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Κύρια Encyclopedia of American Indian History (4 volume set)
Encyclopedia of American Indian History (4 volume set)Bruce E. Johansen, Barry M. Pritzker
From the origins of Native American cultures through the years of colonialism and non-Native expansion to the present, Encyclopedia of American Indian History brings the story of Native Americans to life like no other previous reference on the subject. Featuring the work of many of the field's foremost scholars, it explores this fundamental and foundational aspect of the American experience with extraordinary depth, breadth, and currency, carefully balancing the perspectives of both Native and non-Native Americans.Encyclopedia of American Indian History spans the centuries with three thematically organized volumes (covering the period from precontact through European colonization; the years of non-Native expansion (including Indian removal); and the modern era of reservations, reforms, and reclamation of semi-sovereignty). Each volume includes entries on key events, places, people, and issues. The fourth volume is an alphabetically organized resource providing histories of Native American nations, as well as an extensive chronology, topic finder, bibliography, and glossary. For students, historians, or anyone interested in the Native American experience, Encyclopedia of American Indian History brings that experience to life in an unprecedented way.
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Encyclopedia of American Indian History Encyclopedia of American Indian History Bruce E. Johansen Barry M. Pritzker EDITORS Santa Barbara, California • Denver, Colorado • Oxford, England Copyright 2008 by ABC-CLIO, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, except for the inclusion of brief quotations in a review, without prior permission in writing from the publishers. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Encyclopedia of American Indian history / [edited by] Bruce E. Johansen, Barry M. Pritzker. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-85109-817-0 (set : alk. paper)—ISBN 978-1-85109-818-7 (ebook) 1. Indians of North America—History—Encyclopedias. I. Johansen, Bruce E. (Bruce Elliott), 1950– II. Pritzker, Barry. E77.E48 2007 970.004'97003—dc22 2007011970 11 10 09 08 07 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Production Editor: Vicki Moran Editorial Assistant: Sara Springer Production Manager: Don Schmidt Media Editor: John Whithers Media Resources Coordinator: Ellen Brenna Dougherty Media Resources Manager: Caroline Price File Management Coordinator: Paula Gerard ABC-CLIO, Inc. 130 Cremona Drive, P.O. Box 1911 Santa Barbara, California 93116-1911 This book is also available on the World Wide Web as an ebook. Visit http://www.abc-clio.com for details. This book is printed on acid-free paper. Manufactured in the United States of America For our families, and for future generations Bruce E. Johansen Barry M. Pritzker Contributors Susan Sánchez-Barnett Baltimore County Public Schools Indian Claims Commission Tee-Hit-Ton v. United States Carolyn Speros Baughman University of California, Riverside Pottery DeLyssa Begay Chinle Unified School District Harjo, Joy Yale D. Belanger University of Lethbridge Aboriginal Peoples Television Network Alaska Native Brotherhood Assembly of First Nations Blackfeet Confederacy Constitution Act Cree-Naskapi Act Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development Indian Act James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement James Bay Hydroelectric Project Métis Nation Accord Nunavut Nunavut Land Claims Agreement Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples Tungavik Federation, Nunavut Sally Colford Bennett Johnson County Community College Captivity Narrative Factory System Harrison, William Henry Jennifer L. Bertolet George Washington University Momaday, N. Scott Relocation Trail of Tears Merlene Bishop Longview Community College Alcoholism and Substance Abuse Christine Elisabeth Boston University of Western Ontario Hopewell Culture Daniel L. Boxberger Western Washington University Fishing Rights Stuart Bradfield Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies Domestic Dependent Nation Arthur Robert Brokop II Shiprock, NM Bole-Maru Religion Charles W. Buckner University of Memphis Counting Coup John M. Bumsted University of Winnipeg Bering Strait Theory Roger M. Carpenter National Museum of the American Indian Berdaches Neolin (Delaware Prophet) New Agers, “Indian” Ceremonies and Riel, Louis Smith, John Squanto Uncas Duane Champagne UCLA Native Nations Law and Policy Center Department of Sociology Termination and Indian Sovereignty (Essay) viii Contributors Philippe Charland Université du Québec à Montréal Canonicus David H. DeJong Pima-Maricopa Irrigation Project Deloria, Vine, Jr. Ryan Church Los Angeles, California Tribal Courts S. Matthew DeSpain University of Oklahoma Black Kettle North West Company Oregon Trail Ward Churchill University of Colorado, Boulder American Indian Movement Bering Strait Theory Hawai’i, Legal Status of Native Claims (with Bruce E. Johansen) Indian Assimilation and Reorganization (Essay) D. Anthony Tyeeme Clark (Meskwaki) University of Illinois Montezuma Standing Bear, Luther Richmond Clow University of Montana Spotted Tail Cary C. Collins Tahoma School District Sacajawea or Sakakawea (with SuAnn M. Reddick) Seattle (with SuAnn M. Reddick) Chip Colwell-Chanthaphonh Center for Desert Archaeology Camp Grant Massacre Eskiminzin Lysane Cree Hutchins Grant and Associés Confederacies Diabetes Navajo–Hopi Land Dispute Longhouse Religion Steven L. Danver Journal of the West All Indian Pueblo Council Arizona v. California Land, Identity, and Ownership of, Land Rights Little Turtle Mankiller, Wilma Native American Church of North America Pyramid Lake Paiute Tribe v. Morton Russians, in the Arctic/Northwest Water Rights Winters v. United States E. James Dixon University of Colorado, Boulder Archaeology and the First Americans Jennifer Nez Denetdale Manuelito Alan C. Downs Georgia Southern University Aquash, Anna Mae Pictou Massasoit Means, Russell Sand Creek Massacre Trail of Broken Treaties Washita Massacre Jeanne Eder University of Alaska, Anchorage General Allotment Act (Dawes Act) Identity Termination C. S. Everett Cahokia Indian Civil Rights Act (1968) Amy S. Fatzinger University of Arizona Winnemucca Kenneth C. Favrholdt Thompson Rivers University Dalles Trading Area Andrew H. Fisher College of William and Mary Columbia River Inter-Tribal Fish Commission Dreamer Cult Seven Drum Religion Smoholla Whitman, Marcus and Narcissa Sterling Fluharty University of Oklahoma EchoHawk, Larry Contributors Mormon Church National Indian Youth Council Warrior, Clyde Hugh W. Foley, Jr. Rogers State University Baptist Church Bearskin, Leaford Harjo, Chitto Muskogean Language Andrew K. Frank Florida Atlantic University Creek War Indian Civilization Fund Act Mississippian Culture Osceola Pueblo Revolt Seminole Wars Granville Ganter St. John’s University Brant, Joseph Maine Indian Claims Settlement Act Red Jacket Daniel R. Gibbs La Joya Independent School District Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act Alaska, United States Purchase of American Indian Higher Education Consortium Education Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act Salmon, Economic and Spiritual Significance of Tribal Colleges Yakama War Matthew T. Sakiestewa Gilbert University of California, Riverside Leupp, Francis Ellington Jason David Gillespie University of Alberta Paleo-Indians Sandy Grande Connecticut College Doctrine of Discovery Marx, Karl, and Native American Societies Plenary Power S. Neyooxet Greymorning University of Montana Fletcher v. Peck (with Dr. Gregory Campbell) Michelle A. Hamilton University of Western Ontario False Face Society Karl S. Hele University of Western Ontario Catlin, George Copway, George Deskaheh Dumont, Gabriel Johnson, Emily Pauline Tenskwatawa Sherry Hutt National NAGPRA Program, National Parks Service Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act Robert H. Jackson Spring, Texas Demographics, Historical Spanish Influence Don Trent Jacobs (Four Arrows) Northern Arizona University Education and Social Control Myth of the Noble Savage Worldviews and Values Bruce E. Johansen University of Nebraska, Omaha African Americans Agriculture Akwesasne Notes Albany Congress, Native Precedents American Indian Contributions to the World American Revolution, Native American Participation Beaver Wars Black Elk Boarding Schools, United States and Canada Bonnin, Gertrude Simmons Boston Tea Party, Mohawk Images Buffalo Campbell, Ben Nighthorse Canandaigua (Pickering) Treaty Canassatego Captain Jack Cherokee Nation v. Georgia Cherokee Phoenix and Indian Advocate Citizenship Cohen, Felix Coon Come, Matthew Cornplanter Costo, Rupert ix x Contributors Council of Energy Resource Tribes Crazy Horse Cruz, Joseph de la Curtis, Charles Deganawidah Democracy and Native American Images among Europeans Disease, Historic and Contemporary Dull Knife Edwards, J. R. Elk v. Wilkins Emathla, Charley Engels, Friedrich, and “Mother-right gens” Environment and Pollution Franklin, Benjamin, Native American Influences Handsome Lake (with Barbara Alice Mann) Haudenosaunee Confederacy, Political System Hawai’i, Legal Status of Native Land Claims (with Ward Churchill) Hazardous Waste Hendrick Hiawatha (with Barbara Alice Mann) Hooker Jim Horse, Economic Impact Indian Immigrants and Removals (Essay) Indian Removal Act Individual Indian Monies Jackson, Andrew Jackson, Helen Hunt Johnson, William Kicking Bird LaDuke, Winona LaFlesche, Susan Picotte LaFlesche, Susette Tibbles Lancaster, Pennsylvania Treaty Councils Lyons, Oren Major Ridge Metacom, and King Philip’s War Mining and Contemporary Environmental Problems Mohawk, John C. Natchez Culture Norse Exploration of North America Ouray Parker, Ely Penn, William, Quakers, and Native Americans Pequot War Pine Ridge, Political Murders Plenty Coups Pocahontas Pontiac Potlatch Powhatan Red Cloud Reservation, Economic and Social Conditions St. Clair, Arthur (with James R. McIntyre and Robert W. Venables) State Names, Native American Derivations Tammany Society Tecumseh Tekakwitha, Kateri Thanksgiving Holiday, Origin Trade Treaty Diplomacy, with Summary of Selected Treaties Trust, Doctrine of United States v. Dann United States v. Kagama Uranium Mining Ward Valley, Hazardous Waste Controversy Wardship Doctrine Washakie Wilson, Richard Women of All Red Nations Daniel Morley Johnson McGill University Cannibalism Eliot, John New France and Natives Ortiz, Simon J. Troy R. Johnson California State University, Long Beach Occupation of Alcatraz Island Red Power Movement Occupation of Wounded Knee Kathleen Kane University of Montana Fort Laramie Treaty (1868) Joyce Ann Kievit Arizona State University Hohokam Culture C. Richard King Washington State University Genocide Lacrosse Mascots Mills, William M. Squaw, Debates over Place Names Janne Lahti University of Helsinki Crook, George Battle of Little Bighorn Mangas Coloradas Contributors Michael Lerma University of Arizona Pan-Indianism Wakashan Languages Anne Marie Libério University of Paris IV, Sorbonne Worcester v. Georgia Timothy J. McCollum Indiana University Black Hills (Paha Sapa) Great Lakes Intertribal Council Humor, as Value Fred Lindsey San Francisco, CA National Congress of American Indians Totem Poles Robert R. McCoy Washington State University Joseph, Younger Long March (Nez Percé) Ute Lischke Wilfred Laurier University Canada, Indian Policies of (with David T. McNab) Canoes (with David T. McNab) Erdrich, Louise (with David T. McNab) Hudson’s Bay Company (with David T. McNab) James R. McIntyre Moraine Valley Community College Carlisle Treaty Council Scalping in the Colonial Period St. Clair, Arthur (with Bruce E. Johansen and Robert W. Venables) Warfare, Intertribal Christopher A. J. L. Little University of Western Ontario Kennewick Man Brad D. Lookingbill Columbia College of Missouri Sitting Bull David T. McNab Nipissing University Canada, Indian Policies of (with Ute Lischke) Canoes (with Ute Lischke) Erdrich, Louise (with Ute Lischke) Hudson’s Bay Company (with Ute Lischke) Jean-François Lozier University of Toronto Missionaries, French Jesuit Mark Edwin Miller Southern Utah University Banderas, Juan de la Cruz Barbara Alice Mann University of Toledo Clark, George Rogers Cooper, James Fenimore Goschocking (Ohio) Massacre of 1782 Handsome Lake (with Bruce E. Johansen) Hiawatha (with Bruce E. Johansen) Jingonsaseh Mound Cultures of North America Mounds, Eastern Ohio Valley Mound Culture Sullivan, General John and the Haudenosaunee Holocaust of 1779 Women in Native Woodlands Societies Samuel Morgan National Museum of the American Indian Oliphant v. Suquamish Indian Tribe Aliki Marinakis University of Victoria Athapaskan Languages Erasmus, Georges Henry Indian