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Longest crab trackways from the Bay of Bengal Coast, India: their geological and geotechnical applications
Article number: 17.2.31A
Copyright Palaeontological Association, August 2014
Submission: 20 April 2012. Acceptance: 24 July 2014
Neoichnological appraisal of amphibious side-runner crab Ocypode produced on the Bakkhali beach in eastern India has revealed how animal physiology, life-habits and substrate decide architecture, orientation, continuity, morphological variations and preservation potential of their typically asymmetric trackways. About 100 m long, seaward moving, parallel and cross-coast trackways that constitute the world’s longest ever known invertebrate trackways amongst modern and ancient records are generated selectively by adults while herding down beach slope in quest of life-saving seawater to moisten their gills. Smaller, freely-wandering and self-crossing trackways in the moist intertidal flat are produced by young while searching food, making pellets and runways, and escaping from predators. The unnamed asymmetric crustacean trackways of Eocene of Andaman and Quaternary Banas Basin of India constitute ancient analogues of the Ocypode trackways. The analogy and fossil arthropod trackways as delicate as the present ones justify their preservation potential. The palaeoichnological applications include ichnotaxonomic revisions, creation of new ichnotaxon as taphonomic and ethological variants, and taxonomic identification of ancient trace makers, besides palaeoecological and palaeogeomorphic interpretations. It relates animal physiology with ichnotaxonomy in detail, provides new information to the existing database, and bears application potential in coastal geotechnical programmes as a new ichnological tool.
Chirananda De. Geological Survey of India, Palaeontology Division, Western Region, 15 - Jhalana Dungri, Jaipur 302015, Rajasthan, India.
Keywords: Ocypode; longest trackways; applications; geology; geotechnology
Final citation: De, Chirananda. 2014. Longest crab trackways from the Bay of Bengal Coast, India: Their geological and geotechnical applications. Palaeontologia Electronica Vol. 17, Issue 2;31A; 19p. https://doi.org/10.26879/325
Locomotion traces or trackways, both recent and ancient, of vertebrates and invertebrates are reported from a myriad of sedimentary environments. Of these, the records of vertebrate trackways certainly outnumber that of the invertebrates. The fossilized vertebrate (e.g., dinosaurs, birds, fishes, amphibians and mammals including elephant, ruminant goat and even human) trackways are recorded from continental playa-lake (Scrivner and Bottjer, 1986), carbonate aeolianite (Fornós et al., 2002; Roberts et al., 2008), terrestrial (Sarjeant and Mossmann, 1978; Demathieu and Wycisk, 1990; Min Huh et al., 2006; Lockley et al., 2006a; Kim et al., 2008; Lee et al., 2008), glaciolacustrine (Benner et al., 2008), lacustrine (Pollard and Hardy, 1991; Genise et al., 2009), fluvio-lacustrine (Costa da Silva et al., 2008), interdune (Gradziński and Uchman, 1994; Jacobs and Roberts, 2009), marginal marine shoreline (Lockley et al., 2006b; Anfinson et al., 2009), tidal flat (Diedrich, 2008) and volcano-sedimentary (Ataabadi and Sarjeant, 2000) facies. Dinosaur tracks have been found in over 1000 locations throughout the world, on every continent except Antarctica (Kuban, 2009). Contrastingly, the invertebrate (largely arthropods including eurypterids, myriapods and trilobites) fossil trackways are restricted to finer clastics of backshore-foreshore (Draganits et al., 1998), paralic (Braddy and Almond, 1999) and lacustrine (Pollard and Hardy, 1991; Seilacher, 2008) environments. Growth of biomats usually provides excellent substrate conditions through the formation of leathery semi-rigid top layers for survivorship and preservation of delicate trackways especially in the post-Proterozoic sediments (Seilacher, 2008) following the Cambrian organic explosion and development of Hox gene-controlled hard body parts (Schopf and Klein, 1992).
Study of fossil trackways, as a whole, has remained important as they reveal various ichnotaxonomic (Lockley et al., 2006a, 2006b; Davis et al., 2007), ethological (Braddy and Almond, 1999; Min Huh et al., 2006; Benner et al., 2008; Kim et al., 2008; Genise et al., 2009), anatomical (Clack, 1997), palaeoecological and palaeoenvironmental (Demathieu and Wycisk, 1990; Fornós et al., 2002; Lockley et al., 2006a), palaeogeographical (Diedrich, 2008), colonization (Gradziński and Uchman, 1994; Draganits et al., 1998) and evolutionary (Scrivner and Bottjer, 1986; Anfinson et al., 2009) aspects of the ancient trackway producers. On the other hand, neoichnological appraisal of modern trackways for palaeoichnological applications and other geological interpretations is extremely rare in published literature. Neoichnological observations on the behavioral patterns of modern shorebirds (sandpipers Calidris bairdii and Calidris fuscicollis ) that seasonally frequent coastal freshwater ponds (Bajo de los Huesos, Chubut) of Argentina have helped interpret avian trackway affinity of the ichnotaxon Gruipeda dominguensis described from the Late Triassic-Early Jurassic Santo Domingo Formation (Genise et al., 2009). An experimental neoichnological study on the effects of varied substrate conditions on the morphology and preservation of modern terrestrial arthropod trackways reveals that the combined effect of increasing concentrations of clay minerals and surface moisture provides excellent conditions for trackway survivorship and preservation (Davis et al., 2007). Moreover, there remain wide gaps in our understanding of the controlling factors (e.g., physiological need, substrate conditions, biomat development, erosional forces, bauplan of the appendages and many others) that decide formation, induce ichnotaxonomic variations and favor preservation of bewildering array of modern tracks and trackways in any given environmental setting and in successful application of these neoichnological data into geological past and present geotechnology.
The present paper deals with the factors governing the formation, variation in forms and preservation of the world’s longest modern decapod crustacean trackways across the Bakkhali beach, Bay of Bengal coast of West Bengal, eastern India, and addresses their multiple application to geological past and modern geotechnology, especially with reference to delta front coastline settings.
The Bay of Bengal coast borders the southern fringe of the world’s most colossal mangrove delta complex of Sundarban (Figure 1) in eastern India. It harbors a wide range of trace-forming invertebrates and vertebrates. The distinctive sedimentary environments include estuary, backswamp-saltmarsh-mudflat complex, coastal beach-dune complex, supratidal-intertidal-subtidal beaches, tidal flats, long shore and channel-mouth bars, and distant partially submerged islands (Figure 1). The conspicuous coastal landforms (Reineck and Singh, 1973; De, 2000, 2003a, 2005a) developed in the Bakkhali area include lower estuarine zone, back dunal mudflats-backswamps-saltmarsh-creek complex with thick mangrove vegetation, older stabilized dune ridges, younger mobile dunes and sand sheets, low gradient supratidal and intertidal beaches from land to sea (Figure 1).
The sediments of the study area (Figure 2) show limited variation in grain size (clay to coarse sand) and firmness (soft ground). The sediments of the lower estuarine zone are predominantly thinly-bedded to parallel-laminated clay-silt in the floodplains, fine to medium sand in the channel bars, and alternately laminated sand-silt-clay in the natural levees. The swamps associated with abandoned channel courses are filled with soft grayish-black clays and silts. Grain size measurements indicate predominance of clay-silt over sand in the coastal mudflats, backswamps, salt marshes and creek banks. The coastal dunes, supratidal backshore and intertidal foreshore beaches are composed mainly of grey, black and purple sand, and silt admixed in various ratios (calculated MZ 2.75 phi to 1.4 phi). Microbial (algal) mats or biomats are developed locally in patches in the moist and depressed areas on the supratidal flats (Figure 2). A few millimeter thick leathery and slightly coherent admixtures of fine sand, silt and green algae-secreted organic glue define the matground. Various types of delicate traces are found preserved in the biomats under thin cover of fine wind-settled sediments. Biomats are often destroyed during monsoons and spring tides.
The average rate of net sedimentation in the Bay of Bengal coast was calculated to be 6.7 cm/100 years by Mallick (1976). The area exhibits a wide range of primary sedimentary structures, for example, various types of cross-beddings, ripples (wave, current, interference, double crested and low amplitude), rill marks, scour marks, wrinkle marks (probably biomat-related), aeolian current lineation, mud balls, desiccation cracks, hummocky cross-stratification and aeolian dunes. The tidal flats exhibit various types of ripples (lunate, linguoid, current, wave, etc.) with truncated crests, ripple-drift laminations, rill marks, flaser beddings, rhythmic laminations and herringbone cross beds. The aeolian dune sands show wedge-shaped high angle cross beds and gravitative slump structures. The hydraulic energy level in the estuary zone is low to moderate. It increases drastically towards the open coast where wave, tide and wind actions, and occasional storm conditions prevail. Effect of wave action is most conspicuous on the beaches and breaker zones.
