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The Tygon catalogue includes tubing, hoses & fittings, adhesive tapes, filtration systems and heat seal equipment. Tygon tubing is ideal for critical fluid transfer and beverage dispensing. These flexible tubes are made of PVC to resist abrasion, wear & corrosion, and provide tensile strengths up to 1800 psi. They offer a maximum hardness of 56 Shore A and can be operated at temperatures ranging from -67 to 165 degrees F.
Major Trade Names
S3TM E-3603 non-DEHP Laboratory Tubing
These non-toxic & non-contaminating tubes are ideal for condensers, desiccators, incubators, drain lines and gas lines. They provide the longest flex life of any clear Tygon tubing and minimise downti...Read more
S3TM E-LFL Clear Peristaltic Pump Tubing
It is suitable for printing ink transfer, surfactant delivery, drum & tank drainage, food & cosmetic processing, production filtration & fermentation, and flavour & vitamin concentrate dispensing. The...Read more
2475 I.B. High-Purity Pressure Tubing
Tygon 2475 I.B. high-purity pressure tubing features textile reinforcement for withstanding high pressures. They are used in deionised water systems, preservative & aseptic fill lines, Water for Injec...Read more
E-1000 Ultra-Soft Tubing
Tygon E-1000 Ultra-Soft tubing is softer than other Tygon tubing. These tubes are used in buffer solutions, peristaltic pumps, analytical instruments, vent & drain lines and synthesis & research setup...Read more
Frequently Asked Questions
Are phthalates dangerous to humans?
They are harmful to the neurological & reproductive systems of human beings, especially children.
What regulatory standards do Tygon S3 units comply with?
They comply with FDA, NSF, 3-A and REACH standards.
What is DEHP?
DEHP is an odourless & colourless organic chemical that is added to plastics for making them flexible.
What is Tygon S3 tubing made of?
Tygon S3 tubing is phthalate-free and is manufactured from a bio-based or NON-DEHP plasticiser.
How do I properly cut Tygon tubing?
- Use a permanent marker or cutter wheel to mark the tubing where the cut needs to be done.
- Clamp the tubing securely in a vice or clamp to prevent it from moving while cutting.
- Use a sharp, clean tubing cutter (specially designed for plastic tubing) and rotate around the tubing, applying gentle pressure.
- Avoid using a blade as it will crush or deform the tubing while making a cut.
- Make sure to keep the cutter wheel aligned with the marked line and rotate the cutter in a single direction until the tubing is fully cut.
- After cutting, remove any burrs from the inside and outside of the edge with the help of a deburring tool or sandpaper.
- Now, clean the cut edge with a dry cloth to remove any dust or debris before making any connection.
Can Tygon tubing be used for high-pressure applications?
Yes, Tygon thermoplastic tubing features a braid reinforcement that helps it to withstand high-pressure applications.
Can Tygon tubing be used in medical applications?
Tygon ND 100-80 tubing is used in the medical industry and is available in five extremely small sizes for varied applications. This tubing is formulated with a higher durometer to offer rigidity, allowing easy handling, yet it is soft enough to reduce problems like kinking and puncturing. It features a clear glass inner bore that aids the visual monitoring when used with intravenous solutions, dialysis and other medical devices.

domain: chemistry


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This news item is more than a year old. Links, graphics, content, medical information, and statistics may be out of date. We invite you to search, visit our homepage, or contact us to find more current information on the topic you're looking for.
Tobacco expert calls for clear party policies
REGINA 22 Sep 2008 - Shaine Peters of Regina is happy Conservative Leader Stephen Harper has made cracking down on tobacco products targeted toward children a Conservative party campaign promise.

domain: news


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More vulnerable children will have access to dental care following a new partnership between Denplan and Dentaid.
The fresh investment will fund 25 mobile ‘Denplan Outreach Clinics’ to help improve oral healthcare for those most in need.
It will also support Dentaid’s Brightbites, an oral health education programme that teaches children about the importance of teeth.
Demand has soared for Dentaid
Andy Evans, CEO of Dentaid said: ‘We are delighted to be working in partnership with Denplan.
‘This will enable us to provide outreach dental care for more of the most vulnerable people in our society. Thanks to Denplan we will be able to send our mobile dental units to new locations where volunteers will provide dental treatments for people experiencing homelessness.
‘We’ll also be able to help other hard-to-reach groups who are living with the misery of untreated toothache. Since the pandemic, demand for our work has soared and our help is needed more than ever.
‘Furthermore, we’ll be able to work with Denplan to develop our BrightBites oral health education programme for early years.
‘Sadly, a quarter of children have dental decay by the time they start school. Children in areas of higher deprivation more likely to be suffering.
‘Through our contacts and charity partners we plan to teach children and their families about the importance of dental health to improve their chances of having a healthy smile.’
Supporting the most vulnerable
The effort comes in light of emerging data that shows an alarming backlog of patients, as well as access issues across the UK.
Hospital admissions for tooth extractions among those aged 19 and under also cost the government around £33 million every year.
Catherine Rutland, Denplan’s clinical director added: ‘I know the huge difference Dentaid’s mobile clinics makes to the clients they treat; people who otherwise may not have the opportunity to see a dentist,’ she said.
‘I’m so pleased that through our support the charity can provide an additional 25 clinics that will specifically target the most vulnerable in our society enabling them to access the oral healthcare they need.’
Follow Dentistry.co.uk on Instagram to keep up with all the latest dental news and trends.

domain: medical


Originally Posted by Project89
yeah im well aware of it i just could stand the stock like idle of the summit 224 cam any more, the edelbrock came in the engine that wa sin the car when i bought it . so i figured id stick it back in and give it a go and see if its really that bad.
few guys on ttf.com have been able to run some pretty wild tight lsa cams without very many issues so i figure this cam being a good bit tamer might actually just work out pretty good. if not i have the option to reinstall the summit 224 or maybe even try out the sum 234/234
Going bigger on the am will not help things, nor will a reverse split.
To run a bigger cam using the parts you have first start with a good turbo header system, and then look into increasing the exhaust housing size. With more overlap exhaust reversion becomes a huge issue a well built header and proper exhaust housing size can greatly eliminate a lot of that.


We are a small family company, on the market since 2011. The company includes 6 persons.
We specialize in exact mechanical engineering production. The production shall be in accordance with the drawing documentation for piece or serial CNC production. Flat and contour milling, drilling, metal working of internal and external surfaces by splintering.
We produce tools, preparations, segments, moulds, which are designed from single-purpose machines, through food to automotive.
The size of the machined part for 3-axis processing is max. 1200mm.
The size of the machined part for 5-axis processing is max. 500mm.
CAD/CAM modeling for CNC milling is commonplace.
The machine park consists of two 3-axis cnc milling centers and one 5-axis milling center. If necessary, we will supply a protocol from 3D measurements of the parts made. The 3D measurement protocol can serve as a guarantee of compliance with the quality of production.
Spracovávame materiály, ako je: hliník, oceľ, nerez, plast, železo, mosadz, meď, POM, …..
We purchase the material in accordance with the standards of the STN series accompanied by an atest.
We meet and adhere to all production quality standards and guarantee quality.
We regularly invest in new technologies, special milling accessories for machining as well as measurement.
We work in cooperation of local companies for companies such as:
Bosch, Philips, CEMAS,…..
|Karel Neuner - owner, founder|
|Zuzana Neunerová - administration, business, marketing|


