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Major life events have been found to precede onsets of a 1st lifetime episode of depression more commonly than subsequent recurrences. Despite general empirical support for this finding, few data directly address how the role of major life events may change over successive recurrences. Further, little research has examined major chronic difficulties in relation to a 1st lifetime episode versus a recurrence of depression. The present study tested the associations between major life events and major difficulties in relation to lifetime history of depressive episodes in a sample of 96 individuals diagnosed with major depression. Using investigator-based measures of life stress, the authors found that, whereas major life events were associated with fewer lifetime episodes, major chronic difficulties were related to more prior episodes. These findings are discussed in terms of underlying mechanisms that may account for the changing role of major life stress over successive recurrences of depression.
Major depression is one of the most common and one of the most disabling psychological conditions (Gotlib & Hammen, 2002). The impairment resulting from depression is severe, not only because of the pervasive impact of an episode of the disorder on the afflicted individual’s life, but also because of the high likelihood that depression will recur, often repeatedly, over the life course. Considering cumulatively the high prevalence, the serious impairment, and the frequent recurrence of unipolar depression, this disorder represented the fourth leading cause of disability worldwide in 1990 and is expected to become the second leading cause of disability worldwide by the year 2020 (Murray & Lopez, 1996).
Over the past 2 decades, theoretical and clinical interest in the causes of depression has shifted from a predominant emphasis on acute, single episodes to a longitudinal perspective on the life course of depression. This shift is due largely to the emerging awareness of the high likelihood that people suffering from depression will experience repeated recurrences of the disorder over their lifetimes (Belsher & Costello, 1988; Hammen, 2005). Of particular interest is the distinction between a first lifetime episode of major depression and subsequent recurrences of the disorder. There are good reasons to consider the possibility that the factors that give rise to an initial episode differ in kind or in arrangement from those that play a role in subsequent recurrences. One especially promising area of focus for examining this issue is the relation between life stress and depression (Monroe & Harkness, 2005). A large and consistent body of research documents a central role for major life events in the onset of depression (Brown & Harris, 1989; Hammen, 2005; Mazure, 1998; Monroe & Hadjiyannakis, 2002). Within this general literature, it has become apparent that the etiological importance of major life stress changes following the onset of a first lifetime episode and over subsequent recurrences. Post (1992) was among the earliest researchers to note that major life stress appears to be associated more strongly with first episodes of major affective disorder than with later episodes. Subsequent reviews of the literature on life stress and major depression have generally supported this observation (Mazure, 1998; Monroe & Harkness, 2005; cf. Hammen, 2005). Investigating major life stress in relation to the initial onset and to the later recurrence of depression may provide insights into both the mechanisms that initiate and then perpetuate episodes of depression and the processes that accumulate and then eventuate in the extreme disability burden of the disorder.
Despite relatively consistent findings indicating a greater role for major life stress in the onset of initial lifetime episodes than in later recurrences, the theoretical rationale for this effect is not clear. Based on animal laboratory studies of electrophysiological kindling, as well as on research on stress and cocaine sensitization, Post (1992) proposed a framework of ideas to explain the development of episodic disorders that initially are stress related but that subsequently appear to emerge independent of stress. The basic premise of this “kindling hypothesis” is that repeated experiences of stress and depression render an individual more sensitized to the effects of stress and progressively more susceptible to the recurrence of depression. Consistent with this view, Post proposed a model that “presents a clear-cut example of the shift from episodes that are triggered to those that occur autonomously” (p. 1001).
It is important to note, however, that there is imprecision about the role of stress in this formulation, confusing a kindling and autonomy theme (i.e., stress becomes independent of the onset of depression) with a kindling and stress sensitization theme (i.e., lower levels of stress become capable of triggering recurrences; see Hlastala et al., 2000; Monroe & Hadjiyannakis, 2002). For example, whereas some investigators consider stress to diminish in importance with repeated episodes (as more autonomous neurobiological processes begin to dominate in the explanatory scheme), other investigators consider stress to increase in importance with repeated episodes (as sensitization lowers the threshold for stress needed to trigger episode onset). Indeed, in a recent theoretical review of life stress and the recurrence of depression, Monroe and Harkness (2005) detailed the widespread confusion and inconsistencies in the literature involving these two viewpoints.
Several lines of research may be pursued to help resolve these theoretical tensions. In the present study we address two timely issues. First, the literature on life stress and recurrence is based largely on studies that compare people with first lifetime episodes of depression with people with at least one recurrence. This means that people with one or more prior depressions are collapsed into the broad category of recurrence. This strategy potentially obscures the changing role of major stress over the extended clinical course of multiple recurrences. Consequently, it is important to determine whether differential associations of major stress with recurrence hold when formerly depressed individuals are stratified more precisely with regard to their lifetime histories of episodes. For example, are major life events differentially common prior to first, second, or third lifetime recurrences? At what point in the progression of recurrences does the importance of major life events before onset appear to change? More generally, it is useful at the present stage of understanding to develop more fine-grained descriptive data to portray how the association between major life events and recurrence evolves over repeated episodes (see Monroe & Harkness, 2005).
Second, the literature on life stress and recurrence is based predominantly on research involving acute life events. Few investigators have examined major chronic difficulties in relation to a first onset versus recurrence of depression (Hammen, 2005). Although major difficulties have been found to predict the onset of a depressive episode (Brown & Harris, 1978, 1989), there is limited empirical information to determine whether there is a differential association between major difficulties and first lifetime episodes versus between major difficulties and recurrences of depression. For example, Daley, Hammen, and Rao (2000) found an interaction between history of depression and chronic difficulties. Chronic difficulties predicted a first onset but not a recurrence of depression. Unfortunately, this is one of the few investigations, if not the only study, characterized by sound methods and research design that includes chronic stressors.
Examining chronic difficulties and recurrence also holds promise for illuminating basic theoretical issues involving life stress and depression. On the one hand, if there is an association between chronic difficulties and the distinction between first onsets and recurrences of depression, it might parallel the pattern found for major life events (i.e., chronic difficulties may be more common prior to the onset of earlier than of later episodes of depression). On the other hand, major chronic stress may operate in a complementary manner with major life events and be more prevalent with later recurrences. Indeed, this latter possibility is especially plausible given the stress-generation hypothesis (Hammen, 1991), which suggests that a history of depression leads to an increase in acute life events. Thus, it is theoretically consonant that stress-generation processes could be extended to and might eventuate in more chronic life stress as well.
Finally, given the importance of stress generation and its potential implications for recurrences of depression, it is also useful to evaluate the extent to which severe life events experienced by individuals are outside of or within their control (Hammen, 2005; Harkness, Monroe, Simons, & Thase, 1999). Independent severe events are events that occur independently of the individual’s behavior, whereas possibly dependent severe events are events that are likely to occur at least in part owing to the person’s actions. Accordingly, we also conducted secondary analyses to determine the extent to which associations between severe acute events and recurrence may be attributed to either independent severe events or possibly dependent severe events.
In sum, the present study was designed to address several issues that are critical for understanding the nature of the changing role of life stress over repeated episodes of major depression. First, we examine the role of severe life events and lifetime history of depression. Employing state-of-the-art diagnostic and assessment methods with a sample of 96 depressed persons, we predicted that a greater number of severe life events would be associated with a history of fewer depressive episodes. Second, we expand this prediction and add to the existing literature to provide a more differentiated statistical analysis and finer grained presentation of the changing prevalence of severe life events preceding onset, stratified by the number of lifetime episodes of depression. Third, we investigate the role of severe chronic difficulties to determine whether such forms of stress possess a similar or different pattern of association with lifetime history of depression. Finally, we conduct secondary analyses to ensure that the major findings cannot be attributed to other demographic or clinical correlates and to examine whether the major findings hold for major life events that are independent of the participant’s behavior.
Participants were 96 adults between the ages of 18 and 58 years (M = 34.26, SD = 9.95) diagnosed with major depressive disorder (MDD).1 The sample was largely composed of women (n = 71, 74%) relative to men (n = 25, 26%). Most individuals were single (n = 56, 58.3%), with 32 (33.4%) married or living with a domestic partner and 6 (6.2%) separated, widowed, or divorced. Ethnicity was primarily Caucasian (n = 48, 50%), followed by Asian (n = 40, 41.7%), African American (n = 4, 4.2%), Latino or Hispanic (n = 2, 2.1%), and other (n = 1, 1%). The sample was generally well-educated, with 46.6% (n = 41) having completed college (and no advanced studies), 33% (n = 29) reporting graduate or professional education beyond college, and 20% (n = 18) reporting some college or less. Finally, the sample was varied with respect to annual income, with 15.6% (n = 15) earning under $10,000, 14.6% (n = 14) earning between $10,000 and $25,000, 24% (n = 23) earning between $25,000 and $50,000, 17.7% (n = 17) earning between $50,000 and $75,000, and 18.8% (n = 18) earning more than $75,000.
Individuals were recruited through advertisements and flyers and through referrals from two outpatient psychiatry clinics at Stanford University. The vast majority of participants were self-referred (i.e., from advertisements and flyers), and half were receiving treatment (46 reporting receiving treatment, 46 reporting not receiving treatment).
All participants were initially screened by telephone to recruit individuals with a high likelihood of current depression with a relatively recent onset of the disorder (98% of the sample had had an onset within 2.5 years). Individuals who appeared to be eligible for the study were invited for an appointment at the Department of Psychology at Stanford University, where they were administered a diagnostic interview and completed self-report questionnaires. Participants who met formal criteria for study inclusion (see below) were requested to return to the laboratory approximately 1 week later to complete additional measures. Once these two sessions had been successfully completed, participants were invited for a third session to complete the life stress interview. All participants were paid $25 per hour.
All participants were interviewed with the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM–IV Axis I Disorders (SCID-I; First, Spitzer, Gibbon, & Williams, 1996) and met criteria for current MDD according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th edition (DSM–IV; American Psychiatric Association, 1994). These individuals were screened to exclude current comorbid panic disorder and social phobia, as well as to exclude lifetime history of mania, hypomania, or primary psychotic symptoms. Participants were also excluded if they had a recent history (in the past 6 months) of alcohol or psychoactive substance abuse or dependence, and they were required to have no history of brain injury or mental retardation. Interviewers were advanced psychology graduate students and postbaccalaureate research assistants. To assess diagnostic interrater reliability for the overall project, an independent trained rater who was unaware of group membership evaluated 15 randomly selected audiotapes of SCID-I interviews. These interviews were drawn from individuals who did and did not meet study criteria, and they included people who met criteria for depression, social phobia, or panic disorder and those who did not meet diagnostic criteria. In all 15 cases, diagnostic decisions made by the independent rater matched the diagnostic decision made by the original interviewer, κ = 1.00. Although this represents excellent reliability, we should note that the interviewers used the skip out strategy of the SCID-I, which may have reduced the opportunities for the independent raters to disagree with the diagnoses (Gotlib, Kasch, et al., 2004; Gotlib, Krasnoperova, Yue, & Joorman, 2004).
History of depressive episodes was assessed as part of the SCID-I interview, with interviewers probing the reported number of prior depressive experiences to determine whether the participant met criteria for a past episode of MDD. The frequency of total lifetime depressive episodes (including the index episode) ranged from 1 (n = 18) to “too many to count” (n = 15). The majority of participants had 4 or fewer lifetime episodes, and there were sufficient participants with up to 5 lifetime episodes within each of these categories to allow for more detailed analysis. Beyond 5 lifetime episodes, however, the number of participants per specific number of past depressive episodes decreased; consequently, for individuals with more than 5 episodes, we collapsed across episode history categories. Specifically, to provide a more uniform index of depression history and to provide for approximately equal numbers of individuals per category, individuals who reported 6 or more lifetime episodes were collapsed into three categories of lifetime history (6–10 episodes, 11–36 episodes, >36 episodes or “too many to count”; see Table 1).
