text:
|Harry S. Truman|
|33rd President of the United States|
From: April 12, 1945 – January 20, 1953
|Vice President||None (1945–1949)|
Alben Barkley (1949–1953)
|34th Vice President of the United States|
From: January 20, 1945 – April 12, 1945
|Former U.S. Senator from Missouri|
From: January 3, 1935 – January 17, 1945
|Spouse(s)||Bess Wallace Truman|
Harry S. Truman (May 8, 1884 – December 26, 1972), a liberal Democrat from Missouri, was the president of the United States from 1945–1953, taking over when Franklin D. Roosevelt died in April 1945. He made the decision to drop atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in order to force Japan's surrender. Angered at the Soviet Union's seizure of Eastern Europe, he moved away from FDR's détente to a policy of containment, reinforced by the Truman Doctrine (1947) to resist Communist subversion, the Marshall Plan (1948–51) to rebuild and modernize western Europe's economies, and the NATO military alliance of 1949. Truman, advised by Dean Acheson and the State Department, set the policies to oppose the Soviet Union as the Cold War began. Truman was the last president who was a college dropout.
Ignoring Asia, he later saw America's close ally China fall to the anti-American Communists under Mao Zedong in 1949; the US and China fought each other to a draw during the undeclared Korean War, 1950–53. Truman fired his top general, Douglas MacArthur, during this conflict and saw his popularity plunge.
As World War II ended, the massive problem of reconverting the 45% of the economy devoted to war production baffled Truman. Listening to liberal advisers, he refused to end extremely unpopular price controls, and was unable to stop a massive wave of strikes in major industries in 1945–46. Voter dissatisfaction lead to the Republican capture of Congress in 1946; with Senator Robert A. Taft as the conservative Republican spokesman, Congress repealed many of the wartime restrictions on business and lowered taxes. Taft rewrote the labor laws in the Taft-Hartley Act of 1947, balancing the rights of unions, management and the public interest; it became law over Truman's signature and remains in effect.
Truman began with very high popularity ratings, but they plunged to the lowest on record. Democrats were unable to stop his renomination in 1948, but the far left nominated FDR's vice president Henry A. Wallace, and Southern Democrats nominated Dixiecrat J. Strom Thurmond. Observers almost unanimously expected victory for the Republican candidate, Governor Thomas E. Dewey, a liberal from New York. Total astonishment greeted Truman's stunning election victory, as he reassembled the New Deal Coalition for the fifth consecutive victory, pulling in on his coattails a Democratic Congress.
Although the Democrats organized Congress in 1949, the Conservative Coalition of Northern Republicans and Southern Democrats was in control, and Truman was unable to pass much of his liberal Fair Deal program. Nevertheless, he pursued civil rights through executive orders, especially a 1948 order to end racial discrimination in the military. Blacks remained in segregated units, but were to receive equal treatment. Truman's failures to deal with "Korea, Communism and Corruption" forced him to withdraw from reelection in 1952 and gave the Republicans an opportunity to crusade against him and elect Dwight D. Eisenhower in 1952.
Despite his common reputation as a hero for civil rights due to his FEPC efforts, Truman was a lifelong entrenched racist known for anti-black remarks even in his later years, in addition to ties with notorious Mississippi demagogue Theodore Bilbo during the 1930s, as well as deceptively participating in a political maneuver which killed the Anti-Lynching Bill of 1935 (see below).
Overshadowed at first by his predecessor, Franklin D. Roosevelt, Truman established a reputation as a blunt, unsophisticated fighter for the common man, who took responsibility for his actions because, he said, "the buck stops here." His stunning reelection victory in 1948 baffled the experts and has inspired underdogs ever since. He is more popular in the present day than he was when he left office. His policy positions make him an icon for liberals.
- 1 Early life
- 2 Pendergast machine
- 3 Senate
- 4 Presidency
- 5 Domestic affairs
- 6 1948 election
- 7 Second term: Fair Deal
- 8 National security
- 9 Korean War
- 10 Retirement
- 11 Evaluations
- 12 Quotes
- 13 See also
- 14 Further reading: basic books and articles
- 15 Advanced bibliography
- 16 Historiography
- 17 References
- 18 External links
Truman was born on a farm near Lamar, in western Missouri, and grew up on a farm near Independence, Missouri. His grandparents had been Confederate sympathizers who had been rounded up by the Union army in the Civil War. After graduating from high school in Independence, with good skills in history and music, he enrolled in a local business college in Kansas City, Spalding's Commercial College, but dropped out and instead become a bank clerk in Kansas City.
Always a joiner, he was active in the Missouri National Guard. From 1906 to 1917 he managed his father's 600-acre farm at Grandview, Missouri. During World War I his National Guard regiment was mobilized in 1917, he entered the Field Artillery School at Fort Sill, Oklahoma, sailing for France in 1917 as a lieutenant. Truman was soon promoted to captain in Battery D, 129 Field Artillery Battalion, 35th Division, A.E.F., and returned to the United States a major in 1919, after combat at St. Mihiel and in the Argonne offensive. He was in an artillery unit, and learned about gas warfare; he was never wounded, He married Elizabeth "Bess" Wallace on June 28, 1919; they had one daughter, Margaret, who married a New York Times editor. With an army buddy he invested his savings in a Kansas City haberdashery, but this venture was a failure.
Discouraged by his lack of business success and without funds, Truman sought the help of friends. His farm background, his war record, his Masonic connections, his Baptist Church affiliations, and his genial personality recommended him to Thomas J. Pendergast, the Democratic political boss of Kansas City and much of western Missouri. Pendergast, an Irish Catholic, had a strong base among the Irish Catholics and used Truman to reach out to Protestants, farmers and veterans. He made Truman the overseer of highways for Jackson County. Truman biographer David McCullough recounts:
|“||That gambling, prostitution, bootlegging, the sale of narcotics and racketeering were a roaring buisiness in Kansas City was all too obvious. Nor did anyone for a moment doubt that the ruling spirit behind it all remained Tom Pendergast. It was the Pendergast heyday.||”|
In 1922 Truman was elected a county judge; needing some legal knowledge he studied nights for two years at Kansas City Law School; it was his only education beyond high school, although he read history. In the 1924 GOP landslide he was defeated for reelection, but in 1926 he was returned to office as presiding judge of the court, the duties of which also involved administrative supervision of many county expenditures, including $60 million for public works; Truman put only Democrats from the Pendergast machine on the county payroll. In 1924, Truman paid $10 (equivalent to more than $120 today) as a membership fee to join the Ku Klux Klan, but withdrew when he learned that Pendergast, a Catholic, would not support anyone who belonged to an anti-Catholic organization; the Klan then campaigned against Truman.
In 1933, with one call to Washington, Pendergast got the director of the federal reemployment service in Missouri fired, and his job given to Truman. In 1934, Pendergast tapped Truman to run for Senate. In the 1995 biopic Truman, writer Thomas Rickman portrays the dialogue:
|“|| Boss Tom Pendergast: I've got a job for you.
Harry S. Truman: Well, that's mighty nice of you. What's the job, dog-catcher?
Boss Tom Pendergast: How would you like to run for Congress?
Harry S. Truman: Well, Jesus Christ and General Jackson. The answer's yes.
In 1934 Pendergast arranged for Truman's nomination as United States Senator on the Democratic ticket; he was elected in the democratic landslide as a supporter of Roosevelt and the New deal. His first term in office was uneventful, except for a failed effort to prevent the renomination of Maurice Milligan for U.S. District Attorney for the Western District of Missouri; Milligan had obtained the conviction of 35 Pendergast "ward leaders" for vote frauds.
Civil rights record
In 1935, the United States Senate was deadlocked over the Costigan–Wagner Act; Democratic Senate Majority Leader Joseph T. Robinson forced an adjourn motion in late April which failed very narrowly, though political trading brought another motion to pass on May 1; Truman was among the votes which switched into supporting adjourning the chamber, which all but killed the Act from passing.
World War II
He was re-elected in 1940 after a terrific battle against Lloyd Stark, Truman became nationally infamous as chairman of the "Truman Committee". Ostensibly for the purpose of investigating waste, fraud and inefficiency in government contracts, the committee allowed Truman and his associates to interfere in many aspects of Executive policy on the prosecution of the war. The committee frequently tampered with or even canceled contracts with legitimate suppliers of essential war materials when they would not deal with Truman's Kansas City patrons, the Pendergasts. Its formal name was the Senate Special Committee to Investigate the National Defense Program. Nevertheless, he was an energetic and forthright supporter of the New Deal and won widespread party favor for his attacks on business malfeasance in war production. He forced changes in the aircraft and ship construction programs, and worked well with other border state Democrats, especially Alben Barkley of Kentucky, the Majority Leader.
FDR picks a new vice president
In 1944, after Vice-President Henry A. Wallace had been rejected by leading Democrats as too far to the left, Truman supported his friend former senator James F. Byrnes of South Carolina for that office. Catholics vetoed Byrnes, who had left that faith. Truman himself became Roosevelt's choice as a compromise vice presidential candidate, and the two were elected.
Roosevelt had been in ill-health since his return from the Teheran conference. At the 1944 Democratic National Convention in Chicago, DNC Chairman Bob Hannegan went for instructions to President Roosevelt's private railway car just before the July convention officially began. Roosevelt had decided to dump incumbent Vice-President Henry Wallace. Worried over dissension on the choice of a successor, Roosevelt told Hannegan: "Go on down there and nominate Truman before there's any more trouble. And clear everything with Sidney."  The President could not make the selection of Truman until Sidney Hillman, Director of the Political Action Committee for the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) approved it. When Harry Truman walked into the smoke-filled room  of DNC at headquarters at the Stevens Hotel in Chicago, Soviet spies John Abt, Lee Pressman, and Nathan Witt, were on hand."
Roosevelt ignored Truman between the election in November 1944 and the inauguration in January; even as Vice president Truman was not consulted on national policies, and not informed of major decisions, nor of the atomic bomb. Although he realized Roosevelt's health was failing rapidly, he made no preparations for assuming the presidency and did not even build up a staff of advisors. Truman succeeded to the Presidency upon the death of FDR on April 12, 1945.
President Truman pledged that in office he would carry on the liberal domestic policies of Roosevelt. He distrusted most of FDR's cabinet and set about to assemble his own team.
Winning World War II
During his term as President, he presided over the conclusion of World War II in both Europe and Japan. On April 25 his telephoned speech opened the San Francisco Conference establishing the United Nations. A week later Germany surrendered, and from July 17 to August 2, 1945, Truman attended the Potsdam Conference with Britain's Winston Churchill (soon replaced by the new prime minister Clement Attlee) and Joseph Stalin of the Soviet Union.
