text:
MODELLING MAXIMAL EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
AND CROP COEFFICIENT
Yucheng Comprehensive Experimental Station
Institute of Geographical Sciences and Natural Resources, the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
A non-water-stress evapotranspiration (NWSE) model was established and validated with experimental data of maize site at hourly interval and was extended to estimate the daily maximal evapotranspiration (ETm) of winter wheat without further validation. It was found that evapotranspiration estimated by NWSE model was systematically higher than that estimated by Penman-Monteith formula, but the discrepancy diminished gradually as LAI increased. Crop coefficient was mathematically derived using the estimated ETm by NWSE model and Penman-Monteith formula. Surface soil wetness was set at different percentages of field capacity when applying NWSE model. Closest agreement was found between the experimentally obtained crop coefficient in Shandong province of China and the mean of the estimated values by NWSE model when surface soil wetness was set as 60% of field capacity. Meanwhile, it was found that obvious variation of crop coefficient exists according to the statistical analysis of the simulation results of 14 years. The average of variation and variation coefficient during the simulation period are 0.12 and 0.13 respectively. This demonstrates the necessity and feasibility of applying the proposed method to derive crop coefficient mathematically.
Evapotranspiration data are of great importance in irrigation planning and scheduling as well as in water resource allocation. Evapotranspiration from a cropped soil is dependent not only on the meteorological conditions, but also on factors related to crop and to soil. In estimating crop evapotranspiration, the two-step combination method is often used by irrigation controllers, consultants and schedulers.
As the first step, reference evapotranspiration and crop coefficient are combined to estimate crop evapotranspiration under non-water-stress condition, defined as the maximal evapotranspiration hereafter, ETm
where ETr is the reference evapotranspiration, Kc is the crop coefficient.
As the second step, water stress coefficient is introduced to account for the influence of water status in root zone upon evapotranspiration, i.e.
where ET is the actual crop evapotranspiration, Ks is the water stress coefficient.
Rewrite equation (1), crop coefficient is then defined as
Equation (3) forms foundation of experimental work of crop coefficient.
The two-step combination approach is widely adopted around the world[Y. Luo1]. With regard to difficulties existing in experimental work determining crop coefficient and selection of crops in applying the two-steps approach, the following work is focused primarily on the first step. Problems involved in the second step are beyond discussion of this paper.
In China, Kc is determined experimentally according to definition given by equation (3). In the early 1980¡¯s, experimental works in defining Kc of winter and spring wheat, maize, paddy rice and other main crops produced in different climatic zones of China were undertaken extensively (Chen and Guo, 1986), in which about 200 experimental sites representing different climatic patterns were chosen and there were more than one thousand research personnel involved. The experimental work had lasted three years. As a result, contour map of Kc of the main crops was made and published. This has formed the basis of choice of values of crop coefficient in crop water management work to this day. Experimental definition of Kc is costly, time-consuming and site specific.
Crop evapotranspiration consists of two parts: soil evaporation and crop transpiration. The ratio between these two component changes with canopy development, surface soil wetness, and weather conditions. Generally in China, soil evaporation and crop transpiration are not distinguished and are taken as a whole instead in defining Kc. So Kc is easily affected by surface soil wetness in transferring it from one situation to another. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) proposed a crop coefficient scheme which divides Kc into two parts: basal crop coefficient (Kc with minimal soil evaporation) and soil evaporation coefficient. The soil evaporation part can be further modified according to surface soil wetness (Allen et al., 1996). This increases the flexibility of Kc to different rainfall and irrigation situations. Yet, this crop coefficient scheme has not been adopted in China.
Reference evapotranspiration incorporates the majority of the effects of changes in weather into the ETr estimate and hence Kc varies predominately with the specific crop characteristics and only a little with climate, this enables the transfer of standard values of Kc between locations and climates (Allen et al., 1996). In transferring crop coefficient between and climates, it has been assumed that basal Kc and /or Kc for full canopy will be universally valid if the variation in weather elements is accounted for by reference evapotranspiration. Annandale and Stockle (1994) made a sensitivity analysis of fluctuations of crop evapotranspiration coefficients with weather elements to test the validity of this assumption. The analysis has shown that environmental factor do not affect latent heat exchange in the reference crop in the same way as they affect that of the target crop. Kc values of crops, that are taller and/or present a lower canopy resistance than the reference crop, are sensitive to changes in air temperature, air vapor density, wind speed, and also solar radiation, although to a lesser degree. So, cautions should be taken in transferring Kc values from one location or climate pattern to another.
The crop coefficient approach can be used to provide useful estimates of crop water requirements. However, as water becomes a more limiting resource and irrigation water application becomes more precise, crop water requirements will need to be estimated more accurately (Annandale and Stockle, 1994). Concerned about cost and time-consumption of crop coefficient experiment and variation of Kc with environmental elements, direct estimation of the maximal crop evapotranspiration without resorting to the two step approach of estimating actual crop evapotranspiration should be encouraged. Meanwhile, deriving crop coefficient mathematically as an alternative way of determining it experimentally is also an encouraging research topic.
Efforts have been made to derive crop coefficient mathematically. D¡¯Urso and Santin (1996) derived Kc by using Penman-Monteith formula to estimate both the maximal crop evapotranspiration and reference evapotranspiration. When calculating the maximal crop evapotranspiration, canopy resistance was set at its minimal representing the non-water stress condition. Annandale and Stockle (1994) simulated the crop coefficient under full canopy condition to investigate the fluctuation of crop coefficient with weather elements. They developed an energy-balance model to estimate latent and sensible heat flux over canopy. Again, canopy resistance was set at its minimal.
The crop coefficient is influenced by canopy development, which determines the partitioning of radiation into the fraction intercepted by the canopy and that reaching the soil surface. The energy reaching the soil surface is available for soil evaporation. During early growth, when canopy does not cover the soil completely and the amount of intercepted radiation is low, Kc is particularly sensitive to management factors such as irrigation frequency and method, and soil factors as hydraulic conductivity and water content near the soil surface. Penman-Monteith formula assumes that all radiation is available for canopy transpiration, and it cannot account for soil evaporation process. Thus, under partial canopy cover conditions, Penman-Monteith formula will very possibly overestimate crop transpiration when surface soil is very dry and underestimate the crop transpiration when surface soil is wet.
The objectives of this paper are twofold: (1) to establish a model for direct estimation of maximal evapotranspiration which can be used for any growth season of a crop; (2) to have a trial in deriving crop coefficient mathematically on the basis of modeled maximal evapotranspiration. As a comparison, Penman-Monteith formula will also be employed to estimate the maximal evapotranspiration and crop coefficient. In calculating crop coefficient, reference evapotranspiration will be estimated by Penman-Monteith formula as proposed by FAO.
NWSE Model Construction and Validation
NWSE model is constructed using framework of Shuttleworth (1985) depicted in Fig. 1. Radiation is partitioned into a fraction intercepted by crop canopy and one reaching soil surface in the following way:
where Rn is net radiation over canopy in Wm-2, Rnc is the fraction intercepted by canopy in Wm-2, Rns is the fraction reaching soil surface, in Wm-2, a is the extinction coefficient.
Figure1. Graphical representation of the framework of NWSE model (adapted after Shuttleworth,1985)
Net radiation over the canopy is partitioned into total latent and sensible heat fluxes.
where LE is the total latent heat flux, L is the vaporization constant, E is the total evapotranspiration above canopy, and H is the total sensible heat flux.
LE and H can be expressed as
where ea and Ta are air vapor pressure and temperature at reference level respectively, eb and Tb are air vapor pressure and temperature at top of canopy respectively, r is air density, Cp is iso-pressure specific heat capacity, ra is aerodynamic resistance from canopy top to the reference level. Substitute equation (8) and (9) into (7), we obtain
Radiation intercepted by canopy is available for latent and sensible heat flux from canopy.
where LEc and Hc are latent and sensible heat flux from canopy respectively.
LEc and Hc can be expressed in a way similar with equations (8) and (9) as
where T1 is leaf surface temperature, r1 is leaf boundary layer resistance, rc is the bulk canopy resistance, es(T1) is saturated vapor pressure in leaf stomata at temperature T1 and can be given by
Substitute equation (12)£¬(13) into (11), we obtain
Radiation reaching soil surface is available for latent, sensible and ground surface heat fluxes, i.e.
where LEs and Hs are latent and sensible heat flux from soil surface, G is ground surface heat flux, negative when downward. LEs and Hs can be given by
where T2 is surface temperature of soil, r2 is aerodynamic resistance from soil surface to top of canopy, rs is surface soil resistance, h2 is relative humidity of vapor in soil pore. h2 can given by
where M and g and R are constants£¬M£½18.015¡¿10-3 kg/m3£¬g=9.18 m/s2£¬ R=8.314 J/mol¡¤K, y is soil matrix potential.
Substitute equation (17)¡¢(18) into(16), we obtain
According to principle of mass conservation, following relationship can be derived
Substitute equation (6)£¬(10)£¬and (15) into (20), we can obtain
Equations (8)£¬(13)£¬(19)£¬and (22) form a closed equation set that consists of four undetermined variables eb, Tb, T2 and T1 . This is the so called NWSE model¡£Resistance terms in NWSE model are detailed as follows.
Soil resistance rs
Lin and Sun (1983) gave an empirical formula for soil resistance expressed as function of surface soil water content.
where qs is the saturated water content of surface soil, q is soil water content of the 5cm surface soil a, b1 and b2 are empirical constants with a=3.5, b1=33.5, b2=2.35.
Canopy resistance rc
The canopy resistance under condition of non-water stress was calculated after Allen et al. (1989):
where rsmin is the minimal leaf stomatal resistance, which is suggested by Monteith (1981) and Sharma (1985) as 100s/m.
Aerodynamic resistance ra
Assuming neutral stability conditions, ra can be computed as
where Zm is the height of wind measurements, Zn is that of air temperature and humidity measurements, d is that of zero plane displacement of wind profile, Zom and Zon are the roughness length governing momentum transfer and heat and vapor transfers, k is von Karman¡¯s constant, and U is wind velocity measured at height Zm.
Boundary layer resistance of canopy leaf
Expression of conductance of canopy boundary layer can be given as
where a=0.01ms-1/2£¬u(Z) is the wind velocity at Z in canopy, WL is the mean leaf width. Wind profile in canopy can be given as
where u(hc) is the wind velocity at top of canopy, hc is the crop canopy height, b is the extinction coefficient of wind velocity in canopy.
Choudhury (1988) gave the average conductance in unit area of canopy as
where L is the cumulated leaf area index increasing from 0 at the top to LAI at the bottom of canopy[Y. Luo2]. Suppose uniform distribution of LAI from top to bottom of canopy, integrating equation (28) gives
The boundary layer resistance of canopy can be obtained as
Aerodynamic resistance in canopy r2
Choudhury (1988) gave an expression of r2 as
where Zs is the roughness of surface soil, set as 0.01m, k(Z) is the momentum diffusion in canopy which is assumed as following formula in uniform canopy.
where z is the extinction coefficient. By integration, r2 can be get finally as
Equation (10), (15), (20) and (22), along with the resistance terms, form the NWSE model. The driving force input of NWSE model includes meteorological data at reference level, height, LAI and mean leaf width of the crop, and surface soil moisture content. State variables include surface soil temperature, average leaf temperature of canopy, temperature and vapor pressure of air in canopy. Latent and sensible heat fluxes from soil surface, canopy, and above canopy can be obtained from the solution of the model.
The established NWSE model was validated with meteorological data collected from maize field at hourly intervals. Diurnal courses of change in wet and dry bulb temperature of air, wind speed, and net radiation were recorded at reference level 2m above the ground every two hours. Leaf stomatal resistance and temperature were measured with Li-6200 every two hours during daytime. Three stems, three leaves at top, middle and bottom of each stem were measured each time. Canopy resistance was calculated by scaling the measured stomatal resistance of leaf up to canopy. Therefore, whether well watered or not, water stress was accounted for by the canopy resistance. Canopy temperature was taken as the average of leaf measurements. Surface soil water content was measured by gravitational sampling at ten o¡¯clock in the morning and four o¡¯clock in the afternoon. Van Genuchten¡¯s (1980) model was employed to derive soil matrix potential from the measured soil moisture content. Surface soil temperature and ground heat fluxes were measured every two hours day and night. LAI in experimental period was 4.5, and mean width of maize leaf was measured as 7cm. Height of maize was 185cm. The field experiment was carried out at Yucheng Comprehensive Experimental Station of Chinese Academy of Science, located in northwest plain of Shandong province, China.
