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What you didn't know about theater-loving woman who saved the Morris
SOUTH BEND ― Carmi Murphy laughs at old photos of her late grandmother, Ella L. Morris, showing a side that only a few people had ever seen.
Morris, the woman who saved a historic downtown theater from the wrecking ball, dons a huge peacock feather on her head. There in her own home, she holds a globe and pulls an out-of-this world look on her face in one shot. She holds a stuffed toy in another shot, telling a tale that makes her small audience grin.
She is doing one of her own, small theatrical bits. Always at home on Jefferson Boulevard, where civic leaders often gathered ― and where world-renowned celebrities visited, too. Always in private.
To the rest of South Bend, she was a dignified doer.
Born in Cincinnati in 1885, Morris loved theater and wanted to be part of it. Another photo of her, perhaps in her late teens or early 20s, labels the former Ella Louise Keen in theatrical terms of “reader and impersonator.” Beyond that, her life path wouldn’t place her on stage.
Rather, she went on to marry Ernest M. Morris, founder of the Associates and of First Bank & Trust Co., which is now 1st Source Bank. Together, they became some of South Bend’s most prominent philanthropists as they left their mark ― and their name ― on such landmarks as the Ella L. Morris Conservatory at Potawatomi Park, among others. Not to forget the Morris Performing Arts Center. Yes, the one she saved.
He minded his business work. For the rest, mostly, Murphy said, “He turned the community over to my grandmother. … They were quite a dynamic couple. He was very, very supportive of her.”
She was a “small but mighty” force, Murphy said, a “feisty little thing.”
Murphy’s husband, Chris, who’s now CEO of 1st Source, added that Morris brimmed with confidence and “did what she had to do.”
She gathered many committee meetings in her home in her countless roles, which spanned from the South Bend school board to local and statewide arts organizations. Known for her spunk and wit, she’d sit in an antique green side chair, next to the fireplace, “and she would reign over the room,” Murphy said. “It was like she was the queen of England.”
Murphy and her brother got a taste of this on their visits, often when they were in town. They’d spent much of their youths living in New York, Spartanburg, S.C., and Nashville, Tenn., with their mother, Ernestine Raclin.
Much of what Murphy knows about Morris came in tales from her mother. Like the one about the Palace Theater. Built in 1922 in downtown, it hosted vaudeville acts and early movies in its early years, but in 1959, as the entertainment world changed and attendance declined, theater owners voted to demolish it.
“(She) said, ‘We’re going to save the theater,’” Murphy said, noting how Morris saw a need to preserve the “long-term cultural history of South Bend.”
Morris bought the theater for an undisclosed sum and sold it to the city for $1. It reopened after a $15,000 facelift and a new name: Morris Civic Auditorium.
Along with theater, she had a keen interest in music. She formed the committee that created the South Bend Symphony Orchestra and served as its chairwoman.
In fact, the world-renowned pianist Van Cliburn visited Morris’s home many times, Murphy said.
Murphy and her husband now live in that same house, with the same baby grand Steinway piano.
“People say, ‘If that piano could talk,’” Murphy said.
She can only imagine that other dignitaries stopped into the house on their South Bend visits. One time, Murphy said, her mother matter-of-factly said that, when she was 9 or 10 years old, Amelia Earhart ― the first woman to fly solo across the Atlantic Ocean ― sat next to her at the dinner table.
“She (Morris) loved to bring people to South Bend,” Murphy said. “She was very, very proud of South Bend.”
Love of the arts seems to run in the family. So does giving.
Murphy’s mother, Ernestine Raclin, had served in business as, for example, chairwoman of 1st Source’s board. But she’s also given significantly to the arts in South Bend, earning her name on IU South Bend’s Raclin School of the Arts and the University of Notre Dame’s Raclin Murphy Museum of Art (now under construction). And Phase II of the Morris Performing Arts Center’s renovations would build an addition: the Raclin Murphy Encore Center.
Morris’s other daughter, the late Mary Lou Leighton, and her husband, Judd, also became key South Bend philanthropists, with their name on buildings and on an endowment that fuels the annual Leighton Award for Nonprofit Excellence at the Community Foundation of St. Joseph County.
Morris died Feb. 19, 1969, at age 83.
Before then, In 1963, Morris showed off her trademark wit to 550 people who’d gathered for a dinner to honor her, saying, “I have taken so many jobs, I have to look to see what I haven’t taken.”
The University of Notre Dame’s president, the Rev. Theodore M. Hesburgh, spoke at the dinner about her hard work: “Despite all the things she has done for the university, I have never had her ask a single thing for herself. She doesn’t take jobs for bows.”
Contact staff writer Joseph Dits at 574-235-6158 or firstname.lastname@example.org.

domain: artistic


text:
Multiplex building spree in Malaysia, Singapore
Singapore's leadingexhibitor Golden Village is set to build the country's largest entertainmentmultiplex occupying 90,000 sq feet with 15 screens and about 2,500 seats.
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domain: geography


No Pay for Bulgarian GERB MPs over Parliament Boycott
The Members of the Parliament from the opposition center-right Citizens for European Development of Bulgaria party, GERB, will be deprived of their wage for September 26 because they failed to register for the electronic vote.
The information was stated Friday by the Speaker of the Parliament Mihail Mikov before Nova TV.
On Thursday, GERB lawmakers refused to register for debates on the non-confidence motion against the government despite the fact they were the ones to initiate it.
GERB leader and former Prime Minister, Boyko Borisov, grounded the decision on extreme nationalist party Ataka holding the Parliament hostage as they were absent from the session over a visit to Brussels.
Mikov says the salary of every MP is bind with his or her presence in plenary hall and electronic registration.
"The fact they were actually present in plenary hall does not count – the roll call is just an ascertainment. It does not have the same effect on the MPs's pay as it does the electronic system," Mikov was firm.
GERB say they will refer the matter to the Constitutional Court despite the fact that GERB MPs, who tabled the no-confidence vote, did not register for sittings in the last three days, not just on Thursday.
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A gripping tale of capitalist exploitation and rebellion, set amid the mist-shrouded mountains of a fictional South American republic, employs flashbacks and glimpses of the future to depict the lure of silver and its effects on men. Conrad's deep moral consciousness and masterful narrative technique are at their best in this, one of his greates... Read More »
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domain: literature


text:
Synthetic-chrome retanning agent.
SINTOCROM BRW is a tanning agent based on chrome salts complexed with synthetic tanning substances, characterized by an excellent light fastness and ageing resistance.
The chrome content is about 10% (express in Cr2O3).
SINTOCROM BRW is made of a heterogeneous powder.
SINTOCROM BRW can be added in the drum in powder as it is easily soluble, we obtain very clear, soft and break resistant leather.
Leather treated with SINTOCROM BRW has good fullness and silky touch.
In the retanning phase SINTOCROM BRW is used to obtain fullness and softness.
It can be used blended with other synthetic tanning agents to obtain some particular items.

domain: chemistry


I think this was the Garage Days EP Tour, (I could be wrong). I’m pretty sure it was pre the Enter Sandman, etc period. Up to their Black Album they were a fantastic band. almost classical music thrash. Good to see no one crying during One this time 🙂
Good vibe too on the train on the way back to Brum I seen to remember. Cool band, Cool gig. Cool fanbase.
Rate 9 out of 10.


Finish Line Metered Pump
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The Finish Line Metered Pump has been designed to pair with 1-gallon jugs of Finish Line tubeless fluid. This simple device allows easy dispensing of sealant for improved accuracy and reduced mess. For those running tubeless tyres, this is an essential addition to any home workshop.
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HALLOWEEN 2016 – 1920’S GATSBY INSPIRED FAUX BOB TUTORIAL
Halloween is right around the corner so it’s time to practice your hair game. Because let’s face it, the hair can make or break a costume, right? 😀 If you’re already planning to go for a vintage Gatsby look, this 1920’s inspired faux bob tutorial is perfect for you! I think this hairstyle will go well with many different looks and costumes. It’s fun to do, even if you only want to try out short hair without making the commitment.
Faux bob for Halloween
To achieve this look, you’ll need a curling wand (or iron), a paddle brush, teasing comb and bobby pins.
- Separate a horizontal layer from the bottom (about an inch thick) and clip the rest of the hair out of the way. Divide that layer into several sections and wrap them flat around the iron.
- Once curled, wrap them around your finger and roll underneath towards the nape of your neck and secure with bobby pins. Once the entire section is pinned securely, section off another layer above.
- Again, curl that section by wrapping it flat around the iron. Then, use a teasing comb to push the curls up. Wrap several sections around your finger, roll under and pin to the nape of your neck. This will form a sort of cushion that you’ll pin the top layers to.
- Curl the hair in the back of your head and sides in small sections, everything in the direction towards your face. That will give it that vintage look. For a more modern version, you can curl away from your face or alternate the direction of the curls.
- Lastly, move over to the top layer. Key to this look is a deep side part. Hold the wand horizontally, with the tip pointing to the side you’re curling the hair towards. Wrap small sections towards your face.
- Brush the curls out with a paddle brush once they’ve cooled down.
- Use a small clip and place it in the wave indentation to enhance the finger wave effect. To avoid leaving a mark from the clip, fold a piece of toilet paper and place it between the clip and the hair.
- Push the curls up with a comb, and the hair will instantly appear shorter. Place any ends that are still sticking out and appearing too long in a bobby pin, then stick the pin in the cushion you’ve formed underneath.
TIP: Spray with strong hold hair spray and crunch the hair up while it’s drying. You can use a head band to decorate this look.
I hope you enjoyed this Halloween hair tutorial! Let me know what you think!
Happy hairstyling! See you next time lovely!