Shaker Movement Na-Dene Peoples Peltier, Leonard Traci L. Morris-Carlsten University of Arizona Luna, James Alexander National Museum of the American Indian James D. Nason University of Washington Native American Museums Caryn E. Neumann Ohio State University Adena Civilization Fallen Timbers, Battle of Radiation Exposure Compensation Act Mark Nuttall University of Alberta Athapaskan Peoples xi xii Contributors Nancy J. Parezo University of Arizona Ancestral Puebloan Culture Gorman, R. C. Mogollon Culture Vera Parham University of California, Riverside Blue Lake, New Mexico Bureau of Indian Affairs: Establishing the Existence of an Indian Tribe Oakes, Richard United Nations, Indians and Joy Porter University of Wales, Swansea Parker, Arthur C. Society of American Indians James Precht Arizona State University Gambling National Indian Gaming Commission Barry Pritzker Skidmore College Pre-contact Indian History (Essay) Indian Nation Histories, Volume IV Amy L. Propps Santa Fe, New Mexico Boas, Franz Erickson, Leif Indian Gaming Regulatory Act L’Anse Aux Meadows Viking Settlement Osages, and Oil Rights United States v. Dann Michelle H. Raheja University of California, Riverside Scholder, Fritz SuAnn M. Reddick Salem, Oregon Sacajawea or Sakakawea (with Cary C. Collins) Seattle (with Cary C. Collins) Hugh J. Reilly University of Nebraska at Omaha Code Talkers, Navajo Standing Bear (Ponca): Standing Bear v. Crook Wounded Knee, South Dakota, Massacre at Jon Reyhner Northern Arizona University Assimilation Dodge, Henry Chee Language and Language Renewal Long Walk (Navajo) MacDonald, Peter Kimberly Roppolo University of Lethbridge Apess, William Casas, Bartolome de las Language, Written, in Americas, Pre-contact Louis, Adrian McNickle, D’Arcy Owens, Louis Parker, Quanah Pipes, Sacred Rose, Wendy Sun Dance Sweat Lodges Natsu Taylor Saito Georgia State University Black Seminoles Gregory Schaaf Center for Indigenous Arts and Cultures Banks, Dennis Basketry Beadwork Iroquois Great Law of Peace (Kaianerekowa) Katsinas Wampum Weaving J. Landon K. Schmidt University of Tulsa School of Law Graham, Mount (Dzil Nchaa Si An), Controversy over Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock Sacred Sites Bradley Shreve University of New Mexico Carson, Christopher “Kit” Praying Villages of Massachusetts Williams, Roger Michael W. Simpson Madison, Wisconsin Lyng v. Northwest Indian Cemetery Protective Association Wenona T. Singel Michigan State University Indian Mineral Leasing Act Contributors Gregory E. Smoak Colorado State University Ghost Dance Religion Wovoka Elizabeth Sneyd Royal Military College of Canada Anishinabe Algonquin National Council Adam Sowards Fur Trade H. Henrietta Stockel Sierra Vista, Arizona Apache Wars Cochise Geronimo Grant Peace Policy (1870) Mission System, Spanish Slavery and Native Americans Victorio Steve Talbot Oregon State University California Indians, Genocide of Collier, John Indian Reorganization Act Sohappy, Sr., David William N. Thompson University of Nevada, Las Vegas Ceremonies, Criminalization of James Thull University of Montana American Indian Religious Freedom Act Veronica E. Velarde Tiller Tiller Research Incorporated Westward Expansion, Indian Wars, and Reservations (Essay) St. Clair, Arthur (with Bruce E. Johansen and James R. McIntyre) David S. Trask Guilford Technical Community College, WinstonSalem, N.C. Anglicans Episcopal Church Meriam Report Welch, James Christopher Lindsay Turner National Museum of the American Indian Bureau of American Ethnology Dams, Fishing Rights, and Hydroelectric Power Northwest Ordinance (1787) Robert W. Venables Cornell University Indians in the Colonial Era and the American Revolution (Essay) Sally Roesch Wagner Matilda Joslyn Gage Foundation Feminism, Native American Influences Amy M. Ware University of Texas, Austin Rogers, Will Ross, John Sequoyah Watie, Stand Louellyn White University of Arizona Akwesasne Freedom School John L. Williams University of Tulsa Economic Development Trade and Intercourse Acts Tribal Sovereignty Waziyatawin Angela Wilson Arizona State University Forced Marches Great Sioux Uprising Little Crow Rosita Worl Sealaska Corporation Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (1971) Gayle Yiotis National Museum of the American Indian Cody, William Frederick xiii Contents VOLUME I Chronological Essays Issues in American Indian History Events in American Indian History VOLUME II Culture and American Indian History Governments and American Indian History VOLUME III People and Groups in American Indian History Primary Source Documents VOLUME IV Indian Nation Histories Resources Volume I Introduction, xix Chronological Essays Pre-contact Indian History (ca. 20,000 BCE to ca. 1500 CE) Indians in the Colonial Era and the American Revolution (1500 to 1800) Indian Immigrants and Removals (1800 to 1850) 2 14 30 Westward Expansion, Indian Wars, and Reservations (1850 to 1900) Indian Assimilation and Reorganization (1900 to 1945) Termination and Indian Sovereignty (1945 to 2000) 39 50 65 Issues in American Indian History Alcoholism and Substance Abuse Archaeology and the First Americans Assimilation Bering Strait Theory Boarding Schools, United States and Canada Citizenship Demographics, Historical Disease, Historic and Contemporary Economic Development Education Education and Social Control Environment and Pollution 77 82 87 92 96 102 104 111 114 122 127 129 Gambling Genocide 135 141 Hazardous Waste Land, Identity and Ownership of, Land Rights Mining and Contemporary Environmental Problems Pan-Indianism Reservation Economic and Social Conditions Squaw, Debates over Place Names Trade Treaty Diplomacy, with Summary of Selected Treaties Tribal Sovereignty Uranium Mining Water Rights Women in Native Woodlands Societies 144 146 148 153 156 163 166 170 177 183 186 190 Events in American Indian History Bering Strait Theory Dalles Trading Area L’Anse aux Meadows Viking Settlement Norse Exploration of North America 199 201 203 206 Doctrine of Discovery Missionaries, French Jesuit New France and Natives Spanish Influence 208 210 212 214 xviii Volume I Contents Pequot War Beaver Wars Pueblo Revolt Russians, in the Arctic/Northwest French and Indian War California Indians, Genocide of Mission System, Spanish Boston Tea Party, Mohawk Images American Revolution, Native American Participation Goschochking (Ohio) Massacre of 1782 Fallen Timbers, Battle of Creek War Seminole Wars Black Hawk’s War Trail of Tears Oregon Trail Yakama War Great Sioux Uprising Long Walk (Navajo) 216 218 220 221 224 226 231 236 237 240 244 246 248 251 252 254 255 256 259 Sand Creek Massacre Alaska, United States Purchase of Baptist Church Washita Massacre Grant’s Peace Policy Camp Grant Massacre Apache Wars Battle of the Little Bighorn Long March (Nez Percé) General Allotment Act (Dawes Act) Wounded Knee, South Dakota, Massacre at Relocation Occupation of Alcatraz Island Red Power Movement Trail of Broken Treaties Pine Ridge Political Murders Occupation of Wounded Knee Navajo–Hopi Land Dispute Ward Valley, Hazardous Waste Controversy 261 263 265 266 268 270 271 273 276 278 282 285 287 292 297 300 303 306 307 Volume II Culture and American Indian History Adena Civilization African Americans Agriculture American Indian Contributions to the World Ancestral Puebloan Culture Anglicans Athapaskan Languages Athapaskan Peoples Basketry Beadwork Berdaches Black Hills (Paha Sapa) Black Seminoles Blue Lake, New Mexico Bole-Maru Religion Buffalo Cahokia Cannibalism Canoes Captivity Narrative Ceremonies, Criminalization of Code Talkers, Navajo Confederacies Counting Coup Dams, Fishing Rights, and Hydroelectric Power Democracy and Native American Images among Europeans Diabetes Dreamer Cult False Face Society 311 314 315 319 326 331 332 335 336 339 340 342 344 346 347 348 350 352 354 358 360 364 367 372 373 376 378 380 381 Feminism, Native American Influences Fishing Rights Fur Trade Ghost Dance Religion Graham, Mount (Dzil Nchaa Si An), Controversy over Hohokam Culture Hopewell Culture Horse, Economic Impact Humor, as Value Identity Indian Shaker Movement Iroquois Great Law of Peace (Kaianerekowa) Katsinas Kennewick Man Lacrosse Language and Language Renewal Language, Written in America, Pre-contact Longhouse Religion Mascots Mississippian Culture Mogollon Culture Mound Cultures of North America Muskogean Language Myth of the Nobel Savage Na-Dene Peoples Natchez Culture New Agers, “Indian” Ceremonies and Ohio Valley Mound Culture Osage, and Oil Rights Paleo-Indians Pipes, Sacred 383 388 393 396 398 400 402 404 406 408 410 411 413 414 417 418 425 428 429 432 433 435 438 439 440 442 443 444 448 451 453 x Volume II Contents Potlatch Pottery Sacred Sites Salmon, Economic and Spiritual Significance of Scalping in the Colonial Period Seven Drums Religion 454 456 458 461 463 465 Slavery and Native Americans State Names, Native American Derivations 466 468 Sun Dance Sweat Lodges 471 473 Thanksgiving Holiday, Origins Totem Poles Wakashan Languages Wampum Warfare, Intertribal Weaving Worldviews and Values 474 477 479 480 483 485 487 Governments and American Indian History Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act Albany Congress, Native Precedents American Indian Religious Freedom Act Bureau of American Ethnology Bureau of Indian Affairs: Establishing Existence of an Indian Tribe Canada, Indian Policies of Canandaigua (Pickering) Treaty Carlisle Treaty Council Cherokee Nation v. Georgia Columbia River Inter-Tribal Fish Commission Constitution Act Cree-Naskapi Act Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development Domestic Dependent Nation Elk v. Wilkins Factory System Fletcher v. Peck Forced Marches Fort Laramie Treaty (1868) Hawai’i, Legal Status of Native Claims Hudson’s Bay Company Indian Act Indian Civil Rights Act (1968) Indian Civilization Fund Act Indian Claims Commission Indian Gaming Regulatory Act 491 493 495 499 501 503 511 513 514 517 518 519 520 522 524 524 526 528 529 532 534 537 539 540 541 543 Indian Mineral Leasing Act Indian Removal Act Indian Reorganization Act Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act Individual Indian Monies James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement Lancaster, Pennsylvania, Treaty Councils Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock Lyng v. Northwest Indian Cemetery Protective Association Maine Indian Claims Settlement Act Meriam Report Métis Nation Accord National Indian Gaming Commission Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act North West Company Northwest Ordinance (1787) Nunavut Land Claims Agreement Oliphant v. Suquamish Indian Tribe Plenary Power Praying Villages of Massachusetts Pyramid Lake Paiute Tribe v. Morton Radiation Exposure Compensation Act Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples Standing Bear v. Crook Tee-Hit-Ton v. United States Termination 546 548 552 559 560 565 568 569 572 573 576 578 580 581 584 586 588 594 596 599 600 601 602 604 606 607 Volume II Contents Trade and Intercourse Acts Tribal Courts Trust, Doctrine of Tungavik Federation, Nunavut United Nations, Indians and 610 612 614 617 618 Untied States. v. Dann Untied States v. Kagama 619 622 Wardship Doctrine Winters v. United States Worcester v. Georgia 623 624 626 xi Volume III People and Groups in American Indian History Aboriginal Peoples Television Network Akwesasne Freedom School Akwesasne Notes Alaska Native Brotherhood All Indian Pueblo Council American Indian Higher Education Consortium American Indian Movement Anderson, Wallace Mad Bear Anishinabe Algonquin National Council Apess, William Aguash, Anna Mae Pictou Assembly of First Nations Banderas, Juan de la Cruz Banks, Dennis Bearskin, Leaford Black Elk Blackfeet Confederacy Black Hawk Black Kettle Boas, Franz Bonnin, Gertrude Simmons Brant, Joseph Campbell, Ben Nighthorse Canassatego Canonicus Captain Jack Carson, Christopher “Kit” Casas, Bartolome de las Catlin, George Cherokee Phoenix and Indian Advocate 631 632 633 634 637 638 638 647 648 650 651 653 655 656 657 658 659 661 663 664 665 667 669 671 672 673 674 676 678 679 Clark, George Rogers Cochise Cody, William Frederick Cohen, Felix Collier, John Coon Come, Matthew Cooper, James Fenimore Copway, George Cornplanter Costo, Rupert Council of Energy Resource Tribes Crazy Horse Crook, George Cruz, Joseph de la Curtis, Charles Deganawidah Deloria, Jr., Vine Deskaheh Dodge, Henry Chee Dull Knife Dumont, Gabriel EchoHawk, Larry Edwards, J. R. Eliot, John Emathla, Charley Engels, Friedrich, and the “Mother-right gens” Episcopal Church Erasmus, George Henry Erdrich, Louise Erickson, Leif Eskiminzin 681 683 686 688 689 692 693 697 698 700 701 702 704 705 706 708 709 712 713 715 716 717 718 719 720 721 723 724 725 727 728 x Volume III Contents Franklin, Benjamin, Native American Influences Geronimo Gorman, R. C. Great Lakes Intertribal Council Handsome Lake Harjo, Chitto Harjo, Joy Harrison, William Henry Haudenosaunee Confederacy, Political