Fig.2 shows the simulated and the observed canopy temperatures. They agree very well with each other during daytime. Because of the lack of observed canopy temperature during nighttime, no comparison was made.
Figure 2. Simulated diurnal courses of changes in canopy temperature and measured
Fig.3 shows the comparison of the simulated and observed surface soil temperatures. Close agreement was got during nighttime. But large discrepancies were found with the maximal one of 4¡ÆC during time around noon.
Figure3. Simulated diurnal courses of changes in surface soil temperatures and measured
From the comparison shown in Fig. 2 and Fig. 3, it can be tentatively concluded that NWSE model and parameters taken in simulation are rational.
ETm Estimation with NWSE Model and Penman-Monteith Formula
NWSE model is extended to estimate daily ETm. As a comparison, Penman-Monteith formula is employed to estimate ETm as well. ETm estimated by NWSE model is called NWSE ETm hereafter, and ETm estimated by Penman-Monteith formula called P-M ETm.
A series of daily climatic record of 14 years collected from YCES was used to drive the computations with both NWSE model and Penman-Monteith formula. ETm estimation was performed for winter wheat growth season during greening and post-harvesting. LAI and height of winter wheat used in the NWSE model and Penman-Monteith formula were determined as shown in Fig.4 based on years of observation. The mean leaf width of winter wheat was taken as linear function of time from 0.2cm to 1.2cm when LAI was at its maximum, then remains unchanged to end of the simulation period. Surface soil moisture content used to drive the NWSE model was assumed at three levels, i.e., 50%, 60%, and 90% of field capacity. NWSE model was run at each level. In estimating ETm, daily average of ground heat flux is simply taken as zero. Canopy resistance is determined by equation (24).
Figure 4. Changes in LAI and height of winter wheat
Fig.5 shows the NWSE ETm, transpiration (Ec) and soil evaporation (Es) at surface soil water content 60% of field capacity in 1986. ETm increased with time generally because of the increase in evaporative demand in this area. Ec increased in a way as ETm. However, soil evaporation decreased with time in this period. At early stage, soil evaporation accounted for the main part of the total ETm and as time went on, the ratio of soil evaporation to ETm decreased very quickly as shown in Fig.6. Fig.6 gives the ratio of soil evaporation to ETm at two surface soil wetness levels and the ratio of radiation reaching soil surface to net radiation. Es/ETm changed with time in a way very similar with Rns/Rn. At later part of the season, Es/ETm increased a little as LAI decreased. Meanwhile, Es/ETm was influenced by surface soil wetness. The higher the surface soil water content, the larger was the ratio. This indicates that at the early stage of canopy development, crop coefficient may be very sensitive to soil factors, especially as soil water content.
Figure 5. Maximal evapotranspiration ETm, transpiration Ec and soil evaporation Es estimated by NWSE model
Figure 6. Simulated ratio of soil evaporation to the maximal evoptranspiration with NWSE model at different soil wetness levels
Fig. 7 shows the comparison of NWSE ETm and P-M ETm of 1986. In the early part, there was discrepancy between them. NWSE ETm was larger than P-M ETm. However, in the later part, agreement between them was very close. Although none of these ETm estimation schemes has been validated by experimental data, NWSE model seems more reasonable than Penman-Monteith formula at the early stage of canopy development, because NWSE model takes account of soil evaporation but Penman-Monteith formula assumes simply all net radiation is used by the canopy.
Figure 7. Comparison of maximal evapotranspiration estimated by Penman-Monteith formula and NWSE model with soil wetness at 60% of field capacity.
Difference between NWSE ETm and P-M ETm at early stage of canopy development is systematic as shown in Fig. 8. According to correlation analysis of 14 year of data, the linear regression coefficient gets as high as 0.95 with P-M ETm 7% lower than NWSE ETm. Difference between them happened mainly during the early canopy development stage.
Figure 8. Regression analysis of maximal evapotranspiration estimated by Penman-Monteith formula and NWSE model with soil wetness at 60% of field capacity
Crop Coefficient and Analysis
Crop coefficient was derived mathematically based on sequence of climatic record from YCES for winter wheat during growth season from greening to harvest. ETr was estimated by Penman-Monteith formula as proposed by FAO. ETm was estimated by both NWSE model and Penman-Monteith formula. Crop coefficient estimated by NWSE ETm called NWSE Kc, while that estimated by Penman-Monteith ETm called P-M Kc.
Fig. 9 and Fig. 10 show the scatter points of daily NWSE Kc and P-M Kc of 14 years respectively. Kc grows up gradually from low LAI values to high values, and then goes down slightly with decreasing LAI values. Meanwhile, over the years, Kc fluctuates in a fairly wide range. Considering the same crop growth pattern adopted in estimating Kc of different years, the fluctuation can be attributed to variation of weather elements among years. This indicates that variation of weather elements cannot be fully accounted for by reference evapotranspiration. So, caution should be taken in applying Kc values that were obtained from only a few years of experimental data.
Figure 9. Scattering points of P-M Kc of 14 years
Figure 10. Scattering points of NWSE Kc of 14 years
The mean value of NWSE Kc at different surface soil wetness levels and P-M Kc was calculated from the 14 years Kc data sets. To get a clear comparison among the NWSE Kc, P-M Kc, and the experimental Kc, polynomial fitting was applied to the mean of NWSE Kc and P-M Kc as shown in Fig. 11. At different surface soil wetness levels, clear difference in NWSE Kc occurred at early stage of canopy development. The higher the surface soil moisture, the higher the Kc values were. P-M Kc was obviously smaller than NWSE Kc at an early stage of canopy development. But the difference diminished gradually as LAI increased. It can be seen that NWSE Kc at different surface soil wetness levels and P-M Kc agreed with each other very closely. The reason is that soil evaporation plays only minor role under full canopy, ETm values estimated by NWSE model and Penman-Monteith formula are very similar. Month average of Kc of Shandong province of winter wheat was shown in Fig. 11. Comparing all Kc curves, it can be found that the NWSE Kc value obtained with surface soil wetness maintained at 60% of field capacity is closest to the experimentally derived one. In experiment of crop coefficient, soil moisture regime in root zone is delicately maintained between 60%~90% of field capacity. Because of fast depletion, 60% of field capacity or so of surface soil water content occurs much more frequently than 90%. Therefore, the results of 60% of field capacity seem more rational when taken to simulate the crop coefficient. Meanwhile, influence of surface soil moisture on Kc indicates that the basal crop coefficient concept is a good policy for distinguishing the effects of soil factor and crop factor in crop coefficient. The traditional approach of taking transpiration coefficient and evaporation coefficient as a whole should be revised in China. Caution should be taken in transferring the experimental Kc to situation different from the one at which the Kc was derived. For the obvious disadvantages of Penman-Monteith formula in cases where LAI is small, it is not suitable for ETm modeling for period with low LAI, and also the mathematical derivation of crop coefficient.
As shown in Fig. 8 and Fig. 9, there are obvious variations of Kc among years. Based on the simulated NWSE Kc, statistic analysis was performed. Fig. 12 shows standard deviation (solid line) and variation coefficient (open circle) of NWSE Kc during the simulation period. The average standard deviation during the simulation period is 0.12, and the variation coefficient 0.13. The statistical results are very close to that of experimental data analysis of Chen and Guo (1986).
Figure 11. Comparison between NWSE Kc and P-M Kc, and the experimental one
Figure 12. Standard deviation and variation coefficient of NWSE Kc when surface soil moisture is set as 60% of field capacity
A non-water stress evapotranspiration model was established with soil evaporation considered It was validated with field experimental data for maize at hourly scale. The values of canopy resistance in validation were obtained by scaling up the measured leaf stomatal resistance to canopy in validation. The simulated surface soil temperature and leaf canopy temperature agreed closely with the measured ones, indicating that the model is reasonable.
The established model was extended to estimate the daily values of the maximal evapotranspiration of winter wheat. Effects of surface soil wetness on soil evaporation and total evapotranspiration were analyzed. The results showed that the effects at early stage of canopy development were obvious. The ratio of soil evaporation to total evapotranspiration decreased with LAI negative-exponentially, and was larger with higher surface soil wetness. Penman-Monteith formula was also employed to estimate the maximal evapotranspiration. The values of canopy resistance for both the NWSE model and Penman-Monteith formula were set at the minimal leaf stomatal resistance. The ETm values estimated by NWSE model and Penman-Monteith formula were compared. It was found that systematic discrepancy existed between the ETm values estimated by the different two methods at stage of underdeveloped canopy. The values of ETm estimated by the NWSE model were higher than that by Penman-Monteith formula. But the discrepancies diminished as LAI increased. It was tentatively concluded that the NWSE model was rational than Penman-Monteith formula in cases where the values of LAI were low, because the former took soil factors into account, but the later assumed that all net radiation was used for canopy.
Crop coefficients were mathematically derived with the ETm values estimated by the NWSE model and the Penman-Monteith formula. Reference evapotranspirations were calculated with Penman-Monteith formula as proposed by FAO. Crop growth pattern was taken to be the same when applying NWSE model and Penman-Monteith formula for all the climatic records of 14 years. Surface soil wetness was set at different levels of field capacity when NWSE model used. It was found that crop coefficient varied among years. This was attributed to variation of weather elements among years. Difference ocured between different surface soil wetness levels and different estimation method. But this difference diminished as values of LAI increased. Comparing the estimated Kc values with the experimentally derived monthly average of Kc values, it was found that the closest agreement was obtained between the experimental one and the one estimated by NWSE model when surface soil wetness was set at 60% of field capacity. This was because assuming surface soil water content of 60% of field capacity was very similar with the case of experiment. Penman-Monteith formula estimated crop coefficient was far small than the experimental one at an early stage of canopy development, because it reduced the effects of soil factors on evapotranspiration.
There were obvious variations of crop coefficient over years during the simulation period. The standard deviation and variation coefficient was found to be very close to the ones reported by Chen and Guo (1986) on the basis of experimental data.
It is concluded that the effects of variations of weather elements cannot be fully accounted for by reference evapotranspiration in crop coefficient estimation. Influences of soil factors and variations of weather elements upon crop coefficient give a caution about transferring experimentally determined crop coefficient to locations different from that they were originally derived at.
This paper was supported by the National Sciences Foundation of China with grant no 49890330.
Appendix I. Reference
Allen, R. G., M. E. Jensen, J. L. Wright, R. D. Burman, 1989. Operational estimates of evapotranspiration. Agron. J., 81: 650-662
Allen, R. G., Smith, M., Pruitt, W. O., Pereria, L. S., 1996. Modifications to the FAO crop coefficient approach. Evapotranspiration And Irrigation Scheduling, Proceedings Of The International Conference, Nov. 3-6, 124-132
Annandale, J. G., Stockle, C. O., 1994. Fluctuation of crop evapotranspiration coefficients with weather: a sensitivity analysis. Irrigation Science, 15:1-7
Monteith, J. L., 1981. Evaporation and surface temperature. Quart. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc., 107: 1-27
Sharma, M. L., 1985. Estimating evapotranspiration. Advances in irrigation, D. Hillel, Ed., Academic Press, Inc., 213-281
Chen, Y. M., Guo, S. L., 1986. Contour maps of water requirement of main crops in china (In Chinese). Chinese Agricultural Science Press.
Choudhury, B. J., Monteith, J. L., 1988. A four-layer model for the heat budget of homogeneous land surface. Q. J. R. Met. Soc., 114, 373-398
D¡¯Urso, G., Santini, A., 1996. A remote sensing and modeling integrated approach for the management of irrigation distribution systems. Evapotranspiration and Irrigation Scheduling, Proceedings of the International conference. Nov 3-6, 1996. p435-441
Lin, J. D., S. F. Sun, 1983. Moisture and heat flow in soil and theirs effects on bare soil evaporation. (In Chinese), Trans. Water Conservancy. 7:1-7.
Shuttleworth, W. J., Wallace, J. S., 1985. Evaporation from sparse crops - an energy combination theory. Quart. J. R. Met. Soc., 111, 839-855
Van Genuchten, M. Th., 1980. A closed-form equation for predicting the hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated soils. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J.. 44: 892-898
Appendix II. Notation
The following symbols are used in this paper:
r1 = boundary layer resistance of canopy£¬s/m;
r2 = aerodynamic resistance in canopy£¬s/m;
ra = aerodynamic resistance from top of canopy to reference level£¬s/m;
Rn = net radiation£¬MJ/sm2
Rnc net radiation intercepted by canopy, MJ/sm2;
Rns = net radiation reaching to soil surface, MJ/sm2;
rs = soil resistance£¬s/m;
T1 = leaf surface temperature£¬¡É;
T2 = surface soil temperature£¬¡É;
Ta = air temperature at reference level£¬¡É;
Tk = absolute temperature£¬K;
Wf = field capacity£¬m3/m3;
WL = mean leaf width£¬m;
Zom = roughness length of momentum transfer, m;
Zon = roughness length of heat transfer£¬m;
Zs = roughness length of soil surface£¬m;
D = slope of saturated vapor pressure curve, Kpa/¡ÆC;
g = phycrometer constant, Kpa/¡ÆC;
q = surface soil moisture content£¬m3/m3;
qs = saturated soil moisture content£¬cm3/cm3;
r = air density£¬g/cm3;
y = soil matrix potential, m;
LAI = leaf area index;
hc = crop height, m;
Ec = crop transpiration, mm;
Es = soil evaporation, mm;
Hc = canopy heat flux, MJ/sm2;
Hs = soil heat flux, MJ/sm2;