The alternative Truman faced was to order use of the atomic bomb which might shock the Japanese into surrender, or order the planned invasion of Japan's home islands; casualty estimates for Americans ranged very widely. Casualty estimates for Japan ranged into the millions. Secretary of War Henry Stimson made the real decision: to drop atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Japan immediately surrendered on terms that allowed Emperor Hirohito to stay on the throne and not be tried as a war criminal. Truman put General Douglas MacArthur in charge of occupying and controlling Japan; MacArthur remained in charge until the peace treaty was finally signed in 1951.
Truman kept control of the bomb in civilian hands—the Air Force and State Department did not even know how many bombs existed until 1948, when only eight had been built. The postwar military strategy was not built around nuclear weapons.
Debating the decision
Conservatives and liberals
In general, conservatives and liberals alike have applauded and supported the a-bomb decision because it shortened the war, and prevented hundreds of thousands or millions of casualties. The New Left or "revisionist" interpretation argues that the bomb was not necessary to end the war and that no invasion was necessary. They have no evidence to support that argument. They do have fragments of evidence that give weak support to the argument that one American goal was to intimidate the Soviet Union. The revisionists believe the US should have stayed friends with the Soviets, and that Truman was guilty of starting the Cold War (which they consider a bad thing). Morally the revisionists assume the USA was no better or worse than the Soviets—admitting to Soviet atrocities, they argue that socialism was morally superior to capitalism, which itself was a great evil the US intended to spread. In terms of the bomb, Secretary of State James Byrnes did make some offhand references to influencing Moscow, but his comments did not reflect the policy of the State Department or White House, and certainly not those of Stimson, who was by far the most important decision-maker. Vice President Truman had been kept uninformed about the atomic bomb; he had little interest in military affairs and his chief military aide, General Harry Vaughan, was a drinking buddy likewise unfamiliar with what was happening in the war. Truman, therefore, relied entirely on his Secretary of War, Henry Stimson. At Potsdam he approved the atomic bomb targets selected by Stimson and, on the way home, he authorized the bombing of Hiroshima, Japan, August 6, 1945, and Nagasaki three days later.
How the decision was made
The decision to drop the atomic bomb has been the focus of one of the most heated debates among both scholars and the public since 1945. After 1945 the debate was dominated by "traditionalist" scholars, who argued that the U.S. had no choice but to drop the bomb as a way to bring World War II to an end. The traditionalists were succeeded in the 1960s by "revisionists," who asserted that the dropping of the bomb was done to intimidate Stalin, not end the war. The leading revisionist historians emerged from the "New Left" movement of the 1960s and rejected any notion of the moral superiority of America or capitalism to the Soviet Union. They thought the Cold War and containment were poor policies and generally favored détente, along the lines proposed by Henry Wallace. They include Gar Alperovitz, Barton J. Bernstein, Kai Bird, Diane Shaver Clemens, Bruce Cumings, Richard Freeland, Lloyd Gardner, Gabriel Kolko, Walter LaFeber, Thomas Paterson, Harvard Sitkoff, Ronald Steel, Athan Theoharis, and William A. Williams (the leader of the "Wisconsin School"). The revisionists are not monolithic, but they usually agree that Truman and his advisers were wrong whether the issue is the Cold War, Korea, or the atomic bomb. Revisionists had argued that Truman's goal at Potsdam was to prevent Soviet entry into the war against Japan, and the atomic bomb was used to scare them off. However, in 1983 archivists discovered a letter Truman wrote to his wife from Potsdam on July 18, 1945: "I've gotten what I came for—Stalin goes to war August 15 with no strings on it . . . I'll say that we'll end the war a year sooner now, and think of the kids who won't be killed! That's the important thing."
In the 1990s, a more nuanced historical approach emerged searching for a middle ground, offering a number of more credible studies, essentially arguing that neither the traditional nor the revisionist interpretations were entirely satisfactory.
Reconversion of the economy to peacetime
The process of reconversion to peacetime was rocky. It was impossible to bring soldiers home fast enough, and they and their families protected loudly. All war contract were canceled, shutting down munitions plants and throwing millions of workers (many of them women) out of jobs, just as the 12 million service members were coming home. Truman sought to retain price controls against the vehement opposition of business but yielded somewhat in the face of bitter popular opposition. Large-scale strikes disrupted the economy, especially a coal miners strike and a threatened nationwide strike by railroad workers. He threatened to draft the railroad workers and the strike was called off; unions began to oppose him but he regained union support by his later attempts to veto or repeal the Taft-Hartley labor relations law. Truman's opposition to tax cuts, his insistence on price controls, and his lack of aggressive support of labor programs weakened his party. To voters frustrated with shortages and controls, Truman seemed indecisive and inconsistent; his efforts to deal with a postwar wave of strikes managed to alienate both organized labor and those who wanted more restraints on unions. Voters who normally supported liberal and labor candidates stayed home, resulting in a Republican landslide in 1946, giving the GOP a majority in both houses of Congress. Ohio Senator Robert A. Taft became the main GOP spokesman in Congress, tangling often with Truman.
Gradually Truman created his own administration, using the Fair Deal label to express its goals in domestic affairs. Truman systematically removed the Roosevelt cabinet and inner circle of advisers. The most dramatic episode was firing Henry A. Wallace in 1946 because of his outspoken criticism of the administration's foreign policy as too harsh on the Soviet Union. Liberals saw themselves in a struggle with conservatives for Truman's soul after the 1946 election. Linked to the President through top aide Clark Clifford, these liberals included Oscar Ewing, former party official and director of the Federal Security Agency, Leon Keyserling, member of the President's Council of Economic Advisers, and David Morse, assistant secretary of labor. They embraced the memo plotting 1948 campaign strategy written by former Roosevelt adviser James Rowe, which urged Truman to "move to the left and focus on building a coalition of groups that centered on organized labor, liberals, and northern urban African Americans." Liberals had national support from the Americans for Democratic Action (ADA), led by Walter Reuther, Eleanor Roosevelt, Joseph Rauh, James Rowe, Reinhold Niebuhr, Arthur Schlesinger, Jr., Hubert Humphrey, and Ronald Reagan. The ADA was hostile to the Soviet Union, battled American Communists and fellow travelers like Wallace, and supported the purge of Communists from the CIO labor unions. Truman agreed with the ADA and moved left after 1946.
However he could not tolerate Henry A. Wallace and the far left, which had considerable Communist support. When Wallace, then Secretary of Commerce, in 1946 denounced Truman's tough stand against Stalin, Truman fired Wallace.In 1947 Truman asked Congress for stand-by price controls, rationing, and bank and consumer credit control as parts of an anti-inflation program, but his ideas were ignored by the Republicans who controlled Congress. lynching law, a federal fair employment practices commission, a permanent civil rights commission, and abolition of the poll tax—measures that enraged many Southern Democrats. None of his proposals became law. More successful was Truman's drive to increase the efficiency of the executive branch; he appointed a commission headed by former President Herbert Hoover which recommended numerous changes, including unification of the armed services.
Shift in public image on civil rights
Disgusted by violence against black veterans in the deep South, Truman called for the extension of the wartime Fair Employment Practice Committee (FEPC) program that called for fair employment practices, but Congress refused and it ended. He created the Presidential Commission on Civil Rights in 1946 by executive order (with no congressional approval needed); it recommended desegregation of local public facilities and the removal of restrictive covenants that prevented blacks and Jews from purchasing houses in restricted neighborhoods. The Commission generated attention but no action. Indeed, Congress refused to pass any civil rights legislation before 1957. Truman therefore decided to use his executive powers, and focused on guaranteeing equal opportunity in the military and the civil service.
The Army and Navy operated segregated units, and refused to be part of a "social experiment" in integration. The Air Force, however, was much more willing. Between 1941 and 1951 it went from a segregated force to the first truly integrated service. Key generals became convinced that segregation was a drag on efficiency, and the Air Force decided to integrate in April 1948. before Truman issued his famous Executive Order 9981 on July 26, 1948, calling for equal opportunity in all the armed services. It allowed segregation but called for "equality of treatment and opportunity." In the face of opposition from some high-ranking officers, the Air Force moved cautiously, but by 1951 the last black unit was dissolved and the Air Force was completely integrated. Order 9981 created the Fahy Committee to implement the new policy. Truman's order did not actually integrate the Army—it used segregated units during the Korean War—but it opened the way for integration in the early 1950s. Public opinion was generally favorable except in the deep South (which voted against Truman in 1948).
As the presidential election of 1948 approached, no one thought Truman could be reelected. Truman's policies had alienated left right and center, but the party had no real alternative. Neither Roosevelt nor Truman had groomed a likely successor. Party leaders considered asking Dwight D. Eisenhower to run, but he refused. Liberals led by Hubert Humphrey of Minnesota inserted a strong civil rights plank in the platform, causing a walkout of the deep South. Truman was renominated by default, with Barkley as the vice-presidential candidate. Truman thrilled the convention by announcing his plan to call the Republican-controlled Congress back into special session to "ask them to pass the laws to halt rising prices, to meet the housing crisis--which they say they are for in their platform." When this special session accomplished little, as Truman expected, it gave the president a chance to attack the "Do Nothing" Congress.
Both the left and right wings of the party split off and ran their own candidates. Henry Wallace, the candidate of the Progressive Party, was expected to divert labor, leftist and black votes, while J. Strom Thurmond was the "Dixiecrat" candidate whose supporters controlled the Democratic party in Alabama, Louisiana, Mississippi, and South Carolina. Truman exploited his multiple opponents, driving a wedge between the liberals and the Communists who controlled the Wallace movement, and holding the line in the outer South. Most of all he exploited the difference between the conservative Republicans who controlled Congress, and the liberal Republican candidate Tom Dewey. Truman crusaded against the Republicans as evil rich men, blasting them as fascists and denouncing the 80th Congress for its failure to help the average citizen. "Give 'em hell" fury delivered in 275 speeches over 21,928 train-miles had more impact that Truman's promises of more money for federal housing, higher social security and unemployment benefits, free medical care for everyone, the continued subsidy of farm prices, and a fair deal for minorities. The pollsters misjudged the election, as did all the traditional pundits. Truman rallied enough of the New Deal Coalition to win by 2.2 million votes, and carry in a Democratic Congress on his coattails. The key farm states of the farm states of Iowa, Wisconsin, and Ohio that Dewey had carried in 1944 now switched to Truman, giving a solid victory in the electoral college of 303 for Truman, 189 for Dewey, 39 for Thurmond, and none for Wallace.
Second term: Fair Deal