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Simon MacCorkindale, Counterstrike, CTV
Talk about commuting: Counter-strike star Simon MacCorkindale lives in England and works in Canada and France. “Going back and forth is the toughest part of the job’ says the 39-year-old actor, who’ll make an extra trip to Toronto this week to attend the Gemini Awards ceremony, where he’s nominated for best series actor, along with costar Christopher Plummer.
MacCorkindale, also an executive production consultant on Counter-strike, says working both sides of the camera leaves him little time to eat regular, healthy meals when he’s on location. “So I have to watch my weight and not let it creep up on me. I have a strict regimen to follow when I find I’m getting heavy. But mostly I just grab meals where I can on location.”
Despite the intercontinental demands, MacCorkindale says he enjoys the work. The main drawback of the series’ far-flung locations is the amount of time he’s separated from his wife, actress Susan George. “When she can, my wife joins me on location,” he says, “but it’s not always possible.”
When he does return home, he shares cooking duties and claims that when men do cook, “they tend to do it rather well, because they don’t usually have to deal with the drudgery of everyday cooking.” So Simon says next time you’re entertaining, try this showy Crab in Phyllo Pastry recipe.
Crab In Phyllo Pastry
cans crab meat, squeezed to drain
finely chopped shallots
finely chopped fresh dill
Juice of 1/4 lemon
chopped fresh parsley
Salt and pepper
sheets of phyllo pastry
Preheat oven to 350°F (180°C). Combine the crab, sour cream, shallots, dill, Worcestershire sauce, lemon juice, parsley, salt and pepper in a bowl.
Grease a 2-cup (500-ml) shallow pan.
Tear a phyllo sheet into three pieces to fit the pan.
Place one piece on the bottom of the pan. Brush with butter. Repeat with more phyllo pieces until you have 9 layers, making sure to butter each layer with a pastry brush. (Keep the phyllo covered in a damp tea towel to prevent the pastry from drying out.)
Spread the crab mixture over the last layer of phyllo.
Place and individually butter 9 more layers of phyllo, buttering the last layer as well.
Bake for 30 minutes, or until pastry is golden brown.

domain: food


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Sniper Assassin 5: Final Mission Mature Content
Dead Zed Mature Content
Tactical Squad Mature Content
Bowman 2 Mature Content
Trainyard Shootout Mature Content
Creative Kill Chamber Mature Content
Ricochet Kills 2 Mature Content
Palisade Guardian 2 Mature Content
Ricochet Kills Mature Content
Clear Vision 3 Mature Content
Desert Rifle 2 Mature Content
Great game, but it would be nice if you could save it to come back to as it is hard to sit here all night to get through all the levels, does anyone know how to save for return ??
SO COOL THAT I PUNCHED MY DAD AND LONE WOLF IS COOL
wow is realy cool game i love hammer
Can't even load this game!!!!!! :'(
can't even load the thingy majig !:(
This game is awesome.this game rules.
This game is awesome. I played/completed the second one before this one. None the less, this game rocks!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
The games graphics are not the best, but it is addicting!!!

domain: hobby


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This year, the members of the jury have unanimously decided to give the international Sisley-Jérôme Lejeune Award to the world renowned professor Mobley to reward him for his innovative work in research on a treatment against Down Syndrome. Professor of paediatrics at the university of San Diego and doctor in sciences, he has been head of the neurosciences department of the Medicine Faculty of California since 2009. He was particularly involved in the research on neurodegenerative diseases and neurobiology in Down Syndrome. William Mobley has been the precursor in research in neurodegenerative anomalies observed in Down Syndrome, in particular GABA and noradrenaline (see lexical).
The work accomplished by William Mobley and his team these last years have enabled them to put forward three leads for a treatment for cognitive disability in Down Syndrome:
- GABA-A receptors inhibitors in the hippocampus
For this project, clinical trials are being prepared with GABA-A receptors inversed agonists, alpha 5 subunit.
- GABA-B receptors inhibitors
William Mobley’s team’s ongoing work is about trying to test its capacity at reversing the effect of the excess of GABAergic neurotransmission by inhibiting the GABA-B receptors (without of course provoking the total cessation of these neurotransmissions).
- Potassium channel Girk2 inhibitors
Recently, the team has noticed that the excess of the Girk2 gene, observed in the Down Syndrome animal models, also existed in Alzheimer’s disease and provoked neuronal degeneration partly responsible for the disorders of patients with Alzheimer. Once he had established this link, William Mobley concluded that by trying to treat people with Down Syndrome, he could also diminish the risk of these patients developing Alzheimer’s disease. This project is still in its first stage of development and the team does not yet have specific inhibitors. However, it hopes to establish a collaboration that will enable them to find and test components on mouse models for Down Syndrome as soon as possible.


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What is Ragnar?
If you are not familiar with Ragnar, here is a brief description. Ragnar is a company that hosts multiple relay races in which teams compete against each other to carry a baton to the finish. The courses are approximately 200 miles and are broken up into 36 ‘legs’ of varying distances. Each team member is assigned 3 legs to run. Upon finishing a leg, they pass the baton to their teammate who then runs the next leg. This continues on for a couple of days and throughout the evening until, eventually, the runner assigned the final leg crosses the finish line.
There are also two distinct types of Ragnar races – trail and open road. Aside from the terrain, the formats are quite different. A road race is point to point and the team travels in a pair of vans along with the runners. The two vans leapfrog each other, doing sets of 6 legs while the other van rests. A trail race is centered around a camp site and the legs start and finish in the same location.
My chance to finally run a Ragnar
Last weekend, after years of being curious about Ragnar races, I finally had an opportunity to participate in one. What is surprising is that I was actually presented the opportunity to do not one but TWO Ragnar teams. One trail and one road. The trail race is still several weeks away but last weekend, I ran the road race. Here is how it went.
My first Ragnar
The name of this race is Ragnar Great River. It starts in Winona, MN and travels north roughly along the Mississippi River to the finish in Minneapolis, MN. Our team of 12 was called The Argyle Armada and we had 6 runners in each van. I was assigned to van 1 and legs 6, 18 and 30.
I packed the evening before we left and brought 3 sets of running gear individually packed in Ziploc bags, some baby wipes, 5 bath towels, a headlamp with a tail light and a reflective vest. For food, I brought some roasted potatoes, 2 PB&J sandwwiches, 5 Clif bars and a Vega chocolate bar. I have been a vegan long enough to know that small towns in Wisconsin are not the easiest places to find vegan food so I was prepared to go the distance just on the food that I packed.
Aaaand, we’re off!
I already knew Bill but the ride to the start gave me a chance to meet my other teammates in van 1: Noel, Marcus, Jim and Paul. Bill was assigned the first leg so we drove to the start and cheered as he took off. I was surprised by the endless parade of vans along the route as we drove. All of them were painted with humorous phrases, team names and their ‘kill count’. I learned that when you pass someone, it is called a ‘kill’. The Argyle Armada had never tracked kills before but I decided to on my own.
At one point along the route, we stopped to provide water support for a teammate and Noel got out and drew our name on the van along with some other cool artwork. Several hours and five legs later, I got ready for my first leg. Jim handed me the baton and I was off. This leg was 7.6 miles with some brutal hills from mile 4 to the end. After completing it I was sweating profusely and it was also raining. The baby wipes were completely useless so I just towelled off as well as I could and put on the dry clothes set aside for my next run.
At this point, our van had finished its first set of legs so van 2 took over. We drove ahead to Stockholm, WI to get a bite to eat and wait for van 2. We got a table at a tiny restaurant and, just as I thought, not a single item without meat or cheese. Oh well. I had some potato chips and a Two-Hearted Ale. Afterward, we hung out at a park on the shore of Lake Pepin. The scenery was unbelievable! I had no idea there were actual mountains so close to the Twin Cities! There was also a massive beach that looked like it could be on an island in the Caribbean. So cool. Ezra from van 2 arrived with the baton and handed it to Bill. Van 1 was off and running again. I kept seeing a team named Chasin’ Booty at the stops and they were always a few minutes ahead of us. It became my goal to pass them.
Kill, kill, kill!
I told the guys that I had 8 kills in my first leg. They all recalled what they had and, before we knew it, we were all tracking our kills. Noel even decided to add our kill counts to the side of the van. We completed our second set of legs shortly before midnight and I had accumulated another 14 kills on my second leg. We drove to the point where we will take over running again. This also happened to be a school that allowed runners to shower and sleep in the gymnasium. The weather was really nice so most people just slept outside on the ground or, like me, in their van. Our van woke at 5 AM and set out to run our final set of legs.
At about 9 AM I finished the last leg for van 1 and handed the baton to Josh, the first runner for van 2. I racked up another 8 kills bringing my total to 30. Van 1 was done running so all we had to do was wait for Ezra to arrive at the finish line in Minneapolis. This would take several hours so we decided to get a bloody mary and some breakfast before heading to the finish.
The big finish
At approximately 3 PM, Ezra appeared and we all ran across the finish line together as a team. We received our finisher shirts and medals and spent a few hours hanging out at the beer garden. Interestingly, the back of each medal is a piece of a 12-piece puzzle so we took a photo of the completed puzzle. All I can say is that I now understand why so many people love Ragnar races. Working for two days as a team to complete a goal alongside several hundred other teams is a pretty great experience. Maybe I lucked out but all of the guys on my team were great and I gained some new friends.
Here are all three of my runs. Legs 6, 18 and 30.


