Due to their involvement in The FA National Sunday Cup and both being on the wrong side of defeats by penalties Rock Ferry Social and Queens Park were both keen to get back to winning ways in the Cheshire County Football Association Sunday Challenge Cup.
Rock Ferry Social took a deserved lead midway through the first half via Kie Hughes. Queens Park equalised from an own goal that came from a long throw taken by Matty Maguire, but Rock Ferry defender Chay Dysart could only head it into his own net while attempting to clear it. There were further strikes from Ben Kerr and Joe Foster for The Queens men to take the honours.
Dock AFC eased through to the quarter-finals of the Wirral District Football Association Sunday Premier Cup with a 4-0 win over fellow league rivals Upton Town. Finding the net for Dock were Ben Wood, Greg Drummond, Cam McGregor, and Jake Hulley.
Action from the Houlihan’s Birkenhead Sunday Association Football League saw the commencement of the four divisional cup competitions. Corsair PV FC – who have yet to register a league win – ran out 2-1 winners over Woodchurch Hotel FC, thanks to a Jason Bull double in the prestigious Veronica Conway Premier Cup.
A Luke Blondell hat-trick, supplemented by singles from Callum Blondell and Sam Boydell earned the decision for Neston Nomads 5-1 at KRCT Bidston FC (Ben Kearney) to secure their place in the last eight.
A very interesting cup tie took place in The Frank Robinson Presidents Cup 1st round with Cheshire Cheese (Nick Lynch, Sam Hughes, Alex Lowe) outgunning Wellington FC 3-0, while Woodchurch Rovers put themselves in the hat for round two at the expense of AFC Shaftes (Luke Rollings, Eddie Jebb) with Ryan Thompson, Karl Dobbs, Robbie Ellis, and Dava Harrison obliging 4-2.
Leon Jones led the way for Sheridans with a tremendous treble supported by a Josh Tattler strike to make progress in the Tony Smith Memorial Trophy to see off the challenge from Poulton Victoria S&S (Tom Wright, Jack Gordon) 4-2.
Whitby Rangers also secured their place in the hat for round two with a 2-0 win at Ridgewood Park against Barcodes FC, thanks to goal-getters Brad Bland and Dom Hoppe.
Prenton FC saw their passage into the quarter-finals 6-0 over Saughall FC, after Ian Sheridan claimed a hat-trick, Matty O’Shea with a pair, and a single from Leo Jones.
AFC Rangers had Shaun Anderson, Lewis McKnight, Luke Bryson, and Peter Casey on the scoresheet after securing a place in round two of The Jimmy Core Trophy 4-2 over Oval FC who replied through Ollie Nicholson and Simon Cook. It took a penalty shootout for Wirral Athletic to gain a place in the last eight after a 2-2 draw at AFC Raeburn. Wirral Athletic triumphed 5-4 on penalties.
It was the same scoreline between division three leaders West Kirby United and mid table North Wirral Saints (Tom Fleming, Sam Platt) with a giant killing act by Saints 4-3 on penalties.
Premier Division action for the Ryan ‘Gigsy’ Atherton Trophy saw last season’s runners up Great Float S&S defeat last season’s Division One Champions The Lukes 6-2, while the honours were shared between Lancelyn Glenavon (John Adediran) and strongly fancied Beechwood FC (Rob Cull, Mitch Duggan).
Just one game in the Maxwell Barbers Division One with Wirral Radio FC delivered a resounding 6-0 result over MSC Eastham, Connor Egan leading the way with a fabulous hat-trick, a fine treble from Suphot Thiamdong and a Cameron Kneen effort.
Victoria Colts recorded their first maximum points haul of the season to move off the bottom of Division Two with Kieran Davies, Gaz Dickenson, Robbie Campbell, and an own goal registering in a 4-1 win over AFC Park North who replied via Sean Meacham.
Barkers Armchair FC kept within striking distance of the top teams with a narrow 2-1 success at Glenavon Athletic (Lewis Stanley), a Darren Sutton penalty allied to a Louis Rice goal did the damage.
AFC Tima (Jack Grimes (2), Mark Goodacre) have recorded three 4-2 wins in the last three weeks and again have been involved with a six-goal thriller this time 3-3 sharing the spoils with Athletic VH.
Old Parks maintained their unbeaten run in Division Three posting a 3-2 win over Higher Bebington Kelma (Liam Atherton, Paddy Bell) with Adam Lamb carving out two strikes and a Jackson Smith effort.
The Houlihan’s Birkenhead Sunday Association Football League are now accepting applications for a proposed Youth Division for the season 2023/24 that is scheduled to start in August 2024, any Youth clubs that wish to enter two teams can do so, one team will be known as Youth U/18’s and a second team is normally known as a Colts U/17’s, please visit the League website for contact details
|4||Rock Ferry Social||6||3||3||0||15||7||8||12|
|5||Great Float S&S||7||3||3||1||21||16||5||12|
|9||KRCT Bidston FC||8||2||0||6||21||33||-12||6|
|10||The Lukes FC||9||1||0||8||11||29||-18||3|
|4||Wirral Radio FC||4||3||0||1||12||7||5||9|
|6||Eastham Rangers Colts||5||2||2||1||9||11||-2||8|
|8||Rig Move FC||5||2||1||2||11||9||2||7|
|5||Barkers Armchair FC||7||4||0||3||9||17||-8||12|
|8||Eagle & Stirrup FC||6||3||0||3||9||6||3||9|
|10||AFC Park North||7||1||0||6||6||21||-15||3|
|12||Poulton Vics S&S||7||0||2||5||8||25||-17||2|
|1||West Kirby United||8||5||3||0||23||11||12||18|
|2||Old Parks FC||7||5||2||0||22||10||12||17|
|7||H Bebington Kelma||8||3||2||3||22||16||6||11|
|10||Parkgate St Germain||5||2||0||3||9||14||-5||6|
|11||North Wirral Saints||7||1||1||5||13||18||-5||4|


text:
From our news
Costco Loves The Girl Who Fell From the Sky
I am pleased as punch to report that The Girl Who Fell From the Sky is Pennie's Pick at Costco for March! This is an incredible honor and honestly, overwhelming! What it means is that you will find The Girl Who Fell From the Sky at Costco's across the nation--Costco is one of the biggest booksellers in the country! Can you believe it? I've been excited to do some signings at Costco locations in Seattle and in Vermont. I'm hoping I can visit a Costco near you. Thank you Pennie! And don't miss the big write-up in your March Costco Connection. Pennie writes: "Durrow had me spellbound . . . "--There's also information on how to enter a giveaway for a signed copy of the book. Hurry--enter now!
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Prev post: Back on the NYT Bestseller List

domain: literature


text:
K.S. Hegde, J.
1. These are appeals try certificate by a common assessee. In this case we are concerned with the assessment under the Madras Agricultural Income-tax Act, 1955 (hereinafter to be referred to as the Act). The relevant assessment years are 1955-56 and 1956-57, the previous years ending on March 31, 1954, and March 31, 1955. The assessee was maintaining his accounts according to the mercantile system. The only, question, in dispute in this case is as regards the method of computation of the agricultural income of the assessee. In assessing the income-tax of the assessee for the assessment year 1955-56, the very first assessment year under the Act, the department took into consideration certain stocks of coffee which it had gathered earlier than April 1, 1954, but sold during the financial year 1954-55. The contention of the assessee was that the department was Apt entitled to do so. It was contended on behalf of the assessee that only the crop gathered in the financial year 1954-55 and sold during that period could be taken into consideration for purposes of the assessment. This contention was rejected by the authorities under the Act as well as by the High Court. Aggrieved by that decision, the assessee has come up in appeal to this Court.
2. The point in issue in this case is, in our opinion, concluded by two decisions of this Court, namely. State of Kerala v. Bhavani Tea Produce Co. Ltd. : 59ITR254(SC) (SC) and S.S. Rajalinga Raja v. State of Madras : 63ITR617(SC) (SC). These decisions have laid down that in the application of the Act what is relevant is the agricultural income realised during the relevant previous year, the question as, to when the crop was gathered being wholly immaterial. This Court has held that even if the produce had been realised prior to April 1, 1954, but if, the same had been-sold subsequently, the price realised by the sale either under the mercantile system or under the cash system is assessable in the year in which the price was either deemed to have been realised was actually realised depending on the system of accounting maintained by the assessee. In view of the ratio of those decisions the contention of the appellant-assessee that the department should not have taken into consideration the produce gathered prior to April 1, 1954, but sold subsequently cannot be sustained.
3. But Mr. Setalvad, appearing for the assessee, raised another contention before us. According to him the Appellate Assistant Commissioner as well as the Tribunal while making the assessment for the assessment year 1955-56 not only took into consideration the opening stock on April 1, 1954, but also the closing stock on March 31, 1955. This, according to him, is wholly impermissible on the basis of the ratio of the decisions of this Court. This contention appears to be correct. From a; reading of the order of assessment made by the assessing authority as well as the order of the Tribunal, it is clear that in computing the assessee's income for the assessment year 1955-56 the authorities under the Act not only took into consideration the opening stock on April 1, 1954, but also the closing stock on March 31, 1955. But Mr. S.T. Desai, appearing for the department contends that this method has not in any manner really affected the assessment of the assessee if we take into consideration the assessment for both the assessment years 1955-56 and 1956-57. We do not think it is necessary for us to decide this question in this Court. All we need, do is to lay down the correct principles of law and, thereafter, direct the Tribunal to make the assessment in the relevant assessment years in accordance with those principles.
4. The principle laid down by this Court in the aforementioned two decisions is that the only thing that is relevant for the assessment in the case of an assessee's maintaining his accounts on the mercantile system is the sales of coffee effected by him during the previous year relevant to the assessment year and in the case of those who are maintaining accounts on the basis of cash system, the price realised by them in the relevant previous year. In both the cases the question of opening stocks and closing stocks are irrelevant. Herein we are concerned with an assessee who is maintaining his accounts on the basis of the mercantile system. That being so, the only point relevant in making the computation is sale made by him in the relevant previous years.
5. For the reasons mentioned above, we allow these appeals and remand the cases to the Tribunal to reassess the assessee for the assessment year 1955-56 and 1956-57 on the, basis of the principles enunciated above. In the circumstances of the case, we direct the parties to bear their own costs.

