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Gas fluxes from lakes and other stratified water bodies, computed using conservative values of the gas transfer coefficient k600, have been shown to be a significant component of the carbon cycle. We present a mechanistic analysis of the dominant physical processes modifying k600 in a stratified lake and resulting new models of k600 whose use will enable improved computation of carbon fluxes. Using eddy covariance results, we demonstrate that i) higher values of k600 occur during low to moderate winds with surface cooling than with surface heating; ii) under overnight low wind conditions k600 depends on buoyancy flux β rather than wind speed; iii) the meteorological conditions at the time of measurement and the inertia within the lake determine k600; and iv) eddy covariance estimates of k600 compare well with predictions of k600 using a surface renewal model based on wind speed and β.
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 Lakes and reservoirs are sources of climatically-active gases to the atmosphere and are a significant component of the global carbon budget [Cole et al., 2007]. Consequently, it is of critical importance that carbon fluxes from lakes be accurately estimated. Computations of carbon fluxes from lakes most often rely on gas transfer coefficients (k600) and in most cases use conservative values of k600 or wind-based equations [Cole and Caraco, 1998]. The gas transfer coefficient k600, however, depends upon the turbulence at the air-water interface [Banerjee and MacIntyre, 2004; McGillis et al., 2004] which does not depend upon wind alone. For instance, the turbulence from heat loss that occurs when buoyancy fluxes (β) are negative often exceeds that from wind mixing in tropical lakes and is the dominant cause of mixing in many small lakes world-wide [MacIntyre et al., 2002; MacIntyre and Melack, 2009]. Stratification, which acts to suppress turbulence, is associated with a positive β, and is not considered in wind-based models. The surface renewal model, which can be formulated as k600 = c1 (ɛν) 0.25 is an alternate approach to wind-based models as it explicitly takes into account the suite of processes which influence turbulence near the air-water interface [Soloviev and Schluessel, 1994; MacIntyre et al., 1995, 2001; Zappa et al., 2007; Turney and Banerjee, 2008]. In this model, ɛ is the rate of dissipation of turbulent kinetic energy in the water near the interface and characterizes the turbulence, ν is the kinematic viscosity, and c1 is an empirically derived, depth dependent coefficient. Despite its potential to accurately quantify the physical processes causing gas flux, and despite the importance of lakes in carbon budgets [Cole et al., 2007], the surface renewal model has rarely been applied to describe gas flux in lakes [Crill et al., 1988; Vachon et al., 2010].
 Estimating gas flux with the eddy covariance technique (EC) (reviewed by Wanninkhof et al. ), for which averages are obtained over 30 minute intervals, allows computation of k600 on the time scale of changes in meteorological forcing, thermal structure of the surface layer of lakes and oceans, and turbulence at the air-water interface. The gas transfer coefficient k is computed as k = Fc / (Cw − αCa) where Fc is flux in moles per unit area per unit time, Cw and Ca are the concentrations of gas across the air-water interface, and α is the Ostwald solubility coefficient; k is normalized to correspond to CO2 at 20°C and denoted as k600. The relative role of different physical processes in producing or damping turbulence can be assessed by comparing k600 derived from eddy covariance measurements (k600EC) with k600 computed from estimates of ɛ under different meteorological conditions. Models of k600 that take into account this variability can be developed as needed for improved estimates of gas flux.
 The time series measurements of meteorology, water temperature, and k600EC from EC measurements [Jonsson et al., 2008; Aberg et al., 2010] are reanalyzed here in the context of turbulence production at the air-water interface to develop models of k600. We compute ɛ using the empirical model of Lombardo and Gregg , k600 using the surface renewal model, and compare the modeled estimates with those obtained from eddy covariance to evaluate the processes determining k600 and the applicability of the surface renewal model. We develop regressions for k600 as a function of wind speed for β > 0 and β < 0.