System Hendrick Hiawatha Hooker Jim Jackson, Andrew Jackson, Helen Hunt Jigonsaseh Johnson, Emily Pauline Johnson, William Joseph, Younger Kicking Bird LaDuke, Winona LaFlesche, Susan Picotte LaFlesche, Susette Tibbles Leupp, Francis Ellington Little Crow Little Turtle Louis, Adrian Luna, James Alexander Lyons, Oren MacDonald, Peter Major Ridge Mangas Coloradas Mankiller, Wilma Manuelito Marx, Karl, and Native American Societies Massasoit McNickle, D’Arcy Means, Russell Metacom, and King Philip’s War Mills, William M. Mohawk, John C. Momaday, N. Scott 729 730 732 734 735 739 740 741 743 747 749 751 752 755 757 759 760 761 763 764 766 767 768 769 771 772 773 774 776 777 778 779 780 782 783 784 785 787 790 791 792 Montezuma Mormon Church National Congress of American Indians National Indian Youth Council National Museum of the American Indian Native American Church of North America Native American Museums Neolin (Delaware Prophet) Oakes, Richard Ortiz, Simon J. Osceola Ouray Owens, Louis Parker, Arthur C. Parker, Ely Parker, Quanah Peltier, Leonard Penn, William, Quakers, and Native Americans Plenty Coups Pocahontas Pontiac Powhatan Red Cloud Red Jacket Riel, Louis Rogers, Will Rose, Wendy Ross, John Sacagawea or Sakakawea Scholder, Fritz Seattle Sequoyah Sitting Bull Smith, John Smohalla Society of American Indians Sohappy, Sr., David Spotted Tail Squanto St. Clair, Arthur 793 794 795 797 799 801 803 805 806 807 808 811 812 813 814 815 817 819 822 823 825 826 827 829 831 833 834 835 836 838 839 840 842 844 845 846 848 850 851 852 Volume III Contents Standing Bear (Ponca); Standing Bear v. Crook (1879) Standing Bear, Luther Sullivan, General John, and the Haudenosaunee Holocaust of 1779 Tammany Society Tecumseh Tekakwitha, Kateri Tenskwatawa Thorpe, Jim Tribal Colleges Uncas 853 854 856 859 860 862 864 865 867 869 Victorio Warrior, Clyde Washakie Watie, Stand Welch, James Whitman, Marcus and Narcissa Williams, Roger Wilson, Richard Winnemucca Winnemucca, Sarah Women of All Red Nations Wovoka 870 871 872 874 875 876 878 879 881 882 883 884 Primary Source Documents Iroquois Great Law of Peace Christopher Columbus: Journal Powhatan: Remarks to Captain John Smith Massasoit Peace Treaty John Mason: A Brief History of the Pequot War William Johnson: Report Regarding the Iroquois Confederacy Pontiac: Reasons for Making War on the English Speech The Royal Proclamation of 7 October 1763 Fort Stanwix Treaty Northwest Ordinance Lewis and Clark Expedition: Journals Tenskwataya (The Prophet): System of Religion Speech (1808) Tecumseh: Speech to Governor William Henry Harrison Johnson v. M’Intosh Cherokee Nation v. Georgia Worcester v. Georgia Andrew Jackson: Indian Removal Message to Congress Cherokee Nation Memorial Indian Removal Act Black Hawk: Surrender Speech 887 890 891 891 892 895 896 897 898 899 901 902 902 903 905 908 911 914 914 915 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo Treaty of Fort Laramie Chief Sea’th’l’s Farewell Speech Sand Creek Massacre: Report of the Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War Treaty with the Kiowa, Comanche, and Apache Treaty with the Navajo Fort Laramie Treaty (1868) Canadian Treaties Numbers 1 through 11 Two Moon: Account of the Battle of the Little Bighorn Chief Joseph: I Will Fight No More Forever Speech Helen Hunt Jackson: A Century of Dishonor Ex Parte Crow Dog William T. Sherman: Report on the End of the Indian Problem General Allotment Act (Dawes Act) Sitting Bull: Speech on Keeping Treaties (1890) Wounded Knee Massacre: Testimony of the Sioux (1890) Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock (1902) Geronimo: His Own Story (1906) Winters v. United States (1908) 916 916 918 920 923 925 927 928 934 936 936 938 940 941 943 943 945 947 950 xi xii Volume III Contents Indian Citizenship Act (1924) Meriam Report (1928) Wheeler Howard (Indian Reorganization) Act (1934) House Concurrent Resolution 108 (1953) Public Law 280 (1953) Indian Civil Rights Act (1968) Alcatraz Proclamation: A Proclamation from the Indians of All Tribes (1969) Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (1971) American Indian Movement: Three-Point Program (1973) Boldt Decision (1974) Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act (1975) 952 952 958 960 961 962 964 965 968 969 974 American Indian Religious Freedom Act Oliphant v. Suquamish Indian Tribe (1978) California v. Cabazon Band of Mission Indians (1987) Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (1990) Native American Languages Act (1990) United States of America v. Robert Lawrence Boyll (1991) Nunavut Land Claims Agreement (1993) Bureau of Indian Affairs: Establishing the Existence of an Indian Tribe Navajo-Hopi Land Dispute Settlement Act of 1996 Delgamuukw v. British Columbia (1997) 975 977 979 980 982 983 985 987 990 991 Volume IV Indian Nation Histories Native Americans of the Southwest Acoma Pueblo Apache, Chiricahua Apache, Jicarilla Apache, Lipan Apache, Mescalero Apache, Western Chemehuevi Cochiti Pueblo Cocopah Havasupai Hopi Hopi-Tewa Hualapai Isleta Pueblo Jemez Pueblo Laguna Pueblo Mojave or Mohave Nambé Pueblo Navajo (Dine’é) Pee-Posh Picuris Pueblo Pima Pojoaque Pueblo Quechan Sandia Pueblo San Felipe Pueblo San Ildefonso Pueblo San Juan Pueblo Santa Ana Pueblo Santa Clara Pueblo 998 1001 1003 1004 1005 1006 1007 1008 1009 1010 1012 1014 1014 1015 1016 1017 1018 1020 1021 1024 1025 1026 1028 1029 1030 1031 1032 1033 1034 1034 Santo Domingo Pueblo Taos Pueblo 1035 1035 Tesuque Pueblo Tigua Tohono O’odham Yaqui Yavapai Zia Pueblo Zuni 1037 1038 1039 1040 1042 1044 1044 Native Americans of California Achumawi Cahto Cahuilla Chumash Costanoan Cupeño Hupa Karuk Luiseño Maidu Miwok Mono Pomo Salinan Serrano Shasta Tipai-Ipai Tolowa Tubatulabal Wailaki 1047 1048 1049 1051 1053 1054 1055 1057 1059 1060 1062 1063 1065 1067 1068 1069 1071 1072 1073 1073 x Volume IV Contents Wintun Wiyot Yana Yokuts Yurok 1074 1076 1077 1078 1079 Native Americans of the Northwest Coast Bella Bella Bella Coola Chinook Coosans Haida Kwakiutl Makah Nootkans Quileute Salish, Central Coast Salish, Northern Coast Salish, Southern Coast 1082 1083 1085 1087 1089 1092 1094 1096 1098 1099 1102 1103 Salish, Southwestern Coast Tillamook Tlingit Tsimshian Upper Umpqua 1106 1109 1110 1114 1116 Native Americans of the Great Basin Paiute, Northern Paiute, Owens Valley Paiute, Southern Shoshone, Eastern or Wind River Shoshone, Northern Shoshone, Western Ute Washoe 1119 1121 1123 1125 1127 1129 1131 1133 Native Americans of the Plateau Cayuse Coeur d’Alene Colville Kalispel Klamath Klikitat Kootenai 1136 1137 1137 1138 1139 1140 1141 Lillooet Modoc Nez Percé Okanagon Salish Sanpoil Shuswap Sinkiuse Spokan Thompson Umatilla Wishram Yakima (Yakama) 1141 1142 1144 1146 1147 1147 1149 1149 1151 1152 1153 1154 1155 Native Americans of the Great Plains Apache, Plains Arapaho Arikara Assiniboine Blackfeet Cheyenne Comanche Cree, Plains Crow Dakota Gros Ventres Hidatsa Ioway Kaw Kiowa Lakota Mandan Missouria Nakota Ojibwa, Plains Omaha Osage Otoe Pawnee Ponca Quapaw Tonkawa Wichita 1157 1158 1160 1161 1162 1165 1167 1170 1171 1174 1176 1177 1179 1180 1181 1183 1189 1191 1192 1193 1196 1197 1198 1200 1202 1204 1205 1206 Volume IV Contents Native Americans of the Southeast Alabama Caddo Catawba Cherokee Chickasaw Chitimacha Choctaw Creek Houma Lumbee Natchez Powhatan Seminole Tunica Tuscarora Yuchi 1208 1209 1210 1212 1215 1217 1217 1220 1222 1223 1224 1226 1228 1230 1231 1233 Native Americans of the Northeast Woodlands Abenaki Algonquin Anishinabe Cayuga Fox Illinois Kickapoo Lenápe Mahican Maliseet Menominee Miami Micmac Mohawk Nanticoke Narragansett Oneida Onondaga Ottawa Passamaquoddy 1235 1236 1238 1240 1242 1244 1245 1247 1249 1251 1252 1254 1256 1258 1261 1262 1264 1267 1270 1271 Penobscot Pequot Potawatomi Sauk Seneca Shawnee Wampanoag Winnebago Wyandotte 1272 1274 1276 1278 1280 1284 1287 1288 1290 Native American of the Subarctic Beaver Carrier Chilcotin Chipewyan Cree Dogrib Gwich’in Hare Ingalik Kaska Naskapi/Montagnais Sekani Slavey Tahltan Tanaina 1294 1295 1297 1299 1300 1304 1305 1307 1308 1309 1311 1313 1314 1316 1318 Native Americans of the Arctic Alutiiq Iglulik Inuit, Baffinland Inuit, Caribou Inuit, Copper Inuit, Labrador or Ungava Inupiat Inuvialuit Netsilik Unangan Yup’ik 1321 1323 1325 1328 1330 1332 1335 1338 1340 1343 1346 xi xii Volume IV Contents Resources Discontinued Indian Mascots, 1969–2002 Indian Mascots Tribal Governments in the United States, 2006 Largest Tribes in the United States, 1980–2000 National Indian Organizations American Indian Population 1860–1990 1352 1353 1354 1379 1380 1382 Poverty on American Indian Reservations and Trust Lands Native American Terminated Tribes, 1955–1969 Canadian First Nations Heads of Indian Affairs, 1824–2007 Native American Treaties with the United States, 1778–1883 Index, I-1 About the Editors 1382 1392 1393 1417 1419 Introduction A BOOK CAN BE A TIME MACHINE, opening a window on the unquestioned judgments and assumptions of authors in other times. Many of these have been delivered with a sense of European-American self-congratulation. Consider John D. Hicks, who, in The Federal Union: A History of the United States to 1865 (1937) opens a 700-page tome with the words “The civilization that grew up in the United States . . .” implying that nothing worth the name occurred before Columbus planted European seeds here (Hicks, 1937, 1). Paragraph two begins: “America before the time of Columbus had developed no great civilizations of its own” (Hicks, 1937, 1). This text states authoritatively that the Mayas, Aztecs, and Incas could not match “the best that Europe had to offer” (Hicks, 1937, 1), despite the fact that accounts of the Cortez invasion expressed a sense of awe at the Aztecs’ capital city Tenochtitlan when they first saw it. In the same paragraph, Hicks develops reasons why he believes that Europeans surpassed America’s “primitive civilization”: “racial traits may account in part for this failure, but the importance of the environment cannot be overlooked” (Hicks, 1937, 1). No time and no people speak with a single voice, however. So while Hicks’ assumptions of racial superiority remind us of Richard Henry Pratt’s advertising slogan for the boarding schools he built (“Kill the Indian, Save the Man”) even Pratt’s and Hicks’ time were informed by other voices that asserted enduring value to Native American peoples and cultures. While Pratt’s slogan is sometimes interpreted as an endorsement of genocide in our time, to him it was friendly advice to peoples whom he assumed would die culturally as well as genetically if they held fast to cultures that he considered out of date in a modern world. Multicultural ideas that inform public discourse (as well as census reports) in our time had precedents in Pratt’s and Hicks’ time. The majority society was just not listening. Consider Walt Whitman, for example, during 1883, as Pratt was fashioning his campaign to save Indians by killing their cultures: As to our aboriginal or Indian population . . . I know it seems to be agreed that they must gradually dwindle as time rolls on, and in a few generations more leave only a reminiscence, a blank. But I am not at all clear about that. As America . . . develops, adapts, entwines, faithfully identifies its own—are we to see it cheerfully accepting using all the contributions of foreign lands from the whole outside globe—and then rejecting the only ones distinctly its own? (Moquin, 1973, 5–6). One newspaper, the Omaha World-Herald, sent a native woman, Susette LaFlesche (an Omaha), to describe the aftermath of the Wounded Knee massacre. She was married to Thomas Tibbles. Together, a decade earlier, they had roused their city of Omaha in anger over the torturous treatment suffered by the Ponca Standing Bear and his band. Exiled in Indian Territory from their homeland along the Niobrara River (in northernmost Nebraska), the Poncas had escaped and walked home, stopping in the city, their feet bleeding in the snow, so hungry that they had chewed on their moccasins. General George Crook volunteered to be the defendant in a legal case that established the Poncas’ right to return home. History is full of surprises. The same year that Hicks’ book was published, Matthew W. Stirling, chief and later director of the American Bureau of Ethnology for thirty years (1928–1958), stated in National Geographic that the Albany Plan of Union (1754) was fundamentally shaped by the Iroquois Confederacy through Benjamin Franklin (Stirling, 1937). Such an idea is hardly universally accepted, even in our time. For one, Steven Pinker, in The Blank Slate, asserted that the same idea was flimsy enough to dismiss without explanation in two words: “1960s granola” (Pinker, 2002, 298). Historically, we stand with Whitman and Stirling. The Encyclopedia of American Indian History attempts to redress assumptions that any single culture is superior to any other. American