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Toward a Meta-Analytic Synthesis of the Resting-State fMRI Literature for Clinical PopulationsView this Special Issue
Examination of Local Functional Homogeneity in Autism
Increasing neuroimaging evidence suggests that autism patients exhibit abnormal brain structure and function. We used the Autism Brain Imaging Data Exchange (ABIDE) sample to analyze locally focal (~8 mm) functional connectivity of 223 autism patients and 285 normal controls from 15 international sites using a recently developed surface-based approach. We observed enhanced local connectivity in the middle frontal cortex, left precuneus, and right superior temporal sulcus, and reduced local connectivity in the right insular cortex. The local connectivity in the right middle frontal gyrus was positively correlated with the total score of the autism diagnostic observation schedule whereas the local connectivity within the right superior temporal sulcus was positively correlated with total subscores of both the communication and the stereotyped behaviors and restricted interests of the schedule. Finally, significant interactions between age and clinical diagnosis were detected in the left precuneus. These findings replicated previous observations that used a volume-based approach and suggested possible neuropathological impairments of local information processing in the frontal, temporal, parietal, and insular cortices. Novel site-variability analysis demonstrated high reproducibility of our findings across the 15 international sites. The age-disease interaction provides a potential target region for future studies to further elucidate the neurodevelopmental mechanisms of autism.
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is an increasingly recognized group of neurodevelopmental disorders with early onset and lifelong persistence. ASD is reported to occur in ~1% of children  and is characterized by abnormalities in language, social interaction, and a range of stereotyped and repetitive behaviors.
Neuroimaging studies of ASD have accumulated a wealth of empirical data on the abnormal brain connectomics associated with ASD [2–4]. Reduced long distance but increased local connectivity in ASD has been proposed , and a number of FMRI studies have consistently found underconnectivity in ASD [2, 6–8]. However, a significant number of other studies report mixed or increased functional connectivity in ASD [9–11]. Regarding these inconsistencies, Muller and colleagues systematically illustrated that different methodological choices could produce different results in functional connectivity studies . Although methodological choices may affect the statistical results of ASD studies, a consistent and reliable demonstration of brain function using a large sample would be a good step towards elucidating the brain mechanisms of ASD.
Using a local connectivity index of functional homogeneity, ReHo, both increases and decreases of ReHo were observed in resting-state FMRI studies of ASD [12, 13]. ReHo is a promising index of human brain function that has been applied to multiple neuropsychiatric disorders [2, 12–14]. It employs Kendall’s coefficient of concordance (KCC) to measure the functional coherence between a given area (e.g., a voxel) and its adjacent areas (e.g., neighboring voxels) . Previous studies on spontaneous brain activity in ASD used volume-based ReHo (3dReHo), ignoring the two-dimensional nature of the laminar cerebral cortex [2, 14]. In volume space, voxel’s neighbors may not be close to the voxel across the cortical mantle. Recently, our lab developed a surface-based ReHo method (2dReHo) that demonstrated moderate to high test-retest reliability and correlated with neurobiological information processing hierarchies [16, 17]. The present study began by testing the consistency between the previous 3dReHo and our new 2dReHo results across a large-scale autism sample. Furthermore, as revealed by our recent work , 2dReHo is a neurobiologically meaningful metric of the functional organization of the human brain. We thus aimed to examine the effects of ASD on brain functional organization.
Abnormal cortical development and organization in children with ASD has been characterized in terms of brain cortical volume, surface area, and cortical thickness [18, 19]. Previous genetic findings, coupled with brain imaging studies, suggested a potential unifying model of ASD in which higher-order association areas of the brain that normally connect to the frontal lobe are partially disconnected during development [20, 21]. In general, autism is conceived as a heterogeneous childhood neurodevelopmental disorder because of its early onset and lifelong persistence. Using 223 ASD and 285 healthy controls (HC) from the autism brain imaging data exchange (ABIDE) lifetime sample [2, 22], we examined both group differences and diagnosis-age interactions in local functional homogeneity measured by 2dReHo, as well as behavioral correlations in ASD.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Participants and MR Imaging
The ABIDE sample was part of the 1000 Functional Connectomes Project (FCP: http://fcon_1000.projects.nitrc.org/fcpClassic/FcpTable.html) and the International Neuroimaging Data-Sharing Initiative (INDI: http://fcon_1000.projects.nitrc.org/indi/pro/nki.html) and included RFMRI images of 539 ASD (aged 17.01 ± 8.37) and 573 healthy controls (aged 17.08 ± 7.72) from 18 international sites . Detailed phenotypic and scanning information can be found at the ABIDE website: http://fcon_1000.projects.nitrc.org/indi/abide/. The overlap of phenotypic protocol across sites consisted of age at scan, sex, IQ, and diagnostic information. All contributions were based on studies approved by the local institutional review boards, and written informed consent was obtained from the parents of all the early onset patients and corresponding healthy controls, as well as all the adult participants.
Similar to the ABIDE consortium paper , 794 subjects from the original participant pool were selected for subsequent imaging analyses. The criteria were (1) individuals without other comorbidities; (2) male subjects, as they represent 90% of the ABIDE sample; (3) sites with fIQ estimated for >75% and subjects with fIQ scores; (4) individuals with fIQ within 2 s.d. of the overall ABIDE sample mean (i.e., 108 ± 15); (5) sites with at least 9 participants per group after the above exclusions.
2.2. Image Preprocessing
For each participant, all MRI images were preprocessed with the Connectome Computation System (CCS: http://lfcd.psych.ac.cn/ccs.html) . This system was developed based on FCP scripts for providing a computational platform for multimodal brain connectome analysis by integrating AFNI [23, 24], FSL , and FreeSurfer  and has been used in our previous studies [16, 17].
All structural MRI images were processed with the CCS structural pipeline. Briefly, the structural images were processed for cortical surface reconstruction [27–31], including (1) noise removal with a spatially adaptive nonlocal means filter [32, 33] operation and correction for intensity inhomogeneity; (2) brain extraction with a hybrid watershed/surface deformation; (3) tissue segmentation of the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), white matter (WM), and deep gray matter (GM); (4) cutting plane generation to disconnect the two hemispheres and subcortical structures; (5) fixation of the interior holes of the segmentation; (6) a triangular mesh tessellation over the GM-WM boundary and mesh deformation to produce a smooth GM-WM interface (white surface) and GM-CSF interface (pial surface); (7) topological defect correction on the surface; (8) individual surface mesh inflated into a sphere; and (9) estimation of the deformation between the resulting spherical mesh and a common spherical coordinate system that aligned the cortical folding patterns across subjects.
All functional images were preprocessed with the CCS functional pipeline, involving the following steps: (1) eliminating the first 5 EPI volumes from each scan to allow for signal equilibration; (2) despiking time series to detect and reduce outliers (spikes) using an hyperbolic tangent function; (3) slice timing using Fourier interpolation to temporally correct the interleaved slice acquisition; (4) aligning each volume to a “base” image (the mean EPI image) using Fourier interpolation to correct between-head movements; (5) normalizing the 4D global mean intensity to 10,000 to allow intersubject comparisons; (6) regressing out the WM/CSF mean time series and the Friston-24 motion time series to reduce the effects of these confounding factors [16, 34]; (7) filtering the residual time series with a passband filter (0.01–0.1 Hz) to extract low-frequency fluctuations; (8) removing both linear and quadratic trends; and (9) aligning individual motion corrected functional images to the individual anatomical image using a GM-WM boundary-based registration (BBR) algorithm . Individual preprocessed 4D RFMRI time series were projected onto the fsaverage5 standard cortical surface with 10,242 vertices per hemisphere and gaps of 4 mm on average .
2.3. Quality Control Procedure
The CCS quality control procedure provides an interactive environment for users (http://lfcd.psych.ac.cn/ccs/QC.html) to examine the quality of (1) brain extraction or skull stripping, (2) brain tissue segmentation, (3) pial and white surface reconstruction, (4) functional-structural image realignment with BBR registration, and (5) head motion during RFMRI, calculated using several quantities: (1) the maximum distance of translational head movement (maxTran), (2) the maximum degree of rotational head movement (maxRot), (3) the mean framewise displacement (meanFD) [37, 38], and (4) the minimal cost of the BBR coregistration (mcBBR). All subjects with bad brain extraction, tissue segmentation, and surface reconstruction were excluded from the subsequent computation. All datasets filled the following criteria: (1) maxTran 2 mm, (2) maxRot 2°, (3) meanFD 0.4 mm, and (4) mcBBR< 0.75. We were left with a total of 508 subjects (223 ASD, 285 HC) from 15 different sites passing the above quality control procedure for the final statistical analysis (see Table 1 for the composition of the final sample).