 Measurements from Lake Meräsjarvi, Sweden (67°33′00″N, 21°58′30″E; surface area 3.8 km2) from 2 July to 3 are used in this reanalysis (Figure 1). Following Imberger  and MacIntyre et al. [2002, 2009], we compute the depth of the actively mixing layer (zAML); effective heat flux; buoyancy flux β; water side Monin-Obukhov length scale divided by mixed layer depth (Lw/zAML); and buoyancy frequency (N). Temperature was measured with thermocouples (accuracy of 0.2°C) at 0.5 m intervals in the upper three meters and thermistors (accuracy of 0.5°C) at ∼1 m intervals from the surface to the bottom. In defining zAML, the requisite step change in temperature from the surface temperature is set equivalent to the accuracy of the loggers. Values of net short wave radiation, visible radiation (∼400 nm to 700 nm), net long wave radiation, and the diffuse attenuation coefficient (kd = 0.22 m−1) are necessary to calculate effective heat flux and β. To estimate net short wave radiation from the net radiation measurements by Jonsson et al. , we approximate net long wave radiation as −50 W m−2 based on typical values for arctic lakes [MacIntyre et al., 2009] and add it to net radiation. Downwelling visible radiation is then estimated as 43% of net short wave radiation. The measured wind speeds (measurements initially at 2.6 m but primarily at 1.6 m) were corrected to 10 m height following Jonsson et al. . Following the logic of Jonsson et al.  we use all values of k600 < 40 cm hr−1 in this analysis. The atmosphere was neutral or slightly unstable for much of the study period, Monin-Obukhov length scale L < = 0 (data not shown). We rejected values of k600 when L > 0 as we suspected a footprint problem at those times.
 Dissipation rates, ɛ were computed from β and the water friction velocity u*w following Lombardo and Gregg . ɛ = 0.84(0.58β + 1.76u*w3/kz) where the coefficients were determined empirically; k is the von Karman constant and z is depth. u*w is computed from shear stress at the air-water interface assuming it is equal on either side of the interface, giving τw = ρwu*w2 = τa = ρau*a2 where τa and τw are shear stress on air and water side of the air-water interface; u*a is the air friction velocity computed from measured wind speeds following MacIntyre et al. ; and ρa and ρw are density of air and water respectively. Following Imberger  we let z = zAML. Computation of ɛ with β instead of w*, the velocity scale for convection, as by Imberger , allows a portion of the turbulence to be damped when heating occurs. The gas transfer coefficient from these dissipation estimates using the surface renewal model was computed as k600SR = c1(ɛ ν)1/4 with c1 = 1.2.
3.1. Meteorology, k600, and Lake Thermal Structure
 The magnitude of the gas transfer coefficients varied over diel cycles as winds varied and as the lake heated and cooled (Figure 1). Initially winds were weak, air temperatures in the day exceeded lake temperatures, and a shallow diurnal thermocline (maximum buoyancy frequency Nmax = 15 cycles per hour, cph), overlay the seasonal thermocline with Nmax < 10 cph (Figure 1, 2–9 July). As the water column heated, zAML became shallow (Figures 1b and 1e), and k600EC had near zero values when winds were less than 2 m s−1. Values at night, when zAML increased with cooling and light winds, often exceeded 10 cm hr−1. Air temperatures declined and wind speeds increased beginning on 10 July, and the diurnal thermocline deepened and merged with the seasonal thermocline (Figure 1e). The magnitude of k600EC increased and decreased as winds similarly increased and decreased (Figures 1a and 1d). k600EC reached 20–25 cm hr−1 when winds exceeded 6 m s−1. Values were lower when winds were light and the lake was gaining heat. Exceptions to this pattern occurred. For instance, k600EC exceeded 20 cm hr−1 near midnight when winds were light and the lake was losing heat (12 July). Computed ɛ during the period with higher winds ranged from 10−8 m2 s−3 to 10−6 m2 s−3 (Figure 2a) similar to observations in surface waters of other lakes [MacIntyre et al., 1999] with the highest values during windy periods. Values of ɛ computed following Lombardo and Gregg  from β alone (u* = 0), ɛβ, approached 10−7 m2 s−3. The dependence of k600EC on turbulence in the upper water column is indicated by the concurrent increases and decreases in k600EC and ɛ (Figures 2a and 2b). Similar patterns of change in k600SR and in k600EC provide evidence for the overall applicability of the surface renewal model (Figure 2b). In the following, we compare k600EC and k600SR for β < 0 and β > 0 to develop a mechanistic understanding of the processes affecting k600.