domain: design


Anyone ever used any eotech models? Any pros or cons? Where is the best place to purchase? Any better options in same price range?? Let me know please!!
I meant to PM that lol. Is it compatible with any of their magnifiers? Lets see a pic or twobhale187 said:I've used the 512, 552, 557, and the XPS-2. Never had a problem with any of them. I just got an aimpoint PRO, going to give it a shot next.
Went to the range again on Sunday with the lady friend, we started off on the pistol side since that always fills up and one ends up waiting all day for a lane to open up I put 100 rounds through the Glock and between us we probably put between 200-250 rounds through my girlfriends S&W .22 then we headed over to the the rifle side.
I started out at the 46 yard max and had to mess with the Eotech as it was still a few clicks off zero. Started of with the same American Eagle .223 55gr. value pack then I had to purchase a few more boxes at the range which was the Remington PMC .223 55gr. Also wee used the Primary arms 3x magnifier the entire time with a stool and sand bag setup.
After getting the EOtech to where I felt it was zeroed I made my girlfriend shoot it. She was very reluctant to shoot it as she was to afraid of the recoil since all she was used to is her .22 S&W. She has tried my Sig p6 (9mm) and Glock 22(40S&W) but doesn't like the power; I think she is just afraid that they will come flying out of her hands. We were at the end of the American Eagle box and one mag had 6 rounds in it, so I got her set up with a stool and sand bag, and set the target out to 25 yards for her.
Target is a Shoot-N-C 8in. circle w/ 3/4in center.
Needless to say she realized the recoil wasn't as bad as she was expecting, and I think her panties got a little wet because she wanted more :nt: (I proceeded to finish off the remaining 30rounds of the AE ammo at 46 yards but forgot to take a picture)
After I finished off the AE ammo I get her set up with a full mag of the Remington PMC ammo and after like 5 or 6 rounds at 33 yards out I had to bring the target in because the shoot-n-c stickers were falling off when they were hit down range. I got her set up with a new target down at the 46 yard max, since the new target was a bit bigger. She proceeded to put the rest of the rounds down range on target. She ended up doing pretty well for it being her first time shooting it and being a bit nervous.
Dirty Bird Splattering Target 2 5/8in X 3 1/2in
I finished off the last 30 rounds of the Remington PMC ammo at 46 yards with the Shoot-N-C 8in circle with 3/4in center dot target. My first grouping was at the bottom. There was a red circle sticker there, but it fell off when hit a few times. Second grouping was in the middle. I was going to adjust the EOtech again as I felt I was aiming on the center dot and it was hitting left. I left it where it was as I figure it was shooter error and put a few more rounds into the group. Third group was the last 5 rounds at the top red dot. First shot was right on target. I did feel myself anticipate the shot on the couple random stray rounds in the first grouping at the bottom; the 3 rounds to the right of the dot in the second grouping were after I was debating on tweaking the dot on the EOtech but didn't.
Not to shabby for a 3x magnifier with and EOtech EXPS2-0. At 46 yards out the dot on the Eotech is larger than the 3/4in red circle on the target. Even though EOtechs are made for CQ, they do fairly well at a distance with a 3x magnifier behind it. I probably wouldn't go much farther out with the 3x unless I had a little bit larger target. One could probably get it on target at 75 yards maybe even 100yards with the Dirty Bird splatter target with the 2 5/8in X 3 1/2in center, but I don't have an indoor range close enough for me to try. When It gets warmer and the snow melts I will try it out.
Impression of the Primary Arms 3x deluxe magnifier: Even though I believe it is made in China, It is has a crisp field of view. It feels well built and durable. It is not top of the line, but at half the price of the EOtech combo it cant be beat. Unless you absolutely have to have the EOtech magnifier with the optic, this is a great magnifier. Until I am proven otherwise about the quality and durability of PA I wouldn't hesitate to buy another one of their optics; from the reviews out there I think most everyone feels the same. Now all I am waiting for is the FTS mount to come back in stock and it'll be a done deal. 2 1/2 weeks and 380 round through :thumb:


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Rosario Bonaccorso Quartet in concert with “A Beautiful Story”
Thursday, January 26th 2017 at 9.30pm
Osteria del Caicco – Via Arco D’Augusto 53b – Fano
Rosario Bonaccorso, double bass – Dino Rubino, trumpet – Enrico Zanisi, piano – Alessandro Paternesi, drums
“A Beautiful Story” is the new recording project of Rosario Bonaccorso, due out in January for the Jando Music / Via Veneto Jazz label.
After the success of the last chapter signed in 2015, the so-called “Traveling”, the long musical history of Rosario Bonaccorso continues, enriching his record path, of band-leader and composer.
The twelve compositions he has signed for “A Beautiful Story”, which is also the title track of the album, conquered right from the first listen. Once again, his music surprises, sweeps over time and transports us to his refined personal universe, where he renews the strength of his musical writing, which knows how to conquer listening to depth and beauty.
For this new record, the well-known double bass player called Dino Rubino to the flugelhorn, Enrico Zanisi on piano and Alessandro Paternesi on drums.
Three young “Leoni” from the Italian jazz firm, appreciated on the European scene, sensitive and mature artists who, despite their young age, boast a wealth of experiences and important collaborations.
Fano Jazz Network 0721 1706616
Cell e WhatsApp 388 6464241

domain: entertainment


Tom became a recording artist at Constantine Records, was nominated for seven International Red Carpet Music Awards-won one for Best Male Original Americana-became a member of the 66 Kix Tour and is now touring with the Constantine Records Showcase all in 2023.
But there’s a story behind all this. Tom took off nearly 40 years of performing to help raise his kids prior to all this.
In early 2022, Tom put some songs up on YouTube for the kids for the time when he would eventually pass. Wouldn’t you know? The 8D record company put some of those stripped-down old songs out on the market and folks started buying them.
This led to performing at higher end venues such as the historical Coleman and Constantine Theatres as well as the Oklahoma State Fair.
Tom moved to Constantine Records and is now performing with Jeff Tatum and Palomino Moon along with Becky Sparkman.
Tom was nominated for seven International Red Carpet Music Awards held in Holland in August of 2023. He was awarded Best Americana Original Song- Male “Long Distance.” Tom has been nominated for 10 more such awards for the 2024 show so far.


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The third baby Mama of the Nigerian singer, Wizkid, recently took to her Twitter handle and shared a family photo of her, Wizkid and zion which got fans blushing.
Nigerians couldn’t hold their nerves and reacted according to their grinds following the beauty of the picture she shared online.
In her words, she captioned:
— jada.p (@jada3_p) April 5, 2021
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domain: celebrity


When former governor Bill Clements died in the final week of the Eighty-second Legislature—a session dominated by a $27 billion budget shortfall—there was one story that found its way into almost every obituary of the irascible, archconservative oilman. In 1987, faced with a budget shortfall of his own, he had insisted on the leanest budget the state could manage, only to finally sign off on a $5.8 billion tax increase to fund public education. As Clements understood, in a state that already budgets lean (Texas currently spends the least per capita in the nation), you cannot cut your way out of every shortfall—no matter what you promised on the campaign trail.
Veteran budget writer Steve Ogden summoned some of Clements’s courage in a bracingly candid address to his fellow senators at the beginning of this session. On a day normally reserved for pomp and self-congratulation, Ogden delivered the news that nobody wanted to hear: The shortfall wasn’t caused solely by the recession. It was an inevitable result of the state’s rickety tax system, especially the underperforming business tax known as the margins tax, which was bringing in billions less than anticipated. “None of us are elected to go out and raise taxes on anybody . . . but if the margins tax is not fixed, [property] taxes will go up,” he warned. The solution was not complex—a few tweaks to the way the tax is assessed in a bill no more than three pages long would do the trick. The challenge was entirely political. “Check your political considerations and your political ambitions at the door,” Ogden said. “Let’s roll up our sleeves and get to work.”
Instead we got an Eighty-second Legislature dominated by those very political ambitions, in particular the aspirations of two men: Governor Rick Perry and Lieutenant Governor David Dewhurst. Perry’s anticipated presidential run meant there could be nothing that remotely resembled a tax increase, so the margins tax fix was dead on arrival. Instead, the opening weeks were spent fretting over red meat for the conservative base: chasing elusive instances of voter fraud and mandating medically unnecessary procedures for women seeking abortions. After Speaker Joe Straus let the Republican supermajority in the House pass a truly draconian budget, the pressure was on Dewhurst—who is aiming at either the U.S. Senate or the governor’s chair, if Perry moves on—to do the same. The hounding from the tea party and other conservative groups was relentless, thanks in part to the increased presence of social media.
In the end, Dewhurst caved. Amid the parsing and posturing from the leadership, it was a tough session for the men and women with the rolled-up sleeves. “It was like a classroom with no teacher and no principal,” as one veteran legislator put it. And unfortunately, no summer vacation either, as lawmakers were dragged back for a special session.
With this, our twentieth effort at compiling a Best and Worst list, we faced a difficult task: How do you select the ten best legislators when the worst seemed to prevail at every turn? It was not a session for big ideas—the budget battle and, to a lesser extent, redistricting sucked the air out of almost every other debate. But there was important work being done in quiet corners of the Capitol, in the meeting rooms where members who strive for good government and fairness work hard to bring competing interests to the table and hammer out thoughtful public policy. On the budget, we have tried to recognize the members who made the best of a bad situation. And the worst? As usual, they picked themselves.


