When it comes to plumbing systems, the intricacies can often leave homeowners feeling overwhelmed and confused. One essential component of any plumbing system is the trap, which plays a crucial role in preventing unpleasant odors and harmful gases from entering your home. Two common types of traps used in residential plumbing systems are the S trap and the P trap.
In this article, we will delve into the world of traps, specifically focusing on the S trap and P trap. Whether you are an avid DIY enthusiast or a homeowner looking to understand the differences between these two traps, this comprehensive guide is here to provide you with valuable insights.
By the end of this article, you will have a clear understanding of how traps work in plumbing systems, as well as the purpose and function of both S traps and P traps. We will explore the differences in shape and structure, variations in location and installation, and the advantages and disadvantages of each. Furthermore, we will compare water flow efficiency and the effectiveness of preventing sewer gases. Additionally, we will outline the maintenance requirements for both types of traps and discuss their common applications and suitable scenarios. Lastly, we will touch upon the cost considerations associated with choosing either an S trap or a P trap for your plumbing system.
Whether you are planning a home renovation, experiencing plumbing issues, or simply curious to expand your knowledge on home improvement, understanding the differences between S traps and P traps is invaluable. So, without further ado, let’s dive into the world of traps and discover the five key differences you need to know now.
Overview of S trap and P trap
When it comes to plumbing systems, two common types of traps are used: the S trap and the P trap. These essential components are responsible for preventing odors and gases from entering your living spaces from the sewer lines. Understanding the differences between these traps is crucial for ensuring the efficiency and functionality of your plumbing system.
The S trap gets its name from the shape it resembles, forming an “S” when viewed from the side. On the other hand, the P trap resembles the letter “P” in its shape. Despite their different appearances, both traps serve the same purpose – trapping water to create a barrier that prevents sewer gases from backing up into your home.
S traps and P traps differ in terms of shape, structure, location, and installation variations. The S trap typically has a curved pipe that extends downward, while the P trap has a curved pipe that extends horizontally. This difference in structure affects where and how each trap is installed.
In terms of functionality, S traps are commonly used in older buildings where plumbing systems were designed differently. They are installed directly under a plumbing fixture, such as a sink or bathtub, and rely on the water inside the trap to block sewer gases. On the other hand, P traps are more commonly used in modern plumbing systems. They are installed further down the line from the fixture and feature a horizontal section that prevents water from being siphoned out and allows a smooth flow of waste.
While both traps serve the same purpose, it’s important to consider the advantages and disadvantages of each. S traps have the advantage of being simpler and easier to install, particularly in tight spaces. However, they can be prone to siphoning and drying out, causing sewer gases to enter your home. P traps, on the other hand, provide a more secure barrier against sewer gases but may require more space for installation.
Additionally, water flow efficiency and maintenance requirements also vary between S traps and P traps. S traps are more susceptible to clogs and require regular cleaning to prevent blockages. P traps, with their horizontal section, provide better water flow and are less prone to clogging. Nonetheless, regular maintenance, such as periodic cleaning and checking for leakages, is essential for both types of traps.
In conclusion, understanding the differences between S traps and P traps is crucial for any homeowner or DIY enthusiast. While S traps are simpler in structure and installation, P traps offer more effective prevention against sewer gases. Considering factors such as functionality, maintenance requirements, and the specific needs of your plumbing system will help you make an informed decision on choosing the ideal trap for your home improvement projects.
How traps work in plumbing systems
In any plumbing system, traps play a vital role in maintaining proper drainage and preventing unpleasant sewer odors from entering our homes. Traps are ingenious devices that form a barrier of water, which effectively seals off the drainage system from the rest of the house. This barrier prevents sewer gases, such as methane and hydrogen sulfide, from escaping through the drains and into our living spaces.
The working principle of traps is surprisingly simple yet highly effective. Each trap features a U, S, or P-shaped bend in the pipe, strategically positioned beneath a sink, bathtub, or any other plumbing fixture. When water flows down the drain, it creates a seal by filling up the bend. This water seal acts as a barrier that prevents sewer gases from being released into the room. It essentially traps the gases within the plumbing system, hence the term “trap.”
The size and shape of the trap determine its effectiveness. A larger trap will hold more water, creating a stronger barrier against sewer gases. However, it is important to strike a balance between water seal depth and the speed at which water drains. If the trap is too large, it may slow down drainage and lead to potential clogs. On the other hand, if the trap is too small, it may not provide a sufficient water seal, allowing sewer gases to escape.
Traps also serve an additional purpose beyond preventing sewer odors. They act as a barrier that prevents insects and rodents from entering our homes through the plumbing system. Without traps, these unwanted pests could freely travel through drains and into our living spaces.
Overall, traps are crucial components of any plumbing system, ensuring proper drainage, preventing sewer odors, and keeping pests at bay. Understanding their functionality and importance can help homeowners make informed decisions when it comes to their home improvement projects. In the next sections, we will delve deeper into the specific differences between S traps and P traps, their advantages and disadvantages, as well as their suitable applications in various scenarios.
Purpose and function of S trap
When it comes to plumbing systems, it’s essential to have a clear understanding of the various components that keep everything running smoothly. One crucial element in this system is the trap, which prevents unpleasant and potentially harmful sewer gases from entering your home. In this section, we will explore the purpose and function of the S trap, its unique characteristics, and its applications in different scenarios.
Overview of S Trap
The S trap, as the name suggests, resembles the letter “S” in its shape. It is a common type of trap used in plumbing systems to create a water barrier that prevents sewer gases from entering the living spaces. This trap is typically found beneath sinks, including kitchen and bathroom sinks, as well as other fixtures like washbasins. Understanding the purpose and function of the S trap will help homeowners and plumbing enthusiasts make informed decisions about their plumbing needs.
Function of the S Trap
The primary function of the S trap is to create a water seal that acts as a barrier between the plumbing system and your living space. This water seal prevents sewer gases, which contain unpleasant and hazardous odors, from entering your home. The S trap accomplishes this by capturing water in its curve, effectively blocking the gases’ path.
Moreover, the S trap also serves as a trap for debris, preventing it from flowing further into the plumbing system. The water in the S trap forms a physical barrier that stops debris from clogging the drains. This function significantly reduces the chances of blockages and keeps your plumbing system running smoothly.
Furthermore, the S trap allows for the proper flow of wastewater. As it creates a water seal, it also ensures that the wastewater flows through the trap and into the sewer system efficiently. This feature is crucial in maintaining the overall functionality of your plumbing system and preventing any backflow of sewage.
Applications of the S Trap
Due to its design and functionality, the S trap is commonly used in various applications. It is particularly suitable for sinks and fixtures located near walls or confined spaces. The shape of the S trap allows for easy installation against a wall, making it a space-saving option.
Additionally, the S trap is often the trap of choice in older buildings and retrofitted plumbing systems due to its compatibility with existing plumbing connections. Homeowners looking to update or remodel their bathrooms or kitchens in older homes can rely on the S trap to meet their plumbing needs effectively.
In summary, the S trap is an integral component of plumbing systems, providing a water seal to prevent the entry of sewer gases into your home. Its distinctive shape and design make it suitable for applications where space is limited and when retrofitting older plumbing systems. By understanding the purpose and function of the S trap, homeowners can make informed choices about their plumbing needs and ensure the proper functioning of their homes.
Purpose and function of P trap
The P trap, also known as a U bend, is an essential component of any plumbing system. Its purpose is to prevent unpleasant sewer odors from infiltrating your home by creating a water seal within the pipe. This ingenious design effectively blocks the passage of sewer gases back into your living spaces, ensuring a clean and odor-free environment.
Functionally, the P trap operates by retaining a small amount of water within its curved section. This water creates a barrier that prevents sewer gases from flowing back up the drain pipe and into your home. As wastewater flows through the P trap, the curved shape causes a natural accumulation of water, effectively forming a seal that acts as a barrier to odor.
One notable advantage of the P trap over the S trap is its shape and structure. The distinctive U shape of the P trap allows it to trap debris and prevent clogs from occurring in the plumbing system. The horizontal section of the trap, commonly referred to as the trap arm, extends from the outlet of the fixture and is connected to the drain line. This section plays a crucial role in maintaining the water seal and preventing sewer gases from escaping.
Another essential function of the P trap is to provide easy access for clearing blockages or retrieving objects that may have accidentally fallen down the drain. By simply unscrewing the trap arm, you can access and remove debris or items that may be obstructing the flow of water. This convenience makes the P trap a practical choice for homeowners who want to prevent plumbing issues from escalating into costly repairs.
In residential applications, the P trap is commonly found beneath sinks, bathtubs, and showers. Its versatility and reliability have made it a popular choice for both residential and commercial plumbing systems. The P trap’s ability to effectively block sewer gases and prevent clogs ensures the smooth operation of your home’s plumbing, providing peace of mind and maintaining a healthy living environment.
When it comes to choosing between the S trap and the P trap, the latter offers several advantages. Its distinctive U shape not only prevents sewer gases from entering your space but also acts as a safeguard against clogs. Additionally, its accessibility for maintenance and blockage removal makes it a practical choice for homeowners. Consider these factors when deciding on the appropriate trap for your plumbing needs, ensuring a reliable and efficient system for your home.
Difference in shape and structure
When it comes to plumbing traps, one of the key differences between an S trap and a P trap lies in their shape and structure. Understanding these differences is essential for homeowners who are looking to make informed decisions about their plumbing systems.
The S trap, as its name suggests, resembles the letter ‘S’ when viewed from the side. It features a curved section that is designed to hold water, creating a barrier between the plumbing system and the outside environment. This shape allows the S trap to effectively prevent sewer gases from entering your home, ensuring a healthy and odor-free living space.
On the other hand, the P trap gets its name from its shape, which resembles the letter ‘P’ when viewed from the side. It consists of a horizontal inlet pipe that connects to a vertical outlet pipe, forming a P-shaped curve. Like the S trap, the P trap also holds water to seal off the plumbing system, preventing unpleasant odors and potential health hazards.
While both traps serve the same purpose, their shape and structure give rise to some subtle differences. The S trap, with its curved design, tends to be more compact and requires less space for installation. It is commonly used in situations where vertical space is limited, such as in basements or in locations with low plumbing fixtures.
On the other hand, the P trap’s shape allows it to accommodate larger amounts of water, making it more effective in preventing sewer gases from entering your home. Its vertical outlet pipe also provides better protection against the backflow of water and clogs, reducing the risk of blockages and costly repairs.
Furthermore, the shape and structure of each trap also affect their maintenance requirements. The S trap, with its more simplified design, tends to be easier to clean and maintain. On the other hand, the P trap may require slightly more effort to remove any potential debris that may accumulate in the curved section.
In terms of aesthetics, the S trap and P trap may offer different options for homeowners. The S trap’s compact design is less visible and can provide a cleaner look, especially in modern or minimalist bathroom designs. The P trap, with its more distinct shape, can add a touch of traditional charm or boldness to your plumbing fixtures, depending on your preferred style.
In conclusion, while both the S trap and P trap serve the same purpose of preventing sewer gases from entering your home, they differ in their shape and structure. The S trap’s compact design makes it suitable for spaces with limited vertical room, while the P trap’s larger capacity and vertical outlet pipe offer enhanced protection against backflow and clogs. Consider the specific needs of your plumbing system and the overall aesthetic you desire when choosing between these two traps.
Location and installation variations
When it comes to the location and installation of S traps and P traps, there are some notable variations that homeowners should be aware of. The difference lies in where these traps are typically installed and how they are positioned within a plumbing system.
S traps are commonly found in older homes and buildings, as they were the standard choice in the past. These traps are installed under sinks, toilets, and other fixtures. One important thing to note is that S traps require a vertical outlet pipe to function properly. This means that they need to be installed directly below the fixture and have a downward slope to allow for efficient water flow.
On the other hand, P traps are a more modern and versatile option. They can be found in both older and newer homes and are widely used in residential and commercial plumbing systems. P traps are installed beneath sinks, showers, bathtubs, and other fixtures. The key difference is that P traps have a horizontal outlet pipe, which allows for more flexible installation options. They can be positioned either horizontally or vertically, depending on the plumbing layout and space constraints.
When it comes to installing S traps, it is important to ensure that there is enough space beneath the fixture to accommodate the trap and its connections. Additionally, the installation must adhere to local plumbing codes to prevent any potential issues down the line.
In contrast, P traps offer more flexibility in terms of installation. They can be easily adjusted and positioned to fit the available space. This makes them ideal for situations where there are space limitations or when the plumbing layout requires a different configuration.
It is worth mentioning that while both S traps and P traps perform the same function of preventing sewer gases from entering the living space, their different installation requirements can affect their overall effectiveness. Improperly installed traps can lead to issues such as sewer gas leakage or poor drainage.
To ensure proper installation, it is recommended to consult a professional plumber who has experience working with both types of traps. They can assess the specific plumbing needs of your home and determine the most suitable trap option for your situation. By choosing the right trap and ensuring its correct installation, you can effectively safeguard your home from sewer gas odors while enjoying efficient drainage.
In the next section, we will explore the advantages and disadvantages of S traps, shedding light on the key considerations when deciding between the two options.
Advantages and disadvantages of S trap
The S trap is a traditional type of trap used in plumbing systems that has both advantages and disadvantages. Understanding these can help homeowners make informed decisions when choosing between an S trap and a P trap for their plumbing needs.
Advantages of S trap:
1. Space-saving design: The S trap is known for its compact and space-saving design. It is often preferred in situations where there is limited space, such as in smaller bathrooms or under sinks with low clearance. Its shape allows for a direct connection to the drainage pipe, minimizing the need for additional plumbing fittings.
2. Easy installation: Installing an S trap is relatively straightforward, making it a popular choice for DIY enthusiasts. It requires minimal parts and can be easily connected to the plumbing system using simple tools. This simplicity also means that repairs or replacements can be done quickly and efficiently, saving both time and money.
3. Cost-effective: Compared to other trap options, the S trap is generally more affordable. Its simple design and ease of installation contribute to its cost-effectiveness. It is a great choice for homeowners who want an effective trap without breaking the bank.
Disadvantages of S trap:
1. Siphoning issues: One major disadvantage of the S trap is its susceptibility to siphoning. Siphoning occurs when water is rapidly drained from the pipe, creating a vacuum that can pull water from the trap, allowing sewer gases to enter the living space. To prevent this, an air vent or anti-siphon trap seal should be installed, which adds complexity and cost to the system.
2. Limited effectiveness in preventing sewer gases: While an S trap is designed to block sewer gases from entering the living area, it is not as effective as a P trap. Because of its shape and lack of water seal depth, there is a greater chance of gases escaping if the water in the trap evaporates or gets displaced.
3. Maintenance requirements: S traps require regular maintenance to remain effective. Checking and replenishing the water seal periodically is necessary to prevent sewer gases from entering the home. If neglected, the trap can dry out or become clogged, leading to foul odors or potential health hazards.
In conclusion, the S trap offers advantages such as space-saving design, easy installation, and cost-effectiveness. However, it also has disadvantages including siphoning issues, limited effectiveness in preventing sewer gases, and maintenance requirements. Homeowners should carefully consider their specific plumbing needs and the drawbacks of the S trap before making a decision.
Advantages and disadvantages of P trap
When it comes to plumbing systems, the P trap has its own set of advantages and disadvantages. Understanding these can help you make an informed decision for your home improvement projects. Let’s delve into the pros and cons of the P trap.
1. Prevention of Sewer Gas Backflow: One of the primary advantages of the P trap is its ability to prevent sewer gas backflow. The shape of the trap creates a water barrier that stops odorous gases from entering your living space. This feature ensures a healthier and more pleasant environment for you and your family.
2. Efficient Water Seal: The P trap relies on a substantial amount of water to form a seal, preventing sewer gases from escaping. This design allows for an efficient water seal that minimizes the risk of foul odors in your home. By maintaining the water level, the P trap effectively traps debris and prevents clogs from occurring.
3. Versatile Installation: P traps can be installed in a variety of locations, including sinks, showers, and toilets. This versatility means that the P trap can be adapted to different plumbing configurations, making it a popular choice for both residential and commercial applications.
4. Easy Access for Cleaning: Another advantage of the P trap is the ease of access when it comes to cleaning. The curved design allows for debris to collect in the trap, and it can be easily removed for cleaning or unclogging. This accessibility simplifies maintenance and ensures optimal functionality of your plumbing system.
1. Potential for Trap Siphoning: One disadvantage of the P trap is the potential for trap siphoning. This can occur when the trap is not properly vented, or when multiple fixtures are connected to the same drain line. Trap siphoning can break the seal and allow sewer gases to enter the living space. Proper venting and careful installation can mitigate this risk.
2. Limited Space: The shape and structure of the P trap can sometimes be a hindrance in tight spaces. The trap’s curved structure requires more vertical space compared to other trap designs like the S trap. This can pose challenges in certain installation scenarios, where space constraints may limit the use of a P trap.
