partnership with Mark Feldman has yielded several albums of great music, and this latest one is no different. The mood is restrained, and introspective. With acoustic bassist Thomas Morgan and drummer Joey Baron.
To listen to the show click the link below:

domain: artistic


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Poppin Up in the Bay
The sun has just peaked above the roof tops, but the kitchen is already alive with sounds of spices being crushed with a stone pestle; the aromas and fresh herbs so potent, but each still pronounced its own charactor. A wood charcoal grill has just been lit and I see my grandma fanning the flames to bring it to a steady fire. I would listen to stories she would tell me while cooking away food for the day and can never get enough. There is such great love in cooking and a faithfulness in never failing to miss a step. Whenever I feel warmth, love, and wholesome is when I think of these moments when everything just simply feels good and it settles my heart so calmly.
Trilogi SF is the result of my grandma’s stories and how she inspires me with such love. It starts with fresh ingredients that are crafted with love to make each dish so perfectly well rounded. Trilogi SF is about the harmony and balance of flavors; stories we inspire to live and tell. Trilogi SF is simple food at its best, made with great love and care, and inspired by the many collected stories of traveling the world.
Tip: Add your own image by double clicking the image and clicking Change Image.

domain: hobby


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His full name was Andrianampoinimerinatompokoindrindra. To date, it remains the longest name that has ever existed in the island country in the Indian Ocean known for its long tongue-twisting names. Many have wondered why Madagascar has a history of long names. And not just names of people, but also names of places are quite long to the extent that they are difficult to pronounce.
The name Andrianampoinimerinatompokoindrindra, formed of 36 characters, belonged to the King of Imerina who reigned from 1787 to 1810. Otherwise known as Andrianampoinimerina the Wise, he is recognized as the father of the Madagascan people. Andrianampoinimerinatompokoindrindra means “the prince who was given birth by Imerina and who is my real lord.”
Since time immemorial, particularly in the 17th century, kings and princes from the Imerina Kingdom had long names. Andrianampoinimerina’s long name isn’t the only interesting fact about the king as some historians say that he succeeded in uniting the kingdom of Madagascar by taking a wife from each tribe in Madagascar.
Considered one of the greatest political rulers and military strategists of all times, Andrianampoinimerina was born in 1745 in Ikaloy in the kingdom of Ambohimanga. His father was Andriamiaramanjaka (King of Ikaloy) and Ranavalonanandriambelomasina (Princess of Ambohimanga) was his mother.
In 1787, he became king of the small Ambohimanga kingdom and went on to defeat the neighboring kingdom of Antananarivo moving his headquarters to Antananarivo. With his aim being to unite Madagascar as one big kingdom, Andrianampoinimerina united the various Merina kingdoms from the central plateau of Madagascar. In fact, he was the first Merina monarch to consolidate his power and make Merina a unified kingdom. He and his armies conquered other highland tribes, including the Betsileo, Sihanaka, Bezanozano and Bara territories.
By 1810, at the time of his death, he had conquered two-thirds of Madagascar. Today, he is regarded as one of the greatest Merinas to have ruled Madagascar before the French occupation. He issued land reforms and trade regulations. Some of his innovations were rice storage for orphans and widows. Besides, each person was given enough land for rice production to help take care of their families. He led various community projects, such as building canals, and standardized the usage of weight scales and all units for volume and length measurements at the markets. The king saw to it that the use of money was standardized and regularised. He also banned the burning of forests and introduced street cleaning.
With many wives and around 30 children, Andrianampoinimerina’s successor was his son Radama I, who continued what his father had started by conquering most of the remaining land of Madagascar with the help of the British.
The Merina Kingdom was the most powerful empire in the history of Madagascar. Its monarchs were almost done with the unification of Madagascar into a single, centralized state when French troops occupied the capital in 1895, turning the island into a colony.
Today, the Merina people make up a large proportion of the educated middle-class of Madagascar, according to Britannica. Most of them are government officials, managers, businessmen, and technicians.

domain: geography


During a weekly drill-down into our web-page we came across an interesting query which forms part of a new series of blog posts where we “Answer Back” – The question posed for this blog post was;
“Why Use Play Detectors?”
Play detection equipment is used in an MOT bay to eliminate the MOT assistant from the inspection process.
Equipment can be either hydraulically or pneumatically operated and although both types can be approved for use in an MOT bay hydraulic plates offer better reliability (since it is a simple closed hydraulic circuit with a single pump as opposed to a compressor, water traps and the inevitable losses from pipework.
Another key advantage of using play detection equipment in an MOT bay is that the operation of the steering elements and loading of the suspension is consistent between tests.
One final important thing to note is that play detection equipment which is to be fitted to a vehicle lift must be approved for this use by the manufacturer of the lift. Of course this generally limits you to using the “own brand” play detector which that manufacturer produces.