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A massive display of law enforcement from multiple Tennessee agencies, including additional assistance from Mississippi and Arkansas, greeted protesters concerned about the recent removal of Confederate statues from two Memphis parks.
The rally organizers, through a Facebook page called Confederate 901, originally planned to meet at the Memphis welcome center Downtown and form a motorcade past the parks where statues of Jefferson Davis and General Nathan Bedford Forrest were removed in December.
Instead, demonstrators were met with roadblocks at each destination. An armed security force made Downtown travel difficult, if not intimidating.
Fourth Bluff Park on Front Street was encircled with crime scene tape and festooned with white signs advertising the park's closure. In addition, a wall of police vehicles kept people from entering the property.
At Health Sciences Park, where an equestrian monument to Confederate general and slave trader Nathan Bedford Forrest had been removed, several layers of barricades--from parked dump trucks to iron rails--forced traffic detours off of both Union and Madison Avenues. Small groups of protesters and counter-protesters were corralled at opposite ends of the park, out of both earshot and eyeshot of each other.
Billy Roper, coordinator of the white nationalist Shieldwall Network, stood with a small contingent of men in combat boots in one protest area. Those seeking access to their demonstration were searched for weapons by Memphis police and given wristbands.
"I led the largest gathering of white nationalists at the U.S. capitol in 2002 and they had less security at the capitol than they do today in Memphis," Roper said. "I want to thank them for their professionalism. But I do not thank the city council or the mayor because it was their illegal and unethical practices which made it necessary for us to be here."
State law prevented the City of Memphis from removing its Confederate monuments without a waiver from the Tennessee Historical Commission, but the commission rejected a timely hearing process. City leaders felt the racially tinged statues of men who fought for slavery should be removed before the forthcoming commemoration of the 50th anniversary of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.'s assassination in April.
Memphis bypassed both the commission's authority and state law by selling the parks, statues and all, to a private non-profit organization committed to maintaining the properties for public use. State government would have no control over a private entity's disposal of the statues.
"The city council and the Mayor of Memphis definitely violated the spirit of the 2014 act passed by the state legislature," Roper argued for the pro-Confederate side. "They violated their own sunshine laws which regulate how public property can be divested to a private entity, and they violated the desecration of graves act, because under that pedestal lies the bodies of Nathan Bedford Forrest and his wife."
Some groups, such as the Sons of Confederate Veterans, who repudiated the rally because of the white supremacist element, are exploring a civil lawsuit against the city.
A small group of counter-protesters said they were unhappy with the city's "kettling situation" that separated demonstrators based on their viewpoints.
"We as taxpaying citizens are being forced to go into certain areas in order to express our freedom of speech," said Dorsey Malina with the Tennessee Women's Faith Collective. "I'm shocked at what Memphis has done to peaceful nonviolent protesters. I'm also concerned with how the Nazis and the white supremacists are being treated. The streets are shut down because of them. Businesses are shut down. So I have a concern about that."
At an early press conference, Memphis police director Michael Rallings told the media that no pro-Confederate group had requested a permit to hold a rally or protest for Saturday.
When travel and demonstrations Downtown were effectively thwarted by police, most of the pro-Confederate group spent about two hours driving the I-240 loop around the city, in a caravan of between 20 and 50 cars. Police on motorcycles wove in and around the vehicles.
After the day's events, city, county and state officials congratulated themselves for the operation that resulted in no damages, injuries or arrests.
"Safety was maintained," said Mayor Jim Strickland. "And that was the No. 1 priority the entire time."
"I want to thank the public," he added. "We were pretty unanimous in saying 'stay away', and therefore, there was little conflict to navigate."
County Mayor Mark Luttrell added: "I think we have been served well by law enforcement, and I think that other cities around the U.S. can take measure from what we have done here and follow the example we have set and get through these difficult times together."
Director Rallings said that the costs of the day's events have yet to be tallied.

domain: law


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For years, Epcot fans were treated to beautiful walks alongside the World Showcase lagoon as they took in the sights and atmosphere. One of the highlights of this trek included the native music and live events that take place at each pavilion. Fan favorites Off Kilter, Mo'Rockin and the Spirit of America Fife & Drum Corps will no longer be enjoyed in this setting.
Disney has stated that live performances from Off Kilter, Mo'Rockin and Spirit of America Fife & Drum Corps will end in September.
Off Kilter, a live band located between Canada and the UK pavilions, is widely regarded as one of the "must see" live bands at Epcot and has been performing since 1997.
Mo'Rockin has been a mainstay at Moroccan Pavilion in the World Showcase for years and the The Spirit of America Fife & Drum Corps was a great throwback to colonial American music.
Official Disney Statement:
"As part of ongoing efforts to provide fresh entertainment experiences for our guests, we look forward to introducing several new and enhanced acts that will contribute to the rich mix of entertainment at Epcot"
"In the near future, you can look forward to enjoying a traditional Berber music and dance troupe in Morocco, a corps of dynamic flag-waving performers in Italy, a thrilling lumberjack-inspired show in Canada, a Celtic folk music ensemble at the United Kingdom, and more."
Sorcerer Radio Statement
"It's heartbreaking to see these great acts get canceled. As a radio station, we thrive on Disney music and we especially love the live acts that grace the parks. Whenever one of these great acts gets removed from the parks, it's a tough pill to swallow"