3. Complexity in Installation: Installing a P trap may require additional plumbing knowledge and skills. The curvature of the trap, along with the need for proper venting, can make the installation process more complex compared to other trap designs. Hiring a professional plumber or seeking guidance from experienced DIYers is recommended to ensure a correct and efficient installation.
4. Potential for Debris Build-up: While the P trap is efficient in trapping debris, it is not immune to the possibility of buildup over time. Accumulated debris can lead to clogs and hinder the proper functioning of your plumbing system. Regular cleaning and maintenance are essential to prevent this issue and to keep your P trap working optimally.
By weighing the advantages and disadvantages of the P trap, you can determine whether it is the right choice for your specific plumbing needs. Remember to consider factors such as installation requirements, space constraints, and maintenance demands before making your decision.
Comparison of water flow efficiency
One of the essential considerations when it comes to choosing between an S trap and a P trap for your plumbing system is their water flow efficiency. The efficiency of water flow through a trap can affect the overall performance and functionality of your plumbing system.
In terms of water flow efficiency, both the S trap and P trap serve their purposes effectively. However, there are certain differences in their design that can impact how efficiently water flows through them.
The shape and structure of the S trap are such that it can cause restrictions in water flow. As the name suggests, the S trap has a shape resembling the letter “S” and consists of a downward bend followed by an upward bend. This design can lead to reduced water flow due to the level of friction created within the trap.
On the other hand, the P trap offers a more direct path for water flow. Its U-shaped structure allows water to flow smoothly, with minimal obstruction. This design helps prevent the buildup of debris and allows for faster movement of water through the trap.
When it comes to water flow efficiency, the P trap is generally considered superior to the S trap. The direct flow path of the P trap minimizes the chances of clogs and allows for a more effective drainage system. This efficiency can be particularly important in areas where there is a higher volume of water flow, such as in bathrooms or kitchens.
It is important to note that the efficiency of water flow can also be influenced by other factors, such as pipe size and positioning. Therefore, it is essential to consider these factors in conjunction with the choice between an S trap and a P trap.
In conclusion, when comparing the water flow efficiency of an S trap and a P trap, the P trap is the preferred choice. Its U shape and direct flow path allow for a more efficient drainage system, minimizing the chances of clogs and ensuring smooth water flow. However, it is crucial to consider other factors such as pipe size and positioning to optimize the overall efficiency of your plumbing system.
Comparison of prevention against sewer gases
A crucial aspect of any plumbing system is its ability to prevent the escape of sewer gases into our homes. This is where both S traps and P traps play a significant role. While they both aim to serve this purpose, there are notable differences in their effectiveness in preventing these unpleasant and potentially hazardous gases from infiltrating our living spaces.
S traps, by design, are more prone to allowing sewer gases to escape. Due to their shape, they have a higher likelihood of losing their water seal, which is vital in preventing the entry of gases. The horizontal length of the outlet pipe in an S trap is a contributing factor to this vulnerability. If not properly installed or maintained, the water can be easily siphoned out, leaving an open path for those odorous gases to invade your home.
On the other hand, P traps are known for their superior ability to prevent sewer gases from entering our living spaces. The shape of the P trap, resembling the letter “P” when viewed from the side, is specifically designed to hold water and create an effective barrier against gas escape. The vertical length of the trap’s outlet pipe helps maintain this water seal and ensures that sewer gases cannot pass through.
Additionally, P traps also provide an added layer of protection by incorporating a vent system. This vent allows air to enter the plumbing system, equalizing pressure and preventing any potential siphoning of water from the trap. This feature strengthens the trap’s ability to maintain the water seal, further enhancing its effectiveness in keeping sewer gases at bay.
It is important to note that while P traps have proven to be more reliable in preventing sewer gas infiltration, proper installation and regular maintenance are still crucial in ensuring their optimal performance. Neglecting these routine tasks can compromise the integrity of any trap, leading to potential issues.
In conclusion, when it comes to preventing the escape of sewer gases, P traps outshine S traps. Their unique design, incorporating a water seal and a vent system, provides an effective barrier against these unpleasant odors and potential health hazards. By choosing a P trap for your plumbing system, you can have peace of mind, knowing that your home is protected from the intrusion of sewer gases.
Maintenance requirements for S trap
Keeping your S trap in good working condition is essential to maintain a healthy and functional plumbing system in your home. While S traps have their advantages, they also come with specific maintenance requirements that must be followed.
1. Regular cleaning: Due to its unique shape, S traps tend to accumulate debris and waste over time. It is important to regularly clean your S trap to prevent clogs and ensure smooth water flow. You can use a plumber’s snake or a drain cleaning solution to clear any obstructions.
2. Check for leaks: S traps, like any other plumbing component, can develop leaks over time. It is crucial to inspect your S trap periodically for any signs of leakage. Look for water stains or dampness around the trap and address any issues promptly to prevent further damage.
3. Ventilation maintenance: S traps rely on proper ventilation to maintain the water seal and prevent sewer gases from entering your home. Ensure that the vent pipe connected to your S trap is free from obstructions like leaves, debris, or bird nests. Regularly check and clean the vent pipe to ensure uninterrupted airflow.
4. Inspect the seal: The water seal in an S trap helps prevent sewer gases from escaping into your living space. Check the seal periodically to ensure it is intact and working effectively. If you notice any water evaporation or foul odors, it may indicate a compromised seal that needs to be addressed promptly.
5. Professional inspection: In addition to regular maintenance, it is advisable to have a professional plumber inspect your S trap periodically. They can assess the condition of the trap, check for potential issues, and recommend any necessary repairs or replacements.
By following these maintenance requirements, you can ensure the longevity and efficient functioning of your S trap. Taking proactive measures will not only prevent costly repairs but also contribute to a healthy and odor-free environment in your home. Remember, maintaining your S trap is an integral part of overall home improvement and plumbing system care.
Maintenance requirements for P trap
The P trap is a crucial component of any plumbing system, as it prevents sewer gases from entering your home while allowing wastewater to flow freely. To ensure its proper functioning, regular maintenance is necessary. Here are the key maintenance requirements for P traps that every homeowner should know.
1. Cleaning the P Trap
Over time, debris, hair, grease, and soap scum can accumulate in the P trap, leading to clogs and foul odors. Regularly cleaning the trap is essential to prevent these issues. Start by placing a bucket under the trap to catch any water or debris that may spill out. Then, unscrew the slip nuts that hold the trap in place, and gently remove it. Use a brush or a pipe cleaner to scrub away any residue and buildup. Once clean, reattach the trap tightly to prevent leaks.
2. Checking for Leaks
It’s essential to regularly inspect your P trap for any signs of leaks. Leaks can occur due to loose connections, worn-out washers, or cracks in the trap itself. Inspect the trap visually and feel for any dampness or water droplets along the connections. If you notice any leaks, tighten the connections or replace the washers as necessary. In case of a cracked trap, it’s best to replace it entirely to prevent further water damage.
3. Preventing Freezing in Cold Climates
In regions with cold climates, P traps can be prone to freezing during the winter months. When water freezes, it expands, potentially causing the trap to crack. To prevent freezing, you can insulate the trap using pipe insulation or heat tape. Be sure to follow the manufacturer’s instructions carefully to ensure proper insulation and avoid any fire hazards.
4. Regular Plumbing System Inspections
Including the P trap in regular plumbing system inspections is crucial. Hire a professional plumber to conduct an annual or bi-annual inspection to identify any potential issues with your P trap or other plumbing components. They will be able to detect leaks, cracks, or other malfunctions that may have gone unnoticed.
5. Education and DIY Troubleshooting
While it’s important to have professional help with your plumbing system, educating yourself about basic troubleshooting can save you time and money. Understanding how the P trap works and how to identify common issues will enable you to perform simple tasks like unclogging the trap or tightening loose connections. Additionally, learning about potential warning signs and when it’s time to call a professional will help you take prompt action and avoid costly repairs.
By following these maintenance requirements for your P trap, you can ensure its longevity and optimal performance. Your efforts will not only keep your plumbing system functioning smoothly but also contribute to a healthier and more comfortable living environment for you and your family. Remember, a little maintenance goes a long way in preserving the efficiency and effectiveness of your P trap.
Common applications and suitable scenarios for S trap
The S trap is a plumbing fixture that has been widely used in various applications due to its versatility and effectiveness. Understanding the common applications and suitable scenarios for S traps can help homeowners and plumbers make informed decisions when choosing the right trap for their plumbing system.
One of the primary applications of an S trap is in residential bathrooms. It is commonly installed beneath sinks and basins to prevent sewer gases from escaping into the living space. The S shape of the trap creates a water seal that blocks the passage of odors, ensuring a hygienic and odor-free environment.
In addition to bathrooms, S traps are also commonly used in kitchen sinks. They play a vital role in preventing food particles and grease from clogging the plumbing system. The design of the S trap allows for easy removal and cleaning, making it a convenient choice for kitchen applications.
Another suitable scenario for an S trap is in laundry rooms where washing machines are installed. These traps effectively prevent foul odors from entering the room and ensure the proper functioning of the drainage system. The S trap’s simplicity and effectiveness make it a reliable option for laundry room applications.
Furthermore, S traps are suitable for some commercial settings. They are often found in public restrooms and hotels, where multiple fixtures need to be connected to the main drainage system. S traps provide an effective means of preventing sewer gases from entering these commercial spaces, ensuring the comfort and safety of visitors.
It is worth noting that S traps are less commonly used in modern plumbing installations due to their limitations. Building codes and regulations often require the use of P traps in new construction projects. However, for older homes or situations where the use of P traps is not feasible, S traps remain a viable option.
In summary, the S trap has a wide range of applications and is suitable for various scenarios. Its effectiveness in preventing sewer gases and its ease of maintenance make it a popular choice for residential bathrooms, kitchen sinks, laundry rooms, and certain commercial settings. Although its use may be less common in modern construction, the S trap remains a reliable and versatile option for those seeking a practical plumbing solution.
Common applications and suitable scenarios for P trap
The P trap is a widely used plumbing fixture that is found in a variety of applications. Its unique shape and design make it an ideal choice for many different scenarios in both residential and commercial settings. Here are some common applications where the P trap is often used:
1. Bathroom sinks: One of the most common applications for the P trap is in bathroom sinks. Its curved shape allows it to fit perfectly underneath the sink, providing a barrier between the drain pipe and the sewer system. The P trap effectively traps water inside the bend, preventing unpleasant odors from entering the bathroom.
2. Kitchen sinks: Just like in bathroom sinks, the P trap is commonly installed in kitchen sinks. It prevents food particles and debris from flowing down the drain pipe and clogging the plumbing system. The P trap also plays a crucial role in preventing sewer gases from entering the kitchen area, ensuring a clean and odor-free environment.
3. Bathtubs and showers: Another important application for the P trap is in bathtubs and showers. It helps to trap hair, soap scum, and other debris that may accumulate over time. Without a P trap, these substances could easily clog the drain pipe and cause water to back up, leading to costly repairs.
4. Washing machines: P traps are often used in laundry rooms where washing machines are installed. They prevent the foul smell of sewer gases from entering the space and keep the wastewater flowing smoothly from the machine to the plumbing system.
5. Utility sinks: Utility sinks found in basements, garages, or laundry rooms also benefit from the installation of a P trap. These sinks are often used for heavy-duty tasks such as washing paintbrushes, gardening tools, or even small pets. The P trap prevents any debris or contaminants from entering the plumbing system, maintaining its functionality and preventing potential blockages.
6. Commercial applications: The P trap is not limited to residential settings; it is widely used in commercial buildings as well. Restaurants, hotels, and other businesses rely on the P trap to maintain a hygienic environment in their kitchens, restrooms, and other facilities.
In conclusion, the P trap is a versatile plumbing fixture that finds its place in various applications. Its ability to trap debris, prevent sewer gases from entering the living or working space, and maintain the proper functioning of the plumbing system makes it an essential component in any home or commercial building. Whether it’s a bathroom sink, kitchen sink, bathtub, shower, or utility sink, the P trap plays a crucial role in ensuring clean and efficient plumbing operations.
Cost considerations for S trap
When it comes to home improvement projects, cost is often a significant factor to consider. If you are contemplating installing an S trap in your plumbing system, it is essential to understand the cost implications involved.
One of the primary cost considerations for an S trap is the initial installation. Compared to a traditional P trap, the installation of an S trap can be more complicated and time-consuming. The unique shape and structure of the S trap require careful positioning and alignment to ensure proper functionality. This may result in higher labor costs if you hire a professional plumber to handle the installation.
Additionally, the materials used for an S trap may vary in price compared to those used for a P trap. While both traps typically utilize PVC or ABS plastic, the specific design and configuration of an S trap may require additional fittings or adaptors, leading to increased material costs. It is crucial to factor in these additional expenses when budgeting for your home improvement project.
Another cost consideration for an S trap is its maintenance requirements. Due to its design, an S trap is more prone to clogs and blockages, which may require professional intervention to resolve. Engaging a plumber to clear the blockage can incur additional costs over time, making it essential to weigh the maintenance expenses when deciding between an S trap and a P trap.
On the brighter side, S traps tend to be more affordable than P traps in terms of their overall cost. Since they are relatively simpler in design, they often come at a lower price point. If you have a tight budget for your home improvement project, installing an S trap may be a more financially viable option.
Ultimately, when considering the cost of an S trap, it is crucial to weigh the initial installation expenses, ongoing maintenance requirements, and overall affordability. It is advisable to consult with a professional plumber or contractor to assess your specific plumbing needs and determine the most cost-effective solution for your home.
In conclusion, while an S trap may have some unique cost considerations in terms of installation and maintenance, it can still be a viable and cost-effective option for your plumbing system. By carefully considering your budget and consulting with professionals, you can make an informed decision that balances both functionality and affordability.
Cost considerations for P trap
As we continue our exploration of the differences between S traps and P traps, it is important to consider the cost implications of each option. While both traps serve the same basic purpose of preventing sewer gases from entering your home, they differ in terms of their cost considerations.
When it comes to the P trap, one of its advantages lies in its affordability. P traps are typically less expensive to purchase and install compared to S traps. This is primarily due to their simpler design and the fact that they require fewer components. The straightforward structure of a P trap also means that it can be easily installed by homeowners without professional assistance, further reducing costs.
Additionally, the materials used in constructing a P trap tend to be more cost-effective. P traps are commonly made of PVC (polyvinyl chloride), a durable and affordable material that is widely available in the market. This accessibility and affordability make P traps a practical choice for those on a tighter budget.
Another cost consideration for P traps is their maintenance requirements. P traps are relatively easy to clean and maintain, which means homeowners can perform regular maintenance themselves without the need to hire a professional plumber. This can significantly reduce long-term maintenance costs.
However, it is important to note that the cost of a P trap can vary depending on the specific design and brand. Higher-end P trap options, such as those made from more durable materials like chrome-plated brass, may come with a higher price tag. Therefore, it is essential to consider your budget and personal preferences when selecting a P trap.
In conclusion, when it comes to cost considerations, the P trap proves to be an economical choice. Its affordability in terms of both initial installation costs and long-term maintenance makes it a practical option for homeowners looking to improve their plumbing systems without breaking the bank.
In conclusion, understanding the differences between S traps and P traps is crucial for anyone involved in home improvement or plumbing projects. These two types of traps serve the essential function of preventing sewer gases from entering our living spaces, but they differ in shape, structure, installation variations, advantages, disadvantages, and maintenance requirements.
S traps are older in design and typically have a bent pipe resembling the letter ‘S’. They are commonly used in older homes and have a simple installation process. However, S traps are prone to siphonage, which can lead to the loss of water seal and allow sewer gases to escape into your home. Furthermore, the maintenance requirements for S traps can be more challenging due to their shape and potential for blockages.
On the other hand, P traps are the standard in modern plumbing systems due to their efficiency and effectiveness in preventing sewer gas leaks. They have a distinctive P-shaped pipe that retains a water seal to block gases. P traps also offer more flexibility in terms of location and installation variations, making them suitable for a wide range of plumbing applications.
When it comes to water flow efficiency, P traps have an advantage over S traps. The design of the P trap allows water to flow freely, reducing the likelihood of blockages. Additionally, the P trap’s shape prevents siphonage, ensuring a reliable water seal and preventing sewer gases from entering your home.
Considering cost, both S traps and P traps are generally affordable and readily available. However, it is important to note that some specialized or high-end P traps may have a higher price tag compared to regular S traps. Therefore, when making a decision, it’s important to consider your specific needs, budget, and the overall efficiency of the trap.
In summary, while both S traps and P traps serve the same purpose of preventing sewer gas leaks, P traps offer numerous advantages in terms of design, water flow efficiency, and installation variations. They have become the industry standard, widely used in modern plumbing systems. However, in some cases, such as older homes, where S traps may already be in place, proper maintenance and care can still ensure their functionality.
Regardless of the trap you choose, it is essential to consult with a professional plumber or home improvement expert to ensure proper installation and adherence to local building codes. By understanding the differences and functions of S traps and P traps, you can make an informed decision for your home and plumbing needs, ultimately ensuring a safe and odor-free living environment for you and your loved ones.