domain: agronomy


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11/14/2012 2:37:09 AM
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11/14/2012 6:41:38 PM
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domain: artistic


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— Cinema Updates (@mastervijay2020) May 13, 2022
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text:
Recipe by Java
I found this recipe in the local paper a few years ago and have been making it ever since. I prefer this vegetarian version over the traditional recipe which normally includes pork. It is wonderful over burritos, eggs or even plain with tortillas.
- 1⁄4 cup butter or 1⁄4 cup margarine
- 1 teaspoon minced garlic
- 1 tablespoon onion flakes
- 1⁄3 cup flour
- 1 (28 ounce) can diced tomatoes
- 1⁄2 cup green chili pepper
- 1⁄2 teaspoon salt
- 1⁄2 teaspoon cilantro
Directions See How It's Made
- In a large sauce pan, melt butter or margarine.
- Add garlic and onion and cook until onion is re-hydtrated.
- Add flour and stir to make a roux.
- Add tomatoes, green chili, salt and cilantro.
- Add water (enough to make a nice gravy).
- Simmer for 30 minutes.
- This can also be made in a crock pot.

domain: food


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- I Was Wondering If Someone Could Help Me With Driver Issue For SATA3 z97
- PhotoFast i-FlashDrive MAX 32GB USB iOS Flash Drive Review
- SSI EEB support for Lian Li high end chassis
- Need help with a build
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- Nokia announces planned leadership and organizational structure for combined Nokia and Alcatel-Lucent
- DOK SOLUTION UNVEILS CR09, 2 DEVICE CHARGER/CRADLE/CLOCK/SPEAKER/RADIO WITH 'SCD TECHNOLOGY' (SMART CURRENT DETECTION), NO MORE OVERCHARGING!
- FIRST CELLULAR ANDROID WEAR SMARTWATCH PREVIEWED AT LG EVENT
- LG UNVEILS V10, A SMARTPHONE DESIGNED WITH CREATIVITY IN MIND
- Marvell Teams Up with Google to Enable Chromecast 2.0 and Chromecast Audio


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I'm a video producer that creates case study videos and animated explanation videos for clients.
Show and tell for designers
What are you working on? Dribbble is a community of designers sharing screenshots of their work, process, and projects.
Copyright © 2009–2014 Dribbble LLC. All screenshots © their respective owners. Shipped from Salem, Mass. USA.