The Global Assessment of Functioning Scale (GAF, Axis V, DSM–IV; American Psychiatric Association, 1994) was used to assess global functioning. The GAF is a single-rating scale used to evaluate an individual’s overall level of psychological, social, and occupational functioning. Ratings are made on the basis of the SCID-I interview and range from 1 (lowest level of functioning) to 100 (highest level of functioning). The reliability of the GAF has been demonstrated in prior work (Endicott, Spitzer, Fleiss, & Cohen, 1976) and with this team of interviewers (Kasch, Rottenberg, Arnow, & Gotlib, 2002; Rottenberg, Kasch, Gross, & Gotlib, 2002).
The Life Events and Difficulties Schedule (LEDS; Brown & Harris, 1978) was used to assess and operationalize life stress. The LEDS system employs a semistructured interview that systematically covers life domains and provides the respondent with numerous probes and opportunities to stimulate recall of past experiences. This information is subsequently presented to a panel of raters trained in the LEDS procedures to (a) define life events and difficulties and (b) rate dimensions of these two forms of life stress (Brown & Harris, 1978).2 Relevant information pertaining to stressors is presented first, with raters permitted to ask clarifying questions. Subsequently, each rater provides his or her ratings of the major stress dimensions (see below). All discrepancies are then resolved through group discussion and consensus ratings.
For all of these operations, the LEDS manuals were available to provide anchoring examples and to assist with standardization (e.g., the 520-page manual contains thousands of case vignettes to assist in defining events and assigning threat ratings). Raters were blind to information about the person’s subjective response to stressors, clinical status, and other important clinical considerations and dependent variables (e.g., timing of depression onset, lifetime history of episodes). All life events that were direct consequences of depression are excluded from the analyses (e.g., work or relationship problems due to poor concentration, fatigue, irritability). (In practice, once the blind for onset date is broken, we find essentially all such events to postdate formal onset of the episode.) For secondary analyses, life events were also rated as independent (events that occurred entirely independently of the participant’s behavior) and possibly dependent (events that could possibly be the result of the participant’s behavior but that were clearly not due to depression).3
Previous research with the LEDS has established severe acute events and severe chronic difficulties as the two types of life stress most relevant for predicting the onset of depression (Brown & Harris, 1989; Monroe & Hadjiyannakis, 2002). These are explicitly defined categories of events and difficulties that are based on a high degree of contextual threat, unpleasantness associated with the situation, and a high likelihood of prolonged consequences.4 Within the LEDS rating system, all events are rated based on extensive information about the circumstances surrounding the event and on the particular individual’s biographic circumstances (i.e., contextual ratings; see Brown & Harris, 1978, 1989). Thus, there is no universal assignment of scores based on summary descriptions of the events. Nonetheless, examples are useful for understanding the general types of events typically included in the severe categories used in the present study. Examples of severe events include several terminations of core relationships, a broken engagement, and a very serious fight with a spouse. Examples of severe difficulties include highly negative marital relationships (e.g., constant serious arguing, infidelity, threats of divorce, physical abuse), impoverished economic circumstances (e.g., cannot pay bills, evicted or possessions repossessed), serious ongoing problems with children, and highly problematic work situations. Presence or absence of (a) severe acute events occurring within 26 weeks prior to the onset of a depressive episode and of (b) severe nonhealth difficulties lasting at least 2 years prior to onset represent standard procedures for operationalizing life stress within the LEDS system (Brown & Harris, 1978, 1989).5 These were the two indicators of recent major life stress used in the analyses.
After completing the LEDS assessment by trained personnel at Stanford, the interviewer presented the detailed life-stress information via teleconferencing to trained raters at the University of Oregon (Eugene). These teleconference rating sessions occurred within a few days of the LEDS interview. The raters at the University of Oregon performed all ratings after discussion and consensus agreement and were blind to relevant dependent measures (e.g., timing of depression onset, patient emotional response to event, history of depression). On average, the interviews and rating sessions each required approximately 2 hr to complete.
The LEDS has established psychometric validity and is widely regarded as a state-of-the-art instrument for measuring life stress (Brown, 1989; Hammen, 2005). Reliability for the present project for pair-wise comparisons ranged from .72 to .79 (M = .76; Cohen’s κ, corrected for differences in the number of raters per event; Uebersax, 1982). Prior research on life stress using the LEDS also indicates that life events and difficulties can be reliably assessed for at least 2 years prior to interview, with high reliability for severe events established for up to 10 years (Brown, 1989; Neilson, Brown, & Marmot, 1989).
Preliminary analyses were conducted on major demographic and clinical variables to ensure that findings for the primary study hypotheses could not be attributed to or importantly influenced by these factors. Next, to provide an initial comparison with the existing literature, we conducted two chi-square analyses for the presence or absence of the two stress indicators (i.e., severe events, severe difficulties) for participants experiencing a first lifetime episode versus those experiencing a recurrence of depression (i.e., collapsed across number of recurrences). Hierarchical regression analyses were then conducted to predict variation in full depression history, with the presence or absence of severe difficulties entered first (owing to temporal precedence of difficulties being present for a minimum of 2 years) and the presence or absence of a severe event in the past 26 weeks entered second.6 To test for the homogeneity of the regression lines and to rule out any interaction between difficulties and events, we entered the cross-product interaction term into the equation last (Cohen & Cohen, 1983). Finally, secondary analyses were conducted to control for the relevant demographic and clinical variables and to examine independent and possibly dependent severe events in relation to lifetime history of MDD.
The major demographic variables, including sex, marital status, ethnicity, and income, were unrelated to the presence or absence of a severe life event or a severe chronic difficulty. Participant age, however, was related to chronic difficulties, with older participants more likely to have a severe chronic difficulty: participants with a severe difficulty, M = 43.57, SD = 9.96; participants without a severe difficulty, M = 33.46, SD = 9.59, t(87) = 2.69, p < .005.
The major clinical variables, including intake-symptoms severity (coded symptoms from the SCID-I), GAF, and episode length at intake, were tested for associations with severe events, severe difficulties, and depression history. Severe events were related to global functioning: participants with severe events, M = 50.68, SD = 8.03; participants without severe events, M = 54.48, SD = 7.42, t(94) = 2.16, p < .04. Age was significantly correlated with history of depressive episodes (r = .27, p ≤ .02), with older participants having a higher likelihood of reporting more previous episodes of depression.7 Consequently, the secondary analyses reported below control for the influences of age and GAF scores.
The presence of a severe event was significantly related to the participant experiencing a first lifetime depressive episode: 50% (9 of 18) of first-onset cases reported a severe event, compared with 21% (16 of 78) of all combined recurrence cases, χ2(1, N = 96) = 6.60, p ≤ .01. Although not statistically significant, the reverse pattern of association was found with respect to severe difficulties: No (0 of 18) first-onset cases reported a severe difficulty, compared with 9% (7 of 78) of all recurrence cases, χ2(1, N = 96) = 1.74, p > .15.
In testing the two types of severe life stress together in a regression model predicting full depression history, we found severe difficulties to be significantly related to a greater history of prior depressive episodes ( p < .02). Severe events, entered in the second step of the hierarchical regression, also significantly predicted depression history ( p < .001). For acute events, however, the association was the reverse of that for chronic stressors: The presence of a severe event was significantly more likely for individuals with fewer prior episodes of depression (see Table 2). The descriptive data for severe events and severe difficulties, stratified by lifetime episodes of depression, are presented in Table 3.
Secondary analyses were conducted to control for the demographic and clinical correlates and to examine possible differences in effects for independent and possibly dependent severe life events. First, with regard to demographic (age) and clinical (GAF) variables that were found to be significantly related to the independent and dependent variables (see the Preliminary Analyses section above), separate analyses controlling for the effects of these variables did not alter the basic pattern or the level of statistical significance of the primary findings. Both severe difficulties, ΔF(1, 85) = 3.96, p ≤ .05, and severe events, ΔF(1, 84) = 13.07, p ≤ .001, continued to significantly predict depression history. Thus, the differential relations found for severe events and severe difficulties with regard to history of depressive episodes cannot be explained by demographic or clinical correlates.
Second, we compared participants with severe independent events (n = 7) and participants with severe possibly dependent events (n = 18) with respect to depression history. Severe independent events were not significantly associated with history of a first lifetime onset versus a recurrence: 6% (1 of 18) of first-onset cases reported a severe independent event, compared with 8% (6 of 78) of all combined recurrence cases, χ2(1, N = 96) = 0.75, p > .75. In contrast, the presence of a severe possibly dependent event was significantly related to a first lifetime depressive episode: 44% (8 of 18) of first-onset cases reported a severe possibly dependent event, compared with 13% (10 of 78) of all combined recurrence cases, χ2(1, N = 96) = 9.60, p ≤ .002. Finally, we modeled severe difficulties, severe independent events, and severe possibly dependent events in a hierarchical regression analysis predicting lifetime depression history. As expected from the prior analysis, severe difficulties entered on the first step were significantly related to a greater history of depressive episodes ( p < .02). In contrast, severe independent events entered on the second step were not a significant predictor of depression history, ΔF(1, 93) = 1.58, p > .20. In the last step of the regression equations, severe possibly dependent events continued to significantly predict less of a depression history, ΔF(1, 92) = 11.33, p < .001. Severe possibly dependent life events appear to be the acute stressors of particular relevance for the association between life events and lifetime history of depression.
There has been extensive discussion and research on the associations among life stress, depression, and recurrence of the disorder. Although the results of a number of studies underscore the importance of severe life events for first lifetime episodes relative to recurrences, few investigators have pursued this issue by examining the prevalence of major life events over specific recurrences (e.g., first, second, third). Not only did the present study examine major life events in relation to such a differentiated history of depression, but further, it is one of the few investigations to also examine chronic stress to understand differences between first lifetime episodes of depression and recurrences with respect to life stress. Our results establish the independent association of both forms of severe stress with the onset of a depressive episode and suggest that each form of stress plays a different role with regard to the lifetime history of depression.
As predicted for acute life events, severe events are significantly more likely to precede a first lifetime episode than all recurrences combined. This finding is reinforced and expanded when recurrences are classified more specifically by episode number. The changing association between severe events and recurrence persists well past a first lifetime recurrence (see Table 3). These data are consistent with the premise that severe events continue to be of etiological importance well after the first lifetime episode but that such events become a less common contributor to recurrence for participants with a greater history of depression. Indeed, if the etiologic effects of severe events remain germane for individuals with up to three lifetime episodes of depression, then severe events are of causal significance for the majority of people estimated to suffer from MDD in the general population (American Psychiatric Association, 1994; Monroe & Harkness, 2005). As other causal arrangements or pathways become more influential in the etiological picture with repeated recurrences, they may increasingly supplant, but not completely replace, the causal influence of major events. This process suggests that with repeated recurrences, there will be diminishing statistical power in traditional research designs for detecting the impact of the increasingly infrequent major events. Investigators will need to target the question of impact more specifically, examining the likelihood of recurrence given the occurrence of a major event as a function of depression history (see Monroe & Harkness, 2005).
Although previous work has shown that chronic difficulties are associated with the onset of depression (Brown & Harris, 1978), there has been a paucity of research on this topic, especially compared with the extensive research on major life events (Hammen, 2005). Few studies have examined chronic difficulties in relation to first episode versus recurrence considerations (cf. Daley et al., 2000). The present findings suggest that major difficulties are a relatively small factor in accounting for episode onset overall (given the relatively low incidence of severe difficulties in the full sample, 7.3%). Yet the pattern of these data is intriguing. On the one hand, these findings suggest that major difficulties are not of great importance for people with one or with just a few lifetime episodes. If this proves to be the case, it would help to direct and sharpen the focus on acute major events in relation to the majority of episodes of depression in the population at large. On the other hand, people with multiple episodes of depression are among the most vulnerable and impaired, requiring special attention to arrest the continued progression of pathology in their lives. Severe chronic difficulties may be a large factor in bringing about such especially frequent recurrences and may provide an important focus for intervention. In this light, understanding how severe difficulties originate and how they may contribute to the recurrence of depression would be useful research avenues to pursue.