November 17, 2015
The House on Monday is scheduled to vote on a pared-back version of a Federal Communications Commission process reform bill that has attracted bipartisan support.
The bill differs from one passed out of committee in June that contained amendments opposed by Democrats that would have required the FCC to publish the exact text of proposed rules at least three weeks ahead of a vote.
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Chief Operating Officer Lloyd Parker has announced that Michael Tedesco has been named WAY-FM/Portland General Manager.Posted on October 21, 2019
The Communications Workers of America has told Congress it should renew the STELAR law that gives satellite carriers...Posted on October 21, 2019
Christians in north-central Algeria were kicked out of their churches Wednesday by police...Posted on October 21, 2019
Authorities in eastern China have destroyed a megachurch and detained its pastors this weekend in an “escalation of religious persecution...Posted on October 21, 2019


AIR pollution will continue to kill hundreds of people every year in the North-East for at least another decade, the Government has admitted.
Ministers had predicted that European limits on deadly nitrogen dioxide – mainly from vehicle exhausts – would be achieved in the biggest urban areas by 2020.
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Meanwhile, separate figures put the current number of “excess deaths” from nitrogen dioxide and other particulate gases across the region at 1,273 every year.
However, the highest number of people die annually in County Durham (223), followed by Sunderland (143) and Newcastle (124) and Gateshead (99).
Three years ago, the department for the environment, food and rural affairs (Defra) predicted that nitrogen dioxide targets would be hit in Teesside and Tyneside in this decade.
Its assessment read: “The annual limit value is likely to be exceeded in 2010 and in 2015 but achieved by 2020.”
However, revised estimates buried on Defra's website have put back that target until 2025 - blaming the delay on higher-than-expected emissions from diesel cars.
Diesel has replaced petrol in many cars – because it produces less carbon dioxide, blamed for climate change - but emissions of nitrogen dioxide are higher.
To the Government’s embarrassment, the original deadline set by the European Union for meeting the limits was 2010.
Jenny Bates, of Friends of the Earth, said: “Failure to meet air pollution limits in our major cities would have serious impacts on the health of thousands of people.
“These air quality rules should already have been met. Government and councils must make this issue an urgent priority and end this scandal.
“Rapid steps to ban the dirtiest vehicles and cut traffic levels must be taken - and road-building plans that will simply add to the problem should be abandoned.”
The EU’s air quality directive sets a limit of no more than 40 micrograms of nitrogen dioxide per cubic metre of air that we breathe, as an annual average.
But, according to the Defra figures, that figure will be 69 in Teesside in 2015 (Tyneside 68), falling to 47, in 2020 (Tyneside 46) and – finally – to 38, in 2025 (Tyneside 36).
The European Court of Justice will rule by the end of the year on what action Britain needs to take.
A Defra spokesman said: “As our understanding of nitrogen dioxide evolves this must be reflected in our projections, which is why we have revised these figures.
“Work is under way to ensure compliance with EU limits in the shortest possible time.”
Number of annual 'attributable deaths' throughout region (age 25-plus)
- County Durham 223
- Darlington 47
- Gateshead 99
- Hartlepool 43
- Middlesbrough 68
- Newcastle 124
- Redcar & Cleveland 61
- South Tyneside 84
- Stockton-on-Tees 77
- Sunderland 143
- Craven 24
- Hambleton 34
- Harrogate 68
- Richmondshire 17
- Ryedale 23
- Scarborough 56
- York 82
- Total 1,273