3.2. Dependence of k600 on β
 Wind speeds prior to and during cooling influenced the magnitude of k600EC (Figures 1d and 2b). During nocturnal cooling with the higher winds of 10 and 11 July, both k600SR and k600EC were elevated. Lw/zAML < = −1 at those times, indicating wind stress dominated turbulence production in the actively mixing layer. However, during a lull when Lw/ zAML → 0, such that buoyancy dominated turbulence production in near surface waters, k600EC stayed high and was higher than predicted based on ɛ. Surface currents or surface waves likely persisted and maintained the turbulence and resulting high values of k600EC. On 13 July, Lw/ zAML < = −1 during afternoon winds and k600EC ranged from 15–25 cm hr−1. As the wind decreased such that Lw/ zAML → 0, k600EC was initially 15 cm hr−1 but dropped to values below 5 cm hr−1 by early morning 14 July. Again, it appeared that as the wind decreased, the turbulence was initially sustained by residual currents or waves but as low winds persisted, the turbulence and k600EC decreased such that k600EC was similar to or slightly lower than k600SR computed from ɛβ, k600SR_β. Values of k600EC were of order 5 cm hr−1 during nocturnal cooling on 14–15 July when measured winds were light, and k600EC was well approximated by k600SR_β. These data indicate that the meteorological conditions at the time of measurement and the inertia within the lake determine the magnitude of turbulence and k600 when β < 0. When turbulence is induced by wind acting on the air-water interface (Lw/z < = ∼−1) or by preexisting currents, values of k600 are elevated. Values of k600 are lower when winds are light or remain light for some time. The close match between k600EC and k600SR_β early morning 13 and 14 July and late on 14 July and early morning 15 July suggests that k600 can be computed from β at such times.
 The response of k600EC to changes in wind speed when the upper water column is heating, β > 0 and Lw/zAML > 0, is variable. If winds were modest (4–7 m s−1) at night and in the morning, k600EC was in the range 10 to 15 cm hr−1 (Figure 2b; 11 July). When U10 < 4 m s−1 (Figure 2b; 11 and 15 July), and zAML shallowed, k600EC was less than predicted by k600SR and often decreased below 5 cm hr−1. The diminution, in contrast to observations when β < 0, indicates the wind induced turbulence was being damped by the heating and stratification. To quantify these effects, we follow Brainerd and Gregg  and introduce a damping coefficient c2 /zAML and compute dissipation as ɛ = 0.84(0.58β + (c2 /zAML)(1.76u*w3/kz)) when Lw/zAML> = 0 and measured winds < 3 m s−1. c2 likely depends on the degree of stratification; the improvement in the match of k600SR and k600EC with c2 = 0.08 on the afternoons of 11 and 15 July is illustrated in Figure 2b.
3.3. Regression Analyses
 The observations in 3.1 and 3.2 and the regressions in Figure 3 indicate that turbulence in the surface layer and k600 depend on wind speed and the heating or cooling of the upper water column. k600EC was independent of β when the lake was heating (β > 0, R2 = 0.47, p = 0.2), and negatively and significantly correlated to β when the lake was cooling (β < 0, R2 = 0.89, p< 0.005) (Figure 3, insert, binned data). Regressions of k600EC against U10 binned at intervals of 1 m s−1 are significant for β > 0 and β < 0 (β < 0, k600 = 2.04 (±0.35) U10 + 2.0 (±1.76), R2 = 0.88, p < 0.001; β > 0, k600 = 1.74 (±0.63) U10 − 0.15 (±2.43), R2 = 0.76, p = 0.024; all β, k600 = 2.25 (±0.33) U10 + 0.16 (±1.65), R2 = 0.91, p < 0.001, standard errors in parentheses). The slopes of the lines are within the 95% confidence intervals for both cases and for the combined data. The intercept is higher for β < 0 than for β > 0 although not statistically distinct. However for β < 0, over 40% of the measurements of k600EC exceeded 10 cm hr−1 whereas for β > 0, only 17% of the measurements were that high. Further, for U10 < 1.5 m s−1 and β > 0, average k600EC was slightly negative indicating minimal or no flux. Based on this evidence, we infer that the greater intercept for β < 0 is meaningful. Values of k600EC were higher than predicted using the regressions of Cole and Caraco  (Figure 3). Our results are similar to those reported by McGillis et al. , Zappa et al. , and Vachon et al. .