2.4. 2dReHo and Statistics
We applied surface-based 2dReHo to characterize local functional homogeneity in both ASD and HC subjects due to its high test-retest reliability  neurobiological significance . Specifically, for a given vertex on the surface grid fsaverage5, we identified its nearest neighbors and denoted by their RFMRI time series. The 2dReHo measure of this vertex was computed as Kendall’s coefficient of concordance (KCC) using these time series. The mathematical formula is shown as (1), where represents the ranks of , is the number of time points, is the mean rank across its neighbors at the th time point, and is the overall mean rank across all neighbors and across all the time points. A vertexwise 2dReHo surface map was produced by repeating this computation procedure for every vertex on the surface of both hemispheres. Both length-one (6 neighbors) and length-two (19 neighbors) 2dReHo maps, denoted by 2dReHo1 and 2dReHo2, respectively, were generated for subsequent analyses:
A general linear model was constructed by modeling diagnosis (ASD versus HC), site, age, and fIQ as covariates of interests (see details in (2)). Notably, before the group level analysis of 2dReHo, we first removed the effects of meanFD, mcBBR, Jacobian values of white surface, and global mean (gm) 2dReHo (see details in (3)). We have found that this computation is equivalent to directly including all these factors in the final group analysis for the purpose of examining the effects of the variables of interest. Here, the mean FD indicates the mean framewise displacement  and mcBBR indicates the warp distortion for BBR-based function-to-structure realignment. The vertexwise significance values for group difference and age by group interactions were corrected for multiple comparisons with a clusterwise method based on random field theory (cluster-defining , cluster-level corrected ):
2.5. Behavioral Correlations
Autism diagnostic observation schedule (ADOS) , autism diagnostic interview (ADI), and the Gotham algorithm of the ADOS (ADOS_GOTHAM) were selected for the final behavioral correlation analyses, as each of these subscale scores represented >40% of the whole patient group. Within each cluster showing a significant group difference in 2dReHo, we calculated the Pearson correlation coefficient between the average 2dReHo values of the cluster and the behavioral measurements. ADOS includes the total score (ADOS_TOTAL), the communication total subscore (ADOS_COMM), the social total subscore (ADOS_SOCIAL), and the stereotyped behaviors and restricted interests total subscore (ADOS_STEREO_BEHAV). ADI includes the reciprocal social interaction subscore (A) total for the autism diagnostic interview-revised (ADI_R_SOCIAL_TOTAL_A), the abnormality in communication subscore (B) total for the autism diagnostic interview-revised (ADI_R_VERBAL_TOTAL_BV), the restricted, repetitive, and stereotyped patterns of behavior subscore (C) total for the autism diagnostic interview-revised (ADI_R_RRB_TOTAL_C), and the abnormality of development evidence at or before 36-month subscore (D) total for the autism diagnostic interview-revised (ADI_R_ONSET_TOTAL_D). ADOS_GOTHAM includes the social affect total subscore for the Gotham algorithm of the ADOS (ADOS_GOTHAM_SOC_AFFECT), restricted and repetitive behaviors total subscore for the Gotham algorithm of the ADOS (ADOS_GOTHAM_RRB), the sum of the social affect total and restricted and repetitive behaviors total (ADOS_GOTHAM_TOTAL), and the individual calibrated severity score for the Gotham algorithm of the ADOS (ADOS_GOTHAM_SEVERITY).
3.1. Sample Composition
The final analysis was conducted on 508 participants from 15 sites. The details of the sample composition are presented in Table 1. The number of participants per site ranged from 3 to 35 ASD patients and from 2 to 69 HC subjects. The age distribution is shown in Figure 1. The red and blue bars represent the ASD and HC numbers for a particular age bin, respectively. There is no significant difference in age between the ASD and HC subjects (; ). Results derived with 2dReHo1 and 2dReHo2 were almost identical and we thus presented the findings based upon 2dReHo1, which were detailed in below.
3.2. Group Differences in 2dReHo
There was no difference in the global 2dReHo between ASD and HC subjects (, ). Figure 2 depicts the brain areas that significantly differed between ASD and HC subjects. The anatomical labels and locations are summarized in Table 2. The middle frontal cortex, the left precuneus gyrus, and right superior temporal sulcus exhibited increased local functional homogeneity (warm colors) in ASD compared with HC. The right insular cortex had decreased local functional homogeneity (cool colors) in ASD compared to HC subjects.
3.3. Age by Diagnosis Interactions
The age-diagnosis interaction was examined for differences in correlations between age and local functional homogeneity (i.e., the developmental effect) between ASD and HC subjects. Significant group by age interaction effects were detected in the left precuneus gyrus (Figure 3(a)), where ASD patients demonstrated lower 2dReHo than HC subjects (Figure 2). To look into the details of 2dReHo changes across this large age span, we also visualized the age dependence of 2dReHo as scatter plots for ASD and HC subjects (Figure 3(b)). Clearly, the scatter plot shows that ASD subjects had increased 2dReHo with age, whereas HC subjects had decreased 2dReHo, the opposite pattern, with age.
3.4. Site Effects and Reproducibility
Because this was a multisite study, we included site as one covariate of interest. Site effects revealed by the statistical model are illustrated in Figure 4. Multiple regions showed significant site effects, implying a remarkable variability of 2dReHo across the 15 international sites. Specifically, the left pre/postcentral gyrus, the middle/inferior frontal gyrus, the left medial prefrontal cortex, the left superior parietal gyrus, and cingulate gyrus exhibited significant site variability in 2dReHo. In contrast, the superior temporal gyrus, the right postcentral gyrus, the inferior part of the precentral sulcus, the inferior frontal sulcus, the right insular cortex, the right precuneus, the left calcarine sulcus, the occipital-temporal gyrus, and right medial prefrontal cortex exhibited an inverse pattern of site variability.
To further investigate the impacts of site variability on the findings presented, we applied a leave-one-site-out validation (LOSOV) approach. Specifically, we left one of the 15 sites out from the ASD-HC comparisons and repeated the group level analyses using the datasets from the other 14 sites. The site reproducibility of the current findings was measured as the number of replications of the voxelwise ASD-HC significance maps. Figure 5 illustrates the reproducibility of the findings, which were highly replicated for the middle frontal cortex, the right superior temporal sulcus, and left precuneus.
3.5. Behavioral Correlations
The mean 2dReHo values within the right middle frontal gyrus were positively correlated with the ADOS_TOTAL scores (; ), whereas the mean 2dReHo values within the right superior temporal sulcus were positively correlated with both the ADOS_COMM (; ) and ADOS_STEREO_BEHAV (; ) scores.
Based upon an aggregated large sample with a wide age range, the ABIDE consortium paper  examined different aspects of the functional architecture of autism brains using various derivatives but did not explore age or site effects. The current study quantitatively examined the local functional homogeneity of ASD and age/site effects. Using the ABIDE resting-state FMRI samples of 223 ASD patients and 285 normal controls from 15 different sites, we observed increased local functional homogeneity measured by 2dReHo in the middle frontal cortex, the left precuneus, and the right superior temporal sulcus and decreased 2dReHo in the right insular cortex. Within the left precuneus, ASD patients exhibited decreased 2dReHo with age, but normal controls showed increased 2dReHo with age. Notably, 2dReHo demonstrated a widely distributed spatial pattern of variability across sites. Across-site reproducibility of the observation was thus conducted to show the dependency of our findings, which revealed a novel contribution to assessment to both the variability and reproducibility of the findings across sites in a multicenter design. These findings indicate alterations in the complexity of functional information processing across the associative cortex and further correlate with multiple behavioral outcomes in ASD. The age-disease interaction offers a target region, the left precuneus, for future developmental studies on ASD.
Consistent with the volume-based 3dReHo method used by Di Martino et al. , the middle frontal cortex exhibited increased ReHo in ASD patients. The reduction of ReHo in the right insular cortex in ASD is consistent with a previous study of adults with autism . A study on children with autism  reported that the right temporal region exhibited greater ReHo in autism compared with typical developing controls. These consistencies and replications validate our computation and analyses and suggest a possible neuropathology in the frontal, temporal, precuneus (parietal), and insular cortices. A widely distributed spatial pattern of local functional organization across the association cortex is disrupted in ASD. There were also some inconsistencies in the group differences in local functional connectivity between ASD patients and healthy controls across the previous studies. The reason may lie in the heterogeneity of the disorder and the different age distribution of the participants, as well as different methodological choices . More importantly, if ASD was indeed characterized by an atypical neurodevelopmental pattern, even a moderate difference in the age range could have a substantial influence on the results . Beyond these inconsistencies, the implication of the spatial patterns of local functional organization will be discussed in the following sections.
We observed increased local functional homogeneity in ASD patients compared to normal controls in the middle frontal cortex, part of the prefrontal cortex. In addition to the above evidence for frontal alterations in ASD with 2dReHo, both the fractional amplitude of low-frequency fluctuations and the degree centrality of human brain function exhibited impaired patterns in the frontal cortex in ASD . During brain development, in ASD, higher-order association areas that normally connect to the frontal lobe are partially disconnected , and local connectivity is strengthened while long-distance connectivity is impaired in the frontal cortex . Structural abnormalities, such as a thicker left frontal cortex, have also been reported . Based upon our recent study on the neurobiological significance of ReHo in , increased ReHo in the middle frontal cortex may indicate reduced functional segregation or a reduced complexity of local information processing. The frontal cortex is responsible for executive function, which may involve coordination of multiple human brain networks . ASD may involve disrupted functional segregation in this area, which may induce abnormal behaviors in patients.