During Truman's second term as president, he pressed for civil rights legislation, compulsory national health insurance, and other domestic measures that he called his "Fair Deal" program. Almost nothing was passed by Congress, which was controlled by the Conservative Coalition. His seizure of the steel industry to prevent a strike was declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court.
In foreign affairs, Truman brought in Dean Acheson as Secretary of State, and promoted the Point Four program of aid to underdeveloped countries. The policy of containing Communism was set into operation by the 1949 creation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) to oversee the integration of the military forces of its member nations in Western Europe and North America. A further step was taken in 1951 with the establishment of the Mutual Security Agency to coordinate U.S. economic, technical and military aid abroad.
Truman won the farm vote in 1948 by charging the GOP shoved "a pitchfork in the farmer's back", but was unable to get new farm programs passed. His second secretary of agriculture, Charles F. Brannan promoted the Brannan Plan, intended to bring widespread changes to farm policy. Brannan proposed to replace market price supports with direct income payments to farmers. His plan set ceilings on the amount a farmer could receive and limited the program to farmers who did not exceed a set production mark. The Brannan Plan was supposed to foster the "family-sized farm" while providing affordable food for consumers. While Brannan could count on support from the left, especially the National Farmers Union (which was small), labor unions (which were powerful), and consumer groups (which were weak), he was opposed by leading farm economists and the national Farm Bureau (which was large) and the national Chamber of Commerce (representing business). The head of the Farm Bureau decried the plan as intrusive, a form of "creeping socialism," and expensive. The Farm Bureau, dominated by conservatives, resisted any curbs on full agricultural production. A bloc of Midwestern Republican and southern Democratic congressmen opposed replacing market mechanisms with outright government payments to farmers and setting limits on supports to individual farms. The Brannan Plan went nowhere and instead, the conservative farm bloc passed the Agricultural Act of 1949 with high price supports.
Brannan justified his plan of direct assistance to small farmers, by reasserting the importance of the small family farmer as the foundation of American democracy. However, in the Grange small farmers opposed the plan because it too closely resembled welfare and would undermine their self-image as independent yeomen and successful entrepreneurs. Brannan sought to protect the small farmer against competition from the large companies, but the plan was not accepted by Congress because farmers self-image would not allow for welfare.
Truman Doctrine and origins of Cold War
In early 1947 the British government, which was socialist but anti-Communist, secretly told Washington its treasury was empty and it could no longer give military and economic aid to Greece or Turkey, requested the U.S. take over. Acheson convinced Truman to act quickly lest Greece be taken over by its communist partisans who were at the time strongly supported by the Soviet government working through the communist Bulgarian and Yugoslav governments. If Greece fell, Turkey would be helpless and soon the eastern Mediterranean would fall under Stalin's control. In a dramatic message to Congress on March 12, 1947, President Truman said that the U. S. must take immediate and resolute action to support Greece and Turkey. The Republican Congress, after extensive hearings, approved this historic change in U. S. foreign policy in a bill signed May 22, 1947. Thus was born the “Truman Doctrine.” Greece suppressed the insurgents; both Greece and Turkey joined NATO.
Recognition of IsraelTruman usually followed the advice of the State Department in national security matters, largely ignoring the Pentagon and Congress. Israel in 1948, however, he overruled the urgent pleas of the State Department and immediately recognized Israel. State had warned that recognition would anger the Arabs in the Middle East; Truman, however, was more responsive to domestic politics, where support for Israel was widespread.
Truman, a Southern Baptist, sought religious allies in the Cold War. He tried to unite the world's religions in a spiritual crusade against communism, sending his personal representative to Pope Pius XII to coordinate not only with the Vatican but also with the heads of the Anglican, Lutheran, and Greek Orthodox churches. "If I can mobilize the people who believe in a moral world against the Bolshevik materialists," Truman wrote in 1947, "we can win this fight." Since the Roman Catholic Church was his strongest religious ally in the moral battle against international communism, Truman put Rome first in his global strategy, even trying to confer formal diplomatic recognition on the Vatican. At home, he received solid support from Catholics, who were a major element of the New Deal Coalition, but overwhelming resistance from Protestants, especially Southern Baptists who rejected anything "popish." Truman's political-diplomatic effort to formalize a public, faith-driven, ecumenical international campaign failed.
Loss of China
Chiang Kai-shek, America's wartime ally and head of the Nationalist forces in China, was caught between two wars—a war on China by Japan and a war with Mao Zedong and the Chinese Communists. The U.S. policy was to avoid a civil war and to threaten to withhold additional aid to the Nationalists unless they worked out a compromise. No compromise was possible, and Truman refused to send in combat troops to fight the civil war. General George Marshall, who spent a year in China as Truman's emissary, testified that combat aid might have prevented a Communist victory, but General David Barr's military mission to China was specifically instructed not to supply this kind of assistance. General Albert C. Wedemeyer recommended this approach in his report on his 1947 fact-finding mission, but Marshall personally suppressed the report. Chiang believed that the Truman Doctrine to contain the spread of International Communism directed from Moscow would be extended to China, and ordered an offensive as soon as word of the new policy reached him.
Dean Rusk, Assistant Secretary of State in charge of the Far Eastern Division, said on May 18, 1951, what the critics had been saying,
|“||The independence of China is gravely threatened. In the Communist world there is room for only one master. . . . How many Chinese in one community after another are being destroyed because they love China more than they love Soviet Russia? The freedoms of the Chinese people are disappearing. Trial by mob, mass slaughter, banishment to forced labor in Manchuria and Siberia. . . . The peace and security of China are being sacrificed by the ambitions of the Chinese conspiracy. China has been driven by foreign masters into an adventure in foreign aggression.||”|
|“||We do not recognize the authorities in Peiping for what they pretend to be. It is not the government of China. It does not pass the first test. It is not Chinese. . . . We recognize the Nationalist government of the Republic of China even though the territory under its control is severely restricted.…we believe it more authoritatively represents the views of the great body of the people of China, particularly their demand for independence from foreign control….That government will continue to receive important aid and assistance from the United States.||”|
Risks in Korea
Conditions inviting the North Korean attack were created by the United Nations which issued a resolution for withdrawal of both Soviet and American troops. Troops began withdrawing September 15, 1948, leaving only about 7500 Americans lightly armed. This left in South Korea 16,000 Koreans and 7500 Americans, both groups lightly armed, against 150,000 fully armed North Korean Communists. General Roberts, head of the U. S. Military Mission said the South Koreans were not permitted to arm adequately. The Korean part of Wedemeyer's report was suppressed. Wedemeyer said:
|“||American and Soviet forces . . . are approximately equal, less than 50,000 troops each, [but] the Soviet-equipped and trained North Korean People's (Communist) Army of approximately 125,000 is vastly superior to the United States-organized constabulary of 16,000 Koreans equipped with Japanese small arms. The North Korean People's Army constitutes a potential military threat to South Korea, since there is strong possibility that the Soviets will withdraw their occupation forces and thus induce our own withdrawal."||”|
Wedemeyer warned that this would take place as soon as "they can be sure that the North Korean puppet government and its armed forces . . . are strong enough . . . to be relied upon to carry out Soviet objectives without the actual presence of Soviet troops."
Communists inside US
The bipartisan statutory Moynihan Secrecy Commission concluded, "President Truman was almost willfully obtuse as regards American Communism."
Foreign policy: détente to containment
Truman had no knowledge or interest in foreign policy before becoming president, and depended on the State Department for foreign policy advice. Truman shifted from FDR's détente to containment as soon as Dean Acheson convinced him the Soviet Union was a long-term threat to American interests. They viewed communism as a secular, millennial religion that informed the Kremlin's worldview and actions and made it the chief threat to American security, liberty, and world peace. They rejected the moral equivalence of democratic and Communist governments and concluded that until the regime in Moscow changed only American and Allied strength could curb the Soviets. Following Acheson's advice, Truman in 1947 announced the Truman Doctrine of containing Communist expansion by furnishing military and economic American aid to Europe and Asia, and particularly to Greece and Turkey. He followed up with the Marshall Plan, which was enacted into law as the European Recovery Program (ERP) and led ultimately to NATO, the North Atlantic Alliance for military defense, signed in 1949. On May 14, 1948, Truman announced recognition of the new state of Israel, making the United States the first major power to do so.
The Korean War began at the end of June 1950 when North Korea, a Communist country, invaded South Korea, which was under U.S. protection. Without consulting Congress Truman ordered General Douglas MacArthur to use all American forces to resist the invasion. Truman then received approval from the United Nations, which the Soviets were boycotting. UN forces managed to cling to a toehold in Korea, as the North Koreans outran their supply system. A counterattack at Inchon destroyed the invasion army, and the UN forces captured most of North Korea on their way to the Yalu River, Korea's northern border with China. Truman defined the war goal as rollback of Communism and reunification of the country under UN auspices.
On January 12, 1950, Secretary of State Dean Acheson gave a speech to the National Press Club excluding South Korea from the defense perimeter, though Truman denies any wrongdoing on his behalf. Omar Bradley blamed Truman and Acheson in his memoir A General's Life, and historian Bill Shinn concurs. Acheson apologists cite the fact Stalin and North Korea already had contingency plans for invasion of the South; nonetheless Acheson's speech green-lighted a leftist takeover of a country most Americans never heard of, let alone were able to find on a map.
Late in 1950 China intervened unexpectedly, drove the UN forces all the way back to South Korea. The fighting stabilized close to the original 38th parallel that had divided North and South. MacArthur wanted to continue the rollback strategy but Truman arrived at a new policy of containment, allowing North Korea to persist. Truman's dismissal of General Douglas MacArthur in April 1951 sparked a violent debate on U.S. Far Eastern policy, as Truman took the blame for a high-cost stalemate with 37,000 Americans killed and over 100,000 wounded.
Truman fired his ineffective defense secretary Louis Johnson, and brought back George Marshall.