Estimation of CO2 Emissions of Internal Combustion Engine Vehicle and Battery Electric Vehicle Using LCA
AbstractIn order to reduce vehicle emitted greenhouse gases (GHGs) on a global scale, the scope of consideration should be expanded to include the manufacturing, fuel extraction, refinement, power generation, and end-of-life phases of a vehicle, in addition to the actual operational phase. In this paper, the CO2 emissions of conventional gasoline and diesel internal combustion engine vehicles (ICV) were compared with mainstream alternative powertrain technologies, namely battery electric vehicles (BEV), using life-cycle assessment (LCA). In most of the current studies, CO2 emissions were calculated assuming that the region where the vehicles were used, the lifetime driving distance in that region and the CO2 emission from the battery production were fixed. However, in this paper, the life cycle CO2 emissions in each region were calculated taking into consideration the vehicle’s lifetime driving distance in each region and the deviations in CO2 emissions for battery production. For this paper, the US, European Union (EU), Japan, China, and Australia were selected as the reference regions for vehicle operation. The calculated results showed that CO2 emission from the assembly of BEV was larger than that of ICV due to the added CO2 emissions from battery production. However, in regions where renewable energy sources and low CO2 emitting forms of electric power generation are widely used, as vehicle lifetime driving distance increase, the total operating CO2 emissions of BEV become less than that of ICV. But for BEV, the CO2 emissions for replacing the battery with a new one should be added when the lifetime driving distance is over 160,000 km. Moreover, it was shown that the life cycle CO2 emission of ICV was apt to be smaller than that of BEV when the CO2 emissions for battery production were very large. View Full-Text
Share & Cite This Article
Kawamoto, R.; Mochizuki, H.; Moriguchi, Y.; Nakano, T.; Motohashi, M.; Sakai, Y.; Inaba, A. Estimation of CO2 Emissions of Internal Combustion Engine Vehicle and Battery Electric Vehicle Using LCA. Sustainability 2019, 11, 2690.
Kawamoto R, Mochizuki H, Moriguchi Y, Nakano T, Motohashi M, Sakai Y, Inaba A. Estimation of CO2 Emissions of Internal Combustion Engine Vehicle and Battery Electric Vehicle Using LCA. Sustainability. 2019; 11(9):2690.Chicago/Turabian Style
Kawamoto, Ryuji; Mochizuki, Hideo; Moriguchi, Yoshihisa; Nakano, Takahiro; Motohashi, Masayuki; Sakai, Yuji; Inaba, Atsushi. 2019. "Estimation of CO2 Emissions of Internal Combustion Engine Vehicle and Battery Electric Vehicle Using LCA." Sustainability 11, no. 9: 2690.
Note that from the first issue of 2016, MDPI journals use article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.


Here It Comes....
Ready or not, cooler air is on the way! In fact, you'll be feeling that cooler, drier air as early as tomorrow morning.
After the rain showers move out later day, and the clouds clear away later tonight, the temperatures are coming way down.
On the map you can see 30s in parts of Colorado and the Dakotas (which is pretty typical for them during this part of the year). Now, we won't see 30s but our morning lows WILL be in the lower 40s in NW Arkansas and mid to upper 40s in the River Valley.
The chill won't be around all day. Sunshine will bring afternoon highs back into the mid 60s on Wednesday - but it sure will be a chilly start.
Enjoy your day!
Laura Huckabee / Meteorologist


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A More Relaxed Experience
You’ll find a no-pressure welcome desk and a well-organized showroom, featuring inspiring, shoppable lifestyles and our re-energized Stickley Sleep Studio.
The Beckett Collection is a beautiful example of the sustainable use of rustic timber, with dramatic knots, surface checks, burls, and swirls of light and dark that are unique from one piece to the next. This impressive bed is embellished only with smooth, seamless bevels all around the headboard, rails, and legs, so that the natural grain is what catches your eye. Solid American black walnut in a Black Walnut finish.


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Written in Japanese
This is the fourth darning book by Hikaru Noguchi who has become a guru of visable darning in Japan. With 27 different darning techniques and a lot of fine examples. This detailed step by step guide makes it easy for you to follow along; no matter what your language may be.
The practice of 'visible mending' has become increasingly popular, as part of the slow fashion movement, as a way to create a more mindful relationship with clothing, and as a form of self expression.
Don't miss our workshops coming up with Celia Pym focusing on patching and stitiching and mending .
We also stock Hikaru's beautiful handmade darning mushrooms.

domain: library


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Israel EN, Blackmer AB. Tissue plasminogen activator for the treatment of parapneumonic effusions in pediatric patients. Pharmacotherapy. 2014 Jan 4. [Epub ahead of print]
“Intrapleural fibrinolysis has been investigated for the treatment of pleural effusion for several decades. Fibrinolytics have the ability to break up fibrin and loculations that characterize complicated pleural effusions, facilitating drainage. Older fibrinolytics such as urokinase and streptokinase have been replaced by tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) for this indication due to product availability and a more favorable safety profile. The literature supports tPA as a treatment approach for this indication in adult patients, and the use of tPA has become a standard management approach in this population. Over the past decade, data on the efficacy of intrapleural fibrinolytic therapy in children have also been generated, which now support the use of fibrinolysis as a treatment alternative to more invasive therapeutic options such as surgical intervention. In this review, we discuss the pathophysiology, diagnosis, and treatment of parapneumonic effusion and empyema, with a focus on intrapleural fibrinolysis, specifically tissue plasminogen activator, in the pediatric population. Recent articles provide sufficient evidence to support the use of this drug in pediatric patients for the management of pleural effusions; however, due to study heterogeneity, questions remain that may be addressed in future studies.”
Full-text for Emory users.
Kelly MM, Shadman KA, Edmonson MB. Treatment trends and outcomes in U.S. hospital stays of children with empyema. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2013 Dec 18. [Epub ahead of print]
“In conclusion, this population-based analysis demonstrates a strong (and increasing) tendency towards procedural management in hospital stays in children with empyema in the U.S. VATS became the most commonly performed drainage procedure during 2009, and discharges coded for VATS are associated with lower transfer-out rates but no statistically significant reduction in LOS after accounting for patient and hospital factors. Results of our populationbased study are consistent with recently published practice guidelines  and recommendations  that endorse chest tube drainage as an acceptable first treatment option for most children with empyema.”
Islam S, Calkins CM, Goldin AB, et al. The diagnosis and management of empyema in children: a comprehensive review from the APSA Outcomes and Clinical Trials Committee. J Pediatr Surg. 2012 Nov;47(11):2101-10.
“The timing of intervention, by fibrinolysis or VATS, is an important consideration in the treatment of empyema. A retrospective series in children with empyema documented that VATS performed within 48 hours of diagnosis reduced hospital stay by 4 days on average . Another retrospective study showed a delay between diagnosis and surgery of more than 4 days was significantly correlated with more frequent surgical difficulties, longer operative time, more postoperative fever, longer drainage time, longer hospitalization, and more postoperative complications . Similarly, a retrospective comparison in adults found that patients with empyema have a more efficient course if treated with primary VATS compared tube thoracostomy alone with VATS reserved for failure . In a prospective trial of 18 children with empyema, 10 patients who underwent VATS upon diagnosis were compared to 8 initially managed with chest tube drainage . Of those initially managed nonoperatively, the effusion failed to resolve in 7 patients who were then treated successfully with instillation of tPA into the chest tube for up to 5 days. The protracted staggered pathway resulted in an extra week in the hospital for the patients treated initially with tube thoracostomy compared to those treated with definitive mechanical debridement upon diagnosis. This study underscores the importance of definitive management upon diagnosis of empyema without an initial attempt of chest tube drainage alone.”
Paraskakis E, Vergadi E, Chatzimichael A, Bouros D. Current evidence for the management of paediatric parapneumonic effusions. Curr Med Res Opin. 2012 Jul;28(7):1179-92.
“A literature search of randomized and retrospective studies that pinpoint methods of evaluation and treatment of PPE was carried out in Medline and Scopus databases. Chest X-ray, ultrasound as well as microbiology and biochemical characteristics of the pleural fluid will facilitate decision-making. Small uncomplicated effusions resolve with antibiotics alone, larger ones require small-bore chest tube drainage and in case of complicated loculated PPE, fibrinolysis or VATS should be considered. Both methods promote faster drainage, reduce hospital stay and obviate the need for further interventions when used as first-line approach. However, primary treatment with VATS is not advised by the majority of studies as a first choice intervention, unless medical treatment has failed.”
Children’s and Emory users, please request article from Emily Lawson.
Shah SS, Hall M, Newland JG, et al. Comparative effectiveness of pleural drainage procedures for the treatment of complicated pneumonia in childhood. J Hosp Med. 2011 May;6(5):256-63.
“In conclusion, emphasis on evidence driven treatment to optimize care has led to an increasing examination of unwarranted practice variation.42 The lack of evidence for best practice makes it difficult to define ‘unwarranted’ variation in the treatment of complicated pneumonia. Our study demonstrates the large variability in practice and raises additional questions regarding the optimal drainage strategies. Published randomized trials have focused on comparisons between chest tube placement with fibrinolysis and VATS. However, our data suggest that future randomized trials should include chest tube placement without fibrinolysis as a treatment strategy. In determining the current best treatment for patients with complicated pneumonia, a clinician must weigh the impact of needing an additional procedure in approximately one-quarter of patients undergoing initial chest tube placement (with or without fibrinolysis) with the risks of general anesthesia and readmission in patients undergoing initial VATS.”
McBride SC. Management of parapneumonic effusions in pediatrics: current practice. J Hosp Med. 2008 May;3(3):263-70.
“Pneumonia with associated complex pleural disease is a cause of significant morbidity among hospitalized children. The management of this patient population continues to be a challenge and varies even among single institutions. The article presented here reviews the management goals for pediatric patients hospitalized with complex parapneumonic effusions and provides updated summaries of both medical and surgical therapies.”
Full-text for Emory users.
Hampson C, Lemos JA, Klein JS. Diagnosis and management of parapneumonic effusions. Semin Respir Crit Care Med. 2008 Aug;29(4):414-26.
“Parapneumonic effusions affect many patients and are associated with considerable morbidity and mortality. It is necessary to differentiate complicated effusions requiring intervention from uncomplicated effusions. Differentiation is achieved using clinical, pleural fluid, and imaging parameters. Intervention takes the form of blind catheter placement and drainage, image-guided catheter placement and drainage, and surgical decortication [video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery (VATS) or open thoracotomy]. Image-guided drainage and management of complicated effusions in adults and pediatric patients are safe and highly effective in select patients. The use of intrapleural fibrinolytic agents to facilitate resolution of complicated effusions is widespread and considered effective by many despite a lack of conclusive data supporting this method. We propose an algorithmic approach to patients with parapneumonic effusions and advocate image-guided drainage and management in patients likely to benefit from this treatment.”
Full-text for Emory users.
Cremonesini D, Thomson AH. How should we manage empyema: antibiotics alone, fibrinolytics, or primary video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery (VATS)? Semin Respir Crit Care Med. 2007 Jun;28(3):322-32.
“Empyema is a well-recognized complication of pneumonia and its prevalence is increasing in the childhood population. The management of these patients requires a strategy for diagnosis and treatment that results in prompt resolution of infection and discharge with minimal morbidity. Traditionally conservative treatment has been the standard with insertion of a chest drain and intravenous antibiotics and, for those who fail to respond, an open thoracotomy and formal decortication. Since the 1990s two new treatment modalities have been described; fibrinolysis (promoting pleural drainage and circulation) and early VATS (video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery). Many institutions are now using one of these methods as first-line therapy. Both of these treatments result in shorter hospital stay and fewer complications than the conservative approach. In this review we will appraise the evidence for all three treatments and consider which treatment is optimal in children.”
Full-text for Emory users.
More PubMed results on treatment of pleural effusions and empyema.
Created 01/28/14; reviewed 08/18/15 – new articles added to PubMed collection.