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Basic EPS increased to €0.62 from €0.37.
Revenues +2% to €4.66B, broadly in line.
EBITA +42% to €180M.
Earnings at Adecco, the world's largest staffing company, were lifted by a small return to growth in France, the firm's biggest market.
"Revenue growth continued to pick up in Europe, led once again by our industrial business," said CEO Patrick De Maeseneire. "Demand in manufacturing accelerated further, which is a good early cycle indicator.
Shares are +1.8% in Zurich. (PR)

domain: news


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The Nets do get credit for turning around their season after how terrible it started. They were a good team in January, but they're far from the greatness Kevin Durant demonstrated in the same month. Brooklyn was 10-2 to this month with a win over the Thunder to start it off. Durant and the Thunder were 12-4 and are ending the month by destroying the Nets. Blame it on Durant.
Sadly, it's looking like Durant won't make it past 30 points for the first time in 12 games. But 26 points ain't bad, and neither is this fadeaway three pointer.
Side note: The Nets set the NBA record for least rebounds in a game with 17 in their 120-95 loss.
RELATED: Kevin Durant's Most Badass Moments
[via GIFD Sports]


In today’s electronic and digital world, it is essential for wires to be protected from their environments, since these metal threads can quickly be torn, broken, or rendered unusable if they are exposed to heat or cold, or to pressure, tension, or other hazards from their environments. The opposite is also true; wires will have plastic sheaths and cables to protect flammable materials from hot wires, and many fires in American homes and businesses are electrical fires, meaning that they were started by an exposed wire that touched flammable carpets, drapes, or other materials. Wires in home appliances may need protection from heat or tension, such as extension cords or the cables on a TV or game console, and a cable will also protect flammable materials and human skin from hot, electrical wires. And in other cases, like in a space satellite or in the engine of an airplane or a car, tougher protection will be needed from heat, cold, and stress, anything from strong crimpers to an environmental splice to tight weave cables, silicone rubber fiberglass sleeving, and heat treatment fiberglass sleeving. How can wire projection be done right?
Where Wires Are Found
Often, a wire’s level of protection is based on where it can be found. In engines, for example, heat treatment will be needed for a cable, and if heat treatment is not needed, then protection from extreme cold may be woven into a hose cable instead, or protection from pressure or more.
Over 8,000 satellites orbit the Earth today, often for mass communication and GPS systems, and these satellites are orbiting in the extreme environment of open space, with extreme cold and a total vacuum to contend with, not to mention the fact that repair crews may need time to get there. A satellite’s wires may not need heat treatment, but their crimping will have to be done well, or the satellite may malfunction. What does this mean? A wire becomes crimped when the last bit of its plastic sheath is stripped off one end, and the bare wire is inserted into a metal crimp, which is an interface between the wire and an electrical component. A crimper tool, operated either by hand or a machine, will use pressure to fuse the bare wire into the crimp, and the job is done. A wire crimped this way may be connected to electrical components on both ends, and of course, the wires in a space satellite should be crimped well, since if a wire comes loose, the satellite cannot work, and these satellites carry out very important work and it may take time for a repair professional to reach the afflicted satellite. Regular sleeving for the wires may be all that is needed for the satellite otherwise.
The wires in a car or jet engine will need not just good crimp work, but heat treatment from the intense heat inside a working engine, and this often means making use of fiberglass, rubber, and/or silicone weave that contains the wires inside. These cables are like hoses, except they contain wires rather than water, and they are tough enough to endure not just heat, but also pressure from the engine’s components and moving air and liquids so that the wires inside are not compromised. And in the case of airplanes, wires throughout the aircraft will have to be protected from very low temperatures as well, for when the plane is flying very high where the air pressure and temperature are both low.
In the home, some wires may also need heat treatment cables, such as those inside an electric stove, a toaster, or other appliances that use heat for their function. Other times, wires in the home just need regular plastic sheathing, such as the power cords for anything electric from a PC tower to a flat-screen TV to a game console, and the same will be true for the wires inside, since extreme heat will not occur. Homeowners can practice good care of their cables and wires, by repairing or replacing any frayed wire whose plastic sheath is coming off, to prevent shock hazards or fire hazards in the home. The same can be done in any modern office.


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The differences in the attitudes and behaviors of people who get their news from social media versus traditional media held even after the study took into account such factors as scientific literacy and socio-economic differences.
In Second Opinion, Susan Perry helps readers make their way through the thicket of health trends, studies and research.
Researchers from Sun Yat-sen University in Guangzhou, China, analyzed more than 7,500 videos, gathered from YouTube and other video websites.
“Promoting a healthy lifestyle over the past 30 years is a key reason that we are seeing less hip fractures each year,” said Dr. Timothy Bhattacharyya, the study’s senior author.
The proportion of parents with children aged 2 to 12 years old who say they spank their child dropped from 50 percent in 1993 to 35 percent in 2017.
Although genetics plays a role in the development of Alzheimer’s disease and other types of dementia, lifestyle factors are also involved.
“Even a single-layer face covering is better than nothing,” researchers said.
Declines in other sensory functions — vision, touch and hearing — were also found to be associated with an increased risk of dementia, but not nearly as strongly.
With 47,000-plus confirmed cases in the state, Minnesota’s actual number may exceed 470,000, the study suggests.
Children who lack such fitness are at increased risk of developing heart disease and stroke when they become adults.
Two studies published last week offer new evidence on the effectiveness of facial coverings in preventing the transmission of COVID-19.
Now in its 13th year, the Fitness Index bases its rankings on 33 separate indicators in two major categories: personal health and community/environment.
“Our study adds to the growing body of evidence that social and environmental factors contribute significantly to longevity,” says Rajan Bhardwaj, the study’s lead author.
More than one in 10 American adults — 34 million people — have diabetes, and more than 95 percent of them have type 2 diabetes.
Syphilis was just part of the considerable venereal disease problem in 18th-century London. “A far greater number would have contracted gonorrhea or chlamydia than contracted syphilis in this period,” the historians point out.
The study found that people with existing chronic medical conditions, as well as those who were healthy, tended to live longer when they met the physical activity guidelines.
All the strokes in the study were ischemic, the most common kind. An ischemic stroke occurs when a blood clot blocks a blood vessel to the brain.
The study found that African-Americans who had experienced the stress of lifetime discrimination were up to 50% more likely to develop high blood pressure than those who reported lower levels of discrimination.
A stitched, two-layer cotton mask was the most protective, limiting the droplet spread to 2.5 inches.
Researchers explored the link in American society between perceived necessity and something called “permissible consumption” — what we consider socially acceptable (or not) for other people to buy.
Each year, 2.8 million Americans develop an antibiotic-resistant bacterial infection, leading to an estimated 35,000 deaths annually.