The superior temporal sulcus showed increased ReHo in ASD compared to normal controls. Similar abnormalities in the superior temporal sulcus have been characterized using cerebral blood flow (CBF), brain morphology, and functional metrics in previous studies. In greater detail, metabolism was reduced, as indicated by decreased rCBF, in autistic patients at the superior temporal regions . A decreased concentration of grey matter in the superior temporal sulcus was observed in autistic children . Directly related to the current report, Shukla and colleagues observed that the right temporal regions exhibited greater ReHo in autism compared with typically developing controls . Using the ABIDE datasets, Anderson and colleagues recently reported the best accuracy of whole brain classification between ASD and HC using intrinsic functional connectivity of Wernicke’s area, which is located in the temporal lobe . Increases of 2dReHo in the superior temporal sulcus implied decreases of local functional separation or differentiation  and a decreased complexity of information processing [17, 43]. Taking this explanation a step further because this area is a part of the language network  and ASD patients exhibit abnormal functional architecture of the superior temporal sulcus, these results may explain impaired language function and social interactions in ASD.
The right insula was the only region with decreased ReHo in ASD patients. Abnormality of the insula is one of the most consistent findings of fMRI studies on ASD. In addition to abnormal ReHo in the insular areas of ASD , alterations of VMHC (voxel-mirrored homotopic connectivity) and DC in the insular were observed in ASD . The classification accuracy between ASD and HC using functional connectivity was best in the insular cortex using the same ABIDE data as the current study . Meanwhile, decreased left posterior insular activity during auditory language in autism was reported previously . A longitudinal study on children aged 5–11 years showed decreases in left posterior insular activity with age . Given the neurobiological significance of ReHo , decreased ReHo in the insular cortex may indicate decreased functional integration. Considering the roles of the insular region in emotion and decision-making  and as a hub in supporting the brain connectome [48, 49], alterations of local functional homogeneity in the insular area may correlate with impaired emotion processing and other high-level cognitive processings in autism.
ASD patients and normal controls displayed different trends of age dependencies. This finding may help to explain the neurodevelopmental mechanisms of ASD. Other studies reported abnormalities in the left precuneus in ASD compared with normal controls. Functional alterations of VMHC  and a thicker cortex in the left precuneus gyrus  were found in two separate studies. Mak-Fan and colleagues confirmed a similar age by group interaction pattern of overall brain volume, overall grey matter volume, overall surface area, and mean thickness of the brain in ASD and HC . Another study also explored the age by group interaction in ASD focusing on brain morphology . Importantly, the current study found consistent group differences and age by group interactions in the left precuneus gyrus. The left precuneus may therefore be a target region for future developmental studies of ASD.
The increases of local functional homogeneity in the right middle frontal gyrus and right superior temporal sulcus in ASD are associated with the severity of ASD symptoms. Considering both the high test-retest reliability  and the emerging neurobiological significance of 2dReHo, we propose that 2dReHo may serve as a neuroimaging marker for the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of ASD in the future . As illustrated in the group difference subsection of the Discussion, the frontal cortex and superior temporal sulcus are two major areas of autism studies for both brain structure and function [20, 51]. The current findings were also mostly reproducible across different sites for these two regions (Figure 5). The correlations of average ReHo with ADOS symptoms indicate that these regions may be targets for further explorations of the neuropathology of ASD .
4.1. Limitations and Future Directions
The ABIDE consortium paper  reported less commonly explored regions such as the thalamus. In the current study, the subcortical regions and cerebellum were excluded due to the limitation of the surface-based ReHo method. These regions may be a direction of future studies by developing surface-based ReHo approaches for these noncerebral structures. The second limitation of ReHo is its nature of local short-range connectivity and being not suitable for characterizing global long-range connectivity. A sample limitation is that the sample was composed of mainly males with ASD (>90%). Therefore, sex differences may be crucial in ASD progression during brain development, and future studies with a comparable number of male and female ASD patients could improve our understanding of the neuropathology of the disorder. Thirdly, the subgroup of ASD generally included autism, Asperger’s syndrome, or PDD-NOS. There is an ongoing debate about clinical standards for the classification of the four subgroups. However, enough samples for each subgroup would give more insight into the classification in terms of neuroimaging-based data mining approaches (see a pilot demonstration in early onset schizophrenia in ). Finally, all age-related findings observed in the present study are derived from a cross-sectional dataset and should be interpreted with caution that these age-related changes can be interpreted as developmental effects only with a longitudinal sample in future.
In the current study, using the ABIDE sample with 223 ASD and 285 healthy controls with wide age span, we observed increased local functional homogeneity ReHo in the middle frontal sulcus and gyrus, the left precuneus gyrus, and right superior temporal sulcus, together with decreased local functional homogeneity ReHo in the right insular. Significant group by age interactions in the left precuneus gyrus were also found, and the group difference (increased 2dReHo in ASD) decreased with age. At the same time, the average 2dReHo values within the right middle frontal gyrus were significantly positively correlated with ADOS_TOTAL scores, and the average 2dReHo values within the right superior temporal sulcus were significantly positively correlated with ADOS_COMM and ADOS_STEREO_BEHAV scores. All of these findings, especially the consistent group differences, the interaction effects in the precuneus gyrus, and the behavioral correlations, contribute to our understanding of the neurodevelopmental pathological mechanisms of ASD.
Conflict of Interests
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interests regarding the publication of this paper.
This work was supported by the Natural Science Foundation of China (11204369, 81270023, 81171409, 81278412, and 81000583), the Startup Foundation for Young Talents of the Institute of Psychology (Y1CX222005, Lili Jiang), the Hundred Talents Program and the Key Research Program of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (KSZD-EW-TZ-002, Xi-Nian Zuo), and the Major Joint Fund for International Cooperation and Exchange of the National Natural Science Foundation (81220108014, Xi-Nian Zuo).
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February 12 – Panic eased and the bears took a break overnight. Many Asian stocks remained under pressure, with the Nikkei 500 down nearly 5% after being closed the previous day. China will reopen Monday following its week-long Lunar New Year celebration. Even so, European stocks bounced amid easing concerns about the banking sector, with U.S. stock futures pointing toward a higher open as well. The rebound is welcomed following what has been a rough week. Deutsche Bank has been the focus of much of the selling in the banking sector in Europe, but its stocks were up 9% overnight. Much of the renewed strength in the banking sector comes from indications of insider buying, which eased concerns of traders about the health of the industry.
January retail sales grew 0.2% over the previous month, matching Wall Street expectations and certainly an improvement from the minus 0.1% seen the previous month. Sluggish auto sales had been a problem at the end of 2015, but they bounced a modest 0.1% in January, again matching market expectations. However, the more encouraging data showed that core retail sales that exclude autos and gas rose 0.4% in January, up from flat movement in December and beating market expectations of 0.1% growth.
The dollar surged on the retail sales number release this morning. The strength comes following another day of liquidation on Thursday that saw the dollar fall to its lowest level since October 22 as the yen rose to 15-month highs on carry trade unwinding, despite bearish fundamentals for the currency. In fact, Japan’s fourth quarter 2015 GDP is expected to print a minus 0.8% on Monday when our markets are closed for President’s Day, reflecting a contracting economy. As such, the recent trend for the dollar may have been sharply lower, but problems in Japan and Europe suggest that sellers of the dollar should exercise caution.
Eurozone GDP growth appears to have stabilized at a mere 0.3% growth for the fourth quarter, held up by Germany, which also saw 0.3% growth for the quarter. There’s been a bit more focus on Italy of late, which has the world’s eighth largest economy. Italy appears to have slipped back into a recessionary phase with minus 0.1% GDP for the fourth quarter. Unfortunately, these numbers do not yet reflect the full impact of the refugee crisis on Europe’s economy.
Crude oil bounced modestly overnight as producers lifted hedges, after West Texas Intermediate fell to its lowest level since 2003 on Thursday. The producer lifting of hedges provides another sign that we may be near the bottom. We’ve certainly been here before, only to fall to new lows on the next nugget of bad news. Even so, bottom-picker fears tend to diminish the closer to zero that a market comes. Support this time around is yet another round of rumors that OPEC may coordinate a production cut.
The rumors this time were sparked by comments made by the energy minister of the United Arab Emirates. I question whether meaningful cuts will be made, even if by chance they are agreed to by OPEC members. Yet, the talk plays well into shaping market sentiment and one of these times the idea of a possible bottom would be expected to spur demand talk. As such, I anticipate a period of considerable volatility as this market tries to find and confirm a bottom for the energy, as well as broader commodity sector. Supplies are large. That is known. The market wants to see that point where low prices stimulate sufficient demand.