domain: medical


There are three updates in regards to my focus on traffic calming and safety in our neighborhoods:
- In Donelson Hills, a 4-way stop sign will be installed at Cottage Lane and Dellrose Drive. It is with deep regret that the initiative of this effort began with a fatal crash at this intersection. This intersection has long been a dangerous one with limited site distance and consistent speeding.
- In Elm Hill Acres, the speed limit has been reduced on Sanborn Drive from 35 to 30. Most of our single family neighborhoods do not have sidewalks and our streets must be shared with pedestrians. Every effort needs to be made to make them safe pedestrians and drivers.
- McGavock Pike, while it is well-travelled and used by many, it is essentially a residential street and should remain so in my opinion. Towards that effort, I’ve asked that large trucks not use it as a cut-through and for this to be an enforceable policy via the Traffic & Parking Commission. So far, the stretch from Elm Hill Pike to Lebanon Pike has been deemed so and I am awaiting confirmation that the stretch from Lebanon Pike to Pennington Bend Rd will be so as well.


Guy Michetti is a singer/songwriter from New York City.
Singer/Songwriter Guy Michetti has just released two full length CDs, "Headin' For The Crossroads" and "All In My Mind." They are now available to order on Michetti's web site www.guymichetti.com, and soon will be available at your local record store.
Michetti's songs "Can't You See The Lonely?" and "All In My Mind" have each won songwriting awards. "Can't You See The Lonely?" won honorable mention last year in Billboard Magazine's World Songwriting Contest. His lyrics are solid and thought provoking", said the letter from Billboard.
His two CDs, "Headin' For The Crossroads" and "All In My Mind," were recorded and produced on Staten Island at Moon Studios where his producer, Henry Falco, is the Chief Engineer. Last year Michetti released an EP entitled "I'm Coming Home." The title song raced around the world as it was streamed and downloaded world-wide. The title song is about a wounded solider coming home after a tour of duty in Iraq continues to be a popular download. The CD has had remarkable international sales and hit number 1 for two weeks at an independent music site in the U.K. Michetti has donated all profits from the sale of that EP to Disabled American Veterans.
Michetti is part of the independent music movement that is flourishing around the globe. The internet has become the next big thing. It allows musicians to share their talents not only in the coffee local houses and street corners of the world, but also with music lovers who want to sample new, innovative artists.
The music business is changing, Michetti says. There are many artists who have free downloads to allow potential fans to become familiar with their music and internet radio is bursting right now, with places like SoundClick, Mixposure and ArtistLaunch that provide great services for Independent artists and music fans alike. Even Amazon.com has independent music like Michetti's available for free downloads and for sale.
A songwriter from Nashville Lex Zaleta http://www.soundclick.com/lexzaleta said this of Michetti and his music: "Guy Michetti is a walking, talking American jukebox. He has mastered every style of music. Whenever I listen to Guy perform, I feel I could be back in Dustbowl Times with Woody Guthrie or in Greenwich Village with Ochs and Dylan. I could just as easily be in 2093 enjoying his newest release - Guy's music is that timeless. Rarely is that degree of talent wrapped up in so much humility. If Guy were given ten Grammy Awards tomorrow, I would still feel it was too little, too late. You have your own sound - but pretty soon it will be a sound shared by millions. That big break has to right around the next musical corner for you."
Michetti's music is for sale on an online music distributor call CD BABY. www.cdbaby.com CD Baby then takes music by independent artists like Michetti and distributes it digitally to places like Itunes, Napster and a host of other music sites. Places like Itunes have been acknowledged to have helped bolster sales for the music industry and the independents are becoming a part of that bottom line.
Michetti works at his craft and performs in the New York/ New Jersey area in coffee houses like the Muddy Cup and the Perking Latte Café. "These places are a god send to local songwriters and musicians, and it's a great place to hear some good music and meet new people!"
Michetti is also going the tried and traditional route as well. He peforms live and sells cds at his performances and will be distributing his cds to local record shops.!"
For more info you can access Guy Michetti's web site at www.guymichetti.com
Yes, I play in the New York City area.
My influences are people like Woody Guthrie, Bob Dylan, James Talyor, The Byrds, The Beatles, and Bruce Springsteen.
: All In My Mind
: Headin' For The Crossroads
: I'm Coming Home


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Rep. Tom McClintock (R-CA) detailed the extent of President Joe Biden’s Catch and Release network where 836,000 border crossers and illegal aliens have been released into the United States interior since the president took office in January 2021 — a foreign population larger than the population of the state of North Dakota.
During a House Judiciary Committee hearing on Thursday, McClintock asked Department of Homeland Security (DHS) Secretary Alejandro Mayorkas, “How does this benefit Americans” when the administration releases tens of thousands of border crossers and illegal aliens into American communities every month?
“Since the administration took office you’ve deliberately released, into the United States, 836,000 illegal immigrants who crossed our borders in violation of our laws and sovereignty,” McClintock said. “Now that is more than the entire population of the state of North Dakota.”
“I’d like to know why you think this benefits Americans. Packing classrooms with non-English speaking students, flooding emergency rooms with illegals demanding care, making it harder to deport criminal illegal aliens, flooding the labor market with cheap foreign labor. How does this benefit Americans?” McClintock asked Mayorkas.
Flooded labor markets, in particular, have a devastating impact on America’s working and middle class. Mass immigration helps redistribute billions in wealth to the highest earners, big businesses, real estate investors, and Wall Street, as well as driving capital out of small communities to the coasts.
While creating an economy that tilts in favor of employers, flooded labor markets have helped keep wages stagnant for decades. From 1979 to 2013, wages for the bottom 90 percent of Americans grew just 15 percent. Meanwhile, wage growth for the top one percent of Americans was nearly 140 percent higher.
At the same time, McClintock noted, DHS has allowed an estimated 600,000 illegal aliens into the United States who went undetected by Border Patrol when crossing the southern border.
“This is more than the entire population of the state of Wyoming,” McClintock said.
Should the Biden administration move forward with plans to end Title 42, the public health authority used at the border to deter illegal immigration, McClintock said some 18,000 illegal aliens could be released into the United States interior every day.
“That is the same as admitting a new state of Alaska every 40 days,” McClintock said.
Though Mayorkas claimed that the majority of border crossers and illegal aliens released show up to their initial immigration and asylum hearings, McClintock pushed back, noting that nine out of ten asylum claims are turned down, and of those who are found not to be eligible for asylum, fewer than 15 percent are actually deported by the Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE).
“You’ve already instructed ICE that mere illegal presence in the country is not grounds for deportation,” McClintock said. “So they stay and await the next amnesty. That’s what you mean by ‘enforcement proceedings’ because that’s what you do.”
John Binder is a reporter for Breitbart News. Email him at email@example.com. Follow him on Twitter here.

domain: politics


text:
8th Annual Southeast Florida Regional Climate Leadership Summit
October 5, 2016 @ 8:00 am - October 6, 2016 @ 5:00 pm
Palm Beach County and West Palm Beach were scheduled to host the 8th Annual Southeast Florida Regional Climate Leadership Summit on October 5-6, 2016, however, the event was canceled due to Hurricane Matthew.
The annual summit is coordinated by the Southeast Florida Regional Climate Change Compact, a partnership between Miami-Dade, Broward, Monroe and Palm Beach counties, their municipalities and other partners. The Climate Leadership Summit is a major regional event focused on facilitating climate-related collaboration and knowledge sharing. The summit attracts innovative thinkers and leaders from business, government, academia and the non-profit community to exchange ideas and dialogue at panel discussions and networking breaks.