domain: medical


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Every now and again, I have to bring your attention to decisions plaguing businesses in wage and hour and immigration in this country, as I did last month with the lack of a “dependent contractor” classification under the FLSA.
Not all of the decisions you should know about directly involve business-related immigration (though there are plenty of hurdles and difficulties there). And, like changes to the FLSA, immigration isn’t a partisan issue, either…at least it shouldn’t be. In my immigration practice, I struggle daily against unintuitive and counterproductive laws to find ways that businesses can bring talented and motivated people to the U.S. to live, work, and contribute. That work has only gotten harder in recent years. In some ways, it is strange, because we’re only a generation removed from the two major parties fighting over how much to increase legal immigration. Look at the 1960 GOP platform, for example. The current anti-immigration climate is decidedly bad for your business and mine.
Sometimes, it isn’t major party candidates doing things that set business interests back, though, but court decisions. As an example, I have been following a troubling story, reported here by the L.A. Times. Last Friday, a federal judge refused to halt Texas officials from denying U.S. birth certificates to children of undocumented immigrants who are born in the United States. Even though the 14th Amendment guarantees U.S. citizenship to persons born in the United States, Texas authorities have restricted the issuance of birth certificates to the U.S.-born children of undocumented immigrants. These aren’t even DREAM Act children, but citizens.
In his ruling denying an emergency order sought by families, the U.S. District Court for the Western District of Texas in San Antonio ruled that Texas officials can refuse to accept the traditionally acceptale matricula consular cards issued by Mexican consulates as a form of identification for parents seeking to obtain birth certificates for U.S.-born children. The families had urged the court to require the Texas Department of State Health Services to issue certified copies of birth certificates for the Texas-born children and to immediately identify at least two forms of identification that their unauthorized immigrant parents can reasonably access, but the judge declined, finding that even though the parents and their citizen children had sufficiently shown a substantial threat of irreparable injury, that their arguments were “heartfelt, compelling and persuasive,” and that they had raised “grave concerns” through the evidence developed for the injunction hearing, it was not enough to issue one. For those of you with children, think about the problems not having a birth certificate causes. Texas’s denial of access to birth certificates has led to problems enrolling children in school and day care, obtaining medical care, and registering for state and federal services. Starting children–the next generation of employees that we will expect to be highly-trained, highly-functioning members of society–off on the wrong foot is bad for business and the country.
hy? Immigrants are one of the leading founders of small businesses across the country, which in turn are among the most significant job creators. Discouraging immigrants at every turn from establishing one of our economy’s largest growth machines makes little fiscal and economic sense. Decisions like this encourage keeping immigrants, and even their citizen children, in the shadows.
Businesses should be encouraging and supporting future contributing members of our society. Deportation, denying paths to citizenship (or any status), erecting roadblocks to citizens like this decisions does, and otherwise demonizing immigrants is anti-business and anti-community. Decisions like this contribute to the collective missed opportunity for small firms and the economy to maximize job creation and revenue generation. A rising tide lifts all boats, the saying goes. I’d welcome the opportunity to discuss wage and hour law with more new businesses.
You can find a copy of the order here. Fortunately, this was only a denial of an injunction, so a child, business, and immigrant friendly outcome is still possible despite the setback.

domain: politics


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AFCON 2013: Five Players Dropped
By Samuel Yeshiwas
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia – Coach Sewnet Bishaw has dropped five players from the provisional team. 31 players had been included in the team and had been training together for the last two weeks. Four of the dropped players are home based while the fifth is a professional.
The dropped players are:
1. Fitsum G/Mariam (St. George, Ethiopia)
2. Fitsum Teferi (Commercial Bank, Ethiopia)
3. Mulualem Mesfin (Arba Minch City, Ethiopia)
4. Medhane Tadesse (Defence Force, Ethiopia)
5. David Beshah (TSC Euskirchen, Germany)
The move means there are 26 players remaining in the preliminary squad. However, the number will increase to 27 when Egypt based striker Saladin Said joins the team. Coach Sewnet will still have to drop three more players to make the final 23-man squad. The final team will be known after the friendly matches against Niger, Togo, and Tunisia.
Samuel is a contributor of EthioSports.com. Please visit his blog on Ethiopian National Team.


My dad uses my old imac with the latest Mac OSX. Occasionally it freezes up, totally. The reset button on the side does not even work. You have to turn the whole system off. Upon reboot a strange sound comes from the speakers, the screen remains black and the on button flashes yellow. I suspect a hardware problem. The computer freezes so harshly that it does not even create a crash log.
I install a M$ intelli-mouse. Then unistalled it. Until I hooked up that mouse the system never crashed. is it related, not sure?


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Delta Variant 8 Times Less Sensitive to COVID-19 Vaccine Antibodies: Study
Delta Covid Variant: The study also found the Delta variant generates greater transmission between health workers.
The Delta variant of COVID-19 shows eightfold reduced sensitivity to the antibodies produced by coronavirus vaccine compared to the original Wuhan strain, according to a study from India with scientists from Cambridge Institute of Therapeutic Immunology & Infectious Disease.
"In an analysis of vaccine breakthrough in over 100 healthcare workers across three centres in India, the Delta variant not only dominates vaccine-breakthrough infections with higher respiratory viral loads compared to non-delta infections, but also generates greater transmission between HCW as compared to B.1.1.7 or B.1.617.1," the study found.
The study found that the Delta variant:
Shows 8 fold reduction in sensitivity to antibodies
Dominates breakthrough infections with higher viral loads
Generates greater transmission between HCWs
The study further said that the mutant variant has enhanced spike proteins for attachment to the lung epithelial cells, which had provided it with a much higher capacity to infect many more people than the Wuhan strain.
From this study it appears that we have to go miles before we sleep in case of Covid-19 pandemics.Dr Chand Wattal, Chairperson, Institute of Clinical Microbiology & Immunology, Sir Ganga Ram Hospital
These mutations are bound to happen if we lower our guard and allow ourselves to fall prey to this virus giving it an opportunity to multiply and achieve better fitness with our Covid inappropriate behavior," Dr Wattal, said.
“This is a straight eye opener to the fully-vaccinated people that you cannot lower guard in the name of vaccination. Virus is on prowl still looking of its prey," Dr Wattal added.
The study pointed that the dominance of the Delta variant has been due to combination of evasion of neutralising antibodies in those who were infected earlier and increased virus infectivity, resulting in the second wave.
According to the study, India's second wave was fuelled by:
Evasion of neutralising antibodies in previously infected individuals
Increased virus infectivity
While severe disease in fully vaccinated HCWs was rare, breakthrough transmission clusters in hospitals associated with the Delta variant are concerning and indicate that infection control measures need continue in the post-vaccination era, the study added.
The B.1.617.2 (Delta) variant was first identified in Maharashtra in late 2020 and has spread throughout the country, displacing the B.1.1.7 (Alpha) variant and other pre-existing lineages. It has also been found in at least 92 countries worldwide.
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Sandiway Lakes is Members-only water. This is the club’s premier specimen fish water. At 53 acres, many anglers will find the size of the lake daunting, but the rewards can be great if time is invested in finding features. The bottom of the lake is mostly sandy, and has been described as ‘like an eggbox’ with depths ranging from 6 – 30 feet. In summer, the clear water means that weed growth is prolific in some areas. There are around 30 pegs, all suitable for overnight fishing. Anglers can stay up to 3 nights, and may use up to 3 rods.
The lake is home to specimen carp, tench and bream, with pike and roach also present. As far as carp are concerned, the original stock is largely unknown, but not thought to be very many fish. The club has a careful stocking program in place to provide selected fish that have good growth potential. To date, 60 carp have been stocked up to 29.5lbs. The average size of stocked fish was around 17lbs, although most of these fish are now mid-20s after just a few years.

domain: biology


Frank Lloyd Wright and the Excelsior
Published on 11/23/2019
By Robert Turek
No, Frank Lloyd Wright did not design the Excelsior, although he is said to have had a hand in designing his personal automobile, a Stoddard Dayton. However, the famous architect did have an interesting connection to Excelsior.
The son of a German immigrant, George T. Robie started the Excelsior Supply Company in Chicago in 1876. The company was a distributor, specializing in sewing machine parts. During the 1880s, as the popularity of the bicycle grew, the company branched out into cycle parts, supplies, and accessories. Excelsior became a major supplier of bicycle equipment and bicycles in the United States and was one of the earliest importers of the safety bicycle.
When automobiles came on the scene, Excelsior again expanded its business to include automotive and machinery supplies. By 1905 it was one of the largest distributors of automobile supplies in the United States, advertising that they handled everything but the motor.
George Robie had one son, Frederick Carleton. In 1895 Frederick attended Purdue but, by the turn of the century, returned home to Chicago to join Excelsior. Frederick met Lora Hieronymous at a University of Chicago dance. Lora was the daughter of the president of the Illinois National Bank. They were married in 1902.
Frederick was interested in manufacturing complete vehicles, motorcycles and cars, but his father did not want the headaches of manufacturing, preferring to remain a distributor. However, Excelsior did become involved in the motorcycle vehicles, an easy extension of their bicycle business. They started selling some built-up machines, then debuted their newly designed single cylinder motorcycle in late 1907. The new motorcycle sold so well, the company had trouble keeping up with the orders.
With the business going well, Excelsior motorcycles were making their mark. The younger Robies had been living in an apartment in a residential hotel, but with a new family member on the way, decided to build a house. Lora wanted to live near the University of Chicago for the cultural events, so they purchased a lot in Hyde Park. Frederick contacted Frank Lloyd Wright to design the house that he had in mind. Lora Robie might have been the impetus for choosing Wright, as he had designed the library at the school where she taught before the Robies were married.
The architect and the manufacturer seemed to hit it off immediately. Robie had a clear idea of what he wanted. Among other requirements for the house were a walled yard for safety and privacy, overhangs to provide shade, and a three-car garage with a built-in car wash and a pit for working on his vehicles. Construction began in 1909 and the house was completed in 1910. By the time the Robies moved in, Wright had already left to study in Europe, with the wife of another client, leaving his family behind.
Although the Robies only lived in the house for about two years, it is still known as the Robie House. Today it is considered the epitome of Wright's Prairie House style and is ranked as one of his most important designs. The manufacture and sale of Excelsior motorcycles helped to make possible this masterpiece of American architecture.