domain: agronomy


text:
Bonita Springs is a small coastal city located in southwest Florida, on Florida’s gulf coast.
Because of its location in southwest Florida, Bonita Springs is especially popular among people who want to explore Florida’s beautiful beaches, coastline, nature and outdoors.
Bonita Springs is a sleepy town, but it’s a popular destination for tourists, snowbird residents and retirees. Bonita Springs has a lot to offer, including access to some of the best beaches in Florida.
As of the 2021 census estimate, Bonita Springs has a population of approximately 54,904 residents. The population of Bonita Springs has grown from approximately 43,914 as of the 2010 census. Source: U.S. Census Bureau
Bonita Springs is located in southwest Florida.
Bonita Springs is part of two counties; Lee County and Collier County.
The community of Bonita Springs is heavily defined by local waterways, including the Gulf of Mexico, wetlands and rivers.
The city of Bonita Springs is located on both the mainland of the southwest Florida gulf coast, and on a series of barrier islands.
Bonita Springs forms part of the Gulf Coast Barrier Islands, a chain of seven sandbar islands which protects southwest Florida from hurricanes, ocean waves and storms.
The city sits along the shores of the Gulf of Mexico, and on the southern shores of Estero Bay, which is a protected bay between the Florida mainland and a series of long, narrow barrier islands.
Bonita Springs is also bisected by the Imperial River, which cuts through the center of Bonita Springs and drains out into Fish Trap Bay.
Cities Near Bonita Springs
Bonita Springs is located near several other cities in southwest Florida.
The cities of Cape Coral and Fort Myers are located north of Bonita Springs. Fort Myers is the commercial center of Lee County and the region of southwest Florida.
Fort Myers Beach on Estero Island lies between the two, and is a great spot for fishing and other water sports.
Southwest Florida Cities located near Bonita Springs:
- Fort Myers
- Southwest Florida
- Fort Myers Beach
- Cape Coral
- Marco Island
- Captiva Island
- Sanibel Island
Bonita Springs Airport Information
Airports that serve Bonita Springs include:
- Ft. Myers (RSW) Airport
- Miami (MIA)
- Fort Lauderdale-Hollywood International (FLL)
- West Palm Beach/Palm Beach (PBI)
- Tampa International Airport (TPA)
The closest airport to Bonita Springs is Southwest Florida International Airport RSW (also known as Fort Myers Airport). It’s just 13.1 miles away from the center of town.
Bonita Springs’ other airport options are all over 100 miles away;
- Miami (MIA) is 101 miles from Bonita Springs
- Fort Lauderdale-Hollywood International (FLL) is 103.5 miles from Bonita Springs
- West Palm Beach/Palm Beach (PBI) is 107.7 miles from Bonita Springs
- Tampa International Airport (TPA) is 123 miles from Bonita Springs
Visiting Bonita springs
Bonita Springs is a popular place for many visitor types, including local Florida travelers, couples, honeymooners, family vacationers, spring break visitors and international tourists, and others.
Most visitors come to Bonita Springs in search of low-key, peaceful relaxation rather than an exciting party destination.
Bonita Springs is more often a place for visiting relatives and enjoying beautiful beaches and the outdoors.
Seasonal Visitors, Retirees and Snowbird Residents
Bonita Springs is a popular destination for snowbird residents. As with much of Florida, people from colder climes flock to Bonita Springs in winter to enjoy the warm weather.
More recently Bonita Springs has seen a rise in Sunbirds.
Sunbirds are seasonal residents who live primarily in a warm climate, and migrate north during summer months to escape uncomfortably hot summers.
This is in contrast to traditional snowbirds, who primarily live in the north and head south to escape uncomfortably cold winters.
Many seasonal residents choose to live in Florida as their primary residence for a variety of benefits, including:
- Tax savings
- Real estate investment or speculation
- A potentially lower cost of living
- And other financial and lifestyle factors
Visiting Bonita Springs for Families
Bonita Springs is a great place for families to visit. There is a wide variety of family-friendly activities and the community generally feels easy-going and safe.
Visitors should be aware that Bonita Springs can get busy during peak tourist season, which lasts from approximately January until April.
Still, Bonita Springs is usually quieter than many of Florida’s other beach towns, even in the height of snowbird season.
Weather and Climate
Like all of southwest Florida, Bonita Springs has a sub-tropical climate. Seasons in Bonita Springs include warm, mild and dry winters and hot, humid and rainy summers.
The best time to visit Bonita Springs is from October to March as the weather is calmer and there is less rain.
The worst time to visit Bonita Springs is from May to September due to the hurricane season, oppressive heat and humidity and daily thunderstorms.
Winter season in Bonita Springs
Winter in Bonita Springs lasts from January to March. Winter days are mainly sunny, dry and mild.
In the winter season average daytime high temperatures in Bonita Springs average between 60 to 70 Degrees Fahrenheit.
Summer season in Bonita Springs
The summer season in Bonita Springs, also known as the rainy season, lasts from June to September. Summers in Bonita Springs are known for being incredibly hot and humid.
Temperatures can reach 90 Degrees Fahrenheit or more. Due to the high humidity, the head index can make temperatures “feel like” they are as high as 110 degrees F.
Average low temperatures in Bonita Springs’ summer months are usually in the mid 70’s to mid 80’s.
Bonita Springs receives, on average, between 7 to 9 inches of rain during its rainy season. It’s common to have daily afternoon thunderstorms which occur during the hottest part of the day.
The daily rainstorms are often brief, but intense, and often bring strong thunder, lightning, wind and torrential rain. The afternoon rains help cool the temperature, but increase the humidity to unbearable levels.
July is the wettest month, on average.
Shoulder Seasons: Spring and Fall
One of the best times to visit southwest Florida is during the “shoulder seasons” of spring and fall.
Spring and fall months, generally from about April until May and then again from October until December, offer a lovely combination of mild temperatures and reduced crowds.
These months are often quieter, and visitor groups tend to skew older, since families are often unable to travel due to children’s school schedules.
Hurricane season is in full swing between August and October, but can strike anytime between June to November. See the City Of Bonita Springs website for more information.
Things to Do in Bonita Springs
There are many things to do in Bonita Springs:
- Visit Bonita Springs Beach Park, or one of the numerous pristine beaches on the Gulf of Mexico
- Head to Downtown Bonita Springs for shopping and great places to eat
- Walk along Bonita Springs Dog Beach, one of the best dog beaches in Florida
- Find hidden treasures at the Flamingo Island Flea Market
- Rent a kayak from Docs at Bonita Beach Park, and enjoy the sunset out on the water.
- Go hiking on Cullum’s Bonita Trail
- Listen to live music at one of the many venues nearby. Sneaky Pete’s is a laid-back, family-friendly saloon with live bands, pool & a tasty selection of American classics. Or head to the Stage Restaurant Bonita Springs to see some old favorites as tribute bands.
- Visit the Center for Performing Arts
- Play a round of golf at the Bonita Fairways Golf Course
- Visit one of Bonita Springs’ 21 public parks
Nature and Wildlife
Southwest Florida’s Gulf Coast is famous for its dolphins and manatees, but it’s not just the wildlife that brings people here.
Bonita Springs is surrounded by four barrier islands. The beautiful Little Hickory Island Beach Park and Bonita Beach Park are two of the most popular.
Nearby Lovers Key State Park offers a beautiful swimming and kayaking spot just north of the city.
Things to do for families in Bonita Springs
Familes traveling with children often suggest visiting the Everglades Wonder Gardens. It’s a botanical garden and wildlife refuge with over 300 rescued, rehabilitated and non-releasable birds and reptiles.
The Everglades Wonder Gardens offer a range of hands-on activities, including the chance to feed flamingos and get up close to all sorts of wildlife. Admission is $12 for adults, $7 for children and free for children under 3.
Local waterways are filled with water activities. Estero Bay is popular for water sports, including kayak and SUP paddleboard rentals.
Exciting water adventures like parasailing and jet ski rentals in Bonita Springs are also popular activities.
Day trips from Bonita Springs
There are a number of convenient day trips which can be visited from Bonita Springs.
Corkscrew Swamp Sanctuary
The Corkscrew Swamp Sanctuary is a fantastic place to observe and experience southwest Florida’s nature and wildlife. Visitors almost always see a variety of wildlife, including alligators, otters, herons, egrets, ibis, woodpeckers, wood storks, hawks, black vultures,deer and others.
There’s also a Cypress forest and other natural habitats to see what southwest Florida was like before it was paved over.
National and State Parks near Bonita Springs
There are a number of state parks near Bonita Springs, including Lovers Key State Park and Delnor-Wiggins Pass State Park
Parts of the Florida Everglades National Park are technically located approximately 60 miles from Bonita Springs, although the visitor center and main park entrances are located more than 2.5 hours southeast, closer to Miami.
Beaches near Bonita Springs
Is Bonita Springs a good beach?
Bonita Beach park is the most popular beach around and can get busy; especially at sunset. The beach is pristine with beautiful white sand and clean water; it is well worth a visit.
Entry to Bonita Springs Beach Park is free, but visitors must pay for parking if visiting by car. Parking costs approximately $2 per hour as of this writing.
Barefoot Beach was ranked the 6th best beach in the US in 2013, and often comes high on TripAdvisor’s best beaches lists.
The 342-acre Barefoot Beach Preserve is one of the last undeveloped barrier islands. It’s also one of the very best shelling beaches in Florida. The $8 entry fee means it’s quieter than other beaches in the area.
The Bonita Beach Dog Park is one of the best dog beaches in Florida. Dogs are allowed to run and play in the water off-leash.
The waters around Bonita Beach Dog Park are generally shallow and sandy, but do get deeper quickly in many areas.
The dog park has ample free parking and a dog washing station on-site.
Visitors should use appropriate caution and their best judgment and etiquette when allowing their dogs to use the dog beach.
Living in Bonita Springs
In general, most residents say that Bonita Springs is a nice place to live, but the pros are equally balanced by downsides.
One of the biggest downsides to living in Bonita Springs, or southwest Florida in general, is that the cost of living is very high relative to local wages and earning potential.
There aren’t very many large companies in Bonita Springs, so the job market is limited. Tourism is the largest industry throughout southwest Florida, including in Bonita Springs. Most hospitality and tourism jobs are low paying and are highly seasonal.
As with the rest of Florida, the cost of housing has risen dramatically in recent years and has created a housing affordability crisis which makes life difficult for many locals.
Many retirees who relocate from high-cost-of-living states may find that real estate prices in Bonita Springs appear inexpensive, but it is high for locals who must earn local wages.
The cost of living in Florida today is much more expensive than it was in previous decades, when Florida gained a reputation as a good place to retire.
Is Bonita Springs a nice area?
Bonita Springs is much quieter than nearby places like Fort Myers and Naples, which can be a good thing, or a bad thing, depending on your preference.
The beaches are often named some of the best in the United States, and there are plenty of cultural things to see and do in the town itself.
Bonita Springs has a lot to offer when it comes to outdoor activities like wildlife viewing, bird watching, hiking trails and water sports like kayaking, paddleboarding and fishing.
Pros of Bonita Springs
- Bonita Springs has a relatively nice, warm climate, with year round sunshine, and perfect beaches to enjoy the weather from.
- There are many retirement communities which cater to older residents.
- Florida is relatively cheap compared to other parts of America, although the cost of living has risen dramatically and is not nearly as attractive as it once was.
- Bonita Springs offers many good hiking opportunities, water attractions and offers a year-round outdoor lifestyle.
Cons of Bonita Springs
- The entire region of southwest Florida is extremely vulnerable to storms, flooding and hurricane threats. Evacuating can be an expensive, inconvenient and challenging ordeal.
- The sub-tropical climate of southwest Florida brings nearly constant heat, combined with high humidity and lots of mosquitos.
- Bonita Springs can get crowded in winter months due to seasonal snowbird residents and tourism. Many locals complain of excessive traffic, higher prices, crowds and busy beaches.
- Public services in Florida are extremely limited, and are often inadequate to meet residents’ needs. Public transportation is essentially non-existent, and is largely unusable when it does exist.
- Bonita Springs is located in extreme southwest Florida. Although Bonita Springs is located relatively close to other cities, it is a very long drive to reach other destinations, or to leave Florida.
History of Bonita Springs
Like most of Florida, Bonita Springs has a fascinating history. The earliest inhabitation of Bonita Springs dates back to prehistoric times and the earliest humans.
The city has as an interesting modern history, as well.
Southwest Florida has been inhabited by humans for up to 8,000 years according to archeological evidence, including native American mounds and burial sites.
Calusa Indians lived and thrived in Bonita Springs when the Spanish came in 1513.
The Calusa native Americans were later decimated by European diseases, war, persecution, forced relocation and slave trading, among other struggles.
In the late 1800s Braxton B. Comer bought 6,000 acres of land around Bonita Springs, which was then called “Survey”.
Comer brought 50 families from Alabama to work his large plantation. They cultivated the land growing pineapples, bananas, coconuts and other kinds of fruit.
In 1912 two investors from Fort Myers, Harvie Heitman and J.H. Ragsdale, purchased 2,400 acres around Survey for development. They renamed the town, formerly called “Survey” to Bonita Springs.
The name Bonita Springs was chosen after a local mineral spring which the native Americans said could heal the sick. The medicinal spring was located near Old Highway 41.
Southwest Florida languished amid cycles of booms and busts throughout the 1900s.
In the 1920s Barron Collier built the Tamiami Trail (U.S. Highway 41) which connects Tampa to Miami and the railroad. This brought a new wave of prosperity to the town.
Route 41 is the United States Numbered Highway that runs from Miami, Florida, to the Upper Peninsula of Michigan.
The highway was important as it connected Florida to the rest of the country. Even now the road is a draw for tourists.
The scenic two-lane Tamiami Trail (U.S. 41) will take you through miles of the Everglades alligator country. With epic scenery and wildlife, it’s a great tourist route to follow.
Southwest Florida experienced a surge of migration from the 1950s until the 1970s, when waves of retiring WWII veterans flooded into Florida.
Many had fond memories of Florida from their military days when they are either stationed in Florida, or passed through while receiving military training.
New technologies, especially air conditioning, combined with the opening of the new highways saw a huge rise in the population.
New residents brought development, shopping malls, modern office facilities and golf courses.
The city of Bonita Springs was officially established on December 31, 1999.
Bonita Springs is a lovely enclave in southwest Florida. It is a great destination for many types of visitors, retirees, snowbirds, and local residents.
For anyone who can stand the heat, humidity, mosquitoes and other downsides, it offers a lovely mix of quiet living, a nice climate, and ample sunshine to enjoy wildlife and the outdoors.
We hope you enjoyed this guide to things to do in Bonita Springs. Please let us know if we left anything out!