These findings for major events and major difficulties together help address the question of what changes over successive recurrences with respect to life stress. The design of the present study does not permit a direct test of causal premises (i.e., currently nondepressed persons with and without a history of depression were not assessed in the present study). And as noted above, future work will need to address whether, in addition to the changing frequency of events as a function of depression history, there is a diminishing impact of such stressors for triggering depression. Nevertheless, it is in this context of understanding possible changes in impact of life stress over time that the present findings for severe events and difficulties are of particular interest. In contrast to the decreasing association demonstrated for severe life events, severe chronic difficulties were more common for individuals with many prior depressive episodes. (Indeed, not a single person with fewer than three lifetime episodes reported a severe difficulty.) Such results suggest one possible mechanism through which the role of life stress may change over repeated recurrences: The overall contribution of severe events may lessen, whereas the emerging contribution of severe difficulties may increase.
The greater prevalence of severe difficulties as lifetime history of depression increases is consonant, too, with the stress-generation hypothesis (Hammen, 1991, 2005). For instance, it might be expected that with many lifetime episodes, adversities accrue and become more enduring. As these chronic stressors become major problems in themselves, they likely spawn additional adverse life events. Such processes involving the generation of both chronic and acute events would clearly increase the total stress in the lives of people who suffer from recurrent depression. The question then arises as to the potential of varied types and severities of stressors for precipitating recurrences of depression (i.e., many types of life stress may be undesirable and psychologically noxious but not necessarily capable of triggering clinical depression; Harkness et al., 1999; Monroe & Simons, 1991). Although the stress-sensitization model and stress-generation model can be viewed as providing alternative explanations of the increasing likelihood of recurrence with repeated depressive episodes, these two models can also be viewed as mutually reinforcing. That is, as repeated depressions lead to increasing stress (stress generation), and as lesser severities of stress acquire the capability of triggering recurrence (stress sensitization), these two processes combine to render the person with recurrent depression especially susceptible to another episode.
Given the potential importance of both stress generation and stress sensitization, it is useful to speculate about such matters from the present data. In this vein, it is interesting to consider that the increased incidence of severe difficulties in the highly recurrent group reflects the continued potential of major stress to initiate new episodes of depression. This interpretation reinforces the idea that it is change in the frequency, rather than in the impact, of severe events that accounts for the lower prevalence of severe events prior to recurrence as lifetime history of depression increases. Although such inferences are consistent with the present data, they are not based on strong tests of the hypotheses. Future work that includes life events and difficulties of differing severity levels is needed to provide more definitive evidence of the mechanisms through which severe events may be replaced in triggering the recurrence of depression and how the stress-generation and stress-sensitization models may play out with respect to one another over time (Hammen, 2005; Monroe & Harkness, 2005).
Comparisons with other studies are limited, given the lack of detailed information in other studies on major stress and the onset of depression over successive lifetime episodes. With regard to acute major events, Kendler, Thornton, and Gardner (2000) found the odds ratio between a major event and depression onset to decrease progressively from a first lifetime episode over successive recurrences. They noted that the association continued to decrease up to nine episodes. Although Kendler et al.’s findings are important for documenting the general changes between major events and onset as a function of depression history, they do not illuminate the possible underlying mechanisms. As we have indicated, it is not clear whether such findings are accounted for by a change in frequency or by a change in impact of major events. The present results provide a useful complement to Kendler et al.’s data, revealing that the diminishing frequency of major events with increasing lifetime history of depression is an important factor for understanding the overall changing association between major stress and recurrence over time. These data again lend some, albeit limited, support to the stress sensitization premise. For example, if we had found a constant rate of severe events for people with progressively more lifetime episodes, it would suggest that Kendler et al.’s findings were due to a diminishing impact of major events over successive recurrences. Again, future work will need to target the frequency and impact considerations more directly (Monroe & Harkness, 2005).
Only one other study has addressed the association of major chronic difficulties with regard to the distinction between first lifetime onsets and recurrences.Daley et al. (2000) found history of previous depression to interact with chronic stress. For women without a history of previous depression, chronic stress significantly predicted a first lifetime onset of depression over a 5-year period. In contrast, for women with a history of previous depression, chronic difficulties did not predict a new recurrence. Although these data appear to be inconsistent with the present findings, it is important to consider differences between these two studies in their designs and methods. With respect to design, the present study focused on major stress in relation to a differentiated recurrence history of depressed persons. The most direct comparison of the present study with Daley et al.’s report involves the chronic stress means for women experiencing a first lifetime onset of depression (M = 14.50, SD = 2.01) versus women experiencing any recurrence of depression (M = 14.06, SD = 2.53). Thus, although chronic difficulties differentially predicted a first lifetime episode of depression in Daley et al.’s study, chronic difficulties did not appear to diminish appreciably for recurrences overall.8 Moreover, given that Daley et al.’s sample was composed of relatively young women (mean age = 18.29 years at study entry), it is unlikely that there were many people with an extensive history of recurrences, the very people who evidenced a higher incidence of severe difficulties in the present study. Thus, without more differentiated information about past history of depression, and with such a relatively young sample, it is difficult to derive firm conclusions regarding comparisons with the present study.
Appreciating the differences in the methods used in the two studies may also be informative for future work. Chronic difficulties in Daley et al.’s (2000) study were represented by a total chronic stress score, summed across five life domains for the 3-month period prior to onset (and a matched period for controls). In the present study, chronic stress was represented by the presence or absence of a severe difficulty (which is defined by high threat and lasting a minimum duration of 2 years prior to depression onset; Brown & Harris, 1978). Thus, the two studies differed in terms of severity and duration requirements for the chronic stress indicators. Given the 3-month time frame of Daley et al.’s investigation for defining chronic stress, it is likely that their measure included more recent and acute stress features than did our measure, which, in turn, could help to explain the differential association with first onset versus recurrence. At the present stage of knowledge, it is premature to judge which approach is more valid or useful. Clearly, more studies using similar high quality measures need to take into account the potential importance of chronic difficulties for depression onset and recurrence (Hammen, 2005).
Secondary analyses on independent and possibly dependent events indicate that it was largely the latter category that was significant with regard to lifetime history of depression. This might be in part due to the greater frequency of possibly dependent events in general (and in the present sample, 7 independent severe events vs. 18 possibly dependent severe events). It is important to note, however, that further analysis suggests that, once independent severe events were controlled for statistically, the effects for possibly dependent events on history of depression remained significant and strong. It is also noteworthy that other research has found the independent (or “fateful”) events to be especially strong for predicting depression in general (i.e., for first onsets and recurrences; Shrout et al., 1989). It may be that events that are in part related to the behavior of the person are especially pertinent for first lifetime episodes of depression. Finally, we also investigated the interaction between severe events and severe difficulties. There was no indication that either form of stress operated in a manner conditional upon the other. Consequently, it appears that each form of severe stress is significant and independent in its relations to depression history.
The strengths of the present study include a well-characterized sample that is informative for a wide range of reported prior depressions. The assessment of life stress was based on one of the most reliable and valid systems available and included rigorous assessment of both major life events and major ongoing difficulties. Study inclusion criteria ensured a sample of individuals with a relatively recent and clear onset of a depressive episode (i.e., participants were relatively free of symptoms and had no depressive episode for 6 months prior to the index episode, thereby ensuring the sample was not confounded with chronic depression). These results provide important statistical and descriptive information for better understanding the relation between severe events and difficulties with regard to the onset of depression over successive recurrences. To test causal processes more directly, future researchers will need to include currently nondepressed persons, especially nondepressed persons with varied histories of total lifetime depressive episodes.
In addition, it is important to note that the present work, and the vast majority of the work in the literature, is based on a between-subjects analysis of life stress and recurrence. That is, associations for life stress in relation to differing histories of MDD are based on different groups of individuals with different histories of MDD. The design of the present study does not permit one to rule out the possibility that something about the different groups, and not necessarily changes in relation to stress over successive recurrences, is of relevance with regard to stress. Ideally, future research will also include a longitudinal within-subject component to test the changing association between life stress and recurrence over repeated episodes for the same individuals (see Kendler et al., 2000). To justify the intensive research demands that accompany such longitudinal research, however, a firm foundation of supportive empirical evidence needs to be assembled. The present findings represent an important contribution toward this goal.
This work was sponsored in part by National Institute of Mental Health Research Grants MH60802 (Scott M. Monroe) and MH59259 (Ian H. Gotlib). We thank Lauren Anas, Erica Aronson, Kathryn Dingman, and Danielle Keenan-Miller for helping conduct life stress interviews and Faith Brozovich for assisting with data management. We thank Keely Muscatell, Julien Guillaumot, Corrie Doyle, and Tiffany Thornton for participating in stress ratings.
1Sample sizes vary within demographic categories because of differences in missing data.
2Raters were trained by Scott M. Monroe, who was trained in the LEDS procedures by Tirril Harris. The number of raters per case ranged from one to four, with the majority involving at least three or four raters. Scott M. Monroe was one of the raters for 99% of the rating sessions.
3Although in theory severe difficulties could be divided into independent and possibly dependent categories, in practice such stressors are almost always possibly dependent. This is due to the fact that there is a 2-year duration requirement for severe difficulties, which makes it very hard to eliminate the possibility that the participant’s behavior to some degree influences this chronic form of stress.
4Specifically, severe events are defined as events rated 1 on long-term threat or 2a on long-term threat and subject or joint focused. All event ratings were made contextually and consensually. Severe difficulties are defined as difficulties rated 1 to 3 (on a 6-point scale) that began 2 or more years from the onset of the current episode and did not involve primarily a health difficulty. See Brown (1989) for further details on these well-standardized rating procedures.
5Prior work has established the presence or absence of severe events as the most important predictor of depression onset (as opposed to a cumulative measure including all severe events; Brown & Harris, 1978, 1989; Monroe & Hadjiyannakis, 2002).
6Comparative analyses using either 6- or 12-week intervals for assessing severe events produced similar findings. In fact, all severe events occurred within an 18-week time frame, with the vast majority occurring within about 14 weeks.
7Although participants with first lifetime episodes did not differ from participants with one or more recurrences in terms of length of the index episode (M = 8.02, SD = 10.81, and M = 7.14, SD = 6.40, respectively), there was a significant correlation when total depression history was correlated with length of the index episode (r = −.21, p < .05). This association indicated that participants with a greater number of prior episodes had a relatively briefer duration of the index episode. Controlling for current episode length did not diminish the pattern or statistical significance of the major findings. Indeed, if there was a problem with confounding between recall period and reporting of events, one would expect it to operate against our finding of major events predicting fewer lifetime episodes (i.e., the participants with a greater history would have the shorter recall period and would be likely to report more events).
8Mean chronic stress for the women without a history of depression and without an episode over the 5-year follow-up period was 12.30 (SD = 2.00), whereas average chronic stress for women with a history of depression without a recurrence over the follow-up period was 13.50 (SD = 2.81). Thus, it does not appear that there were significant differences in mean levels of chronic stress between women who were experiencing a first onset of depression and women who were experiencing a recurrence of depression in Daley et al.’s (2000) study.
Scott M. Monroe, Department of Psychology, University of Oregon.
George M. Slavich, Department of Psychology, University of Oregon.
Leandro D. Torres, Department of Psychology, University of Oregon.
Ian H. Gotlib, Department of Psychology, Stanford University.