The region experiences average maximum and minimum temperature of 420 C (May to June) and 220 C (December), moderately high annual rainfall (1490 cm to 2430 cm), a high salinity range (23‰ in the inner vs. 39‰ in the outer delta), moderate pH (7.7 to 8.4), and a mean maximum semidiurnal spring tidal range of 6.8 m to 7.7 m and mean minimum neap tidal range of 2.2 m to 2.5 m (Port Trust of India database for the last five years). The dissolved oxygen content in open seawater ranges from 2.4 ml/I to 4.7 ml/I (Chattopadhaya et al., 1993). Predominant wind directions are from south to north (March to October) and are reversed during November to February. Pre-monsoon tropical cyclones, locally called “Kalbaishakhi” (southeast to northwest, 80 km/hr to 120 km/hr and two to four times/month from March to May), reorganize the beach and dune sands. Non-storm shallow waves (0.5 m to 7 m wavelength) approach the beach at 700 to 850.
The study area (Figure 2) represents a part of subtropical, littoral and marine-estuarine mangrove ecosystem developed in hot, humid, saline and marshy environments where about 20% to 40% of the land area gets inundated during high tides. Due to the abundance of food and shelter, and low predation pressure, mangroves are known to form ideal nursery habitats for a variety of animal species, e.g., crab, prawn and fish species (Nagelkerken et al., 2008). The ecosystem sustains diversified faunal communities that include mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, fishes, insects and other invertebrates besides various types of microorganisms. Amongst the invertebrates, the most dominant groups are insects, arthropods, annelids and mollusks. They thrive in large numbers in the riverbanks, swamps, marshes, creek banks and beach profiles. Of the lebensspuren-producing endobenthic invertebrate communities, the decapod crustaceans (crabs) are most predominant and omnipresent followed closely by polychaete worms and mollusks (gastropods and bivalves). About 86 decapod crustacean species belonging to 13 families are known from the coastal Bengal (Deb, 1998). These are associated with 16 molluscan species, most of which produce traces. The published documents covering the study area on the biophysical mechanism of intertidal beach crab burrowing and environmental ichnozonation of the trace producers (De, 2005a, 2009a), crab burrowing and pellet making activities (De, 2000), ichnological evidences of rising sea level (De, 2002b, 2003a; Bandopadhaya and De, 2000), burrowing habits of bivalve Macoma birmanica Phillipi (Chattopadhaya et al., 1993 ) and geotechnical applications of ichnological tools (Diopatra cuprea Bosc tubes and Uca mud volcanoes: De, 2002a, 2009a) have revealed high neoichnological potentiality of the Bay of Bengal coast in West Bengal.
The Bakkhali beach (Figure 2), in particular, has long been considered as an excellent natural laboratory to experiment with a myriad of amazing organo-sedimentary features (lebensspuren) that are being formed round the clock, destroyed by each wind and wave action and preserved under each sediment layer. The interaction among animal physiology and environment is responsible for a wide range of biogenic structures, from submicroscopic borings on ooids to vertebrate and decapod trackways (Bandopadhaya and De, 2000) to as long and robust as stampeding trackways or footprints particularly of vertebrates and decapod crustaceans (De, 2000, 2005a). This beach exhibits development of a wide variety of trackways particularly during the morning hours on moist medium to fine sands admixed with variable amounts of clay and xylic contents. During the daytime with the increase in wind velocity and decrease in sediment moistness, these trackways get highly modified and/or largely destroyed. In spite of the abundant and diversified trackways in the Bakkhali beach, these features have remained, so far, unaddressed in the published literature on the studied area. Martin (2006) from Sapelo Island (Georgia, USA) discussed resting traces and connected trackways of modern ghost crab Ocypode quadrata with emphasis on physiological (hydration and respiration in intertidal environment) and preservation aspects. Netto and Grangeiro (2006) addressed modern Psylonichnus ichnocoenosis defined by various types of burrows and trackways of crabs (including Ocypode quadrata ) and tracks of beetles, birds and lizards developed in the seaward side of the Peixe Lagoon of southern Brazil with reference to their preservation potential, palaeoenvironmental and stratigraphic significances. Unlike the above two works, the present paper addresses the details of morphological changes of trackways of the crab Ocypode vis a vis substrate environments, physiological needs and preservation potential in terms of Geological and geotechnical significance.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The materials of the present study include various trackways of the crab Ocypode , substrate conditions in terms of sand-silt-clay and moistness and their photographic documentations. During a field visit to the Bakkhali beach the author early in the morning of July 3, 2010, during neap low tide came across several unusually long, sinuous to straight and just-made trackways of crabs on the soft beach sediments. These continuous trackways were traced right down the beach slope (down going) and across the entire shoreline. However, a few similar trackways of shorter lengths (40 m to 50 m) were observed to be disposed oppositely (up-coming) in the intertidal flat. The longest continuous one (down going) was measured to be 115 m long and 8 cm wide. It appeared from a burrow opening located in the supratidal back dune complex and continued over dry to moist rippled sand surfaces of the dunes and supratidal-upper intertidal zones before vanishing into seawater in the middle intertidal zone (Figure 3.1). Seven more morphologically similar trackways (down going) with semi-parallel trends were also observed in close vicinity. The length vs. width of these associated trackways measures to be 95 m vs. 8 cm, 97 m vs. 8.2 cm, 89 m vs. 8 cm, 84 m vs. 7.8 cm, 67 m vs. 8.1 cm, 59 m vs. 8.3 cm and 92 m vs. 7.7 cm. Interestingly all these eight trackways originate from different points (dwelling burrows) on the supratidal back dunes and head downwards towards the then seawater level right along the beach slope covering shortest possible distances to meet the seawater. The length of the trackways, thus, varies with the position of the dwelling burrow (point of initiation), seawater (tide) level on the local beach profile at the time of locomotion, tidal cycle and beach slope. Moreover, a general consistency has been observed in the trackway width (7.7 cm - 8.3 cm) that seems to be related to similar body size or in other words to a particular ontogenetic growth stage of the walking crabs. It was reported previously (De, 2000) that the supratidal-intertidal Bakkhali beach is dwelled by a thick population of semi-terrestrial ocypodid crabs ( Ocypode spp., Ilyoplax pusillus Tweedie and Uca marionis Alcock). The first two produce dwelling burrows in the sandy supratidal and intertidal zones, while Uca (2 cm - 3 cm across) along with Turritella prefers to dwell in muddy backswamps and creek banks (Figure 2; De, 2000). The above study has also revealed that Ocypode spp. together with I lyoplax and Metaplax produce coast-parallel ontogeny-based linear burrow zones (Figure 2; De, 2009a). The intertidal part is generally dwelled by young individuals, while the old individuals together with adult (both male and female) and juvenile crabs exploit the supratidal beach and produce long, thick and interconnected burrows with brood chambers and rising juvenile shafts for community dwelling purpose (De, 2000, 2005a). The tiny crab Ilyoplax pusillus (few millimeter across), on the other hand, defines a narrow coast-parallel zone of short and thin thread-like burrows within the supratidal beach (De, 2005a, 2009a). The body lengths of adult and old individuals of Ocypode ceratophthalma Pallas, O. stimpsoni Ortmann and O. macrocera Edwards in walking posture (with unfolded legs) have been measured to be 7.2 cm - 8.5 cm, 6.9 cm - 8.4 cm and 7.5 cm - 9 cm, respectively. Since all these crabs are side runners, their body length in walking mode corresponds to the width of the trackways. Of these three genera, only the body size of adult and old Ocypode crabs corresponds to the observed general width (7.7 cm - 8.3 cm) of the trackways. Since physiological energy requirement to produce such long repichnial trackways is too high to be possessed by the old and juvenile crabs, the present trackways are in all probability produced by the adult individuals of Ocypode spp. In the field, some juvenile individuals of Ocypode were observed to produce similar but narrower trackways while straying over the proximal intertidal moist sand beds. The trackways are associated with footprints of praying birds (Figure 3.1, Figure 4.3) and trackways of other invertebrates.
THE DECAPOD CRUSTACEAN TRACKWAYS
Moist intertidal sands optimally record trackway morphology (Figure 3.3, Figure 4.1-5). The best impressed trackway is composed of slightly alternately placed crescent grooves of dissimilar dimensions and depths. The grooves are arranged biserially along the trackway and bordered around by pushed up sand rims collectively resembling a chain structure (Figure 4.1-4). A narrow but discontinuous and sinuous sand ridge separates two series of crescent groves on either side (Figure 4.1-2). One series contains two rows of grooves. The grooves in the inner row of this series are larger and deeper, while those in the outer row are smaller, narrower and shallower. The other series contains deepest grooves one touching the other obliquely and arcuately in a single row. This difference imparts diagnostic morphological asymmetry. The pushed up sand rims and inside grooves show strong forward curvature such that their narrower ends point backward (Figure 4.1-5). These structural clues to the direction of movement suggest general seaward locomotion (herding) of the Bakkhali Ocypode crabs.