Lexus introduced the LX 570 Supercharger in Oman recently. Sadayoshi Koyari, Product Planning, Chief Engineer, Lexus speaks about the product which has exclusively been engineered for the Middle East in an interview with Mayank Singh .
There is a lot of excitement around the LX570 Supercharger. Can you tell us about the product and its salient features?
The unique features of the vehicle are its power which is driven by a 450 horse power engine, torque, exterior design and attractive interiors.
It is a limited edition that is being offered only in the Middle East. What is the reason for this exclusive regional launch?
Our relationship with the Middle East customer is a long and trusted one and we wanted to do something special for them which is why we decided to introduce this distinctive model in the region. The Supercharger is being built on a production line that is outside the regular line and exclusively developed for the Supercharger.
How many cars will you be supplying to the Middle East?
We will be supplying only 200 cars all across the Middle East region.
Tell us something about the exterior design and internal features?
The Supercharged Lexus LX570 flaunts unique black colours on the front including the radiator grille, lower grille, front bumper, headlamps and fog lamps bezel. On the side, the changes will reflect on the outside mirror, 20″ alloy wheels, door side moulding, roof rail and exclusive emblem. At the rear, the black hue enhances the look on the rear bumper, rear combination lamps, exclusive emblem, back door garnish and sport muffler.
On the inside too several features have been rolled out for the Supercharged LX570 from aluminium sport pedal for the accelerator and brake and the smart key feature, to a large metal plate with the Supercharger logo and illumination arranged on the inner scuff plate. For sumptuous luxury and convenience, the LX570 comes equipped with several features. In terms of interiors, personalised comfort and craftsmanship can be found throughout the cabin. The driver’s power seat features heating and available ventilation, along with 12-way adjustability. The supple leather trim is crafted from the highest-quality full-grain stocks, including available semi-aniline leather and the exclusive mahogany wood accents are individually selected for consistent colour and grain.
The Supercharger is available in four exterior colours – white pearl crystal shine, mercury gray mica, platinum silver metallic and starlight black glass flake. For the interior – ivory, black, saddle tan and black and garnet and black are available along with a red option exclusively offered for the Supercharged LX570.
Though the engine capacity is larger, the horsepower is less than the Porsche Cayenne or the Range Rover. Why is this so?
We are not looking at competing by increasing the horse power, so we have prioritised the torque to keep the current reliability. The horsepower has improved compared to the normal models but we are not keen on only improving the horsepower.
Has the injection system of the car changed?
The system is the same, but the details have changed. For example, the injection quantity at a one time has been improved, by controlling the programming.
Has the cooling systems been changed to suit the high temperatures of the Middle East region?
Yes it has been changed.
What about the suspension system?
It has been refined and been made better.
What about the braking system?
The braking pads have been changed, for improved performance.
Has the vehicle been designed and developed at the Toyota Research and Development (TRD) Lab?
The Lexus Supercharger is the same as the one developed in the US TRD, but the final touches and tunings to adjust it for the Middle East market has been done at TRD.
How important is the Middle East market for Lexus?
In terms of the Supercharger it has only been introduced in the Middle East, as an appreciation of the Middle East customer and to celebrate the 25th anniversary of the brand. The LX sell more in the Middle East compared to any other region, so as a region it is very important for Lexus.
If the Supercharger does well in the Middle East will you be introducing it in other markets too?
No there are no such plans as of now.
How is LX been doing worldwide?
In 2013, we sold 29,000 units globally, out of which 16,000 units were sold in the Middle East, which is more than 50 per cent of our global sales. In 2012 and 2013 the number of units sold was a shad less than in 2011.
Are you selling both the LX and the supercharger simultaneously in the market?
There are going to be three grades -luxury, sports and the Supercharger which is limited to 200 vehicles. So if people miss out on the Supercharger, they can go in for the sports or the luxury iterations.
Have the sales started for the Supercharger in the Middle East?
Yes. Sale and deliveries have started and our dealership in Oman – The Saud Bahwan Group – has already delivered cars in Oman. We expect to provide Oman with five to six cars very month.
The Lexus range has undergone a change in its look and feel in the last couple of years, what has necessitated this change?
The distinguishing feature of the Lexus is the Spindle Grille, though the shape varies from the GS to the IS. In 2013, the GS went through a moderate change and now almost our entire line up has the Spindle Grillle.
What can customers expect in terms of design changes and new products from Lexus? Is there anything else that you are planning in the next two years?
There is the new NX and the new RC Coupe and the RC F Sport which were displayed at the Tokyo Motor Show in November 2013.
What about environmentally friendly cars?
Environmentally friendly cars are being driven by regulatory issues and this is an important issue which we are considering deeply. We are looking at bringing in models that offer better fuel efficiency. The complete idea is on the table and it will be discussed. Lexus has the biggest line-up of hybrids. We started hybrids way back in 1992 and we have sold over six million hybrid worldwide including Toyota and Lexus. We are the pioneers in terms of hybrids and carbon emissions. Now we are creating the fuel cell using hydrogen, so we are very pro-active when it comes to being environmentally friendly. We have hybrid models in GS, LS and RX models. So almost half of our line-up offers hybrids. For us hybrids are not only about fuel efficiency or carbon dioxide emissions but also about performance, because you have the conventional engines and also the electrical motor. So we are achieving a balance between fuel efficiency, carbon emissions and performance at the same time.
What would you like to convey to the Omani customer, regarding the Supercharger?
The LX Supercharger is a reflection of our appreciation of the Middle East customer, who is the biggest supporter of the LX globally. That’s why we decided to introduce the LX Supercharger in the region as a limited edition. Globally, circumstances have started to change, but even in that situation we want to improve the product itself, to make the customer more satisfied. That’s why we need more feedback from customers in the market to utilise it for the next planning stages.
Can you share global turnover figure for Lexus?
In 2013, we sold 533,000 worldwide. Our three biggest markets are the US, China and the third group which includes Japan, Europe and the Middle East.