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Is it time for the Gulf countries, especially Saudi Arabia, to drop their caution towards the Iraqi prime minister Nouri al Maliki and his cabinet, and embrace a neighbour currently emerging from years of tyranny followed by civil strife?
Gulf reservations are understandable. Mr al Maliki was a member of the United Iraqi Alliance (UIA) parliamentary bloc, the predecessor of the Iraqi National Alliance (INA), a coalition of Shiite, mainly Islamist, parties. Fearing Iranian dominance over Iraq, Saudi Arabia distanced itself from him.
By the time of the parliamentary elections in December 2005, the UIA consisted mainly of the Supreme Council for the Islamic Revolution in Iraq (ISCI), Mr al Maliki’s Dawa party, its splinter group Dawa Iraq Organisation, and the Fadhilah party. Other groups known for their close ties with Iran, such as Moqtada al Sadr’s candidates and Ahmed Chalabi’s Iraq National Congress (INC), ran independently.
The UIA won the largest number of seats in parliament, and Mr al Maliki was eventually named prime minister in April 2006. But from a weak federal cabinet, the prime minister has proved to be anything but weak. He sent government forces to wipe out al Sadr’s Mahdi Army in Basra. In parallel, Mr al Maliki asserted government control over Iraq’s eastern provinces, in co-operation with local Sunni tribes and American troops. Even with the Kurds, who later became allies, Mr al Maliki did not concede on any independent oil drilling or sale in the north.
Iraq’s prime minister has surprised Iran and its allies. It seems that, in one of its rare lapses, Tehran has not done its homework.
Mr al Maliki is the grandson of Mohamed Hassan Aboul-Mahasen, an activist with the 1920 revolt against the British mandate, and later a government minister. Mr Aboul-Mahasen was an Iraqi patriot, and there is no reason to believe that his grandson thinks Iran should dictate Iraq’s politics. Perhaps the only difference between the two men is that Mr al Maliki understood that participating in the US-sponsored political process was more effective than rebelling against it.
And despite his membership of an Islamist group, there is no evidence to indicate that Dawa endorses Iran’s velayat-e faqih, or Rule of the Jurisprudent. On the contrary, several academics have suggested that the political thought of Dawa’s founder, Mohamed Baqir al Sadr, was opposed to that of the founder of the Islamic Republic of Iran, Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, despite the friendship between the two during the 1970s.
Unlike Ayatollah Khomeini, Dawa’s founder had no illusion that one man could decide all matters of any state; rather he endorsed a supervisory role for an Islamic jurist within a constitutional framework.
Further proof of Mr al Maliki’s patriotism could be detected in the early 1990s, when he and the rest of the Dawa politburo voted to impeach the party’s spiritual leader, Kazem al Haeri, an Iranian known for his support of Ayatollah Khomeini’s Islamic dictatorship. Ayatollah al Haeri later became the sponsor of Moqtada al Sadr and his militia.
While living in Iran from 1982 to 1990, Mr al Maliki might have learnt that similarity in religion was not enough to bring predominantly Shiite Iran – an arguably Persian patriotic and sometimes chauvinistic nation – and the Shiites of Iraq into one state. During the Iran-Iraq in the 1980s, 80 per cent of the Iraqi army and 20 per cent of its officers were Shiite, but felt patriotic enough to fight a neighbouring Shiite state to defend their homeland.
Mr al Maliki’s efforts to assert the power of the federal government in Baghdad have run counter to Iranian ambitions. He has thus lost Iranian support for term renewal so Mr al Maliki and his party left the UIA.
Nevertheless, Iranian officials tried to convince him to stay within the all-Shiite coalition for the 2010 elections. So far, he has turned down that invitation and formed his own ticket, the Coalition of the State of Law, signalling further empowerment for Baghdad at the expense of a possible Shiite federation in the south with Iran as its patron.
Mr al Maliki’s opponents argue that he is just another Iranian operative, and that his confrontation with UIA was all part of a grand Iranian plan. Even if that were true, the prime minister understands that his current leadership depends on his Iraqi nationalist stance. Abandoning that might render him just another INA politician.
Despite the absence of firm opinion-poll data, Mr al Maliki’s coalition seems in a good position to win most seats at the elections in February. In that case, the large Kurdish bloc is expected to swing in favour of renaming him prime minister, and it seems unlikely that his opponents can forge an INA-Sunni alliance to dislodge him.
If the Gulf countries remain distant from Mr al Maliki before the election, it might bring them his animosity afterwards. Instead, these countries should follow in the footsteps of Egypt and the US and embrace him.
Leaving Mr al Maliki out in the cold might simply send him back into Iran’s arms, whether he is elected or not.
Hussain Abdul-Hussain is a Visiting Fellow with Chatham House, London

domain: news


text:
As up to 30 percent of UVA faculty prepare for retirement, the University prepares new hiring methods to fill the vacancies.
See where UVA ranks among the top colleges and universities in the country, according to US News & World Report, Business Insider, Princeton Review and The Economist.
In September, Virginia paid homage to the 1976 basketball team as part of an All-Sports Reunion weekend, drawing more than 500 alumni athletes.
New bicentennial celebration chairs announced; professor honored by Washington Monthly; head of VFH retires; Distinguished Teaching Award honoree
One of the most centrally located streets around Grounds is getting a makeover that aims to benefit students for years to come.
A federal jury in Charlottesville awarded Associate Dean Nicole Eramo $3 million against Rolling Stone magazine for defamation.
Dr. Vivian Pinn was the only female and minority member in the UVA School of Medicine’s Class of 1967.
What had once been a cluster of small businesses on the outskirts of the University is set to become part of a corridor that beautifies and unifies Grounds.
Next year’s entering class will be piloting the new curriculum design, the first major change at UVA in over 40 years. Here’s the breakdown of what to expect.
In May, President Teresa Sullivan, along with several UVA deans, took a 12-day trip throughout Asia to meet with university leaders, alumni, students and government officials.
The University is taking another step toward a better understanding of the brain through its newest initiative: the UVA Brain Institute. Here’s what they hope to accomplish through cross-Grounds collaboration in the field of neuroscience.
University Advancement and the Women’s Center gain new leadership; new leaders appointed to the Board of Visitors; two distinguished Writers-in-Residence come to Grounds.
Visitors to UVA’s Fralin Museum of Art can view Warhol’s “Saint Apollonia,” celebrity portraits such as the famous Marilyn Monroe, pieces from his “Cowboys and Indians” series and more in the museum’s current exhibit, “Andy Warhol: Icons.”
Many readers sent in feedback to the summer cover story “Modern Honor.” A selection of letter excerpts appear, along with a letter from the Editor on the Honor System piece.
The newly-formed UVA Brain Institute aims to develop more effective treatments for brain diseases such as Alzheimer’s, schizophrenia, autism, epilepsy and traumatic brain injury.
A young engineer wins highest government honor, Larycia Hawkins joins the Institute for Advanced Studies in Culture, and the Library and the A-School appoint new deans.
Readers offer their thoughts on the Spring 2016 issue of Virginia Magazine.
Preservationists and construction crews are working to repair even the smallest details of the Rotunda.
An alumna appears on Shark Tank, an old Faulkner play hits newsstands, the Law School gets a new dean, UVA gets its 51st Rhodes Scholar, and more.
President Sullivan discusses the University’s complicated racial history and the current conversation in higher education surrounding unpleasant historical realities.
Readers offer their thoughts on topics from the Winter 2015 issue of Virginia Magazine.
Busy-ness seems to be an epidemic. We asked several UVA students, professionals and alumni how they manage their time. Here are their answers.
Budgeting for a complex organization like the University of Virginia is no simple task. Here’s a look at some of the numbers, and the priorities behind them.
Readers offer their thoughts on topics from the Fall 2015 issue of UVA Magazine.