Indian voices were available to historians in the 1930s; it was, after xx Introduction all, a time of major Native rights assertion under the Indian Reorganization Act, but many non-Native historians seemed not to be listening. The writings of Dr. Charles A. Eastman (or, to use his Dakota name, Ohiyesa) and Luther Standing Bear were widely published, among many others. Major nineteenthcentury feminists (Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Matilda Joslyn Gage, to name two) had acknowledged their debt to Native matriarchal societies. Still, one can hardly imagine Hicks having any use for an encyclopedia entry titled “American Indian Contributions to the World.” We start with six essays, written by our coeditors and members of our editorial board, which focus on the themes that dominate particular eras in American Indian history. So, for example, if a reader wants to find out why the Trail of Tears migration happened when it did, s/he would find that context covered in the essay dealing with the period from 1800 to 1850. The late Vine Deloria, Jr. once advised non-Indian scholars to study the history of topics of contemporary importance to Native peoples, and a section of the encyclopedia addresses those issues that are prominent both in the history of Native peoples and in Native societies today. These entries range from archaeology and pre-contact Native history to topics like gaming and water rights, which are still so relevant. Subsequent sections deal with the most important events of American Indian history, aspects of Native cultures that have had ramifications in history, Native interactions with non-Indian governments, and the roles of both individuals and groups in American Indian history. One of the most important sections of the encyclopedia, the histories of particular Native nations, is absolutely vital to the stories we’re seeking to have told and deserves to be highlighted. Also, primary sources from throughout American Indian history are presented so that readers can get a flavor of how different people viewed these events as they happened. The occupancy of most of North America by Europeans on a sustained basis is less than 200 years old—four consecutive human lives then, less than three now. Thus, the importance of American Indian history to the recent history of all peoples on this continent is clear. The history is written in what we call our homeland—many of our cities, half the constituent states in the federal union that calls itself the United States, bear names that have Native roots. If there is one thing we’ve learned from trying to organize and do justice to such a vast and important subject, it is that there is no way to present this material that is perfect for everyone. Different people learn best in different ways. However, we’ve endeavored to be as clear as possible, making the large number of materials and resources as easy to locate and use as possible. An encyclopedia is not a cast-iron product, but a collection of many contributors’ work. In our case, this is a mixture of Native and non-Native voices. Selection of subject matter is subject to judgment, and interpretation, and will be reviewed—something or someone is included, someone or something else is ignored, or given short shrift. We can say only that we have done our best. Bruce E. Johansen and Barry M. Pritzker, Editors Steven L. Danver, Project Editor References and Further Reading Hicks, John D. The Federal Union: A History of the United States to 1865. 1937. Boston: HoughtonMifflin. Moquin, Wayne. Great Documents in American Indian History. 1973. New York: Praeger. Pinker, Steven. The Blank Slate: The Modern Denial of Human Nature. 2002. New York: Viking (Penguin Putnam). Pritzker, Barry M. Native America Today: A Guide to Community Politics and Culture. 1999. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. Stirling, Matthew W. “America’s First Settlers, the Indians.” National Geographic 72:5 (1937), cited in Bruce E. Johansen, comp. Native America and the Evolution of Democracy: A Supplementary Bibliography. 1999, 140. Westport, CT: Greenwood. Pre-contact Indian History T (ca. 20,000 BCE to ca. 1500 CE) T he histories of the Native people of North America are ones of adaptation and diversity. This is true for the long “precontact” period as well as for today. The cultures most commonly cited as “prehistoric” (a misnomer, since the term implies both that writing was absent and that only natural events out of people’s control, not political and cultural ones, shaped the development of Indian societies) are presented as snapshot descriptions of cultural fluidity. Far from being stopped in time, these cultures had antecedents and evolutions that depended for their direction on a multiplicity of factors, including climate, geography, and cultural influences and traditions. Most likely, over 100 million inhabitants who spoke at least 1,000 languages inhabited the Americas before New World diseases wiped out up to 98 percent of them, beginning in the late fifteenth century. In North America, a region of roughly 9 million square miles, population estimates range from 2 million or so to upward of 16 million. Who were the first people, and how did they arrive? The most popular migration theory has northeast Asians—Siberians—following big game into North America over a land bridge called Beringia, made possible by the decline of the sea level due to glaciations, across what is now the Bering Strait between Siberia and Alaska. According to this theory, increasing numbers of people made their way into the interior of Alaska, the Bering Refugium, and moved south along the ice-free corridor of the MacKenzie River Valley. In an alternative version of the theory, people migrated southward through interior British Columbia, perhaps during an interglacial period. In the early twentieth century, near Folsom, New Mexico, the first indisputable proof of human antiquity in the Americas was found in the form of a spear point stuck between the ribs of an extinct species of bison (buffalo). In the tradition of naming Paleo-Indian cultural or historical periods after point types, which themselves are named by the site at which they are first found, this bilaterally flaked, or fluted, stone point was named the Folsom point. A few years later, near Clovis, New Mexico, similar (if somewhat larger) points were found. The development of radiocarbon dating techniques in 1948 made it possible to ascertain the date of material 2 containing carbon 14 (that is, formerly living matter) with a high degree of accuracy. Using this technique—by dating bones found alongside the stone artifacts—scientists dated the Folsom site to about 8,500 BCE and the Clovis site to about 9,500 BCE. Later archaeological finds revealed the extremely wide geographical distribution of the Clovis point throughout much of North America and even south to Central America. Based on a number of factors, including the extinction of Pleistocene big game (presumably caused at least in part by an explosion of Clovis point–driven hunting as well as climate changes) and the lack of any older site in North America, the date for the first appearance of people in North America was widely thought for some time to have coincided with the appearance of the Clovis points. However, beginning in the mid-1970s, this theory began to unravel. Early human sites were discovered in present-day southwestern Pennsylvania and even in South America (Chile and Peru) dating from at least 12,000 BCE. The Topper site in South Carolina may date to roughly 13,000 BCE, and sites in Mexico have yielded artifacts that may date to 21,000 BCE. Moreover, no Clovis sites have been discovered in Alaska, the ice-free corridor, or along the Pacific Coast. Other important evidence that casts doubt on the traditional explanations of original immigration includes the demonstrated antiquity of water travel. Boat travel may be as old as 800,000 years in parts of Southeast Asia. Certainly people traveled to Australia on boats roughly 40,000 years ago. With the likelihood that the first northeastern Asians had access to boats came the necessity of including sea travel in the mix of theories regarding the peopling of the Americas. Artifacts found on Santa Rosa Island, off the Southern California coast, and dating to roughly 11,000 BCE suggest that boats were in use at that time. Indeed, some scientists believe that the Siberian migration proceeded not along an interior ice-free corridor but along the coast. Two other theories involve migration from the east. One posits a migration from northern Europe and along the northern ice shelf that presaged the Norse migration around 1000, perhaps using umiak-like boats. Supporters of this theory point to the similarities between the Clovis point and the Pre-contact Indian History bifacial projectile points made by northern European Solutreans between 16,000 and 19,000 years ago. (They do not, however, explain the 5,000-year gap.) Artifacts found near Cactus Hill, Virginia, suggest, but do not confirm, a Solutrean connection. This theory also accords more closely with some Native narratives involving very early east-west migrations. The second theory regarding coastal migration from the east has people arriving by boat directly across the Atlantic from southwestern Europe. At this time, evidence for migration theories remains circumstantial. None of the earliest known archaeological sites are located near the Bering Strait or within the Bering Refugium. Nor is there proof of coastal migration routes. Even during the peak of the Ice Age, some areas of Beringia were always open to game and to humans; so no period of time for human entry into North America can be ruled out completely. Most scientists now conclude that humans inhabited North America well before 10,000 BCE, perhaps as early as 35,000 years ago and perhaps considerably earlier than that. The earliest humans likely entered North America from northern or northeastern Asia in a series of incursions over tens of thousands of years along a number of different routes, including land and, at the southern margins, sea. Further movement southward could have occurred through the ice-free corridor and/or along the Pacific Coast. Clovis, once considered the ancestor of all North American human culture, is now generally regarded as one of several ancient human cultural complexes. With the one possible exception previously mentioned, none of these theories take any note of traditional Native American explanations of how people came to live in North America. Some Indian cultures date their population of this world from an emergence from worlds beneath it. Long migrations, generally involving east-west rather than north-south travel, figure prominently in the earliest histories of some groups. Many societies account for their origins with creation stories, often involving magical or tricky beings, such as Coyote or Raven. Such trickster characters often figure prominently in the creation of human ills such as death and suffering, while a benevolent Great Spirit is given credit for creation as well as for religion and even social and political organization. The Great Spirit is not generally considered to be responsible for ills that befall individuals, which are often said to result from improper action associated with immorality or violations of that which is sacred. Because of the association of the Great Spirit with creation and everything connected to it, most native North Americans lived in a highly sacred world, whose boundaries, locations, rules, and traditions most people took very seriously. However or whenever the first humans arrived, by about 9,500 BCE, North America was populated by nomadic bands of Paleo-Indian hunter-gatherers. Depending on location, most food consisted of now extinct animals such as horses (today’s horses are not descended from those of this era), camels, wooly mammoths, large bison, musk ox, mastodon, lions, and giant beavers, as well as deer, elk, caribou, and fish, berries and roots. People hunted using spears with stone points, made more effective in some areas by the atlatl, or spear-throwing stick. People continued the fluted-point technological tradition that earlier produced Clovis and Folsom points until roughly 5,000 BCE. Workmanship (flint knapping) of the stone blades (spear points, knives, scrapers, engravers, etc.), some of which were utilitarian and others apparently ceremonial, was often of extraordinary quality. A new era (Archaic, or early Holocene) began about 10,000 years ago, as the glaciers continued to recede and the climate warmed. New areas to the north became available for habitation. The land features began to assume their present form, and many of the large grazing animals became extinct. Human populations grew from perhaps a few hundred thousand to many millions, and with the rise in population came increased cultural diversity and technological innovation. Techniques developed by early Holocene peoples for exploiting a variety of local resources proved to be so successful that they lasted, in many cases and with the subsequent addition in some areas of agriculture, until the period of AfroEuropean settlement. To a significant extent, population growth, along with the formation of multiethnic population centers in several “culture areas,” was the result of complex historical events such as trade, warfare, diplomacy, and religious movements, as well as of climatic and other natural changes. Indeed, we must take care when using traditional conceptions of culture areas not to ignore the agency of Native people in giving rise to a multiplicity of rich, fluid histories. With that caveat, it can be helpful to think broadly about Native settlement in North America in terms of culture areas, or regions, because, while environment is not determinative of culture, the two have meaningful correlations. 