The trackway morphology, however, changes substantially along its length depending on substrate conditions. On very moist sand beds in the lower intertidal part (Figure 3.4, Figure 5.1-2) the central narrow ridge, marginal groves and arcuate ridges become indistinct, although biseriality and morphological asymmetry of the trackways can be recognized. The indistinctiveness is because of instant partial collapse of water laden sandy groves and ridges. The trackways on dry supratidal sands (Figure 3.2) are distinctly asymmetrical and run right across the beach trend maneuvering irregular obstructions. Biserially arranged arcuate pedal groves and central discontinuous linear ridges (Figure 3.2) become indistinct. Trackways over dune slopes show the sliding effect of the groves and ridges producing marginally long and narrow depressions created by coalesced groves (Figure 5.3). Those produced on flat and dry sand surfaces show no sliding effect and the structure looks different (Figure 5.4). The formation of morphological asymmetry and biseriality of the trackways, irrespective of substrate conditions, has been attributed to the known side-wise running life habit of the Ocypode crabs. Trackways, as observed in the study area, of small olive riddle turtles also possess biseriality of grooves and ridges across a long trackway axis, but are typically symmetrical for forward-walking life habits.
Physiological and Other Requirements
The formation of the longer version of trackways by adult Ocypode has been attributed to their specific brachyuran life habits (quasiterrestrial, side runner, endobenthic and soft shore dweller) and the physiological need for periodical gill moistening with life-saving saline seawater charged with dissolved oxygen. The morphological clues revealing the direction of continuous locomotion from land to seawater of the crabs confirm the involvement of the above physiological process. Similar but narrower trackways of shorter dimensions and freely-wandering to self-crossing or erratic types observed around intertidal burrow openings (Figure 5.5) have been attributed to other life functions (e.g., searching for food, dwelling place, etc.) than gill moistening. The young crabs thriving within the intertidal zone need not produce such long trackways as they can periodically reach tidal water within short distances, and their burrows get inundated regularly. The old and juvenile individuals prefer to capitalize burrow base water rather than to reach distant tidal water (De, 2000). In the study area ocypodid crabs, besides formation of various types of dwelling burrows, are known to produce at least eight types of surficial pelletal (feeding) ornamentations or designs especially in the upper intertidal zone. Their pellet making activities have been attributed to search for food and formation of burrow-guided pellet-walled radial runways required to hide into the burrow and concentric pathways to confuse or obstruct the predators (Chakraborty, 1970; De, 2000). It is thus obvious that variation in neoichnological features is largely caused by variable physiological and related requirements. There are fossil records of invertebrate and vertebrate trackways (Table 1) that largely focus on locomotion styles rather than actual physiological requirements involved in trackway formation.
Martin (2006) discussed different types of resting traces of ocypodid crabs and linked them to hydration and respiration. The present physiological attributes of exceptionally long Ocypode trackways, their morphological variations with respect to substrate environments, and orientation with respect to coast line and behavioural patterns involved in formation of associated shorter versions of trackways were never addressed before. However, physiological aspects of lungfish burrows (Hembree, 2010) and mollusk trails and tracks (Getty and Hagadorn, 2005); different locomotion styles (swimming-walking) involved in trilobite tracks and trackways (Seilacher, 2007; Crimes, 1975) and long vertebrate trackways attributed to rapid colonization and emigration (Gradziński and Uchman, 1994; Diedrich, 2008; Genise et al., 2009) are well known.
The general orientation, which is observed here to be right across the shoreline of these long trackways (Figure 3.1), is primarily governed by energy conservation and urgency. The down the beach or cross-shore orientation of these trackways implies their urgency of availing life-saving seawater spending less time and energy and traveling the shortest possible distance for their survival. The orientation of the longer version of Ocypode trackways, thus, acquires several geomorphic connotations. The orientation constitutes a set of criteria important in palaeogeographic and palaeoshoreline interpretations as discussed later. The association of short-length trackways with ill-defined orientation and freely-wandering nature (Figure 5.5) with the longer version will strengthen these interpretations.
So far, the longest known continuous trackway (about 350m long) is attributed to a late Cretaceous dinosaur in the Andes Mountains, Bolivia (Lockley et al., 2002; Dinosaur News, 15th August, 1998). Another sauropod footprint site from near Lyon, France, can rival the Bolivia occurrence (Science Daily). In the Toadstool Park of Nebraska, 1.2 kilometers long trackways of enteledonts (giant wild pigs), herds of rhinos, horses and oreodonts (hoofed mammals distantly related to modern camels and swine) collectively document preserved evidence of one of the longest migrations of vertebrates along a river course during the Eocene to Miocene times (Nixon and Lagarry, 1993). A 15 m long Devonian trackway of tetrapod from the Valentia Island, Ireland is known (Clack, 1997).
Invertebrate trackways of variable lengths are also known. A unique and complex 6 m long terrestrial trackway of a giant lumbering arthropod Hibbertopterus (Eurypterida: water scorpion) has been, so far, claimed to be the world’s largest arthropod trackway (individual) from 330 million years old non-marine sandstone beds in Scotland (Whyte, 2005). Another large trackway Diplichnites cuithensis (210 cm long) produced by giant myriapod-like terrestrial arthropod Arthropleura has been reported from the nonmarine redbeds of the Cutler Group (Late Pennsylvanian) in El Cobre Canyon, New Mexico (Lucas et al., 2005). The 10 m long crustacean trackway of Eocene Mithakhari Group of Andaman (author’s recent observation) could be the longest ever fossil invertebrate trackway (Figure 4.6).
Amongst modern trackways, 20-30 m long individual trackway of bird is known from the Banas River Basin of Gujarat (De and Mathur, 2007). Published documents on the length of individual trackway of invertebrate origin are too rare, although they are being produced in large numbers and variety on varied substrate across a long environmental profile. The present Bakkhali features are, thus, considered to be the longest ever reported individual invertebrate trackway (amongst recent or ancient) of the world. They allow first ever detailing of modern crab trackways to evaluate their importance in the geological record and geotechnical fields.
The studied trackways have low preservation potential because of strong waves and winds. In particular, trackways are easily deleted after drying, when the sediments become less cohesive. However, field observation suggests that the trackways are partially preserved in supratidal biomats (Figure 5.6), especially under thin layers of fine wind-blown sands that cover dune and ripple troughs. Although taphonomic constraints largely reduce the preservation potential and hence, availability of such features in rock record, geological record of similar and equally or even more delicate features are available. Onychopterellan Eurypterid (Chelicerata: Eurypterida) locomotory traces or trackwaysPalmichnium capensis and Trilobita trackwaysPetalichnus brandenburgensis from the Table Mountain Group (Ordovician) of South Africa (Braddy and Almond, 1999); xiphosurid arthropod trackwaysKouphichnium from a disused colliery tip in the Writhlington Geological Nature Reserve (Pollard and Hardy, 1991); arthropod trackways from the Virgilian Tonganoxie Sandstone Member of eastern Kansas (Buatois et al., 1998a, 1998b); delicate soft body impressions of Ediacaran biota including tentacles of jellyfish (De, 2003b; 2006a,b; 2009b); Quaternary crustacean trackways of the Banas River Basin of western India (De and Mathur, 2007) and 10 m long decapod trackways from the Eocene Mithakari Group of the Andaman Islands (Figure 4.6) resembling the present ones in terms of morphological delicacy are some exceptional examples in this context. Delicate arthropod trackways are also known to be preferentially preserved in lithographic limestones, estuarine and lacustrine biolaminites, Cambrian intertidal sands covered by protective microbial films and bioglued eolian dune sands (Seilacher, 2008). For these reasons, the Bakkhali trackways could cross the fossilization barrier under very specific conditions, although the preservation potential is very low. Moreover, the Banas and Andaman trackways are considered (see later) as the ancient analogues of the recent Bakkhali Ocypode trackways on the basis of morphological analogy. These modern and ancient examples support the perception that the delicate Bakkhali traces are preservable as rock records under suitable taphonomic conditions. If so, the present neoichnological study can well be extended especially to the crustacean trackway history of the geologic past and can address certain aspects of ichnotaxonomy, trackway-making life habits, palaeoenvironment, palaeogeomorphology, taphonomy, animal physiology and ethology following the basic principle “Present is the key to the past.”
Taphonomic and Ethological Variants
Spontaneous modification of the trackways being produced in the field is found to be induced to a great extent by physical environmental factors like wind action, tidal sweeping, rising temperature, rate of evaporation, rain, moistness and sand-silt-clay contents of the substrate, biomats, besides many others. The best impressed trackways (referred here as parent structure) are produced in moist (20% to 30% water content) sandy substrates of the middle intertidal flat. The trackways exhibit all delicate morphological elements (Figure 3.3, Figure 4.1-5). With further increase as well as decrease in sediment-water content towards the lower intertidal and supratidal flats, respectively, the morphological details and sharpness of the parent structure deteriorate abruptly. The resultant structures look so different that taphonomic variants are produced (Figure 3.2, 3.4, Figure 5.1-2). Gravitative collapse of wet and dry sands imposes indistinctiveness that advances with time. However, the variants can be linked to the parent structure (Figure 3.3, Figure 4.1-5) on the basis of still exhibited basic morpho-characters such as linearity, asymmetry, biserial arrangement of crescent pedal groves bounded by arcuate ridges, medial discontinuous ridge and chain-like appearance. In the rock records, as exemplified by taphonomic variants of arthropod repichnial traces Dendroidichnites irregulare, Diplichnites gouldi and Diplichnites biformis from the Upper Carboniferous fluvio-estuarine palaeovalley of eastern Kansas (Buatois et al., 1998a, 1998b), each of these structures will constitute an individual ichnotaxonomic variant, although behavioural and physiological parameters and taxonomic identity of the trace producer remain unchanged. Other conditions, like best suited moist intertidal substrate (Figure 5.5, walking-running on toes with lifted body), substrate slope (Figure 5.3-4, walking-sliding down a dry dune slope and slow walking on flat and dry sandy surface) and biomat ground (Figure 5.6, slow walking over sticky and rippled biomat surface) result in varied walking styles and produce ethological variants. The longer versions of the present Ocypode trackways of Bakkhali beach pass through various substrate conditions and are thus, likely to produce ichnotaxonomic variants in the rock records on the other side of the taphonomic barrier.