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*Present address and correspondence: B. L. Fredensborg. Marine Science Institute, Department of Ecology, Evolution and Marine Biology, University of California, Santa Barbara, USA. Fax: (805)893 8026. E-mail: firstname.lastname@example.org
1Variation in life-history strategies among conspecific populations indicates the action of local selective pressures; recently, parasitism has been suggested as one of these local forces.
2Effects of trematode infections on reproductive effort, juvenile growth, size at maturity and susceptibility were investigated among different natural populations of the marine gastropod Zeacumantus subcarinatus, Sowerby 1855.
3Reproductive effort was not higher in uninfected snails from populations experiencing a high trematode prevalence, but females from high prevalence populations produced significantly larger offspring compared with their conspecifics from other populations.
4Juvenile growth rate was significantly higher in laboratory-raised snails originating from females in a high prevalence population compared with other populations.
5Size at maturity, determined by the appearance of functional gonads, was significantly and negatively related to trematode prevalence, and positively related to mean snail size, across 10 populations in the study area.
6There was no evidence of different host resistance against trematodes in sentinel snails from high and low prevalence populations exposed to the same infection pressure in the field.
7Our results strongly indicate that Z. subcarinatus adapt to trematodes by reaching maturity early, thereby maximizing their chance of reproducing in populations experiencing a high prevalence of infection by castrating trematodes.
Life-history theory predicts that natural selection will lead to a maximization of overall lifelong reproductive success (= fitness) (Pianka 1976; Stearns 1989). A key assumption held by life-history theory is that there will be trade-offs between fitness components such as growth, reproduction and survival (Roff 1992). The optimal allocation of energy towards reproduction and growth at any given age will thus be determined by the probability of future reproductive success (Pianka 1976; Kozlowski 1992). That is, if mortality rates increase with age, natural selection should favour individuals that mature earlier and invest more energy in current reproduction, and vice versa. This has been supported by several empirical studies on predator-mediated mortality, in the laboratory as well as in natural populations (e.g. Reznick 1982; Crowl & Covitch 1990; Reznick, Bryga & Endler 1990; see also Hutchings 1993 for a nonpredation example).
Analogous to predation, parasitism can greatly influence the future reproductive success of hosts. This can be achieved not only by reducing host survival but also by infecting the gonads leading to castration (future reproductive value = 0). Reported host life-history adaptations to castrating parasites often fall into one of the following three categories: (1) host resistance against the parasite; (2) increased host reproductive effort; and (3) earlier maturity (Minchella 1985; Michalakis & Hochberg 1994; Agnew, Koella & Michalakis 2000; Zuk & Stoehr 2002). Host resistance involves recognition of the parasite followed by production of antibodies to prevent or strongly inhibit the development of the infection. Mounting an immune response can be costly, and resistant hosts are often reported to have reduced fitness in the absence of parasites compared with their susceptible conspecifics (Minchella & Loverde 1983; Kraaijeveld & Godfray 1997; Langand et al. 1998; Webster & Woolhouse 1999; see Sheldon & Verhulst 1996; Kraaijeveld, Ferrari & Godfray 2002 for reviews). Evidence for resistance has mostly been obtained under laboratory conditions, suggesting that resistance is only selected for when the probability and cost of infection are high and constant.
This study investigates possible life-history adaptations to larval trematodes in populations of the New Zealand mudsnail Zeacumantus subcarinatus. Z. subcarinatus is a common inhabitant of soft-sediment intertidal bays, where it feeds on epiphytic and epipelic diatoms. It is characterized by having a direct development of juveniles without a planktonic stage (eggs hatch into crawl-away larvae) (Fredensborg, pers. obs.). In a previous study, no migration of snails between bays was detected, and populations are thus highly reliant on local reproduction (Fredensborg, Mouritsen & Poulin 2005). With a very limited gene flow between populations, Z. subcarinatus is likely to display local adaptation (see Yamada 1989). The prevalence of trematodes is spatially highly variable in snail populations within the study area (4–86%) (Fredensborg et al. 2005), and the selective pressure exerted by parasites on the snail host is therefore very different among host populations. Trematode prevalence in populations of snails is roughly constant across seasons and years (±5%, Fredensborg, unpublished data) with very little spatial variation within populations, and snail populations are therefore under an approximately constant selection pressure. Individuals from high prevalence populations able to maximize their early reproductive effort should therefore have a strong selective advantage. The key life-history components, i.e. reproductive effort, measured as offspring number and size, growth, size at maturity, and host susceptibility to trematode infection were examined across snail populations experiencing different trematode prevalences. We were especially interested in the effect of trematodes on the pattern of energy allocation between reproduction and growth, and in possible maternal effects on offspring size, growth and size at maturity. Ours is one of the rare studies to investigate parasite-driven life-history adaptations in natural populations as opposed to laboratory cultures. Based on the reproductive strategy of Z. subcarinatus in combination with the varying trematode prevalence among populations, this snail–trematode association provides a useful model to achieve a better understanding of the effect of parasitism on host evolution in natural populations.
Materials and methods
zeacumantus subcarinatus and its trematode parasites
A total of five trematode species have been found inhabiting the gonads of Z. subcarinatus, all leading to total castration of the host. The most common trematode is Maritrema novaezealandensis (Microphallidae), which accounts for approximately 60% of all trematode infections in Z. subcarinatus. The life cycle of M. novaezealandensis involves three hosts, with Z. subcarinatus acting as the first intermediate host, small crustaceans serving as second intermediate hosts, and shorebirds as the definitive hosts (Fredensborg, Latham & Poulin 2004; Martorelli et al. 2004).
reproductive investment versus trematode prevalence
In mid-October 2003, several hundred Z. subcarinatus were collected from three localities in the Otago Harbour, South Island, New Zealand: Turnbull Bay (TB), Company Bay (CB) and Lower Portobello Bay (LPB). The three localities were selected based on the total trematode prevalence recorded in the residing Zeacumantus populations (including all individuals > 6·0 mm), which was characterized as being low (13%, TB), moderate (30%, CB) or high (86%, LPB). For all three localities the snails were collected by hand in an area of approximately 50 × 50 m in the upper tidal zone. For each locality, all snails were measured to the nearest 0·1 mm (shell length, apex to aperture) using a calliper, and approximately 25 snails from each of eight size classes ranging from 7 to 15 mm were randomly selected and separately transferred to 75-mL containers provided with 2 mm of sediment from the site of collection. The containers were kept at room temperature (16–20 °C) and under the natural photoperiod. Every second day throughout the study (87 days), the containers were checked for the presence of egg-strings and the numbers of eggs were recorded. Water and sediment were replaced every second week throughout the study. At the end of the study, all snails were measured to estimate growth during the study and dissected to examine for trematode infections in the gonads.
To examine maternal investment in offspring size, a subsample of five eggs was randomly selected for measurement from each egg-producing female from all localities during a period of 4 weeks. During that period, egg production was checked daily to ensure an approximately equal age of the eggs at the time of measurement. Because eggs were always produced in a gelatinous mass, often with not very distinctive eggshells, embryos rather than eggs were measured. For each egg, the diameter of the embryo was measured to the nearest 10 µm. Embryo volume was subsequently estimated using the formula for a sphere (Volume = 4/3 × π × r3, where r represents the radius of the embryo). The mean volume of embryos from each snail population was subsequently multiplied by egg production to estimate snail reproductive output (i.e. total offspring volume per snail).
To verify the relationship between trematode prevalence and offspring size obtained in 2003, snails were collected from another three localities with similar trematode prevalences in October 2004, using identical sampling methods. The three localities were: Latham Bay (LatB, prevalence = 10·5%), Lamlash Bay (LamB, prevalence = 27%) and Oyster Bay (OB, prevalence = 56%). As in the previous year eggs for measurements were collected during a 4-week period.
To investigate juvenile growth rate in populations of snails experiencing different probabilities of becoming infected, approximately 300 eggs from each of the localities sampled in 2003 were transferred to three separate aquariums (30 × 18 × 15 cm). The juveniles were raised under optimal conditions for growth (temperature: 16–20 °C and with epilithic diatoms growing on small rocks and pebbles, and epiphytic diatoms growing on sea lettuce as food sources). Every second week for 275 days, 50 randomly selected juveniles from each locality were measured (shell length, apex to aperture) to test for differences in growth rates between localities. During the study, two-thirds of the water was replaced weekly, and small rocks and sea lettuce were replaced approximately every second week.
size at maturity
From mid-October to early November 2004, a large sample of 7–12-mm long Z. subcarinatus was randomly collected by hand in the upper tidal zone from an area covering approximately 50 × 50 m for each of 10 bays in and around Otago Harbour. In the laboratory, snails from each locality were measured and grouped into 0·5 mm size classes with 10 snails in each size class. Snails were dissected and categorized as being either mature or immature based upon the state of development of gonads. The criterium for maturity in females was based on vitellogenesis (production of yolk) and in males on the production of spermatozoa. The latter was examined by squashing the male gonad between a glass slide and a cover slip and inspecting it through a light microscope (400× magnification).
An investigation of factors determining size at maturity in Z. subcariantus was carried out using a multiple regression analysis (see data analysis). For that purpose, data on trematode prevalence, chlorophyll a content in the sediment, mean snail size and snail density were obtained from a recent study (Fredensborg et al. 2005). Quantitative and qualitative samples of snails were collected randomly from an area covering 50 × 50 m in the mid-tidal zone from all 10 localities (see Fredensborg et al. 2005 for a detailed description of the sampling method). In the laboratory, snail size was measured (apex to aperture), and all snails > 6·0 mm were dissected and examined for the presence of larval trematodes in the gonad. Only uninfected snails have developed gonads, and only data on uninfected snails were thus used. Data on chlorophyll a content in the substrate were available for eight of the 10 localities. Sediment samples were obtained in May by random sampling of five core samples (each 0·1188 m2, 5 cm deep) from each locality. Chlorophyll a was extracted from the sediments in 95% ethanol and its concentration was measured using a spectrophotometer, following standard techniques.
susceptibility to trematode infections
To test whether uninfected snails in high prevalence populations have been selected for resistance against trematode infections, approximately 1000 snails, ranging from 9 to 14 mm, were collected from LPB (high prevalence) and approximately 300 snails from TB (low prevalence) using the sampling technique described above. The snails from the two localities were brought back to the laboratory and transferred to separate containers supplied with aerated seawater, and with sea lettuce Ulva lactuca and epilithic microalgae as a food source. Approximately every 10 days for 10 weeks, all snails from the two localities were individually transferred to 10-mL Petri dishes and incubated at 25 °C for 24 h. This method facilitates the temperature-dependent release of cercarial larvae from the snail host and has previously been used to identify infected Z. subcarinatus (Fredensborg et al. 2005). After 24 h, the Petri dishes were inspected for trematode cercariae. On each of the incubation events, all snails shedding cercariae were excluded from the experiment. After 10 weeks, the remaining snails from the two localities were marked with contrasting colours. Snails were left to dry on a paper cloth for a few minutes after which the apex of the snails were dipped in nail polish. In February 2004, during the austral summer, marked snails from the two localities were transferred to LPB, where they were released into 10 closed mesh cages (area: 314 cm2, mesh size: 3 mm), each containing 10 snails from each locality. Snails from the two localities were size-matched both within and between cages to avoid any effect of size on susceptibility to infection by larval trematodes. The 10 cages were positioned along a transect parallel to the shoreline 30 m from the mean high water level, and with 20 m between each cage. After 53 days, all cages were emptied and the snails returned to the laboratory. Recent trematode infections in snails can be difficult to detect, and the snails were therefore kept under laboratory conditions for an additional period of 47 days to enhance the probability of the infection to develop. Subsequently, all snails were dissected and gonads examined for the presence and species of trematodes.
To test for differences in allocation of energy towards growth and reproduction among the three snail populations (at TB, CB and LPB), the total reproductive output (mean volume of embryos multiplied by number of eggs produced) was plotted against the specific growth rate. A difference in the allocation of energy directed towards reproduction and growth among populations would be detectable as an interaction between the trade-off curves. It is preferable to consider the slope of the trade-off curve rather than the actual value, as the total amount of energy available to snails may differ between snail populations.
Growth of juvenile Z. subcarinatus fitted the Gompertz growth curve, for which the specific growth rate ln(S2/S1)/Δt is a linear function of lnS (where S1 and S2 represent the initial and final size in the time interval Δt, and S is the geometric mean of S1 and S2) (Kaufmann 1981). The specific growth rates of juvenile snails from the three populations (TB, CB and LPB) were compared using an ancova, with the specific growth rate as the dependent variable and lnS as the covariate.
The influence of trematode prevalence on size at maturity in Z. subcarinatus was tested for following the method of Lafferty (1993). The relationship between the proportion of snails with functional gonads and snail size was tested by a linear regression, and size at maturity was estimated as the mid-point of the regression line indicating the size at which 50% of snails had reached maturity. The influence of environmental factors and parasites on size at maturity was tested in a stepwise multiple regression analysis using the estimated size at maturity as the dependent variable and trematode prevalence, chlorophyll a content in sediment, snail density and mean snail size as the predictor variables. Trematode prevalence was arcsin sqrt-transformed, and snail density and size at maturity were log-transformed prior to analysis to mitigate violations of normality and heteroscedasticity.
Statistical analyses were performed using the statistical packages SPSS for Windows (10·1), and Statistica (6·0) and used the 5% level of significance.
Egg production was positively and linearly related to snail weight in all three populations (TB: y = 6·997x + 0·9479, R2 = 0·518, P < 0·0001; CB: y = 3·672x + 1·229, R2 = 0·141, P = 0·0003; LPB: y = 7·497x + 0·594, R2 = 0·303, P = 0·0001) (Fig. 1). A test for homogeneity of slopes revealed an interaction of regression lines between CB and the other two populations (General Linear Model, F = 3·14, d.f. = 2, n = 162, P = 0·046). This was mainly due to a higher variance in egg-producing females among the larger snails in CB (Fig. 1). A GLM not assuming homogeneity of slopes followed by a post hoc test showed that snails from TB produced significantly more eggs than the other two populations at any given size (Unequal N HSD test, P < 0·0001), whereas egg production did not differ between CB and LPB (P = 0·975).
