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Sixteen Year (2002-2017) Record of Sea Turtle Strandings on Samandağ Beach, the Eastern Mediterranean Coast of Turkey
Sixteen Year (2002-2017) Record of Sea Turtle Strandings on Samandağ Beach, the Eastern Mediterranean Coast of Turkey
© 2018 Academia Sinica, Taiwan Open Access Sixteen Year (2002-2017) Record of Sea Turtle Strandings on Samandağ Beach, the Eastern Mediterranean Coast of Turkey Bektaş Sönmez Cumhuriyet University, Suşehri Timur Karabal Vocational Training School, 58600, Suşehri, SİVAS, Turkey (Received 10 April 2018; Accepted 2 October 2018; Published 19 November 2018; Communicated by Benny K.K. Chan) Citation: Sönmez B. 2018. Sixteen year (2002-2017) record of sea turtle strandings on Samandağ Beach, the eastern Mediterranean coast of Turkey. Zool Stud 57:53. doi:10.6620/ZS.2018.57-53.
Bektaş Sönmez (2018) Data on stranded sea turtles allow us to obtain information about age classes, temporal and spatial distributions, and mortality rates in turtles.
This study aims to investigate life stages, temporal variation in the number of stranded, body size trend, causes of stranding, and scute deviation of stranded sea turtles on Samandağ Beach, the eastern Mediterranean coast of Turkey during 2002-2017. A total of 302 stranded dead turtles were found. Among these, 167 (55.4%) of them were Chelonia mydas, 127 (42%) Caretta caretta, 2 (0.6%) Trionyx triunguis, and 6 individuals (2%) were unidentified. The mean annual stranding values over the years were 10.5 (ranging from 6 to 22) and 7.9 individuals (ranging from 4 to 21) for C. mydas and C. caretta, respectively.
Although the adult green turtles were less stranded, sub-adult and adult stages of the loggerhead turtles were intensively stranded. As the body size of the stranded green turtle has slightly increased, the number of stranded green turtles has decreased over the years. Stranding of loggerhead turtles showed no trend in frequency or body size. The causes of death showed significant differences between the two species as well as among the years. Fishing activities and marine pollution is the main cause of strandings on Samandağ Beach. Oceanic and sub-adult stage individuals were stranded in especially high numbers due to plastic materials.
Adult stages in both sea turtle have less carapacial scute deviation. The present study contributes to the stranded data for both sea turtle species in the Mediterranean. Natal origins of the stranded sea turtles on Samandağ Beach should be investigated and a stranding network system should be urgently established. Key words: Stranded, Chelonia mydas, Caretta caretta, Samandağ, Eastern Mediterranean. *Correspondence: E-mail: email@example.com BACKGROUND Three species of sea turtles are commonly found in the Mediterranean Sea (Türkozan and Kaska 2010): the loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta), green sea turtle (Chelonia mydas), and leatherback sea turtle (Dermochelys coriacea), which is considered as a visitor species from the Atlantic Ocean (Candan and Canbolat 2018).
The most abundant species in the Mediterranean is the loggerhead and its main nesting areas are Greece, Turkey, Cyprus, and Libya (Canbolat 2004; Casale and Margaritoulis 2010) and main feeding grounds are North Africa and the Adriatic coast (Casale and Margaritoulis 2010; Stokes et al. 2015). The main nesting areas of the green sea turtle are Turkey, Cyprus, and Syria (Canbolat 2004; Casale and Margaritoulis 2010) and the main feeding areas are mainly in the eastern Mediterranean and coast of Libya (Casale and Margaritoulis 2010; Stokes et al. 2015). The total number of the loggerhead and green sea turtle nests on Mediterranean coasts is estimated be approximately 7200 and 1500, respectively (Casale and Margaritoulis 2010).
Approximately 30% and 83% of these nests are recorded on coasts of Turkey for the loggerhead Zoological Studies 57: 53 (2018) doi:10.6620/ZS.2018.57-53 1
© 2018 Academia Sinica, Taiwan and the green turtle, respectively (Türkozan et al. 2013). According to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List criteria, the Mediterranean subpopulations of the green sea turtle and the loggerhead sea turtle are categorized as under Endangered (EN) and Least Concern (LC) categories, respectively (Seminoff 2004; Casale 2015). Identification of habitats for endangered species is crucial in maintaining habitat sustai- nability. Protecting nesting beaches has been a priority because successful nests increase the population, but identifying feeding, mating and wintering habitats in terms of the number of sub- adult and adult populations (within biologically safe boundaries) is also important to protecting these species (Bjorndal 1997).
Our knowledge about sea turtles in Turkey is mostly limited to nesting female populations and reproductive outputs. There is little research on biology, habitat use, and threatening factors in marine habitats. Fishery bycatch is one of the most important factors affecting the sea turtle life history, and bycatch rate is very high in the Mediterranean (Casale 2011). Snape et al. (2013) estimated that 1000 sea turtles were caught by fisheries in the eastern Mediterranean, and they reported that about 60% of them died. A high sea turtle bycatch rate by bottom trawlers was reported from the eastern Mediterranean of Turkey (Oruç 2001).
In total, 466 green turtles and 142 loggerhead turtles were bycatch by trawling nets between Mersin and Iskenderun (Turkey) during trawling season between 1995 and 1997 (Oruç 2001). Sub-adults made up 81% of these and total lengths were 30-60 cm (Oruç 2001). A similar result was also detected on Samandağ Beach, where 22 green turtles and 3 loggerhead turtles were stranded in the 2002 nesting season and curved carapace length (CCL) values ranged between 23.5 and 80 cm (mean 40.6 cm) (Yalçın- Özdilek and Aureggi 2006).
Data on stranded sea turtles were also reported for nesting beaches of the eastern Mediterranean coast of Turkey. It was reported that 128 green turtles and 142 loggerhead turtles stranded on 10 nesting beaches between 2002 and 2009 (Türkozan et al. 2013). There were 139 stranded sea turtles (102 loggerhead and 37 green turtles) between 2000 and 2016 on Fethiye Göcek Specially Protected Area in west Mediterranean coast of Turkey (Başkale et al. 2018). Most of the stranded loggerheads were assumed to be adults, whereas most of the stranded green turtles were assumed to be sub- adults (Başkale et al.
2018). Key information about the life stages, seasonal distributions, and geographical ranges of sea turtles can be obtained in stranded sea turtles on beaches (Chaloupka et al. 2008; Casale et al. 2010). Moreover, the natal origin of sea turtles can be estimated with information obtained from stranded sea turtles (Türkozan et al. 2018). Strandings can also provide preliminary information for conservation planning, management, and marine habitats of sea turtles and where should be regarded for future management plans. Previous studies on stranding sea turtles on Samandağ Beach was performed by Yalçın Özdilek and Aureggi (2006) and Türkozan et al.
(2013). However, these studies reported only some descriptive information about stranding sea turtles. Therefore, this study aimed to examine 5 different topics: (1) life stages of stranded sea turtles, (2) temporal frequency variation trend of stranded sea turtles over the years, (3) body size trend of stranded sea turtles over the years, (4) cause of stranding and (5) scute deviation in different life stages of stranded sea turtles on Samandağ Beach in Turkey.
MATERIALS AND METHODS Study area Stranding data were collected on Samandağ Beach (36°07'N, 35°55'E) located on the eastern Mediterranean coast of Turkey during the 2002- 2017 nesting seasons (Fig. 1). The nesting season begins in the middle of May and ends in the middle of October on Samandağ Beach. Samandağ Beach is approximately 14 km long; extending from the Çevlik Port in the north to Sabca Promontory in the south. Samandağ has a fishing port with numerous boats, are mainly for fishing, near the north and south end of the beach. Primary fishing methods are bottom trawl, purse seiner, and using small fishing boats (< 12 meters).
Data collection Stranding data were collected with a roughly equal effort (3-5 people for each year) during monitoring and conservation projects of the sea turtles through direct observations in each year, for a total of 16 years (from 2002-2017). The data collection time in each year was equal and completed between April and October (215 days). An information recording form was created and page 2 of 15 Zoological Studies 57: 53 (2018)
© 2018 Academia Sinica, Taiwan filled out by a research team for each individual. Life stage was assessed in 3 stages - oceanic, sub-adult, and adult - based on curved carapace length (CCL) measurements. The loggerhead turtles with CCL ≤ 30 cm were assumed to be in the oceanic stage and less than 4 years old (Casale et al. 2010). Moreover, individuals with CCL ≥ 70 cm were considered adults (Casale et al. 2005; Türkozan et al. 2013). The sub-adult stage was assumed to be between 30 and 70 cm. The hatchling green turtles have an oceanic existence and begin to exhibit benthic foraging at the age of 3-5 years (Reich et al.