This morning’s energetic rebound in crude oil supports a rebound in the broader commodity indices as well, leaving a double-bottom, at least for the time-being, on the Thomson Reuters CRB chart. Wheat sees modest short-covering after the Chicago market posted a double-bottom this week, but the grains as a whole continue to languish while waiting for a weather story. For today, we’ll take the consolidation ahead of a three-day holiday weekend, with the U.S. markets closed on Monday.
Unless otherwise noted, the posts on this blog should be construed as market commentary, merely observing economic, political and/or market conditions, and not intended to refer to any particular trading strategy, promotional element or quality of service provided by INTL FCStone Inc. or its subsidiaries. INTL FCStone Inc. is not responsible for any trading decisions taken by persons viewing this material. Information contained herein was obtained from sources believed to be reliable, but is not guaranteed as to its accuracy. These materials represent the opinions and viewpoints of the author, and do not necessarily reflect the viewpoints and trading strategies employed by INTL FCStone Inc. or its subsidiaries. Reproduction without authorization is prohibited. All rights reserved.

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Atticus told me to write a story about something beautiful. But what is beautiful? A bouquet of flowers, a symmetrically-featured face, a snow-capped mountain, a satellite view of the earth orbitting the sun? 578 more words
Tags » Characters
Just came back to the game a day or two ago after a month+ hiatus and have noticed the gameplay is extremely jittery at times. I was getting very low FPS drops in areas with absolutely no one else around. 177 more words
Hey there Superheroes!!!!
Long time ago in a galaxy… nope that’s not it!
Once upon a time in a land far far away… hmmm not quite!! 379 more words
When traveling through Tamriel, you can’t help but notice many players with shiny Maelstrom weapons. And those weapons are indeed amazing.
If you started playing and/or running Veteran Maelstrom Arena after Dark Brotherhood launch, there is something you should know: From the launch of Orsinium to the launch of Dark Brotherhood, there were only 3 traits in vMA: Sharpened, Precise, Defending. 494 more words

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Книгу можно купить в интернет-магазинах:
· OZON.ru 1357р. [Проверить наличие]
ISBN: 0785120319Издательство: Marvel Comics
Год издания: 2006
It's hard to keep a good girl down... especially when she's Dead! After a brief hiatus caused by their deaths, everyone's favorite mutants are back! And this time, they're bringing a host of... questions with them. Like why do some heroes and villains keep on dying, only to return from the dead? And why do other heroes and villains bite the bullet, only to remain dead? Who decides on this craziness? Is it some karmic wheel in the sky? Or is it just some guy in the marketing department? Well, one such deceased villain, named the Pitiful One, is going to find out. When the Pitiful One decides that he's tired of being dead, he assembles a posse of Marvel's deadest villains to attack the world of the living. And it's up to Doctor Strange to stop him and his evil cohorts, but he needs help from...well, you know. With Kraven the Hunter, Tike Alicar and a few other surprise dead guests. Collects X-Statix Presents: Dead Girl #1-5.

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* United States v. Ghailani (S.D.N.Y. Aug. 17, 2010)
In a 36-page, partially-redacted opinion that recently became available to the public, Judge Kaplan addressed a motion by Ahmed Ghailani (charged with involvement in the 1998 East African embassy bombings) to suppress testimony from a government witness. In brief, Ghailani argues that this person’s testimony would be fruit of the poisonous tree, apparently on the theory that the government only learned of this person by interrogating Ghailani in a coercive manner and without counsel.
The government responded first that it would inevitably have discovered this individual in any event. Judge Kaplan concluded that the government did not make the case that it would have. (p.22)
The government responded next that the exclusionary rule ought not to be applied in this setting (interrogation for purposes of obtaining national security-related intelligence), as this is beyond the “core application” of the exclusionary rule. Judge Kaplan concluded, however, that the “rationale of the core application doctrine does not apply to this motion as it does in search and seizure cases.” (p.26)
Finally, the government responded that in any event that the relationship between the interrogation of Ghailani and the proposed witness testimony in question is too attenuated to warrant exclusion on taint grounds. Judge Kaplan agreed that attenuation analysis can be applied in this setting, and reviewed the various factors pertinent to that analysis:
Willingness of the witness to testify voluntarily: Judge Kaplan describes the evidence on this point as mixed
Extent to which witness cooperation was induced by use of illegally-obtained evidence: mostly redacted
Proximity of the coercion, the witness’s decision to cooperate, and trial: again, mostly redacted
Government motivation for interrogation: partially redacted, but it is clear that the court found this factor to favor the government.
The opinion concludes by calling for an evidentiary hearing to resolve the uncertainty regarding factors 1-3, and scheduling that hearing for 9/14/10.


text: Mr. Reed co-founded the American Taekwondo Association (ATA) in 1969. Richard discovered that the option to outsource billing and contract management for his martial arts and fitness facilities was sorely lacking. So, in 1973 he formed the American Service Finance Corporation, which is now ASF Payment Solutions. He then ventured into the emerging health club market and opened the Marina Fitness Club in San Francisco in 1981. Richard had spent the better part of 50 years in the martial arts and fitness industries always looking for better solutions and innovations for business owners. Before his recent passing, Richard spent time being a true entrepreneur and maintained a consistent communication of his ideas with ASF.

domain: economics


text:
In these linked plays, prize-winning playwright Daniel David Moses explores the frontier and discovers that the human face of the old West was more than cowboys and Indians.
About the author
Daniel David Moses, playwright and poet, is a Delaware who was born at Ohsweken, Ontario on the Six Nations lands. Now living in Toronto, he writes and works with Native and cross-cultural organizations. He is the author of Coyote City, nominated for the 1991 Governor General's Award for Drama, and The Dreaming Beauty, Big Buck City, Almighty Voice and His Wife, and The Mite Lines, a book of poetry. He is co-editor with Terry Goldie of An Anthology of Canadian Native Literature in English.
Other titles by Daniel David Moses
Conversations about Indigenous Manhood
Residential School Plays
Coyote City / Big Buck City
Two Plays (Exile Classics Series: Number Twenty-Nine)
A Small Essay on the Largeness of Light and Other Poems
The Exile Book of Native Canadian Fiction and Drama
A Dream Like Mine
(Exile Classics Series Number 16)
Almighty Voice and His Wife
Pursued by a Bear
Talks, Monologues and Tales

domain: literature


text:
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Treatment of congenital melanocytic nevi in the periorbital area with dual-wavelength copper vapor laser
How to cite this article: Ponomarev IV, Topchiy SB, Andrusenko YN, Shakina LD. Treatment of congenital melanocytic nevi in the periorbital area with dual-wavelength copper vapor laser. Indian J Dermatol Venereol Leprol 2021;87:720-2.
Facial congenital melanocytic nevus represents a rare condition with a prevalence of about 2%.1 As periorbital congenital melanocytic nevus appears as a hyperpigmented plaque close to the eye, it inevitably poses cosmetic problems. The excision of the nevus is reported to be associated with the high risk of scarring in the esthetic zones.2 Ablative lasers such as CO2 laser (10,600 nm) and Er:YAG (2940 nm) as well as non-ablative mid-infrared lasers, especially ruby (694 nm), alexandrite (755 nm) and Nd:YAG (1064 nm) have so far been successfully tried for the treatment of congenital melanocytic nevus.3,4 Nevertheless, the application of laser systems in the periorbital area remains limited due to reported side effects including bleeding, edema, relapses, scarring and ocular complications.4 The complications of laser treatment may emerge due to the deep penetration of mid-infrared radiation because of its low absorption by both melanin and hemoglobin assumed as targeted chromophores. However, dual-wavelength copper vapor laser radiation at a wavelength of 511 nm is highly absorbed by melanin and radiation at 578 nm is mostly absorbed by hemoglobin. Thus, this laser seems to be the most appropriate for the safe removal of periorbital congenital melanocytic nevus.
The nevi were treated using copper vapor laser in two patients with Fitzpatrick II skin phototype. A 14-year-old girl presented with a brownish plaque of size 42 × 35 mm beneath the left lower eyelid [Figure 1]. A 23-year-old man presented with, a hyperpigmented plaque of size 30 × 50 mm in the right periorbital area [Figure 2]. The nevi were noted since birth and increased in size during body growth. No history of melanoma was present in patients or their relatives. Based on clinical signs (size [M], location, the number of satellites [S], color uniformity [C], roughness [R], nodules [N] and hair [H]) and dermoscopic data, the diagnosis of congenital melanocytic nevus Type I, M1S0C1R1N0H0 was made.
In both cases, the diagnosis was confirmed by skin biopsy which showed accumulated mature nevomelanocytes in the superficial and mid-dermis. Both patients gave informed consent for the treatment of the nevi using laser.