The top-secret NSC-68 policy paper was the grounds for escalating the Cold War, especially in terms of spending on rearmament and building the hydrogen bomb. The integration of European defense was given new impetus by continued U.S. support of NATO, under the command of General Eisenhower. Truman committed the US to contain Communist expansion in Vietnam, where the Communists under Ho Chi Minh were trying to overthrow the French colonial regime. The State Department insisted that France give more autonomy to the Vietnamese. The US paid for about 80% of the French war costs. The problem was that the French were more interested in preserving their grandiose empire, and less interested in stopping Communism, while the US opposed colonial empires and saw Communism as the great threat to world peace and stability.
Following NSC-68, Truman's last four budgets saw expenditures on national security quadruple from $13 billion in 1950 to $50 billion in 1953.
On the political front, revelation of scandals in the Reconstruction Finance Corporation, in the Bureau of Internal Revenue and even the White House opened the administration to attack.
Truman sought reelection in 1952 despite his dismal showing in the polls. He was defeated in the New Hampshire primary by Senator Estes Kefauver of Tennessee, and withdrew. Truman supported Illinois Governor Adlai Stevenson. Eisenhower won the GOP nomination and crusading against the Truman administration's failures regarding "Korea, Communism and Corruption," was elected in a landslide, ending 20 years of Democratic control of the presidency.
Truman returned to his home in Independence, Missouri. He devoted himself to creating the Truman Library there; it was dedicated in July 1957 and is a part of the National Archives. With a staff of assistants, he wrote his memoirs in two well-received volumes, gave many interviews, and intervened occasionally in Democratic national politics on behalf of liberal candidates such as Adlai Stevenson.
He died on December 26, 1972.
Already by the 1960s, Truman had become a hero to liberals and Democrats, nostalgic over the successes of the New Deal Coalition that sputtered and collapsed in the 1960s. Even Republicans came to forget the nasty days and celebrated Truman as the hero of the underdogs and the man who rebuilt Europe through the Marshall Plan and stood up to Communism through NATO.
Truman's reputation among scholars has gone from very low when he left office, to high after 1990. He is now widely considered to have been a tough-minded, decisive, and effective leader who ably guided the nation through the perilous waters of the early Cold War and whose policy of containment essentially laid the foundations for American "victory" in that prolonged conflict in 1989. For many historians, the down-to-earth Midwesterner now merits consideration as one of the greatest American presidents. In recent years presidential aspirants of both parties have claimed Truman as their own, especially if their election chances seem as hopeless as Truman's did in 1948. His reputation has been bolstered by scholarly biographies by Ferrell (1994), Hamby (1995), and especially McCullough's Pulitzer prize-winning popular biography (1992). The in-depth analysis by Leffler (1992), cautiously praised the Truman administration's essential wisdom in handling a myriad of problems.
While Truman's public image was headed up, his reputation among scholars declined in the 1970s. Kirkendall concluded in 1974 that negative appraisals of Truman and his administration "may in fact have become the dominant interpretation, at least among the younger scholars." In terms of foreign policy a strong negative view comes from Offner (2002) who argues that Truman was a "parochial nationalist" whose "uncritical belief in the superiority of American values and political-economic interests," conviction that "the Soviet Union and Communism were the root cause of international strife," and "inability to comprehend Asian politics and nationalism" intensified the postwar conflict between the U.S. and the Soviet Union, precipitated the division of Europe, and set Sino-American relations on a path of long-term animosity. Rather than being a great statesman who carefully weighed various policy alternatives, Offner asserts that Truman's myopia "created a rigid framework in which the United States waged long-term, extremely costly global cold war". As his title suggests, the Cold War was at best a Pyrrhic victory for the United States.
Truman became the model of the underdog who fights back and wins when the experts unanimously predict defeat. Gerald Ford, who had bitterly denounced Truman as a young Congressman proudly proclaimed the Missourian as his hero and conspicuously displayed a bust of Truman in the oval office after Ford became president in 1974. In the 1976 campaign both Ford and his Democratic rival, Jimmy Carter, outdid one another in claiming to be cast from the Truman mold. By 1980 when the Gallup Poll asked "Of all the Presidents we've ever had, who do you wish were President?", Harry Truman finished an impressive third behind Kennedy and FDR.
- "No man should be allowed to be President who does not understand hogs."
- "This is a Christian Nation. More than a half century ago that declaration was written into the decrees of the highest court in this land."
Further reading: basic books and articles
- Burnes, Brian. Harry S. Truman: His Life and Times (2003), popular biography excerpt and text search
- Dallek, Robert. Harry Truman (2008) short, popular biography by scholar. excerpt and text search
- Donovan, Robert J. Conflict and Crisis: The Presidency of Harry S. Truman, 1945-1948 (1977); Tumultuous Years: 1949-1953 (1982) detailed 2-vol political history by well-informed journalist; well balanced
- Fleming, Thomas J. Harry S. Truman, President (1993) for middle school audience.
- Graff, Henry F., ed. The Presidents: A Reference History. 2nd ed. 1996, 443–458. ISBN 0-684-80471-9; by leading scholar
- Hamby, Alonzo L. Man of the People: A Life of Harry S. Truman (1995), the best scholarly biography; written by conservative historian who likes HST
- Hamby, Alonzo L. "An American Democrat: A Reevaluation of the Personality of Harry S. Truman," Political Science Quarterly, Vol. 106, No. 1 (Spring, 1991), pp. 33–55 in JSTOR
- Hamby, Alonzo L. "Truman, Harry S."; American National Biography Online Feb. 2000 by a leading conservative historian
- Kirkendall, Richard S. Harry S. Truman Encyclopedia (1990), very useful articles on people, events and policies in HST's career
- Kirkendall Richard S. "Harry S Truman a Missouri Farmer in the Golden Age," Agricultural History, Vol. 48, No. 4 (Oct., 1974), pp. 467–483 in JSTOR
- McCullough, David. Truman. (1993), 1120 pp ISBN 0-671-86920-5 best-selling biography; moderate in tone; Pulitzer Prize excerpt and text search
- McCullough, David. Harry S. Truman, short essay online edition
- Offner, Arnold A. Another Such Victory: President Truman and the Cold War. (2002) 640pp, New Left and hostile to HST; excerpts and text search
- American Experience: Truman (2006), from PBS
- "Classic President Harry S Truman Films: 1945-1965 (2006) 40 newsreels, 101 minutes
These are secondary source by scholars; unless noted they are generally liberal and supportive of Truman.
- Burnes, Brian. Harry S. Truman: His Life and Times (2003); popular biography; excerpt and text search
- Cochran, Bert. Harry S. Truman and the Crisis Presidency , 432 pages; portrays a cynical courthouse politician
- Donovan, Robert J. Conflict and Crisis: The Presidency of Harry S. Truman, 1945-1948 (1977); Tumultuous Years: 1949-1953 (1982), good, detailed 2-vol political history by well-informed journalist
- Ferrell, Robert H. Harry S. Truman: A Life (1994), brief overview
- Fleming, Thomas J. Harry S. Truman, President (1993) for middle school audience.
- Gosnell, Harold Foote. Truman's Crises: A Political Biography of Harry S. Truman (1980)
- Graff, Henry F., ed. The Presidents: A Reference History. 2nd ed. 1996, 443–458. ISBN 0-684-80471-9
- Hamby, Alonzo L. Man of the People: A Life of Harry S. Truman (1995), very well received scholarly biography excerpt and text search
- Hamby, Alonzo L. "The Liberals, Truman, and the FDR as Symbol and Myth," Journal of American History, Vol. 56, No. 4 (Mar., 1970), pp. 859–867 in JSTOR
- Hamby, Alonzo L. "Truman, Harry S."; American National Biography Online Feb. 2000
- Kirkendall, Richard S. Harry S. Truman Encyclopedia (1990)
- McCullough, David. Truman. . ISBN 0-671-86920-5 best-selling biography; Pulitzer Prize excerpt and text search
- Miller, Richard Lawrence. Truman: The Rise to Power (2002), critical evaluation emphasizing corruption of Pendergast machine
- Appleman, Roy E. South to the Naktong, North to the Yalu (June–November 1950) (United States Army in the Korean War) (1960); official U.S. Army history, online version
- Beisner, Robert L. Dean Acheson: A Life in the Cold War (2006), 800pp; a standard scholarly biography; covers 1945-53 only
- Benson, Michael T. Harry S. Truman and the Founding of Israel (1997) online edition
- Berger, Henry. "Bipartisanship, Senator Taft, and the Truman Administration," Political Science Quarterly, Vol. 90, No. 2 (Summer, 1975), pp. 221–237 in JSTOR
- Bernstein Barton J. "Roosevelt, Truman, and the Atomic Bomb, 1941-1945: A Reinterpretation," Political Science Quarterly, Vol. 90, No. 1 (Spring, 1975), pp. 23–69 in JSTOR, influential New left essay
- Blair, Clay The Forgotten War: America in Korea, 1950-1953, Naval Institute Press (2003) revisionist study that attacks Truman and top Army leaders for near-criminal incompetence
- Divine, Robert A. "The Cold War and the Election of 1948," The Journal of American History, Vol. 59, No. 1 (Jun., 1972), pp. 90–110 in JSTOR
- Frazier, Robert. "Acheson and the Formulation of the Truman Doctrine" Journal of Modern Greek Studies 17#2 (1999), pp. 229–251 online at Project Muse
- Gaddis, John Lewis. "Reconsiderations: Was the Truman Doctrine a Real Turning Point?" Foreign Affairs 1974 52(2): 386–402. ISSN 0015-7120
- Giangreco, D. M. "'A Score of Bloody Okinawas and Iwo Jimas': President Truman and Casualty Estimates for the Invasion of Japan," Pacific Historical Review, Vol. 72, No. 1 (Feb., 2003), pp. 93–132 in JSTOR shows Truman was indeed by very high invasion casualties
- Hasegawa, Tsuyoshi. Racing the Enemy: Stalin, Truman, and the Surrender of Japan. (2005). 382 pp. excerpt and text search
- Hogan, Michael J. A Cross of Iron: Harry S. Truman and the Origins of the National Security State, 1945-1954 (2000) excerpt and text search
- Ivie, Robert L. "Fire, Flood, and Red Fever: Motivating Metaphors of Global Emergency in the Truman Doctrine Speech." Presidential Studies Quarterly 1999 29(3): 570–591. ISSN 0360-4918 online edition
- Lacey, Michael J. ed. The Truman Presidency (1989), major essays by scholars
- Matray, James I. "Truman's Plan for Victory: National Self-Determination and the Thirty-Eighth Parallel Decision in Korea," Journal of American History, Vol. 66, No. 2 (Sep., 1979), pp. 314–333 in JSTOR Truman planned rollback of Communism in North Korea
- Merrill, Dennis. "The Truman Doctrine: Containing Communism and Modernity" Presidential Studies Quarterly 2006 36(1): 27–37. ISSN 0360-4918
- Offner, Arnold A. "'Another Such Victory': President Truman, American Foreign Policy, and the Cold War." Diplomatic History 1999 23(2): 127–155. ISSN 0145-2096
- Ojserkis, Raymond P. Beginnings of the Cold War Arms Race: The Truman Administration and the U.S. Arms Build-Up (2003) online edition
- Pelz, Stephen. "When the Kitchen Gets Hot, Pass the Buck: Truman and Korea in 1950," Reviews in American History 6 (December 1978), 548–55. Online at Project MUSE
- Pierpaoli, Paul G. Jr.; Truman and Korea: The Political Culture of the Early Cold War. University of Missouri Press, 1999 online edition
- Radosh, Ronald, and Allis Radosh. A Safe Haven: Harry S. Truman and the Founding of Israel (2009), 448pp; by conservative scholars
- Smith, Geoffrey S. "'Harry, We Hardly Know You': Revisionism, Politics and Diplomacy, 1945-1954," American Political Science Review 70 (June 1976), 560–82. in JSTOR
- Spalding, Elizabeth Edwards. The First Cold Warrior: Harry Truman, Containment, And the Remaking of Liberal Internationalism (2006) excerpt and text search
- Wainstock, Dennis D. Truman, MacArthur, and the Korean War (1999) online edition
- Walker, J. Samuel. Prompt and Utter Destruction: Truman and the Use of Atomic Bombs against Japan (1997) online complete edition; excerpt and text search
- Walker, J. Samuel. "Recent Literature on Truman's Atomic Bomb Decision: A Search for Middle Ground" Diplomatic History April 2005 - Vol. 29 Issue 2 pp 311–334 fulltext in EBSCO
Domestic policy and politics
- Bernstein Barton J. "The Truman Administration and the Steel Strike of 1946," Journal of American History, Vol. 52, No. 4 (Mar., 1966), pp. 791–803 in JSTOR