domain: entertainment


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Nathaniel Hawthorne’s, Young Goodman Brown is a story of sex, sin, and the Devil, all the entertaining things in life. Hawthorne uses many literary devices to impress strength in his work. Hawthorne uses these techniques to bring out the religious themes within the story.
One of the main literary devices would be imagery. One of the most important images found in the story pertains to Faith and reaching heaven. Goodman Brown says, “…I‘ll cling to her skirts and follow her to heaven.”(H-CAL 375). This follows traditional Puritan belief that if you have faith you will go to heaven. The uses of dark and light also help convey the religious theme of good and evil. Dark is used to symbolize evil, the woods is mainly where this is seen. Light is mostly seen in the beginning, before Goodman enters the forest. Before it all becomes dark and gray. Colors also played an important role. In the beginning Faith pink ribbons in her hair, which represent that she is young and happy. With white symbolizing purity and red representing passion,…
Interpreting The Descent of Odin
Interpreting The Descent of Odin
There are several different ways to interpret a poem. Each word can either be a metaphor for something else or the words can mean exactly what they say. Either way there can really never be a completely wrong interpretation of a certain poem because everyone is going to see things in their own way. For example, an object or a phrase could have a double meaning. A conversation that seems somewhat insignificant could be very important to the meaning and the tone of the entire poem. This is the case in “The Descent of Odin” by Thomas Gray. The poem has several different hidden meanings and messages that might not be visible to the untrained reader.
The poem has several interesting aspects to it. The first is the very obvious, over active id of Odin. He is trying to retrieve information from the Prophetess when all she wants is to be left alone. In the beginning he is very demanding about what he wants. He will not let her rest until he finds out all of the information he wants. “Yet a while my call obey; Prophetess, awake, and say,” (Gray, pg. 43). Odin’s child-like characteristics are very obvious. Finally after whining enough, he was able to obtain all of the information he needed, his superego takes over and represses the id from carrying on and tormenting Prophetess. He is able to let his superego take over, unlike Prophetess who is very selfish and is not in control of her own free will.
Prophetess was also guilty of doing a little bit of whining herself. Instead of helping Odin right away, she complained about the fact that he had disturbed her. “What call unknown, what charms presume to break the quiet of the tomb? Who thus afflicts my troubled sprite, and drags me from the realms of night?” (Gray, pg. 41-42) She is annoyed that someone dared to wake her. Her selfish little id is rearing its ugly little head and causing her to complain and be grumpy. She is supposed to help people when they ask about the things that Odin asked about, hence the name Prophetess. Instead of being completely selfless, like she should be, she decides that being stubborn and rude is the way to treat people. Both characters are guilty of giving into their ids, but Prophetess is much more unwilling to let her superego take over to subdue her id.

domain: literature


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Bivy Bar Dozen: Lemon & Coconut
There’s a new kid on the block. The Bivy Bar (and Bite) is the most recent addition to the Kate’s Real Food flavor family and it’s already making waves. Just in time for summer adventure, this bright and zesty bar packs a major citrus punch with a subtle spicy ginger bite.
INGREDIENTS: Organic Coconut, Organic Honey, Organic Almond Butter (Organic Almonds), Organic Oats, Organic Brown Rice Crisps (Organic Whole Grain Brown Rice Flour, Organic Honey, Sea Salt), Organic Lemon Extract, Organic Ground Ginger, Sea Salt
*Contains: Tree Nuts (Coconut, Almonds)
**Shelf life is one year from the date of packaging – expiration date is marked on each individual bar
- Weight: 1.9 lb
- flavor: Lemon & Coconut
Great taste of lemon and not overly sweet. Kate’s has so many great organic options in bars and this is a really good one. Great after a workout or just as a snack.
Lemon Coconut Bars
These bars are zippy, intensely fresh-tasting, and delish! We bought them on a road trip at a co-op and I ordered a case as soon as I returned home. Yum!
The very best surprise, this bars are so yummy. I’ve tried a lot, no comparison these are great. Thank you, something that’s gluten free and tastes fabulous
A Great Bar!
I love the combination of lemon and coconut. A great addition to your tasty collection of bars.
Lemon Coconut Bars
I have never been a fan of granola or energy bars. I was encouraged to try one and I loved it! They’re soft and don’t fall apart, have a great flavor and taste, and I find it gives me a boost of energy when I am in the middle of a workout! I purchased 2 boxes and have passed a few out for friends to try. Best bar ever! Love the varieties offered as well!
Our family has been plant-based for many years. We search for more organic, truly natural, bars to take hiking and kayaking. The Stash and Handle bars are perfect for us. In addition the bars sustained my husband through 4 years of medical residency. His hours were long without access to food. It was easy for him to carry several in his lab coat pocket. And BTW they are deeeeeeelicious. We LOVE the new Bivy-lemon/coconut bar.
Ginger is nice combination with lemon and coconut
Love the flavor. Half a bar fills me up for lunch. Great product! I love all of Kate’s bars!
Bivy bar - lemon coconut
I love this new bar – Awesome.
Love the texture. I could only eat a 1/3 of it–very rich and strangely spicy–assuming it is the ginger. I expected a smooth lemon taste. Just the right coconut. I am still not sure if I like it. Hoping it grows on me since I bought a dozen.
New bar, new wrap. Organic ground ginger is a great addition to the Lemon Coconut real food bar. Does not disintegrate in the heat.
The Bivy Bar
This is my first taste of the Bivy Bar. I love everything about it but I might suggest using a little less sea salt. Was a little strong for me.
Still the best bars I have ever had!


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Take classic Cole slaw recipes and add a tropical flair with this, the best Cole slaw recipe with mayonnaise. This is one of the best vinegar Cole slaw recipes around.
For more great recipes, meal plans, tips and more, check out http://ezentertaining.net/
- 16 ounces bag Cole slaw mix (shredded cabbage, carrots)
- 3/4 cup low-fat mayonnaise
- 1/4 cup low-fat sour cream
- 3/4 tablespoon wasabi paste
- 1 1/2 tablespoon rice vinegar
- 1 1/2 tablespoon soy sauce
- 1 tablespoon fresh ginger, peeled and grated
- 1 tablespoon sugar
- Mix Cole slaw mix, mayonnaise, sour cream, wasabi, rice vinegar, soy sauce, ginger and sugar together.
- Cover and refrigerate until serving.
- The slaw can be made the morning before a dinner party.


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ERS Research Seminars
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Respiratory Critical Care
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Pulmonary Vascular Diseases
Sleep and Breathing Disorders
ERJ Open Research
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Radiology Image Challenge
Brief tobacco interventions
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The Childrens' Oncology Group Experience
G. Reaman (Bethesda, Md , United States of America)
Research Seminar 2006 - Preventing respiratory sequelae in children diagnosed with cystic fibrosis by newborn screening
Paediatric lung diseases
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Clinics of Cystic Fibrosis Patients with Unusual Bacteria Isolated fromRespiratory Cultures


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Durham lawmakers Vernetta Alston, Marcia Morey, Mike Woodard and Zach Hawkins discuss budget delay in downtown Durham on Aug. 14 2023. Photo/Greg Childress
State Republicans’ failure to reach agreement on the budget is “inexcusable” and “irresponsible” and will negatively impact North Carolina’s school children and educators, a group of Durham Democratic lawmakers said on Monday.
Durham’s legislative delegation took part in a series of statewide press conferences held to highlight the state of public schools as most students who attend traditional calendar schools prepare to return to classrooms. Thousands of year-round students are already in school.
The state budget is 45 days late and House Speaker Tim Moore has said lawmakers won’t likely have a budget in place until sometime after Labor Day, said Rep. Marcia Morey, a Durham Democrat.
“Week after week this summer, we [Democrats] have been ready to go in and to do the work and to vote, but the Republican leadership has decided that their far away vacations and conferences are more important,” Morey said “This has got to stop.”
Without a state budget, Morey said educators can’t budget personal finances. Gov. Roy Cooper’s budget proposal and House and Senate spending plans all contain teacher pay raises.
“How do educators plan their own finances when they don’t know what their salaries will be?” Morey said.
Durham’s legislative delegation was joined by several local school board members and educators during their morning press conference in downtown Durham. Similar events were scheduled throughout the state.
Rep. Zack Hawkins, a Duham Democrat, said that underfunded schools impact academic outcomes. Teachers must be paid well and given adequate resources to educate children, Hawkins said.
“They [teachers] can’t bring to life science and math and all the things that they’re [children] are expected to learn, they can’t bring those things to life if they don’t have what they need,” said Hawkins, a former teacher.
Sen. Mike Woodard, a Durham Democrat, said that the state’s Republican leadership continues to disinvest in public education.
“This General Assembly has continued now a dozen years of disinvestment in our public education system, whether it’s through vouchers, whether it’s through failing to invest in our capital needs or whether its failure to invest in our most important infrastructure in our schools, which is our people,” said Woodard, who recently announced plans to run for Durham mayor.
Woodard said that expanding the school voucher program to allow access to the state’s wealthiest families will take more funding from public schools to hand over to largely unregulated private schools.
“They [Republicans] forget to tell you when the talk about choice with their voucher program is how many tens of millions of dollars go unused,” Woodard said. “Families aren’t using these things because what they realize is that vouchers sound good until you qualify for it and take it to a private school and find out that it only pays a small portion of the school’s tuition.”
A family can receive up to nearly $7,000 to send a child to a private school under the income-based Opportunity Scholarship program.
Woodard criticized Republican leaders for their failure to adequately fund school capital needs, particularly in rural counties that lack the tax base to pay for building needs with local money.
“Children cannot learn when their rooms are hot, cold, leaky or dirty,” Woodard said.
The press conference comes two days before lawmakers return to Raleigh to take up several key pieces of controversial Republican-backed education legislation vetoed by Gov. Roy Cooper.
Rep. Vernetta Alston, a Durham Democrat, said local teachers worry that they can’t afford to stay in the profession.
“They say they simply can’t afford to stay in the career that they love and that staying requires them to take on more work and administrative roles than they were hired or trained to do in order to get the raises that they have already more than earned,” Alston said.
Minnie Forte-Brown, a former Durham school board chairwoman, said that it’s clear that educating children is no longer a priority for North Carolina.
“We need to do something that shows people that if you don’t care about our children, we’re going to show you that you need to,” Forte-Brown said. “Teachers in North Carolina have been at the bottom for so long that it doesn’t make sense.”
Our stories may be republished online or in print under Creative Commons license CC BY-NC-ND 4.0. We ask that you edit only for style or to shorten, provide proper attribution and link to our web site. Please see our republishing guidelines for use of photos and graphics.