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April 17, 2013: The District of Lake Country wishes to proceed with Loan Authorization Bylaw (WWTP Stage 3) 861, 2013, which authorizes the borrowing of up to $1,070,000 to fund a portion of the $7 million Wastewater Treatment Plant Stage 3 Upgrade. Find out more.
Upcoming EventsMay28Satall-day National Celebration for Make a ... @ Wood Lake RV Park & MarinaNational Celebration for Make a ... @ Wood Lake RV Park & MarinaMay 28 all-dayLake Country’s Wood Lake RV Park and Marina will be participating in a national celebration for the Make-A-Wish Foundation this weekend. Go RVing Canada is inviting campers to participate in an impactful event on Saturday May 28 to raise funds … READ MORE8:00 am The Lakes Community Garage Sale @ The Lakes Community - various housesThe Lakes Community Garage Sale @ The Lakes Community - various housesMay 28 @ 8:00 am – 1:00 pmVisit the Lakes Community website for more information. Houses participating will be clearly marked. All interested households can register to participate in advance during the first two weeks of May.10:00 am Firefighters Car Wash fundraiser... @ Save-On Foods lower parking lot on Main StreetFirefighters Car Wash fundraiser... @ Save-On Foods lower parking lot on Main StreetMay 28 @ 10:00 am – 2:00 pmThe Lake Country firefighters are hosting a Car Wash & BBQ (hot dogs & hamburgers) by donation with all proceeds to go to Angel Award program (all proceeds go to The Arthritis Society specifically earmarked for research to Juvenile Idiopathic … READ MORE7:30 pm Jeff Piattelli – singer songwriter @ Creekside TheatreJeff Piattelli – singer songwriter @ Creekside TheatreMay 28 @ 7:30 pmJeff Piattelli, is a self-taught singer-songwriter based out of Kelowna BC. He developed a love and passion for music at a very young age, starting with learning to play the piano, and a few years later with singing and playing … READ MOREMay31Tue6:30 pm Tuesday Yoga at Oyama Community ... @ Oyama Community HallTuesday Yoga at Oyama Community ... @ Oyama Community HallMay 31 @ 6:30 pm – 8:45 pmEvery Tuesday starting May 17th Fit Flow Yoga with Michelle Rose from 6:30-7:30pm and then Yin Yoga with Mark Atherton from 7:45-8:45pm. Drop in to one class or stay for both. Your first class is by donation and the proceeds … READ MOREJun4Sat8:30 am COPA for Kids 2016 @ Kelowna Flying Club at YLWCOPA for Kids 2016 @ Kelowna Flying Club at YLWJun 4 @ 8:30 am – 2:00 pmOn June 4th, more than 180 Okanagan youth from the ages of eight to 17 will be taking to the skies with pilots generously providing their expertise, time and planes and volunteers from the Kelowna Flying Club organising the event. … READ MORE11:00 am New Home Expo at Cadence at The ... @ Cadence at The LakesNew Home Expo at Cadence at The ... @ Cadence at The LakesJun 4 @ 11:00 am – 5:00 pmCadence at The Lakes Adult Community invites you to attend their first ever New Home Expo! Stop by on Saturday, June 4th, 2016 from 11am-5pm and see everything that Cadence has to offer. The New Home Expo will feature an open house with … READ MORE7:30 pm Tribute to ABBA and Tribute to F... @ Creekside TheaterTribute to ABBA and Tribute to F... @ Creekside TheaterJun 4 @ 7:30 pmARRIVAL, the Official ABBA Tribute Band Playing hundreds of sold out live shows, the ABBA tribute band ARRIVAL has a sound and stage show that has been honed and fine-tuned to such a degree that they have many times actually … READ MOREJun5Sun8:00 am Oyama Fun Day @ Oyama Community HallOyama Fun Day @ Oyama Community HallJun 5 @ 8:00 am – 3:00 pmThe Oyama Community Club would like to invite you to join us in celebrating our annual Oyama Fun Day to be held on Sunday June 5th, 2016. This fun-packed family celebration gets underway at 8:00am with a Pancake Breakfast, Silent … READ MOREJun6Mon7:00 pm Amanda Lindhout fundraiser for r... @ Trinity Church KelownaAmanda Lindhout fundraiser for r... @ Trinity Church KelownaJun 6 @ 7:00 pmThe Central Okanagan Refugee Committee is pleased to be hosting Amanda Lindhout on Monday, June 6th, 2016 in Kelowna, BC. This is Ms. Lindhout’s only scheduled appearance in BC in 2016 thus far. Amanda Lindhout was a freelance journalist that … READ MORE
Events Calendar: Email email@example.com if you want your community event listed.
Alternative Approval Process for Wastewater Treatment Plant Upgrade
April 26, 2013

domain: hobby


text:
Thread: 2004 XT 1000 Limbs 70#
08-02-2005, 12:24 AM #1
2004 XT 1000 Limbs 70#
I have a set of XT1000 limbs that came of a 2004 Hoyt XTec (Camo). These are 116 deflection and are just like new. The bows was converted to an 80#.
Can ship these to your door for $100.
By sparky357 in forum WTB: Want to Buy Archery ItemsReplies: 0Last Post: 03-09-2008, 11:23 AM
By Joe_P. in forum General Archery ForumReplies: 19Last Post: 08-05-2007, 11:53 PM
By kbohunt in forum General Archery ForumReplies: 18Last Post: 07-31-2007, 08:20 PM
By brokenarrow in forum General Archery ForumReplies: 5Last Post: 04-01-2007, 09:56 PM
By BUNNYMAN in forum OfftopicReplies: 4Last Post: 05-05-2006, 12:24 AM


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A broad forum for the Igbos, the Nigerians and the World. It covers topics on Igbo cultures & traditions, romance, technology, business and entertainment with a lot of jokes, laughs and banters.
Free forum : CU ADDICTUS: AN EXTENDED GROUP OF CUTE UNLIMITED
Forum gratis : We're an online community where we can speak our minds on a variety of topics.
The Seng Keng Peng Club!!. The Seng Keng Peng Club. skp The Seng Keng Peng Club
Free forum : Welcome to TBC. CSCZ clan all about having fun. If you enjoy scriming, messing around, or just all around fun try tou for TBC
a place for storage, health and all my tutorials
Free forum : This is our class's forum :D. Free forum : 8-5 Forum
RBD Sin Limites para siempre Serbia!El foro para verdaderos rebeldes y fans de grupo mas celestial de todo el mundo~RBD!
Free forum : A site for my friend and I where we can just chill and RPG.
Immortality Doesn't Exist. The Presence Confederation
Free forum : Tfsupreme 2. Battle for the allspark forums
Vidz-Weiss. Vidz-Weiss: Underground Forum. Free forum,
Free forum : Team =SoLs=. Free forum : Team =SoLs=. Free forum,
9/b/ & Co. forum. The 9/b/ forum. Free forum Forum 9/b/ 9/b/ & Co. 9b,
A forum filled with only cool people!
Free forum : The Meta-Forum of Environmental Forums


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Daniel Craig Pictures
Karlovy Vary, Czech Republic :: Here are the latest pictures of 38-year-old actor Daniel Craig (James Bond) and 25-year-old actress Eva Green (Vesper Lynd) on the set of Casino Royale (Release Date :: November 17, 2006). Craig looking spiffy in a suit, Green looking very retro. They’re both looking lethal! Green ranked #20 in this year’s Maxim Hot 100 List. More pictures from the Casino Royale set in the gallery as well as outtakes of Daniel Craig in Arena Magazine UK.
WATCH :: Casino Royale Trailer
Daniel Craig :: Arena Magazine UK

domain: celebrity


New Ansty community and sports centre almost completed
A new community and sports centre in Ansty is nearing completion, with work already underway on the internal decoration.
The Ansty Village Community Trust (AVCT) has raised £764,000 for the project and Mid Sussex District Council has supported them by allocating a further £697,000 in Section 106 developer contributions.
The AVCT is a partnership between the parish council, the village hall, the sports and social club, and Ansty Cricket Club, who are all working together to create a vibrant new central hub for village residents, visitors and the wider community of Mid Sussex to enjoy.
Once complete, the new building will include a new village hall, which will provide a valuable community space for use by many groups, including a kitchen and audio-visual facilities.
The sports and recreation facilities will be improved, with a new clubhouse and much larger changing rooms for local sports clubs.