2007), and CCL values ≤ 31.5 cm represented an oceanic stage (Türkozan et al. 2013). The individuals with CCL ≥ 85 cm were considered as adults stage (Türkozan et al. 2013). The sub-adult stage was assumed to be between 31.5 and 85 cm. In addition, stranded non-sea turtles were also recorded.
Straight carapace length (SCL) and width (SCW), curved carapace length (CCL) and width (CCW) of each sea turtle were measured and recorded. A caliper was used for linear measurements in SCL and SCW. CCL and CCW values were detected using a tape measure. Data on species, sex, cause of death, the stranded area, life stages, and scute patterns (if possible) Fig. 1. Map of the study area (highlight shows survey area). N page 3 of 15 Zoological Studies 57: 53 (2018)
© 2018 Academia Sinica, Taiwan were recorded. Sex of the stranded sea turtles was determined by the tail length and the number of nails on the front flippers.
Carapace scute patterns were determined, if possible, before necropsy for both species of stranded sea turtles. The most common (normal) scute pattern arises from 5 vertebrals, 4 pairs of costals and 11 pairs of marginals for green turtles and 5 vertebrals, 5 pairs of costals, and 12 pairs of marginals for loggerhead turtles (Suganuma et al. 1994; Türkozan et al. 2001; Özdemir and Türkozan 2006; Ergene et al. 2011; Sönmez et al. 2011). This scute pattern is the same for each sea turtle species in all individuals from hatchlings to adults, but individual variations in scutation can be observed (Mast and Carr 1989) in all life stages (Suganuma et al.
1994; Ergene et al. 2011). Scute deviation was determined by observing each individual's normal scute patterns. Depending on the presence or absence of scute deviation, the trait was classified as either 1 or 0, respectively. Also, the presence or absence of scute deviation was classified according to their life stages for both stranded sea turtles, in order to the test any differences among the life stages. Causes of death in sea turtles were determined through a necropsy. When the necropsy was not available or not required, the cause of death was determined by a direct observation. Hooks and other materials were carefully removed from the mouth, esophagus, and intestines.
The causes of death in sea turtles were categorized as follows: (1) fishing activities (e.g., hook in jaws, mouth, esophagus, stomach or intestinal, gillnet fishing gear in cloaca or mouth) (Fig. 2a); (2) marine pollution (e.g., entanglement in rope and net, cloth sack or nylon bag and presence of these substances in the digestive system) (Fig. 2b); (3) intentional killing (killed by Fig. 2. Representative photos of different case of deaths (a: gillnet fishing gear in mouth, b: entanglement in nylon bag and presence of plastic in the digestive system, c: intentional killing (head trauma), d: hit by marine vehicle, e: jackal predation).
a b d b c e page 4 of 15 Zoological Studies 57: 53 (2018)
© 2018 Academia Sinica, Taiwan heavy objects, specifically by hits on head) (Fig. 2c); (4) hit by marine vehicle (fishing boat, cargo ship, and speedboat) (Fig. 2d); (5) predation (jackal or dog predation on the beach) (Fig. 2e). Although fishing nets, net fragments, and ropes could be used for fishing activities, such debris was considered as marine pollution in the present study. Moreover, entanglement and ingestion of them were also considered as marine pollution (Plotkin and Amos 1990). However, hooks in the jaw, mouth, esophagus, stomach or intestinal system were regarded as a fishing activity.
Representative photos of the different cases of deaths described above is shown in figure 2. Statistical analyses The stranding data were not normally distributed (Levene’s test and Kolmogorov-Smirnov test, all p < 0.05). Therefore, non-parametric tests were used. Size frequency distributions and causes of death in both sea turtle species were compared using Mann-Whitney U test. Differences in life stages in each sea turtle were tested with Kruskal-Wallis test. The differences in the causes of death in each sea turtle species among the years were tested using the same test. Differences in the frequency distribution of scute deviations were analyzed by Chi-square Fisher’s Exact test because the expected count was less than 5.
The percentage of each dataset was calculated by dividing the ratios by overall data, and charts were generated to give these percentages. The percentage of stranding numbers in each year for each sea turtle species was calculated using the following formula, and a chart was generated based on these values. The sum of percentage for each stranded sea turtle species is 100% for all years in the chart. 100* (number of stranding in each year/ number of total strandings in overall years) The percentage of strandings in each life stage for each sea turtle species was computed using the following formula, and a chart was generated based on these values.
The sum of percentage for each stranded sea turtle species is 100% for all life stages in the chart. 100* (number of stranding in each life stage / number of total strandings in overall years) A percentage distribution chart indicating the causes of death according to years was generated by combining 2 years because there were low numbers of stranded sea turtles in some years. In order to examine temporal variations in the cause of deaths in each category every two years, the percentage of causes of death in each of 2 years was computed using the following formula, and a chart was generated based on these values.
The sum of percentage for each stranded sea turtle species is 100% for each two-year category on the chart.
100* (number of each cause of death in two years / number of total causes of death in each of two years) Total percentage of each cause of death according to years was computed using the following formula, and a chart was generated based on these values. The sum of percentage for each stranded sea turtle species is 100% for all years on the chart. 100* (number of each cause of death in all years / number of total causes of death in all years) The percentage of scute deviation in each scute pattern for each sea turtle species was calculated with the following formula, and a table was generated based on these values.
100* (number of stranding with scute deviation in each scute pattern / number of total strandings with each scute pattern) When it was determined that there is at least one scute deviation in each life stage, it was accepted that life stage showed non-normal scute pattern. The percentage of scute deviation in each life stage for each sea turtle species was computed using the following formula, and a chart was generated based on these values. However, chart represents only scute deviant rates in each life stage.
100* (number of stranding with non-normal scute pattern in each life stage/ number of total strandings with scute pattern in all life stages) Tests for trends in the CCL and the number of stranded sea turtles over the years were performed by means of nonparametric, non-seasonal Mann- Kendall Trend test (Hipel and McLeod 1994). The Mann-Kendall trend test has been used in the long term examination of sea turtles (da Silva et al. 2007; Marcovaldi et al. 2007). In the trend analyses, the Theil-Sen regression and 95% confidence intervals were used to predict the regression constants based on Mann-Kendall Trend test and Kendall correlation coefficient (Sen 1968).
Moreover, Theil-Sen trend lines were generated to visualize if there is any trend in the data. The Mann-Kendall tests are based on the calculation of Kendall’s tau measure of association between two samples, which is based on the page 5 of 15 Zoological Studies 57: 53 (2018)
© 2018 Academia Sinica, Taiwan ranks within samples. The computations assume that the observations are independent and data are randomly ordered. However, the existence of positive autocorrelation in the data increases the probability of detecting trends when actually no trends exist or vice versa. Autocorrelation is the similarity of a time series over successive time intervals. It can lead to underestimation of the standard error and predictors can appear as significant when they are not. The null hypothesis of the test is that it does not autocorrelate among the residuals. The null hypothesis is accepted when the computed p-value is greater than the significance level of alpha = 0.05.
Hamed and Rao (1998) proposed a modified non-parametric trend test that is suitable for autocorrelated data. They stated that the accuracy of the modified test in terms of its empirical significance level was superior to that of the original Mann-Kendall trend test without any loss of power. The presence of autocorrelation in the residuals of the regression models was tested using the Durbin-Watson statistic. When autocorrelation occurs in the data, the Hamed and Rao method was used for the Mann-Kendall Trend test. The trend test was carried out using XLSTAT 2018 statistical software (Addinsoft, NY, USA).
XLSTAT statistical software allows adding and/or removing the effect of autocorrelations with Hamed and Rao method. Other analyses were conducted using SPSS v. 17.0 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, USA) and all means were presented with standard deviation (SD) and min-max values. RESULTS A total of 302 stranded turtles were found on Samandağ Beach, the eastern Mediterranean coast of Turkey from 2002 to 2017. There were 167 (55.4%) green turtle, 127 (42%) loggerhead turtle, 2 (0.6%) Trionyx triunguis. Six individuals (2%) were unidentified. The mean annual stranding were 10.5 individuals for the green turtle, 7.9 individuals for the loggerhead, and 18.75 for both sea turtles on Samandağ Beach.
Percentage distributions of stranded sea turtles among the years are shown in figure 3.
Descriptive statistics of carapace measure- ments of stranded sea turtles are presented in table 1. One of the most of common measurement in sea turtles is CCL, and it was used as a standard length measurement in this research because there was not enough data for other measurements. The size of CCL showed significant differences between both species (Mann-Whitney U = 4095, Z = -8.139, p = 0.0001). In the green turtle, 11 (6.6%) individuals were adults, 102 (61.5%) were sub- adults, and 53 (31.9%) individuals were in oceanic stage (Fig. 4). All individuals of the green turtles that reached adulthood were females.