- Billington, Monroe. "Civil Rights, President Truman and the South," Journal of Negro History, Vol. 58, No. 2 (Apr., 1973), pp. 127–139 in JSTOR
- Dean, Virgil W. "Charles F. Brannan and the Rise and Fall of Truman's 'Fair Deal' for Farmers." Agricultural History 1995 69(1): 28–53. Issn: 0002-1482
- Dean, Virgil W. An Opportunity Lost: The Truman Administration and the Farm Policy Debate. 2006. 275 pp. excerpt and text search
- Derickson, Alan. "'Take Health from the List of Luxuries': Labor and the Right to Health Care, 1915-1949." Labor History 2000 41(2): 171–187. Issn: 0023-656x Fulltext: in Taylor and Francis, Swetswise, Ingenta, and Ebsco
- Donaldson, Gary A. Truman Defeats Dewey (1998)
- Farhang, Sean, and Ira Katznelson. "The Southern Imposition: Congress and Labor in the New Deal and Fair Deal," Studies in American Political Development (2005), 19: 1-30; online edition
- Freeland, Richard M. The Truman Doctrine and the Origins of McCarthyism: Foreign Policy, Domestic Policy, and Internal Security, 1946-48 (1989), revisionist; New left attack on Truman for being too anti-Communist
- Fried, Richard M. Nightmare in Red: The McCarthy Era in Perspective. 1990. online complete edition; excerpt and text search
- Gardner, Michael R. Harry Truman and Civil Rights: Moral Courage and Political Risks. (2002) 296 pp.online edition
- Hamby, Alonzo. Beyond the New Deal: Harry S. Truman and American Liberalism (1973), the most sophisticated biography; by a prominent conservative historian
- Hartmann, Susan M. Truman and the 80th Congress (1971) online edition
- Heller, Francis H. Economics and the Truman Administration (1982) excerpt and text search
- Karabell, Zachary. The Last Campaign: How Harry Truman Won the 1948 Election (2001) excerpt and text search
- Koenig, Louis W. The Truman Administration: Its Principles and Practice (1956) online edition
- Komarek de Luna, Phyllis. Public versus Private Power during the Truman Administration: A Study of Fair Deal Liberalism. Peter Lang, 1997. 253 pp.
- Lacey, Michael J. ed. The Truman Presidency (1989), major essays by scholars
- Lee, R. Alton. Truman and Taft-Hartley: A Question of Mandate. (1966) online edition
- Leuchtenburg, William E. The White House Looks South: Franklin D. Roosevelt, Harry S. Truman, Lyndon B. Johnson. (2005). 668 pp.
- Levantrosser, William F. ed. Harry S. Truman: The Man from Independence (1986). 25 essays by scholars and Truman aides. online edition
- McCoy, Donald. The Presidency of Harry S. Truman (1984), standard scholarly survey by conservative historian; excerpt and text search
- Marcus, Maeva Truman and the Steel Seizure Case: The Limits of Presidential Power (1994) online edition
- Phillips, Cabel. The Truman Presidency: The History of a Triumphant Succession (1966), by a journalist who interviewed many key players
- Pierpaoli, Paul G. Jr. Truman and Korea: The Political Culture of the Early Cold War. (1997). ISBN 0-8262-1206-9. focus on the homefront online review
- Pietrusza, David 1948: Harry Truman's Improbable Victory and the Year that Changed America (2011)
- Ryan, Halford R. Harry S. Truman: Presidential Rhetoric (1993) online edition
- Sitkoff, Harvard. "Harry Truman and the Election of 1948: The Coming of Age of Civil Rights in American Politics," Journal of Southern History, Vol. 37, No. 4 (Nov., 1971), pp. 597–616 in JSTOR
- Theoharis, Athan. "The Truman Administration and the Decline of Civil Liberties: The FBI's Success in Securing Authorization for a Preventive Detention Program," Journal of American History, Vol. 64, No. 4 (Mar., 1978), pp. 1010–1030 in JSTOR, leftwing attack on Truman for being too harsh on possible subversives
- Theoharis, Athan. The Truman Presidency: The Origins of the Imperial Presidency and the National Security State (1979), revisionist, New left attack on HST
- Theoharis, Athan. Seeds of Repression: Harry S. Truman and the Origins of McCarthyism (1977), New Left attack on HST for being so hostile to domestic Communists
- Thompson, Francis H. The Frustration of Politics: Truman, Congress, and the Loyalty Issue, 1945-1953. 1979. 246 pp.
- Vaughan, Philip H. "The Truman Administration's Fair Deal for Black America." Missouri Historical Review 1976 70(3): 291–305. Issn: 0026-6582
- Bernstein, Barton J., Ed. The Truman Administration: A Documentary History (1966); 2nd edition published as Politics and Policies of the Truman Administration (1970), revisionist
- Council of Economic Advisors, Economic Report of the President (annual 1947- ), complete series online; important analysis of current trends and policies, plus statistcial tables
- Ferrell, Robert H. ed. Dear Bess: The Letters from Harry to Bess Truman, 1910-1959 (1983)
- Ferrell, Robert H. ed. Off the Record: The Private Papers of Harry S. Truman (1980).
- Merrill, Dennis. ed. Documentary History of the Truman Presidency, (1995- ) 35 volumes; available in some large academic libraries.
- Miller, Merle Plain Speaking: An Oral Biography of Harry S. Truman (1974)
- Neal, Steve. ed. HST: Memories of the Truman Years. (2003)280pp; long excerpts from 20 oral history interviews (some of which are online at the Truman Library site).
- Neal, Steve. ed. Miracle of '48: Harry Truman's Major Campaign Speeches & Selected Whistle-Stops (2003); 43 speeches
- Truman, Harry S. Where the Buck Stops: The Personal and Private Writings of Harry S. Truman edited by Margaret Truman (1990) excerpt and text search
- Truman, Harry S. Memoirs 2 vol (1955). vol 1 online
- Truman, Margaret. Harry S. Truman. (1973). memoir by his daughter
- Truman, Harry S. The Autobiography of Harry S. Truman edited compilation of excerpts by Robert H. Ferrell (2002) excerpt and text search
- The Public Papers of the Presidents contain most of Truman's public messages, statements, speeches, and news conference remarks. Documents such as Proclamations, and Executive Orders
- Ferrell, Robert H. Harry S. Truman and the Cold War Revisionists. 2006. 142 pp. excerpt and text search
- Geselbracht, Raymond. "Creating the Harry S. Truman Library: The First Fifty Years," Public Historian, 28 (Summer 2006), 37–78.
- Hartmann, Susan M. "The 1948 Election and the Configuration of Postwar Liberalism" Reviews in American History 28.1 (2000) 105-111 in Project Muse
- Heller, Francis H., ed. The Korean War: A 25 Year Perspective (1977), essays by scholars
- Heller, Francis H., ed. The Truman White House: The Administration of the Presidency, 1945-1953 (1980), essays by scholars
- Heller, Francis H., ed. Economics and the Truman Administration (1981), essays by scholars
- Kirkendall, Richard S. ed. Harry's Farewell: Interpreting and Teaching the Truman Presidency (2004) essays by scholars
- Kirkendall, Richard S., ed. The Truman Period as a Research Field: A Reappraisal 1972 (1974)
- Tull, Charles J. "The State of the Art in Truman Research," in William F. Levantrosser, ed. Harry S. Truman: The Man from Independence (1986), 1-31 aides. online edition
- Walker, J. Samuel "Recent Literature on Truman's Atomic Bomb Decision: a Search for Middle Ground." Diplomatic History 2005 29(2): 311–334. Issn: 0145-2096 Fulltext: Ebsco
- ↑ His middle initial, S, does not stand for anything, but was chosen because his parents could not decide whether to name him for his grandfather Shippe or for his grandfather Solomon.
- ↑ David McCullough, Truman (Simon and Schuster, 2003, ISBN 0743260295), p. 237
- ↑ Margaret Truman, Harry S. Truman (Morrow, 1972) ISBN 0688000053, p. 67
- ↑ David McCullough, Truman (Simon and Schuster, 2003, ISBN 0743260295), p. 166
- ↑ David McCullough, Truman (Simon and Schuster, 2003) ISBN 0743260295, p. 242
- ↑ Memorable quotes for Truman (1995) (TV), Internet Movie Database
- ↑ Greenbaum, Fred (1967). "The Anti-Lynching Bill of 1935: The Irony of "Equal Justice—Under Law"," p. 83. Internet Archive. Retrieved December 3, 2022.
- ↑ "Clear everything with Sidney", Time magazine, Sep. 25, 1944.
- ↑ The Roosevelt Myth, John T. Flynn, Fox and Wilkes, 1948, Book 2, Ch. 8, The Shock Troops of the Third New Deal
- ↑ Roosevelt Myth, Book 3, Ch. 10, Politics, Disease and History, Flynn, 1948.
- ↑ Truman, Interview with David McCullough, C-Span Booknotes, July 19, 1992. Retrieved August 6, 2007.
- ↑ The Yalta Betrayal, Felix Wittmer, Claxton Printers, 1953, pg. 75.
- ↑ New York Times March 14, 1983.
- ↑ J. Samuel Walker, "Recent Literature on Truman's Atomic Bomb Decision: a Search for Middle Ground." Diplomatic History 2005 29(2): 311-334. Issn: 0145-2096 Fulltext: Ebsco
- ↑ The memo until 1991 was mis-attributed to Clifford, who passed it along to Truman.
- ↑ Reagan was an energetic liberal supporter of Truman. He moved to the right in the late 1950s.
- ↑ Steven M. Gillon, Politics and Vision: the ADA and American Liberalism, 1947-1985 (1987).
- ↑ Steven F. Lawson, ed. To Secure These Rights: The Report of Harry S. Truman's Committee on Civil Rights. (2004)
- ↑ Bernard C. Nalty, Strength For the Fight: A History of Black Americans in the Military (1986)
- ↑ Alan L. Gropman, The Air Force Integrates, 1945-1964. (2nd ed 1998) online edition.
- ↑ Richard M. Dalfiume, Desegregation of the U.S. Armed Forces: Fighting on Two Fronts, 1939-1953. (1969)
- ↑ Thurmond received only 15% of the vote in the other Southern states. Kari Frederickson, The Dixiecrat Revolt and the End of the Solid South, 1932-1968. (2001)
- ↑ Time magazine reported that "His irresponsible implication that a vote for Thomas Dewey was a vote for fascism horrified his soberer followers." Time Jan 3, 1949 at
- ↑ Harold I. Gullan, The Upset That Wasn't: Harry S. Truman and the Crucial Election of 1948 (1998); Gary A. Donaldson, Truman Defeats Dewey (1998)
- ↑ See Dean (2006)
- ↑ Karen J. Bradley, "Agrarian Ideology and Agricultural Policy: California Grangers and the Post-world War II Farm Policy Debate," Agricultural History 1995 69(2): 240-256, in JSTOR
- ↑ Turkey did not have an insurrection, but it was such a bitter rival of Greece that it had to get money if Greece did.
- ↑ Joseph C. Satterthwaite, "The Truman Doctrine: Turkey," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol. 401, (May, 1972), pp. 74-84 in JSTOR
- ↑ Michael T. Benson, Harry S. Truman and the Founding of Israel (1997) excerpt and text search; for the State Department perspective see Evan M. Wilson, "The American Interest in the Palestine Question and the Establishment of Israel," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol. 401, (May, 1972), pp. 64-73 in JSTOR
- ↑ Pollak, Joel B. (May 14, 2017). Today in History: Harry Truman Defies State Department, Recognizes Israel. Breitbart News. Retrieved May 14, 2017.
- ↑ Elizabeth Edwards Spalding, "True Believers" Wilson Quarterly 2006 30(2): 40-44, 46-48. Issn: 0363-3276 Fulltext: Ebsco
- ↑ Military Situation in the Far East, Hearings before the Committee on Armed Services and the Committee on Foreign Relations, U.S. Senate, 82nd Congress (Washington, 1951), p. 558.
- ↑ Tang Tsou, America's Failure in China, 1941-1945, Chicago 1964, pg. 457.
- ↑ Richard C. Thornton, China: A Political History, 1917-1980, Boulder CO 1982, pg. 208.
- ↑ Hearings before the Senate Committee on Armed Services and Committee on Foreign Relations (also known as the MacArthur Inquiry), June 2, 1951.
- ↑ Hearings before the Senate Committee on Armed Services and Committee on Foreign Relations, June 6, 1951.
- ↑ Report of the Commission on Protecting and Reducing Government Secrecy. Senate Document 105-2. 103rd Congress. Washington, D.C. United States Government Printing Office. 1997. Chairman's Forward, pg. XL pdf.
- ↑ By 1946 he had two valuable aides Clark Clifford and George Elsey.
- ↑ https://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/korea/large/documents/pdfs/kr-3-13.pdf
- ↑ A General's Life by Omar N. Bradley, pg. 528
- ↑ The Forgotten War Remembered, Korea: 1950-1953: A War Correspondent's Notebook & Today's Danger in Korea by Bill Shinn, pg. 52
- ↑ https://2009-2017.state.gov/p/io/potusunga/207324.htm
- ↑ Truman's wife accepted an expensive deep freeze appliance in 1945; with General Vaughan as the fixer, the donor was given special privileges in Europe.
- ↑ Kirkendall, Truman Period as a Research Field: A Reappraisal 1972 (1974) p 6
- ↑ Quotes from Offner (2002) p. xii
- ↑ A field guide to pigs By John Pukite
- ↑ Harry S. Truman, “Exchange of Messages with Pope Pius XII,” American Presidency Project, August 6, 1947.
- Presidential Library
- The Decision to Drop the Atomic Bomb, Truman Library.
- President Truman to Senator Richard B. Russell, August 9, 1945.
- Works by Harry S. Truman - text and free audio - LibriVox