domain: geography


text:
Chef Steven Fouts was born in San Pedro, California and raised in Roseburg, Oregon. His passion growing up was skateboarding and cooking. His grandmother peaked his cooking interest at a young age. She taught him cooking techniques that he incorporates in his work today.
Steven moved to Hawaii at the age of 19. His cooking career started as a dishwasher at a Mexican restaurant in Honolulu. In developing his career further, he took other positions around Hawaii from Wolfgang’s Steakhouse in Waikiki to Gordon Biersch Brewery at Aloha Tower. His skills and leadership landed him a position at Michele’s at the Colony Surf for 5 years.
Given the opportunity to run the kitchen at Safehouse was a key step in Steven’s cooking career. He put all his knowledge and creative instincts into a menu featuring Mexican- American influenced cuisine with French techniques to share with the people of Hawaii and visitors from around the world.

domain: food


text:
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Have you watered down your impact?
Post written by Jane Hunt, former inaugural CEO at Fitted for Work. ‘We hold ourselves back in ways both big and small, by lacking self-confidence, by not raising our hands, and by pulling back when we should be leaning in’ Sheryl Sandberg, Facebook COO Torn. That is what I felt when I read Sheryl Sandberg’s quote. […]


text:
Purpose: To study the time course of retinopathy of prematurity (ROP) regression and reactivation after treatment with intravitreal ranibizumab or laser in the ranibizumab compared with laser therapy for the treatment of infants born prematurely with ROP trial.
Design: Post hoc analysis of a randomized, clinical trial.
Subjects: A total of 225 infants (448 eyes) were randomized to ranibizumab 0.2 mg (n = 74, 148 eyes), ranibizumab 0.1 mg (n = 77, 152 eyes), and laser (n = 74, 148 eyes).
Methods: Features of disease regression were measured using time-to-event analysis per eye, corrected for within-subject association. Analyses of disease reactivation and additional treatments were descriptive.
Main outcome measures: Median time to regression of plus disease, stage 3 ROP, aggressive posterior (AP)-ROP to 24-week follow-up and disease reactivation and first additional treatment to 2-year follow-up.
Results: The median times to regression after ranibizumab 0.2 mg vs. laser were as follows: plus disease, 4 vs. 16 days (P < 0.001); stage 3 ROP, 8 vs. 16 days (P = 0.004); and AP-ROP, 7.3 vs. 22 days (P = 0.03). Results for ranibizumab 0.1 mg were similar to those for 0.2 mg, with a median of 4, 9, and 8 days, respectively. Additional treatments were given in 34 (25%) of 138 eyes after laser and 40 (27%) of 146 and 42 (28%) of 152 eyes after 0.2 mg and 0.1 mg ranibizumab, respectively. Incomplete disease regression requiring additional treatment occurred in 30 (22%) of 138 eyes after laser after a median interval of 15 days compared with 11 (8%) of 146 and 9 (6%) of 152 after 0.2 mg and 0.1 mg ranibizumab after a median interval of 21 and 13 days, respectively. Retinopathy of prematurity reactivation requiring additional treatment occurred in 3 (2%) of 138 eyes after laser after a median interval of 43 days compared with 22 (15%) of 146 and 26 (17%) of 152 after 0.2 and 0.1 mg ranibizumab after a median interval of 53.5 (maximum, 105) and 54.5 days (maximum, 128), respectively.
Conclusions: Intravitreal 0.2 or 0.1 mg ranibizumab induced a faster regression of plus disease, stage 3 ROP, and AP-ROP than laser did. Ranibizumab was associated with fewer additional treatments for incomplete disease regression but more for disease reactivation.
Trial registration: ClinicalTrials.gov NCT02375971.
Keywords: anti-VEGF treatment; infant; preterm; randomized controlled trial; retinopathy of prematurity.
Copyright © 2022 American Academy of Ophthalmology. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