 Quantifying the gas transfer coefficient in terms of the processes which induce turbulence at the air-water interface is an essential step for accurately estimating gas fluxes as needed in studies of lake metabolism and for regional and global carbon budgets. Here, for the first time in a stratified lake, we show how k600 varies with wind forcing and buoyancy flux. Our approach involved modeling turbulence from surface meteorology to obtain estimates of the gas transfer coefficient which were then compared with estimates obtained from eddy covariance measurements. The overall successful match between k600EC and k600SR indicates that the turbulence at the air-water interface determines the gas transfer coefficient and that it can be computed using the surface renewal model. Our work confirms Zappa et al.  who suggested that the surface renewal model is a general model which would apply in numerous aquatic ecosystems, but we extend the model by showing how conditions within the surface layer modify the turbulence and resulting k600 during light to moderate winds. Our regression analysis demonstrates that k600 is higher when lakes are cooling as opposed to heating.
 The analysis of the surface renewal model, as presented here, provides a framework for quantifying k600 as meteorological forcing of lakes varies by latitude, size, and degree of sheltering. Finding that k600 depends on β alone during cooling with light winds is particularly important for modeling fluxes from small lakes which are numerically dominant in the landscape but which tend to have low winds at night. The damping of turbulence during light to moderate winds with heating may vary with lake size and optical properties as larger lakes may sustain higher currents and larger waves and clearer lakes will heat and stratify less rapidly than more turbid ones. Systematic effort is required to quantify the time scales for set up and decay of currents and waves and for the damping of turbulence.
 In contrast to the wind-based models generally used to compute gas flux, this study provides separate regressions for k600 against wind for daytime when the water column heats and from late afternoon through early morning or on cloudy days when cooling occurs. Thereby flux estimates can be considerably improved. Equations such as these, which are based on variables that can be readily measured or modeled over large spatial scales, enable improved regional carbon budgets. The modeling will be improved further by consideration of co-occurring processes. Concentrations of greenhouse gases vary in surface waters due to biological activity and with the entrainment which accompanies nocturnal cooling, fall cooling, and storms [Laurion et al., 2010; Aberg et al., 2010]. The combination of increased greenhouse gases in surface waters during these events and higher gas transfer coefficients means that gas fluxes will vary non-linearly over diel cycles with further enhancement during storms. Thus, regional and global fluxes of greenhouse gases from lakes may be considerably larger than current estimates.
 Funding was provided by the U.S. National Science Foundation grants DEB0640953, DEB0919603, and ARC0714085 to SM, the Swedish Research Council, the Kempe, Ebba and Sven Schwarts, and Längman Foundations. Brian Emery, Craig Nelson, Thomas Westin and Ingemar Bergström provided technical support. The manuscript was improved by the critical comments of J. M. Melack, S. Sadro and two anonymous reviewers.


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Disaffected teenager Charlie Lewis is finessed into joining a summer holiday drama camp by a girl he meets by chance. She is beautiful, clever and well-read; he can’t act, has zero ambition and is only there because he fancies her. Sweet Sorrow by David Nicholls is a pitch-perfect, delicately choreographed love story that will make you laugh and cry and wish you were young again – and then be glad you’re not.