domain: history


text:
This week I mainly worked on After Effects training. I was able to get my animation finished and here are the results! I had to look up tutorials online for how to make the paper texture “move” and I’d say it turned out pretty good.
I also worked on giving feedback to my PSD Character Design Training. Had to make an update to it and add this image to the bottom of both so I did that.
The last thing I did (today) was get started on the Infographic training. I posted to Basecamp already about what fonts and color schemes I was thinking of using. And after making this post, going to continue working on gathering the information and sketching out a layout.

domain: hobby


text:
10 Foods For Joint Health And Mobility
To explore the world, run miles, and walk/trek to reach beautiful destinations: everyone has these on their bucket list. But, only by having them on the list, cannot be achieved right away. Along with a strong will, having a healthy body, especially strong bones is essential.
Various supplements are available these days for joint health. A well-balanced diet with calcium-rich foods is essential for bone health since calcium is a major component of bone formation. Nevertheless, apart from calcium, to have stronger joint health, vitamins C, D, K, collagen, magnesium, and omega-3s are also essential. All these nutrients can be easily fed to the bones by having these amazing foods.
Native to the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asian region, turmeric is one of the staple spices in Southeast Asian food. It gives a vibrant yellow color to the food. Apart from its coloring characteristic, turmeric possesses anti-inflammatory properties.
Turmeric has a compound known as curcumin which has been studied to cure joint health issues. According to research, this compound found in turmeric helps relieve the symptoms of arthritis. Turmeric is a helpful ingredient in various dishes, plus a healthy addition to food for stronger joint health. Instead of food color, try adding turmeric to different curries and get the health benefits.
2. Bell Peppers
Loaded with vitamin C, you ought to have bell peppers in order to keep your joints healthy. Just one bell pepper is enough to fulfill the day's vitamin C quota in the body.
Vitamin C in red peppers helps your body make collagen. Collagen is part of ligaments, cartilage, and tendons. It cushions joints and holds them together. Along with stimulating collagen, vitamin C is anti-inflammatory in nature. Usually known to be present in citrus fruits, vitamin C is easily available in bell peppers too. This strengthens joint health and makes a great ingredient.
If you are avoiding greens, that may not be good news. Dark, green leafy vegetables such as kale, and bok choy are very nutritious foods for joint health. With antioxidants such as beta carotene, calcium, and vitamin C, having green vegetables keeps your joint health strong. The critical periods to enhance bone density are during childhood and adolescence.
Hence, encourage your children to have green leafy vegetables in order to have stronger joint health. Not just for the young ones, consumption of kale is beneficial to every age group. Add the green, leafy vegetables to your diet and keep your joint health strong.
4. Bone Broth
While calcium is for bone density; glucosamine, chondroitin, and amino acids are all essential for healthy joints. And, bone broth has it all. Made by boiling bones, bone broth is rich in collagen and protein.
When cooking bones, a gelatin-like substance is seen that mimics collagen. Collagen occurs naturally in our ligaments, joints, and tendons. With this component found in bone broth, it helps reduce joint pain. Additionally, it also helps people with arthritis to increase joint functions. When bone broth can be used as an oral supplement to boost joint health, it can also be used as a sauce and a cooking base in various recipes.
If you are a fish lover, this must be great news for you. Not so popular dish, sardines are power-packed with nutrients. It has omega-3s essential to fight inflammation, calcium to build bone density, and vitamin D.
This nutritious tiny fish is a must-have for joint health. As already mentioned, it contains nutrients essential for the joint health. You can have sardines in salad, with bread, or in any way you desire. Just add them to your diet and enhance your joint health. After all, you just want to live a pain-free life. You can opt for tuna, or salmon if sardines aren't your thing.
6. Dark Chocolates
Chocolates are not just tasty treats to the tastebuds, it's packed with nutrients providing various health benefits. Especially, the dark chocolate with more than 70% cocoa content is especially beneficial to health.
The main ingredient in dark chocolate is cocoa. It has antioxidant properties. Along with that, dark chocolate is also a part of an anti-inflammatory diet. The higher the percentage of cocoa, the higher the anti-inflammatory effect. When dark chocolates have health benefits, be mindful of their sugar and fat content. It is always beneficial to enjoy chocolates in moderation to reap the health benefits.
Foods that help reduce chronic inflammation make it to the list of foods to have for joint health. Tofu, made of soy ultimately makes it to the list. It helps reduce inflammation and enhances joint health.
Tofu is rich in omega-3 fatty acids. This nutrient helps reduce inflammation and ultimately reduces joint pain. When people with inflammation are generally asked to avoid dairy products, tofu is an excellent food that replaces dairy products. Even if you are a vegan, or lactose intolerant, you can have tofu and gain the nutrients that help enhance joint health.
8. Dairy Products
We all grew up hearing that drinking milk is essential as it has calcium. Indeed, dairy products like milk, yogurt, and cheese are rich sources of calcium. Calcium is essential to develop the bone and its density.
In order to enhance your joint health, add dairy products to your diet. When consumed in moderation, dairy products provide your body with calcium and vitamin B12. These nutrients help in building bone mass too. If you are lactose intolerant, try having plant-based milk products such as almonds, oats, or soy. These foods will provide you with the equal nutrients essential for bone health.
This might, small seeds are magical. Flaxseeds have nutrients essential for enhancing joint functions. It helps boost health by lowering the cholesterol. These are anti-inflammatory and anti-arthritis foods. It is a rich source of omega-3 fatty acids, essential for maintaining joint cell structure and functions.
Flaxseeds help ease the symptoms of arthritis and protect your body against various chronic conditions. You can top it in cereals or yogurt and enjoy flaxseeds while reaping its health benefits. Flaxseeds also help in gaining bone mass. Similarly, omega-3s help in cartilage regeneration, supporting good joint health.
Berries are a great source of vitamin C. And, we know that vitamin C boosts our immune system. Not just that, vitamin C also plays a vital role in the production of collagen important for bone tissue.
According to research, vitamin C helps prevent osteoporosis and berries are rich in vitamin C. It does so by reducing inflammation. Different types of berries such as strawberries, raspberries, and blueberries have polyphenolic flavonoids. These flavonoids have antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects. Not just that, berries have analgesic effects too.
Foods To Avoid For Joint Health
While there are various foods that you can enjoy that are rich in calcium and other nutrients for strong joint health, there are certain foods that you need to ward off. Choose the ones that benefit overall health.
Some foods that you must avoid for strong joint health are high-fat dairy products, red meat, salty foods, sugary foods and drinks, alcohol, and fried foods. Be mindful of the foods that have inflammation effects. Else, you have the list of foods you can have for strong joint health. Include them in your balanced diet and strengthen your joint health.
20 Best and Worst Foods for Bloating
Bloating is a prevalent condition characterized by a distended or swollen feeling in the abdomen following meals. It can result from various factors, including gas, digestive issues, or dietary choices. Common bloating foods include beans, lentils, c...
20 Foods That Boost Your Energy To Next Level
We all experience moments throughout the day when our energy levels start to dip and we could use a little boost to keep us going. Try incorporating healthy and simple foods to get you back on your feet. By fueling your body with nutrient-dense foods...
20 Simple Post Workout Foods To Refuel
Effective post-workout recovery is essential for restoring nutrients and facilitating muscle repair. A well-rounded food after a workout typically consists of a blend of carbohydrates, lean proteins, and adequate hydration to support recovery. Optima...
15 Miraculous Health Benefits of Cranberry Juice
Tangy cranberry juice packs a punch of antioxidants and anti-inflammatory benefits, supporting urinary health and potentially aiding skin and bone health – a tart treat with hidden benefits. This ruby red drink, rich in antioxidants and vitamin...

domain: medical


THE US Army has been left counting the cost after an Afghani official blew £20m of its cash on forest camouflage uniforms - for desert warfare.
A new report found the government minister needlessly spent millions to licence a new pattern that perfectly replicates lush forests.
However, most of Afghanistan's landscape is desert, and the US Defense Department owns dozens of similar patterns it could have used free, the report said.
“They picked the pattern based on a fashion preference, not by experts, but by the minister of defense,” said John Sopko, the special inspector general.
“That was a dumb decision.”
It also means the soldiers stick out like a sore thumb on the battlefield - which is never a good thing.
By 2007, six years after the United States and its allies invaded Afghanistan, the ragtag soldiers of the Afghan Army wore a hodgepodge of uniforms.
The United States and its allies have spent millions on overhauling and training Afghanistan’s security forces and purchasing matching uniforms.
MOST READ IN NEWS
The minister discovered the camouflage pattern the Pentagon eventually purchased while browsing uniform styles online, according to unnamed Defense Department officials cited in the report.
The forest pattern he settled on was created and owned by HyperStealth Biotechnology Corporation, a Canadian company.
The new uniforms also included expensive details like replacing buttons with zippers.
"This is not an isolated event," added Sopko.
The US, he said, has been "in a mad rush to spend money like a drunken sailor on a weekend furlough."
It reflects a pattern, he said, of spending too much money, too quickly, with too little oversight and too little accountability.