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A Hong Kong tribunal said Moody’s Investors Service must pay HK$11 million (US$1.4 million) for errors made in a July 2011 report that highlighted “red flags” at certain Chinese companies.
The Securities and Futures Appeals Tribunal upheld parts of a 2014 disciplinary action taken by the Securities and Futures Commission against Moody’s, which it fined US$3 million.
The tribunal said the ratings agency breached the Hong Kong securities regulator’s code of conduct but didn’t act dishonestly, the Wall Street Journal reported.
The SFC previously said Moody’s committed “mathematical” and “input” errors in a 2011 report that outlined weak corporate governance and accounting practices at certain Chinese firms.
Shares and bond prices at those companies tumbled even as some disputed the allegations.
“Moody’s appreciates the reduction in the fine, however we didn’t engage in misleading conduct and we disagree that the SFC should be able to regulate the content of research publications,” a Moody’s spokesman said in an email.
Moody’s said it is considering its options.
The ratings agency didn’t contest the errors but said they had a limited impact on the overall accuracy of the report.
It said the report wasn’t an official credit-ratings action and therefore outside the SFC’s purview.
In its ruling on Thursday, the tribunal said the publication of the report was a “regulated activity” but didn’t find that Moody’s had acted dishonestly.
While reducing the fine to reduced its fine by US$1.6 million, the tribunal ordered Moody’s to pay 60 percent of the SFC’s legal expenses.
– Contact us at [email protected]

domain: economics


text:
Harry Potter Shatters Box Office
Boy wonder has shattered box office records across the globe. The fifth installment in the "Harry Potter" series earned a reported $330 million in only 5 days (!) prompting Warner Bros to brand the movie the highest grossing of the franchise of all time.
Have the moviegoers been hungry for a new Potter adventure or are those aged and sexed-up teenagers better at luring mass audiences into movie theaters? Whatever the case, Harry Potter 5 is a smash of gigantic proportions. Ironically, diluted by Wednesday and Thursday its weekend gross was the lowest of all previous movies.
Meanwhile, with the current lifetime gross at $223 million "Transformers" has now become the highest grossing robot-themed movie of all time surpassing Terminator: The Judgment Day.
Katherine Heigl's comedy "Knocked Up" has now earned more than $141 million in the US alone. The movie cost only $30 million to produce and is one of this year's biggest success stories.
Meanwhile, "Live Free or Die Hard" is on a good way to become the highest grossing Die Hard movie of all time. Its current cume is $102 million. Die Hard 2 has thus far been the most successful with $117 million. The movie however cost $110 million to produce, so it will have to earn double that amount to become profitable (its current worldwide gross is $194 million).
Now here's what the rest of the weekend domestic box office cume looks like:
1. "Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix," $77.4 million.
2. "Transformers," $36 million.
3. "Ratatouille," $18 million.
4. "Live Free or Die Hard," $10.9 million.
5. "License to Wed," $7.4 million.
6. "1408," $5.01 million.
7. "Evan Almighty," $5 million.
8. "Knocked Up," $3.7 million.
9. "Sicko," $2.65 million.
10. "Ocean's Thirteen," $1.9 million.

domain: entertainment


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Lots More Information
HowStuffWorks explores the Mandela effect, aka the Nelson Mandela effect, where many people remember the same thing happening that never occurred.
More Great Links
- Banich, Marie T., and Rebecca J. Compton. "Cognitive Neuroscience, Third Edition." Cengage Learning, 2011.
- BBC. "A Job for the Hippocampus." (July 24, 2011). http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/memory/understand/hippocampus.shtml
- Brodal, Per. "The Central Nervous System: Structure and Function, Second Edition." Oxford University Press, 2010.
- Dozier, Rush W., Jr. "Why We Hate: Understanding, Curbing, and Eliminating Hate in Ourselves and Our World." Mcgraw-Hill Professional, 2003.
- Fiori, Nicole. "Cognitive Neuroscience." Armand Colin Publisher, 2006.
- Frijda, Nico H. "The Emotions." Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge, 1986.
- Gillihan, Seth J. at al. "Memories affect mood: Evidence from covert experimental assignment to positive, neutral, and negative memory recall." Center for Cognitive Neuroscience, Department of Psychology, University of Pennsylvania, July 20, 2006. (July 13, 2011). http://www.psych.upenn.edu/~mfarah/Emotion-Memoriesaffectmood.pdf
- Gorman, Phil. "Motivation and Emotion." Psychology Press, 2004.
- Gutman, Sharon A. "Quick Reference Neuroscience for Rehabilitation Professionals." SLACK Incorporated, 2008.
- Kalat, James W. "Biological Psychology, Tenth Edition." Cengage Learning, 2009.
- Lewis, Michael at al. "Handbook of Emotions, Third Edition." The Guilford Press, 2008.
- Licinio, Julio, and Ma-Li Wong. "Biology of Depression: From Novel Insights to Theraputic Strategies, Volume I." Wiley-VCH, 2005.
- Michael-Titus et al. "The Nervous System." Elsevier Health Sciences, 2007.
- National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke. "Brain Damage Disrupts Emotions and Mood." National Institutes of Health, May 5, 1992. (July 13, 2011). http://www.ninds.nih.gov/news_and_events/news_articles/pressrelease_braindamage_050592.htm
- National Institutes of Mental Health. "Imaging Identifies Brain Regions and Chemicals Underlying Mood Disorders; May Lead to Better Treatments." National Institutes of Health, May 6, 2008. (July 20, 2011). http://www.nimh.nih.gov/science-news/2008/imaging-identifies-brain-regions-and-chemicals-underlying-mood-disorders-may-lead-to-better-treatments.shtml
- Nazario, Brunilda, MD. "Serotonin: 9 Questions and Answers." WebMD. (July 21, 2011). http://www.webmd.com/depression/recognizing-depression-symptoms/serotonin
- Nicholas, Lionel. "Introduction to Psychology, Second Edition." UCT Press, 2008.
- Thompson, Jason. "Emotionally Dumb: An Overview of Alexithymia." Soul Books, 2009.
- Zillmer, Eric et al. "Principles of Neuropsychology." Cengage Learning, 2008.

domain: library


Noonan: no mini-budget for 2012 despite leak
Finance Minister Michael Noonan last night dismissed talk of a mini-budget this year, after suggestions of more cuts to come in a leaked EU report.
The Government admitted it is concerned about the latest leaking of a document about the Irish economy.
The draft report by the European Commission suggested further budgetary measures may be needed here if economic growth did not improve.
The report was leaked from the German parliament -- the same source as another confidential EU report on the Irish economy late last year.
Taoiseach Enda Kenny said Mr Noonan had written to the EU economics commissioner Olli Rehn over the document.
Mr Noonan said the leaking was a "matter of concern to the Irish Government".
"It is a European working paper. It is not an Irish government document but the European Commission, when they provide information on a confidential basis they should ensure their procedures are sufficient to ensure confidentiality."
But Mr Noonan ruled out a mini-budget because the Government would reach its target of reducing borrowing this year to 8.6pc of economic output.
In November, there was a political row over a leak from the Bundestag finance committee of the Government's draft December Budget, showing the planned increase in VAT before the proposals had been seen by the Dail.


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My 7-year-old read this to me over four/five evenings. This is a kids' version of the famous Shakespeare play Macbeth. It explains some of the complicated concepts of the original story in simple ways. This works well. For example the way Macduff is explained to not be born of woman is put across in a way that is easy to understand for children. The book does seem to miss some famous phrases from the original play though like "Hubble, bubble, toil and trouble."
The story contains a lot of bloodthirstiness which could be inappropriate for children, and these were my initial thoughts as we read through it. My worries were allayed though by a 2-page section at the back of the book that explains why the evil in Macbeth took place, and what was driving the killing spree of Macbeth.
The other bit at the back of the book is called "Shakespeare and the Globe Theatre". This brings alive the time of Shakespeare and his plays, and talks about Elizabethan society and how the audiences behaved. For example "audiences at the Globe were smelly".
As well as the text there are illustrations. Throughout there are plenty of black and white illustrations which help with the picturing of the text.
Overall this book is a good idea as it brings Shakespeare to a younger audience, but may be a bit bloodthirsty for some so one of the other books in the series may be more to your preference. The books can also be bought as a complete set if you wanted.
Publication date: 30 October 2003
Amazon UK link: Macbeth: A Shakespeare Story