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The extremely gorgeous Mbong Amata, who was the estranged wife of prolific film maker and movie director Jeta Amata recently opened up on the life and times of her five year marriage, which sadly packed up a while back.
She spoke for the first time about her ended marriage in an interview with Encomium mag this week. She described the father of her 5 year old daughter as a friend for life.
"I have a lot of great and fond memories. I had more fun than bad memories with my former husband. I was first married to my friend before a husband. That was why we were civil enough to know that even if the marriage didn't work, we were still friends and that is the bedrock of whatever it is that we have. We are connected for life. We have a child together. Yeah, we are cool, He is my guy. Jeta is a great man, fantastic dad but life has to move on".
The actress said she is currently not in any relationship and getting married again wasn't in the cards for her at the moment as her main focus now is to raise her daughter and her career. When asked what really happened to their marriage, she said 'life happened'

domain: celebrity


text:
What are stem cells and how/why are they so important in the future of medical research? Cite examples with evidence using proper format. Include at least one quote.
Will the next generation think about diseases like Alzheimer’s and diabetes the way we think about polio and the whooping cough? Susan Solomon, the co-founder of the New York Stem Cell Foundation (NYSCF), certainly hopes so. In this fascinating talk from TEDGlobal 2012, Solomon delves into the foundation’s work on research with stem cells, which she calls the “black boxes for diseases.”
“[Stem cells] are our bodies’ own repair kits. They are pluripotent, which means they can morph into all of the cells in our bodies,” says Solomon. “Right now there are some really extraordinary things that we are doing with stem cells that are completely changing the way we model disease, our ability to understand why we get sick and even develop drugs. But … this field has been under siege, politically and financially.”
While much of the fray is about embryonic stem cells — still the…
View original post 1,035 more words

domain: news


Viewers of Mzansi’s most loved cheating reality TV show, Uyajola 9/9 took to social media on Sunday evening to share a few laughs together, while the host of the show, Molemo “Jub Jub” Maarohanye and the crew helped their guests in exposing the infidelity that goes on in their relationships.
The first episode of the show featured Zikhona who reached out to Jub Jub and his team to find out what is really going on in her partner’s life after wondering for some time why he has been distant.
After doing some thorough investigating, the Uyajola 9/9 team located Zikhona’s partner’s whereabouts, and it turned out that he was on a date with another woman.
Frustrated, Zikhona attempted to attack her boyfriend’s side chick, but was held back by a few men from the Uyajola 9/9 team.
Zikhona’s partner tried to flee the scene but Jub Jub stopped him and reminded him that he had a bill to pay from the date he was on with his other partner.
The shocking revelation from the first episode of the show was that the side chick had previously been in a relationship with Zikhona’s boyfriend’s brother.
The second episode of the show left viewers shocked and suspecting that the couple featured on the show are in an abusive relationship.
Nomthetwa reached out to Jub Jub and the team to help her find out whether her boyfriend has been faithful in their relationship or not.
After doing some investigating, it was revealed that Nomthetwa’s boyfriend had been seeing another woman behind her back.
When she and the team arrived at her boyfriend’s location, Nomthetwa found her partner with another woman and chased after her.
Once she had gotten away successfully, Nomathetwa pulled her partner to the Uyajola 9/9 bus and said they would be in isolation for a full month to ensure he does not leave the house to go see other women.
Her partner also promised that he would never cheat again.