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The first entry in the Nottingham A-Z is Aaron Close in Wilford NG2; the last is Zulu Road in Basford NG7. Guess where I'm walking on Sunday? This cheeky urban ramble is the brainchild of Richard, my psychogeography friend, and promises to be great fun. There'll no doubt be a lot of pointing at stuff and general chitchat, while members of the public look on in bewilderment wondering why we on earth we would find a particular roof detail fascinating or want to take photographs of railings.
For those of you unfamiliar with NG postcodes Aaron Close* is south of the river (Trent), Zulu Road** is north. Depending on the route we take - and how far we stray off piste - it's around five miles, so not too taxing by any stretch of the imagination. And yes, I have got a boozer in mind at the end where, no doubt, we shall plan our next sortie.
* If you've ever been to the cricket at Trent Bridge you're not a million miles away.
** Not far from where they hold the famous Nottingham Goose Fair.
Love this as a concept for walking. Brilliant.ReplyDelete
It's rather neat idea, isn't it? You should give it a go in Manchester - I'm sure the Number One Son would join you...Delete
You should tour the UK doing this in every town and city, John, then write a Stuart Maconie-esque book about it.ReplyDelete
As ideas go, young Rol, that's actually...something well worth thinking about. Of course to make it fly I'd need a trusty companion, sentient or otherwise; you know the kind of thing - a dog or a fridge.Delete
Love this as an idea although looking at my home town the first and last on an A to Z are only about 5 minutes from each other.ReplyDelete
Hope you enjoyed today's walk.
Lovely idea and I'm with Rol on the writing project too.ReplyDelete
Proof; if proof were needed - start to finish.ReplyDelete