text: Ride Don't Hide is an annual charity bike ride in support of Mental Health. We are in our 9'th year and expect up to 500 participants. There are 5 different bike routes to choose from (see website) from 7km to 100km. Our rides all take place on Sunday morning and are completed by 11:00 which is the start of a short program of speakers and lots of draw prizes. We hope you will join us this year is fighting the stigma of mental illness and supporting local mental health programming.

domain: sociology


This morning, we showed you a couple of new renders of the HTC One M9 that came from Twitter courtesy of @evleaks. Quite a bit has happened since that time, including a series of HTC One M9 videos that appear to show the device in action and the cancellation of a certain Twitter account.
If you are a steady reader of our site or just stumbled across it in the past few weeks, you have probably seen one of many HTC One M9 photos that we’ve covered. Ready for some more? A new leak has just hit the net that reportedly shows the upcoming handset, and you might be a bit disappointed with the design.
We’ve seen a slew of smartphone leaks coming our way ahead of MWC, and the HTC One M9 has been at the center of plenty of those rumors. We’re just as excited as everyone else, but that isn’t the only new device the company is rumored to have in the works. Ready to get the lowdown on the HTC A53 specs?
We were spoiled with all the smartphone leaks that have come from Twitter over the years, and while they have slowed down somewhat, leaker @upleaks still drops a juicy smartphone rumors from time to time. This time it’s another HTC leak, but it doesn’t involve the One M9 as it appears HTC has a new slate in the works.


text:
Using the Federal Withholding Tax Table
The federal withholding tax table is used to determine the amount of taxes that an individual must pay according to his or her living status, amount of money he or she makes, and his or her age. These charts help employers to determine what needs to be taken out of the person’s paycheck each month or bi-weekly depending on what the person claims on their W-2. This helps to ensure that the individual will have paid enough taxes to the federal government by the end of the year so that he will not have to pay more taxes after he has his taxes done, which can cause a lot of undue stress at that time of year. A much better scenario is that the individual has paid more taxes than he owes to the government and is therefore owed a tax refund at the end of the year, meaning he helped the government out by lending that tax money to them for the year, but now it is time for the government to pay up.
If a person is single and the payroll is done on a bi-weekly basis, the percent of the tax on the federal withholding tax table is done according to the amount of money the person made during that pay period. For instance, if a person made up to $102, then there is not any tax withheld from that person’s paycheck since they made so little. When they make from $1,306 to $3,066 per bi-weekly pay period, then the tax is figured based on $165.90 plus twenty-eight percent of $1,306, even if the person made at the top end of the pay bracket. If a person makes over $13,833 per pay period, then they owe $3992.11 plus thirty-five percent of $13,833 per pay period, even if they make significantly more than that amount.
The same process is used on the federal withholding tax table for individuals who are married and filing jointly. If the income on a bi-weekly pay period is up to $308, then there is not any tax withheld from the paycheck. If the check is from $906 to $2,775 for that pay period, then the tax on the amount is $59.80 plus fifteen percent of $906, even if the individual made more than that amount. If the amount is $14,042 or more per pay period on a bi-weekly pay scale, the taxable income is $3,721.80 plus thirty-five percent of $14,042 even if the person makes significantly more than that per pay period. These federal withholding tax tables are for the employers to use, but are also helpful for the employees in deciding what to claim on their W-2 form, since they may want to change their status and lower their withholding, or raise their withholding, whatever the situation might call for.
This entry passed through the Full-Text RSS service — if this is your content and you're reading it on someone else's site, please read our FAQ page at fivefilters.org/content-only/faq.php
Five Filters featured article: Beyond Hiroshima - The Non-Reporting of Falluja's Cancer Catastrophe.

domain: law


text:
Hip Grain Bowl Stall At Chinatown Food Centre By Ex-Jigger & Pony Mixologist
He uses cocktail techniques to create atas yet affordable grain bowls.
Tucked in a corner of the food maze better known as Chinatown Complex Food Centre is two-month-old grain bowl joint, Rice Bowl Boys. The decor is grungy – colourful stickers plastered over the hob and fridge, and a wood panelled design of its mascot, a rice grain, decorates the stall front. The vibe is millennial hip, with Glass Animals and The Weeknd playing on the speakers as three guys clad in black under splashy mascot-bearing aprons busy themselves in the kitchen.
All photos cannot be reproduced without permission from 8days.sg

domain: food


text:
Amit Kumar Pandey
PATNA: In a late night reshuffle in the state bureaucracy, altogether 22 IAS officers, including 11 district magistrates, were transferred and given new assignments on Monday. Himanshu Sharma will be the new Patna Municipal corporation (PMC) commissioner, replacing Amit Kumar Pandey who has been made new DM of Siwan. Sharma was earlier posted as Kishanganj DM.
According to a notification issued by the general administration department, the DMs of Aurangabad, Khagaria, Araria, East Champaran, West Champaran, Muzaffarpur, Kishanganj, Madhubani, Nawada, Saharsa and Siwan have been transferred. In addition, three senior IAS officers have been given additional charge of different departments.
Animal and fisheries resources department principal secretary N Vijay Laxmi has been shifted to sugarcane department while mines and geology department principal secretary Harjot Kaur Bamrah has been given additional charge of animal and fisheries resource department. Similarly, agriculture department principal secretary N Sarvan Kumar will hold additional charge of animal and fisheries resource department secretary.
Pankaj Kumar Pal, secretary of food and consumer protection department, has been given additional charge of managing director of state food corporation. Additional secretary of rural works department Kawal Tanuj has been appointed Katihar DM, replacing Poonam, who has been made special secretary of agriculture department. Additional secretary in CM secretariat Chandrashekhar Singh will be the new DM of Muzaffarpur, replacing Alok Ranjan Ghosh, who has been shifted to Khagaria as its DM.
East Champaran DM Raman Kumar has been transferred and made managing director of Bihar Urban Infrastructure Development Corporation. Madhubani DM Shirshat Kapil Ashok will replace Raman Kumar. West Champaran DM D N Ramchandra will be the new DM of Madhubani. Banka DM Kundan Kumar has been transferred to West Champaran in the same capacity. While Nawada DM Kaushal Kumar goes to Saharsa, Saharsa DM Shailja Sharma will assume charge as joint director in road construction department.
Siwan DM Ranjeeta has been made labour department commissioner whereas Saran DDC Aditya Prakash will assume charge as DM of Kishanganj. Kishanganj DDC Yashpal Meena has been made Nawada DM. Patna DDC Shuharsh Bhagat will join as Banka DM. Biharsharif town commissioner Saurabh Jorwal has been made Aurangabad DM, replacing Rahul Ranjan Mahiwal, who has been shifted to rural works department and made special secretary.
Khagaria DM Anirudh Kumar has been transferred and made special secretary in home department while Araria DM Baidyanath goes to health department as additional secretary. Labour department director Dharmendra Singh will join as director of fisheries. State food corporation managing director Animesh Kumar Parashar goes to additional secretary of art, culture and youth affairs.
Munger DDC Prashant Kumar C H has been made DM of Araria while Purnia DDC Aman Samir will be the new DM of Buxar.

domain: news


text:
Association of Research Libraries
Research Library Issues 289 — 2016
leading a long line of waiting students up the library steps and into the
building. Starbucks oﬀered coﬀee samples and treats, and the library staﬀ
were in place, ready to resume normal operations.
At the lobby desk where his coworker had been shot less than 36 hours
earlier, Greg, a security staﬀ member, greeted the incoming students.
It was “a powerful thing. Seeing the emotional faces of those gathering
around, the strong police presence throughout the day, and the many
students who bravely reentered the building for the ﬁrst time, some even
stopping to thank us and shake our hands, was very moving.”
Supporting the Libraries’ Staﬀ
Counseling for library staﬀ and student workers was a vital step in the
recovery process within the library. Michelle was part of the team of
library managers who assembled to coordinate plans after the shooting.
She had reached out to the University Counseling Center and the
Employee Assistance Program to arrange for counseling sessions for staﬀ
and student workers within the libraries, and counselors were available
around the clock. Michelle required all overnight staﬀ to attend, even
though a few were reluctant. Some sessions lasted only a few minutes,
while others took over an hour. Michelle encouraged library staﬀ to seek
additional counseling, cautioning them to not try to tough it out.
Reactions to the shooting varied widely. Two staﬀ members were
thinking of submitting their resignations. Later they changed their minds,
perhaps due to the support that was provided. Others seemed to take it
in stride. A staﬀ member who had been on-site that night said, “[We] just
wanted to move on with life without being reminded by people who were
amazed that we would come back into the building or who wanted to talk
about it and relive it over and over … every family member and friend and
stranger that you would run into in the grocery store would want to talk
about that night.”


text:
Listen and download music here: https://www.gate.fm/gUMKhApvJ
How to Prank everyone this Halloween with these spooky makeup hacks, creepy DIY costumes, and other eerie home decorations.
Today we’re preparing you for Halloween, and we’re also preparing you for a good laugh since we share some spooky yet hilarious prank ideas to creep your friends out.
One of them is the removable toe. You apply some putty next to your little toe, and then you blend it out a bit with your fingers to make it look realistic. Then, you use some foundation, face/makeup powder, a fake little nail on top.
Another great trick is to use modeling clay as face putty to create a spooky look with a cut-in-half soda can on your forehead.
If you want to get a creepy nun look with a long nose, I show you how to use modeling wax to do it.
Don’t forget to watch the entire video to discover other creepy looks and home decorations for your Halloween party.
0:09 – Fun Halloween tricks
1:38 – Amazing Halloween decorations
3:48 – The creepy ice-cubes
4:47 – Creepy Halloween makeup tutorials
8:58 – A beautiful zipper makeup look (galaxy)
9:29 – Adorable miniature farm garden
This video is made for entertainment purposes. We do not make any warranties about the completeness, safety and reliability. Any action you take upon the information on this video is strictly at your own risk, and we will not be liable for any damages or losses. It is the viewer’s responsibility to use judgment, care and precautions if one plans to replicate.
The following video might feature activity performed by our actors within controlled environment- please use judgment, care, and precaution if you plan to replicate.
All product and company names shown in the video are trademarks™ or registered® trademarks of their respective holders. Use of them does not imply any affiliation with or endorsement by them.
Our Social Media:
Subscribe to 5-Minute Crafts GIRLY: https://goo.gl/fWbJqz
Subscribe to 5-Minute Crafts PLAY: https://goo.gl/PEuLVt
Subscribe to 5-Minute Crafts MEN: http://bit.ly/2S69VUG
The Bright Side of Youtube: https://goo.gl/rQTJZz
For more videos and articles visit: http://www.brightside.me
Music by Epidemic Sound: https://www.epidemicsound.com/
Handcrafted Wooden Pens – Lessons Learned
There are as numerous methods to making wooden pens as there are manufacturers. Here, you will certainly find an explanation of exactly how I lug on the job of handcrafting wooden pens.Various Types of Model Kits
Do you like putting together design sets? Makers make diverse model styles from paper, wood, plastics, as well as metal. We might make models with our personal creative thinking and creative imagination. One more alternative is to purchase retail packages that require setting up.Types of Model Train Tables
The model train requires a solid as well as tough surface area to enable tracks to suit fixed and moving trains. The surface needs to be degree, smooth, as well as support the weight of a train with its designer items. The decorator things consist of buildings. Light posts, surroundings, miniature individuals, individuals, pets, and various other devices.How to Use Seashells in Your Craft Projects
Why do individuals make use of shells in craft projects? Due to the fact that the completed items will certainly be memorable, one-of-a-kind, original, and various. There are no limitations to using shells for any kind of individual, family, or outside project. Anybody can make seashell arts and crafts.Halloween Costumes – Recycle Ideas for Adults
If you are an extremely busy person you might desire to reuse in 2015’s Halloween outfit for a makeover or to conserve time. It is simple to do so. Below are some suggestions to obtain you thinking concerning exactly how to redesign the costume.