Dual-wavelength radiation of the copper vapor laser settings was chosen as follows: power ratio at wavelengths of 511 nm and 578 nm was selected in a 3:2 mode, the average power – 0.7 W and 0.8 W for the first and second cases respectively, exposure time – 0.3 s and light spot diameter at the skin – 1 mm. The treatment was performed using a multiple stacking pass technique. The treatment endpoint was set when the irradiated area of the nevi acquired a grayish tint. The area was divided into equal transverse strips of 3–4 mm in width to provide sound healing [Figure 2b]. At first, just the odd strips were irradiated. One month later, after the healing of the already irradiated area, the even strips were irradiated. Both patients received three sessions with a one-month interval.
Laser treatment was performed without anesthesia. The immediate endpoint was accepted as the mild graying of the exposed area. No bleeding or erythema was noted during and after the laser procedure. After the laser procedure, the exposed skin was treated with 0.05% solution of chlorhexidine gluconate. In the early post-operative period, Bepanthen cream was applied twice a day. The skin of the irradiated area remained grayish for several days. In 7–10 days, there was exfoliation of crusts followed by the regeneration of epidermis without leaving behind any hyperpigmentation. Two weeks after the laser procedure, the irradiated area became entirely similar to adjoining intact skin [Figures 1b and 2c]. The healing process took 12 days. Patients were advised to use a broad-spectrum sunscreen during the treatment period and for a month after the last procedure. Both cases did not show any side effects during a 36-month follow-up period.
Ablative lasers (CO2 and Er:YAG) showed promise in treating periorbital congenitial melanocytic nevus, but side effects such as bleeding, scarring and recurrences were reported.3 The introduction of the above mentioned Q-switched pigment-specific mid-infrared laser into the clinical practice has made it possible to treat congenital melanocytic nevus with a lower complication rate, but there is a risk of persistent erythema, edema, relapse and risk of eye injury.4 A combination of intense pulsed light with Er:YAG laser has not proved to be a reliable treatment for this condition because of high recurrence.5
Our data prove that the copper vapor laser seems to be the optimal approach to the treatment of periorbital congenital melanocytic nevus due to the high absorption of the 511 nm radiation by melanin. Melanin absorbs the radiation with a wavelength of 511 nm, 10 times more than the radiation with 1064 nm wavelength. Hence, selective photodestruction of melanosome with copper vapor laser requires less light energy than the mid-infrared laser. The high absorption of 578 nm radiation by oxyhemoglobin and hemoglobin as well as high absorption of 511 nm radiation by melanin limits the penetration depth of the laser and protects the underlying eye structures from injuries.6
Remodeling of the vascular bed through selective vessel coagulation under the radiation with a wavelength of 578 nm prevents post-irradiation bleeding and relapse of congenital melanocytic nevus.
In our case series split-face comparative assessment of different laser treatment modes was not done and this can be factored as a limitation. More studies are required to determine the optimal green/yellow ratio of the copper vapor laser power for different clinical variants of congenital melanocytic nevus.
Declaration of patient consent
The authors certify that they have obtained all appropriate patient consent.
Financial support and sponsorship
Conflicts of interest
There are no conflicts of interest.
- Clinico epidemiological study of cutaneous manifestations in the neonate. Indian J Dermatol Venereol Leprol. 2000;66:26-8.
- [Google Scholar]

domain: medical


A Food Dryer Dehydrator is an equipment that removes moisture from various food items such as vegetables, fruits and nuts etc. A food dehydrator aids in the preservation of the food items by removing moisture using various heat sources such as Convection or Radiation. As one of the leading Food Dryer Dehydrator Manufacturer in India, MAAN GLOBAL INDUSTRIES, brings together the expertise, knowledge and experience in Food dryer equipment manufacturing processes. One of the best food dryer and food dehydrator manufacturer in India, Nepal, Oman, Kenya, Abu Dhabi, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, USA, Canada, Zimbabwe, SriLanka and Indonesia.
Extending the useful life of various fruits and vegetables would ensure their availability for a longer period of time. There are several methods of post- harvest processing available to assist in this regard. One reasonably convenient way to increase the shelf-life of various fruits and vegetables is by drying them. With proper storage and handling, dried food products can be enjoyed several months after freshly grown local produce has disappeared from the local markets.
These days food dehydrators consume low-power through convection in which heated air flow is used reduce the water content of food items. The water content of food is usually very high, ranging from 8095% for various fruits and vegetables and 5075% for various meats. Removing moisture from food restrains various bacteria from growing and spoiling food. Further, removing moisture from food dramatically reduces the weight and often volume of the food, making it easier for storage. Thus, food dehydrators are used to preserve and extend the shelf life of various foods. Best commercial food dehydrator manufacturer in Mumbai, Hyderabad, Delhi, Bangalore, Assam, Chennai, Pune, Kolkata, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh and Haryana.
Most foods are dehydrated at 130F (54C), although meats being made intojerkyshould be dehydrated at a higher temperature of 155F (68C) or preheated to that temperature to guard againstpathogensthat may already be in the meat. The key to successful food dehydration is the application of a constant temperature and adequate air flow. Too high a temperature can cause hardened foods: food that is hard and dry on the outside but moist, and therefore vulnerable to spoiling, on the inside.
Food dehydration dates back to 12,000 B.C.E., when evidence suggests that Egyptians used the desert heat to dry fish and poultry. The sun continued to be the main dryer until the Middle Ages, when residents of cooler, wetter Europe began constructing buildings specifically designed to dehydrate food, which came to be known as still houses. Here, fruits, vegetables, herbs, and other foods were strung across a room and dried by the heat of a fire.
Later in the mid-1800s, French inventors Masson and Chollet developed mechanized food dehydrators in which dehydration of vegetables was achieved with air heated to 105 degrees Fahrenheit (40.5 degrees Celsius), then compressed into vegetable cakes.
Food Drying or Food Dehydration is an old technique that aides in the preservation of Food items by increasing shelf life. There are various types of Food Dehydrator machine suitable for different types of Food dehydration processes such as Batch Type Tray Dehydrator, Continuous conveyor Dryers, Infrared Dryers for potato chips, Gas fired and Hot Water drying ovens. Maan Global Industries is the leading Food Dehydrator Dryer manufacturer in Mumbai, Pune, Delhi, Hyderabad, Bangalore, Uttar Pradesh, Ahmedabad, Kolkata, Chennai, Bihar, India. Lets take a look at the types of Food Dehydrators that we manufacture.
Small Single door hot air food dryer machine is small drying equipment compared to double-door dryer or Food dehydrator for drying fruit, vegetable, fish, meat, garlic, ginger, etc. The food in the small hot air food dryer machine is dried by the circulating hot air. The oven dryer adopts low noise, high temperature resistant axial flow fan to deliver air, an electric heater or radiator for heating the air. The whole circulation system is completely closed, having 35-45% thermal efficiency, while the highest efficiency can reach 70%, saving energy and increasing the economic benefit.
This industrial food drying machine is the professional machine to remove material moisture as quickly as possible at a temperature that does not seriously affect the flavor, texture, and color of the food. Moreover, our hot air drying machines belong to CT-C hot air circulation drying oven, which is formed based on the multiple modifications of CT series. The CT-C oven is featured with axial flow fan, automatic constant temperature control system, and equipped with computer control system for selection. There are three types of hot air circulating machines offered by us:single door hot air oven, double door hot air oven, and large hot air dryer machine. Different from the single door anddouble-door hot air drying machines, large hot air drying machine, featured with more baking vehicles, is suitable for large-scale material drying production.
Continuous conveyor mesh belt large food dehydrator is automatic continuous drying machine for large-scale production and food drying. The continuous drying machine can be equipped according to a customers requirements and the production demands. It is suitable for drying a very large variety of food items such as noodles, dehydrated vegetables for instant noodles, fruits, seafood, and so on
Potato chips dryer adopts the principle of hot air circulation at 60 to 80 degree Celsius inside the tunnel that has a continuous running conveyor to remove the surface water of blanched potato chips and also can be used to separate the oil from fried potato chips. The hot air passes over the potato slices at consistent temperature, effectively drying the moisture content from the potato slices. The potato drying machine is also used for removing the excess oil of fried potato chips. The oil removed is collected by drip pan. Potato chips deoiling machine is suitable for continuous operation. The air-dried or deoiled potato chips enter the next process continuously.
Commercial Food Dehydrators and Industrial Food Dryers are expensive equipment that are used for food items drying before packaging and distribution. Food Drying increases shelf life of the food items and each food item such as vegetables and fruits have different moisture content and requires different temperature for proper drying. Food dehydrator manufacturers in India offer food drying equipment that may not fit into everyones need and requirement. MAAN GLOBAL INDUSTRIES is the leading food dehydrator machine manufacturer in India, Nepal, SriLanka, Malaysia, Indonesia, USA, Canada, Africa, Kenya, Oman, Abu Dhabi, Kuwait, Australia and UK, that designs food drying equipment based on mathematical models and calculations. Each of our Food dehydrator is manufactured to suit customers needs and meet their production requirements. Our Food Dehydrator and Food Dryers are equipped with PLC, Control Panels, Anti-shock systems and built in SS that are capable of running for hours giving you a temperature range of 50 degree Celsius to 150 Degree Celsius.