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- Contract Packaging
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Alert: Packaging World now enhanced for the iPad and iPhone. Watch a quick video preview
Article | October 31, 1997
Supplier news: International agreements
Arakawa Chemical Industries Ltd. (Osaka, Japan) and Dow Chemical Co. (Midland, MI) have formed Arakawa Europe GmbH (Frankfurt, Germany) to sell Arkon(TM) hydrocarbon resins, which are used as tackifiers in various adhesive applications.
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domain: chemistry


text:
By Tom Charles
Before he plays a Westcott show Monday, March 18, 20 Watts catches up with the ever-evolving DJ, who explains why he keeps coming back to Syracuse and the way he’s crafted his image.
Check out our gallery from the 3/18 show.
Paper Diamond (birth name Alex Botwin) can’t get enough of Syracuse. Having just played a set here in November with The Knocks, the Boulder, Colo.-based DJ is already coming back to the Westcott Theater tonight, this time opening for dubstep ear-bleeder Excision. This’ll be his fifth set in Cuse in the past three years, and like any true Orangeman, he “eats at Alto Cinco every time [he] plays in Syracuse.”
It’s the Westcott Theater’s intimate atmosphere that keeps drawing Paper Diamond back. “I love to play at big festivals,” he says, “but I think it’s really a blast playing small clubs where you can see everyone’s reactions.” Lately, much of this fun has come at the expense of “brotem poles” — bros sitting on other bros’ shoulders, filling a role formerly reserved for children and girls in crop-tops — for which he’s been filtering out the music just to call the dudes out mid-set. “There are some funny people out there,” he says kiddingly, “but I’m funny, too, so what can you say?”
This level of direct fan engagement is what keeps Paper Diamond going. “I really spend a lot of time focusing on every aspect of the Paper Diamond project,” he said. “I feel like that’s what makes me different from everyone else.” And he’s probably right. From the music and images released, flyers used for promotion, all the way down to the routing of what cities and venues to play at, the DJ has a hand in everything that comes out of the Paper Diamond brand. He hand-chooses his openers, designs and builds his website, and does all project artwork…all usually from the back of his tour bus.
Perhaps his most impressive non-musical contribution to his brand came when he personally designed the LED stage setup he used while touring last year. “I don’t have to be so involved with the process,” says the DJ, “but I chose to be. I want to know that things are being done properly. It’s afforded me to not only focus on the musical but on the visual aspect of the project as well.”
Days before his interview with 20 Watts, Paper Diamond got his first tattoo: a penrose triangle, which he uses as a reminder to keep working hard: “Basically, it’s an impossible shape unless you’re looking at it from just the right angle,” he says. “I’m constantly reminded that anything is possible if you work really hard and set your minds to it.”
Paper Diamond’s new EP, Paragon, is due for release April 16. Listen to the record’s first track, “They Can’t Tell Me Nothing,” above. Tickets for his concert with Excision and Vaski tonight at The Westcott Theater cost $30. Music starts at 8 p.m.


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There are many reasons why a lot of people play casino situs slot online games. Some do it for fun, while others do it for real money. Those who really love playing casino games may be willing to put in real money to win. Others prefer to play casino games with friends and family, while some choose to play it without having to worry about losing real money. Regardless of what your reason is, there are things that you should know about playing casino games.
One of the things that you need to know about playing casino slots for real money is that you can lose a lot of money while playing online slot machines. When you play online slot machines for real money, the odds of winning are always against you. This is because of the design of the slots. Slots are designed to keep the reels rolling indefinitely until someone wins something from them. Once someone wins a spin on a machine, the casino will stop the game and all winnings will be lost.
This is the reason why slots are not a good game to play for those who are trying to win at the slots. Playing online slot machines for real money is a lot like playing poker. If you are not that good at playing poker, then you will want to stick with playing online games. The same goes for those who are good at playing slots. Playing slots with the idea of trying to win will only increase your chances of losing more money. Avoiding this by not playing with an idea of trying to win, will increase your chances of actually winning some money from slot machines.
Also, it will help you avoid some of the bad habits that people often have when they play slots for real money. For example, it is a good idea not to go to the same casino all of the time. Choosing to go to different casinos for your slots could mean that you miss out on some of the big bonuses that are offered at the casino you are playing in. If you go to the same casino all of the time, then you might become dependent on the slots that you are currently playing at. It can be easy to get addicted to a casino and play too much, which will cost you more money in the long run.
Another thing to keep in mind is that if you have a slow computer, then you might not be able to play slots as well as you would have hoped. Slots that are set to give out a very low jackpot usually take longer to fill up than normal, which means that if you want to win more money, then you will have to play more of these slots. This is especially true if you have a slow internet connection. When you play the slots, it is important that you set the timer to match the speed of your computer.
As with everything else in life, there are some free slots that are on the internet. Some of these free slots can end up giving out more or less the same amount of money as regular slots do, but they do not have all of the games that you would find in a real casino. These free slots tend to have good graphics and a lot of color, so they can catch people’s attention. On the downside, these bonuses do not pay out as much as what you would expect for them to do. Also, there is no guarantee as to how many jackpots you will hit with these free slots, so you can end up getting the same amount of money from them over again.
You could also try out the 7 Wonders of the World slot machine, which has two jackpots worth a total of seven million dollars. This may sound impressive, but the actual payout for this machine is actually quite low. The biggest single hit that you could get off of this machine is a measly two hundred dollars. Even with this good performance, the payout was not anywhere near the one thousand dollar jackpots that you would get off of other machines.
If you are looking for a way to add up on your winnings, then you may want to try out the seven Wonders of the World slot machine. You do get a good amount for your money with this slot, but it is not going to be the kind of money that you would expect to see with other slot machines. In addition, the paylines on this machine are excellent, and the reels are not the most likely to stop and start. All in all, if you are looking for a good way to add up on your winnings at home while you are not actually playing the slots, then the seven Wonders of the World slot machine is something that you should check out.

domain: game


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Food is a part of our everyday lives, but how often do we think about where it came from? Having a large country has its perks, such as having a region to grow almost any crop we could want. However, many of your favorite dishes may be able to be grown locally if you prefer knowing exactly where your meal originated. Let’s examine where some of the most popular food and drink may travel from this holiday season to make it to your table.
Are you one of the millions of Americans who contribute to the biggest bar night of the year? That’s right, more people go out the night before Thanksgiving than any other night. If you’re planning on having an adult beverage or two, take a moment to thank a farmer for the main ingredients! Below are the crops that are required for some of the most popular drinks.
Beer: You can count on malt barley and hops to be present in whichever beer you choose. Hops and barley are both grown throughout the country and the world, and selected based on quality and flavor attributes. The Northwestern U.S. produces most of the hops and grains used for domestic beer production.
Vodka: Although vodka can technically be made from many fruits or sugar sources, the majority is made from the U.S.’s No. 1 vegetable crop: potatoes. Unsurprisingly, Idaho leads the country in potato production.
Whiskey (or “whisky,” for the Canadians): Rye, corn, barley, and wheat may all be used to make this classic libation. For those wondering the difference between whiskey and bourbon, bourbon must meet the following criteria:
- Must be made in the United States.
- Must contain 51 percent corn.
- Must be aged in new oak charred barrels.
- Must be distilled to no more than 160 proof and entered into the barrel at 125 proof.
- Must be bottled at no less than 80 proof.
- Must not contain any added flavoring, coloring or other additives.
Once Thanksgiving Day rolls around we have one thing on our mind: food. Being involved with agriculture makes me appreciate all the hard work that goes into every delicious dish that has become associated with the holiday. Read on to see if you or your family can guess where each of these foods is most likely produced.
Turkey: Although commercial sales are recorded in every state but Hawaii, the most turkey production occurs Minnesota, Arkansas, the Carolinas, or Virginia. Small farms exist in every state, but the major producers (hundreds of thousands of birds) need access to lots of corn and soybean for feed.
Sweet potatoes: This crop prefers long, hot summers and are grown almost exclusively in the southern half of the U.S. The majority are from North Carolina, Mississippi, Louisiana, or California.
Cranberries: In contrast to sweet potatoes, cranberries grow best in northern climates. This is due the winter dormancy period required for growth. And since production typically occurs in natural wetlands due to the extreme demand for water, almost all U.S. cranberries come from Massachusetts, Wisconsin, Oregon, or Washington
Green beans: Top states include Wisconsin, Florida, Oregon, Michigan, New York, and Georgia. However, many other states have over 1,000 acres planted per year as well. The areas with the most production typically occur because of their proximity to processing factories, since green beans can grow well throughout much of the U.S.
Pumpkin pie: Do you make sure to save room for this classic Thanksgiving dessert, even though you just finished eating yourself into a food coma? Well there’s at least a 90 percent chance that your pumpkin pie filling came from Illinois, which produces about a half a billion pounds of pumpkins per year!
Regardless of which foods make the cut in your family’s Thanksgiving traditions, take some time to be thankful for how easily we can access them in this country. The fact that we can pick up our favorite foods from around the country, or even world, at our local grocery store is truly amazing. Happy Thanksgiving!
Michael Swoish is a Michigan State alum who’s currently pursuing his Ph.D. in soil science at Virginia Tech. Michael has taught classes on precision agriculture and has traveled the country to get as much dirt time as possible.


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Regions / China
Interpreting China's military expenditure has been a complicated issue with important regional implications. Although China publishes its official defense budget and provides justifications for increases in its military spending, most observers remain skeptical of the accuracy of the official figures and wary of the military modernization efforts. This skepticism has shaped the responses of other Asia-Pacific nations toward China's military modernization.
Is the world's future resource map tilting east?
It might be the world's largest free trade area, writes columnist Walden Bello, but Southeast Asia is still getting a raw trade deal from China.
The two most populous countries in the world have a great trade relationship. But, as columnist Conn Hallinan explains, they are also on the verge of war.
Like Hamlet, Shakespeare's conflicted Prince of Denmark, China was caught between conflicting currents in Copenhagen. Its failure to manage these challenges, argues columnist Walden Bello, led to its biggest diplomatic debacle in years.
A new battle is underway between the United States and China over Angola's oil resources.
Dharamsala is where Tibet 2.0 is being created.
Conn Hallinan shows how the map of conflict corresponds all too well with the map of future energy supplies.
Twenty years later, we are still waiting for our invitation to the Cold War's funeral.
China's stimulus package is not likely to bail out either the Chinese peasants or the global economy.

domain: geography


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