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Studs Terkel called him the most effective labor leader since John L. Lewis.
Journalist Dick Young – who effectively invented modern baseball writing with the New York Daily News – called him Svengali. Former Commissioner Bowie Kuhn said he had the wariness of an abused animal. Hank Aaron said he should be in the Hall of Fame even if players had to kick the door down to let him in – a wrong that doesn’t seem like it will be righted any time soon.
Marvin Miller formally retired as head of the Major League Baseball Players Association in 1983 and died in 2012. A lot of what he’d done as head of the players’ union – the fights against the reserve clause, the advent of free agency and yes, work stoppages – has been well documented, but until recently, he’d never been the subject of a full biography.
Retired Muskingum College professor Robert Burk has written a book, “Marvin Miller: Baseball Revolutionary” that aims to tell the full story of the man, from his Jewish upbringing in Depression-era New York City to his years with the United Steel Workers and yes, his time as head of the players’ union, which saw baseball players go from effectively indentured servitude, bound to one team until the team severed the relationship, to the best-paid athletes in professional sports today.
“Marvin himself had said so little in his own book about his life prior to baseball,” Burk said. “Most people were interested how things unfolded from his perspective when he became affiliated with the player’s union. As a professor of American history, 20th century history, labor history, I felt an analysis of those years would inform why he did what he did with the players union.”
Burk had written two books on the labor history of baseball and noticed that baseball players – and really, athletes in general – only saw significant gains in salary and benefits during bidding wars. The Federal League drove up salaries (which owners then tried to tamp down; Tris Speaker, rather than taking a pay cut, held out – and was dealt to Cleveland), and challenges to the NFL from the All-America Football Conference in the 1940s and the AFL in the 1960s ultimately led to bidding wars for players – and hastened mergers and acceptance for the sake of peace.
He saw a book on Miller as the natural progression, and although it wasn’t a fully authorized biography – Miller had no veto power about what went into or was kept out of the book – the subject cooperated fully as did his wife and family. Burk said in hours of interviews with Miller, he was made well aware of the labor leader’s Jewish upbringing in New York, which left him feeling like an outsider, and his liberal politics, which he feared would tarnish the work of the players association.
The fear of McCarthyism – which he lived through – also led to probably his biggest misstep: his continued adamant stance against drug testing.
“To him it was a civil liberty issue,” Burk said. “His attitude was what someone puts into their own bodies is up to them as long as it’s not illegal. I don’t think he appreciated the PR damage done, or the appreciation of the need for strong action for health and welfare. “
Miller likened the players association to a company union when he was recruited as its first full-time director in 1966, a decade after its founding (its first president was Bob Feller). Baseball’s minimum salary was $6,000, its average salary was $19,000, the pension plan remained underfunded (despite four years of Major League Baseball playing two all-star games – one of which was for just that reason) and grievances were heard by the commissioners.
His gains were almost immediate, getting more money from the pension fund, a collective-bargaining agreement and arbitrators to hear grievances. But the players remained bound to their teams through the reserve clause, even after an unsuccessful court challenge by Curt Flood. But in 1975, arbitrator Peter Seitz ruled that the reserve clause was invalid, ushering in the era of free agency, which has been with us since. Salaries now average more than $3 million annually, and the minimum is $507,500. And Major League Baseball, once fraught with strikes and lockouts, has had labor peace since 1995.
“It’s a bit of an oversimplification, but it’s fundamentally true, but Marvin always said that nobody in baseball was making money the clubs weren’t willing to pay,” Burk said. “What Marvin was ultimately trying to achieve was a form of revenue sharing where players would get their fair share.”
If Miller viewed the MLBPA as a company union when he started working for it, until he died, he viewed Cooperstown as a company town. He watched his old sparring partners Kuhn and Larry MacPhail get elected, but there was no call to the hall for him – and because of the way voting has been restructured, there probably won’t be until 2017. And that’s a crime, Burk says.
” I think he should be in the Hall of Fame,” he said. “He’s one of a handful of people – whether you agree with him or not – who transformed baseball in a fundamental way.”
Photo: University of Illinois Press


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It is unbelievable to me that there is still any doubt as to what should happen with the Hogan Pancost property. For those new to the area, the Hogan Pancost property is a 22-acre parcel of land connected to the southwest part of the East Boulder Recreation Center. A grass-roots, but concerted effort on the part of the neighbors have thwarted development of this property for 25 years based upon its need to remain a catch basin for the floods and high groundwater levels which plague the area. It is critical that this property remain as is to protect the lives and property of the nearby residents.
On Tuesday, Jan. 26, there will be a joint meeting of the Board of County Commissioners and the Boulder County Planning Commission at 5 p.m. at the Boulder County Courthouse, 1325 Pearl St., Boulder.
A Comprehensive Plan land use change request for the land is on the table, which will determine the fate of this important and long-disputed piece of land. If the tract's zoning is changed from its current status of Area II to Area III at the meeting, the property will conform to its historical use as vacant, or with low-density development and remain in the county.
Immediately after the 2013 flood, the developers rightfully pulled their application to develop the property. However, they are back at it, wanting to revitalize the project. Have we forgotten the horrors of the flood already? The neighbors know how much worse it could have been had the development been in place. Lives and property are at stake. Boulder city and county leadership, please do the right thing and change Hogan Pancost's status from Area II to Area III.
Suzanne De Lucia


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Also, healthy eating is another thing that is important to a person. Balancing of the stimulants and the consumption of food in the body is very important. Other stimulants may help to alleviate stress at some point, but later this may lead to other severe problems and also these stimulants may after that make the stress of a person to be worse at the end of it all. When a body is well nourished, then it is easy for a person to cope with stress unlike when a person is not. This means that a person should always take enough water, vitamins and also vegetables that will make him or her well-nourished.
It is advisable for a person to ensure that they have interacted with people who will give them much support on how to deal with stress. This helps a person to talk out what they feel and also get help, and by doing this, the body can release the hormones that help reduce stress. When a person has those people that listen to them, they can get more solutions to their problems. This is also important since it helps a person’s heart rate to lower. Also, a person is advised to ensure that they practice meditation that aid in stress reduction or even the yoga. If one is unable to sleep at night, then they should be able to know the cause of stress and how to deal with it. Therefore it is vital for a person to ensure that they get a pet for themselves as a companion. Another important thing is that a person may decide to visit a counselor or even a couch that will help them learn how they will cope with stress. One should book an appointment that will ensure that at the end of the canceling, one will have transformed to be a better person.