The cost of a Simple Food Dehydrator with 8 Trays and 40KG batch load is Rs. 1.5 lacs while a Commercial Food Dehydrator costs Rs. 4 Lacs with Doors and 32 Trays. However, the price of a conveyor belt food dryer is around Rs. 8,00,000 Lacs and an Infrared Food dryer costs Rs. 12,00,000 Lacs. Food Dryers and Food Dehydrators are custom built for each customer based on the requirements and needs. Commercial food dehydrator in Mumbai from Maan Global Industries costs as low as Rs. 2 Lacs.
If you are looking for Food Dehydrator Manufacturers in India or industrial oven manufacturers, Tray Dryer, Batch Food Dehydrators, Continuous Conveyor Dryers, Potato Chips Dryers, Infrared Food Dryers and Large Industrial Hot Air Dehydrators in Mumbai, Delhi, Pune, Hyderabad, Kolkata, Bangalore, Assam, Uttar Pradesh, Chennai, Bihar, India, then Call: 8882490101 or fill out the form on the right.
Has a large 7.4-cubic-foot capacity with steam function. Sensor Dry technology adjusts to wetness of materials. ENERGY STAR rating guarantees efficiency. Features modern styling. Compatible with Smart Care app that helps you diagnose any issues that arise.
Features 8 dry modes with multiple options and temperature settings to meet your needs. Accurately detects when your clothes are dry and plays a pleasant melody. Wrinkle Guard feature works well, and the bright display is easy to read.
Installation is easy, and the unit has a lightweight and compact design for better maneuverability. Features a smaller footprint while maintaining a large capacity. Boasts minimal operational noise.
A spacious and affordable model. Auto Dry function helps prevent overdrying and unnecessary operation. We love the Wrinkle Guard technology that makes most fabrics come out looking fresh and wrinkle-free.
Offers powerful performance for its price range. Large lint trap handles animal hair well. Has an easy installation process, making it an ideal project for homeowners. Boasts fast drying and quiet operation.
For most of us, laundry day means putting your clothes through the washing machine and then the dryer. Fold or hang your garments and youre done. Its a far cry from the days of washing clothes in a bucket and clipping them to a line to dry in the sun. And one of the essential appliances that makes the job so much easier is an electric dryer.
Whether youre buying your first dryer or looking to replace one that has seen better days, you might be wondering about the latest and greatest features or whether to just choose the cheapest model on the showroom floor.
BestReviews is here to help you decide. Weve gathered information from experts in the home appliance field, as well as from owners of various brands of electric clothes dryers, and consolidated our findings into one handy, helpful, and unbiased shopping guide.
The two basic types of clothes dryers are those powered entirely by electricity and those partially powered by natural gas. All dryers use electricity to turn the drum that keeps your laundry tumbling through the heated air.
Most homeowners choose electric dryers despite the fact that they represent one of the biggest chunks of your monthly energy usage. Although there are excellent energy-efficient electric dryers, many tend to take a lot longer to dry your clothes than their less-efficient counterparts. Your overall cost savings may not be significant when compared to the much higher purchase price of an Energy Star-certified dryer.
Most inexpensive dryers have a large dial that you turn to the desired heat setting, along with an on/off button. Youll find digital displays on most higher-end dryers, but neither option is necessarily better.
Nearly all dryers now have moisture sensors that automatically determine the wetness of the laundry and adjust the drying time accordingly. This saves energy and reduces the wear and tear to your clothes.
Almost all dryers let you hinge the door to open from either the left or right side, depending on the configuration of your laundry room. There are also models hinged to open top down. While these give you a handy spot for folding clothes, they also make it a little harder to reach into the machine.
This super-high-heat setting kills bacteria in your laundry, helping to reduce the risk of illness or allergies. Its a great feature if you wash reusable diapers, pet bedding, or a lot of clothes that have been worn for outdoor activities.
As with most other appliances, smart features are entering the laundry room. You can monitor and control your smart dryer from your phone, as well as monitor its energy usage. Youll even get an alert when your clothes are dry and ready to be folded.
Shopping around can definitely uncover bargains, but, in general, you can expect to spend between $300 and $1,100 for an electric dryer. At the low end of the range, you can find a bare-bones, basic dryer. The most expensive models are energy efficient and include all the bells and whistles. For most people, the sweet spot is in the $500 to $700 range, where you can find quality brands with dependable performance and plenty of nice features.
Q. Does my dryer have to be the same brand as my washer? A. While it looks nice and is very convenient to buy a matched washer/dryer set, its not absolutely necessary. Go ahead and mix and match if you like. You might have to if your old washer is still in good condition but you need a new dryer.
Q. Are there Energy Star-rated dryers? A. Yes, there have been dryers with Energy Star ratings since 2015. It means the dryer uses at least 20% less electricity than the energy-efficient setting in a standard dryer. Youll pay a hefty price for these dryers, however, which may offset the energy savings.
Q. Do dryers come in different colors or finishes? A. Absolutely! Youll find dryers in black, red, cream, blue, and many other trendy colors, as well as stainless steel or matte finishes. Youll pay more for these dryers, however.
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Upgrade your laundry room by shopping for a new washer and dryer set, which is the smartestand often the most affordable wayto purchase these appliances. Buying a matching washer and dryer is about more than just aesthetics, though, since both machines will have capacity and functions that pair together to make laundry day more efficient. You can also catch a break in pricing by purchasing a washer and dryer bundle from major retailers.
Whether you're shopping for the newest innovations in washer and dryer sets or a budget pair to get clothes clean, you can find great options in top loading and front loading configurations. For those with small spaces, a compact or stackable washer and dryer is a good bet, while large families will most likely need a large capacity duo.
When choosing the right pair of laundry machines, you'll want to look for a washer dryer set that has enough capacity for your average load sizes. In addition, consider the type of agitator and drum material of the washer since these factors have a bearing on the cleaning quality and the longevity of your clothes. Most washers are available with either an electric or gas dryer.
The best front loading washer and dryer set should offer efficient cleaning and drying, plenty of cycle options to meet your laundry needs, and enough capacity to handle large or bulky loads. The LG WM4000HWA and its matching dryer check all the boxes and offer user-friendly features, including WiFi for remote monitoring of your laundry cycle.
Peek inside the 4.5 cubic foot drum of this front loading washer and youll see that there is plenty of space for washing your familys clothes or for tackling a weeks worth of towels. Load capacity for this front loading washer is up to 20 pounds, which equates to about 12 large bath towels or 22 sweatshirts. LGs TurboWash 360 Technology uses five water jets to make sure that even large loads are thoroughly saturated for faster cleaning in less time, while 12 cycle options give you the right settings for every type of fabric.
This laundry pair is made complete with LGs DLEX4000W dryer, which has 7.4 cubic feet of drum space to match the capacity of its washing partner. If you enable Smart Pairing in LGs ThinQ app, the washer can share cycle information with the dryeractivating the right drying settings for your last load of wash. And to get you by in between laundry days, the dryer is equipped with a steam function to refresh lightly worn clothes or release wrinkles in between washes.
LG Front Load Washer: "Most of the cycles are pretty fast, even for large loads, but I love Speed Wash for lightly soiled loads; it only takes 15 minutes. The Speed Wash cycle is a lifesaver when I need to get through a giant mountain of laundry."
LG Ultra Large Capacity Electric Dryer: "After running a wash cycle in the matching LG washing machine, I turned on my new dryer and loaded the damp clothing...The dryer suggested an appropriate drying setting based on the wash I just did. Its a huge time saver and makes me feel like Im living in the future."
For a top of the line top loading washer and dryer set, check out the full-featured Samsung WA7200. Equipped with the features you need to make washing and drying your clothes as easy as possible, this top-loading washer and dryer set is sleek and smart. Its also tough on stains, with an Active WaterJet built into the washer to give you a helping hand on pre-treating stains.
The 5.4 cubic foot top loading washer features a deep fill option to make sure that even bulky loads are thoroughly saturated, but its high-efficiency impeller plate design means increased water savings on light to average laundry loads. Peer into the stylish glass lid to check on the cycleor better yet, receive cycle updates on your smartphone from this WiFi-enabled laundry pair.
The matching Samsung Dryer DV7200 offers 7.4 cubic feet of drum space and utilizes Sensor Dry to optimize the time and temperature of drying cycles. This translates to more efficient energy usage and also protects your clothes from excessive heat.
Samsung Top Load Washer: "The Samsung 5.4 Top Load Washer has a whopping 10 cycles...I tried [them] all, favoring normal for most washes. I also liked heavy-duty for my kids dirt- and grass-stained clothes and the bedding setting for my periodic comforter washes.