domain: geography


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Scaccia is a stuffed flat bread in Sicilian cuisine. “Scacciata” derives from the Sicilian word meaning to drive away, equivalent to the Italian word “schiacciata” meaning to crush or to flatten.
This bread is made with a very thin rectangular layer of dough, folded on itself three or four times. It can be stuffed with different ingredients, the more common variations are ricotta cheese and onion, cheese and tomato, tomato and onion, or tomato and eggplant, depending on location, taste, or season. It is baked and can be eaten hot or cold.
A great option for a lunch, I made this King Arthur Baking Company recipe today. As I have a habit of doing, I did change the recipe a bit. Scaccia is also referred to as Lasagna Bread. So, I decided to add one of my favorite lasagna ingredients to it – Italian Sausage.
This loaf was extremely tasty. The next time I make this recipe, I think that I will try to make individual sized portions that I can warm for lunches.
Conchas, which means “shells” in Spanish, have a the twisted streusel top that is supposed to look like a seashell. They are Mexico’s national sweet bread. The history of the concha dates back to the colonial era, when French, Spanish, and Italian bakers established themselves in Mexico, bringing their recipes, like brioche and baguettes, with them. Traditionally a type of pan dulce, they usually come in either chocolate or vanilla flavor. The King Arthur Baking Company recipe uses cinnamon for the topping.
The ingredients for these rolls are fairly standard. Thus, I did not take a photo. The recipe is also fairly easy. When first shaping the rolls, they seemed really large. So, instead of making ten rolls, I made eight of two different kinds, cinnamon and chocolate, for sixteen total.
While an easy recipe, I did forget to place the egg wash over the rolls before adding the topping. By the time I realized this, the rolls had already started to rise and I did not want to mess with them. I was pleasantly surprised after the rise to find that the streusel topping had created a cracked appearance, removing the need to cut lines into the topping.
The cracked surfaces baked fine as well. Even though I made them smaller than the recipe called for, they were still plenty big. I think the next time I make these I will make them even smaller.
Another recipe done and another tasty loaf (actually two loaves) of bread. For the complete recipe, see the King Arthur Baking Company recipe. This is a recipe I have made before. This time, I made a few adjustments.
As expected, since I had made this recipe before, these loaves tasted great!
Several years ago, I watched the movie “Julie and Julia” with some of my friends. The movie involves two story lines. One details Julia Child’s start in the cooking profession. The other follows a blogger named Julie as she challenges herself to cook all of the recipes in Julia Child’s first book, 524 recipes, in one year. I enjoyed the movie and always thought cooking through a cookbook would be a fun thing to do.
When King Arthur Baking Company announced last week that they were having a contest (randomly drawn winner) for bakers to make any of the twelve recipes in the Extraordinary Bread collection, I thought I would give it a try. I plan to try out each recipe and post some tips and suggestions with each.
While I am definitely not the writer that Julie Powell was, nor are my cooking/baking skills any where near a professional like Julia Child, I do enjoy trying new things.
Today, I made Khachapuri. The bread is shaped into flat “boat-like” ovals and filled with a mix of cheeses and topped with an egg. Based upon the ingredients, I assumed the bread would taste somewhat like a flattened bagel. With that in mind, I made some modifications to half of the “boats”.
The recipe makes four bread boats. I knew that my family would likely not eat all four of these. So, I only made a half batch of the cheese filling to be used with two of the boats. For the other two boats, I combined 1/4 cup Ricotta Cheese with 1/4 cup Cinnamon Sweet Bits (found here).
Each type of Khachapuri tasted really good, but I especially liked the Ricotta-Cinnamon combination.
The loaves are rather big – each loaf is enough for two or three people to eat. I think next time I make these, I will make twelve small loaves rather than the four large loaves.

domain: food


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Steam, Source Engine Get First-Rate Love On Mac OS X
Phoronix: Steam, Source Engine Get First-Rate Love On Mac OS X
Valve, the makers of the popular Half-Life and Counter-Strike franchises (along with numerous other titles) and the company behind the Steam software delivery system, have announced today that they are now bringing their games (including Steam) over to Mac OS X. Not only are they bringing these games over, but they intend to provide first-rate support for Apple's operating system. As is mentioned in today's press release, "We are treating the Mac as a tier-1 platform so all of our future games will release simultaneously on Windows, Mac, and the Xbox 360...
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domain: news


H.S. Gymnastics: Ramapo vaults to No. 1 in New Jersey
The team truly captured every possible accolade this season and looks to continue its magical run into a 2013 season that Green Raider enthusiasts have every reason to be excited about.
Next year will be Levirne's fourth with the program, which means that her senior class will have had four full years under the same head coach; the expectations are sky-high for this group.
As for the group that just won the state championship, its victory is a stepping-stone on the walkway of athletic success at Ramapo.
The team's performance in key events truly propelled it to ultimate victory, and its impressive effort was worth it.
Levirne mentioned that she believed in "jinxes", which meant that the coach simply didn't want to curse the team's good season. As such, during the season, Levirne refused to even mention the possibility of a state championship.
Certainly no hex befell the Green Raiders.
With a perfect season in the books, the team hopes to come into the off-season with a renewed sense of focus. For a repeat season, such will be necessary.
Eli Nachmany can be reached at firstname.lastname@example.org


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Who would like to be spending their evening at a live show right about now? Of course you would. With opportunities to see your favourite bands being few and far between right now, the next best thing that we have is our trusty live albums. And if you’ve worn out your copy of Thin Lizzy’s “Live and Dangerous”, Kiss “Alive” or Cheap Trick “At Budokan” then maybe it’s time to turn your attention elsewhere.
Embracing this sentiment to the fullest, progressive rock titans YES are back with an all-new concert album recorded at the Hard Rock Hotel in Las Vegas during the band’s 2019 US tour.
With ten tracks on the album, “Live From Las Vegas” opens with the majestic sounds of “No Opportunity Necessary, No Experience Needed” showcasing Geoff Downes shimmering keyboard work.
YES come together seamlessly throughout, playing at the top of their games, but particularly during intricate and complex numbers such as “Tempus Fugit” and “Siberian Khatru”. Howe’s dazzling slide skills and Davison’s phenomenal range are illustrated during “Going for the One”. Of course, the album would not be complete without the inclusion of YES anthems such as “I’ve Seen All Good People”, “Roundabout” and “Starship Trooper”.
‘The Royal Affair Tour: Live from Las Vegas’ is the perfect representation of key cuts and live favourites from the extensive YES back catalogue and a great record of a time when we could still enjoy live music. If you are missing your live music fix, then this album is your antidote.