domain: medical


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5 Critical KPI’s For Measuring Live Video Success
When it comes to judging the performance of a live corporate video event such as a CEO town hall, success can be a subjective thing.
If you’re the CEO, a successful event might be one where you felt like you delivered the message you wanted to convey in a way that felt authentic yet polished. For the IT team, a successful event is one that went off without any technical glitches or crashes mid-presentation. And for the comms team, success might not be able to be judged until they see changes in employee sentiment or behavior.
It’s obviously important that all stakeholders feel good about how an event was handled as a performance and a task. But after the camera is off and high-fives are exchanged, there’s a wealth of hard data every team should be collecting to measure and prove their event’s success.
With an analytics platform like Kollective IQ, you can look at a number of key performance indicators to understand how your event performed, how you can improve future events, and the return your company is receiving on its live video investment. While Kollective IQ lets users dig into the unique metrics that matter most to each specific organization, these are the five most important KPIs that every comms and IT team should be monitoring:
1. UNIQUE EVENT VIEWS
2. AVERAGE VIEW DURATION
4. BUFFERING TIME
5. PEERING EFFICIENCY
Kollective for Microsoft 365
Kollective scales and secures your network for the modern workplace.
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Watch part two
Filmmaker: Veronica McCarthy
When you see the words 'Wan Smol Bag' written down they do not seem to make much sense. But said by a Pacific Islander they become crystal clear.
Wan Smol Bag is a theater company on the Islands of Vanuatu.
Tourists see a tropical and happy paradise but turn the postcard over and you will find a different Vanuatu.
Many of the Islanders live in slums, they face unemployment, alcohol and drug abuse, a worrying HIV infection rate and domestic violence.
They don't have access to clean water and hospitals, health care, electricity and infrastructure.
The average age for these Islanders is 23 but few can read or write, and even fewer own radios or televisions.
Which is why the Wan Smol Bag theater company is such an effective means of communication.
They weave strong social messages into their plays to educate as well as to entertain. And now they are turning their attention to health and environmental issues, too.
Filmmaker Veronica McCarthy met the man behind the company and some of the actors were pulling some surprising tricks out of Wan Smol Bag.


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Borders council urged to declare climate emergency
Extinction Rebellion activists are calling on Scottish Borders Council to follow the lead of all but one of its neighbours and declare a climate emergency.
Around 20 members of the protest group gathered outside the council’s Newtown headquarters last Thursday, October 31, holding placards and handing out leaflets to elected members attending that day’s full council meeting.
The leaflets contained an open letter to councillors saying: “Scottish Borders Council’s decision to embed sustainable development in its strategies, policies and services is commendable but does not go far enough to combat the dangers we face.
“The 2018 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change report is stark and terrifying. It warns that global warming must be limited to 1.5C by 2030. We are already at 1.1C.
“It warns that the consequences of missing the 1.5C target will be devastating and irreversible and urges rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.
“We urge you to declare a climate emergency and your intention to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to net-zero by 2025, with policies appropriate to the task, as a matter of urgency.
“You say you will encourage community engagement. This must be active and sustained. It should begin by telling the truth about the emergency.”
Speaking at the rally, activist Kate Duncan, of Paxton in Berwickshire, said: “We thought we’d try to get councillors, as we are Extinction Rebellion, to declare a climate emergency.
“We’ve spoken to quite a lot. Some are very sympathetic, but some I can only describe as total climate deniers.
“The council could do a lot. Once you declare a climate emergency, you have to act on it. It’s not just empty words.
“What they have done is in August they set up a committee to embed sustainable development in all their policies.
“We have sent all of them a letter this morning, urging them to declare an emergency and to think first of all of traffic.
“Carbon from traffic causes about 50% of emissions in rural areas, even though we only have 17% of the population.
“Fuel poverty has a much higher incidence in rural areas too, so they need to deal with that for the sake of the health of the people here, but also so we’re not using fossil fuels to heat badly-insulated houses.
“We need to do something about that. We need to retrofit houses and to ensure that new ones are built to decent, high-insulation standards.”
Scottish Borders Council and Midlothian Council are the only local authorities in the wider Edinburgh and South Scotland city region yet to declare a climate emergency, with Edinburgh, East Lothian, West Lothian, Dumfries and Galloway and Fife’s already having done so.
South of the border, Northumberland County Council and Carlisle City Council have declared a climate emergency, although Cumbria County Council hasn’t.
In response to the protesters’ demands, council leader Shona Haslam said: “The council has recently established a sustainability committee, which will consider how as a council we can best respond to the challenges that we are facing. “The United Nations has sent out 17 goals in relation to sustainable development, only one of which is the climate.
“As a council, we want to make sure that we are focused on all 17. These include eradicating poverty and tackling housing provision, as well as climate change.
“We completely acknowledge that we are facing a crisis in terms of our climate in our own lifetime but want to make sure that other equally demanding needs are also being considered.
“It is not that we refuse to declare a climate emergency, but we want the focus to be on what we can do positively, acknowledging that we all have a responsibility to improve how we use all of our earth’s resources in a sustainable way.
“We all have a responsibility to recycle more, to use plastic less, to decrease our carbon footprint and act in a sustainable way.
“The how we do this is more important than making declarations, so judge us by our actions and not by our words. That is what we are focused on.
“Take Peebles High School as an example. We have removed the sale of plastic bottles from the school, removed single-use cutlery and takeaway cartons, increased recycling opportunities, provided food waste bins for all staff members and increased the number of water fountains in the school.
“We are aiming for the new Jedburgh Grammar Campus to be one of the first plastic-free schools in Scotland.
“We have reduced the number of miles of staff travel by 250,000 miles last year, and we now send no waste to landfill. All of it goes for recycling or incineration and produces energy for 25,000 homes.”
Tweeddale West councillor Heather Anderson added: “I warmly welcome the focus Extinction Rebellion are bringing to this critical issue.
“I was delighted by the formation of a sustainable development committee, and hopefully this committee will enable us to work with Extinction Rebellion and other community groups to ensure we reduce our greenhouse gas emissions.
“We can now ensure this is addressed by the sustainable development committee and we can begin to ensure we undertake an annual carbon audit.”