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I’ve been a fan of Sevendust since the beginning, so being able to sit down with Morgan before their show at the Orbit Room was pretty awesome. Papa Roach had originally been headlining the show, but dropped off last minute to play somewhere else. Many people I know were bummed and even thought of cashing in their tickets for refunds, but it ended up being the best thing that could’ve happened. Morgan himself had mentioned how he thought Sevendust didn’t have much of a following in Grand Rapids and thought the show would be lacking an audience because of Papa Roach’s absence. Instead, it was the exact opposite. It was clear to see that everyone there was there for one reason: Sevendust. Plus, fans that night got much more than they expected, the band played some of their older hits, like “Bitch” and “Black”, and also treated the audience with tracks from their new album, Cold Day Memory. The band also took it down a bit and played a few acoustic tracks, all the while keeping the crowd entertained and happy their entire two hour set.
Here’s what Morgan had to say before the show:
Amanda: How does it feel to have the original line-up back for the new album?
Morgan: Love it. Clint has been back for a bit, it’s been two years but this is the first record since he’s been back.
Amanda: I love Cold Day Memory, I think the vocals amazing, and it’s Sevendust’s best album yet. How do you think it differs from the previous seven albums?
Morgan: Well, the last three were without Clint – It’s obvious just with his input on everything. We focused on song writing instead of trying to show off in areas, and we didn’t really think of structure too much before, so this time we just concentrated on making good songs.
Amanda: How has the crowds’ feedback been so far, towards the new album?
Morgan: It’s been killer; it’s the best I can ever remember us having, except for maybe Animosity when that came out, but the vibe feels the same.
Amanda: What are your favorite songs to play on stage?
Morgan: “Pieces” is my favorite probably, and I like the new album, I like “Splinter”. I think “Black” would be my least favorite, just because we’ve played it so many times. It got to a point where I just couldn’t play it anymore.
Amanda: What do you guys do on the bus to pass time, while you are on tour?
Morgan: Play a lot of online poker, and a lot of movies, got a lot of big screens in there, and TV’s in the bunks, so if you don’t feel like dealing with anybody, you can hide out in there.
Amanda: Do you guys have any inside jokes between the bands?
Morgan: Not this tour around. When we were out with Drowning Pool, they had a tech of theirs that they called Ã«Goldie’, and he would spray paint everything gold. We’d leave and play the show and come back, and all our food and everything would be spray painted.
Amanda: I’ve seen a few videos of you guys, where the band is singing walking the streets at night as a warm up – Do I sense a new single coming on?
Morgan: Haha – No, I don’t know what the new single off the new album is going to be, but I don’t think we’re going to do any new songs for a while.
Amanda: Where did the taping of your new video for “Unraveling” take place?
Morgan: Actually we didn’t even know that it existed. It was just an edit that the guy that did the DVD for the new record just put together, to kind of just give us our own personal video for it. I didn’t even know it was out, until somebody came up to me and mentioned that they saw the new video.
Amanda: I see you guys sporting Pitchfork gear a lot lately. Is Sevendust endorsed by them now?
Morgan: That’s Warren, our old guitar tech, he runs that company, so they give us a lot – We’re endorsed by a lot of different people. That was the new shipment that came in, and everybody tried not to wear the same thing, but we always end up wearing the same thing anyway.
Amanda: What do you like most about the music scene today, and how it’s changed from when you guys first started out in the 90’s?
Morgan: I don’t like it as much as I used to back then. There isn’t a whole lot of comrade left. A lot of the bands we toured with then are gone – You know, the Disturbeds and the Godsmacks are around, but most of the other bands are just gone.
Amanda: What do you think about today, with internet access, and how easy it is to get albums out to the public?
Morgan: It definitely helps out bands that don’t have deals, and even bands like us, who don’t have MTV anymore, but that whole thing that was there when I was kid, of dreaming of getting a record deal, and being put into a really unique group of people, that had a shot to do something special, is gone. Andy Warhol was totally wrong, its way more than 15 minutes of fame.
Amanda: On your guys’ acoustic album that you did a few years back, you did a tribute to Johnny Cash, what made you decide to go with the cover Hurt, rather than an original by Johnny?