3 4 Pre-contact Indian History Southwest Four native culture traditions—the Pueblos, the UtoAztecan O’odham, the Yuman, and the far more recent Na-Dene, or Dene (Apache and Navajo)— flourished in the Greater Southwest, located from southern Colorado/Utah and southeast California west across Arizona and New Mexico. The Southwest is a rugged land of extraordinary diversity: baking low deserts; towering, snow-capped mountains; deep canyons; mesas; and high plains. Rainfall is relatively low, especially in the southern deserts, although snowfall in the higher elevations can be plentiful. The region is drained mainly by the Colorado River and its tributaries and by the Rio Grande. Indigenous foods include agave, piñon nuts, cactus fruits, wild onions and potatoes, and a variety of berries, nuts, and seeds. Early people wove baskets, sandals, and cloth from wild fibers. Around 1500 BCE, people living in southern New Mexico began planting maize (corn) and squash, a skill they probably learned from their neighbors to the south. Beans, making up a third of the American staple crops, probably arrived around 500 BCE. (Beans contain high levels of the essential amino acid lycene, which corn lacks and which aids in the digestion of the protein found in corn. Moreover, while corn depletes nitrogen from the soil, beans, being legumes, return it to the ground; the two crops complement each other.) The people continued to harvest other plant and animal resources, however, and did not establish permanent settlement, or begin making pottery until roughly 300 BCE. At about that time, a community located in the Gila River Valley constructed an irrigation canal about 5 kilometers (3 miles) long. This community, and others with a similar culture, became known as Hohokam. The modern Pima and Tohono O’odham (Papago) people are generally believed to have descended from the Hohokam, which may usually be seen as the frontier of Mexican civilization at that time. The Hohokam people constructed a village near present-day Snaketown that, enlarged and further developed, lasted until roughly 1450. During those 1,700 years or so, people planted fields watered by extensive irrigation systems, using stone manos and metates to grind their maize. They manufactured pottery (for storage, cooking, and ornamentation) and made ornaments from shell, turquoise, copper, macaw feathers, and other material acquired from extensive trade networks extending west to the Pacific Ocean, south deep into Mex- ico, and east to New Mexico and beyond. Their rectangular, single-unit homes and ball courts indicated population centers that were relatively selfsufficient. As is often the case with thriving agricultural communities, Hohokam religious and artistic development was rich and complex. The Ancestral Puebloans represent another Southwestern cultural tradition. Located in the north and east of the region, the Ancestral Puebloans are the predecessors of the modern Pueblo Indians and are culturally descended from earlier so-called Basket Maker people (400–700). The Ancestral Puebloans also created extensive trade networks, acquiring goods, and some cultural traditions as well, from as far away as Mexico, California, and the Great Plains. Ancestral Puebloan people made and used bows and arrows, grew cotton, and stored their food surpluses in pits. The accumulation of significant food surpluses led directly, in some areas, to the replacement, around 700, of early adobe or masonry houses by expanded apartment-style buildings (pueblos), some with hundreds of rooms. These people also developed a highly complex religious/ceremonial life involving underground spaces, called kivas, and various supernatural beings. Major population centers flourished at Mesa Verde and Chaco Canyon (as many as 6,000 to 10,000 people lived there around 1100, with complex and highly developed systems of trade, transportation, and ceremonialism), as well as in the upper Rio Grande Valley. The two other major Southwestern cultural traditions are the Mogollon and the Patayan. The Mogollon, characterized by outstanding red-onbrown and black-and-white ceramics, centered in the mountainous regions of southeastern Arizona and southwestern New Mexico. Classic Mogollon Mimbres pottery reveals images of many kinds of fish found in the Gulf of California. The Mogollon people lived in partially excavated houses, which were well insulated and appropriate for the higher altitudes. The descriptor “Patayan” imperfectly describes a great diversity of Yuman-speaking cultures west and north of the Hohokam. The Yumans, too, cultivated crops after about 2,000 years ago, although mainly by taking advantage of annual floods, as opposed to the Hohokam method of constructing vast irrigation channels. Southwestern agricultural societies all underwent a major transformation from roughly 1250 to 1400. During this period, the great Hohokam and Ancestral Puebloan population centers all but disappeared. The reasons for this disappearance remain Northwest Coast somewhat unclear. Prolonged drought is the most likely factor, but intercommunity warfare and soil exhaustion also may have played a role. Also, what now appears as wholesale abandonments may at the time have been more gradual population shifts. In any case, while populations unquestionably become dispersed during this period, the region remained marked by a great deal of cultural continuity. California California encompasses unique cultural elements as well as those of regions including the Southwest (in the extreme southeast), the Great Basin (in Death Valley and the extreme west), the Northwest Coast (in the extreme northwest), and the Plateau (in the extreme northeast). The region includes deserts, high mountains, an enormous central valley, and over a thousand miles of coast. Not surprisingly, ancient lifestyles differed widely throughout this extremely diverse region. As mentioned, people first entered California no later than 11,000 BCE and possibly as early as 19,000 years ago or even earlier. About 9000 BCE, people in some parts of the region, particularly along the south coast, began supplementing reliance on (and generally extensive) hunting, gathering, and fishing by collecting seeds and grinding them with milling stones. By about 3000 BCE, people had evolved distinct local cultural and subsistence patterns. The most common language groups were Hokan, Penutian, and Uto-Aztecan, although some people spoke languages from groups including Athapaskan, Yukian, and Algonquian. The Windmiller culture of central California was characterized by a relatively rich tradition of arts and crafts. The primary materials were stone, bone, wood, and shale, which was acquired in trade from coastal groups. Windmiller people also made pottery, twined baskets, and finely crafted charmstones. They buried their dead face down and oriented toward the west. Along the central coast, people used fast, highly maneuverable boats to reach offshore islands. They also set out on these boats to kill dolphins, porpoises, whales, and other marine life. By about 3000–2000 BCE, as sea levels stabilized, coastal populations became among the densest in North America. By at least 1,500 years ago, the basic patterns of many “historic” California groups had been established. Coastal people had been eating marine life for millennia. Many inland people depended on acorns and buckeyes as important food staples. People collected acorns in the fall. After removing the kernels from the acorns, women sundried them, pounded them into flour, and then leached out the bitter tannic acid using a variety of methods. The only crop people actually cultivated was tobacco, although some groups modified the natural environment through techniques such as irrigation, transplantation, and burning to create favorable environments for certain wild plants and even animals. Many groups also created rock art, by painting and/or by carving or pecking, from as early as 1000 BCE. Trade, mainly with close neighbors but not uncommonly with distant groups, was very well developed. People either bartered for goods (including salt, acorns, fish, beads, baskets, hides, pelts, obsidian, and bows) or purchased them with items such as dentalium shells, clamshell disk beads, and magnesite beads. Basketry, in particular, was extremely well developed in California, especially in the central regions. Although groups were fairly territorial, intercourse between them generally did not include organized warfare, and such conflicts as existed were generally settled quickly and with compensation for any loss incurred. Most California Indians employed shamans (doctors) to mediate between the physical and the spiritual worlds. Shamans served both as religious leaders and healers. Some groups had secret religious societies, such as those associated with Kuksu rituals (a type of world renewal ceremony) and various spirit visitors or ghosts. Northern peoples also celebrated first salmon rituals, which provided an opportunity to gather in larger groups, to relate histories and mythologies, and to display wealth. In the south, mourning ceremonies were the most important, while across the region other ceremonies revolved around life cycle events such as puberty, astronomical occasions, and other natural phenomena. Perhaps not completely unlike a more contemporary period in California’s history, some ceremonies required spiritual leaders to ingest psychotropic drugs, such as datura. Tobacco was also an important part of many rituals. Many California groups, especially in the north, observed a fairly rigid caste system, and some groups kept slaves. Northwest Coast The tendencies toward rigid caste systems and ostentatious displays of wealth were most pro- 5 6 Pre-contact Indian History nounced in the rugged Northwest Coast, a region extending from Northern California to southern Alaska. This region, roughly 1,500 miles long but only about 100 miles deep, is defined by water: sounds, inlets, fjords, bays, and rivers. A cool, wet climate is fairly uniform throughout the region. Several cultural developments preceded the relatively stable subsistence patterns that lasted until contact with non-Native groups. This stability generally dates back to the time when sea levels stabilized, between 4,000 and 5,000 years ago, although the timetable varied across the region, and other cultural practices, such as sedentary villages, social ranking, extensive woodworking, and distinctive regional art styles, emerged later, in some cases much later. Native people spoke at least forty dialects of languages in the Athapaskan, Haida, Tsimshian, Wakashan, Chimakuan, Salishan, and Penutian language families. Two natural resources above all—fish, especially salmon, and cedar—played an enormous role in Northwest Coast life for millennia. Five types of salmon predominated: pink, coho, chum (dog), Chinook, and sockeye. Rituals celebrating the annual return of the salmon were common. Depending on location, people used a variety of methods to catch salmon, including nets, spears, and traps. People ate a wide variety of other fish, of course, such as halibut, eulachon, and herring, as well as shellfish, land mammals, plants, and roots such as camas and wapato. Red cedar formed the core of Northwest Coast technology. From it, people made clothing, baskets, plank houses, bowls, steam-bent boxes, and canoes, as well as a variety of artistic and ceremonial items. Other raw materials included obsidian, jade, jasper, amber, shells, whalebone, and stone. In general, the level of craftsmanship of tools and other objects was extremely high. Although most men could craft objects of wood, canoe making was a particularly specialized profession. With the gradual accumulation of wealth, hierarchical social ranking became a key feature of most Northwest Coast societies. Status was quite rigid and tended to be inherited, although some movement was possible. Typically, four groups existed: nobility, upper-class