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Molds have been used to shape glass objects since ancient times. During the New Kingdom (1555-1090 B.C.) Egyptians appear to have made cast figures and fused inlays in molds. Casting by the lost wax method in two-piece, baked clay molds; fusing small canes of glass in clay molds; and sagging a circular disc of glass over a convex clay mold were methods of shaping glass used by glassworkers in the second half of the first century B.C.
The invention of the blowpipe about 50 B.C. revolutionized glassmaking, enabling glass to be mass produced. Almost immediately after the blowpipe’s discovery, glass appears to have been blown into a mold. The use of molds made possible the production of repetitive pieces of similar shape, size and design. These molds were made of baked clay and probably also of wood and metal. Simple cup-shaped molds, called dip molds, with their hollow interiors either plain or inscribed with ribs, were the first blow molds employed. The glassblower inserted a gather of molten glass into the mold and blew to inflate it against the walls of the mold. In this way the shape and design of the mold were impressed on the hot glass. After withdrawing the inflated gather, the blower would fashion the rest of the vessel with hand tools.
Complicated shapes and designs required more than one piece to a mold so that the inflated vessel could be withdrawn from the mold without distorting the pattern. Two-piece, three-piece and even five-piece molds were developed to aid in extracting the vessel from the mold.
Blown glass vessels of the first century A.D. were so common during the Roman Empire that even the middle and lower classes could afford them. Probably the most recognized Roman glassblower of mold-blown vessels was Ennion, who had carved into the design of his mold the words, “Ennion made it. Let the buyer remember.” His inscription is believed to be the earliest known maker’s name impressed from a mold.
Nothing is known about just who made the molds for these early glassworkers. Possibly the glassmakers made their own molds or used molds produced for them by local potters.
With the fall of the Roman Empire and the Dark Ages that followed, most glassmaking ventures ceased to exist. Small glass factories survived in the German forests and probably employed wooden molds during this period.
The revival of glassmaking at the end of the Middle Ages was centered around Venice. By the 15th century, pattern molds were being used in Venice and elsewhere on the Continent. Besides ceramic and wooden molds, copper and brass molds were also employed. By the 17th century, iron molds were in use in England. Jean Haudicquer de Blancourt in his book The Art of Glass, translated into English in 1699, also mentions the use of marble molds.The glassworkers employed at the first glass ventures in the Colonies were immigrants from the Continent and England. They brought with them their knowledge of glassmaking, which also included the use of molds. Wood, clay and metal molds were utilized. Two-piece hinged part-size metal molds with patterns such as diamonds carved into their hollow interiors were used by the early glassworkers at Stiegel and Amelung to produce diamond flasks and small tableware items.
The names of the makers of these early Colonial molds remain unknown. Every glass factory required skilled workers who had knowledge of ceramics and could fashion the clay pots used for melting glass. The pot maker would have had the know-how to create a clay mold. To operate a glass factory the skills of a blacksmith were also required to fabricate blowpipes and tools; the blacksmith would also have had the ability to make a mold. If the glass factory did not have its own blacksmith or metal worker, a local one could have been employed.
By the early 19th century, full-size two-piece brass and iron molds were utilized to make bottles and flasks. Full-size molds fashioned the entire body of the bottle, including the shoulders and neck. The only hand finishing required by the glassblower was that necessary to complete the mouth of the container. Bottle after bottle could be produced in uniform shape, size and capacity, with or without ornamentation. The shape of the bottle no longer depended upon the glassblower’s skill.
Full-size molds with three or more pieces were developed for containers of more complex shape. During the 1820s lightweight decorative tablewares that imitated cut glass designs called Blown Three Mold were blown into full-size molds of three or more parts.
The mechanical pressing of glass into molds, a process introduced in the late 1820s, revolutionized the glass industry. The first patents issued for this new process were for furniture knobs. Exactly what these early furniture knob molds looked like is not known because the Patent Office fire of 1836 destroyed the records. Probably they were simple one- or two-piece molds with a plunger. A gob of glass was sheared off the end of a gathering rod and dropped into the mold. The plunger was then forced into the mold by means of a hand lever, impressing the pattern of the mold into the soft glass.
The molds were probably cast in a local foundry proximate to the glass factory. Cast iron had become the preferred metal for molds by the early 19th century. It was more durable than soft brass. Iron casting was considered the premier technology of the Industrial Revolution and made mass production possible.
This new technology of mechanical pressing eliminated the jobs of skilled glassblowers. Semi-skilled laborers could press glass into the molds, and improved mold designs gradually replaced most hand decorating and finishing. The moldmakers, with their metalworking skills and problem-solving abilities, were now essential to the glass industry and indispensable for a factory’s success.
As time passed, larger glass factories found the need to start their own mold departments. Moldmakers were required not only to carve new designs into molds but also to keep the company’s expensive investment in molds in working order. Small companies depended on ordering molds from private moldmakers, who had set up business in the major towns of Philadelphia, Pittsburgh and Boston. Even companies with their own mold departments often found it necessary to order molds from the independent moldmakers.
Improvements in mold design and more efficient presses steadily continued with innovative patents by moldmakers. In 1903, Michael Owens patented the fully automatic bottle-blowing machine, which, like the blowpipe in 50 B.C. and the mechanical press in 1825, changed the glass industry forever. The automatic machine eliminated the jobs of the glassblower and his team, but it did not do away with the need for molds and moldmakers. The moldmaker was still essential to these newly automated glass factories. Molds were adapted for attachment to the machinery, but basically they were the same two-piece cast iron molds. Two different molds were utilized to make a container. The first was used for pressing the molten gob into the basic shape called a blank; this blank was then transferred into another mold, into which air was blown to inflate the container.
Today, molds are essentially made the same as they were over 100 years ago. Cast iron is still the preferred metal, with stainless steel often used for the plunger. Small hand shops often employ lightweight aluminum molds, which are easier to handle and less expensive. Mold shops employ computers and duplicating lathes, making the moldmaker’s job easier, but these artisans are still essential to the glass companies’ success.
The first molds used by 18th century Colonial glassworkers were dip molds with an interior shaped like a deep cup. These one-piece part-size open molds were made from clay, stone, wood and metal. Blowing into a dip mold helped impart uniform shape to the body of the article produced. The shoulders and the neck of the bottle had to be fashioned by manipulation with hand tools. Flat-sided bottles, such as gin bottles or snuff bottles, were blown into a paneled dip mold similar to a soapstone mold which was previously part of the collection of Ed Pieffer.
Simple designs of ribs or flutes were carved into dip molds, creating optical designs on the glass blown into them. The interior of the ribbed dip mold tapered inward slightly from top to bottom allowing for easy removal of the inflated gob. Using these decorated dip (today called “optic”) molds was an inexpensive way to ornament glassware. Two of three molds believed to be the earliest known American molds are a 16-rib dip cast iron mold and a 20-rib dip cast iron mold attributed to the New Geneva Glass Works, dating from about 1798 to 1847. Illustrated in American Glass by George and Helen McKearin, the molds are now in the collection of The Corning Museum of Glass.
The New Geneva 20-rib mold was probably used to decorate many different articles. A bowl with 20 ribs attributed to New Geneva and also in the Corning collection could presumably have been produced in this very mold.
Ribbed, or optic, molds were favorites of glassblowers. They could be as simple as a circle of nails pounded into a board or as involved and as decorative as a deep cast iron 18-rib optic mold used by Emil Larson. The glassblower could also use the rib mold to hold fine cooled rods of colored glass in the flutes. The hot gob of glass would be inserted into the mold and inflated, bonding the rods to the bubble’s surface. The article could then be fashioned to contain stripes or swirls of color.
More involved designs required more than one piece to a mold. Removing an inflated gob from a rib mold was easily done because the inflated ribs remained vertical and consistent with the ridges in the mold. A blown bubble in a diamond design could not be easily removed because the inflated matrix of lines would distort upon removal, coming into contact with the crossed ridges inside the mold. Small two-piece part-size pattern molds were used by many early American tableware manufacturers. Using pattern molds was again an inexpensive way to texture and give design to a one-colored glass article.
An example of a diamond pattern mold is the small two-piece brass mold, also from the New Geneva Glass Works and also dating from about 1797 to 1847. Sometimes referred to as a waffle mold, the mold was closed around the gob of glass, which the glassblower then inflated to impress the diamond decoration on the glass. When removed from the small mold, the glass was then fashioned into the desired article.
Pattern molds can have more than two parts. The use of three or more pieces to the mold made the inflated gather even easier to remove. A seam line was also impressed on the gather, corresponding to where the two or more sides of the mold met when closed. This line was often obliterated when the decorated bubble was expanded and shaped.
Part-size molds, both dip and pattern piece molds, are used by glassblowers today. Their versatility makes them important tools in every hand glass operation.
Full-size molds, used to shape the entire article, have been utilized since the 1st century A.D. Full-size two-piece molds with no interior decoration were usually made from hard fruit woods. They were used extensively by early American glass factories as a cheap way to fashion containers of uniform shape. A log of hard wood was split, then carved out and smoothed into the shape desired. When used by the glassblower, the wooden block was kept wet but would begin to char and burn, producing a steam layer which actually helped smooth the molten glass.
To use a full-size piece mold, the glassblower had to stand above the mold on a step, or the mold was placed in a pit in the factory floor. Another worker, called a “mold boy,” was needed to open and close the mold. The glassblower swung the gob of glass into the open mold, which was then closed around the glass by the mold boy. The blower then inflated the gob, all the while spinning the blowpipe slowly in his hands so that the glass was not sticking to the wooden mold and burning it. The experienced glassblower knew when the inflated gob was ready to be removed, and he tapped his foot as a signal to the mold boy to open the mold.The mouth of the container still needed to be finished. A small, solid pontil rod was attached to the bottom of the vessel, and the blowpipe was then removed from the neck of the piece. Hand tools were used to complete the rim of the mouth. No seam lines appear on these containers where the two mold parts met. By spinning the blowpipe, the glassblower had smoothed away any seam lines.