There were significant differences among life stages of stranded green turtles (χ2 = 121.432, df = 2, p = 0.0001). Individuals in sub-adult and oceanic stages were intensively stranded on Samandağ Beach between 2002 and 2017.
In the loggerhead turtle, 29 (25.2%) individuals were adults, 81 (70.5%) individuals Fig. 3. Yearly percentage of stranded Caretta caretta and Chelonia mydas individuals on Samandağ Beach between 2002 and 2017 (for each species, the percentage of strandings from all years is 100%). page 6 of 15 Zoological Studies 57: 53 (2018)
© 2018 Academia Sinica, Taiwan were sub-adults, and 5 (4.3%) individuals were in the oceanic stage (Fig. 4). Two loggerhead turtles that reached adulthood were males. The loggerhead turtles showed significant differences according to the life stage between 2002 and 2017 on Samandağ Beach (χ2 = 67.782, df = 2, p = 0.0001).
Unlike with the green turtles, the sub-adult and adult stages of the loggerhead turtles were intensively stranded on Samandağ Beach between 2002 and 2017. Frequency variations in stranded sea turtles were assessed temporally according to the species. The Durbin Watson test showed no autocorrelation for frequency in the green turtle over the years (U = 1.350, p = 0.091, n = 16). The Mann-Kendall Trend test showed that the number of stranded green turtles tended to decrease over the years (Kendall’s tau = -0.468, Sen’s slope = -0.775, n = 16, p = 0.014) (Fig. 5a). However, CCL values in stranded green turtle tended to become slightly larger from 2002 to 2017 (Kendall’s tau = 0.181, Sen’s slope = 0.080, n = 16, p = 0.001) (Fig.
5a). CCL values in stranded green turtle over the years did not show an autocorrelation (U = 1.833, p = 0.142, observation = 166). The Durbin Watson test showed autocorrelation for frequency in the loggerhead turtle over the years (U = 0.634, p = 0.001, observation = 16). Therefore, the trend of frequency over the years was tested with the Hamed and Rao method in the Mann-Kendall trend test which indicated no tendency over the years in the number of stranded loggerhead turtles (Kendall’s tau = 0.366, Sen’s slope = 0.50, n = 16, p = 0.191) (Fig. 5b). The Durbin Watson test showed no autocorrelation for CCL in the stranded loggerhead turtle over the years (U = 1.862, p = 0.229, observation = 115).
Also, the CCL did not showed significantly larger or smaller tendencies from 2002 to 2017 (Kendall’s tau = 0.049, Sen’s slope = 0.019, n = 16, p = 0.443) (Fig. 5b). Causes of deaths in 130 sea turtles were determined on Samandağ Beach, all of them after 2009 because there was no information about it before then. Among these, 50 (38.5%) were Fig. 4. The percentage of different life stages of stranded Chelonia mydas and Caretta caretta (for each species, the percentage of strandings from all life stages is 100%).
Table 1. The descriptive statistics of stranding values recorded on Samandağ Beach Chelonia mydas Caretta caretta n Mean ± SD Range n Mean ± SD Range Curved Carapace Length 166 44.21 ± 19.15 14-106 115 61.45 ± 12.40 13.5-85 Curved Carapace Width 166 39.97 ± 17.23 13-96 115 56 ± 11.64 12.5-80 Straight Carapace Length 55 49.62 ± 20.77 18.5-95 73 57.36 ± 10.69 26-78 Straight Carapace Width 54 40.57 ± 15.69 16.5-73 73 46.94 ± 8.56 21-64 page 7 of 15 Zoological Studies 57: 53 (2018)
© 2018 Academia Sinica, Taiwan green turtles and 80 (61.5%) were loggerhead turtles.
The main cause of death was due to fishing activities (46.9%), followed by marine pollution (27.7%), intentional killing (16.7%), hit by marine vehicles (5.4%), and predation (3.8%). The causes of death showed significant differences between the loggerhead and green turtles (Mann- Whitney U = 1243.5 Z = -3.868, p = 0.0001). The percentage distribution of the causes of death across the years for green turtle is shown in figure 6a. There were significant differences among the years (χ2 = 14.089, df = 7, p = 0.050). The most frequent cause of death was marine pollution with 28 individuals (56%), followed by intentional killing with 7 individuals (14%), fishing activities with 7 individuals (14%), predation with 5 individuals (10%), and hit by marine vehicles with 3 individuals (6%).
The percentage distribution of the causes of death across the years for loggerhead turtle is shown in figure 6b. There were significant differences among the years (χ2 = 14.529, df = 7, p = 0.043). The most frequent cause of death was fishing activities with 53 individuals (66.25%), followed by intentional killing with 15 individuals (18.75%) (mainly due to the head trauma), marine pollution with 8 individuals (10%), and hit by marine vehicles with 4 individuals (5%). Totally, 84 stranded green and loggerhead Fig. 5. The temporal change in the number of stranded and CCL values for Chelonia mydas (a) and Caretta caretta (b) over the years.
(Grey dots represent number of stranding, black dots represent curved carapace length (CCL). Black and grey lines are Theil-Sen trend line, see Materials and Methods for details).
(a) (b) page 8 of 15 Zoological Studies 57: 53 (2018)
© 2018 Academia Sinica, Taiwan turtles were examined for carapacial scute patterns. In the green turtle, the most common carapace scute patterns were 5 vertebral scutes (91.4%), and 4 left and right costal scutes (82.9% and 85.7%, respectively), and 11 right and left marginal scutes (for both 88.6%). In the loggerhead turtle, the most common carapace scute patterns were 5 vertebral scutes (87.8%), 5 left and right costal scutes (91.8% and 98%, respectively), and 12 right and left marginal scutes (95.9% and 100%, respectively).
Carapacial scute deviation rates in both sea turtle species are presented in table 2. Carapacial scute deviation rates according to the life stages in both species are shown in figure 7. There were statistically significant differences in scute deviation rates among different life stages in the stranded sea turtle. For example, the Chi- Square Fisher’s Exact test revealed significant differences among life stages for right costal scutes in the stranded green turtles (Fisher’s Exact = 10.856, p = 0.016). Sub-adult and oceanic stages had more right costal deviations than their adult stage. In stranded loggerhead turtles, both right (Fisher’s Exact = 12.273, p = 0.012) and left (Fisher’s Exact = 22.712, p = 0.001) costal scutes expressed significant differences among life stages.
Moreover, the same result was found in right (Fisher’s Exact = 12.093, p = 0.048) and left (Fisher’s Exact = 13.520, p = 0.033) marginal scutes. Sub-adult and oceanic stages had more costal and marginal scutes deviations than their adult stage.
Fig. 6. Percentage distribution of the causes of death for Chelonia mydas (a) and Caretta caretta (b) across the years (for each species, the percentage of each two years and total years are 100%, and each factor was combined for 2 years due to the low number of stranded in some years). (a) (b) page 9 of 15 Zoological Studies 57: 53 (2018)
© 2018 Academia Sinica, Taiwan DISCUSSION Data on the number of stranded individuals suggests that both sea turtle species were common on Samandağ Beach, Turkey. It turns out that the sample collection season (between April and October) was an appropriate period to determine the stranded value and cause of death.
Similarly, Casale et al. (2010) stated that stranded loggerhead turtle recordings were the highest between April and September on the Italian coasts of the Mediterranean from 1980-2008. Moreover, Başkale et al. (2018) stated that both stranded sea turtles recordings peaked between June and August in Fethiye-Göcek Specially Protected Area, Turkey. The result of the present study agrees with results of previous studies.
The mean CCL value in the stranded green turtle was similar to those of previous studies (Baran and Kasparek 1989; Yalçın Özdilek and Aureggi 2006; Türkozan et al. 2013). Although Samandağ Beach is the main nesting area for the green turtles in the Mediterranean Sea, those in the sub-adult and oceanic stages were more intensively stranded than those in the adult stage. A similar result was reported by Türkozan et al. (2013) on the same beach. This result can be explained by the fact that the oceanic and sub-adult green turtles are commonly found in shallow-water neritic habitats (Meylan and Meylan 1999) and they are more exposed to anthropogenic threats.
A study on the impact of marine debris ingestion in the stranded green turtles found a negative correlation between the presence of marine debris Fig. 7. The percentage of carapacial scute deviation in different life stages of stranded Chelonia mydas and Caretta caretta (for each species, the ratio represents only scute deviant rate in each life stage).