domain: artistic


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- How do you remove heavy metals from your brain?
- What kind of doctor treats heavy metal poisoning?
- Is Alzheimer’s inherited from mother or father?
- How do heavy metals affect the brain?
- What metal is linked to Alzheimer’s?
- Can heavy metals cause memory loss?
- What are the symptoms of heavy metals in the body?
- Do heavy metals stay in your body?
- Does foil cause dementia?
- How do you get rid of heavy metal poisoning?
- What are the symptoms of toxicity?
- How heavy metals are toxic for health?
- How do you cleanse your body of mercury?
- How is gadolinium removed from the body?
- Does cooking in aluminum foil cause Alzheimer’s?
- Is it bad to wrap your food in aluminum foil?
- Is Cooking in aluminum bad for you?
How do you remove heavy metals from your brain?
Dietary fiber: Various foods rich in fiber, such as fruit and grains with bran, may help remove heavy metals.
Researchers have found fiber to reduce mercury levels in the brain and blood.
Chlorella: Studies have shown that chlorella increases the detoxification of mercury in mice..
What kind of doctor treats heavy metal poisoning?
If intentional ingestion or overdose is suspected, place the patient in a closely monitored unit, screen for coingestion of acetaminophen, and consult a medical toxicologist and psychiatrist.
Is Alzheimer’s inherited from mother or father?
We all inherit a copy of some form of APOE from each parent. Those who inherit one copy of APOE-e4 from their mother or father have an increased risk of developing Alzheimer’s. Those who inherit two copies from their mother and father have an even higher risk, but not a certainty.
How do heavy metals affect the brain?
The nervous system is very sensitive to all types of mercury. Increased exposure of mercury can alter brain functions and lead to shyness, tremors, memory problems, irritability, and changes in vision or hearing.
What metal is linked to Alzheimer’s?
Since that time it has been shown that iron, as well as zinc and copper are associated with the hallmark Alzheimer’s proteins amyloid and tau in the brain. These hallmark proteins appear as clumps called amyloid plaques and tau tangles in the brains of people with Alzheimer’s and are thought to cause damage.
Can heavy metals cause memory loss?
Exposure to high levels of metallic, inorganic, or organic mercury can damage the brain, kidneys, and developing fetus. Effects on brain functioning may result in irritability, tremors, changes in vision or hearing, and memory problems.
What are the symptoms of heavy metals in the body?
What are the symptoms of heavy metal poisoning?diarrhea.nausea.abdominal pain.vomiting.shortness of breath.tingling in your hands and feet.chills.weakness.Dec 13, 2018
Do heavy metals stay in your body?
Some heavy metals don’t stay in the bloodstream very long. These metals may stay longer in urine, hair, or other body tissues. So you may need to take a urine test or provide a sample of your hair, fingernail, or other tissue for analysis.
Does foil cause dementia?
It is possible that exposure to very high levels of dietary aluminum may contribute to the development of brain diseases like Alzheimer’s ( 15 , 16 , 17 ). But the exact role aluminum plays in the development and progression of Alzheimer’s, if any, is yet to be determined.
How do you get rid of heavy metal poisoning?
Three common drugs for treatment of metal poisoning are: BA. (Dimercaprol), Calcium EDTA (Calcium Disodium Versenate) and Penicillamine. Each of these work by binding actions that permit the metals to be eliminated from the body through the urine. Treatment should also be symptomatic and supportive.
What are the symptoms of toxicity?
General symptomsfeeling and being sick.diarrhoea.stomach pain.drowsiness, dizziness or weakness.high temperature of 38C (100.4F) or above.chills (shivering)loss of appetite.headache.More items…
How heavy metals are toxic for health?
The main mechanism of heavy metal toxicity include the generation of free radicals to cause oxidative stress, damage of biological molecules such as enzymes, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids, damage of DNA which is key to carcinogenesis as well as neurotoxicity.
How do you cleanse your body of mercury?
You can also try doing a simple mercury detox without any special products by: Eating more fiber. Your body naturally gets rid of mercury and other potentially toxic substances through feces. Eating more fiber helps to move things more regularly through your gastrointestinal tract, resulting in more bowel movements.
How is gadolinium removed from the body?
Chelation is a process where doctors administer chelating agents to patients. These agents bind gadolinium and remove it from the body through the kidneys. Health providers may administer chelating agents through an IV, with a pill, as a suppository under the tongue or through a rectal suppository.
Does cooking in aluminum foil cause Alzheimer’s?
This suspicion led to concern about exposure to aluminum through everyday sources such as pots and pans, beverage cans, antacids and antiperspirants. Since then, studies have failed to confirm any role for aluminum in causing Alzheimer’s.
Is it bad to wrap your food in aluminum foil?
This research suggests that aluminium foil should not be used for cooking. … It’s safe to wrap cold food in foil, though not for long stretches of time because food has a shelf life and because aluminium in the foil will begin to leach into the food depending on ingredients like spices.
Is Cooking in aluminum bad for you?
Aluminum. … The World Health Organization estimates that adults can consume more than 50 milligrams of aluminum daily without harm. During cooking, aluminum dissolves most easily from worn or pitted pots and pans. The longer food is cooked or stored in aluminum, the greater the amount that gets into food.

domain: medical


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Madame Tussauds in London has announced a new series of exhibits that will give Star Wars fans the chance to walk among the iconic characters from the films.
Jedi Master Yoda is the first wax figure to be revealed, in a re-creation of his swamp in the Dagobah system.
This is the first of 11 walk-through scenes which will bring visitors face to face with 16 heroes and villains from the sci-fi franchise.
Visitors will see the ink across the back of David's hand depicting his wife's name, which has been added to his collection of tattoos.Read the full story ›
Celebrity couple David and Victoria Beckham will have new wax figures of themselves unveiled at Madame Tussauds today, ahead of their fifteenth wedding anniversary next month.
The pair already feature in the attraction, with older versions of the retired footballer and the former Spice Girl created in 2004. These will be replaced by the new creations, which will join other celebrity figures in the 'Party Area' of Madame Tussauds.
A new wax figure of double Olympic champion Mo Farah has been unveiled at London's Madame Tassauds.
Farah is portrayed in his trademark "Mobot" pose and is wearing a Team GB athletics kit.
“It’s brilliant – it’s weird to see myself like this but they did a great job, they look exactly like me. Even my kids are shocked!” the long distance runner said.
The unveiling comes just two days after Farah finished eighth in his first London Marathon.
A Madame Tussauds waxwork of Prince Harry has been given an icy makeover ahead of the royal's trek to the South Pole later this month.
Waxworks of the Duke and Duchess of Cambridge will be moved from the Royal line up at Madame Tussauds to a special new setting as the attraction prepares for increased interest in the hugely popular couple, with the imminent arrival of the Royal baby.
Until now, they have been displayed alongside figure of the Queen, Prince Philip and other royals, but they are now going to be given their own room, such is the demand for visitors to the attraction to have their pictures taken with the wax lookalikes.
Adele has given a new Madame Tussauds figure her wax-seal of approval and declared: "They've even got my chin right." Adele was not present at today's launch but she has already been given a look at the model and said of her double:
That's scary! It's amazing - I feel a bit emotional.
Madame Tussauds have revealed the multi-award winning singer Adele as the latest celebrity to join their waxy Hall of Fame.Read the full story ›
Adele is the latest celebrity to be created in wax by specialists at Madame Tussauds.
Here sculptor Louis Wiltshire works on the clay head that will be used to create the wax mould for the star's new wax figure at Madame Tussauds in London.
Work is now well underway on the Oscar Winner's figure which will be portrayed in a dramatic performance pose at the London and Amsterdam attractions in July.
Shoppers got a chance to cuddle up to George Clooney in the West End today....but they soon found their date didn't have much conversation.
The figure lounging on a purple leather sofa in the middle of Carnaby Street was actually just a waxwork of the Hollywood A-lister.
Madame Tussauds said they had put him there as a treat for fans, after he was voted the most desirable date for Valentines Day.
Prince Harry came in at number two, with Twilight actor Robert Pattinson in third, Brad Pitt in fourth and Colin Firth in fifth.
The top five most dateable females were Angelina Jolie, Cheryl Cole, Kate Winslet, Beyonce and Helen Mirren.

domain: celebrity


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The Four Champions of Rubrum is a group of four strongest Agito Cadets from the Dominion of Rubrum in Final Fantasy Type-0. The four members of the group are the main characters of the manga Final Fantasy Type-0 Side Story: The Ice Reaper, and is mentioned a few times in the main game.
Members[edit | edit source]
Story[edit | edit source]
Gallery[edit | edit source]
Etymology[edit | edit source]
The group's name in Japanese is alluded to the Four Heavenly Kings (Shitennō/四天王) in Buddhism.
Four Heavenly Kings refer to the four gods from Buddhist faith. Shitennō is also used to refer to a group of four leaders in a given field, i.e "The Big Four" or "Quadrumvirate".The

domain: entertainment


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For months, town officials have been worried about whether state money would be available to help pay for the Hampstead bypass.
On Monday, their worst fears were realized.
Mayor C. Clinton Becker informed the Town Council that the state no longer plans to pay for construction of the bypass for at least six years.
State administrators cited, among other things, budget woes facing the government.
"I guess the state feels that they have more important issues to deal with than funding a Hampstead bypass," Councilman Lewis O. Keyser Jr. said.
Town officials will try to proceed with the project despite the postponement of state assistance, Keyser said.
In other business Monday, a North Carroll Farms resident expressed concern about the further development of Farm Woods Lane.
Kris Koch said he believes continued growth in that area will strain the water supply and lead to overcrowding of schools.
"I am worried about the continuation of Farm Woods Lane that runs from the center of the development to Route 30," said Koch, who has lived in the 73-home development off Greenmount Road for nearly five years. "Atthis time, there are no plans for any type of stoplights to help traffic move onto Route 30."
Proposed plans call for Farm Woods Lane to lead into a new 62-acre development called North Carroll Farms Section Four, a project by Masonry Contractors Inc. that is under reviewby the Planning and Zoning Commission.
"Our concern is that traffic in this area will easily double, and without signals, people will become frustrated trying to get onto Route 30, causing them to reverse back through Farm Woods Lane to get to Fairmount Road," said Koch.
The mayor said he shared concern about the adequacy of the schoolsand encouraged Koch to make his concerns known to the county school board and to the planning commission.
"We (town officials) are nothydro-geologists and we are not educators, but we will invite these county officials to a Planning and Zoning Commission meeting to hear your concerns," Becker said.
In other announcements:
* Police Chief Ken Russell was presented with a plaque honoring his 10 years ofservice to the town Police Department. A retired Baltimore City police officer, Russell began his service with the department in June 1981.
* Halloween will take place in town Oct. 31, with trick or treating 6 to 8 p.m. for children ages 12 and younger.
Households wishing to receive trick or treaters should leave porch lights on.