domain: artistic


text:
Learn. Grow. Do. With Lynda.com!
Access to Lynda.com's online courses is completely free for Fayetteville Free Library cardholders!
Learn new skills like 3D design, photography, blogging, business skills, and more, online, from anywhere.
Learning Express contains a variety of great computer skills tutorials, job-skills help, study guides on a variety of school topics for different age levels, plus practice exams, like the GED, SAT, AP exams, civil service tests, and more!
Access Learning Express. New user? Click "Register."
The library no longer subscribes to Treehouse. To complete your pending Treehouse courses, you can sign up for a free 14 day Treehouse trial. Then, try Lynda.com for your tech learning needs, starting 12/15/14!
Learn online for free with Webucator.
Exclusive for Fayetteville Free Library cardholders: free online courses on Web Development, Microsoft, Adobe, Java and more.

domain: library


text:
Why Are Icelandic Fish and Chips Different than All Other Fish and Chips?
When you think of fish and chips, the classic combination of batter fried cod or haddock and thick cut fries, the first countries that come to mind are probably the U.K. and Ireland. However, Iceland is giving the traditional fried fish powerhouses a run for their money with their own lighter take on the classic.
With the opening of beloved Reykjavik institution Icelandic Fish & Chips’ first American location on June 25th, we knew it was time to finally explain the differences between the classic UK style and Iceland’s updated take. Beware, you might want to have a snack handy before you begin.
A fishy history of Iceland and the UK’s relationship
During an 18-year period (1958-1976) known as the ‘Cod Wars,’ Iceland continued to expand its maritime jurisdiction surrounding the island much to the chagrin of the United Kingdom (remember, these two nations are less than 1,000 miles apart). After years of completely peaceful conflict, but one that undoubtedly included much verbal disagreement, Iceland became the first country in the world to declare an extension of their maritime jurisdiction to 200 nautical miles offshore and in the process set an international precedent.
Iceland follows strict requirements for fishing sustainability.
Icelandic fishing occurs in both the Arctic and North Atlantic oceans, which are some of the cleanest in the world. Fishing practices are strictly monitored through a quota system to ensure sustainability in compliance with international industry standards and are estimated to be especially low. While the waters around the UK are also excellent for fishing, the standards that Iceland follows are unparalleled.
The batter styles are different.
The classic U.K. batter style is a simple mix of flour, baking soda, vinegar, salt and beer, which is added for flavor, a lighter texture. The Icelandic version on the other hand, uses spelt flour, which makes the fried fish even lighter and almost tempura-like. Also, no beer in the batter. However, that doesn’t mean you can’t have one on the side.
The potatoes/fries/chips are served differently.
There are two key components to fish & chips: There is the fish and then, surprise surprise, we have the chips, which are not the same as French fries (chips are thicker and wider). Icelandic Fish and Chips take a slightly different route with their potatoes, which, just like the rest of their menu, are organic. The potatoes are roasted rather than fried, leaving them crispy on the outside and creamy within.
They are served with different condiments.
In the UK, there are two acceptable condiments for fish and chips: Malt vinegar and tartar sauce. Ketchup is acceptable for the chips, but don’t go too crazy with it. Icelandic Fish and Chips, however, serves their unique style with a condiment all their own, Skyronnes. This dipping sauce is made from skyr–the quintessential Icelandic soft cheese-meets-yogurt that has taken the US by storm–that is then mixed with olive oil, as well as fresh herbs and spices. Icelandic Fish and Chips still offers the Skyronnes tartar sauce, and homemade malt vinegar, but also includes more unusual flavoring options, like truffle and tarragon, coriander and lime and chili and roasted paprika.

domain: geography


text:
Episode from the podcast
The Queens of the Stone Age (Feat: Kyuss)
Released Saturday, 23rd January 2021
rated this episode
We decided to kick off 2021 with some no nonsense Stoner Rock.
Joining Nick and Ewan to go through the career of Josh Homme are Scott Donald and Si Sharp. It's a long one, in fact it might be the longest we have done so far.
As usual, take your time. Pause the pod, go and find the music on spotify, deezer, tidal, apple music or wherever.
Or listen to a selection on our combined podcast playlist
Also come and join us at our home over at
) and find all the playlist links and episodes.
Or just subscribe on your favourite pod player
Si Sharp, the self professed Gin wanker is the brain behind Nautilus Smuggler's Club who deliver exquisite craft gins to your door, across the UK. Find out more
Jonathan is the genius behind our theme music and you can hear more of his stuff on his
Additional music in this episode by
(Blue Dot Sessions )
All available under the following licenses:
Support this podcast
Creators & Guests
This episode hasn't been reviewed yet. You can
add a review
to show others what you thought.
This podcast, its content, and its artwork are not owned by, affiliated with, or endorsed by Podchaser.
From The Podcast
Temp Fans is a podcast that explores the complete studio discography of legacy, popular, or downright obscure artists. We started out as a Facebook group where we listen to an album a day by a chosen artist, from start to finish, even the bad bits. And that's what this podcast is. Join us as we dive through the good, the bad and the what? Take your time and listen along. Feel free to pause us and go listen on Spotify or wherever to the albums. Or go to our Spotify playlist where you will find the pod spliced up and inserted into a curated playlist of selected tracks. To date Nick and Ewan have been joined by an ever growing roster of guests, who all have one thing in common; they want the chance to talk about artists that inspire passion in them. That's not to say this is a gushfest, there are plenty of dissenting opinions on the way. As we dive through the discographies, why not dive through our past episodes and listen to: John Tansey on The Pogues Ben Zimmer, Emily Baldoni, Lael Wageneck, Steven Miller, Zoë Von Hess, Jonathan Fisher, and Emma McDermott on David Bowie Nick Hilditch, Brendan Quigley and Aron T White on The Butthole Surfers Ben Zimmer, Jesse Jarnow, and Jeffrey Lewis on Yo La Tengo Aron T White and Chris Whitby on Can Ewan, Emily Baldoni, and William Shunn on Spoon Scott Donald and Si Sharp on QOTSA Nick Hilditch, John Henderson, Fliss Kitson, J Fisher, Zoë Von Hess, Joe Mitchell, James Kennedy, Mike Plowman, Aaron Troy White, and Tansy McNally on The Fall Emily Baldoni, Gavin Hogg, and Paul Hanley on Love
Share This Episode
Join Podchaser to...
podcasts and episodes
podcasts and creators
podcast and episode lists
& much more
Create an Account
Official Episode Page
Download Audio File
2h 20m 13s
Claim This Podcast
Do you host or manage this podcast?
Claim and edit this page to your liking.
Add a Podcast
Claim a Podcast
Terms & Conditions


Well balanced, light weight, fully adjustable and with great pulling power, it is a military issue weapon, adopted by numerous security forces, a favorite of collectors and sports shooters.
The AR-15 assault rifle, originally invented by ArmaLite and later sold its patent to Colt’s Manufacturing Company, is a semi-automatic weapon that, due to its size and versatility, has become a part of numerous armies and security forces. With a semi-automatic mechanism, canceled according to the legislation so that it can only fire ‘shot by shot’, it is also one of the weapons preferred by collectors and sports shooting fans. However, it has also become the sad protagonist of the latest massacres perpetrated against civilians in the United States and other countries in the world. The last one occurred this Tuesday at an elementary school in Uvalde (Texas), where 19 children from Robb Elementary School and two teachers were killed by Salvador Ramos, who bought weapons the day before on his 18th birthday.
The AR-15 is not that it is new. Born in 1959 and manufactured by Colt since 1964, it made its debut in combat during the Vietnam War, where it soon gained prominence against the ubiquitous M-16. At first the ArmaLite AR-15 and the Colt AR-15 looked very similar, but over time the rifle changed appreciably.
The current model is manufactured with three barrel lengths -between 406 and 991 mm.-, always ammunition with 223 Remington cartridges (in its version for sport shooting) or 5.56 mm x 45 NATO (for military use) -the same of the HK G-36 used by the Spanish Army. It is also sold with different barrel lengths from 410 mm to 610 mm. His weight is three kilos.
It can mount magazines of 5, 10, 20 or 30 cartridges and has a fire capacity of 750 shots per minute and a range of 550 meters. The rate of fire is 975 meters per second. Its flash hider muzzle stands out -installed at the tip of the barrel- which, in addition to reducing the flash of the shot that dazzles the shooter and reveals his position, reduces the sound of the detonation. You can also mount ‘picattiny’ rails, to install accessories such as flashlights, laser pointers or a grenade launcher.
AR-15 design rifles. /
With these dimensions, this assault rifle is a slightly larger weapon than the old Z-70b submachine gun, with the stock deployed, which was manufactured by Star and used by the Spanish armed and security forces. Therein lies its success, since the soldier can pass with this weapon through narrow places and use it in self-defense in relatively short distances, where a pistol would be more effective. Another of its advantages is the nock that is extendable to suit the shooter.
Given Colt’s success with this weapon, as before with the 1911 pistol, other manufacturers market replicas of the AR-15. In the United States, it is the rifle/carbine most purchased by citizens for self-defense, as allowed by the second amendment to the country’s Constitution.
#AR15 #main #rifle #latest #massacres


text:
The Country Club of the Crystal Coast is a semi-private course nestled among sand dunes and the maritime forest of Pine Knoll Shores, NC. It is the only golf course on the island. Rental Clubs are available for 18 holes and 9 holes.
Crystal Coast Ecotours offers full or half day personalized tours of barrier island,Cape Lookout National Seashore, backwater sounds, marshes, and sea grass meadows. Customers can experience the natural treasures of the Crystal Coast by shelling, clamming, crabbing, seining, wild horse watching, birding, snorkling, and dolphin watching.