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Whitehorse, Montana: The Clementine Sisters
by B.J. Daniels
Cowboy Justin Calhoun is thrilled to see Chloe Clementine, the girl he has always loved, back in Whitehorse, Montana, for the holidays. Can he protect her from the secret Santa who is sending her dangerous gifts?
MURDER AND MISTLETOE
Crisis: Cattle Barge
by Barb Han
Rancher Dalton Butler and Detective Leanne West must work together to discover who murdered Leanne’s niece and a girl from Dalton’s past. As sparks fly between them, Dalton and Leanne will need to find the murderer before he or she chooses another victim…
HIDE THE CHILD
by Janice Kay Johnson
Psychologist Trina Marr must protect a three-year-old child who is mute after witnessing the murder of her family. After the pair is almost killed, army ranger Gabriel Decker is sent to protect them, but a killer will do anything to stop the only witness to a heinous crime from telling the truth…
Look for Harlequin Intrigue’s November 2018 Box Set 2 of 2, filled with even more edge-of-your seat romantic suspense!
Look for 6 compelling new stories every month from Harlequin® Intrigue!
Join HarlequinMyRewards.com to earn FREE books and more. Earn points for all your Harlequin purchases from wherever you shop.
|File size:||2 MB|
About the Author
USA TODAY Bestselling Author Barb Han lives in N. Texas with her husband, three beautiful children and a spunky Golden Retriever/Poodle mix. She loves romance novels, thriller movies, and cooking. Her favorite hobbies include hiking, swimming, and skiing.
The author of more than ninety books for children and adults, Janice Kay Johnson writes about love and family - about the way generations connect and the power our earliest experiences have on us throughout life. An eight time finalist for the Romance Writers of America RITA award, she won a RITA in 2008 for her Superromance novel Snowbound. A former librarian, Janice raised two daughters in a small town north of Seattle, Washington.

domain: library


text:
I'm glad to say I've never been a 'hard core' bird lister. Of course I use a notebook, so any seawatch or raptor-watch in effect becomes a list, where numbers and weather conditions etc are all duly written down - so I suppose I am a lister in a small way. Certainly when on holiday I always note the number of raptor or seabird species seen. But I've never been a great one for chasing after birds for the sole purpose to add to a list....and in fact if I was ever to make a Devon (forget UK) list it would be notable by the amount of species that have occurred in Devon that were easily twitchable (and I knew about) that I've not bothered to go and see. This is usually because the particular species didn't really interest me, so perhaps I'm a selective lister. Yet I've probably seen more Balearic Shearwaters in Devon than anyone else (so what!), each to their own as they say.
So it was with a wry smile when I read the BOURC's recent announcement here.
Yes, they are adopting the IOC Word list. Seems to make a lot of sense
to me, why not have a world-wide standard, as long as its a good
standard using robust data! I imagine for many listers this throws a bit
of a spanner in the works. Suddenly they are losing birds on one hand
(being re-lumped), while on the other they might be gaining (being
For me there was one particular item of interest and that was the splitting of Fea's Petrel to [Fea's Petrel] Pterodroma feae and Desertas Petrel Pterodroma deserta.
This split was waiting in the wings so to speak for some time, as
suggested by some authorities. But then there is always the problem when
such splits of cryptic species occur - no one can now say they've seen
either [Fea's] or Desertas at sea, as there's too much overlap of
in-field identification features and overlap of range (from translocater
based studies). [Except in the unlikely event a bird is caught and DNA sampled, but then this seems to depend on what criteria are used!]. Same thing happened when the 'Band-rumped Petrels' were
split, the UK lost its accepted Maderian Storm-petrel. So the Fea's
Petrels I saw off the Desertas, Maderia back in 2015 were more than
likely to be Desertas, but will now have to go down as [Fea's] /
Desertas, or better remain as Fea's (more on the [Fea's] in a moment),
likewise, same would apply to the handful of accepted UK Fea's seen
from Scilly pelagics - no longer a species anymore! Interestingly in Flood & Fisher's (2013) Pterodroma Petrels,
they did not split Fea's (into separate species) and to avoid confusion used the term Fea's to
describe the two taxa (sub-species): with separate names Cape Verde
Petrel Pterodroma feae feae and Desertas Petrel Pterodroma feae desertas; a
similar approach to Howell 2012. To me this seems a better way forward
as the two taxa have names associated with their breeding sites and
should they be deemed separate species as IOC suggest avoids confusion.
But.... Flood & Fisher stated that the genetic work by Gangloff et al. (2013),
which used five genes (not just the usual one mitochondrial gene), two
mitochondrial and three nuclear introns, showed a family tree that only
warranted the split of Zino's and Fea's Petrel to species level! So on
whatever grounds the IOC has split Fea's, it would be better to use Cape
Verde Petrel and Desertas Petrel to avoid confusion over names. But is
IOC's criteria robust enough if others disagree and what are the rules? So get ready to call
your next, "think I've got a Zino's / Fea's / Desertas Petrel"!
Fea's-type is probably easier!!
But lets take a step
back. One thing I ask is what is a species anyway? I wonder how many
listers ask that question, they should as its fundamental to their list.
An interesting take on this here (especially the last sentence). Looking on IOC's website I couldn't (easily) find a definition of what they call a species. Surely the most important thing to have available. Are many gull [species] that interbreed and have fertile hybrid young really separate species, or just one super-species? If Yelkouan Shearwater and Balearic Shearwater are breeding on Menorca and producing fertile hybrids ('Menorcan Shearwaters') are they really separate species or is it just a cline across the Mediterranean (as some authorities suggest)? Should they go back to Mediterranean Shearwater? I'm doing myself out of a species or two here!

domain: biology


text:
The Offspring: Take It Like a Man Meaning
No tags, suggest one.
Take It Like a Man Lyrics
Some will feel like you can't find your way
Heaven knows I've seen it all before
Now don't get me wrong
I've seen many a life gone astray
When someone goes
All your bows won't make it any better so let...
Quintessential182 Nov 27th, 2006 11:43pm report
This song is basically about how a person has to fit into the mainstream culture in order to survive in this wonderful world of ours.
The constant refrain of "shut up and take it like a man" is an outside force--or mainstream culture--telling individuals what they need to do in order to "get a life." It's instigation. The rest of the chorus, is used in a similar fashion, as seen through the lyrics, "... you need us to get a life/for your own good/we'll take you by the hand/'cause you need a little more." The verses are in the same vein.
More The Offspring song meanings »
Submit Your Interpretation
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domain: entertainment


text: ESL Resources The Legal Writing Center has extensive ESL resouces available to you, which include handouts and texts, in addition to the other resources available to you from the UMB Student Services' Writing Center and through the external ESL resource links listed below. External ESL Resource Links: Online Education - ESL Reference Materials – A wonderful, comprehensive collection of external links to ESL-oriented resources available on the web, ranging from basic grammar and online pronunciation assistance to advanced learning opportunities, teaching tools, and transitioning of your bilingual family. Provided by Onlinedegrees.org Language Learning Lab - English Language Resources page provided by the University of Illinois at Champaign-Urbana Language Learning Lab - Writers' Workshop page provided by the University of Illinois at Champaign-Urbana. This page contains a separate link to numerous, supplemental ESL Resources. Exercises & Handouts Available through Purdue University's OnLine Writing Lab (OWL) Articles - Available through TESL-EJ (Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language: An Electronic Journal) Grammar and Style Exercises - The Blue Book of Grammar and Punctuation Dave's ESL Cafe Supplemental ESL Resources: Recommended Texts Teresa Kissane Brostoff & Ann Sincheimer, Legal English: An Introduction to the Legal Language and Culture of the United States, ch. 2 (Oceana Publications, Inc. 2000) E. Allan Farnsworth, An Introduction to the Legal System of the United States (3rd ed., Oceana Publications, Inc. 1996) Toni M. Fine, American Legal Systems: A Resource and Reference Guide (Anderson Publishing Co. 1997) Mark E. Wojcik, Introduction to Legal English (International Law Institute 2001) Anne Enquist & Laurel Currie Oates, Just Writing: Grammar, Punctuation, and Style for the Legal Writer, ch. 10 (Aspen Law & Business 2001). Chapter 10 is written for nonnative speakers; it provides a good, quick reference. Diana Hacker, The Bedford Handbook for Writers, ch. 29-31 (4th ed., Bedford Books 1997). Part VI of chapters 29-31 deals with "Editing for ESL Problems." John M. Swales & Christine B. Feak, Academic Writing for Graduate Students: A Course for Nonnative Speakers of English (U. of Mich. 1994). Note: This is not a legal resource, but is a good ESL resource.