Wooden full-size hinge molds were inexpensive and easy to make. Their drawback, of course, was that they did eventually burn so much that the original internal shape was no longer intact and they had to be discarded. They were utilized to make bottles, vases, pitchers and so on. They were also used by cut glass companies to produce the blank forms that were then to be cut. Several of the wooden molds used by C. Dorflinger & Sons are in the Dorflinger Glass Museum collection.
A two-piece, full-size metal mold with interior decoration was used in the United States as early as 1809 for producing a Dr. Robertson’s medicine bottle for the Philadelphia druggist Thomas N. Dyott, M.D. made the mold and where the small bottles were manufactured are not definitely known. It is presumed that these medicines were blown at the old Kensington Glass Works of Philadelphia and later at the Olive Glass Works in Glassboro, New Jersey, in which, by his own account, Dr. Dyott owned an interest by 1815.
Small irregular-shaped, lettered medicine vials had been produced in full-size two-piece molds in England during the 18th century. Dr. Dyott is credited with the first large-scale use of full-size two-piece molds at his Kensington Glass Works and probably his Olive Glass Works. In 1831, Dr. Dyott’s Kensington factory, called Dyottville, had a mold house.
The use of two-piece metal hinge molds steadily spread until it became commonplace by the 1830s. They were not only used for consistency of shape but also because they could retain carved decoration and lettering. Brass and iron were the metals used. Of the two, iron was the more durable. The melting point of brass was very close to the temperature of molten glass. A brass mold could become so hot that it expanded, causing distortions in the desired design.
Probably the most important mold discovery in recent years is one half of a brass figured portrait flask mold. The mold part was discovered by Joseph Fliegel of Ashford, Connecticut, while exploring the banks of the Willamantic River, near the Mansfield Railroad Depot in 1968. The mold half’s interior depicts Lafayette in profile with the word “LAFAYETTE” in a semicircle above his head. Below the bust is a semicircle with the word “COVETRY” above “C-T.” Covetry is a misspelling of Coventry.
The comparatively scarce flask listed by the McKearins as GI-85 was produced by the Stebbins and Stebbins Coventry Glass Works of Coventry, Connecticut, by late 1824 or early 1825. The reverse design of the flask is an oval frame enclosing the French Liberty Cap on a pole with a semicircle of eleven five-pointed stars above the oval frame. Below the frame are the initials S & S for the firm’s name, Stebbins and Stebbins.
Attached to the back of the brass mold half is a cast iron triangular plate with a handle. The handle is slightly curved with a ring on the end. This iron plate and handle are badly corroded from long exposure to the elements. To attach the handle plate, the moldmaker or worker riveted through the brass with three cast iron tacks. The three corroded rivets are clearly noticeable on the interior of the mold.
Interestingly, two flasks can be found that correspond to this mold half. Lafayette GI-85 flasks with indentations corresponding exactly to the rivets’ position, as well as flasks of the same design without the indentations, are in many glass collections. Presumably, the handle was a later attachment. Why was a new handle necessary? Why mount the handle with rivets that altered the bottle’s surface? Answers to these questions we may never know.
A narrow band of cast iron, also corroded, was attached to the inside of the neck of the mold. Apparently, this attachment was to make the neck narrower. This is an interesting repair, illustrating how the stronger cast iron was utilized to keep the neck diameter constant.
Another important question is how did this mold open and close? It has no hinge on the bottom or side. The interior edge of the mold had four 3/4-inch long and 1/4-inch deep indentations. In all probability the missing half of the mold had four projections that corresponded to the indentations. What purpose did the ring on the end of the handle serve? The bottom of the mold has a hole with screw threads, suggesting that the part may have been mounted into a frame that controlled the opening and closing. The part also could conceivably have been mounted on a separate, detachable hinge.
More than a half-dozen retired and working mold-makers have inspected this mold. All were intrigued with the piece and puzzled about its closing. None came to a positive conclusion. Nevertheless, these questions do not diminish the importance of this mold.
We know that in at least one instance brass was definitely used to produce a figured historical flask. Cast iron was used in conjunction with the brass for a handle attachment and a neck repair. We also know that one example, a two-piece full-size mold, did not necessarily rely on a simple hinge to facilitate opening and closing.
Eight historical and pictorial bottle molds dating from 1850 to 1870 are in the collection of the Philadelphia Museum of Art. The molds were collected in 1901 and 1906 by Edwin Atlee Barber, then curator of the Philadelphia Museum and School of Industrial Art, with the cooperation of John Perkins Whitney, president of the Whitney Glass Works in Glassboro, New Jersey.
Three of these rare bottle molds were borrowed for this exhibition. All three are cast iron, two-piece molds with bottom hinges. This type of mold is variously called a bottom hinge, foot pedal or treadle mold and was used from 1810 into the 1880s. One half of the mold was bolted to the floor or side wall of a pit and attached to a lever or treadle with a foot pedal. The blower stood above the mold, controlling the opening and closing of the unbolted half of the mold by stepping on the pedal. Bottom hinge molds could also have one half of the mold bolted to the floor or pit wall and the other half controlled by the glassblower by means of a rod he held in his hand.
The Old Sachem Bitters and Wigwam Tonic mold from the Philadelphia Museum of Art collection not only is an excellent example of a two-piece bottom hinge mold, it also is marked on its exterior with the moldmaker’s name. The interior design of the mold is barrel motif, which was a popular design for bitters bottles. Between the upper and lower horizontal ribbed area is a smooth band on which the name of the bottle is inscribed. Attached to the back of the inscribed side of the mold is a handle and on the back of the other side is the bolt attachment used to secure the mold to the pit wall or treadle. On top of the bottom hinge is a round disc attached to the bottom of one side of the mold. It slides into the bottom of the mold’s opposite side to form a round concave base to the bottle.
On the exterior of one half of the Old Sachem mold is the moldmaker’s name, “George Mathewmann,” and his address, “55 First Street, Williamsburgh”. Miriam Mucha, Special Assistant, American Art Department of the Philadelphia Museum of Art, located Mr. Mathewmann in census and business directories as having maintained a moldmaking business in Williamsburg (Brooklyn) from 1856 to 1868.
Probably one of the most recognizable American bottles is the famous E.G. Booz Log Cabin bottle dating from 1860 to 1870. The two-part mold is a remarkable example of the problem solving skills of moldmakers. So that no visible seam lines ran down the walls of the building, the cabin was designed along a diagonal with the mold seams corresponding to the corners of the walls. The bottom hinge seam runs diagonally from corner to corner. The bottom hinge and center push up disc are independent of each other forming a rocking pin which helped the glassblower remove the irregular shaped bottle from the mold. The mold originally had sharp roof corners. The corners were filled in because of the difficulty of controlling the thickness of the glass in the high, sharp portions of the mold.
The third mold from the Philadelphia Museum of Art was chosen because it illustrates a major repair of a mold. The two-piece Calabash flask mold produced the Jenny Lind/Huffsey Glass Works flask GI-99. One half of the mold has a bust of Jenny Lind surrounded by two laurel branches and bears her name above the arched branches. The reverse is incised with the inscription “Glass Work’s” above a glasshouse with “S. Huffsey” carved beneath.
Examination of the exterior of the glasshouse leaf reveals the alteration in the mold. A plug with the inscribed word “Glass” had been bolted to the mold, filling a hole that had been cut to remove the old misspelled word beneath. Also on the inside of the leaf the letter “G” above the smokestack had been filled in but is still visible. What word or words had been removed?
Again Miriam Mucha did research, which revealed that the mold had actually been altered three times. The mold has been attributed to the Philadelphia moldmaker Philip Doflein, who has been credited with originating the Calabash (gourd shape) flask design. The mold, when first designed, had no lettering; only two related unlettered flasks are known. The mold was then inscribed, probably by Doflein for the Millford Glass Works of Millford (today Kresson), New Jersey, between 1846-1853. “Millford” was misspelled as “Millfora” in the mold. Nevertheless, flasks were produced from the mold. When the company’s assets went for sale in 1855, it is believed that Samuel Huffsey purchased the mold and had it altered with his name, probably by Doflein. The word “Millfora” was removed and replaced by a plug engraved with the word “Glass,” the “G” filled in and “S. Huffsey” inscribed below the factory building.
These alterations reveal several important clues about molds and moldmaking. As stated earlier, it is Philadelphia moldmaker Philip Doflein (working from 1842 to 1899), and not a glass company designer or customer, who is credited with designing the new bottle shape called the Calabash. A mold was a considerable investment for a glass factory because even though the company’s name was misspelled, the company still put the mold into production. Thirdly, it must have cost considerably less to have a skilled moldmaker alter a mold than to have your own mold design produced.
All three of the cast iron molds from the Philadelphia Museum of Art have very narrow walls. They range from 3/8 inch to 3/4 inches in thickness. Thin metal walls got hot very quickly and had to be cooled often, slowing down production. The walls were probably purposely kept thin on bottom hinge molds so that the glassblower could easily operate the treadle or foot pedal. Eventually, thicker walls that maintained even heat became the standard for bottle molds.
Another small bottom hinge mold included in the exhibit is an eight-panel inkwell. Marked on the bottom rocking hinge disc is the initial of the Whitall Tatum Company of Millville, New Jersey. Whitall Tatum opened its own mold shop in 1854.
Virtually all free blowing of bottles was eliminated in America with the development of the two-piece mold, which was being used to produce tableware by 1825. Glass company owners and moldmakers were constantly trying to develop new molds that would increase production and decrease expenses.
Probably the most revolutionary invention that first used more than two pieces to a mold was designed by Henry Ricketts of Bristol, England, in 1821. The mold consisted of an upper part of two pieces that formed the shoulder and part of the neck. The lower section of the mold was a cylinder with an open space in the bottom for the mechanical punty. The entire mold and apparatus was mounted in a frame and placed in a pit. It operated by means of a foot pedal. The invention guaranteed the production of bottles of identical shape and size. The addition of an engraved ring to the bottom of the mold, made it possible to emboss the manufacturer’s name on the bottom of the bottle. This type of mold was quickly adopted by glassblowers and used well into the 1920s.
Little changed in the production of bottles until the early 1860s brought the introduction of the snap case. This new tool, a rod with either a spring device or simple can attached to its end, was used to hold the bottom of the bottle while the neck was finished. The snap case increased bottle production by eliminating the pontil and its rough mark.
The design of bottle molds remained the same until 1869. Homer Brooke, a Brooklyn moldmaker, patented a mold with a side hinge and a base plate. The base plate had a pedestal which formed the bottom of the bottle as the side pieces closed around it. This new mold design virtually eliminated the bottom hinge mold. A mold boy opened and closed the mold while sitting in a pit or on a stool. The walls of the mold could now become thicker, so that the heat was evenly dispersed.