Comparable Recent and Ancient Trackways
Published literatures on recent invertebrate trackways are too rare to find a match with the present features. Classical works of seventies and eighties on sedimentology, biology and organic activities of the Georgia coastal region, Sapelo Island, USA (Dörjes, 1972; Dörjes and Howard, 1975; and many others) provide no photographic representation of decapod trackways resembling the present ones. Moreover, features similar to the present Bakkhali trackways found no mention in the detailed and classified documentations of common modern and ancient invertebrate traces from terrestrial and coastal marine aquatic settings (Frey, 1975). Experimental neoichnological study, so far, involves trackways produced by various arthropod groups other than the decapods (Davis et al., 2007). However, various modern trackways of decapod crustacean (crabs) origin including that of Ocypode spp. have been described both from the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea coasts and Banas River basin of Gujarat, India (Bakshi, et al., 1980; De, 1995, 2000, 2005b; De and Mathur, 2007) and elsewhere (Frey et al., 1984) in other perspectives than that of the present paper.
Amongst documented fossil invertebrate trackways of non-arthropod origin it is difficult to find a feature morphologically comparable to the present ones. Some of the reported arthropod trackways (Braddy and Almond, 1999; Buatois and Mángano, 2002; Kim et al., 2005; Minter et al., 2007; Pollard et al., 2008; Seilacher, 2008; Uchman et al., 2009; Fillmore et. al., 2010) can at best be considered partially comparable to some of the wind-affected taphonomic variants of the present trackways. Arthropod trackways Palmichnium and Diplichnites from Devonian Muth Quartzite of the Spiti Valley, India (Draganits et al., 1998) do possess some morphological similarity (linearity, biserial crescent pedal groves and ridges across a medial flat ridge, persistent width and local twists and turns) with that of the present trackways. Repichnial (trackways) traces Dendroidichnites irregulare, Diplichnites gouldie, Diplichnites biformis, Kouphichnium isp and Stiallia pilosa of arthropod, limulid and insect origin described from the Upper Carboniferous fluvio-estuarine palaeovalley of eastern Kansas (Buatois et al., 1998a, 1998b) possess a better partial morphological resemblance to some of the longer versions of the Ocypode trackways of the Bakkhali beach. But none of the above invertebrate fossil trackways can be considered in sensu stricto as the ancient analogues of the Bakkhali trackways as they lack crucial morphological asymmetry. However, some of the Pleistocene-Holocene trackways of crustacean origin described from the Banas River basin of Gujarat (De and Mathur, 2007) and about 10 m long decapod trackways observed in the Eocene Mithakhari Group of sediments of Andaman and Nicobar Islands (Figure 4.6) bear closest possible morphological similarities to the present structures. The last two preserved examples that possess diagnostic structural asymmetry across the long axis have been considered here as the best possible ancient analogues of the modern Bakkhali trackways. This analogy justifies the preservation possibility, survivorship and application potentiality of the present trackways in the geologic past, especially to the post-Jurassic sequences, i.e., after the arrival of true decapods in the life history of arthropod.
Understanding and monitoring dynamic processes is crucial for coastal management. In particular, rate of deposition/erosion, substrate stability, beach slope and tidal range are important parameters for geotechnical applications. Application of modern biological tools has come to the rescue of common physical techniques that involve substantial input of time, labor and money. Among natural indicators, biogenic sedimentary structures (traces) found successful application in coastal geotechnics. The degree of bioturbation at sediment-water interface on a tidal flat 15 km away from the mainland coast (Reineck, 1977) was applied to solve a geotechnical problem involved in building a deep water harbor at the Elbe estuary (Germany). Some modern dwelling-feeding burrows of infaunal genus Mya (pelecypod), Nereis (polychaete) and Cerianthus (anemone) have been used for estimating rates of erosion and deposition (Goldring, 1964; Howard and Frey, 1975). Modern Diopatra cupria (polychaete worm) burrow tubes (agglutinated) of the study area have been applied as potential and reliable ichnological tools for precise and instantaneous estimation of current annual rates of deposition and erosion in the Bay of Bengal beaches (De, 2002a). Uca marionis mud volcanoes that distally associate long Ocypode trackways in the Bakkhali beach (Figure 2) are unique ichnological tools for demarcating unstable beach sectors (De, 2009a). Besides modern examples, U-shaped burrows Diplocraterion yoyo from the Baggy Beds of north Davon have been utilized for measuring deposition and erosion rates of the Late Devonian sea (Goldring, 1964; Howard and Frey, 1975). Shallow marine neoichnological features of infaunal origin are typically the products of complex interaction of physical (e.g., coastal dynamics, substrate rigidity, deposition - erosion, wave - wind actions etc.), biological (e.g., burrowing, boring, tracking, feeding etc.) and chemical (e.g., salinity, acidity, etc.) processes (De, 2000). Biochemical processes are also involved in the formation of biomats and pellets. The coastal neoichnological features, thus, bear the obvious fingerprints of these processes. The main task is to pick up the ichnological signals from the environmental noises for geotechnical and other purposes.
The very presence of Ocypode trackways and burrows, long or short, indicate a stable sandy beach. They need specific environmental conditions to settle their burrows: (a) moist sandy substrate without any clay partings, (b) accessible groundwater (less than 1 - 1.6 m of depth) and (c) pervious sand allowing accumulation of respiratory water at burrow base (De, 2000, 2005a). The longer version of Ocypode trackways traces the entire beach profile including its exposed width and slope. Variation in trackway morphology along its course indicates moistness conditions of substrate, as discussed before; helps demarcate supratidal flat and dune fields, intertidal and subtidal zones, and measure tidal range and water depth in time and space. The tidal range (4-5m) as measured from the studied long trackways confirms mesotidal nature of the Bakkhali beach. Contrastingly, the Uca mud volcanoes at nearby areas are suggestive of most unstable beach portions (De, 2009a). Long trackways associated with biomats suggest areas of high firmness in overall stable beach. Total absence of such trackways in the Ocypode burrow zone (Figure 2) suggests either shallowness of the local groundwater level so that all burrow bases are full of respiratory water or rigorous eroding or reshuffling nature of the surficial sediment layers by wind and water actions. Geotechnical utility of the long trackways widens further when they are analyzed in collaboration with other associated neoichnological features. Wide zoogeographic distribution of Ocypode in tropical - subtropical coasts ensures universal application of their trackways as a new found ichnological tool.
Furthermore, lateral shift of the trackways through time and space would suggest the transgressive-regressive behaviour of the present and ancient sea. This information is mandatory for all coastal developmental projects. Their survivorship in the Tertiary marine basin could be utilized in identifying shallow basinal parts, basin margin and direction of deep basinal parts: that is the basic information required for oil exploration.
GEOLOGICAL AND GEOTECHNICAL IMPORTANCE
The results of this study are fundamental to the study of fossil decapods trackways and can be used in ichnotaxonomic revisions, taxonomic identification of trace fossil producers, palaeoecological and palaeogeographical reconstructions. It also elucidates physiological and preservation processes and facilitates geotechnical exploration.
Ichnotaxonomy and Identity of Trackmakers
On the basis of the present study, a set of basic morpho-characters can be assigned to the repichnial traces (trackways) of amphibious crab genera Ocypode that has a wide zoogeographical adaptation in the soft sandy coast of tropical and subtropical world. These characters are linearity and asymmetry, chain-like biserial arrangement of crescent pedal groves bounded by arcuate ridges, medial discontinuous ridge, persistent width and local maneuvering twists and turns (Figure 3.1, Figure 4.1-5). However, some of these features are differentially modified (Figure 3.2, 3.4, Figure 5.1-2) in response to varied environmental and taphonomic conditions. The modifications result in ichnotaxonomic (taphonomic) variants in the rock record as exemplified by the eastern Kansas Upper Carboniferous trackways (Buatois et al., 1998a, 1998b). The discussed architectural variations in the Ocypode trackways (Figure 3.1, Figure 4.1, Figure 5.3-5) due to varied behavioural or ethologic responses (e.g., herding for gill moistening vs. feeding and different walking styles on dry dune slope and sticky biomat) contributes ethological variants (e.g., long and straight cross-coast trackways vs. short, freely wandering and self crossing trackways) to ichnotaxonomy. On the basis of basic morphological similarity including asymmetry the mentioned Pleistocene-Holocene crustacean trackways described from the Banas River basin of Gujarat (De and Mathur, 2007) and 10m long decapod trackways of the Eocene Mithakhari sediments of Andaman and Nicobar Islands (Figure 4.6) can be attributed to side-runner crabs like Ocypode. They constitute nearest ancient analogues of the described Bakkhali trackways. These ancient trackways have remained, so far, ichnotaxonomically unnamed. The Upper Carboniferous arthropod trackways Dendroidichnites irregulare, Diplichnites gouldi and Diplichnites biformis of eastern Kansas (Buatois et al., 1998a, 1998b) do not possess structural asymmetry and hence, can not be considered as the ancient analogues of the Bakkhali trackways. As discussed earlier, there is no other fossil invertebrate trackways bearing exact morphological similarity, especially the asymmetry. The Dimorphichnus patterns of Silurian trilobite traces (Seilacher, 2007) include some segments of asymmetric trackways. Such traces simply reflect an abrupt switch from a usual oblique motion ( Diplichnites pattern) to perfect sidling (i.e., behavioral variants). The discussed Ocypode trackways are characteristically asymmetric all along their length in spite of frequent twists and turns since they are side-runners. The present study, thus, provides a set of new ichnological features that in post-Jurassic rock record deserve erection of new ichnotaxonomic elements both as taphonomic and ethological variants that are genetically linked with amphibious side-runner crabs like Ocypode. This time connotation is supported by the fact that true crabs appeared only after Jurassic and side-running habit developed in Tertiary (Frey et al., 1984). That is why all the known Devonian and Carboniferous arthropod trackways (i.e., repichnial ichnotaxon) could not be attributed to side-runner crabs. The presented data, thus, help in ichnotaxonomic revision (erection of new ichnotaxon) and recognition of taxonomic identification of the ancient trace makers.