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A healthy lawn offers a lot of benefits. It provides a place to relax and spend time with family and friends, helps to provide clean air and cools the surrounding temperature on a hot summer day, aids in trapping pollen and pollutants from the air, and helps control erosion. Whether you are looking to maintain your lawns current status, or it needs a little extra care, GSI Grounds Services can help bring the best out of your lawn.
Our professional lawn care tech's have been providing fertilization and weed control services to residents of Whitehouse for over 25 years! We know the soil, the plants and the environmental factors that affect your lawn. We are locally owned with our shops location in Waterville, OH.
Our 5-step fertilization service program can help keep crabgrass out, get rid of broadleaf weeds and nourish your lawn to aid in cell development (your lawn will bounce back faster from stresses), root development (your lawn will fill in and thicken up) and nitrogen to boost color and growth. One of our professional lawn care technicians will service your lawn about every 7 weeks, though if you have any concerns in between lawn applications, feel free to call our friendly staff in the office so we may assist you further.
Call us today to see how we can help you 567-952-0057

domain: agronomy


text:
Since July 2018, there have been dozens of recalls of hypertension medications containing the drug, valsartan, and just a couple of weeks ago, AurobindoPharma USA, Inc. and Acetris Health LLC issued its own voluntary recall for 39 lots of valsartan products.
The reason for all of these recalls is that the high blood pressure medications may contain a contaminant known as N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA), which is classified as a “likely human carcinogen” (cancer-causing substance). NDMA was found in multiple batches of valsartan tables manufactured by a number of different drug makers. If you or a loved one has taken drugs containing valsartan and have been diagnosed with cancer, you may have cause to file a product liability lawsuit.
Used to treat high blood pressure, valsartan is an angiotensin receptor blocker (ARB), designed to relax blood vessels, which aids in creating an unobstructed flow of blood. In addition to being used to treat high blood pressure, it is also prescribed to reduce the risks for heart attack, stroke, and kidney failure. Valsartan is sold under many brand names including Diovan, Prexxartan, Valturna, and Entresto.
Valsartan is not considered a dangerous medication when free of contaminants, and it produces only mild side effects when taken correctly including light-headedness, muscle weakness, irregular heartbeat, and fainting in some people. However, there is evidence that many valsartan products manufactured since 2014 have been contaminated with NDMA, and as such, hundreds of thousands of people may be at risk for developing serious health issues including cancer.
FDA Recall List
The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is reviewing and investigating the levels of NDMA found in medications containing valsartan. In addition, the agency will be investigating and assessing possible effects on patients who have taken the drugs. The FDA is also said to be looking for possible changes to the manufacturing process that will reduce or eliminate the impurity from future batches of hypertensive medication.
The FDA has emphasized that patients should not stop taking drugs containing valsartan without first speaking to their prescribing physician. The danger of abruptly discontinuing use of this medication greatly outweighs the risks associated with short-term NDMA exposure. Anyone taking valsartan-containing hypertensive medication should contact their healthcare provider right away to discuss alternative medication options.
The FDA has published a comprehensive list of all valsartan-containing products that have been recalled. These valsartan-containing products have not been recalled.
The FDA advises consumers to call 1-800-505-9291 Monday through Friday between 9:00 a.m. and 5:00 p.m. CST or email [email protected] with any questions. If you have been harmed by a dangerous drug or some other recalled defective product, please contact an experienced defective product attorney in your area to schedule a free consultation.

domain: medical


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Smart Loops is now shipping its Dry Studio Kit and Percussion Kit loop libraries in multi-format editions, supporting ACID, REX2, and Apple Loops formats on the same CD. Now musicians with ACID, SONAR, Reason, Cubase, Digital Performer, Logic, Soundtrack, GarageBand, and any other software supporting ACID, REX2, and Apple Loops formats can use Smart Loops libraries to quickly create drum and percussion tracks for their projects.
The Smart Loops Dry Studio Kit CD includes over 300 unique drum loops and individual samples, each in all three formats. The loops have been recorded dry so musicians and producers can add their own effects, and mix the drums the way they want. The individual drum hits are also provided so users can easily add a drum or cymbal to an existing loop to create a new loop. All Dry Studio Kit loops were performed and recorded by Smart Loops founder and session drummer Frank Basile.
The Smart Loops Percussion Kit CD includes over 370 unique loops and individual samples of percussion instruments, including agogo, bata drums, bongos, canjira, claves, congas, tablas, timbales, and other instruments. All loops and samples are performed by international percussionist Eugie Castrillo, who has played with Tito Puente, Steve Winwood, Michael Brecker, Ruben Blades, United Nation Orchestra, Paquito D' Rivera, Michel Camilo, among others. Like the Dry Studio Kit, the Percussion Kit loops have been recorded dry, and the individual percussion hits are also provided.
The Smart Loops Dry Studio Kit and Percussion Kit Multi-format CDs each list for $69 U.S., and area available through music stores worldwide. For a limited time, both Dry Studio Kit and Percussion Kit CDs can be purchased for $39 U.S. from the Smart Loops web site.
For more information, visit their web site at www.smartloops.com

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Setting standards: How the ISSB plans to revolutionise climate reporting
New draft standards that the International Sustainability Standards Board plans to issue at the end of this quarter have the potential to unite a fragmented disclosure space
The relatively young International Sustainability Standards Board (ISSB) is gradually gaining moment within the net zero community.
Initially formed following the COP26 climate conference in Glasgow in 2021, the ISSB set objectives of developing standards for a global baseline of sustainability disclosures, and enabling companies to provide comprehensive sustainability information to global capital markets.
The ISSB is currently in the final stages of drafting its formal approval process, ahead of its publication towards the end of the second querter, followed by implementing the standards in early 2024.
The first focus of the ISSB will be on climate, followed by more general sustainability-linked disclosures.
The standards are being formed under the oversight of the International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS), which formerly unified accounting standards under the oversight of the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB), leaving hopes high for the ISSB.
“I’m a complete optimist about the ISSB”, says Emily Pierce, VP for global regulatory climate disclosure at carbon accounting platform Persefoni.
Prior to joining Persefoni, Pierce was assistant director in the Office of International Affairs at the SEC, where she was responsible for engagement with international regulators on climate-related disclosure issues.
“There's still a journey in terms of raising awareness about the ISSB and the value that it is going to bring to the global markets. One of the really interesting things about it is that it's serving a market need," she continued.
"A problem for many years is that as the voluntary space evolved, a lot of different frameworks evolved, companies were getting competing demands and trying to answer questionnaires for this framework or this score. One investor would ask for one framework and other for another”, Pierce said.
The committee for forming the ISSB is chaired by Emmanuel Faber, known for his sustainability drives while chief executive of Danone, a position which may have contributed to his ousting from the firm in 2021.
Sitting on the Technical Readiness Working Group of the ISSB was Curtis Ravenel, also a senior advisor to the co-chair at the Glasgow Financial Alliance for Net Zero (GFANZ) and secretariat at the Task Force on Climate-related Financial Disclosures (TCFD).
Of how the ISSB came about and what it hopes to achieve, Ravenel said: “Standards such as the ISSB are like Goldilocks; not too hot, not too cold. They can't be too far ahead of the market, but they certainly can't be behind the market."
He pointed out that "at COP 26 there was enough momentum where it made sense for something with the credibility, the reach and the influence of the IFRS to create a sister organization to the IASB around sustainability related data, and with a focus on the financial materiality side.”
Explosion of standards
The ISSB builds on the work of reporting initiatives including the Climate Disclosure Standards Board, the TCFD, the Value Reporting Foundation’s Integrated Reporting Framework and industry-based SASB Standards, as well as the World Economic Forum’s Stakeholder Capitalism Metrics and European Sustainability Reporting Standards (ESRS).
These are far from the only reporting standards out there, with this year also seeing a push in areas such as the Taskforce on Nature-related Financial Disclosures (TNFD) and the Task Force on Inequality-related Financial Disclosures (TIFD).
As to whether there are too many standards out there, Alexandra Mihailescu Cichon, executive vice president at ESG data firm RepRisk, said: “Yes, there are a ton. They're popping up in different thematic areas, and that's on top of the variety of sector specific initiatives going on. Just to try to map all these things and put your head around them can be scrambling for anybody, even for those of us who work day in, day out in this area.”
For instance, ESG Book, a digital platform for ESG data management, disclosure and analytics, boasts access to more than 2000 ESG regulations, 1500 reporting indicators, and 800 authorities.
James Purcell, group head of sustainable frameworks at Credit Suisse (pending forced merger with UBS) and author of Sustainable Investing in Practice, says: “There are too many standards in general. We have as human beings, what's often termed ‘additive bias’, which is when we see a problem, our temptation is to add something rather than take something away. Often what you need is to do the opposite; strip things back.”
While with the distinct potential to be a unifier in the manner of the IFRS and accounting standards, there is still the possibility for the ISSB to simply be yet another reporting standard in the “additive bias” mould, particularly while it remains voluntary in certain jurisdictions and the TCFD reporting standard remains prevalent in the climate space.
As to how the ISSB builds upon and sets itself apart from something such as the TCFD, Ravenel explained: “The TCFD is first and foremost a framework and it is very principles based. Because the field is evolving so quickly, when we designed the TCFD it was intended to be flexible, scalable, and used in different ways by different types of reporting entities.
“If you want to create a standard, it’s very different than a framework, you need a little more specificity, a little more rigour. As the ISSB is much more of a standard, it'll have some more ‘line item required disclosure’, which brings a little more uniformity, a little more comparability and greater coverage.”
The ISSB also builds on the materials produced by the TCFD, such as within scenario analysis.
In November 2022, the ISSB voted to confirm that companies are required to use climate-related scenario analysis to report on climate resilience and to identify climate-related risks and opportunities to support their disclosures.
Criticisms of a perceived dearth in both the quality and quantity of ESG data and rates of reporting have been a bugbear for the concept almost since the inception of responsible investing as a concept.
The ISSB has the potential to be the overarching standard, and serve as a cornerstone of an area of reporting that is still in its infancy.
On whether ISSB is the solution, Martina Macpherson, head of ESG Products at SIX Financial Information, said: “One important source for ESG data providers is usually the self-disclosed information published by companies yearly according to standardised frameworks."
She added: "Different reporting frameworks combined with non-consistent data collection, monitoring and reporting efforts, leads to diverging data and ratings outcomes among information producers and consumers.
“The ISSB's set of standards mark a critical shift that brings climate change and sustainability issues and criteria right onto the agenda and hence aligns the accounting, governance and reporting efforts across an organisation, for financial, and non-financial information, given that IFRS standards are already commonly used for financial reporting.”
The need for ISSB to be an effective reporting standard is pressing.
According to the 2022 TCFD Status Report, only 4% of companies disclosed in line with all 11 of its recommended disclosures and only around 40% disclosed in line with at least five.
On the potential for the ISSB, Pierce states: “These standards can provide a lot of value to how companies can better communicate on these issues, both within domestic markets but also across borders. Investors, are looking to put trillions of dollars into the transition and this gives them a way to get similar information from companies around the globe to support those investment decisions.”