Table 2. The descriptive statistics of the carapacial scute deviations of stranded sea turtle species (0 = no deviations; 1 = scute deviations) Scute Pattern Deviation Chelonia mydas (n = 35) Caretta caretta (n = 49) Vertebral 0 (%) 91.4 87.8 1 (%) 8.6 12.2 Costal (Left) 0 (%) 82.9 91.8 1 (%) 17.1 8.2 Costal (Right) 0 (%) 85.7 98 1 (%) 14.3 2 Marginal (Left) 0 (%) 88.6 95.9 1 (%) 11.4 4.1 Marginal (Right) 0 (%) 88.6 100 1 (%) 11.4 0 page 10 of 15 Zoological Studies 57: 53 (2018)
© 2018 Academia Sinica, Taiwan and green turtle’s size in the Uruguayan waters between 2005 and 2013 (Velez-Rubio et al.
2018). Moreover, Snape et al. (2013) stated that juvenile green turtles are more sensitive to fishing activities than adults regarding the differences in habitat use patterns. Another possible explanation is that juvenile green turtle individuals are foraging on Samandağ Beach; this is supported by CCL values (mean 40.6 cm) (Yalçın-Özdilek and Aureggi 2006). Juvenile developmental habitat in the eastern Mediterranean might include areas near Samandağ Beach. Based on this information, Samandağ Beach might be a part of the eastern Mediterranean feeding area for the green sea turtles. However, it was also reported that western coasts of the Turkish Mediterranean might be a foraging area for sub-adult green turtles (Türkozan and Durmuş 2000).
A recent study found that Fethiye-Göcek Specially Protected Area is covered by seagrass beds that are the main food source for the green turtles (Başkale et al. 2018). According to satellite telemetry studies, the most intensive foraging area for post-nesting green sea turtles was coastal waters of North Africa (especially Libya, Gulf of Bomba, and Gulf of Sirte) (Godley et al. 2002; Stokes et al. 2015). Stranding records on Samandağ Beach may be caused by sea surface currents from south to north in the Mediterranean Sea (Hecht et al. 1988; Türkozan et al. 2013). These sea currents may drift dead turtles in the foraging area (coastal waters of North Africa), and accumulate at Samandağ beach.
Because Samandağ Beach located in the Mediterranean shoreline that is on the main path of sea currents (Millot and Taupier-Letage 2005).
Although Samandağ Beach has a low loggerhead nesting abundance, the number of stranded adult and sub-adult individuals is very high. A similar result was reported by Türkozan et al. (2013) on the eastern Mediterranean coast of Turkey. Moreover, Snape et al. (2013) stated that the mean CCL of stranding loggerhead turtle was 65 cm on the North Cyprus beaches, and most of them were adult and sub-adult. Fishery activities are a global major threat to loggerhead turtles, and it is mostly large turtles that are caught in fishing areas in the eastern Mediterranean (Casale 2011). Adult and sub-adult loggerhead turtles, which use the eastern Mediterranean as a feeding ground (Oruç 2001), may be adversely affected by fishing activities.
Similarly, the present study found that the most common cause of stranding loggerhead turtles was fishing activities. However, it was claimed that individuals using this foraging area may originally come from distant nesting areas (Türkozan et al. 2018). Moreover, Casale and Mariani (2014) stated that the neighboring Levantine zone is a nursery area for the Mediterranean Sea turtles and individuals that hatched on Turkey’s nesting beaches and dispersed to Levantine zones. However, stranded individuals might have a different natal origin (Türkozan et al. 2013). According to a study on the natal origin of stranded loggerhead turtles in the eastern Mediterranean, individuals from eastern feeding grounds came mostly from the western nesting populations of Turkey; based on mixed stock analyses (Türkozan et al.
2018). Samandağ Beach might be one of the eastern feeding areas in the Mediterranean Sea for those hatched on western beaches of Turkey. Therefore, studies on the natal origins of stranded individuals on Samandağ Beach will provide vital information for the survival of both turtle species. Although the number of stranded green turtles has decreased over the years, the body size (CCL) of the stranded green turtles has shown a weak increase. However, stranding of loggerhead turtles showed no trend in frequency or CCL. Türkozan et al. (2013) reported an increased number of loggerhead strandings, whereas the number of green turtle strandings decreased on ten nesting beaches in the eastern Mediterranean coast.
Corsini-Foka et al. (2013) recorded stranded sea turtles from 1984-2011 in Rhodes Island in Greece (140 of the total strandings were dead specimens) and found an increasing trend for both species. The number of green turtle strandings highly increased after 2000 in particular (Corsini-Foka et al. 2013). Similarly, the number of strandings increased for both species during 2000- 2016 but the increase was notable only in the last four years (Başkale et al. 2018). A reason for a low stranding numbers in the early years of their study may be due to low awareness. As peoples’ awareness increases, accessing stranded turtle information via denunciation might be easier.
A decreasing tendency on Samandağ Beach may be related to the increase in local peoples’ (e.g., fishers and touristic business owners) awareness regarding sea turtles. Sea turtle conservation efforts on Samandağ Beach began in 2001 and since then peoples’ awareness about sea turtles may have increased. Number of stranded green turtles have decreased, but their CCL values have weakly increased over the years. For example, there was an increase in stranded green turtle CCL in Rhodes Island, especially after 2000 page 11 of 15 Zoological Studies 57: 53 (2018)
© 2018 Academia Sinica, Taiwan (Corsini-Foka et al. 2013). Adults are important for the reproductive output of sea turtle populations (Lewison and Crowder 2007) and the number of nests and eggs in the future may be affected by the variation in adult number. The increase in CCL values on Samandağ Beach over the years may be due to 5 adult individuals predated by jackals or dogs during their egg-laying period, especially after 2012. The most common causes of strandings on Samandağ Beach are fishing activities and marine pollution. Although the cause of death due to fishing activities shows fluctuations across the years, fishing activities are the most common cause of strandings in the loggerhead turtle on the Samandağ Beach.
Sea turtles are mostly captured as a bycatch in trawling, seine fishing, and longline net fishing (Chan et al. 1988; Poiner et al. 1990; Robins 1995). In a review of the last few decades in the Mediterranean Sea, Casale (2011) estimated that annually over 132,000 sea turtles were accidentally captured and one-third of them died. Similarly, high rates of accidentally caught sea turtles by bottom trawlers were reported on the eastern Mediterranean coast of Turkey (Oruç 2001). Fishing activities are the main cause of strandings in Fethiye, specifically in protected areas in the western Mediterranean (Başkale et al.
2018). Fishing gear is also cause stranding in both sea turtle species in Rhodes Island (Corsini- Foka et al. 2013). The fact that fishermen do not have sufficient knowledge or equipment to save accidentally caught turtles may lead to the drowning and death of sea turtles. Fishermen should use a turtle excluder device (TED) to prevent this problem.
Although death from marine pollution has been declining over the years, marine pollution was the main cause of the stranded green turtles on the Samandağ Beach. Rope entanglement is the main problem in the oceanic stage. Nylon bags in the digestive system of oceanic and sub-adult stage stranded green turtles were detected after necroscopy. However, debris were not classified in terms of color, size, and type. Bugoni et al. (2001) found that most of the 38 sub-adult stranded green turtles sampled died due to marine debris such as plastic bags, plastic rope, cloth, and styrofoam. Similar results were found for Mediterranean loggerhead turtles (Lazar and Gracan 2011).
Even small quantities of marine debris can cause death in animals due to gut obstruction (Bjorndal et al. 1994). For example, 1.4-3.2 g marine debris could block the digestive tract (Bugoni et al. 2001). Plastics are the most common marine litter in the eastern Mediterranean and there is a large number of plastics and packaging debris in commercial fishing areas (Eryaşar et al. 2014). Cozar et al. (2015) reported that plastic pollution in the Mediterranean Sea was 1934 item/km2 . In a recent study, micro and mesoplastic presence were determined to be 0.376 items/m2 on average in the eastern Mediterranean Sea (Gündoğdu and Çevik 2017).
The density of plastic material in the eastern Mediterranean will adversely affect lives of sea turtles that use the region as a development area. The effect of marine pollution on the marine organisms is an important threat and, therefore, more studies are needed examining the effect of marine plastic debris on the sea turtle populations in the Mediterranean Sea.
Carapical scute deviation has mostly been investigated in sea turtle hatchlings (Mast and Carr 1989; Türkozan et al. 2001; Özdemir and Türkozan 2006; Sönmez et al. 2011), but there are only a limited number of studies about carapace scute deviations in adult sea turtles (Suganuma et al. 1994; Türkozan et al. 2001; Ergene et al. 2011) and there is no study for oceanic and sub-adult stages. Carapacial scute deviation rate in oceanic and sub-adult stages showed more deviations than their adults in both sea turtle species. Adult turtles tended to have fewer scute deviations than hatchlings (Suganuma et al.