Ecologically the Ocypode crabs are best adapted to the mangrove-vegetated sandy and mesotidal delta-front beaches of the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea coasts of southeastern Asia and elsewhere in the tropical and sub-tropical soft beaches of the world. These adaptation specialties allow palaeoecological interpretation of their trackways in Tertiary and Quaternary rock records, even if the producer is not bodily preserved. The Eocene palaeoecology of Andaman and Quaternary high-stand palaeoecology of the western Indian Banas River Basin (De and Mathur, 2007), as evidenced otherwise by body fossil and ichnofossil records, favour the above statement.
The modern habitat pattern and long trackway-making activity of the Ocypode crabs, as discussed here earlier, provides many crucial ichnological clues (Table 2) to geomorphology of both recent and ancient depositional basins. Besides, many more supplementary and collaborative interpretations can also be made with the help of present data.
In a broader perspective, the presented ichnological database can be used in palaeogeographic reconstruction of sedimentary basin, especially delineation of palaeoshoreline, basin configuration and land-sea distribution.
Physiology and Life Habits
The present study also provides valuable clues to the physiological requirements, walking style and some other behavioral patterns of the crabs making such long, parallel and asymmetric trackways. Very long and mutually parallel trackways are not unknown in the rock records. Some of the sites indicate selective herding, migratory and colonization behavior of the ancient trackers. In the Germanic Basin of central Europe, for example, Early to Middle Triassic carbonate tidal flats preserve millions of small- to medium-sized reptile tracks that parallel and head to the same direction. During lowstands these tidal flats acted as inter-peninsula bridges, which allowed herding and migration of reptiles (Diedrich, 2008). The tetrapod footprints and invertebrate burrows in the interdune deposits of the Lower Triassic Tumlin Sandstone of Central Poland show an r- selected strategy in rapid colonization of interdunal ecospace (Gradziński and Uchman, 1994). The present study relates the inherent physiological need of amphibious crabs, i.e., periodic and compulsive gill moistening with seawater, with their asymmetric, long and parallel trackways selectively across the shoreline. Parallel evidence of physiological appraisal of ancient crab trackways is extremely rare (Martin, 2006; Netto and Grangeiro, 2006). Getty and Hagadorn (2005) discussed surface tracks and trails of mollusk having physiological capacity to manipulate sediment to produce the structures. Aestivation burrows of lungfish, earthworm, lysorophid and dicynodont have been attributed to a physiological need of retaining body water content during extremely dry (draught) situations (Hembree, 2010).
Fossil records of long vertebrate trackways are largely attributed to emigration and colonization rather than physiology (Diedrich, 2008; Gradziński and Uchman, 1994). The studied crab trackways do not represent such emigration or colonization. Localized short-length trackways with ill-defined orientation, self crossing and freely wandering nature when produced around burrow mouths (Figure 5.1) are attributable to other life functions (e.g., feeding and pellet making etc.) than gill moistening. The observed criteria are also applicable to geological past in cases of suitable preservation. The direction of movement of the ancient tracker can be deciphered from the trackway morphology. The marginal ridges and grooves show strong forward curvature such that their narrower ends point backward (Figure 4.1-5). The understanding of animal physiology and life habits from the trackway morphology, as recorded in the Bakkhali traces, constitutes a part of fundamental research in ichnology and adds new ideas to the basic ichnological database for application to geologic past.
The long trackways and burrows of Ocypode can be used independently as a new ichnological tool to identify stable sandy beach. The trackways measure its exposed width and slope, besides delineation and substrate characterization of coastal geomorphic units and landforms (dry - sandy supratidal zone with different geomorphic units including dune fields and biomats, and moist intertidal and subtidal zones, etc.) and measurement of tidal range and water depth in time and space, i.e., information mandatory in coastal geotechnical exploration works. The absence of long trackways suggests either the shallowness of the local groundwater level or presence of concomitant wind and water actions that actively reshuffle the surficial sediment layers erasing the delicate trackways. The extent of trackway production, preservation and survivorship provide ideas about the strength and nature of coastal dynamic processes. Wide zoogeographic distribution of Ocypode in tropical - subtropical coasts and intimate and ubiquitous association of their trackways with other decapod lebensspuren enhance their scope for wider geotechnical applications. Moreover, their preservation in the Tertiary marine basin may have applied value in oil exploration as they reveal shallow and deep sea positions. Lateral shift of long trackways over time and space would suggest the transgressive or regressive mode of sea: very crucial information required for any coastal developmental project.
The author thankfully acknowledges the administrative support and logistics provided by the Director General of the Geological Survey of India, Central Headquarters, Kolkata, India, for taking up the field work in the Bay of Bengal coast.
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Scrivner, P.J. and Bottjer, D. J. 1986. Neogene avian and mammalian tracks from Death Valley National Monument, California: Their context, classification and preservation. Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology , 57:285-331.
Seilacher, A. 2007. Trace Fossil Analysis . Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York.
Seilacher, A. 2008. Biomats, biofilms, and bioglue as preservational agents for arthropod trackways. Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology , 270:252-257.
Uchman, A., Kazakauskas, V., and Gaigalas, A. 2009. Trace fossils from Late Pleistocene varved lacustrine sediments in eastern Lithuania. Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology , 272:199-211.
Whyte, M.A. 2005. Palaeoecology: A gigantic fossil arthropod trackway. Nature , 438:576.


Brandon police officers armed with stun guns
Chief says weapon allows officers to better deal with difficult suspects
In the midst of national protests over police-involved shootings, Brandon police are adding alternative weapons to officers' belts.
Chief William Thompson said he had already looked into getting stun guns before the incidents in Missouri and New York. Thompson said the weapons give officers a better option in dealing with difficult suspects.
Thompson was the first to test what it feels like to be shot with a stun gun. Other patrol officers took their hit as well.
Thompson admitted that there has been some criticism that stun guns are dangerous, which is part of the reason why officers have to get stunned themselves before they use one.
"I am not saying they are 100 percent safe," Thompson said. "Yes, there are instances where it will hurt somebody -- somebody with a heart condition or a medical problem we don't know about. We know that. But when the time comes to use something like this, what else can we do? It's still a better option than shooting them," Thompson said.
The Brandon Police Department bought five stun guns. Thompson hopes eventually to have one for each of the department's 25 patrol officers. Right now, each patrol shift has at least one, along with pepper spray.


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(Cape May, NJ) -- Cape May Stage takes a look back at an era of uncertainty: the Cold War, when profound ideological differences between the United States and the Soviet Union manifested into a landscape of fear and psychological warfare, made possible by the possession of nuclear weapons.
From October 23 to November 16, both sides will have their say at the Robert Shackleton Playhouse with Cape May Stage's production of Lee Blessing's A Walk in the Woods. Two arms deal negotiators one an idealistic American newcomer, the other a cynical Russian veteran meet in the woods after long frustrating hours at the bargaining table in informal conversation, covering a variety of topics. In its depiction of these two men working towards a mutually acceptable deal, this Pulitzer Prize-nominated drama is filled with unexpected humor and extraordinary humanity.
In this absorbing and brilliant debate on the eternal hope and relentless futility of high-stakes politics, the opposing sides are brought to life by two Cape May Stage newcomers. Howard Green has appeared at The New York Shakespeare Festival, The Actor's Studio, and the Lincoln Center Theatre, among others. His adversary, Conan McCarty has appeared on Broadway, Off Broadway, and at Actors Theatre of Louisville.
A talented production team joins this wonderful cast, including Marlena Lustik (A Tuna Christmas, Uncle Vanya) as Director; Lisa Shames, Stage Manager; Shawn Fisher, Set Designer; Cyrus Newitt, Lighting Designer; and Robert J Martin, Costume Designer.