Morgan: We had no plans of doing anything like that, we’re fans of his, and the day that we were filming that video and doing that show in Athens, was the day that he had died, and that song just seemed appropriate. We had already done a bunch of acoustic shows prior, and we hadn’t played it – I was gone the whole day, and I got there about two hours before the show, and they said you better figure out how to play it, because we’re playing it tonight, and we didn’t have a clue as to what we were doing. If you look at the video, you can see Clint playing and he’s looking down at the ground because he’s got the words written, since we had never practiced it before.
Amanda: What do you guys have in store for the future; do you foresee and end anytime soon?
Morgan: We have a lot left to do still, we finally got some good management, and we did a good record – that is what we had hoped to do. Make a good record and taking our time to write it, and we hadn’t had a lot of time to write the last three. It’s nice to have some extra time, and some management who knows what they’re doing, and who has a good track record, to be able to try and do something for us. We opened up the doors in Europe really big last year, so we’re going to do a lot over there, and we’re going to Korea at the end of June, and we’re going to Australia and Japan, and New Zeeland at the end of the year, so we have a long way to go – They never let us go home!
Amanda: So you guys are pretty much on tour then, for at least the next year, right?
Morgan: At least, probably more like a year and a half left.

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Drew Shore scored twice for the first multi-goal game of his career and the Panthers ended Pittsburgh’s club-record 13-game home winning streak with a 5-1 win Monday. Jonathan Huberdeau, Dmitry Kulikov and Shawn Matthias also scored for the Panthers, who won in Pittsburgh for the first time in five years. (AP)
Along with Paul Martin and James Neal, the Penguins also got Chuck Kobasew and Jayson Megna back into the lineup in Monday’s 5-1 loss to the Panthers. With Kobasew and Megna back, the auditions began in earnest for playing time alongside Sidney Crosby and Chris Kunitz on the top line to replace injured winger Pascal Dupuis. Kobasew began the game on the top line, but by the third period Jussi Jokinen was taking regular shifts with the duo. With Jokinen up from the second line, Taylor Pyatt took several third-period shifts alongside Neal and Evgeni Malkin. Megna previously skated with Malkin and Jokinen when Neal was out, but he played mostly a fourth-line role Monday. Once healthy, Beau Bennett is also a potential fit in the top six.
After one game in eight days, Monday began a sequence of 10 games in 19 days for the Penguins. Though the Penguins have a comfortable lead in the Eastern Conference, seven of those games will be against Eastern opponents. It’s an opportunity not only for the Penguins to strengthen their lead, but to do it while also getting healthy. “We’re looking at it as a challenge,” coach Dan Bylsma said. “We’re assimilating players back into the lineup, getting players who have been out for periods of time back in. But that’s not a new challenge for this group.” The Penguins open the stretch with five games in eight days.
With the Penguins on the power play late in the first period, Florida G Scott Clemmensen turned aside an Evgeni Malkin shot that skittered right to Panthers F Drew Shore. With four Penguins down low near the net, only Kris Letang was in position to try and stop the 2-on-1 that developed. Letang couldn’t, and Shore beat Marc-Andre Fleury for the 1-0 lead. It was the type of team-wide breakdown that set the tone for the rest of the night for the Penguins.
Monday’s loss to the Panthers was Pittsburgh’s first loss at home since November 15 (1-0 to Colorado). The loss snapped a franchise record 13-game winning streak at home.
The loss was also the Penguins’ first loss in regulation in seven games, and just their third in the last 18 games.
It was the first win for Florida in Pittsburgh at the Consol Energy Center. The last time the Panthers won in Pittsburgh was Jan. 3, 2009 at Mellon Arena. Florida’s win snapped an eight-game losing streak in Pittsburgh.
Craig Adams played in his 255th consecutive game Monday night. It is the fourth longest consecutive games played streak in Penguins history, one longer than Evgeni Malkin’s longest streak. The franchise record holder is Ron Schock, who played 313 consecutive games in the mid-1970s.
Monday’s game marked the fifth time this season that the Penguins were held scoreless through the first two periods.
All five Florida goals came at even strength, so the Penguins increased their league leading penalty killing percentage to 87.9 percent.
“We have to find a way to put 60 minutes together. Tonight, I don’t know if we put 10 together. We didn’t give ourselves a chance.” – Sidney Crosby

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