1994; Türkozan et al. 2001). Suganuma et al. (1994) recorded that 5% of adult females and 3.3% of males showed scute variation in green turtles. There were variations only in marginal scutes of loggerhead adult female turtles (Türkozan et al. 2001). Similar results were reported by Ergene et al. (2011) for adult green turtles. Özdemir and Türkozan (2006) suggested that the lack of adults with abnormal scute numbers could be explained in two ways: “hatchlings with deviant counts die before they mature, or the plates change to the normal number with growth”. Most of the oceanic and sub- adult stages that have scute deviation probably die before they become an adult due to marine pollution or fishing activities.
In conclusion, all life stages in both sea turtle species were represented in the Samandağ Beach strandings. Although sub-adult and oceanic stages were the most found among stranded green turtles, most loggerheads found were in the sub- adult and adult stages. Samandağ Beach may be a development and/or feeding area for sub- adult individuals for both turtle species. Stranded green turtle numbers have decreased over the page 12 of 15 Zoological Studies 57: 53 (2018)
© 2018 Academia Sinica, Taiwan years but their CCL values have weakly increased. This increase may have a negative effect on the reproductive output of the green turtle in future. Marine pollution and fishing activities are the most important causes of stranding for both species. Plastic materials are particularly risky for the oceanic and sub-adult stages. Stranded adult sea turtles on Samandağ Beach showed lower carapace scute deviation rates than their oceanic and sub-adult stages. Oceanic and sub-adult stages that showing high rate scute deviation are probably more sensitive to negative conditions in the marine habitat, and they die before they become an adult.
Natal origin of stranded sea turtles on Samandağ Beach should be investigated for an effective management action plan in the Mediterranean Sea. Moreover, an effective stranding network system should be urgently established in the Mediterranean Sea. The present study provides long-term data about stranded sea turtles in the eastern Mediterranean coast of Turkey.
Acknowledgments: Data were collected within the framework of a protocol on the sea turtle research and conservation between Hatay Nature Conservation and National Parks of Ministry of Forestry and Water Affair and Samandağ District Governorship (2002-2011), and Association for Samandag Environmental Protection and Tourism (2012-2017). I thank all volunteers of ÇOMU- DEKUM (Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University’s Sea Turtle Research and Application Center), the Turkey Republic Ministry of Forestry and Water Issues, General and Local Directorates of Nature Protection and National Parks, Samandağ District Governorship, Samandağ Environmental Protection and Tourism Association.
A part of this study was presented as an oral presentation at the International Ecology 2018 Symposium. This present version of the study was expanded by obtaining new information and data. Competing interests: The author declares no conflict of interest.
Availability of data and materials: All number of strandings in each category in each year in Supplementary material. Consent for publication: Not applicable. Ethics approval consent to participate: Not applicable. REFERENCES Baran I, Kasparek M. 1989. On the whereabouts of immature sea turtles (Caretta caretta and Chelonia mydas) in the eastern Mediterranean. Zool Middle East 3:31-36. Başkale E, Sözbilen D, Katılmış Y, Azmaz M, Kaska Y. 2018. An evaluation of sea turtle strandings in the Fethiye-Göcek Specially Protected Area: An important foraging ground with an increasing mortality rate.
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text:
Net Worth: $22.5 Million
- Source of Wealth Actor, Director, Writer
- Nationality United States
About John Turturro
American actor,John Michael Turturro has an estimated net worth of $22.5 million.One of the top character actors of his era, John Turturro is a fixture of the contemporary American independent filmmaking landscape. Born on February 28, 1957, in Brooklyn, New York, United States.Turturro became fascinated by movies during childhood, and after graduating from college he won a scholarship to study at the prestigious Yale School of Drama. He first gained notice in regional theater and off-Broadway, earning an Obie Award for his starring role in Danny and the Deep Blue Sea. He made his film debut in Martin Scorsese’s 1980 masterpiece Raging Bull but did not reappear onscreen prior to 1984’s The Exterminator 2. That same year, he debuted on Broadway in Death of a Salesman.
John Turturro has earned his net worth through his acting roles in films, such as, O’Brother, Where Art Thou, The Big Lebowski, Quiz Show and others, as well as his roles in television shows such as, Miami Vice, Monk, The Bronx is Burning and Flight of the Conchords. He also produced, directed and starred in the film, Illuminata, as well as writing and producing the film, Romance and Cigarettes.

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text:
Two-thirds of Turkey suffers from water shortages and the country is highly sensitive to desertification and drought. The Konya Province, situated in Central Anatolia, is particularly vulnerable and it is designated as ‘very highly sensitive and highly sensitive’ to human-induced desertification on the World Desertification Risk Map (USDA-NRCS, 1999). The Programme areas have the driest climate in the country and suffer from aridity and desertification. Wind erosion is a significant problem in the region due to use of small trees and bushes by the local people for fuel, and in combination with soil type and low precipitation, intensive agricultural techniques and overgrazing, these factors contribute to loss of soil productivity and an increase in soil salinization. The Programme areas within Konya Province cover several districts including Karapinar, Cihanbeyli, Güneysinir, Ilgin, Sarayonu and Kadınhanı. Approximately 47% of the surface area in Konya Province is farmland, and about 69% of this area is used for rain-fed farming, and 29% is used for irrigated farming (Crop production statistics, undated). Wheat, barley, rye, oats and corn are the dominant crops. The area supporting industrial crops, including sugar beets, is expanding. The amount of water consumed by cultivated crops in this region exceeds the average annual rainfall of the region. Irrigation water use has resulted in a significant decline in groundwater levels in recent years.
The primary objectives of the Programme are:
· To improve water holding capacity of soil; ensure the efficient use of land and water
· To increase the capacity to use the ecosystem services in agriculture
· To mitigate the greenhouse gas emissions from the agricultural activities
· To improve the livelihood of the farmers by reducing agricultural input costs
To achieve these objectives, understanding the socio-ecological dynamics of the region and collaborating with local institutions and farmers have been acknowledged as the key issues and formulated as the core matters of field implementations. In order to promote the use of climate smart/ conservation agriculture techniques (especially direct seeding, windbreak establishment, organic manure implementation and water efficient irrigation), equipment and expertise have been provided to all stakeholders. In parallel, baseline research on ecosystem services and its vulnerability to climate change and socio-economic impacts of the Programme have been conducted. Implementations and research activities are currently ongoing in 5 districts of Konya and the overall Programme concept is considered to be a potential model for achieving sustainable agriculture and food security in Turkey.
Agriculture of the Future Programme uses climate-smart agricultural techniques to improve soil quality, reduce water usage in the agricultural sector, improve livelihoods of the farmers and reduce greenhouse gases from agricultural activities. The project also monitors the impacts of these implementations on biodiversity in order to increase the awareness regarding the synergies between agricultural implementations and wildlife.
Agriculture of the Future Programme provides farmers with equipment accompanied with training on climate change, conservation agriculture and importance of biodiversity and ecosystem services in agricultural production. The training was given in the villages to increase participation and further consultations were given in the fields agricultural experts. Farmers had a chance to ask their questions not only regarding climate change adaptation but also regarding their problems with agricultural production.
The Programme also contributed to the livelihood of the farmers by reducing the input costs, which reduced the economic inequality among the farmers. Furthermore, within the climate modeling and ecosystem services mapping works of the Programme, vulnerable areas in terms of agricultural production are determined and precautions are developed for these areas. For example, windbreakers are implemented in the areas vulnerable to wind erosion. This reduces the geographical inequality among the farmers.
In addition, the Programme is implemented in the areas where young population is migrating from villages to cities due to reducing agricultural production and income as a result of increasing climatic stresses. Agriculture of the Future contributes to soil condition improvement, which will increase the productivity, and reduction of the input costs thus indirectly contributes to the improvement of local livelihoods.
Direct seeding and wind breakers implemented in the project improves the soil quality by increasing soil carbon and conserving moisture in the soil, which reduces water usage in return. The implementations also increases the capacity in combatting soil degradation and desertification. Conservation of the natural resources serves at sustainability of agricultural production. Agriculture of the Future also provides nature-based solutions to the problems faced in contemporary agricultural productions. For example, the number of rodents increased due to reduction of natural predators and farmers are keen to use more rodenticides in the region. The Programme placed owl and kestrel nesting boxes on the fields as means of biological combatting and eco-friendly agriculture.
Agriculture of the Future Programme aims conserving natural resources by implementing conservation agriculture activities and increase the climate change capacity of the farmers with an ecosystem services approach. Furthermore, the implementations reduced the input costs of the farming activities such as fuel, labor and time and contributed to climate change mitigation by reducing and capturing carbon emissions. The Programme brought different stakeholders of agriculture sector including the government institutions, scientists, local authorities and initiatives, development agencies and farmers.