domain: psychology


SINGLE RELEASE: RACHEL JACK – NOWHERE
Hailing from the North East of Scotland, Rachel Jack is one of the most exciting emerging singer-songwriters in Scotland. Winner of the University of the West of Scotland’s inaugural Paolo Nutini Songwriting Scholarship, her debut EP ‘The Calgary Tapes’ is an acoustic odyssey, showcasing her raw vocal talent and lyrical craft.
Recorded at the enchanting An Tobar Studios on the Isle of Mull by Gordon
MacLean, the 5-track EP is as introspective as it is up-lifting.
First single ‘Nowhere’ is a harmoniously rendered narration of her journey into music. Following a lengthy corporate career, Rachel made the decision to commit to her passion full-time. Exploring the world – and her home country – led Rachel to unique places and people that inspired her creativity and allowed her to develop her sound. Influenced by the likes of First Aid Kit, Fleet Foxes, Bon Iver and Lana Del Rey, Rachel’s folky style, layered harmonies, and honest storytelling create a soothing mix of reverie and reality that compels the listener.
The EP currently serves as the soundtrack to her popular blog, which recants her journey so far. 2020 is set to be busy for the up-and-coming artist, with a second EP already in the works and due for release later in the year.
For more information, please contact Rachel via;


May 5, 2010
Pittman waiting for more offers
Raleigh (N.C.) Leesville Road linebacker Brandon Pittman is sitting on one scholarship. The 6-foot-2, 200-pounder is visiting a number of schools including his lone offer. What's the latest?
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LITERRA Women's 6 Pack Hidden Athletic Cushion Single Tab Running Socks No Show Sport Toe Sock
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Facool Woman's CoolMax Fabric Mid Hiker Thick Padded Quarter Athletic Socks Anti-Blister,One Size,3 Pairs Pink&white
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Thorlos Women's LTHW Light Hiking Thick Padded Crew Sock, Slate Blue, Medium
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Zisuper Womens 6 Pack Athletic Ankle Cotton Socks Padded Mesh Breathable Running Low Cut Sports Tab Socks With Arch Support
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Heatuff Womens Low Cut Ankle Athletic Socks Cushioned Running No Show Breathable Tab Sock 6 Pack
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Women's No Show Nylon Sock Liner with Arch Support Cushion Padding (2 Pairs) (Nude & Black, 5-8)
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Thorlos Women's KX Hiking Thick Padded Crew Sock, Black, Medium
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Thorlos Unisex WX Walking Thick Padded Crew Sock, Black, Medium
Thorlos Unisex WX Walking Thick Padded Crew Sock,
Thorlos Original is made with clinically-tested padding that is uniquely designed and applied to provide maximum cushioning under the ball and heel of your foot for maximum impact and friction (anti-blister) protection and any other pressure/friction point created by your sport-specific activity. Thorlos Brand Promise Guarantee - Your feet will feel better or your money back! Made in the USA. Thorlos: Better feet. Better life. Thorlos clinically-tested padding under the ball and heel provides maximum protection from friction, the primary cause of blisters, and impact protection where needed most Constructed with THORLON fibers for superior softness, resilience, durability, and moisture-wicking for drier, better feeling feet Cushioned instep and spandex in the arch for a better fit, more support and less pressure on the foot for more comfort while walking Low profile toe seam won’t rub or irritate the foot Lace pad protection to reduce "lace bite"
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Womens Multi Performance Hiking Trekking Outdoor Socks, Antiskid Wicking Camping Socks 3 Pairs Men Hiking&Trekking Socks: https://www.amazon.com/dp/B0753BT8PZ ◆ Metrial:75% cotton, 22% polyester fiber, 3% elastic spandex. Comfy, Durable, Sturdy. ◆ Size:USA womens shoes size 5-10. ◆ Package:3 pairs multiple color womens hiking socks in a package. ◆ Features: -Unique Design Full thickness and cushioning along the bottom of the foot and toes, provide a perfect amount of support and prevent your foot from blister. Breathable single-layer fabric at instep part, moisture wicking, anti-bacterial, ventilation, deodorant and smell free. -Perfect for Outdoor Activities Best choices for camping and hiking,climbing,trekking,outdoor trail,sling,snowboard,backpacking,etc ◆ Washing Instruction: - Machine washable. - No bleaching agent. - No fabric softener
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Mark Jankowski and the Pittsburgh Penguins fourth line did not play more than a few seconds in the final 10 minutes of the Penguins 3-2 win over the New York Islanders on Saturday night. The fourth-liners played less than three minutes in the final two periods on Thursday in the comfortable 4-1 win.
GM Ron Hextall has work to do, and it should be the top of the Penguins trade wish list.
The Penguins cannot roll four lines with players head coach Mike Sullivan trusts to be defensively responsible. And, the Penguins fourth line also lacks grit, jam, or straight-up physicality.
The four players who inhabit the bottom Penguins line have a combined 63 hits. Jankowski (15), Drew O’Connor (5), Sam Lafferty (27), and Colton Sceviour have fewer dished hits combined than Brandon Tanev (77).
“We would like them to be a line that brings a lot of energy to the game for us,” Sullivan said on Saturday night. “We want them to be a line that can help us gain momentum by establishing a forecheck (and) bring a physical dimension to it.”
Strikes one, two, and three.
Penguins Trade for Physicality?
The New York Islanders were not happy with Penguins defenseman Mike Matheson after last Thursday’s game in which he caught their star center Mathew Barzal with a dangerous hit near the boards. New York coach Barry Trotz neared the borderline, as did center Brock Nelson, of threatening retribution against Matheson.
“Just score on the power play” is a pithy phrase much like “sticks and stones…” that holds less value than being able to push back.
What if New York decided to take liberties? What if New York committed to playing overly physical? Who among the Penguins would stand up for his teammates? Who could lower the temperature, if necessary?
Brian Burke President of Hockey Operations Brian Burke certainly understands.
Speaking on 93-7 the Fan after taking the job with the Penguins, Burke observed the last few Stanley Cup winners could play physical and hinted the Penguins would evaluate
“Pittsburgh is the last team to win with a small, fast team,” Burke said on Feb. 12. “The last three cup winners are big and play long pants hockey.”
And that’s why Hextall has work to do on the Penguins trade needs.
Penguins Roster Flexibility
Fortunately for the Penguins, the four players on the line are not well-paid or on long contracts, which would inhibit any Penguins’ trade efforts. Sam Lafferty and Mark Jankowski make $750,000 and $700,000, respectively. Lafferty’s contract runs through next season. Jankowski will be a UFA after this season.
O’Connor is on his entry-level contract and can be sent to the taxi squad or the AHL without passing through waivers. Sceviour is the highest paid of the group at $1.2 million, but his contract also expires after this season.
In other words, the Penguins don’t have any onerous investments in the fourth line. None of the players are without skill or value, but the line combinations have been disappointing.
“(We want) a line that is trustworthy and reliable defensively,” Sullivan said. “And then has the ability to chip in offensively on occasion.”
The Penguins Stanley Cup teams referenced by Burke and recent iterations had a fourth line anchored by Matt Cullen, then Teddy Blueger. Cullen was able to chip in more than 30 points, while the Blueger line was a shutdown line last season.
The current scramble of fourth-line players has zero goals-for and three goals-against. Jankowski had a strong start this season, but that was as the third line center with different linemates, and his production faded before Sullivan flipped the Blueger-Tanev combo to the third line.
All of the advanced stats from Penguins line combos come from the line tool at NaturalStatTrick.com. In addition to being outscored, the highest Corsi among the combinations is only 43%. Most combos of the fourth line are in the 30s.
And that’s why Sullivan puts the fourth line hasn’t earned much ice time, even when needed.
“Ideally, we’d like our fourth line to have guys who can fill certain roles, like playing on the penalty kill and things of that nature that give us the ability to share the workload and spread minutes out,” Sullivan said. “I think that’s going to be important moving forward … the ability to engage the fourth line more than I have to this point is going to be an important aspect.”
Only Jankowski is a regular penalty killer.
At even strength, if Sullivan doesn’t trust the line, it doesn’t matter how many games in how few days await the Penguins. The Penguins coach will not roll lines in which he lacks faith.
Recent scouts who have been scheduled to observe or who have observed Penguins games on the four-game homestand include Anaheim, Carolina, Tampa Bay, and Detroit, but no AGMS or executives attended.
Adding to Sullivan’s short bench struggles is Evgeni Malkin, who played sparingly in the latter half of the third period on Saturday. The Penguins were forced to roll with a heavy diet of Sidney Crosby and Teddy Blueger, who filled most of the last 12 minutes of the third period.
As Malkin adds points to the scoreboard, the fourth line remains both off the scoresheet and off the ice.
And that is Hextall’s pressing fix is the Penguins’ urgent need.