A Walk in the Woods will run from Wednesday, October 23 to Saturday, November 16 at the Robert Shackleton Playhouse located on the corner of Lafayette and Bank Streets in downtown Cape May. Performances are at 7 p.m. on Thursday, Friday and Saturday and at 3 p.m. on Saturday and Sunday. Tickets are $35 for adults, $30 seniors (62+) and $15 students. A half-price preview performance will take place Wednesday, October 23 at 7:00 p.m. followed by the official opening night on Thursday, October 24. A special half-price senior matinee will take place on Sunday, November 3 and on Wednesday, November 6 will be a special $25 anniversary matinee at 3:00 p.m. For more information and ticket reservations call the box office at (609) 770-8311, or visit the theatre's website www.capemaystage.org .
A Walk in the Woods is presented through the gracious support of Tisha's. This season's sponsors include 410 Bank Street, Frescos, Cape May Winery, CapeSCape, Corner Cottage Apartments, Exit Zero, Harry's Ocean Bar & Grill at The Montreal Inn, The Washington Inn, and Lucky Bones.

domain: artistic


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Volunteering not only gives to others; it gives to your health
Most people get involved in volunteering to give back to their community. Over the past two decades, there’s been more and more research that supports the idea that volunteering benefits your health as well as your community.
The research has shown that people who regularly volunteer have lower mortality rates, greater physical abilities, like flexibility and stamina, and lower rates of depression, especially later in life.
A large study with an ethnically diverse sample of older adults in the United States found those who volunteered to help support others had lower rates of mortality (lower amounts of deaths in a certain demographic) than those who didn’t volunteer, even when controlled for education, marital status, age, gender and other differentiating factors.
While volunteering in your community is great, a study showed even supporting friends, family and neighbours has the same result.
Volunteering can enhance your social networks to help buffer stress and reduce risk of disease. It can also give you a sense of purpose which helps keep you from becoming isolated, especially during tough times in life.
For retirees, volunteering is particularly beneficial. The loss of their major roles, that of wage-earner and parent, can have a significant impact on self-esteem and willingness to participate in life. Some retirees isolate themselves while they’re adjusting to their new role as a retired person. Volunteering, particularly when it’s started prior to retirement, can keep that isolation at bay and help the transition to the new role in their family and social circles. Researchers have also found statistically significant, positive relationships between volunteering and lower levels of depression for those over 65.
There are even studies that suggest there’s a relationship between volunteering and lower rates of Alzheimer’s Disease. Volunteering appears to help keep the brain active and elastic.
Studies have suggested the benefits of volunteering are more pronounced in the Baby Boomer generation because for many younger people, particularly high school students, the ‘volunteering’ is an obligation rather than actually being a choice. But for those younger folks who take on volunteering without being pushed into it, the benefits can still be seen.
Volunteering is a good thing. It gives back to your community in so many ways and it also promotes a healthy life.

domain: sociology


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Angelina Jolie’s First Public Appearance After Filing For Divorce
Eonline.com: Angelina Jolie is back in the spotlight after a turbulent few months.
The 41-year-old Oscar winner has kept away from the public eye since she filed for divorce from Brad Pitt on September. The two are currently engaged in a custody battle over their six children.
Jolie made her first official public post-split appearance Saturday at a free screening of her new film First They Killed My Father at the Terrace of the Elephant in the ancient Angkor Wat temple complex in Siem Reap, Cambodia and brought along all the kids—Maddox, 15, Pax, 13, Zahara, 12, Shiloh, 10, and twins Knox and Vivienne, 8. The actress had adopted Maddox at an orphanage about 100 miles away in 2002.
Jolie, Zahara and Vivienne all donned different black maxi dresses, while Maddox, Pax, Shiloh and Knox wore black, gray and tan suits.
The actress was all smiles at the event. She also met the Cambodian King, Norodom Sihamoni, at his royal residence in Siem Reap.
Jolie directed and co-wrote the screenplay for First They Killed My Father, which is based author and activist Loung Ung's horrific experiences serving as a child soldier in Cambodia in 1975 during Khmer Rouge's reign of terror and genocide. The movie is set for release on Netflix later this year.

domain: news


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Finding the best gaming keyboard can not only be exhausting but also time-draining for a dedicated gamer. It is every gamer's dream to find a keyboard with customizable macro keys perfect for macro programming, a full-sized gaming keyboard with stable keys, and zone light backlighting which would make it perfect to play a game at night. Whether you are using one of the best laptops or monitors for gaming, a highly responsive keyboard is crucial to having a good, fast, and fun gaming experience.
With a wide variety of gaming keyboards to choose from, the best choice is a keyboard that makes playing easy despite the time of the day, one that cannot get damaged by liquid spills, and definitely, a keyboard that is best tailored to playing the type of games you want to play. The Corsair K55 RGB is best featured to accommodate every normal day-to-day player at their best comfort.
How Corsair K55 RGB Gaming Keyboard Works
The K55 RGB Gaming keyboard is equipped with a soft rubber wrist rest which ensures extreme comfortability during long gaming sections. The gamer's comfort is a major priority considering that most gamers play for continuously long hours. Equipped with metal wires, Corsair prevents the wobbling of keys to achieve the stability that gamers require. In short, it is designed to work as a mechanical keyboard even though it isn’t one.
It is every gamer's dream to get access to other media files or better yet, adjust the volume without disturbing the ongoing game. The Gamers keyboard offers special keys that make this available without the stress of logging out of the game. For the best recording services, the gaming keyboard boasts 6 macro keys that are specially designed for that reason. Here’s how you can use the macro keys;
- Hold the MR Key till the indicator blinks
- Select your desired macro keys (G1-G6) and press the keystrokes to record.
- To stop recording press the MR Key and the recording will come to a halt
- Press the MR Key for around 3 sec in case you wish to get rid of the existing macro. The blinking light should turn off.
For the best gripping ability, the Corsair K55 RGB is equipped with rubber padded feet and a clip-on armrest excellent for long hours of gaming. With an anti-ghosting feature, the k55 Gaming keyboard ensures that a gamer's most used keys are free from being blocked.
Is Corsair K55 RGB good for gaming?
Its rubber switches require a lot of effort while operating, making the Corsair K55 RGB just decent for gaming. It is however highly rated due to the presence of additional six dome keys on the left of the keyboard which makes it better compared to its competitors.
Is the Corsair K55 RGB Keyboard good?
If your goal is to get a quiet gaming keyboard, the Corsair K55 is the best option. With its unique and easy-to-use features, it is highly preferred as compared to its competitor keyboards. With its decent price, this keyboard would be a good investment if you are thinking about taking your gaming experience to a new level.
Does the Corsair K55 have software?
The keyboard uses Elgato Stream Deck Software which is crucial for the normal functioning of the dedicated macro keys. It is advisable to frequently update the keyboard software for its smooth functioning.
What kind of keys does the Corsair K55 RGB keyboard have?
With a detachable palm rest and dust plus spill-resistant IP42 feature, the Corsair K55 RGB is highly designed to favor the gamer’s comfort. The three-zoned RGB dynamic backlighting makes it easy to play despite the lighting conditions and the six ESD software integrated macro keys make it unique from other gaming keyboards.
How long do membrane keyboards last?
While they are specially designed to last between 30 million and 70 million key presses, they have been proven to survive at least 5 million key presses. This gives them a long durability period making them highly efficient.
The Pro and Cons of the Corsair K55 RGB Gaming Keyboard
What’s to like?
Despite being a membrane keyboard, the Corsair K55 RGB gaming keyboard has managed to give a mechanical experience to its users. The keys feel mechanical, smooth, and are quite responsive.
The six extra macro keys provide a great gaming experience for gamers who want to game with ease using a quiet keyboard.
The gaming keyboard has a unique design with a texture and black color paint making it feels loyal and elegant. In short, it looks great whether it is turned on or off.
The keyboard comes with a list of well-detailed instructions which make it easy to operate. You can easily change the multi-colored rainbow colors and even customize them to your liking.
What’s not to like?
With amazing features and great technology, the Corsair k55 RGB gaming keyboard is a game-changer in the gaming industry. The gaming keyboard provides what a gamer haven looks like and is a hot cake in the market. Its costly price however is one of the most things that fall on its downside. For a rubber dome keyboard, the gaming keyboard is quite pricey. Its glossy surface which is prone to scratches is also one of the features that most gamers will not appreciate about the keyboard despite the attractive design.
The keyboard is made from plastic making the durability a little bit questionable. Often, the paint which would have been better done peels off leaving behind black dried paint particles.
Why Corsair K55 RGB Gaming Keyboard?
With the current improvement of technology, digital games are in huge demand for refreshment. Back in the days, most games were done outdoors but of recent even football can be played via your tv screen or even mobile phone. This brings the desire to use modern gaming equipment and hardware including gaming keyboards.
Gaming keyboards are simply more advanced computer keyboards specifically designed to accommodate comfort from a game player. This includes a more human posture or in technical words ergonomics keys, which are quite programmable and satisfy a user’s experience as a gamer. So, let’s get to why Corsair K55 RGB keyboard.