The Programme’s direct seeding implementations can be replicated by the local farming authorities by providing the farmers direct seeding machines. Windbreakers and using birds of prey for rodent management can also be replicated easily by the farmers themselves.

domain: biology


Driving licence are essential documents that authorize individuals to operate motor vehicles legally. In India, there are different types of driving licences issued by the Regional Transport Offices (RTOs) to cater to various vehicle categories and age groups. It is important for drivers to be aware of the validity period of their licence and understand the renewal process to ensure compliance with the law. This article will provide an overview of the different types of driving licences in India, their validity periods, and the renewal process.
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This licence is issued to individuals who are learning to drive. It is valid for a period of 6 months and serves as a provisional permit.
Permanent Driving Licence (DL):
A permanent driving licence is issued once the learner’s licence holder passes the driving test. It is valid for 20 years or until the age of 50, whichever comes first. After 50, it needs to be renewed every 5 years.
Commercial Driving Licence (CDL):
This licence is required for individuals who intend to drive commercial vehicles like taxis, buses, trucks, etc. It is valid for 3 years and needs to be renewed thereafter.
International Driving Permit (IDP):
An IDP allows Indian citizens to drive in foreign countries. It is valid for one year from the date of issue.
Validity Period & Renewal Process:
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Visit the nearest RTO or apply online through the Parivahan website and fill out the necessary forms.
Documents Required: Carry the following documents:
- Filled-out application form
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Some RTOs may require a medical fitness certificate from a registered medical practitioner. The certificate confirms that the applicant is physically fit to drive.
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Renewal Reminders and Online Services:
To facilitate the renewal process and ensure that drivers do not inadvertently drive with an expired licence, the Indian government has introduced various online services and renewal reminders. These services aim to simplify the process and save time for individuals.
Many Regional Transport Offices now offer online renewal services, allowing applicants to submit their renewal applications digitally. This convenience eliminates the need for multiple visits to the RTO and reduces paperwork.
To keep drivers informed about their licence’s expiration date, the RTOs send SMS or email notifications as a reminder to initiate the renewal process. These reminders serve as helpful prompts for drivers to take the necessary steps in a timely manner.
The M-Parivahan mobile application has been launched by the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways. It provides various services, including driving licence renewal. Users can download the app, create an account, and access their digital driving licence. The app also sends renewal reminders and provides information about the renewal process.
Importance of Timely Renewal:
Driving with an expired or invalid licence is a legal offense in India and can result in penalties, fines, or even legal consequences. It is crucial to understand the importance of renewing your driving licence on time to avoid any inconvenience or legal troubles. Here are a few reasons why timely renewal is essential:
Driving with an expired licence is a violation of the Motor Vehicles Act, and law enforcement authorities can penalize offenders. Renewing your licence on time ensures that you are legally authorized to drive and helps you avoid legal complications.
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Renewing your driving licence ensures that you stay updated with the latest traffic rules, regulations, and road safety guidelines. It serves as a reminder to brush up on your driving skills and knowledge, contributing to safer roads for everyone.
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Suggested Read- Driving Licence Renewal
Possessing a valid driving licence is vital for all motorists in India. Understanding the different types of licences, their validity periods, and the renewal process is essential to ensure legal compliance and road safety. By staying informed about the requirements and adhering to the renewal process, drivers can continue to enjoy the privilege of driving and contribute to a safer transportation ecosystem in the country. Remember, driving responsibly is not only a legal obligation but also a duty towards oneself and others on the road.


Disclosed is an electrolytic cell having an electrode pair of interleaved anode and cathode fingers with a synthetic separator, i.e., a permionic membrane or a microporous diaphragm, therebetween. At least one of the two electrodes of the electrode pair has a continuous electrodic surface with fluid impermeable members at opposite ends of the continuous electrodic surface and a synthetic separator sealably mounted at the fluid impermeable surfaces and extending over the face of the electrodic surface between the members of the electrode pair. The fluid impermeable members at the opposite ends of the continuous electrodic surface may either be the cell body itself or liquid impermeable elements, such as compressive masks, at opposite edges of the finger-like electrode sheets, maintaining the separator against the finger-like electrode sheet, and providing an electrolyte-tight seal therebetween.
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Aqueous alkali metal halide brines are electrolyzed to yield chlorine and alkali metal hydroxide, e.g., caustic soda or caustic potash. One method of electrolysis producing an alkali metal hydroxide cell liquor is in an electrolytic cell having the anode separated from the cathode by a permionic membrane. Another method of electrolysis producing a cell liquor of alkali metal hydroxide and alkali metal chloride is in an electrolytic cell having a synthetic microporous diaphragm between the anode and the cathode.
In an electrolytic cell having the anolyte separated from the catholyte by a separator, alkali metal chloride brine is fed to the anolyte compartment and chlorine is evolved at the anodes. This gives rise to a froth of chlorine gas and depleted brine which is recovered from the cell, separated into gaseous chlorine and liquid brine fractions with the brine returned to the cell. Additionally, depleted brine may be recovered from the cell, resaturated, and returned to the cell. Alkali metal ion is transported through the synthetic separator to the catholyte compartment where hydrogen and alkali metal hydroxide are produced. Water may be added to the catholyte compartment to control the alkali metal ion content of the catholyte liquor, in this way controlling the efficiency of the cathode reaction.
The electrolytic cell may be in the form of one of a plurality of cells in a bipolar electrolyzer or the electrolytic cell may be monopolar cell. In a bipolar electrolyzer, a plurality of bipolar units are electrically and mechanically in series with the cathodes of one individual electrolytic cell and the anodes of the next adjacent electrolytic cell of the electrolyzer being mounted on a common structural unit, a bipolar unit. The bipolar unit includes a backplate having a catholyte-resistant member and an anolyte-resistant member.
The cathodic side of the bipolar unit contains a screen spaced from the steel backplate and defining a volume therebetween and hollow cathode fingers extending outwardly from the backplate. The volume within the hollow cathode fingers and the volume between the screen and the backplate define the catholyte volume.
The anodic side of the bipolar unit includes a valve metal backplate with coated valve metal fingers extending outwardly therefrom, substantially parallel to the cathode fingers. The adjacent bipolar units are assembled together to form an electrolytic cell with the anodes of one bipolar unit facing the cathodes of the next adjacent bipolar unit and substantially parallel thereto with a substantially uniform space, i.e., interelectrode gap, therebetween. Either a synthetic permionic membrane or a synthetic microporous diaphragm is positioned between the anode and cathode, dividing the cell into a catholyte compartment and an anolyte compartment.
A bipolar electrolyzer, as described hereinabove, may contain anywhere from two to a hundred or more individual electrolytic cells in the electrolyzer.
Alternatively, the electrolysis may be carried out in a monopolar cell. A monopolar cell has a cathodic half cell containing a screen spaced from an outside wall and defining a volume therebetween and hollow cathode fingers extending outwardly therefrom. The volume within the hollow cathode fingers and between the screen and backplate is the catholyte volume. The anodic element of the monopolar electrolyzer includes a valve metal coating or surface on an internal element of either a peripheral wall or the cell bottom and coated valve metal fingers extending outwardly therefrom. The anodic and cathodic half cells are assembled to form an electrolytic cell with the anodes facing the cathodes and substantially parallel thereto with a substantially uniform space, i.e., an interelectrode gap, therebetween. Additionally, a synthetic separator is positioned between the anode and cathode dividing the cell into a catholyte compartment and an anolyte compartment.
One problem encountered in electrolytic cells having synthetic separators is mounting the separator on an electrode. This becomes a critical problem when there are interleaved electrodes of complex shapes.
Synthetic separators, that is, synthetic halocarbon resins which may have acid groups thereon as exemplified by fluorocarbon resins with carboxylic acid groups, fluorocarbon resins with sulfonic acid groups, and fluorocarbon resins with various derivatives of the aforementioned groups as well as other groups, are difficult to join and require special assembly methods. These special assembly methods include chemical reactions at the laps and joints, heating, and compression.
According to the invention herein contemplated, the use of synthetic separators at electrolytically less active, complex shaped areas of the electrode are dispensed with thereby allowing the use of separators of simple shape. This is accomplished by providing electrolyte impermeable members at opposite ends of the electrode, to hold the permionic membrane in place. The electrolyte impermeable members may be the cell top and cell bottom or they may be flanges or the like held in compression at opposite ends of the electrode.THE FIGURES
FIG. 1 is a front elevation view of a bipolar electrolyzer.
FIG. 2 is a side elevation view of a bipolar electrolyzer.
FIG. 3 is an exploded view of a bipolar electrolyzer showing bipolar elements, terminal electrodes, and synthetic separators.
FIG. 4 is an isometric view of a bipolar unit showing the cathodic side.
FIG. 5 is an isometric view of a bipolar unit showing the anodic side.