free, lower-class free, and slaves (who were technically not members of society at all). Kin groups, which owned various rights and privileges, including subsistence areas, songs, and rituals, were identified by crests. Everything inheritable was said to originate from a supernatural spirit through an ancestor. Particularly in more recent times, the whole system of ranking and kin groups was confirmed and advanced by the potlatch, a complex ritual that featured feasting, singing, dancing, history recitation, and ostentatious gift giving. Potlatches also served to distribute surpluses, confirm alliances, and reinforce cooperation among kin groups. Guardian spirits formed the basis of most Northwest Coast religion. Spirits could inhere in both animate and inanimate objects. Like most things they could be inherited, but individuals could acquire them as well through the vision quest, a rigorous process begun around the onset of adolescence and completed whenever the spirit became manifest. Spirits were generally associated with particular songs, dances, and skills. Most Northwest Coast art was heraldic in nature, announcing power and identity, and deriving in part from the spirit world. The well-known totem poles, carved and painted with heraldic or crest designs, were just one example of this ubiquitous type of art. People traded with each other and with inland groups, but the fact that the Northwest Coast is a relatively isolated region containing abundant natural resources militated against extensive trade. Plateau Unlike the Northwest Coast, the Plateau region, defined loosely as the drainage basins of the Columbia and Fraser Rivers, is a land of extremes. The northern region is heavily forested and moderately wet, bitter cold in winter, and baking hot in summer, while the south tends toward sagebrush desert. To a significant extent and notwithstanding technological developments, such as specialized grinding tools (ca. 3000 BCE) and the bow and arrow and woodworking tools (ca. 500 BCE), the Plateau lifestyle changed relatively little from the first occupation of the region (well before the time of the so-called Kennewick man in eastern Washington, about 9,200 years ago) until the seventeenth century. The most important language families of the region were Sahaptin (Penutian) and Interior Salish. Most Plateau groups depended for food on fish, especially salmon, which were speared, netted, or, especially in the north, caught with hook and line. Other food staples included berries and roots (actually bulbs and tubers such as camas and bitterroot), which women gathered with special sticks and cooked in earth ovens. Some areas contained both large and small game. Extended families tended to live in semisubterranean earth houses with conical roofs, entry to Great Basin which was gained through the roof. Perhaps after about 1700 BCE, people also utilized summer houses made of tule mats. Some villages were occupied all year long, but generally people followed the food supply. Like their California neighbors, some groups manipulated their natural environment through regular burning to increase the yield of certain plant and animal foods. People using twined Indian hemp tule, and spruce and cedar root made a great variety of products, such as hats, bedding, nets, mats, and fine baskets. Canoes, both dugout and bark, served for water transportation. With relatively easy access to neighboring regions of North America, Plateau people traded widely and extensively. Indeed, The Dalles, located at the head of the Columbia gorge, was one of the most important trade centers in North America. At the same time, valuing autonomy, relative equality, and cooperation, Plateau people tended to avoid warfare, both among themselves or with outsiders. Kin networks often extended over great distances. Specialized leaders arose only for special occasions, and political leadership, which might be exercised by either sex, depended on an ability to persuade rather than to overpower or to enforce decisions. In general, Plateau ceremonialism was based on individual relationships with guardian spirits, which might be associated with either animate or inanimate objects. Boys and girls entering puberty generally undertook spirit quests, which consisted of travel to remote places where they encountered their spirit helper as manifested in special songs and powers. In turn, sacred spirits required certain forms of respect, a mutual process that helped to ensure harmony between people and their environment. Great Basin Similar in many ways to the Plateau, and occupying roughly 400,000 square miles of land between the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Nevada, is an area commonly referred to as the Great Basin. The main differences between the Plateau and the Great Basin are the absence (except for neighboring peoples) in the Basin of salmon and the existence, where water existed at all, of more closed-water fisheries. This arid region consists generally of high deserts and valleys as well as freshwater and saltwater lakes. With the exception of the Hokan-speaking Washoe, all Great Basin inhabitants spoke dialects of Numic (Shoshonean) languages. Perhaps to a greater extent than in any other region, and notwithstanding several significant environmental changes, much of the Great Basin was characterized by a remarkable cultural continuity from about 7000 BCE until late in the nineteenth century. In part reflecting the relative paucity of food in the region, people of the Great Basin were peaceful and highly nomadic, with small, fluid, extendedfamily camps located mainly around such water as existed in the region, although semipermanent villages eventually developed in some of the more productive areas. People hunted game, such as birds, rabbits, deer, and antelope; they fished in the few freshwater lakes; and they gathered a variety of grasses, seeds (piñon), nuts (acorn), and other plants, as well as some insects (grasshoppers, crickets, some caterpillars, and fly larvae). Successful rabbit or mountain sheep drives were generally followed by a festival that included gambling, singing, dancing, and courtship. Some border groups experimented with agriculture, the Southern Paiute growing maize, beans, and squash, and the Owens Valley Shoshone building extensive irrigation canals to increase the amount of wild foods. The basic raw materials for baskets and containers were willow, grasses, and roots, as well as (depending upon location) stone, bone, obsidian, and wood. People fished using nets, weirs, basket traps, spears, and hook and line. Like their neighbors to the north and west, some groups practiced environmental management by selective burning and pruning. Housing in the Great Basin typically consisted of brush windbreaks in summer and conical pole (pine and/or juniper) frame structures supporting a covering of brush, bark, grass, and/or tule. Some northern groups used skins to cover the frames. Doorways generally faced east. People wore little clothing except in the coldest weather, when they might wear fur or twined-bark breechclouts as well as blankets of sewn rabbit- or buffalo-skin. As long as 7,000 years ago, people living in the Great Basin were part of extensive trade networks reaching across the region west to the Pacific Ocean. Traditional spirituality centered on various beings that were capable of influencing human existence. People practiced both individual (spirit dreams or visions) and communal (round dance) ceremonies, some of which were associated with life cycle events. Part of maintaining a harmonious relationship with their environment was the respect that people accorded to food and medicinal items, both plants (over three hundred of which were used medicinally) and animals. 7 8 Pre-contact Indian History Beginning about 500, people of a highly diverse culture, now known as Fremont, inhabited the eastern edge of the Great Basin. One feature of the Fremont culture was farming: People in this area, probably under the influence of their Pueblo neighbors to the south, began supplementing their regular diet with maize, beans, and squash as early as several hundred years BCE. Several hundred years later, people added the bow and arrow to their tool kit of atlatls and darts, and they began settling down in relatively stable communities. Fremont culture was characterized by these developments as well as by the existence of moccasins, clay figurines and containers, distinctive rock art, and other traits. By around 1400, the Fremont culture became dispersed to the point of disappearance. Great Plains and Prairie To the east of the Great Basin, the Plateau, and the Southwest lay the huge Great Plains and Prairie, a grassy region of roughly 1.5 million square miles located between the Rocky Mountains and the Mississippi River, and from west-central Canada to Texas. The Plains are characterized by their altitude, wind, and aridity, while in lower, more humid regions the prairie grasslands extend east to the forests of the Midwest. The Plains’ greatest river is the Missouri and its tributaries. The flat topology allows frigid polar air in the winter and scorching heat in the summer; these contrasts often give rise to dramatic weather events, such as blizzards and tornadoes. People exhibiting Clovis cultural attributes were present in the Great Plains 12,000 years ago; human habitation may well have extended back considerably farther than that. These early hunters stalked ancient species of big game and then their successors, the bison. As the region warmed and the big game moved north and died out, the Plains became depopulated to the point where no evidence of human habitation has been found from about 5000 BCE to 3000 BCE. From around 2500 BCE, as the bison population recovered, to 500 BCE, people living in small camps hunted bison, elk, deer, antelope, and other creatures; used grinding stones to process seeds; and gathered pine seeds, wild onions, juniper bark, and yucca (in the west). Beginning around 2,500 years ago, people living in the Plains began to be influenced by the Adena and Hopewell cultures to the east (see “Southeast”). Villages appeared in some of the river valleys, inhabited by people living in oval pole wigwams. People began growing maize in an area from about Kansas City to the Dakotas. They buried their dead in mounds (although, unlike true Hopewell culture, the tombs revealed no status differentiation). Items indicating the presence of vast trade networks, eastward and westward perhaps even to the Pacific Coast, included conch, olivella and dentalium shells, and copper beads. Bows and arrows appeared throughout the Plains early in the first millennium CE. Around 850, as contact increased with neighboring peoples, agricultural settlements became more pronounced throughout the Missouri Valley, although these farmers continued to rely extensively on bison for their food. In the central Plains, people built rectangular wooden homes framed by posts and partially insulated with earth, often located on a bluff above a river flood plain. In present-day south-central Wisconsin, a town later known as Aztalan appears to have been an outpost of the great Mississippian capital Cahokia (see “Southeast”). People living here and in similar towns cultivated corn, squash, sunflowers, probably chenopods, and tobacco. The societies of the upper midwestern Mississippi, known as Oneota, were characterized by the almost exclusive use of agriculture as well as by extensive trade and the use of pottery. Strangely, tuberculosis seems to have appeared among the Oneota people, perhaps brought over to the Americas by the Norse, who were attempting to colonize the Gulf of Saint Lawrence region at about this time. In the western Great Lakes region, people improved the soil by adding ash and charcoal, although they also hunted and fished to ensure a stable, nutritious diet. In general, the farther west people lived, the less they practiced agriculture and the more they hunted bison. People’s possessions and gear were carried in bundles lashed between poles by specially trained dogs. By the fifteenth century, or roughly 250 years before the introduction of the horse changed life on the Plains dramatically and forever, populations were increasing all across the region, but especially in the northern parklands. New arrivals included Caddoan groups from east Texas, such as the Pawnee, and Apacheans from western Canada. Toward the east and Missouri River Valley regions, farming towns grew to contain as many as a hundred houses, and, in a sign of increased competition for land, the towns were increasingly defended with stockades and ditches. Rectangular houses gave way to a more rounded style along the Missouri, while hunting camp dwellings were usually hide Southeast tipis. All across the region, but especially in the west, bison remained plentiful, as did elk, beaver, and numerous other game (High Plains people did not eat fish as a rule). People tended to follow the game out onto the open areas in summer and back into the wooded areas in winter. The favored way to take bison was by driving them over cliffs or to the head of a ravine or by stalking them individually or surrounding them in groups and then shooting them with arrows. In the southern High Plains, Apachean groups became heavily influenced by the Pueblo people to their west, becoming small-scale farmers as well as bison hunters. Conversely, some of the region’s nomadic hunters, such as the Kiowa, may once have been Pueblo dwellers who moved east to follow the bison during the droughts of the fourteenth century. People ate bison meat fresh or cut into strips and then dried and stored. Mixed with fat and berries, the meat, called pemmican, could last for several months, generally throughout the winter. Clothing, which in some areas was decorated with porcupinequill embroidery, was derived mainly from bison and/or deer. Bison parts also provided containers (hides and stomach), tools (bones), rattles (hoof), bowstrings and thread (sinew), ropes and belts (hair), spoons and cups (horn), and other items. Authority was highly transient and was earned by traits such as bravery, spiritual attainment, generosity, and a sense of humor. For many Plains people, the circle was a sacred shape, symbolic of the interconnectedness of the universe. As a circular object, the pipe bowl was also associated with the sacred, and agreements concluded over a pipe of tobacco were not broken in theory or practice. The Great Mystery, Wakan Tanka, presided over an array of sacred natural beings and phenomena. Like some Native Americans in other regions, Plains people entering adolescence tended to hold vision quests in which, through the benefit of purification and self-deprivation, they received power or “medicine” that could be used for certain specific purposes. Such medicine was often accompanied by songs and dances, and it had a physical manifestation as well (the sacred bundle). Another way to communicate with the sacred realm was through visions, generally obtained either through dreaming or as part of ceremonies. Southeast Settlement patterns differed considerably in the Southeast, a region generally described as bounded by the eastern Great Plains and a line running eastwest from about Delaware to Iowa. It is fairly flat, except for the Appalachian Mountains, and generally warm to hot, and wet, except less so in the northern and northwestern regions. The area was heavily forested with some grassy prairies, except along the Gulf Coast, where semitropical vegetation and swampland prevailed. The Southwest was dominated by Muskogean speakers, but Algonquians and Siouans were also present. Due to the relative wetness of the Southeast, the regular flooding of major river systems, and rising sea levels as a result of melting glaciations, evidence of early human history is particularly scarce. People were in the region no later than about 12,000 BCE. By roughly 5000 BCE, people lived in some small settlements; ate deer and other large animals, fowl, shellfish, fish, nuts, berries, and seeds; and made various tools (including canoes), baskets, and ornaments. People from different settlements probably engaged with each other at popular fishing or trapping sites, leading to trade and other forms of human interaction. Along the coast, people may have traded with people as far away as Central and South America. Early cultivation, including squash and sunflower, dates from at least 1400 BCE, with maize appearing almost 1,000 years later. Inconclusive evidence suggests that one early town—Poverty Point, near Vicksburg—may have been founded by Olmec (Mexican) traders. The town, which was more than 7 miles across, contained mounds over 75 feet high. Artisans made fine beadwork, stone tools, and clay balls designed to serve as heating elements. Beginning in about 500 BCE, the Adena culture formed along the Ohio River in present-day Ohio, West Virginia, Kentucky, and Indiana. Most Adena people ate food that they hunted or gathered, supplemented with domesticated plant foods (squash, sunflower, amaranth, chenopod, and marsh elder). Population density was relatively low; camps were characterized by hot-rock cooking ovens and areas of specialized activity (perhaps tool making or weaving). In addition, Adena culture was characterized by relatively complex communal burial rituals. Burial mounds grew by successive burials and cremations, with various ornaments (made of copper, mica, and other material), tools (points, axes, atlatls), and other items (such as sacred pipes) being buried with the body or ashes. Adena trade networks stretched throughout much of the Southeast. The Adena people also often constructed circular earthworks more than 300 feet in diameter with interior 9 10 Pre-contact Indian History ditches and exterior banks. Unlike at Poverty Point, Adena people tended to live in scattered dwellings rather than in towns. The Adena probably evolved to some extent into the later, and even more complex, Hopewell culture, also based in the central Mississippi and lower Ohio Valleys, which flourished between about 100 BCE and 450. The Hopewell differed from the Adena primarily in the cultivation of maize and in the loose integration of a huge region by political/trade leaders who legitimated their power with status symbols of rare, exotic material such as gold, obsidian, and silver in the form of hawks, stags, bears, and snakes. After the Hopewell declined, due in part to the onset of a cooler climate, people living farther south continued to enjoy a relatively high standard of living. With the warm-up of the Midwest around 750, and the introduction of a new variety of maize, a new period, the Mississippian, developed. The fortified city of Cahokia, located near present-day St. Louis, was the center of Mississippian culture, which appears to have formed from flourishing Gulf Coast and lower Mississippi Valley societies. Cahokia began around 950 and lasted until roughly 1450. At its peak around 1100, Greater Cahokia was probably home to as many as 50,000 people, of whom up to 15,000 lived in the capital itself. This was North America’s largest settlement until Philadelphia took over the distinction shortly after 1800. Other major Mississippian cities included Moundville, Etowah, and Spiro. In addition to its sheer size, a distinguishing feature of Cahokia was its earthen platform mounds. The largest was originally more than a hundred feet high and with more area than a football field. People built wooden platforms on some of the mounds to serve as palaces or mausoleums. They also erected huge (30-inch-diameter) posts on the mounds and in the plazas adjacent to the mounds. These posts may have had ritual and/or astronomical significance. Cahokia’s trade networks were huge, stretching north to the Great Lakes, east to the Atlantic Ocean, south to the Gulf of Mexico, and west to Texas. They may even have extended to Mexico. Food, largely including corn, beans, and squash, was abundant, and people built wattle-anddaub houses beside their fields on the outskirts of the city. Characterized by a focus on rank and power, Mississippian ceremonialism was, along with art, cosmology, and other aspects of the culture, sophisticated and rich. Northeast The region characterized as Northeast encompasses close to a million square miles. It extends from the Atlantic Ocean westward to where the woodlands shade into prairie, and from the mid-Atlantic area north to the boreal forest. Geologically, the Appalachian Mountains and the Great Lakes dominate the region, which is well watered and drained by major rivers such as the Saint Lawrence, Hudson, Ohio, and Susquehanna. Almost all Northeastern Indians spoke Algonquian or, to a lesser extent, Iroquoian languages. The first people probably arrived from the southwest at least 12,000 years ago, moving north with the big game and the receding glaciers. Food staples by about 4500 BCE included deer, caribou, and sea mammals. Most people may have congregated along the coast, but, owing to the raised sea levels since that period, any sites of early human coastal habitation would be well underwater. With a general warming from about 3000 BCE, the variety of foods in the Northeast increased to include hickory trees, abundant and reliable river fish runs, and many smaller mammals and fowl as well. Technological innovation grew as well to include fishhooks and nets, woodworking tools, dugout canoes (birchbark in the north), and soapstone bowls. People in the region began using pottery around 1000 BCE. Evidence suggests that the custom did not arrive from the south, as might be expected. Local residents may have either invented it independently or learned it from contacts in the far northwest or even from the far northeast—Scandinavia and northern Europe. Around this time, people began smoking and cultivating tobacco. By roughly 2,000 years ago, small, nomadic hunter-gatherer-fisher communities lived in rectangular houses generally made of poles covered with slabs of bark. Corpses were sprinkled with red ochre powder and buried with a variety of ornaments and tools and with tobacco and pipes. Adena artifacts and mounds appear as far east as the eastern Great Lakes and western New York; however, in general the Northeast was not heavily influenced by Mississippian cultural traditions. It was not until about 1000 that Northeast Indians—notably, the Iroquois (Haudenosaunee) of New York—began to cultivate maize, beans, squash, and sunflowers using slash-and-burn agricultural techniques. With this development, populations increased and became somewhat more sedentary. Competition for arable land, combined with the Iro- Arctic quoian desire to dominate the region economically, was a major factor in two developments: (1) the dramatic expansion of warfare, along with ritualistic forms of war-related activities, including, in some areas, cannibalism, and (2) the formation of the Haudenosaunee Confederacy, or Iroquois League, by Hiawatha (Aionwantha) and Deganawidah (The Peacemaker), probably in the twelfth century. The Iroquois League was a remarkable peace treaty among five nations: Cayuga, Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, and Seneca. Freed from internecine warfare, the League’s member nations were free to turn their attentions without, which they did with astonishing effectiveness, ultimately dominating an area from the Hudson to the Ohio River Valley and the Saint Lawrence to the Susquehanna. Iroquoians generally lived in heavily fortified towns surrounded by fields of crops. Descent within families and clans, as well as political leadership, was matrilineal. Some clans had their own wooden houses, which could be up to 400 feet long. Among their ceremonies was the False Face Society, whose members lured curing forest spirits into homes through the use of grotesque carved masks. Although some Algonquian people south of the Saint Lawrence region grew crops, in general they relied less on agriculture and more on hunting, gathering, and fishing (fish, shellfish, and sea mammals). Instead of longhouses, Algonquians tended to live in dome-shaped wigwams covered with sheets of birch bark, slabs of elm or conifer bark, mats, or hides. People transported their goods on sleds, pulled by men, or in canoes. A seasonal routine prevailed in which people availed themselves of the richness of the sea in summer, of running fish near rapids in spring and fall, and of interior hunting grounds in winter. Their fishing and trapping technology was highly sophisticated, and the ratio of labor to comfort was, in general, quite favorable. People used shell beads, called wampum, to maintain tribal records and during some ceremonies. Subarctic The harsh Subarctic was another region in which life changed relatively little in several thousand years. The Subarctic is characterized by the wellwatered boreal forest. Long, cold winters, followed by springs filled with biting insects, limited the aboriginal population considerably. The two main language groups were Athapaskan (Dene), mainly in the west, and Algonquian, mainly in the east. Despite the challenging climate, trade networks, which became quite extensive, began at least 10,000 years ago. The Laurel culture of Manitoba and northern Ontario (ca. 1000 BCE–800 CE) was characterized by coiled, impressed, incised, and fired pottery. Warfare tended to be small-scale and local, especially in the east. Religious traditions varied through the vast region of the Subarctic. If there was a common theme, it was respect for all of nature and the existence of natural powers, which might be acquired or accessed by means of fasting or spirit quests. Depending on locations, people hunted caribou and moose, the big game, with stone blades and snares. They moved around using snowshoes and canoes, living in