Intriguingly, embryos from the three populations measured in 2004 were consistently larger than embryos from the three populations measured in 2003. Food availability, measured as chlorophyll a content in the sediment, did not differ among populations in either 2003 or 2004 (one-way anova: F2,14 = 0·400, P = 0·679, and F2,14 = 1·246, P = 0·202, in 2003 and 2004, respectively). It is unlikely that the relatively large difference in embryo size observed among populations sampled in 2003 and 2004 was solely due to habitat. Data on offspring size were therefore analysed separately for the 2 years.
Mean snail size, for which a subsample of five embryos had been measured, did not differ among populations in any of the two years (one-way anova: F2,70 = 1·246, P = 0·294, and F2,41 = 0·040, P = 0·961, in 2003 and 2004, respectively). There was no relationship between maternal size and offspring size across snails from all populations in any of the two years (r = 0·097, P = 0·416, and r = −0·004, P = 0·979, in 2003 and 2004, respectively). Embryo size differed significantly between snail populations in both years (Table 1, Fig. 2). In 2003, embryos from LPB were significantly larger than embryos from CB and TB (Tukey's test: P = 0·025, and P < 0·001, respectively). Embryos from CB and TB did not differ significantly in size (P = 0·052). No significant relationship between egg size and numbers was detected for any of the three populations (all, P ≥ 0·080). However, there was a significant correlation between offspring size and number across snails from all populations combined (r = –0·36, P = 0·002), indicating that the optimal allocation of resources between offspring number and size differed among populations. In 2004, embryos from OB were significantly larger than embryos from the other two localities (Tukey's test: P < 0·001, for both comparisons). There was no significant difference in embryo size between LatB and LamB (P = 0·072). Thus in both years, snails originating from populations with the highest trematode prevalence (i.e. a high risk of castration) produced significantly larger offspring compared with other populations.
Table 1. Results of two one-way anovas, evaluating embryo size across three snail populations with different trematode prevalence in 2003 and 2004. In 2003, the three investigated snail populations were: Turnbull Bay (TB), Company Bay (CB) and Lower Portobello Bay (LPB). In 2004, the investigated snail populations were: Latham Bay (LatB), Lamlash Bay (LamB) and Oyster Bay (OB). Data were log-transformed prior to analysis
For all three populations sampled in 2003, the reproductive output, measured as mean embryo volume multiplied by number of eggs, was negatively associated with specific growth rate across individual snails, indicating a trade-off between the two life-history traits (TB: y = −1008·655x − 0·027, R2 = 0·375, P < 0·0001; CB: y = −512·947x − 0·5345, R2 = 0·199, P < 0·0001; LPB: y = −906·263x − 0·4843, R2 = 0·281, P = 0·0002) (Fig. 3). Locality had a significant effect on the relationship between the reproductive output and the specific growth rate (General linear model: F2,162 = 14·60, P < 0·001). Overall, snails from TB showed higher values for both variables compared with snails from the other two localities (post hoc Unequal N HSD test: P < 0·001, for both comparisons), indicating that more resources were available for snails in that population. The relationship between reproductive output and specific growth rate was similar between TB and LPB (i.e. no interaction between regression lines, Fig. 3). Snails from the two populations thus had a similar allocation of energy between the two life-history traits, suggesting that snails did not shift their allocation of energy towards reproductive output where the risk of becoming infected by castrating trematodes was highest. A weak interaction of regression lines between CB and the two other populations was observed, suggesting that snails from CB with a low specific growth rate also had a low reproductive output and vice versa (Fig. 3).
Shell-height of juvenile Z. subcarinatus differed significantly among snails from the three populations after 275 days (one-way anova, F2,147 = 93·648, P < 0·001, Fig. 4). Mean size of juvenile snails from LPB was larger than snails from the other two populations (post hoc LSD test, P < 0·001, for both comparisons), and snails from CB were significantly larger than their conspecifics from TB (P < 0·001). The specific growth rate of juveniles declined linearly with size from day 49 and onwards, and differed significantly between populations (TB: y = −0·015x + 0·021, R2 = 0·714, P = 0·002; CB: y = −0·011x + 0·019, R2 = 0·854, P < 0·0001; LPB: y = −0·015x + 0·025, R2 = 0·880, P < 0·0001) (Table 2). Juvenile Z. subcarinatus from LPB had a significantly higher growth rate for any given size compared with snails from the other two populations (ancova: F1,19 = 9·281, P = 0·007, and F1,19 = 5·093, P = 0·035 for pairwise comparisons with TB and CB, respectively). Specific growth rates of juvenile snails did not differ between TB and CB (ancova: F1,19 = 0·932, P = 0·347).
Table 2. Results of an ancova, examining the specific growth rate in juvenile snails in relation to population of origin with snail size as the covariate. Growth rates were compared among populations after day 49 (n = 11 measurements per population). Snail size was log-transformed prior to analysis
size at maturity
Similar to Lafferty (1993) the relationship between the proportion of mature snails in each size class and size could be explained by a linear regression, where the lower bound was the largest size class where all snails were immature, and the upper bound was the smallest size class where all snails were mature (mean R2 = 0·838). For each of the 10 snail populations, the mid-point of the regression between size class and the proportion of mature snails was used as an estimate of the size at which 50% of snails in a population had attained sexual maturity. Data on size at maturity, trematode prevalence and environmental variables obtained from 10 snail populations in and around Otago Harbour are presented in Table 3. Chlorophyll a was not significantly related to size at maturity across the eight snail populations where chlorophyll a data were obtained (r = –0·10, P = 0·847), and did not affect the result of the analysis. Therefore, only the results of the multiple regression analysis including all 10 sites are presented here. Trematode prevalence and mean snail size were both significantly related to size at maturity across all 10 snail populations (Table 4). This result indicates that snails in general mature at a larger size where growing conditions, measured as mean snail size, are favourable. However, the analysis also shows that snails from populations experiencing a high trematode prevalence mature at a significantly smaller size, independently of growing conditions (Table 4).
Table 3. Site characteristics used in a multiple regression analysis to explain the variation in size at maturity across populations of Zeacumantus subcarinatus. Size at maturity represents the size (mm) at which 50% of snails had functional gonads (based on dissections of 10 snails per 0·5 mm size class ranging from 7·0 to 12·0 mm). Prevalence is the percentage of snails > 6·0 mm that were infected by trematodes (n = 100–370 per population). Chlorophyll a represents mean amount of chlorophyll a (mg−1 m−2) based on five core samples per locality. Density represents the mean number of snails per m2, based on 15 core samples (each, 0·1188 m2, 5 cm deep) per locality. Size denotes the mean snail size (mm) of snails from the 15 core samples per locality
Size at maturity
Lower Portobello Bay
Table 4. Results of a stepwise multiple regression analysis, evaluating factors of importance to the variation in size at maturity across 10 snail populations
A field experiment on recruitment of larval trematodes to sentinel snails from a high and a low prevalence population was conducted. Snail sizes and infection data did not differ among the 10 cages used in the experiment, and the analysis therefore involves snail data pooled across cages. Of the 200 sentinel snails transferred to mesh cages in LPB, 111 (55·5%) were still alive at the time of dissection 100 days later. Of the 111 snails dissected, 30 were infected by one of three trematode species: M. novaezealandensis, Acanthoparyphium sp. and a philophthalmid. The proportion of infected snails was significantly larger for LPB compared with TB (NinfLPB = 23, NinfTB = 7, Yates’ corrected chi-square test: χ2 = 15·87, P = 0·0001). Most of the infections (66·7%) were nonpatent (i.e. no cercarial production) and consisted of relatively few sporocysts or rediae, indicating that the infections were obtained during the experiment. It is possible that patent infections could have originated before the experiment, remaining undetected during the incubation tests. However, excluding all patent infections did not change the outcome, and all infections were therefore included in the above analysis.
Studies on host life-history adaptations in response to parasites in natural populations are rare. This study provides an insight into the effect of trematodes on several key life-history traits in the marine snail Zeacumantus subcarinatus.
Life-history theory predicts that hosts infected by parasites that negatively influence survival and reproduction, should increase their current reproductive effort to minimize the fitness cost of parasitism (e.g. Forbes 1993). Because trematodes inevitably lead to castration of the snail host, it was expected that Z. subcarinatus would invest more energy in reproduction in populations with a high risk of becoming infected. In spite of the obvious negative impact of trematodes on host fecundity, our results do not provide any evidence that uninfected snails from high prevalence populations invested more energy into reproduction (similar slopes of regression lines between growth and reproduction for high and low prevalence populations; Fig. 3). It is possible that a greater energy allocation towards reproduction was not observed because it may be more beneficial for the snails to grow bigger, as this would enable a higher future egg production. Several studies have reported a parasite-induced increase in the reproductive effort in animals (often termed fecundity compensation) (Minchella & Loverde 1981; Thornhill et al. 1986; Gérard & Théron 1997; Adamo 1999). In this study, only the reproductive strategy of uninfected individuals was investigated. Experimental infections are needed to clarify further the role of parasite-induced responses in allocation of energy in Z. subcarinatus.
Energy allocation between growth and reproduction did not vary among snail populations, yet offspring size differed significantly across populations in both years. Often, offspring size in invertebrates is influenced by maternal size and/or the number of offspring produced (Fox & Czesak 2000). In our study there was no relationship between maternal size and offspring size. In addition, there was no evidence for a trade-off between progeny size and numbers within populations. There was, however, a significant correlation between the two traits across populations, indicating that snails from different populations utilize different reproductive strategies. The two snail populations with the highest trematode prevalence produced significantly larger offspring compared with populations experiencing a lower prevalence. All populations were assumed to have equal access to resources, measured as the content of chlorophyll a in the sediment. However, the higher growth rates in combination with a higher reproductive output observed in snails from TB suggest that those snails may have had more resources (Fig. 3). The effect of resource availability on offspring size in invertebrates is not clear. Hence, both larger and smaller offspring have been recorded from different studies investigating the impact of resources on offspring size (see Fox & Czesak 2000 for a review). Resource availability may thus have had an effect on the smaller offspring size observed in snails from TB.
It is generally accepted that larger offspring perform better early in life (Calow 1983; Doherty 1994; Fox & Czesak 2000). Production of large offspring would therefore clearly be beneficial to snails living in populations where trematode infections are very common, as it increases the chance of producing offspring that would themselves reach maturity before becoming infected. Previous studies on vertebrates have revealed that production of large offspring is favoured in environments where parasitism is likely to impose a significant negative impact on host fitness (Kristan 2004; Thomas et al. 2004). Moreover, it has been shown that females living in an environment with many parasites can produce offspring that are better adapted to parasites than offspring from unexposed females (Sorci, Massot & Clobert 1994; Sorci & Clobert 1995; Kristan 2004). Those findings are in line with our results on juvenile growth in Z. subcarinatus from three snail populations, showing that juveniles from a high prevalence population grew significantly faster and achieved a significantly larger size by the end of the study compared with the other populations. Because the juvenile snails were raised under identical conditions and had never experienced field conditions, the higher growth rate in snails from LPB indicates that the adaptation could be genetically based. However, it cannot be excluded that maternal effects may also have contributed to the observed results.
size at maturity
A large range of physiological and environmental factors are believed to influence the onset of reproduction (Kozlowski 1992; Roff 1992; Stearns 1992; Bernado 1993). A major determinant of age at maturity is the age-specific mortality rate. Life-history models generally predict that high adult mortality should select for earlier age at maturity (Hochberg, Michalakis & de Meeüs 1992; Roff 1992). For snail hosts, infection by trematodes equals mortality because infections inevitably lead to castration, which is permanent (Curtis 2003). In this study, Z. subcarinatus matured earlier in populations where trematode prevalence was high, therefore supporting life-history theory. It was apparent that the quality of the habitat also had an effect on the size at which snails matured. Hence, in good quality habitats, maturing at a larger size was beneficial to snails. Our findings are similar to Lafferty (1993), who found that Cerithidea californica Haldeman, 1840, living in saltmarsh ecosystems matured at a smaller size where trematode prevalence was high. Z. subcarinatus and C. californica share very similar life histories, both producing eggs with direct development (i.e. eggs hatch into miniature adults without a planktonic larval stage). Snails with direct development of larvae are generally more likely to adapt to local selection pressures because immigration is rare and the intrapopulation gene pool therefore is highly reliant upon local recruitment (Janson 1982, 1987; Yamada 1987, 1989). The similar effect of trematodes on the life history of those two species living in different geographical areas and climatic zones, suggests that the effect of trematodes may apply generally to all gastropods with the same reproductive strategy.
Our results showed that snails from a high prevalence population did not show a higher resistance against trematode infections compared with snails from a low prevalence population. In fact, the opposite was observed. The lack of resistance could be due to a range of factors. First, Z. subcarinatus may simply lack genetic variation for resistance to evolve. Secondly, mounting an immune response may be costly and be negatively associated with other life-history traits (Minchella & Loverde 1983; Rigby & Jokela 2000). Especially when infected by several trematode species, general resistance towards them all may not be possible or beneficial. Different trematode species have different transmission routes to snails (either passive via ingestion or active via penetration), and a response against one species may not protect the snail from other species. As a consequence, studies showing host resistance against trematodes in natural populations are rare, and are more often due to a lack of compatibility between different strains of parasites and hosts than active resistance against the parasite (Webster & Davies 2001). There are no obvious reasons why snails from LPB (prevalence = 86%) should be more susceptible to trematode infections than their conspecifics from TB (prevalence = 13%). Owing to the high dispersal ability of bird definitive hosts, the trematodes infecting Z. subcarinatus are not likely to be locally adapted to their intermediate hosts, and other factors related to the two populations may determine the observed differences.
In conclusion, this study shows that Z. subcarinatus adapts to a high selection pressure exerted by parasites by changing a range of key life-history traits to minimize the negative impact of parasites on important fitness components. The results of this study warrant further investigation into the effect of parasites on life-history evolution in natural populations of hosts with limited dispersal abilities.
We wish to thank A. Armstrong and K. Holmes for technical assistance, and M. Hardman and two anonymous referees for useful comments on an earlier draft. This study was funded by a grant from The Marsden Fund to R.P., and by the University of Otago Bridging Grant to B.L.F.