Another important improvement in bottle molds was patented by Gustavus Storm of Philadelphia in 1875. He patented the design of a removable plate that could be engraved with personalized lettering. The bottle shape stayed the same but the plates could be changed for different customers. The interchangeable plate attached to the mold with a bolt in a manner almost identical to that used in the repair of the Millfora flask. The process for using removable plates had been used in molds for some time; Storm’s patent made it more convenient. An example of an interchangeable plate or slug plate mold is the cylindrical jar with opening for an oval lettering plate.
Personalized bottles for patent medicines and pharmacies were a major part of the production of bottle glass factories. Having a personalized mold produced was an expensive proposition for a pharmacy. With the Storm patent, the customer had to pay only the cost of the slug or lettering plate. Shapes of bottles became standardized to fit many of these plates. The Whitall Tatum Company of Millville, New Jersey, offered its clients in 1880 over 68 different designs of lettering plates.
Another type of two-piece blow mold is a “Paste Mold”. The name refers to thin-walled iron molds with an inner paste-like lining that allows the glass to be revolved during the blowing, eliminating all seams. The paste was usually made of resin, which was brushed onto the interior of a hot mold and then sprinkled with a carbonizing material such as sawdust or cork. The mold had to be baked to fuse the paste to its interior surface. Minimizing the wear on the metal, the paste consequently prolonged the mold’s life.
Paste molds were usually utilized in making chemical wares, chimneys and bottles. The mold was thoroughly saturated with water before each piece was blown. An inflated gather was inserted into the wet mold, and the mold was closed by the mold boy. As the blower blew the glass gob to conform with the closed mold’s walls, he continuously twirled the blowpipe. The wet lining formed a steam cushion when it came in contact with the molten glass, smoothing the surface. These molds had to be pasted every few hours.
More complicated blow molds were developed but basically the concept of how the mold worked stayed the same. More parts were added to a mold depending upon the complexity of the container’s design. Remarkably, probably one of the most complicated molds ever produced was saved from the scrap metal collection drives of World War II and is in the collection of the Museum of American Glass. The mold produced a building inkwell which was sold as a souvenir at the 1876 Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia. The building is Memorial Hall, the only Centennial Exposition building still standing in Fairmount Park. The intricate mold was designed by Emil Herckner at the Whitall Tatum Company in Millville. Eight movable parts make up the building’s walls and roof, and a large plate forms the base. Four top pieces form the complicated roof line and columns. Four side pieces shape the walls with incised window designs. The large bottom plate is marked “Patent April 11, 1876.” It had to be an extremely skilled glassblower who blew these bottles. He had to hold the inflated bottle in position while the mold boy opened the complicated parts so that the bottle could be removed from the mold.
The automatic bottle blowing machine patented by Michael Owens in 1903 eliminated the need for skilled glassblowers. Owens’ machine utilized a two mold process. The first was used to form the general shape of the bottle called a blank. This blank was then placed into a second mold, into which air was forced in order to inflate the blank to conform with its walls. The machine manipulated and transferred the glass, eliminating the need for glassblowers or mold boy. The machine controlled every aspect of fashioning the desired container.
Cast iron molds were made for the automatic machine by the same moldmakers who had made the blow molds for glassblowers. These new molds did not need handles or hinges because the machine controlled all movement. Owens’ machine may have replaced the job of a glassblower but it could not displace the moldmaker and his molds.
The United States is credited with the invention of the mechanical pressing of glass into molds in 1825, revolutionizing glassmaking by making possible the mass production of glassware. This new process eliminated the need for an expert glassblower to fashion a piece of glassware. An unskilled laborer could be trained in a few weeks to become a good presser. The technology utilized to produce blow molds was adapted to make press molds.
Pressing, forcing glass into a mold, had been used by ancient Egyptians in the 14th century B.C. to make small figurines. Over three millennia later, glass stoppers and drops for chandeliers were pinched in small hand presses in 18th century Europe and America. A similar tool to these pincers is a hand tool that fashions a walnut-shaped ball which could then be applied as decoration to a vessel.
Pressed bases used as feet for wines or as pedestals for vases and bowls were produced in England and America in the 18th century. Called “lemon-squeezer” bases, these supports were long thought to have been made by hand tools similar to the stopper pincers. Ken Wilson recently proved that these bases were pressed into a square mold with a hand tool that produced the domed ridged hollow interior.
Where and exactly when the table press with plunger, lever and mold was invented is not known. The Patent Office fire of 1836 obliterated much of the record. What record is left lists a patent for glass furniture knobs by John P. Bakewell of Pittsburgh on September 9, 1825. Most authorities credit Bakewell with the first pressing patent, even though the record never mentions pressing. Subsequent patents mentioned pressing into molds.
These furniture knob or door knob molds were probably very simple, made of one or two pieces. The molten glass was dropped into the mold, into which a plunger operated by a lever was driven. The plunger forced the glass into the interior recesses forming the door knob shape. There was no standardization of molds and presses in the different glasshouses that adopted this novel process in the late 1820s. Each press was more or less unique.
Subsequent patents were issued to individuals for improvements in molds and manufacture. On October 16, 1827, Phineas C. Dummer of Jersey City received a patent on the construction and use of a mold with a core for pressing glass into various useful forms containing a coverplate called a Dummer’s scallop. This coverplate very likely could have been a cap ring or rim, a significant contribution to mold development. The cap ring fit on top of the mold preventing the glass from overflowing the edge of the mold. On the same day a second patent for pressing was issued to Phineas C. Dummer, George Dummer and Joseph Maxwell. To date, only two pressed glass pieces, both salts, have been attributed to the Dummer firm.
Small cup plates were produced in several different ways, varying from right side up with the design carved on the bottom of the mold to upside down in a smooth mold with the design engraved on the bottom of the plunger. Depending upon the particular mold design employed, small fins of glass remained around the edge of the dish. The cap ring, which sat on the top of the mold, was engraved with the rim design and helped to confine the molten glass within the mold. By the 1830s, designers and moldmakers had realized that cap rings and plungers of different patterns could be interchanged while employing the same base mold. Contemporary reproduction cup plates, pressed individually, still utilize the same mold arrangement. The cup plate is pressed upside down into a smooth mold. An interchangeable die engraved with a commemorative motif is tooled to be fitted into the plunger. The scalloped-edged cap ring, sized to the fit top rim of the mold, can be changed to suit the customer.
As the number of glass houses pressing glass increased, so did the number of patented mold designs and improvements in the mechanics of glass presses. As early as 1834, one glass firm, the New England Glass Company of Cambridge, Massachusetts, was operating sixty to seventy glass presses. Hundreds of molds would have been needed to keep the presses in operation. By 1865, Deming Jarves, in his book Reminiscences of GlassMaking, estimated two million dollars had been expended on the molds and machines used for pressed glassmaking.
Molds of two, three, or more parts were developed depending upon the complexity of the desired article’s design. The moldmaker had to address the problem of the mold seams these multiple parts created. Disguising the seam within the pattern was the easiest way to eliminate the lines; consequently, moldmakers patented unorthodox molds with complex parts in order to do away with seams.
Depending upon the desired design, the plunger, which forced the glass into the mold, could be smooth or engraved with a pattern. A striking example of an engraved plunger is the huge plunger which forms the “Holly” motif on a bowl or plate. The design was originated by The Fenton Art Glass Company of Williamstown, West Virginia, and was first marketed in 1911. The mold also utilizes a large cap ring which produces the serrated rim. Important mold designs were patented but few of these innovative molds have survived. We have only the patent drawing to show us the remarkable problem-solving skills of the moldmakers. One mold that has survived is very similar in form to a mold design patented in 1841 by Hiram Dillaway of the Boston & Sandwich Glass Company. The mold pressed a wheel of stoppers by forming a cup, or cog, when the plunger forced the glass into the mold. When cooled, the stoppers were cracked off the cup and the cup was discarded. This mold made producing stoppers more economical.
Another significant mold development introduced during the last quarter of the 19th century was the so-called “cut and shut” mold. Before the invention of this mold design, it was impossible to press an object such as a cruet because of its narrow neck. A press mold could operate only with a plunger that was straight sided or tapered so that the plunger could be easily released from the interior of the mold. A cruet or syrup container was fashioned with a narrow neck that prevented a plunger from exiting the pressed form. These narrow neck containers had to be blown in a mold.
The cut and shut mold pressed a cruet upside down. The end of a tapered plunger shaped both the neck and the narrow opening at the spout. A wide collar of glass was formed at the bottom opening of the cruet. When removed from the mold, the cruet, held in a snap case, was warmed and its open end closed shut. The excess glass was sheared off, leaving a swirled mark, mistaken by many collectors for a pontil mark. Although the cruet had to be closed by hand, the process sped up production, eliminating the need for a skilled glassblower.
Few cut and shut molds survive. One that produces a “Hobnail” cruet is still in operation at The Fenton Art Glass Company. A hard wax form sitting inside the opened mold illustrates how the cruet is formed before it is removed from the mold.
Thousands of molds were designed and patented. As the pressing mold became more intricate, new and better presses were developed. Improvements were also made in the quality of the cast iron. Michael Sweeney of Wheeling, West Virginia, on January 4, 1966, patented the use of chilled iron for glassmaking molds. Developed during the Civil War for cannons, this iron contained chilled iron, which produced a hard, closer-grained metal. This new iron reduced the tendency of molten glass to stick to the mold.
Many moldmakers, such as Hiram Dillaway and Washington Beck, also introduced important press designs. Production was increased with the development of rotary table presses which could hold multiple molds, thus increasing production. Semi-automatic machines were in operation by the 1890s.
After the introduction of the Owens Automatic Bottle Blowing Machine in 1903, automated pressing machines were developed. Just as the glassblowers had been replaced by the machine, so were the pressers and shearers. Molds were developed to be attached to the automatic machine. The machines sheared off the gob of glass into a mold and then mechanically forced the plunger into the mold. All objects could be manufactured from tablewares to insulators to stoppers.The automated machine could also completely control the movement of the plunger. The insulator No. 43 mold, used by the Hemingray Glass Company of Muncie, Indiana, illustrates a fully automated machine mold. The plunger has screw threads embossed on its surface. The plunger, controlled by the machine, was slowly twisted into the mold, impressing the threads on the inside of the insulator.