Corsair K55 RGB keyboard offers the best membrane key
The most crucial part is not just the gaming experience but equally the hardware model. Gaming keyboards fall into either mechanical or membrane-based keys. Either come from the customer’s preference. Membrane keys are connected to the same base below the keys. The force required for your tap is high.
Mechanical or Membrane?
Firm keys of the keyboard
Not just that but the key requires a slight depression before retaining its full position. Corsair keyboards offer mechanical-based keys that give fast pace, less force, and stress for every tap, giving the best bounce back. Unlike other gaming keyboards, Corsair K55 RGB gives you firm keys that do not twist and turn from time to time from certain usages. They are nice solid and stable.
Corsair gaming keyboard allows keyboard customization according to your desire. For example, you want a less-pressure keyboard, can achieve so. Mechanical Corsair keyboards come with backlighting that allows you to see the amount of pressure that the keyboard needs. The term of color on the keyboard is “Cherry Mx “followed by the color.
|Color||Activation Weight (grams)||Depression Level||Response|
|Blue||50||Light||Click, Tactile Bump|
|Green||80||Medium Stiff||Click, Tactile Bump|
The beautiful part about the keyboard feature is the response that comes along when clicking. Light activation weight and depression level capture the desires of many that’s why Corsair K55 RGB Gaming Keyboard is the best choice there is. This includes a stiffer and less responsive set of keys. And the color is pure love and magic. Giving you a sweet and cool working rhythm. The backlighting has three sections that can be lighted in different colors offering more beauty to the keyboard. One can also use IQ software to customize the colors through the screen.
Save Price of keyboard
Corsair gaming keyboard costs nothing above 50$. This makes it a more preferable choice. Comparing its affordability to others such as MSP well makes many access Corsair gaming keyboards at a relatively lower price in comparison to other gaming keyboards. Other keyboards demand up to 65$. Keyboards such as Razer Ornata Chroma go as far as 100$ which is twice the price. Well, that saves you quite a sum for a pretty similar function, doesn’t it?
Access to programmable keys
So, we all know how complex typing can be especially in the midst of a havoc moment of excitement in gaming. Corsair K55 RGB offers typing complex keystrokes at a moment’s notice. The keyboard has 6 programmable macro keys. These keys allow the keyboard to be able to carry out commands that would have taken a bit more time with just a click of the keyboard. This is possible with the use of macro keys.
Corsair Programmable keys
Macro keys allow a player to program or command the keyboard to make an individual key to carry out a specific action in just one tap. Corsair K55 RGB reduces a series of action commands to one simple keystroke. Isn’t that beautiful already. Though most gaming keyboards, have this advantage banned in gaming competitions.
Keeping you in the zone
Corsair K55 RGB Gaming Boards have finishing touches that provide you the added convenience and comfort. For example, in-built ports, gaming keyboards can be used a connect you and the screen. With mic in/out ports and USB pass-through, you no longer have to get all technical trying to rattle your hands behind your screen every now and then getting the screen to work.
Detachable palm rest
You can have a more relaxing and comfortable feeling from a soft rubber material at the palm rest of your keyboard when using Corsair K55 RGB Gaming Keyboard Review.
Not just that but Corsair keyboards give you the multimedia control where you can control your movies and music by just lifting your pretty finger. Voila! You can play, pause fast forward and rewind your films and music by not even touching your mouse. Isn’t that gorgeous? You no longer have to look for voice control through your screen honey. Just press on the keys at the top right of your keyboard.
Water, dust, and spill resistance
This keyboard gives you an IP-42 Dust and water resistance. Regardless of your accidents during your gaming time, you can keep on using it non-destructed. Yet it can also stay a while of use with minimal fingerprints in comparison to other keyboards and staying clean.
Mechanical-based keys have mechanical switches for every individual switch allowing rapid response and more tactile feedback. This makes membrane keys such as Corsair RGB K55 Gaming keyboards less preferable.
Build up material
For someone who is used to mechanical keyboards may feel a little bit thrown at the rug using Corsair keyboards due to the plastic material. It's not as prestigious as mechanical keys in other keyboards.
All gaming keyboards are quite beneficial depending on the buyer’s preference. But still, the buyers who are the main users need to be satisfied fully with the pre-described contents to have a worthwhile gaming experience. Why not buy Corsair K55 RGB Gaming Keyboard now and save you some bucks? For an entry-level keyboard gamer, this is quite a choice.
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domain: hobby


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A new year is a fresh start during which you can focus on health and lifestyle goals. Kicking your sugar addiction will jumpstart your weight loss, increase your energy, and boost your overall wellness.
A seemingly innocuous substance, research shows that sugar is an extremely addictive substance that wreaks havoc on the body. Processed food is now a staple in the average American’s diet and almost always includes copious amounts of unnatural ingredients and sugar. A dependence on sugar often sneaks up on people.
There are dozens of sugar-related diseases and disorders, including diabetes, obesity, dementia, cancer and heart disease. These conditions cause a great deal of pain and suffering and dramatically decrease lifespan.
Aside from serious health conditions, sugar can also lead to osteoporosis, poor dental health, aging skin, fatigue, cravings, lack of mental focus, and more. Even though the benefits of eliminating or drastically decreasing the amount of sugar you consume are bountiful, it isn’t always an easy process to omit sugar from your diet—after all, you are addicted.
Kick the Habit
To slowly phase out of a sugar-heavy diet, understand the various forms you take in sugar. Check food labels and look for names like corn syrup, dextrose, fruit juice concentrate, high fructose corn syrup, molasses, sucrose, and maltodextrin. These are some of the more common “sneaky” names for sugar that can be hiding in food. If they are listed near the top of the ingredients, they comprise a large portion of that product.
Many people find that it is much easier to stop sweets cold-turkey. When you eat something sweet it causes a spike in blood sugar, followed by a spike in insulin, which tells your body to store fat. The insulin spike then causes your blood sugar to drop quickly, which triggers your hunger. If you reach for something else sweet to satiate the hunger, your blood sugar spikes again, and you are on the blood sugar/insulin rollercoaster. If you keep from spiking your blood sugar in the first place, you won’t crave sugar as readily.
The most difficult part of eliminating sugar can be dealing with cravings. Anticipate your cravings and have a plan in place to combat them. For example, if you know that every time you go to the movies you want a soda, bring a carbonated water instead that will satisfy the craving. Once you are no longer addicted to sugar, you will find your cravings will drastically decrease.
Kicking the habit may involve using a less harmful sweet substance for a time until you feel that you can stop sweetening your food and beverages completely. Look for sugar alternatives like honey, coconut palm nectar, or Stevia. These can work as a bridge to help get you out of the habit of eating high glycemic foods, but you must eventually stop these as well. Fruit can be a good alternative to sugary foods; however, fruit does still contain sugar even if it is natural so eat only one serving of fruit paired with a healthy amount of vegetables in your diet.
Cutting down on sugar can be difficult depending on your addiction and natural sweet tooth; yet, you’ll soon enjoy more energy, focus, and increased lifespan.

domain: food


We unlocked our ‘Main Character Energy’ during an incredible panel led by GLAMOUR Woman of the Year, Fats Timbo and starring Tiwalola Ogunlesi, the founder of Confident and Killing It; viral online sensation Sabrina Bahsoon (AKA Tube Girl); and activist and author Florence Given. We could basically fill a book will all the motivational quotes that came out of this panel talk – and we aren’t even joking.
“I will not be bullied out of my purpose” – Florence Given
“Empowerment is it’s not necessarily one place, it’s a journey” – Laura Whitmore
The afternoon session kicked off with ‘Pay Rises, Boundaries & Being Heard’: a panel chaired by GLAMOUR’s European Editorial Director, Deborah Joseph and featuring the expertise of Annika Bizon, Marketing and Omni Channel Director for Samsung UK, broadcaster, author and mental health advocate, Fearne Cotton; Fisayo Longe, CEO of Kai Collective and listed as one of Forbes’ 30 Under 30 and Jess Hunt, entrepreneur, social media star and Gen Z founder of viral beauty brand REFY Beauty.
Next up, GLAMOUR’s Money Matters columnist, Makala Green, hosted an empowering, jargon-free panel featuring female financial powerhouses, including Ellie Austin Williams (AKA This Girl Talks Money), best-selling author of We Need To Talk About Money, Otegha Uwagba, and founder of financial literacy platform ‘Pennies to Pounds’, Kia Commodore.
“Stop running and recognise that everything that you need is within you” – Munroe Bergdorf
Our next panel was hosted by GLAMOUR’s very own Shei Mamona, who spoke to Paul C. Brunson, Tinder’s Global Relationship Insights Expert; Emma-Louise Boynton, writer, broadcaster, founder and host of the award-winning platform, Sex Talks; and Megan Crabbe, presenter, content creator and bestselling author of Body Positive Power, about modern-day dating and the power of self-love in relationships, powered by Tinder.


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The Tre Cime di Lavaredo (2,999 m; Drei Zinnen in German) are one of the most renowned places of the Dolomites, and one of its most iconic symbols – possibly because the three famous jagged peaks dominate the surrounding landscape, and are an unmistakable landmark that can be seen from miles afar (above, the classic view of the Tre Cime; while below, the three peaks as seen from the well-known gap in the val di Landro/Hölensteintal valley).