bark- or hide-covered, pole-frame houses or tents. After they acquired the bow and arrow, between 1,000 and 2,000 years ago, they began driving moose and caribou into corrals or lakes, where they were shot. Fowl and smaller animals also were snared or shot. Among the many tools, clothing and other items made from animal parts included the ubiquitous babiche, or semisoftened rawhide, that was used for everything from snares to netting and bowstrings. People tended to travel overland, although canoes made of bark or moose hide were not uncommon in some areas. Arctic The Arctic, 12,000 miles across from the western Aleutian Islands to Greenland, is, in its way, a land of great contrasts. During most of the year it is covered by ice and snow. In the short summer, under a sun that never sets, the tundra blooms, and water returns to its liquid form. The coastal people in the Arctic are the Inuit, while people living in the interior are considered Indians. Roughly 10,000 years ago, people in the Aleutian Islands were building oval, semisubterranean whalebone and driftwood houses covered with sod, which they entered through the roof. As the sea level stabilized, around 5,000 years ago, coastal villages became more established. Much of the interior west at that time was grassland—the perfect environment for bison— which early Indians burned to ward off forest encroachment. In other parts of the Arctic, people ate sea mammals (such as seal and walrus), polar bear, birds, and, where available, fish. By about 2000 BCE, people in northern Alaska were living in protoigloos (houses entered through a sloping passageway); these people heated and cooked with driftwood- or 11 12 Pre-contact Indian History bone-fed fires. To the east, people lived mainly in hide tents. People now known as Dorset lived in the far northeast from about 500 BCE until about 900 (1500 in northern Quebec and Labrador). These people depended mainly on sea mammals for meat, hides, and cooking oil. They dressed in fur parkas; made bone, ivory, and wood carvings; and lived in igloos, or domed shelters of snow blocks. They apparently pulled their sleds themselves without the aid of dogs. They hunted seals with spears, but not with the bow and arrow, at blowholes and on the ice’s edge. In the west, people of the so-called Norton culture began using pottery and building permanent settlements. In the far north and west, people began the tradition of wearing highly polished plugs of stone or bone (labrets) in their lower lips or cheeks about 2,500 years ago. Coastal residents along the Bering Strait began using highly maneuverable kayaks and, for whaling, more substantial umiaks, as well as special knives and harpoons. With a more stable food supply, people were able to build large villages of up to several hundred homes. Their society grew wealthy and stratified. They also developed sophisticated artistic traditions, which were influenced by their contact with people in northeast Asia, along with technological innovations that included iron blades of hammered iron and copper and dogsleds. This pre-Inuit, or so-called Thule, culture was well established in Alaska and far northwestern Canada by 1000 CE and throughout most of the rest of the Arctic shortly thereafter. At about this time, the Thule encountered another group of intrepid explorers, the Norse. By about 1500, then, between 2 million to as many as 18 million people lived in North America. The highest population densities were in the salmonrich communities of the Northwest Coast and in parts of California, as well as among some villages in the Northeast, Midwest, and Southeast. As might be expected across such a vast land, cultural traditions were extremely diverse. Some groups barely survived in the harshest climates of the Great Basin and the Subarctic, while others enjoyed plenty of food year-round. Some groups had changed relatively little for thousands of years, while others had developed numerous complex, sophisticated forms of social organization, religious practice, and artistic traditions. In all cases, however, the appearance of large and permanent groups of non-Natives, begin- ning about 1500, introduced an element of change that was to have the most profound effects on native societies over the following several hundred years. Barry M. Pritzker See also Adena Civilization; Agriculture; Ancestral Puebloan Culture; Archaeology and the First Americans; Athapaskan Peoples; Basketry; Bering Strait Theory; Buffalo; Cahokia; Dalles Trading Area; Demographics, Historical; False Face Society; Haudenosaunee Confederacy, Political System; Hiawatha; Hohokom Culture; Hopewell Culture; Kennewick Man; Mississippian Culture; Mogollon Culture; Mound Cultures of North America; Na-Dene Peoples; Natchez Culture; Paleo-Indians; Potlatch; Pottery; Totem Poles; Trade; Wampum. References and Further Reading Campbell, Lyle, and Marianne Mithun, eds. 1979. The Languages of Native America. Austin: University of Texas Press. Carlson, Roy L., ed. 1982. Indian Art Traditions of the Northwest Coast. Burnaby, B.C.: Archaeology Press, Simon Fraser University. Champagne, Duane, ed. 1994. Chronology of Native North American History. Detroit, MI: Gale Research. Collins, June McCormick. 1974. Valley of the Spirits. Seattle: University of Washington Press. Cordell, Linda S. 1984. Prehistory of the Southwest. Boston: Academic Press. Dickason, Olive P. 1992. Canada’s First Nations: A History of Founding Peoples. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. Dobyns, Henry F. 1983. Their Number Became Thinned. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press. Dumond, D. E. 1977. The Eskimos and Aleuts. London: Thames and Huston. Fagan, Brian M. 1995. Ancient North America. London and New York: Thames and Hudson. Galloway, Patricia, ed. 1989. The Southeastern Ceremonial Complex: Artifacts and Analysis. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. Gibbon, Gary, ed. 1998. Archaeology of Prehistoric Native America. New York: Garland Publishing. Ives, John W. 1990. A Theory of Northern Athapaskan Prehistory. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Jennings, Jesse D. 1983. Ancient North Americans. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman. Jennings, Francis. 1984. The Ambiguous Iroquois Empire. New York: W.W. Norton. Johansen, Bruce E. 2005. Native Peoples of North America. Westport, CT: Praeger. Kehoe, Alice Beck. 1992. North American Indians, 2nd ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. References and Further Reading Kroeber, A. 1939. Cultural and Natural Areas of Native North America. Berkeley: University of California Press. Laughlin, William, and Albert B. Harper, eds. 1979. The First Americans: Origins, Affinities, and Adaptations. New York: Gustav Fischer. Mason, Ronald J. 1981. Great Lakes Archaeology. New York: Academic Press. Maxwell, Moreau S. 1985. Prehistory of the Eastern Arctic. Orlando and London, FL: Academic Press. Nichols, George P., ed. 1988. Holocene Human Ecology in Northeastern North America. New York: Plenum Press. Paterek, Josephine. 1994. Encyclopedia of American Indian Costume. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. Pauketat, Timothy, and Diana DiPaulo Loren, eds. 2005. North American Archaeology. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. Pritzker, Barry M. 1998. Native Americans: An Encyclopedia of History, Culture and Peoples. 2 vols. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. Ross, Thomas E., and Tyrel G. Moore, eds. 1987. A Cultural Geography of North American Indians. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Sturtevant, William, ed. 1978. Handbook of North American Indians. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution. Swanton, John R. 1946, reprinted 1979. The Indians of the Southeastern United States. Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 137. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution. Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 137. Tanner, Helen Hornbeck, ed. 1987. Atlas of Great Lakes Indian History. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. Wedel, Waldo R. 1961. Prehistoric Man on the Great Plains. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. Wright, Gary A. 1984. People of the High Country. New York: Peter Lang. Wright, J. Leitch, Jr. 1981. The Only Land They Knew. New York: The Free Press. 13 Indians in the Colonial Era and the American Revolution Y (1500 to 1800) You who are wise must know, that different Nations have different conceptions. —Canassatego, an Onondaga Haudenosaunee addressing English colonial officials in 1744 This essay focuses primarily on the Indian nations who lived in what is now the United States between 1492 and 1800. Within its limited length, many Indian nations and many significant themes cannot be addressed. But the inquisitive reader is invited to explore the rest of this encyclopedia and the many other volumes that have been written about the First Nations of the Americas. For the First Nations and for Europeans and non-Indian Americans, the year 1492 is indeed a major turning point in history, but is also part of a continuum. Far less than 5 percent of the human history of the Americas has occurred since 1492 because far more than ten thousand years of Indian history had already shaped the Western Hemisphere. Both the First Nations and the Europeans brought into 1492 all the ideas and trends that their respective cultures had developed during the previous centuries. Thus the actions of both the First Nations and the Europeans were shaped by their prior experiences. For example, the First Nations in the Southwest had experienced a collapse of some of their major societies due to setbacks such as droughts (especially 1276–1299), as well as wars with other Indian nations. The Pueblo and other peoples in the Southwest, who had survived droughts and the other challenges, confronted the Spanish invasion of the early 1500s as yet another challenge in a sequence of challenges, not simply as “the” challenge. A comparable series of crises prior to 1492 occurred to the east: from areas such as eastern Oklahoma and eastern Iowa, eastward throughout the Mississippi and Ohio Valleys, and all the way to the Southeastern Atlantic coast. Many of the various cultures known collectively today as the Mound Builders collapsed at different times during the centuries prior to 1492. Thus the Creeks in the Southeast, one of the surviving cultures of the pre-1492 Mound Builders, perceived Spanish invasions in the 14 early 1500s as another in a series of challenges. In the Northeast, as early as 1142, a leader known as The Peacemaker inspired the establishment of a new confederacy among five previously warring nations: the Mohawks, Oneidas, Onondagas, Cayugas, and Senecas. The Iroquois Confederacy—the Haudenosaunee, or People of the Longhouse—survived despite the collapse of several trading partners and sometime rivals living to the west of them—several of the Mound Builders societies. The long-lived experience of the Haudenosaunee living on the eastern periphery of the Mound Builders carried over after 1492 when new trading partners and sometime rivals—the French, Dutch, and English colonists—placed the Haudenosaunee on the periphery again. This time, instead of turning their philosophical, diplomatic, and trading skills westward toward the Mound Builders, they turned eastward to deal with the Europeans. Of course, the Europeans were also products of their recent past. While Indian nations were still slowly regrouping after droughts and cultural collapses, the Europeans were still striving to cope with the trauma of the Black Death (bubonic plague). The severe traumas caused declines in populations on both sides of the Atlantic and raised a common question: had people lost the approval of their respective gods and spiritual pantheons? Another common factor on both sides of the Atlantic before 1492 caused continual upheaval: warfare. In Indian America before 1492, the presence of warfare as a factor of human life was manifested in the stockaded towns in the East and the fortified towns in the Southwest. Across the Atlantic, virtually all of Europe was at war, either nation to nation or with the Muslims. Spain brought to the Americas all the methods and legal constructs of their wars against the Muslims in the Iberian Peninsula, ongoing since 711 and only recently ended with their 1492 victory at Granada. In the 1580s the English transferred the methods of their imperial war against Ireland directly to the Roanoke colony in North Carolina. By fighting Muslims in Eastern Europe, Captain John Smith gained the military experience he then brought to Virginia. In 1624, he noted frankly that the current war between the The Significance of Pre-1492 Worldviews English at Jamestown and the Powhatan Indians was but an episode in human history: What growing state was there eve

domain: history