Samsung Electric Dryer: "A few dress shirts were too wrinkled to wear after a couple of days sitting at the bottom of the clean laundry pile. Instead of spending a lot of time ironing, I used the wrinkle away cycle. It uses steam to get rid of wrinkles, so I ran the shirts through the cycle for 20 minutes. They came out wrinkle-free."
Popular in apartments and condos, a laundry center is a vertically stacked washer and dryer that functions as a single unit. Unlike stackable washer dryer sets where the washer and dryer are two separate appliances and can also be positioned side-by-side, a laundry center is a single appliance.
While laundry centers are usually quite basic in form and function, LGs WashTower is a game-changer and a head-turner. This sleek-looking tower features a front loading washer and dryer, a departure from the familiar top-loading washer usually seen in laundry centers. Load capacity is improved, too. The washer features 4.5 cubic feet of drum space, which is on par with many standalone washing machines. The dryer keeps up with 7.4 cubic feet of room. In both appliances, youll have plenty of cycles and options to choose from, but you can also let AI sensors do the work for youthis technology automatically detects fabric texture and load size to select the right cycle.
One of the more innovative design features of the LG WashTower is the central control panel. While some laundry centers or stackable washer and dryer sets have hard-to-reach controls for the dryer, LG put the panel for both the washer and dryer in the center of the tower, about the height of your average countertop, so options are easy to see and controls are simple to use.
For a full-featured top loading washer and dryer set, consider this powerful pair from LG. Combining some of the newest innovations in laundry care, this sleek and smart washer and dryer duo defy the norms of conventional top-loading washers and dryers. While the price tag for this pair is steep, the cleaning capabilities are impressive.
The LG WT7305CV top-loading washer has a supersized capacity of 4.8 cubic feet and offers eight different wash programs with more than a dozen options to customize your wash cycle. A stainless steel tub means no opportunities for snags on your shirts or sweaters. LG has also engineered this washer with an advanced agitator that provides four-way motion for clothes to ensure a more thorough cleaning.
Completing this splurge washer and dryer set is LGs DLE7300VE dryer, which is available in both gas and electric models. A unique feature of this model is the EasyLoad door, which opens in two different ways to match the configuration of your laundry room; open the door down or to the side to access the interior of the 7.3 cubic foot drum. Both machines are WiFi-enabled and users can monitor laundry cycles and troubleshoot any pop-up problems using LGs ThinQ app.
The best smart washer and dryer set should work seamlessly with top smart home applications while offering the latest features and options. The GE GFW850SPNRS Ultra Fresh Washer and matching dryer are leading the way in laundry innovation with their combination of smart capabilities and advanced features.
For instance, this 5.0 cubic foot front-loading washer is capable of washing and drying small loads on the spotwith no need to transfer to the dryer. With UltraFresh technology, the door of this washer is vented as a defense against musty odors, and gaskets and seals are treated with Microban to prevent the growth of mold and mildew. When transferring normal-sized loads to the dryer, the matching GE GFD85ESPNRS gas or electric dryer steps up with 7.8 cubic feet of space and Washer Link technology that enables it to mirror settings from the washer for a just-right drying cycle.
Built-in WiFi means that this smart washer dryer set works with smart home services like Google Assistant, Amazon Alexa, and IFTTT technology. You can also use GEs SmartHQ app to remotely start, stop, or check in on washer and dryer cycles. Keep an eye on your laundry without stepping foot in the laundry room, thanks to the latest in smart home appliances.
Maximize energy efficiency without sacrificing cleaning power with this washer and dryer duo from Electrolux. This powerful yet energy-efficient washer and dryer set will maximize your water savings while minimizing energy usage. The Electrolux EFLS627UTT front-loading washer has earned EnergyStars Most Efficient rating, and it also carries a CEE Tier III rating; pair it with the Electrolux EFMG627UTT gas dryer for maximum energy efficiency.
This washer is estimated to use just 85 kWh of energy (about $10) per year, while many other models are estimated at double or triple this usage. Aside from outstanding energy savings, Electrolux has designed this washer with other practical features. Cycle selections include a 15-minute fast wash, ultra-gentle hand wash, or sanitizing option to remove up to 99 percent of bacteria and 95 percent of common household allergens. Steam rises from the bottom of the drum in this washer to help lift stains from the fibers of your clothes, towels, and more. Finally, Electrolux has delivered a better way to use popular laundry pods in a front load washer with this models adaptive detergent dispenser.
Electroluxs matching dryer, model EFMG627UTT, is no slouch in terms of efficiency or power, either. It features an automatic drying sensor to ensure that cycles end when your clothes are dry. Plus, it matches up to the specialty cycles offered by the washer by giving you an option for a 15-minute fast dry or a steam cycle to quickly release wrinkles and freshen clothes. Stack this washer and dryer pair to save space while you save energy, or place them side-by-side for easy access. Regardless of what you choose, this full-featured but energy-efficient washer and dryer pair will make your laundry life a little easier.
Spend less and launder more with this budget washer and dryer set from Amana. While the top-loading washer and matching dryer are simple by design and wont win any awards for capacity or features, they offer excellent cleaning and drying performance for average household laundry needs.
The Amana NTW4516FW has 3.5 cubic feet of space in the porcelain wash basket, which is smooth enough to prevent snags but could become chipped over time. A dual-action agitator pole ensures a more thorough movement of clothes during each cycle. Youll get straightforward cycle selections, without specialty options like a hand-wash or steam cycle. One popular feature, however, is the Deep Fill option, which gives large or heavily soiled loads thorough saturation.
Its matching dryer is available in either gas or electric models and gives you 6.5 cubic feet of drum space to dry loads. The machines automatic drying sensors control cycle length to ensure more efficient energy usage and are available on both low heat and high heat cycle settings. Or, you can opt for straightforward timed dry or air-only settings.
If mountains of laundry loom large on laundry day, make sure you choose a large capacity washer and dryer set that can make quick work of dirty loads. While many average washing machines have a capacity between 3.5 and 4.5 cubic feet, the LG WM9500HKA has 5.8 cubic feet of drum spacemaking this a mega capacity front-loading washer. The matching LG DV7200 dryer is equally capable of large-scale laundry loads with its 9.0 cubic foot capacity. If youre not convinced on how large this washer and dryer set is, consider the fact that it can wash and dry a King size blanket plus an entire set of sheets in a single cycle.
Aside from being big, this large capacity laundry pair includes practical design details and smart features. For example, the washer has a 15-percent larger door opening to make it easier to load and unload those supersized piles of laundry and both machines feature an angled door that makes access easier. Steam technology gives the washer extra stain-fighting power, while the dryer can use steam to release wrinkles and refresh clothing. Both the washer and dryer are WiFi-enabled so you can check cycle status in real-time with your smartphone.
Even if youre tight on space, you can maximize cleaning power with a powerful but compact washer dryer set like the Bosch 300 series. This German-engineered laundry pair is designed with slim dimensions to squeeze into small laundry rooms or closets; the washer and dryer both measure less than 25 inches wide and deep.
Dont be fooled into thinking that this compact washer dryer set is only a fit for solo individuals or couples. The front-loading Bosch WAT28400UC washing machine has a 2.2 cubic foot drum that can take on up to 18 towels in a single load. More than a dozen wash cycles, including specialty options for hand-wash items, removing allergens, or denim, give this machine major cleaning power despite its small footprint.
Save even more space by stacking the matching Bosch 300 WTG86403UC dryer on top of the washing machine. You can plug the washer into the dryer, requiring just one 240V to power both appliances. This electric condensation dryer requires no venting, opening up more possibilities for placement in your home, apartment, or condo. However, drying cycles may be extended when compared to conventional vented dryers.
Many models of front-loading washers can be stacked with a matching dryer to give you a stackable washer dryer set that takes up minimal square footage. If youre looking for this space-saving configuration for your own laundry room or closet, consider the popular Samsung WF45R6100 washer and its accompanying dryer, model DVE45R6100.
Stackable washer dryer sets arent just a great idea for saving space. A dynamic duo like this washer and dryer pair can also provide thorough, complete clothes care. The front-loading washer has 4.5 cubic feet of space, with a wider drum that keeps the profile of the machine to 31.75 inchesshallow enough for many closets or small laundry rooms. Take total control of your cleaning routine with 10 cycles and options to select water temperature, rinse cycles, spin speed, and soil level for every load. The power of steam gives the machine an upper hand in fighting stains or sanitizing loads of dish towels, cleaning cloths, and more.
Put the stackable Samsung DVE45R6100P dryer on top of your washer and quickly load it up with freshly washed laundry from below. The dryer features 7.5 cubic feet of drum space and 10 drying cycles, with 5 temperature settings for optimal clothing care. Keep in mind that youll need to purchase a stacking kit to complete the vertical set-up, but this is to be expected with most stackable washer dryer sets.