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Medication Search - Discount Pet MedsIf your pet starts to vomit within 60 minutes of taking comfortis, give them another full dose.
Dogs & Puppies - Simparica - Sierra Pet Meds
Comfortis is a prescription medication used in dogs and cats to kill fleas and prevent flea infestations for 1 month.
Comfortis for Cats | Flea Meds| Lambert Vet Supply
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The chewable meat flavoured tablet is readily accepted by dogs and as the product is an oral medication there.If you have limited time and want to skip my review and purchase right away just click the order link that you can see over to the right.They can be very uncomfortable for both dogs or cats, and they can even develop allergies towards them, a condition called flea allergy dermatitis (FAD).
Comfortis Chewable Tablets for Dogs are a meat flavoured tablet that rapidly kills fleas on dogs and then goes on to prevent flea infestations for a further month.Comfortis is the first once-a-month chewable flea preventative approved by the FDA.
Elanco US | Comfortis®
Comfortis is a chewable, flavored tablet that you give to your dog to kill fleas and prevent flea infestations for one month.
Cobb dog owner says flea drug killed her dog | WSB-TV
Is it as good as comfortis. asked on July 3, 2014 Answer this question Answer See all questions about this product.We have a great selection of pet meds and supplements on sale.This is unusual for a long term flea preventative, it is a chewable beef flavored tablet that us Dogs love.The company manufacturing the drugs claims they are safe, but there have been over 26,000 dogs with reported side effects, and over 300 dog deaths.
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domain: pet


Bassist Christian McBride has impressed just about everyone in jazz with his sonorous tone, blazing facility, and spectacular ear. Though he’s only 28, he’s already appeared on more than a hundred recordings, including albums by Betty Carter, Pat Metheny, and Joshua Redman, and fellow bassists in particular laud his note choices, which are consistently insightful, whether he’s accompanying the most tender or the most complicated of solos. In the 80s and 90s, many jazz musicians of McBride’s generation modeled themselves after stars from the 50s and 60s, and while Wallace Roney took after Miles Davis and Courtney Pine emulated John Coltrane, McBride established himself as the new Ray Brown, effortlessly evoking his elder’s suave swing and perfect intonation. But any bassist talented enough to play like Brown is unlikely to settle for mere imitation, no matter how exalted his model, and McBride has explored other styles, including funk and R & B. He’s infused those idioms with rare virtuosity, but he never really brought them to life until this year’s Sci-fi (Verve), which takes as its inspiration the mysterious, percolating, ostinato-driven jams of Herbie Hancock’s early-70s sextet–in fact, one of McBride’s compositions borrows the name of Hancock’s 1971 album Mwandishi, the best document of that band. Hancock himself appears on a couple tracks, as does bass clarinetist James Carter, and on those tunes the Sci-fi group comes closest to the sound of the Mwandishi band. But McBride, pianist Shedrick Mitchell, drummer Rodney Green, and saxist Ron Blake (the album’s primary quartet) do better when they take a less reverent approach to their source material, playing instead what McBride calls “acoustic fusion.” Sci-fi melds mainstream language with urgent rhythms and malleable structures, and defines McBride as a promising leader as well as a prodigious musician. Chicago expat Blake will join McBride for these quartet dates. Tuesday through Thursday, October 17 through 19, 8 and 10 PM, Friday and Saturday, October 20 and 21, 9 and 11 PM, and Sunday, October 22, 4, 8, and 10 PM, Jazz Showcase, 59 W. Grand, Chicago; 312-670-2473.
Art accompanying story in printed newspaper (not available in this archive): photo/Silvia Otte.


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نوع مقاله : مقاله پژوهشی
1 دانشیارگروه زبان و ادبیّات فارسی، دانشکده ادبیات و علوم انسانی، دانشگاه رازی، کرمانشاه، ایران
2 کارشناسی ارشد زبان و ادبیّات فارسی، دانشگاه آزاد اسلامی کرمانشاه و دبیر آموزش و پرورش قرآن در حمیل
عنوان مقاله [English]
The critical review of stories by using the semiotic and morphological background of the story and by taking Vladimir Prapp's theory of figurative action have led to the creation of successful works in the field of fiction. Maryam Basiri is one of the prominent storytellers in her field of "Dakhil Eshgh" in the field of eight year holy, defense war and Razavi literature. This study is a library-based, analytical-descriptive approach, it is devised and attempted to elucidate Maryam Basiri's ability to create “Dakhil Eshgh” involved in the eight-year period of sacred defense of Razavi literature on the structural and morphological study of these elements; the plot and other elements and their relation to each other and their familiarity with the technical basics of storytelling have produced a distinctive design and a style of expression, and it can be said that the link between the content and the fictional structure in this work is one of sucessful factors.

domain: library


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I would like a book cover for one of our new book science fiction book.
You will need to provide us with:
- Kindle cover
- PSD file
The Book Title is:
Chaacetime, The Origins
Book Author: Irène Zlato
The book is #1 of a trylogy "The Space Cycles"
The book blurb is:
"Humans are living in the City, organized around the Tour, giant structure in which is the Machine.
The Machine manages all the living beings of the Space. It is the gardian of the Equilibrium and the survival of the humanity.
Paul, a researcher in the Earliest Sciences’ lab, shares his time between his work and the unreal discussions with Edgard, the Kandron. He is only interested in the Earliest Space, the starting point ot the Elders, distant and legendary ancestors. However, he wonders about these collective suicides of children.
Baley, a Special Agent from the first Circle is in charge of these deaths’ investigation. By order of the Machine, Paul has to work with her. The investigation of this improbable team will conduct them in the depths of the City… of the human soul…
Who or what is responsible? Can the Gateways be a part of the solution? And what about the people living next to the lake, far away from the City?
The Machine… The Equilibrium… The Elders’ dream… The future will be soon disappear. The Kandrons have seen it.
Welcome to Chaacetime, the hard-science fiction trilogy where Spaces are identical places in a different time- and where the year 2171 is in the past, a far distant past."
What we would like to see:
(from the top to the end)
montains in the top back
a tall tower with circles on its base
forest and whood
at the end an underconstruction space ship
I need to see somewhere something shining, like the light of a star. See here for an example: https://www.amazon.com/Morning-Star…B00SPVPX2G

domain: literature


The owner of Hawaii TV stations KGMB and KHNL has made a new arrangement to keep operating a third local station, KFVE, in order to complete its pending sale to a Georgia-based media company.
Raycom Media Inc., which broadcasts Hawaii News Now on all three stations, will maintain its local programming for KFVE and keep the station’s call letters. But KFVE’s broadcast license, which includes KGMV serving Wailuku and KGMD serving Hilo, are being sold along with the station’s transmission towers to the owner of rival local TV station KHON.
KGMB and KHNL General Manager Rick Blangiardi said running KFVE, including delivery of Hawaii News Now and other local programming under Raycom, will continue.
“For the viewer at home, this should be a seamless transition,” he said.
KFVE’s position on cable TV channels will not change, according to Blangiardi, though there will be some moves on digital channels, such as KFVE’s new Bounce TV Network moving to digital channel 5.4. Also, KFVE will no longer be a MyNetwork affiliate. Blangiardi said KGMB and KHNL will broadcast KFVE programming using KGMB/KHNL equipment.
Raycom has long helped operate but does not own KFVE. The company uses a “shared services agreement” to provide content, studio space, equipment and other things to the owner of KFVE in return for a fee.
KFVE’s owner has changed over the last decade and currently is Hawaii Five Subsidiary LLC, which is managed by the chief financial officer of New York-based investment firm PennantPark.
Hawaii Five is selling its KFVE license and transmission towers to KHON’s Texas-based owner, Nexstar Media Group Inc. On Tuesday, KHON announced that the acquisition allows Nexstar to expand in Hawaii and that the assets being bought would “further complement (KHON’s) existing programming and marketing solutions and services.”
KHON and Nexstar representatives could not be reached Friday to provide more detail.
Financial terms of the transaction were not disclosed by Nexstar.
The sale is being made to allow Raycom, which is based in Alabama, to complete its own $3.65 billion sale to Georgia-based Gray Television Inc. That deal was announced in June, and stands to create the nation’s third-largest TV group with 142 television stations in 92 markets, reaching 24 percent of the nation’s TV households. As part of the deal, Gray has arranged to sell TV stations in nine mainland markets where it and Raycom both own stations.
In Hawaii the setup with KFVE also became an issue for the Gray-Raycom transaction.
The Media Council Hawaii has long complained that Raycom’s 2009 combination of three stations reduced diverse views and diminished local news coverage.
Chris Conybeare, the organization’s president, said it appears that Raycom is trying to address the issue of controlling three major stations in a single market, though he’s not sure how KFVE assets being sold change anything.
“It’s a shell game, and now basically we’re moving the shells around,” he said.
Gray’s purchase of Raycom is projected to close by the end of the year pending regulatory approvals.
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Last training session of the 2017/18 season will be 28th March.
Watch this space for 2018/19 dates!
U11 - 6-7pm (School year 1 to 6)
U16 - 7-8pm (School year 7+)
- All players are to signed in at the beginning of the session.
- Training is provided on a pay per session basis, £3 payable per player.
- Old £1 coin will no longer be accepted
- Gum shields and leg pads required.
- In the event of bad weather, please check the website and/or facebook
If there are any parents that wish to give hockey a try, there is a 'Back To' session on Thursdays @ The Cotswold School, 8-9pm. Feel free to come along.
A completed/signed membership form is required for all participants of the training sessions.
New members, please complete attached membership form.
Updated 10:11 - 16 Mar 2018 by Nick Jefferies

domain: sports


Magnetic resistance transducer and earth magnetic field laboratory apparatus
You May Also Be Interested In:
magnetic field laboratory apparatus
The instrument uses new-type Perm alloy magnetic resistance sensor to measure some important parameters of geomagnetic field (horizontal component, magnetic inclination) . The magnetic resistance sensor has the merits of high sensitivity (50V/T) , fine resolution (10-7-10-8 T) and high stability.