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Filtered out - minerals processing
Global trends influencing the minerals industry include processing of lower grade and more complex ores, productivity, environmental responsibility, and energy and water conservation. All these add to costs at a time when companies are looking to maximise efficiency. Ian Townsend reports
A first step in minerals processing is concentration or beneficiation, where valuable minerals are separated from waste or tailings. Most separations are conducted from slurries after the ore has been fine ground in wet mills to achieve liberation. Froth flotation, where the surface tension allows preferential separation of sulphide base metal and platinum group minerals, results in a concentrate that must be dewatered ahead of transport, smelting or refining. The global trend has been towards lower grade and more complex ores that need finer grinding to achieve liberation. Particle size was typically 80% <75μm, but is now likely to be 80% <20 to 45μm, and can be as fine as 80% <8μm – the finer the particles are, the more difficult it is to dewater.
This separation of solids from liquids has two principal processes –
1. Cake filtration – to form a solid filter cake with or without in-situ cake washing for solute removal.
2. Polishing or clarification filtration – to remove traces of solid from a bulk liquid stream. Slurry properties including flow rate, solids’ concentration, particle size, density and shape, liquid viscosity, slurry temperature and corrosive properties determine the filtration method.
Filtration has long been the Cinderella of minerals metallurgical processing. Hidden at the tail end of the plant, it has received less attention than comminution and flotation. But it is also an important process in hydrometallurgy and refining. Purification often involves leaching of concentrate or calcined concentrate, followed by precipitation of impurities and recovery of pure metal. Filter cakes of leach residues and precipitates must usually be washed to maximise recovery of valuable solute. Large vacuum belt filters with counter current cake washing are commonly used for leach residues and precipitates such as jarosite. Pressure filters are used for finer leach residues or precipitates that are more difficult to dewater.
Considerations for filter selection in hydrometallurgical processes include slurry temperature and composition that determine materials of construction, and propensity for cloth blinding by precipitation of salts in the filter media. The moving cloth on horizontal belt vacuum filters and tower presses helps preserve cloth permeability by more effective washing.
There are many different filter designs, sometimes unique to niche applications. The driving force for filtration is the differential pressure across the filter cake and filter media. The principal methods for both cake and polishing filtration are vacuum filtration for easy dewatering, where liquid is sucked through the filter media at differential pressure 0.6-0.8 bar, and pressure filtration for more difficult dewatering, achieved by forcing liquid through the filter media at above atmospheric pressure. Differential pressure can be as low as 1-3 bar, more typically 8-16 bar, and as high as 150 bar for exceptional applications such as clay filtration.
Vacuum filters are unlikely to achieve the required 8-12%w/w cake moisture content with fine concentrates, and pressure filters have been the preferred choice for most recent mine developments. The lower cake moisture achieved by pressure filters reduces transport costs, and decreases or eliminates energy consumption in drying before smelting or refining.
Finer concentrate increases the likelihood of filter media blinding. This is significant as replacement of filter cloth is the highest running cost item. Efficient cloth washing is important to prevent blinding, extend cloth life and reduce maintenance time for cloth changing. Complex ores are inherently variable, and concentrate characteristics can change over short periods. Modern pressure filters adjust automatically to changes in feed to maintain consistent throughput and cake moisture.
The waste product or tailings from flotation plants have traditionally been deposited in dams. While this continues for most new mines, there is a growing trend to paste disposal or dry stacking. It is driven by the need to increase water recovery, ensure stable disposal in seismic areas, and minimise the deposition area in mountainous terrain. Dry stacking may be a condition for permitting in areas of environmental sensitivity.
Tailings moisture for dry stacking is typically 14-18%w/w, which can usually be achieved at lower differential pressure than concentrate filtration. The filtration rate of tailings is lower than that of concentrates because of the lower solids density, hydrophilic nature of the particles and the presence of fine or platy gangue minerals such as clays and talc. The high mass flow and lower filtration rate of tailings requires large filtration areas, meaning installations with multiple filters of the biggest sizes available. Recent proposals have included installations of 20 or more 560m2 filters. A major challenge is managing filter cloths on such large installations.
The filtration of iron ore fines for the production of furnace-ready pellets is a particular demanding application as there is a high throughput of dense, abrasive solids. Pelletising cake moisture is 8-9%w/w, and must be consistent for optimum binder addition and maximum pellet strength. Strong pellets minimise breakage and recycle during sintering, thereby increasing throughput and reducing energy consumption. Vacuum disc filters were used for iron ore fines, but have been superseded by pressure filters and ceramic disc filters. The latter are similar in appearance to traditional vacuum discs, but use microporous ceramic sectors in place of filter cloths. Ceramic sectors have long life and create suction by capillary action without the need for high kilowatt vacuum pumps. Ceramic disc filters are used widely in ferrochrome plants and in base metal concentrators with coarser grinds.
The filtrate from vacuum belt or pressure filters always contains some suspended solids. It is important to remove these trace solids before operations such as solvent extraction or electro-refining. Polishing filter designs are sometimes specific to certain applications. For example, dual media filters are used to remove both solids and entrained organics between solvent extraction and electrowinning. Simple, lowpressure cloth media polishing filters are the industry standard in electrorefining for removal of suspended anode slimes from circulating electrolyte. Removal of suspended solids reduces the potential for nodule formation, which in turn improves current efficiency and reduces impurity entrainment in cathodes.
More uses of filtration in mining and metallurgy include wet scrubbing of roaster and smelter off gas, and remediation of acid mine drainage. Environmental protection invariably involves some form of filtration and will become ever more important.
The main trends in filtration development for mining and metallurgical applications are summarised in this table (opens in pop-up window).
Ian Townsend, email: firstname.lastname@example.org


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Posted: Friday, April 28, 2023. 4:36 pm CST.
By Zoila Palma Gonzalez: In December of 2016, Belize acceded to the United Nations Convention against Corruption (UNCAC).
The Government of Belize says that it continues to demonstrate its commitment to implement convention measures to prevent and combat corruption.
At cabinet’s session today, cabinet approved the tabling of the Civil Asset Recovery and Unexplained Wealth Order Bill 2023.
This legislative initiative will assist in combating corruption and allow the High Court to freeze the assets of persons where those assets were acquired through unlawful means.
This will also place the onus on persons whose wealth exceeds their incomes to account to the court for their acquisition.
This is a significant move since the measures will enable the tracing of assets acquired through unlawful means.
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