What is quite unique about these peaks is the fact that their majestic shapes are completely isolated on all sides, so that more than other mountains they retain that sense of uniqueness and of individuality that is so typical of the Dolomites: this aspect is taken here to the extreme in the most striking way.
Being such a symbol, though, has its downsides. Firstly, it means that the Tre Cime are hugely popular, and somewhat spoiled by the fact that they can be reached by a motorway-like toll road that gets very close to the actual peaks.
The implication, as it can be imagined, is that a huge number of tourists make it up there, but – and that is the good news – many of them just stop at Rifugio Auronzo (2,320 m, at the terminus of the toll road), or at best walk along the almost flat section of path that takes them to Rifugio Lavaredo (2,344 m). It is worth pointing out, however, that even within this first stretch there are items of interest; most notably, the dinosaurs’ footprint which appear on a vertical slab to the left of the trail (anti-clockwise); however, there are no signs to indicate it, so you either have to keep your eyes open ... or come with a guide!
Relatively few venture any further, on the circular trail that would take them on a complete roundtrip around the three peaks (pictured below, the small Antorno lake, just before the beginning of the toll road that leads up to Rifugio Auronzo).
However, if you are a dedicated walker, Rifugio Auronzo can be reached also from Auronzo itself, in about 4 hours. There are other connections with more mountain huts – such as Rifugio Zsgimondy-Comici (2,224 m; 3 hrs) in the Dolomiti di Sesto/Sextnerdolomiten and Rifugio Fonda Savio (2,367 m; 2h30), just above Misurina lake.
Although the description of the lake is not the aim of this page, it is worth pointing out, at least in passing, the magnificent views that can be enjoyed from here: despite the fact that it can become quite crowded in the high season, the location is indeed worth a stop – especially so for the mesmerizing view over Monte Sorapiss (pictured below), 3,205 m.
The Circular Trail Around the Tre Cime
The area of the Tre Cime is also covered by a Natural Park: the Parco Regionale Tre Cime/Drei Zinnen Naturpark, mostly situated in the municipalities of Dobbiaco/Toblach and San Candido/Innichen, in neihgbouring South Tyrol. While there is a dedicated page to the Park, the content of this page is to concentrate on more general information on the area.
The circular trail around the Tre Cime is a beautiful and not too strenuous walk, although it can be quite long. It takes an average of 3 to 5 hours to complete, according to speed and… length of breaks!
So, in actual facts, it can take much longer, and what I suggest to all visitors that come to the Tre Cime – especially on a first visit – is to set aside a whole day, and allow plenty of time for this most magical of experiences.
Of course, the views are majestic, and undeniably the prime feature of interest. These open up on the whole Dolomites’ region and beyond, changing almost along every step of the way (in the picture below, a view towards Auronzo, taken from the beginning of the circular trail described here).
But the historical aspect is also to be taken into account, with so many traces of the events of WW1 still visible today – such as, for instance, the caves at Monte Paterno/Paternkofel (2,746 m), which one encounters on the ascent towards Rifugio Locatelli/Dreizinnenhütte (pictured below, the high altitude plateau around the Locatelli mountain hut, seen from the base of Monte Paterno and with the Dolomite peaks all around).
This mountain is also the location of the story of one of the best Alpine guides of his time, Sepp Innerkofler, who actively got involved in the war events for his deep knowledge of the area (and actually lost his life during the conflict). Perhaps the most striking remnant of those infamous times, though, is the long tunnel which was dug in the mountain’s belly in order to reach its summit, and which can now be visited only with the appropriate protective gear.
The Rifugio Antonio Locatelli/Dreizinnenhütte (2,405 m; pictured below) is one of the historical mountain huts of the Dolomites, built as early as 1882 (when the area was still Austrian).
This is probably the ideal stopping point if you have embarked on the circular walk from either side, as the hut is situated roughly half-way (I do suggest, however, to take the trail in an anti-clockwise fashion – that is, from Rifugio Auronzo heading towards Rifugio Lavaredo first). It is also the first hut that is encountered if one ascends on foot from the Sesto/Sexten side, through the Val Fiscalina/Fischleintal and Valle Campo di Dentro/Innerfeldtal.
The location of the Locatelli hut commands possibly the most spectacular view on the ‘back’ (or, more accurately, the northern side) of the Tre Cime – a sight so iconic and mesmerizing that one could just stop there and admire it for the rest of the day (see the picture at the top of the page).
But worth noticing here are also the geological features – for instance the tiny blue interglacial lakes just behind the hut (known as Laghi dei Piani; see image below) – and the view towards the north, with the Grossglockner (3,798 m; the highest mountain in Austria) and the Tauern chain (also in Austria) visible in the distance on clear days with their extensive glaciers.
As anticipated above, the hut (and subsequent roundtrip) can also be reached via more demanding trails from Sesto/Sexten through the beautiful Val Fiscalina/Fischleintal, or from the Lago di Landro/Dürrensee (in 3 hrs) via a very narrow and steep side valley.
An Open Air Botanical Garden
And then, of course, there is the botanical aspect. One could argue, in fact, that this mountain is almost like an open air botanical garden.
Especially if you’ve been to Monte Faverghera or the Cansiglio Botanical Garden (or any other Alpine Botanical Garden) first, you will then find along your path – ‘live’, as it were – all the flowers that were displayed there in a more ‘educational’ fashion.
Here, everything will be on a grander scale – not to mention, of course, that seeing the plants in their native habitat is a whole different experience altogether.
Being up on this mountain is like stepping into a book on Alpine flora, where all the most representative species of the Dolomites can be found and admired at once. Especially noteworthy will be the so called species of the calcareous scree – because this is Dolomite ground at its most essential.
And so, if you come at the height of the flowering season – which runs roughly from the end of June to mid-August (but this varies slightly from year to year), you will then admire – among others – the yellow Mountain Poppy (Papaver rhaeticum), the light purple of Alpine Snowbell (Soldanella alpina – in fact already visible earlier, at snowmelt), the lilac-orange blossoms of Alpine Toadflax (Linaria alpina) and the pink-flowered Rock Jasmine (Androsace alpina).
Together with these, many species of Gentians are to be seen, such as G. ciliata (first picture below), G. verna, G. clusii, G. bavarica, G. kochiana – as well as the symbol of the Alps par éxcellence, the Edelweiss (Leontopodium alpinum; second image below).
Together with the most common species – such as the ones mentioned above – there will be of course also a certain number of plants that are a lot rarer to spot, but you may just be lucky enough to be rewarded with such a sight – as I have been a few years ago, for example, when I discovered a rare blossom of Minute Primrose (Primula minima) – for my joy and that of the group that was then with me (see below).
The Colours of the Tre Cime
But it is not just the colours of the flowers that are astounding – those of the mountains are amazing too.
They range the whole palette from the lunar yellow-ochre tinge which is the ‘default’ tone of Main Dolomite, to more unusual hues such as sanguine red and ochre, which are typical of iron oxides, or the dark greys of other sedimentary layers (below, for example, a beautiful image of the Croda Rossa/Hohe Geisl – that, as the Italian name of the mountain suggests, is a reddish brown; 3,146 m).
Also, the shapes are as fascinating as the colours, and sometimes walking up here gives one the impression of wandering in a primeval landscape made of prisms and dihedrals. Especially on the last section of the circular trail – that between Rifugio Locatelli and the return to Rifugio Auronzo, which is usually also the loneliest part of the walk – when looking closely to the rock faces, I often get the impression of being in front of archetypal shapes (from here, these mountains look very akin to – and almost a natural counterpart of – the Egyptian pyramids). In this section of the roundtrip, you will also encounter the Langalm – a little mountain cabin, open only during the summer season, and run by the same people who come up here to take their animals to graze. This is also, by far, the best place where to eat when doing the hike around the Tre Cime, as during the opening period, the hut offers some Tyrolean staple dishes, all locally sourced.
And then, on top of it all, there is the well-known phenomenon called enrosadira: a word describing – in the Ladin language – the literal ‘becoming pink’ of these peaks at dawn and dusk, when they glow with the most astonishing orange, pink and purple hues (as seen in the picture below, taken from near the Antorno lake at sunset). The black blotches (especially visible on the northern flank) are, instead, the marks left by extensive colonies of cyanobacteria, which affect the rock surfaces in cooler conditions.
In fact, ‘reading’ the geology of the Dolomites can be quite a daunting task, as this was once an ocean floor that, during the glaciations, rose up in phases which are almost impossible to detect with just the naked eye.
The dramatic results, though, are obvious, as the colours and shapes can be enjoyed by anyone, anytime: and one does not necessarily need knowledge to experience this on a level that will feed – and appease – the senses.
And then, of course, there are the skies: these uplands are like an immense, ideal stage for yet another majestic daily drama – that provided by clouds (below, a stunning view of the Tre Cime plateau, surrounded on all sides by Dolomite peaks topped with a rare display of high lee-clouds on a late summer’s day). In fact, it is worth pointing out that September and early October are perhaps the best time of year for hiking in the Dolomites, as the weather tends to become drier and more reliable.
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