FIG. 6 is a cutaway side elevation of a bipolar unit.
FIG. 7 is an isometric view of a bipolar unit prepared according to an alternative exemplification.
FIG. 8 is an isometric view of the bipolar unit shown in FIG. 7.
FIG. 9 is a cutaway side elevation of the bipolar unit shown in FIGS. 7 and 8.
FIG. 10 is an exploded view of an electrode useful in the bipolar unit shown in FIGS. 7, 8, and 9.DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION
A bipolar electrolyzer 1 is shown generally in FIGS. 1, 2, and 3. The bipolar electrolyzer 1 includes a plurality of bipolar units 11 electrically and mechanically in series with cathodes 31 of one individual electrolytic cell and the anodes of the next adjacent electrolytic cell 15 of the electrolyzer being mounted on a common structural member, i.e., the backplate 21 of the bipolar unit 11.
An individual electrolytic cell 15 is defined by the anodic side 51 of one bipolar unit 11, the cathodic side 31 of the next adjacent bipolar unit 11, and a permionic membrane 71 interposed therebetween.
The bipolar unit 11 includes a backplate 21 having a cathodic side 31 and an anodic side 51. The backplate 21, shown especially in FIGS. 6 and 9, has a steel plate 23 which is a primary structural member of the bipolar unit 11, and a steel body 25 having peripheral walls 27 around both the cathodic 31 and anodic sides 51 of the bipolar unit 11. The steel plate 23 and steel body 25 are lined with a valve metal sheet 29 on the anodic side of the bipolar unit. The steel plate 23 is of a thickness of from about 1.0 centimeter to about 3.0 centimeters and the valve metal sheet 29 may be of a thickness of from about 2 to about 5 millimeters.
The cathodic side 31 of the bipolar unit 11 includes a screen 33 spaced from the steel backplate 23 and defining a volume therebetween. The cathodic side of the bipolar unit also has hollow cathode fingers 35 extending outwardly from the steel plate 23 of the bipolar unit 11 and from the screen 33. The volume within the cathode fingers 35 and between the screen 33 and backplate 23 defines the catholyte volume.
The material used in fabricating the screen 33 and the cathode fingers 35 is a perforate or foraminous sheet or plate which may be inward and upward louvered. The material may be wire, screen, ribs, bars, rods, perforated plate, perforated sheet, or the like. The fingers 35 and screen 33 are fabricated out of material that is electrically conductive and substantially chemically resistant to concentrated alkali metal hydroxides and hydrogen under cathodic conditions. Such materials include iron, steel, cobalt, nickel, alloys of iron with cobalt and nickel, and carbon, such as stainless steel, and copper.
Additionally, the cathodic elements may have a suitable catalyst, for example, an electron transfer catalyst or hydrogen evolution catalyst, thereon.
The cathode elements, i.e., the cathode fingers 35, are normally rounded so as to provide a wave form, for example, a continuous wave of cathode fingers, such as sinusoidal wave cathode fingers when looking at the cathodes directly above. Alternatively, the cathode fingers 35 may be individual polyhedrons or even truncated pyramidal cathode fingers 35, especially when the fingers 35 are individually removable from the cathode screen 33.
The anodic side of the bipolar unit includes a valve metal sheet 29 on the backplate 21 and coated valve metal fingers 53. The fingers 53 may be blades substantially parallel to the cathode fingers. Alternatively, the anodic elements may be in wave form, for example, sinusoidal, when looked at from above, substantially parallel to and complementary with the cathode waves 35.
One physical form of the anode elements 53 is a perforate or foraminous sheet or plate, for example, inward and upward louvered mesh or screen or sheet or plate, or alternatively, bars, rods, ribs, wires, or the like.
The anode elements 53 are normally fabricated of a valve metal, that is, a metal that forms a protective oxide coating upon exposure to acidic media under anodic conditions. Such materials include titanium, vanadium, zirconium, columbium, hafnium, tantalum, and tungsten. Most commonly, titanium, tantalum, and their alloys are used with titanium being particularly preferred because of its commercial availability. The anodes 53 further include a surface material of a suitable electrocatalyst, that is, a material that allows electron transfer and catalyzes the evolution of molecular chlorine.
The bipolar electrolyzer 1 is assembled to form individual electrolytic cells 15 with the anodes 51 of the bipolar unit 11 facing the cathodes 31 of the next adjacent bipolar unit 11 such that the anodes 51 are substantially parallel to the cathodes 31 with a substantially uniform space, i.e., interelectrode gap, therebetween.
A synthetic separator 71 is positioned between the anode elements 53 and cathode elements 35, dividing the cell 15 into an anolyte compartment and a catholyte compartment. The synthetic separator may be either a permionic membrane, permeable to the flow of cations and impermeable to the flow of anions, or a microporous diaphragm permeable to the flow of electrolyte.
The electrode structure herein contemplated may also be used in monopolar cells. Monopolar cells include a cathodic half cell with a screen spaced from an outside wall and defining a volume therebetween and hollow cathodic fingers extending outwardly from the screen. The volume within the hollow cathodic fingers and between the screen and wall define the catholyte volume. The screen and cathode fingers are fabricated of the same materials as described with reference to a bipolar electrolyzer and are shaped generally with round edges on the cathode providing a wave form, for example, a continuous wave of the cathodes to cathode screen. Alternatively, individual rectangular or even truncated tetrahedral cathode fingers may be used especially where the cathode fingers are individually removable.
The anodic side is formed of a valve metal, as described above. The anode fingers may be in the form of waves or blades. The waves or blades are substantially parallel to the cathode fingers and spaced substantially uniformly therefrom. The anode elements themselves are formed of the same materials as described hereinabove with respect to bipolar electrolyzers and are assembled together to form an electrolytic cell with the anodes facing the cathodes, substantially parallel thereto and spaced uniformly therefrom. A synthetic separator is spaced therebetween, dividing the cell into a catholyte compartment and an anolyte compartment.
The mounting of the synthetic separator 71 presents special problems in an electrolytic cell having interleaved electrodes of complex shape. The synthetic separator 71 between the anolyte compartment and the catholyte compartment is a thin film, e.g., from about 0.1 mm to about 0.5 mm. It is fabricated of a synthetic halocarbon resin having acid groups thereon. The synthetic separator material is a halogenated polymer having pendant acid groups. Most commonly, the polymer is a highly fluorinated polymer having pendant sulfonic, carboxylic or sulfonamide groups. Such materials are normally supplied as sheets or rolled sheets of material. These highly fluorinated polymers having acid groups require special handling in order to join the sheets together. Such special handling includes reaction to form low melting derivatives prior to bonding followed by further reaction to form ion exchange active forms after bonding or joining, chemical reactions to put bondable groups thereon, heating, and compression at high pressures.
It has now been found advantageous to eliminate the permionic membrane at electrolytically less active areas of the electrode. Electrolyte impermeable members are provided at opposite ends of the electrode holding the permionic membrane in place. These members may be provided at the cell top and bottom or by flanges or blanks held in compression at the top and bottom of the electrode within the cell.
While this invention is described with reference to the separator being on the cathode, it is to be understood that the separator may be on either the anode or the cathode or on both electrodes. Synthetic separators may be mounted nearer the anode than the cathode and even on the anode whereby to effect certain advantages.
In the electrolytic cell 1 herein contemplated, there is an electrode pair of fingered, interleaved anodes 51 and cathodes 31. At least one member of the electrode pair has an electrode sheet which is preferably either smoothly continuous, for example, as a wave form sheet shown in FIGS. 3, 4, 5, and 6, or disontinuous in planarity, as, for example, truncated polyhedral as shown in the electrode fingers in FIGS. 7, 8, 9, and 10.
The electrode has fluid impermeable members 81 at opposite sides, that is, edges or ends or top and bottom of the electrode sheet. The synthetic separator 71 is held on the electrode by the electrolyte impermeable members 81. The separator 71 may either lay on the electrodic surface or be spaced therefrom, e.g., by gaskets, spacers, nets, mesh, rods, insulators, or the like.
The use of the impermeable members at the extremities of the electrodes allows for a single sheet of separator without resin-to-resin seals, especially at stress points where there is bending or turning of the membrane such as tops, bottom, and leading edges of electrodes. This avoids chemical, thermal, and hydrostatic working of the membrane at such joints.
FIGS. 3 to 6 inclusive show one exemplification of the electrolytic cell of this invention where the cell body functions as the electrolyte impermeable member. The electrode 35 extends from the top 17 of the cell body to the bottom 19 of the cell body, and the cell body follows the contour of the electrode.
The separator extends from the cell top 17 to the cell bottom 19 and from one side of the cell to the opposite side of the cell, preferably as an unbroken, single sheet. However, laps, for example, with a gasket or other alternative compressive means, may be used.