The men who made the molds have long been overlooked by glass collectors and historians. Little was recorded about these early 19th century workers who helped revolutionize an entire industry. Presumably, the pot makers, essential in every glass factory for constructing the melting pots, fashioned the clay molds. Metal molds of brass or iron were probably manufactured by a blacksmith who either worked for the glass factory making tools or had his own business in the local town. A nearby foundry would also have been relied upon to make these early molds.
Most glass company owners quickly established their own machine shops not only as a way to produce their own molds but also to safeguard against the competition. The majority of the metal workers who worked in these shops are unknown, but their creativity and problem-solving abilities can not be overlooked. Without engineering degrees, they created complex molds and the machinery that controlled the molds.
By the early 19th century the creative center of the glasshouse was now the mold shop. The machinist or moldmaker worked closely with the manager and company owners to develop new equipment. Intense competition resulted in the invention of faster presses with multiple molds to increase production. Every new problem which arose was a challenge for the machinists.
Patent office records reveal the names of many moldmakers associated with glass companies. The list includes Hiram Dillaway of the Boston and Sandwich Glass Company, Joseph Magoun of the New England Glass Company, Daniel Ripley of Ripley & Company, Thomas Atterbury of Atterbury & Company, Robert D. Haines, assignor to the Boston Silver Glass Company, and many more.
Original patent drawings and models created by the mechanical genius Hiram Dillaway have been preserved at the Sandwich Glass Museum. A patent model for a mold with a reservoir that held water which cooled the mold while in operation illustrates Dillaway’s remarkable understanding of the difficulty of working early press molds. A hot mold caused the glass to stick to the walls of the mold, slowing production.
Independent mold shops were opened in the glassmaking centers of Boston, Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, New York and Baltimore by the 1850s. At least two independent moldmakers, Joshua Laird of Pittsburgh and E.M. Bartholomew of Boston, were producing molds in the late 1820s. Smaller glass houses without mold departments ordered their molds from these independent shops. Even larger companies with their own mold shops often could not keep up with their mold needs and also ordered molds.
Pittsburgh, with its iron and steel foundries, had the largest number of independent mold shops. Probably the most prolific of these independent shops was the firm of Washington Beck, which operated from 1859 to 1887 and shipped molds to Canada, Japan and the glassmaking countries of Europe.
Other noted Pittsburgh or Midwest moldmakers who operated independent shops were Henry Franz, William S. McKee, Julius Proeger, Andrew Thompson and Stephen Hipkins. Hipkins established his mold shop in Martins Ferry, Ohio, in 1884 and continued to produce molds until the 1940s. This shop is credited with making molds for more than thirty glass houses.
In Philadelphia, Philip Doflein probably set up the first mold shop in 1842. Recognized for developing the Calabash shape flask, he probably supplied many of the South Jersey bottle factories with molds. Charles Yockel also established a mold shop in this city.
Charles Yockel, first listed as a moldmaker in 1862, was in partnership with John Weidig until he opened his own business in 1875. His sons succeeded him and continued to operate the shop until 1946. Yockel produced presses and predominately molds for the bottle trade.
The interest in Charles Yockel stems from his papers that were saved and dispersed; many of them reside in the manuscript collections of The Corning Museum of Glass, Henry Francis DuPont Winterthur Museum and the Museum of American Glass. Many stationery letterheads of companies that Yockel produced molds for were published by Scott Tyson in 1971. The correspondence reveals not only the prolific nature of Yockel’s business but also the needs, and often demands of his customers. The orders and replies disclose prices and often reveal the length of time it took to produce the molds. Yockel advertised himself as a “Practical machinist and Glass Mould Maker, manufacturer of every description of moulds and presses for the Production of Blown and Pressed Glass.” He also stated that “I have constantly on hand the largest variety of Patterns of Druggist, Perfumers Bottles, Fruit & Pickle Packers, Patent Medicine, Flasks, Demijohns, Liquor Dealers Moulds & C., Table glassware. Kerosene Lamps, Lamp Chimneys, Goblets wine tumblers & C.” In 1891, a Yockel mold catalog noted, “We are the largest mould manufacturers east of Pittsburgh and make more Bottle Molds than any two mould shops in the United States.”
There is much more to be learned from Yockel’s papers. He supplied molds to major glass manufacturers across the country, such as Whitney Glass Works of Glassboro, New Jersey; Union Glass Works of Somerville, Massachusetts; Ellenville Glass Works of Ellenville, New York; Swindell Brothers of Baltimore; Gillinder & Sons of Philadelphia and more. Letters also pertain to business with foundries, other moldmakers, like Washington Beck; and directives from the American Flint Glass Workers Union.
Prices for Yockel molds in 1883 averaged $10.00 for a 3-ounce round or oval bottle mold and $22.00 for an oval quart mold. Lettering plates for molds cost 6 cents per plain block letter and fancy letters cost 10 cents. Standard prices for molds were set in 1891 by Yockel and seven other independent mold shops.
Attempts to unionize glass workers in the United States first began in the 1830s. On January 1, 1879, the American Flint Glass Workers Union was formed and by 1896 the Blowers League was known as the Glass Bottle Blowers Association. The machinists and moldmakers working in glass factories were not organized into these early unions. The average daily wage in Pennsylvania for moldmakers was $2.43 in 1879, $3.19 in 1880, $3.28 in 1881 and $3.33 in 1883. Pressers who operated the molds were making a dollar more per day on the average.
By 1885, moldmakers had gained membership in the American Flint Glass Workers Union. But they were still not well organized in 1911. The Flint Union molds bear the mark “A.F.G.W.U.” The Glass Bottle Blowers Association established a machine and press work department in 1899. Presumably not all independent mold shops unionized. Yockel’s shop in Philadelphia was unionized, but the Husted Hall Mold Works of Bridgeton appears not to have been organized.
The wage for an American Flint Glass Worker Union moldmaker in 1931 was 75 cents per hour. An apprentice earned 15 cents per hour which was the same rate earned by a mold boy who sat opening and closing a mold all day. When President Roosevelt instituted his National Recovery Administration in 1933, wages for moldmakers were raised by 40 cents an hour. During World War II, wages were frozen. After the war in 1946 a moldmaker received $1.15 per hour.
Today, the many jobs once performed by a single moldmaker are divided into separate tasks and separate job descriptions. Machines, like duplicating lathes and computers, have eliminated many responsibilities of the workers; yet even today molds are smoothed individually with files and riffles by vice hands and polished with emory paper by smoothers. Molds are in constant need of repairs which can be performed only by experts. The mold shop for the large Wheaton Glass Company has 80 employees. The mold shop is still the creative center of the glasshouse and critical to the company’s glassmaking process.
MAKING A MOLD
All molds began with a design. Within a glass company, an owner, agent or designer could create an original design, or the design could be supplied by a customer. Independent moldmakers also conceived their own designs from flask forms to uniquely shaped patterned pressed glass. The designer had to have a basic understanding of the material’s limitations when designing in glass. Today, designs are created on computers that detect difficulties in the motifs and adjust them.
The design was then given to the pattern or model maker. A model of the desired article was fashioned in wood. Many important wooden pattern models were saved and are in museum collections. A Plaster of Paris mold was usually made from the model to aid in casting the mold. In early mold shops, moldmakers were also pattern makers. Current models are made of a clear lucite which is durable and glass-like.
The pattern and plaster castings were then sent to the moldmaker. Just who decided how many movable parts were needed to produce the desired article is not definitely known. Probably the designer, pattern maker and moldmaker all worked together to solve the puzzle. Since an early moldmaker was also the pattern maker, he would have decided on the number of hinges and the method of arranging the component parts. In modern factories, the designer provides the moldmakers with blueprints drawn by the computer with the component parts included.
For a simple two-piece blow mold, a mold shop would already have on hand solid cast iron blocks with basic cavities ready to be chipped or carved by the moldmaker. A more involved mold for pressed pattern tableware required that the wooden model or plaster model of the mold to be sent directly to the foundry. A cast metal mold with a rough pattern cavity was made from the models.
Next the castings were then returned to the moldmaker. The mold pieces were shaped, fitted and smoothed. Hinges were machined and fitted with pins. Where each section fitted together, the surfaces were smoothed so they would close as perfectly as possible to eliminate mold seams. Vent holes were drilled through the mold walls where necessary. The mold was now ready to have its pattern carved into its interior cavity.
The finishing work was done by the chipper or vice hand. Chippers were artists who possessed the sculpting skills necessary to carve intaglio designs with chisels, riffles and files. Patience was probably one of the most important requirements for a chipper. Monroe Husted, who presumably worked in the mold shop of McKee Glass Company in Pittsburgh before 1905, drew three drawings of glass patterns he was chipping into molds. Each article of glass drawn also lists the number of hours it took Husted to engrave the designs. A simple punch cup mold in the “Colonial” pattern with garlands took 87 1/2 hours to produce. The second illustration is of an unknown pattern covered butter lid which consumed 378 hours of Husted’s time. The third drawing is of an “Aztec” pattern covered butter lid which took 228 hours to carve.
The McKee Glass Company sold the “Aztec” pattern from 1901 until 1927 and would have required multiple molds of each item to keep the pattern in stock. A McKee “Aztec” covered butter lid mold is in the collection of the Museum of American Glass. In 1953, the mold was sold to John Kemple who used it to produce reproductions. In 1969, the Wheaton Historical Association purchased the Kemple molds. The mold, drawings and reproduction lid illustrate the amount of time and the patience required to shape an intricate pattern into a mold.
When the chipper was finished his tedious task, the mold was virtually ready to be put to use. The plunger was fitted and the mold was then inspected. If all appeared correct, the mold was put into operation. Contemporary mold shops make castings in plastic steel from a lucite model. The cast impression is attached to a duplicating lathe which traces and carves the pattern into a block of cast iron with a similar blank cavity. The duplicated mold is then attached to a multiple duplicating lathe to fabricate several sections at the same time. Manually, vice hands still use riffles or files to smooth the pattern and emory paper to polish the surface. The mold is then inspected and sent to the glasshouse to be put into operation.
Molds have been an integral part of glassmaking since the first century A.D. Their importance has been overlooked for centuries. In the 19th century, molds helped revolutionize glassmaking because of their ability to be used for mass production. The moldmaker had become the creative force in the glasshouse.
Much of the history of molds and their technology has been lost. More research is still needed to better our understanding of molds and their nameless makers. It is hoped that this exhibition will stimulate further scholarship in completing the story of molds.

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