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Aam Aadmi Party's MLA Vinod Kumar Binny has said that Arvind Kejriwal is lying about his alleged demands of a party ticket for Lok Sabha polls.
January 16, 2014
So Sorry: Road to Delhi; not so easy
Modi govt to face trust vote in Lok Sabha, Swami Agnivesh thrashed; more
No-trust motion against Modi government, debate and voting on Friday


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A TOP-level delegation threw the spotlight on Hawick during a recent regeneration meeting.
Chaired by local MSP Paul Wheelhouse, the summit in the Heart of Hawick saw the visit of cabinet secretary for infrastructure and capital investment, Alex Neil MSP, as well as secretary of state for Scotland, Michael Moore MP.
There were also representatives from the community council, business leaders, Scottish Borders Council, housing associations, Scottish Enterprise and VisitScotland.
The focus was on Hawick and Eyemouth, two places identified by the Scottish Agricultural College ‘Rural Scotland in Focus 2012’ study as being among the 20 most economically vulnerable towns in Scotland.
Mr Wheelhouse said: “The need to support the textile industry was a key feature of the discussions regarding Hawick, as was the examination of ideas to stimulate footfall in Hawick town centre where there has been a particular decline. There was a desire to capitalise on the strong community spirit and key assets such as the Heritage Hub, and to ensure that efforts are made to broaden the range of tourist infrastructure for the town and maximise the connectivity of Hawick to the Borders Rail project.
“In both cases, the need for investment in broadband and mobile phone coverage was strongly pressed, to support local businesses and exploitation of tourism opportunities.”
And the SNP politician insisted that the event was not a talking shop. He added: “I appreciate that these types of discussions have been had before and many people remain cynical that nothing tangible ever comes from them, but I believe this meeting marks an important date in the regeneration of both Eyemouth and Hawick and will work closely with those present to ensure that we maintain the momentum we have now established.”


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View Planted Aquascape
Pictures. It's not uncommon for us to consistently rescape our planted aquarium tanks since there are always aquascaping is always evolving and innovative methods of planting aquarium plants along with new. Yes one costs less, but what is actually easier and more.
Iwagumi aquascapes will often use only low foreground plants. Planted aquarium tutorial for easy dutch aquascape. Underwater bonsai driftwood trees are a fun and unique way to create an aquascape layout.
Emphasis is put on the rocks and dutch style aquascapes are about the plants.
The planted tank forum > specific aspects of a planted tank > aquascaping. Beautiful colorful freshwater plants and planted them like dutch aquascape style. Again, what is a completed aquascape and planted tank without a proper co2 supply. To design beautiful aquascapes, there are basic points to bear in mind.


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Keywords: goths -- fiction
Year of publication: 2002
ANTONINA OR, THE FALL OF ROME by WILKIE COLLINS PREFACE In preparing to compose a fiction founded on history, the writer of these pages thought it no necessary requisite of such a work that the principal characters appearing in it should be drawn from the historical personages of the period. On the contrary, he felt that some very weighty objections attached to this plan of composition. He knew well that it obliged a writer to add largely from invention to what was actually knownto fill in with ...
Keywords: 3rd-6th centuries -- Fiction Goths -- Fiction Historical fiction Rome -- History -- Germanic invasions


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This list contains references from the content that can be linked to their source. For a full set of references and notes please see the PDF or HTML where available.
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G. Block (1992). The data support a role for antioxidants in reducing cancer risks. Nutrition Reviews 50, 207–213.
G. R. Buettner (1993). The pecking order of free radicals and antioxidants: lipid peroxidation, α-tocopherol and ascorbates. Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics 300, 535–543.
G. W. Burton , A. Joyce & K. U. Ingold (1983). Is vitamin E the only chain-breaking antioxidant in human blood plasma and erythroycte membranes? Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics 221, 281–290.
G. W. Burton & M. G. Traber (1990). Vitamin E: antioxidant activity, biokinetics and availability. Annual Review of Nutrition 10, 357–382.
R. W. Essenden , A. Hitachi & V. Nagarajan (1984). Measurement of the dipole moment of a peroxyl radical by microwave dielectric absorption. Journal of Physical Chemistry 88, 107–110.
H. Esterbauer , J. Gebicki , H. Puhl & G. Jurgens (1992). The role of lipid peroxidation and antioxidants in oxidative modification of LDL. Free Radical Biology and Medicine 13, 341–390.
R. F. Ferreira , J. Milei , S. Llesuy , B. G. Flecha , H. Hourquebie , L. Molteni , C. de Palma , A. Paganini , L. Scervino & A. Boveris (1991). Antioxidant action of vitamins A and E in patients submitted to coronary artery bypass surgery. Vascular Surgery 25, 191–195.
K. F. Gey , H. B. Stähelin & M. Eicholzer (1993 b). Poor plasma status of carotene and vitamin C is associated with higher mortality from ischaemic heart disease and stroke: Basel Prospective Study. Clinical Investigator 71, 3–6.
B. Halliwell & J. M. C. Gutteridge (1990). Role of free radicals and catalytic metal in human diseases: an overview. Methods in Enzymology 186, 1–85.
D. J. Hunter , J. E. Manson , G. A. Colditz , M. J. Stampfer , B. Redner , C. H. Hennekens , F. E. Speizer & W. C. Willett (1993). A prospective study of the intake of vitamin C, E and A and the risk of breast cancer. New England Journal of Medicine 329, 234–240.
D. R. Janero (1991). Therapeutic potential of vitamin E against myocardial ischemic-reperfusion injury. Free Radical Biology and Medicine 10, 315–324.
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Live music, full cash bar, featured cocktails, Butler passed hors d’ouvres, Artisan Mediterranean display, cheeses, fruits and breads.
An intimate parlor gathering and musical performance to rival no other.
Come, relax and enjoy a live performance in our mansion setting of the Hampshire House.
There will be much for you to enjoy so be sure to stop by.
Cover price for limited tickets $15.-
Does not include alcoholic beverages and ticketing fee. Limited availability so purchase your tickets early no door sales.
*Purchases will appear on statement as Cheers On-line. All sales are non-refundable.


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Originally from the Gulf of Mexico, the Toadfish has already been identified in some Asian countries.
|Toadfish (Opsanus Beta): All About This Species|
The Toadfish ( Opsanus beta ) or Gulf Toadfish as it is known in Central and North America is a carnivorous fish native to the Gulf of Mexico and has very peculiar and unusual characteristics.
It is commonly found in seagrass beds and rocky cuts in coastal bays and lagoons, and in shallows along the open coast. It is so named because it produces a growl like frogs and whistles to attract other frogfish. As with some other fish species, it is the male Toadfish that guards the eggs until they hatch.
They are sometimes marketed fresh or live for human consumption, as in Chinatown (New York), but they are generally considered undesirable and therefore not targeted by any commercial overfishing.
The toadfish is not listed as threatened or vulnerable with the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources ( IUCN ). The IUCN is a global union of states, government agencies and non-governmental organizations in a partnership that assesses the conservation status of species.
Belize; Mexico (Yucatan, Quintana Roo, Tabasco, Campeche, Veracruz, Tamaulipas); United States (Alabama, Florida, Mississippi, Texas, Louisiana); Brazil (Paraná, São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro).
In Brazil, according to the Laboratory of Ecology and Conservation at UFPR , the frogfish is considered an invasive species, probably introduced to the Brazilian coast by human activities. See the publication below:
A hardy fish, the gulf toadfish can stay alive for a long period of time out of water, as well as being able to survive in waters that contain low levels of dissolved oxygen.
Seagrass beds and sand and rock debris located in bays, lagoons and shallow coastal areas provide habitats for the Toadfish. This bottom and slow fish occurs at depths of up to 250 meters. It burrows into the sand or hides among seaweed, running to capture prey.
The Toadfish has no scales and has three lateral lines. The head is large, broad, and flat, with a lower jaw projecting beyond the upper jaw. Fleshy flaps are located along the lower jaw with a blunt maxillary barbel. Tentacles are located along the inner margin of the eye.
The mouth is wide and contains numerous sharp teeth. The large pectoral fins are fan-like, posterior to the pelvic fins. The small pelvic fins are located forward under the chin.
The toadfish has small pelvic fins located forward on the body, while both the anal fin and second dorsal fin are elongated. Males have specialized bladder muscles that are used to produce mating calls.
The prey items of this voracious carnivore include small fish, crustaceans (shrimps and crabs), annelids and molluscs. Barracuda is a natural predator of the Toadfish ( Opsanus beta ).
The frogfish was originally called batrachus tau beta by well-known deep sea ichthyologists G. Brown Goode and Tarleton H. Bean in 1880. It is now recognized as Opsanus beta (Goode & Bean 1880), the scientifically valid name in use today. A synonym that sometimes used to refer to this fish is Opsanus vandeuseni Fowler, 1939.
Toadfish as food
Toadfish ( Opsanus beta ) is considered to be of poor quality, and has been linked to ciguatera poisoning in humans. Ciguatera is a form of ichthyo-poisoning caused by consuming ciguatoxin-contaminated coral fish (a lipid-soluble class of toxins).