The electrolyzer 1 has bipolar units 11 with anodic elements 51 and cathodic element 31 separated by a synthetic separator 71. The anodic element 51 includes anodes 53 and anode connectors connecting the anodes 53 to the backplate 21 of the bipolar unit 11 and thence through the backplate 21 to the cathodic element 31 of the bipolar unit 11. The anodic side of the bipolar unit has a titanium lining 29 covering the steel body 25 as described hereinbove.
The cathodic unit 31 includes cathode fingers 35 and cathode screen 33 spaced from the backplate 21 of the bipolar unit 11 and providing an electrolyte volume therein.
The synthetic separator 71 is interposed between the anode 53 and the cathode 35, for example, with suitable, deformable gaskets 91 at bearing surfaces 93 and 95.
According to an alternative exemplification, a removable member 85 on the electrode may function as the liquid impermeable member. In this exemplification, the electrodes do not extend from the top of the cell to the bottom of the cell but rather begin above the cell bottom and terminate below the cell top. For example, when the membrane 71 is on the cathode 35, the cell operates with a positive head on the anode and a negative head on the cathode, while when the separator 71 is on the anode 53 the cell operates with a positive head on the cathode and a negative head on the anode.
The separator 71 extends from the top of the electrode to the bottom of the electrode, preferably fitting under the impermeable member 85 and being held in compression between the lip 37 of the electrode 35 and the impermeable member 85. In this way, an electrolyte tight seal is maintained between the electrode 35, the separator 71, and the impermeable member 85, i.e., the cap.
According to a preferred exemplification, the impermeable member 85 has a lip 87 corresponding to the contour of the open surface 39 of the electrode 35 whereby to further seal the joint.
The bipolar electrolyzer shown in FIGS. 7, 8, 9, and 10 includes bipolar units 11 having anodic elements 51 with anode blades 53 and cathodic elements 31 with cathode screen 33 and cathode fingers 35 extending outwardly from the cathode screen 33 and the bipolar backplate 21.
The separator 71 rests upon one of the electrodes with an electrolyte impermeable member 85 at the top and bottom of the electrode. The electrolyte impermeable member 85 may also be a compressive member held in compression with a turn buckle 89 and bolt 90 whereby to provide an electrolyte tight seal between the impermeable member 85, the separator 71, and the electrode 35.
While the invention has been described with respect to certain exemplifications and embodiments thereof, it is not meant to be limited except as in the claims appended hereto.
1. An electrolytic cell comprising an anode and cathode electrode pair of intermeshed vertical electrode surfaces with a synthetic separator therebetween, at least one member of said electrode pair having a continuous electrodic surface with horizontally disposed fluid impermeable members at the top and bottom of said continuous electrodic surface and synthetic separator being sealably mounted at said impermeable members.
2. The electrolytic cell of claim 1 wherein said synthetic separator (permionic membrane) is joined to said electrode at a compression seal between said electrodic surface and said fluid impermeable members whereby to provide a fluid impermeable seal therebetween.
3. The electrolytic cell of claim 1 wherein sain synthetic separator is joined to said electrode at a compression seal between said electrodes.
4. The electrolytic cell of claim 1 wherein the electrode having the continuous electrodic surface is the cathode and the synthetic separator in nearer the cathode.
5. The electrolytic cell of claim 1 wherein the electrode having the continuous electrodic surface is the anode and the synthetic separator is nearer the anode.
6. The electrolytic cell of claim 5 wherein the synthetic separator rests on the anode.
7. An electrode assembly comprising:
- a foraminous, metallic, electrode sheet suitable for intermeshing with a complimentary electrode sheet;
- a synthetic separator on the outer surface of the electrode sheet; and
- compressive means at the top and bottom of said electrode sheet, maintaining said synthetic separator against said electrode sheet and providing an electrolyte tight seal therebetween.
Filed: Jul 7, 1978
Date of Patent: Dec 2, 1980
Assignee: PPG Industries, Inc. (Pittsburgh, PA)
Inventor: Lois A. Dahlberg (Corpus Christi, TX)
Primary Examiner: John H. Mack
Assistant Examiner: D. R. Valentine
Attorney: Richard M. Goldman
Application Number: 5/922,716


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MIAMI — Less than five weeks before Florida’s March presidential primary, the Department of Homeland Security is investigating a previously unreported cyber attack on Palm Beach County’s elections office, according to Supervisor of Elections Wendy Sartory Link.Link, who was appointed last year by the governor to oversee the county’s beleaguered elections department, said she contacted the FBI in November after a veteran IT employee told her that the office had been infected by a ransomware virus only a few weeks before the 2016 election. The virus was not publicly disclosed in 2016.Link said t…
Black Trump voter admits the president is a racist — and that wouldn’t keep him from voting for him again
In an interview with the Daily Beast, a black voter who cast his vote for Barack Obama twice to be president admitted that he voted for Donald Trump in 2016 and would have no problem voting for him again despite the fact that he knows the president is a racist.
Speaking with the Beast's David Dent, 40-year-old Desmond Grant, who owns a trucking company that has thrived during the Trump years, bluntly admitted that he knows exactlty what the president is when it comes to matters of race.
Democrats and Never-Trumpers gaming out ‘doomsday scenarios’ if president refuses to leave office: report
According to a report in the New York Times, Democratic strategists and Never-Trumper conservatives fear Donald Trump will refuse to leave office should he lose in November and are making plans and figuring out their legal options should such an unprecedented state of affairs come to pass.
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When Sarah Palin nuked Greenland
A few years ago, astrophysicist Neil deGrasse Tyson hosted a debate at the Hayden Planetarium in New York on what he called the "50/50 proposition" that the universe we perceive is a computer simulation created by an outside intelligence. This was somewhere between a prank and a thought experiment: It's not clear whether Tyson actually believes that is likely or plausible, and it wasn't lost on anyone that this entire hypothesis is a way to reverse-engineer divine creation in vaguely scientific language.


text:
I am selling plans (52 pages of text and drawings) and a 1300 picture CD showing you how to build the VARIABLE COMPRESSION engine.The engine is a 1' BORE x 1" STROKE vertical single cylinder, timing belt driven over head camshaft, electronic ignition, electric fan cooled, gas fueled engine.You can change the compression ratio after the engine is built.The compression change is a simple mechanical adjustment. The "squish" space of the engine can be changed from aprox. .437" down to .045".
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domain: hobby


text:
The Smiley Show HD – The Crazy Quiz Game
Van DUTYFARM GMBH
Open iTunes om apps te kopen en te downloaden.
Enjoy wild head-turning fun with Lisa, Lucie, Tobi, Fred and Eddy!
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Wat is er nieuw in versie 1.2
over 300 new questions
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- Bijgewerkt: 02-08-2011
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- © K1010 Media GmbH
Compatibiliteit: Vereist iOS 3.2 of nieuwer. Compatibel met iPad.

domain: game


Mario Cuomo net worth: Mario Cuomo was an American politician who had a net worth of $10 million. Mario Cuomo was born on June 15, 1932 in Queens, New York. He might be most well-known for being the 52n Governor of New York. He served three phrases as Governor from 1983 – 1994. Before changing into Governor, Mario served as Secretary of State of New York from 1975 to 1978 and as Lieutenant Governor from 1979 to 1982. Mario got here to the forefront of politics when he gave a thundering speech on the 1984 Democratic Convention in San Francisco. During his speech, Mario was extremely important of President Reagan. He retired from politics after his time as Governor. He was an outspoken member of the Democratic occasion who was well-known for his liberal views. Mario was married to his spouse Matilda for greater than 50 years. Together they’d 5 youngsters together with Andrew Cuomo who’s the present Governor of New York and Chris Cuomo who’s a CNN anchor. Mario Cuomo died on January 1st, 2015 on the age of 82 after struggling for a number of months from a coronary heart situation.


Grab your Scooby Snacks and hop into the Mystery Machine with Felipe and Jacob as we solve some capers all throughout the Scooby-Doo Universe on this exciting new rewatch series.
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If a tree falls in the forest and no one hears it…blah, blah…you know the rest.
By now, you’ve written your story for advocates and funders, but there’s a good chance those stories won’t capture anyone’s attention in the media. What’s your hook? What’s going to make anyone care about what you’re doing?
If you’re holding an event, be sure to get the information into everyone’s hands weeks before. Schedules fill up fast and you want to be out front, not behind the curve. But, hosting an event isn’t the only way to get attention. Big grant? Big interest. First step. First story. Successful completion? Successful story.
No way. As Bernie Madoff, the Penn State football program and a host of other people and organizations would tell you, there is such thing as bad press. Try. To. Avoid. It.
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