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Hamsters are adorable, furry pets that require a balanced diet to stay healthy and happy. As a pet owner, it’s important to ensure that your hamster receives a nutritious and varied diet. While hamsters can eat a wide range of fruits and vegetables, some may not be safe or suitable for them to consume. In this article, we’ll answer the question, “Can hamsters eat watermelon?” and provide you with a complete guide to feeding your furry friend.
Can Hamsters Eat Watermelon?
Yes, hamsters can eat watermelon. In fact, watermelon is a healthy and hydrating treat that provides many nutritional benefits. Watermelon is low in calories, high in water content, and rich in vitamins and minerals. However, it’s important to feed your hamster watermelon in moderation and take certain precautions to ensure their safety.
Here are some tips on how to safely incorporate watermelon into your hamster’s diet
- Introduce watermelon gradually: If you’re feeding your hamster watermelon for the first time, start with a small piece and observe their reaction. Hamsters have sensitive digestive systems, and sudden changes in diet can cause stomach upset.
- Remove seeds and rind: Hamsters can eat watermelon flesh but should not consume the seeds or rind. These parts of the fruit can cause digestive problems and should be removed before feeding your hamster.
- Cut the watermelon into small pieces: Hamsters have small mouths, so it’s important to cut the watermelon into bite-sized pieces. This will make it easier for your hamster to eat and digest the fruit.
- Don’t overfeed: While watermelon is a healthy treat, it should be given in moderation. Too much watermelon can cause diarrhea and other digestive problems in hamsters.
Nutritional Benefits of Watermelon for Hamsters
Watermelon is a rich source of vitamins and minerals that are essential for your hamster’s health. Here are some of the nutritional benefits of feeding your hamster watermelon:
- Hydration: Hamsters need to stay hydrated, and watermelon is a great way to provide them with extra water. Watermelon is 92% water, which can help prevent dehydration and keep your hamster healthy.
- Vitamin C: Watermelon is a good source of vitamin C, which is important for the immune system and overall health. Vitamin C also helps hamsters absorb iron, which is necessary for healthy blood.
- Vitamin A: Watermelon contains vitamin A, which is essential for eye health and can help prevent eye problems in hamsters.
- Potassium: Watermelon is a good source of potassium, which is important for maintaining healthy blood pressure and nerve function.
- Low in calories: Watermelon is a low-calorie treat that can help prevent obesity in hamsters. Obesity can lead to health problems such as diabetes and heart disease.
Think Twice Before Giving Watermelon to Your Hamster: Potential Risks You Need to Know
While watermelon may seem like a healthy snack for your hamster, it’s important to be aware of the potential risks. Feeding your furry friend too much watermelon can lead to obesity, diabetes, and even dehydration. And if you’re not careful, large pieces of watermelon can become a choking hazard. To keep your hamster safe and healthy, it’s important to feed them watermelon in moderation and cut it into small, bite-sized pieces. So, before you offer your pet this juicy treat, make sure you know the risks involved.
Q. Can hamsters eat watermelon seeds?
A. It really depends on the breed. While Syrian hamsters can usually handle the seeds without issue, smaller breeds like Dwarf and Roborovski hamsters may be at risk of choking. To keep your furry friend safe, it’s best to avoid giving them the seeds and stick to the flesh of the fruit instead.
Q. Can hamsters eat watermelon rind?
A. Did you know that while hamsters love the juicy, sweet flesh of the watermelon, they may not be so keen on the rind? That’s because the rind contains an amino acid called citrulline, which can give it a sharp, unpleasant taste. So, while it’s safe to feed your furry friend watermelon, be mindful of their taste preferences and stick to serving them the delicious, fleshly part of the fruit.
Q. How often should I feed my hamster watermelon?
A. If you’re wondering how often you should feed your hamster watermelon, the answer is in moderation. While hamsters can eat watermelon, it should be given as an occasional treat rather than a regular part of their diet. As we mentioned earlier, watermelon contains a lot of sugar and water, which can lead to health issues like obesity and dehydration if overfed. So, limit your hamster’s watermelon intake to a few small pieces per week. And remember to always remove the seeds and rind before serving, especially for smaller breeds of hamsters like Dwarfs and Robos. By following these guidelines, you can safely incorporate watermelon into your hamster’s diet and keep them healthy and happy.
Q. What other fruits can I feed my hamster?
A. As a hamster owner, you want to ensure that your furry friend stays healthy and happy. While watermelon can be a great treat, it’s always good to have some alternatives on hand. Here are some tasty options that you can offer your hamster in moderation:
- Celery: This crunchy veggie is low in calories and high in fiber, making it a great occasional treat for your hamster.
- Red lettuce: Red lettuce is a good source of vitamins A and C, which can help support your hamster’s immune system.
- Cucumber: Cucumber is a hydrating snack that can also provide some vitamins and minerals to your hamster’s diet.
- Green beans: These can be given to your hamster either raw or cooked. Green beans are a good source of protein, fiber, and vitamins.
- Basil: This herb is not only delicious but also has some antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties that can benefit your hamster’s health.
- Summer or winter squash: These veggies are a good source of vitamins A and C, and can also provide some fiber to your hamster’s diet.
- Baby corn: Baby corn is a low-calorie snack that can provide some fiber and vitamins to your hamster.
- Mint: This herb can provide some digestive benefits to your hamster and also adds a refreshing taste to their diet.
- Beets: Beets are a good source of folate, which can support your hamster’s immune system.
- Okra: Okra is a good source of vitamin C and can also provide some fiber to your hamster’s diet.
- Broccoli: Broccoli is packed with vitamins and minerals that can benefit your hamster’s overall health.
- Carrots: Carrots are a great source of beta-carotene, which can support your hamster’s eye health.
Offering your hamster a variety of treats can help keep them engaged and happy. Remember to introduce new foods gradually to avoid any digestive issues, and always research to ensure that any new food is safe for your pet. With a selection of tasty options, you can keep your hamster healthy and satisfied for years to come!
In conclusion, hamsters can eat watermelon in moderation as a healthy and hydrating treat. Watermelon provides many nutritional benefits, including vitamins, minerals, and water content. However, it’s important to follow certain precautions to ensure your hamster’s safety and health. In this article, we’ve discussed the benefits of watermelon for hamsters, potential risks to be aware of, and answered some common questions about feeding watermelon to your pet. By understanding the do’s and don’ts of feeding watermelon, you can safely treat your hamster to this delicious fruit. So, can hamsters eat watermelon? Absolutely! Just be sure to do it the right way.
If you have any further questions or would like to share your own experiences feeding watermelon to your hamster, please feel free to leave a comment below. And don’t forget to check out our other articles on hamster care and nutrition for more helpful tips and information. Thank you for reading!
A younger male humpback whale has died on account of blunt pressure trauma, the Marine Mammal Stranding Heart (MMSC) mentioned.
Bluebird Nordic, an airline from Iceland, has been concerned within the controversial transport of 1000’s of monkeys. The long-tailed macaques
The monetary contributions of banks like Financial institution of America, Citigroup, and JPMorgan Chase to the meat and dairy trade
United States wildlife officers have proposed a plan to kill half 1,000,000 barred owls in an effort to avoid wasting


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Debt Forgiveness: It is really hard to get rid of the loan cycle. Dont get worried about debt problems , since we offer you great personal debt consolidation service. We are going to reply all of your queries linked to debt consolidation and make it certainly easy for you. Once you have got thorough knowledge , you will definitely make informed decisions.
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Ways to get debt consolidation approvals.
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The company also gives additional inclination while offering loans to individuals who posses precious possessions. This doesnt completely restrict your possibilities for loan approval.
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Our company provides the right debt consolidation service and now , even you have attained all the knowledge about the procedure , thus give your worries to us by choosing our services at the earliest. Debt Forgiveness Manage Financial Condition in Lindsay ON Apply Now.

domain: finance