text:
The Best Kept Secret in Populaton Genetics, or Truth about African Genetic Diversity
Nature (2014) doi:10.1038/nature13997
The African Genome Variation Project Shapes Medical Genetics in Africa
Gurdasani, Deepti, Tommy Carstensen, Fasil Tekola-Ayele, Luca Pagani, Ioanna Tachmazidou, Konstantinos Hatzikotoula, Savita Karthikeyan, Louise Iles, Martin O. Pollard, Ananyo Choudhury, Graham R. S. Ritchie, Yali Xue, Jennifer Asimit, Rebecca N. Nsubuga, Elizabeth H. Young, Cristina Pomilla, Katja Kivinen, Kirk Rockett, Anatoli Kamali, Ayo P. Doumatey, Gershim Asiki, Janet Seeley, Fatoumatta Sisay-Joof, Muminatou Jallow, Stephen Tollman, Ephrem Mekonnen, Rosemary Ekong, Tamiru Oljira, Neil Bradman, Kalifa Bojang, Michele Ramsay, Adebowale Adeyemo, Endashaw Bekele, Ayesha Motala, Shane A. Norris, Fraser Pirie, Pontiano Kaleebu, Dominic Kwiatkowski, Chris Tyler-Smith, Charles Rotimi, Eleftheria Zeggini, and Manjinder S. Sandhu.
Given the importance of Africa to studies of human origins and disease susceptibility, detailed characterization of African genetic diversity is needed. The African Genome Variation Project provides a resource with which to design, implement and interpret genomic studies in sub-Saharan Africa and worldwide. The African Genome Variation Project represents dense genotypes from 1,481 individuals and whole-genome sequences from 320 individuals across sub-Saharan Africa. Using this resource, we find novel evidence of complex, regionally distinct hunter-gatherer and Eurasian admixture across sub-Saharan Africa. We identify new loci under selection, including loci related to malaria susceptibility and hypertension. We show that modern imputation panels (sets of reference genotypes from which unobserved or missing genotypes in study sets can be inferred) can identify association signals at highly differentiated loci across populations in sub-Saharan Africa. Using whole-genome sequencing, we demonstrate further improvements in imputation accuracy, strengthening the case for large-scale sequencing efforts of diverse African haplotypes. Finally, we present an efficient genotype array design capturing common genetic variation in Africa.
Gurdasani et al. (2014) is a very important paper as it dispels with one sway four long-standing and hard-working myths, namely that 1) Africa is the most genetically diverse continent; 2) genetic diversity is an indicator of population age; 3) non-African diversity is a subset of African diversity; 4) serial bottlenecks out of Africa are responsible for the observed global patterns of genetic diversity.
Fundamentally, there are two kinds of genetic diversity: intergroup (between-group, among-groups) diversity and intragroup (within-group) diversity. The two diversity measures are dialectically intertwined, so that an increase in one kind of diversity leads to a decrease in the other kind of diversity. As divergent populations merge, they lose some of their intergroup diversity and become more similar to each other but they gain intragroup diversity because now they are enriched with two or more sets of alleles that evolved separately during the time the populations were isolated from each other. As populations drift apart, their intergroup diversity increases, while their intragroup diversity decreases as alleles get lost through drift.
It has become a truism (pace Lewontin) that most genetic variation (some 85%) among humans happens within populations and not between them. The 15% of variation that happens between populations is claimed to be indicative of the young age of the human species. So, it’s intergroup diversity that’s associated with population age and not intragroup diversity (see more here). Continental populations are uneven in their apportionment of inter- vs. intragroup diversity. Sub-Saharan Africans are rich in only one kind of diversity – intragroup diversity, which is a function of effective population size and may reflect (as in the case of admixed post-1492 New World populations that are also rich in intragroup diversity or heterozygosity) layers of admixture. When it comes to intergroup diversity, Africans are only moderately differentiated and so are far from being the “most diverse” among human populations. Amerindians who are the most distant from Africa geographically are the exact opposite from Africans genetically: they have the lowest intragroup diversity among all human continental groups but world highest intergroup diversity values. This pattern is fully captured in the following tables from Tishkoff et al. 2009 (left) and Rosenberg, Noah. “A Population-Genetic Perspective on the Similarities and Differences Among Worldwide Human Populations,” Human Biology 83, no. 6 (2011), 670 (right).
Gurdasani et al. (2014) drill deeper into this remarkable pattern. They provide a composite table (Suppl Table 1) of worldwide Fst (fixation index) values. (The Africa-America Fst is unusually low, which suggest that they used an Amerindian sample that’s admixed with African blacks. Fst between unadmixed Amerindians and Africans reaches 0.281; see Verdu et al. 2014 “Patterns of Admixture and Population Structure in Native Populations of Northwest North America.” PLoS Genet 10(8): e1004530). The limited extent of intergroup differentiation in Africa is evident if we compare Fst across all Khoisan groups (0.019) or between Nilo-Saharan- and Khoisan-speakers (0.058) with Fst between two Amerindian tribes such as Pima and Seri (0.094) (Verdu et al. 2014).
Recently expanded populations within Africa, such as Niger-Congo and Afroasiatic speakers, have one of the lowest intergroup diversity values within Africa. Foragers such as Khoisan have higher intergroup diversity values and are therefore more Amerindian-like than farmers. Niger-Congo and Afroasiatic populations show intragroup diversity that’s higher than that of Khoisan (see Tishkoff et al.’s table above). It’s the same pattern as I observed between Taiwanese aborigines and Polynesians: the former are more homozygous than the latter, hence the colonization of Polynesia from Taiwan was accompanied by heterozygosity increase, not heterozygosity reduction, as a serial bottleneck approach to interpreting worldwide patterns of genetic diversity would suggest.
Gurdasani et al. (2014) ran several statistics (straight f4, f4 with ancestry masking, Z-score and ADMIXTURE) to test for Eurasian gene flow in Sub-Saharan Africa and found that it reaches 50% in some populations. The oldest trace of Eurasian admixture in Africa (7,500-10,000 years ago) was found in Yoruba, which is consistent with previous finding of Neandertal genes in Yoruba. East Africa is the region most affected by Eurasian admixture. Among all the statistics, ADMIXTURE runs proved to yield the most evidence for Eurasian gene flow in Sub-Saharan Africa, which suggests that the other statistics may be prone to genetic drift that can change negative values to positive and hence obfuscate ancient admixture. Eurasian admixture increases African Fst and, once it’s masked, mean pairwise Fst in Africa declines from 0.021 to 0.015, which is similar to Fst values encountered between geographically separated populations in Europe. They identified two “pockets” of elevated Fst (after masking for Eurasian ancestry) – one in Ethiopia and the other one in West Africa. In the latter case, West African Igbo showed admixture with a foraging population, which is closer to Khoisan than to Pygmies.
Finally, another gem into my Kunstkamera collection. Writing about Gurdasani et al. (2014), Razib “Cat Lady” Khan made a ridiculous claim:
“the genetic variation across African populations once you remove Eurasian ancestry is not that high. This is curious in light of the truism that most genetic variation in humans is found within Africa, but as Nick Patterson pointed out to me years ago: this applies to variation within populations, not across them.”
Nick Patterson must be the chief secret keeper among population geneticists because he never published anything to this effect. Instead, he chose to whisper this secret into the ear of no one else but Razib Khan. The truth is that it’s me and not Nick who mentored Razib on this matter and did it in a public forum. This happened in the Comments section of Gene Expression and, according to the log, it was 4 years ago.
It used to be that Razib’s knowledge of genetics was poor. Now that it has improved it’s his memory that’s failing him.