If youre dealing with dirty laundry, choose a washer and dryer set that can handle the load. Features like a deep fill, dual-action agitator, and extra rinse option give the Maytag MVWC565FW the upper hand on eliminating dirt, sweat, and stains. The roomy 4.2 cubic foot stainless steel wash basket holds large loads, with plenty of room for heavy items like jeans or sweatshirts or bulky items like King size sheets or a big blanket.
A feature unique to this washing machine for stains is Maytags PowerWash cycle, which uses heated water and enhanced agitator action to more thoroughly clean heavily soiled loads. Activate the deep rinse feature to ensure that the load is thoroughly clean and to remove excess detergent, which can actually cause fibers to become soiled more quickly. Finish the job with the Maytag MEDC465HW dryer, which has 7 cubic feet of space and 12 cycles to dry your freshly laundered load.
Front loading washer and dryer sets are among the most popular on the market, and the LG WM4000HWA and matching dryer (view at Best Buy) are a full-featured pair that won't disappoint. Plenty of capacity and LG's innovative features, like TurboWash and SmartPairing translate to great cleaning quality and user-friendly operation. However, if you're shopping for a simple and affordable washer and dryer pair, then the top loading Amana NTW4516FW with matching dryer (view at Lowe's) are a winning combination that together cost less than many washing machines on their own.
Since overfilling your washer will mean clothes dont get as clean as they should and underfilling it means a waste of water and energy, youll want to find a washing machine with a capacity that matches your average load size. Capacity is usually measured in cubic feet and a standard washing machine typically has a drum with 3 to 4 cubic feet of space. Compact washers will have up to 2.5 cubic feet of space, and super capacity front load washers can have as much as 6 cubic feet of space.
Since you might not know how many cubic feet of space your load of laundry takes up, keep in mind that a washer with a capacity of 3 to 4 cubic feet can usually wash up to 12 pounds of laundry. Adjust up or down for washers with a smaller or larger capacity.
Every washing machine relies on some form of agitation to clean clothes and loosen dirt. When you peek inside the washer, youll find a variety of types of agitators. In a front load washer, youll see a big drum with small fins protruding from all sides. These low-profile paddles combined with the turning of the drum provide gentle agitation that is better for the longevity of garments. However, this gentler agitation also means longer cycle times to ensure that clothes are clean. Inside of a top load washer, the familiar sight of a tall center agitator is being increasingly replaced with an impeller plate on the bottom of the washtub that performs a similar action while taking up less space.
While all washing machines have basic cycles to handle everyday laundry needs, some machines go above and beyond with specialized cycles for oversized items like comforters or items labeled for handwashing. Another popular option appearing on many front-loading washers and some top-loading washers is a sanitizing cycle that uses high heat to kill up to 99.9 percent of bacteriaperfect for dirty dish rags or pet bedding.
Since your clothes are about to get washed and whirled inside of a machine, you want to be sure that nothing will snag the fabric of your favorite blouse. Stainless steel tubs are considered the smoothest and most durable choice for washing machine drums. Theyre often included with higher-end washing machines.
Porcelain-enameled steel tubs are also popular and cost less, but over time the porcelain finish can chip or wear awayleaving exposed steel that may rust and stain or snag clothes. Less commonly seen but sometimes used in low or mid-range machines are heavy-duty plastic washtubs. While durable enough to last for many years, they may not be well-suited for high-speed spin cycles and they can develop rough spots that might catch clothes over time.
To supply the hot air it will take to dry your clothes thoroughly, youll need a dryer with a heater that is fueled by natural gas or powered by electricity. Does your laundry room have a natural gas line that you can connect a dryer to? If not, youll need to install one if you want the efficiency of a gas dryer. A gas dryer will cost more initiallyespecially if you need to pay to have a gas line installed, and there may be additional fees to have a gas dryer hooked up during delivery. Still, this type of dryer is generally capable of drying clothes faster, and it may cost less to operatedepending on the cost of utilities in your area.
Electric dryers dont require a separate gas linejust plug it in and it is ready to operate. Youll generally find that electric dryers cost about $100 less than their gas counterparts. However, they typically have longer drying times, which means greater energy usage and increased costs in the long run.
Make sure that you have a dryer suitably sized to handle the capacity of your washing machine. If not, youll have a load of soggy clothes ready for drying and only be able to fit some of it in your dryer! The rule-of-thumb used to be to find a dryer with twice the cubic capacity of the washing machine, but increased efficiency in dryer performance means that you wont need to adhere strictly to that formula. Still, if you have a washer with a cubic capacity of 3.5 to 4.5 feet, look for a dryer with at least 7 cubic feet of drying space. This will also provide enough room to dry larger items, like queen or king-sized comforters.
There are several reasons to consider buying a washer and dryer set, including capacity compatibility and savings. When you buy a washer and its matching dryer, the capacity of the two machines will match up. This is important for the efficiency of your laundry routine; if you buy a super capacity washer but your dryer offers more limited capacity, youll have to run multiple drying cycles to thoroughly dry a load or be forced to air-dry part of a freshly washed laundry load.
In addition, many retailers offer attractive deals when you purchase a washer and dryer together. By purchasing a set, you can save several hundred dollars on your new appliance purchase. Plus, replacing just one machine can leave you with worry about when the other appliance may require replacement or repair. Take advantage of the opportunity to save and sync up your washer and dryer set by buying a washer and dryer together and enjoying the peace of mind from having a new laundry duo.
Space and aesthetics are two more reasons to buy a washer and dryer at the same time. A matching washer and dryer will generally share the same finish, design features, and depth and height dimensions. These shared attributes will make them a snug pair that will fit in your laundry area without one machine sticking out more than the other or looking out of place.
You can expect to pay between $500 and $2,000 for a washer-dryer set, depending on whether youre shopping for a front load, top load, or stackable set. Top load washers and their matching dryers have often been the most affordable options. However super capacity top loading washer and dryer sets can quickly climb in price. Front load washer and dryer sets range in price as well, with budget pairs starting under $1,000 and high-capacity laundry pairs costing up to $2,000.
Opting for a gas dryer usually means a price increase of about $100 with most retailers. If you dont already have a natural gas line located at the installation spot for your machine, dont forget to factor in the cost of installation by a professional.
These steps assume that you are installing a washer and dryer in a location with a previous laundry set-up. For areas that need electrical outlets and water connections, you may need to hire an electrician and plumber to prep the area for the installation of your appliances.
Erica Puisis has been covering large appliances for The Spruce since 2017. With more than 200 articles written and experience using front-loading, top-loading, and all-in-one washer and dryer sets, her expertise and product research is put to good use finding the best machines for your laundry situation.


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Ventolin Tablets Description
Ventolin Tablets contain Albuterol, a short-acting beta agonist medication that you take several times a day to treating asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) symptoms which include emphysema and chronic bronchitis. These are all chronic lung disorders that cause inflammation, swelling, and narrowing of your bronchial tubes that make breathing difficult. Having asthma or COPD can cost you time from work, school, social events, and family gatherings unless you are diagnosed and treated. There is no cure for asthma or COPD, but Ventolin Tablets can help relieve your symptoms and allow you to continue enjoying life.
If an asthma attack is triggered, one of the first responses in your body is the muscles surrounding your airways contract or become narrow. This action causes you to find it hard to take a breath. For those with COPD, the chronic inflammation only adds to your breathing restriction. When taken as directed, Ventolin Tablets, or generic Albuterol interacts with the beta-2 receptors on the surface of your muscle cells and causes them to relax. This opens up your airways and your breathing is restored.
Conditions Treated by Ventolin Tablets
Asthma is a chronic and inflammatory respiratory condition that is often diagnosed in childhood, and the majority of those with asthma also have allergies that can trigger an attack. Triggers for asthma include dust, pollen, exercising, pollution, and smoke. Chronic bronchitis and emphysema both have one major cause-smoking! Chronic bronchitis involves inflammation and eventual scarring of the bronchial tubes. A heavy mucus build-up will also exacerbate this condition and cause you to cough up phlegm. You may develop bacterial infections because it is the perfect breeding place.
Emphysema begins gradually from years of smoking and it destroys the air sacs in your lungs where oxygen is exchanged for carbon dioxide in your blood. The fragile walls of the air sacs (alveoli) become damaged permanently so your lungs are not able to transfer as much oxygen to your bloodstream. You wheeze, cough, and struggle for breath unless you stop smoking before too much damage is done.
Before You Take Ventolin Tablets
Ask your doctor about the risks and benefits of taking Ventolin Tablets while you are pregnant, if you become pregnant, or when you are breast feeding. Discuss other medical conditions or allergies you have and list OTC and Rx drugs you are taking, including herbal remedies and dietary or vitamin supplements so your doctor can determine if Ventolin Tablets are safe for you.
Warnings for Ventolin Tablets
If you feel Ventolin Tablets are not working as well as expected, you may need a higher dosage or an added medication. Until you know how your body will react to Ventolin Tablets, avoid performing any tasks that increase the risk of injury to yourself or others, such as driving a vehicle.
Possible Side Effects of Ventolin Tablets
Nausea or stomach pain