Good one. “Cat Lady”. Classic.
Can you tell me if studies have been done with Asians and other groups comparable to this one?
The bonobo genome compared with the chimpanzee and human genomes
I’m not sure how you can claim its a myth that Africa is the most genetically diverse continent in the world when the study you linked stated:
“Although Africa is the most genetically diverse region in the world, we provide evidence for relatively modest differentiation among populations representing the major sub-populations in SSA, consistent with recent population movement and expansion across the region beginning around 5,000 years ago—the Bantu expansion.”
And your other claim needs to be addressed: Native American populations possess more genetic differentiation between each than Tropical African populations. Would this not simply be even more indicative of population bottlenecks in Native Americans? Not to mention that they lack intragroup genetic diversity. Is this not the exact result of population bottlenecks? Genetic differentiation from the original population, but a decreased overall genetic diversity?
From the study you cited, it simply seems more likely that the Bantu Expansion and the lack of intergroup diversity is more reflective of a complex series of migrations originating from West Africa into the rest of Africa rather than an abrupt genetic bottleneck that resulted in specifically genetically differentiable populations.
Thanks for your comments. Per the blog’s posting rules, please sign in using your real name in the future. You bring up a critical point in the business of interpreting the global patterns of genetic diversity. SSAfricans are most genetically diverse when it comes to intragroup diversity (the fact overblown in population genetics research as a sure sign of population antiquity), but Amerindians are most diverse when it comes to intergroup diversity (the fact downplayed by population genetics research and, even when brought up, dismissed as a sign of a recent bottleneck). But now that ancient DNA is becoming increasingly available we’ve discovered that Neandertals and Denisovans, who are “older” than SSAfricans, show low intragroup diversity and high intergroup diversity. So, the myth of African antiquity as indicated by their pattern of genetic diversity has been busted by ancient DNA data from Eurasian hominins. This leaves another opportunity on the table to help us explain high intragroup diversity in SSAfricans – Eurasians who colonized Africa may have absorbed an archaic African substratum that was more diverse than Eurasian hominins. So, although some of African lineages are indeed ancient, they ended up in the modern human pool through a relatively recent admixture that would have happened when African was colonized from Eurasia. The “Amerindian bottleneck”, on the other hand, is not recent but in fact a “continuation” of the Eurasian hominin bottleneck. Amerindians have simply retained low effective population size since Mid-Pleistocene times.
Well, “Asim” is my middle name, so I guess I’ll just go by Asim.
I see your point about Neanderthal and Denisovan genetic diversity, but once again, that is simply indicative of repeated genetic bottlenecks; you must keep in mind that the ancestors of Neanderthals and Denisovans also originated in Africa, but the ancestors of modern humans remained in Africa. Technically, “Sub-Saharan Africans” are as old as Homo Sapien Sapiens themselves; there’s no evidence that aside from the common ancestral original of all humans, that Tropical Africans have undergone significant genetic unification, similar to Eurasians. However, the reason Tropical Africans are ultimately more diverse than Eurasians has nothing (directly) to do with age, but more to do with a lack of genetic bottleneck. As humans migrate, especially during the Paleolithic, they tend to only take part of the genetic diversity that the original population had to offer (because the entire population itself does not migrate, only a few select individuals from the population migrate). While this event makes the new population genetically distinguished from the original population, the overall genetic diversity of the new population is less than the original. Therefore, this explains the reason that Native Americans show the least intragroup diversity, but the most intergroup diversity. As Native Americans migrated further South the American continents, they perpetually created genetically distinct populations, with ultimately less intragroup diversity due to the bottleneck effect. This is evident due to the fact that intragroup diversity diminishes as one goes South the American continents.
This also explains how Neanderthals and Denisovans also have less intragroup diversity, but more intergroup diversity (which simply means multiple genetically distinct populations). Neanderthals and Denisovans migrated throughout Eurasia (originating from Africa), which created many genetically distinct populations as they migrated, but a diminished overall genetic diversity. Meanwhile, the ancestors of modern humans remained in Africa and did not migrate (causing genetic bottlenecks), hence had more genetic diversity than Neanderthals and Denisovans.
Theoretically, I don’t think we have any disagreements. Practically, however, the mainstream model of a serial bottleneck out of Africa that you’re advocating for is increasingly unpopular. Ancient DNA showed that Europe has experienced an increase in intragroup diversity (heterozygosity) – not a decrease as your model predicted – through the mixture of several ancestral components. Also, modern history shows that when Africans were brought to the New World as “slaves” in post-1492 times, although only West Africa got sampled, genetic diversity of the resulting African American population did not decrease but stayed relatively stable and hence representative of the overall SSAfrican diversity. This is why the earliest mtDNA studies that used African Americans as representatives of original SAAfricans generated the same tree typologies as the later studies that used SSAfricans as a sample. Even such ancient Y-DNA lineages as A00 were discovered in both West Africa and among African Americans. At the same time, there are no deep-rooting African lineages found in any populations outside of Africa along the putative migration routes out of Africa 100-50,000 years ago. Neither have they been found in ancient remains outside of Africa. E.g., Oase mtDNA is not L0, L1, L2, L4, L5 or L6 – it’s somewhere between M and N. Under my scenario of genetic admixture with more populous African archaics, it becomes clear how 1) admixture drives intragroup diversity up; and why 2) no deep-rooting African lineages have been found outside of Africa. I don’t deny that Neandertals and Denisovans have an ultimate African origin, but with the interdisciplinary data that we have for modern humans (linguistic diversity, which is a marker of behavioral modernity, is world-highest in America and Papua New Guinea and that’s precisely where we find the highest intergroup genetic diversities) an onset of modern humanity in the New World (or in a broader Circumpacific zone) and a migration into Africa seems to be more logical. (BTW, low population size – hence likely high genetic intergroup and low genetic intragroup diversity – east of the Movius linen compared to Europe and Africa has been documented by archaeologists since Lower Plaeolithic.)
Essentially, the study you cited is stating, “There is no distinct genetic difference that can be pinpointed between certain African populations like the Yoruba and the Zulu. Any genetic differentiation that is notable is typically due to admixture from Eurasians are isolated Hunter-Gatherer groups.” This is because, unlike Native Americans, Niger-Congo populations were not subject to population bottlenecks during the formation of their people groups. Because the Bantu Expansion resulted in countless complex migrations, rather than abrupt bottlenecks, no genetic differentiation from the original population was created, which would ultimately create a reduction in genetic diversity. This similar effect seems to be present in Afro-Asiatic speakers, who mostly migrated across Africa throughout the Neolithic Revolution. However, because of this, the resulting populations tend to maintain the same genetic diversity of the original.

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