text:
Growth and development cannot take place in an institutional vacuum. Economic maturity and
the growth of markets require an institutional framework that allows transactions to take place
in an orderly manner and in which agents know that the decisions they take and the contracts
they make will be protected by law, and enforced. Savers, investors, consumers, entrepreneurs,
workers and risk-takers of all kinds need a framework of rules if rational, optimizing decisions are
to be made. They also need some guarantee of economic stability and certainty, which can be
provided only by good governance and sound economic policy-making. The alternative to a lack
of property rights, law and order and political stability is economic anarchy – and failed states (see
This chapter deals with the role of formal institutions in general in providing an economic,
political and social environment in which economies can flourish and prosper, and it considers
some of the empirical evidence on the relationship between institutional development and
The role of institutions
The Nobel Prize-winning economist Douglass North first brought to the fore the role of institutions
in economic development. The modern exponents of the ‘primacy of institutions’ are Dani
Rodrik of Harvard University and Daron Acemoglu, Simon Johnson and James Robinson of the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology. North says in his famous book Institutions, Institutional
Change and Economic Performance (1990): I wish to assert a fundamental role for institutions in societies: they are the underlying determinants
of the long-run performance of economies – ThirdWorld countries are poor because
the institutional constraints define a set of pay-offs to political/economic activity that do not
encourage productive activity.
North also said that ‘the inability of societies to develop effective low-cost enforcement
of contracts is the most important source of both historical stagnation and contemporary
underdevelopment in the Third World’, because the absence of secure property and contractual
rights discourages investment and specialization. Mancur Olson (1982) makes the same point in
his classic book The Rise and Decline of Nations (1992).
It is possible to give both general and narrower, more formal, definitions of institutions. North
himself describes institutions very broadly as the ‘formal and informal rules [or norms] governing
human behaviour’. A similar broad definition is given by Lin and Nugent (1995) as ‘a set of
humanly devised behavioural rules that govern and shape the interaction of human beings, in
part by helping them to form expectations of what other people do’. At a more formal, precise
level, institutions can be defined in terms of the extent of property rights’ protection; the degree
to which laws and regulations are fairly enforced; the ability of the government to protect the
individual against economic shocks and to provide social protection, and the extent of political
When economists undertake empirical work on the relation between institutional structure and economic performance, it is of course necessary to have quantitative measures of the important
institutions being discussed and evaluated. Lumping all institutions together in a single index of ‘institutional quality’ would obscure the different channels through which institutions work.
The reason why institutional structures and rules of behaviour are a necessary condition for economic activity to flourish is that incentives and price signals, so vital to amarket economy, cannot function properly without them. As Rodrik (2008) says: ‘markets require institutions because they are not self-creating; self-regulating; self-stabilising, or self-legitimising’. Which institutions are important and which are not will differ across space and time according to the history of a country, its geography, stage of development and its political aspirations, that is, what sort of society its people want. In small rural communities where everyone knows each other, the scope for cheating, fraud and not honouring contracts is limited. Transaction costs associated with the costs of information, negotiation, monitoring, coordination and enforcement of contracts are low, and communities survive by adhering to norms of behaviour; but economic development is limited through a lack of specialization. In contrast, in large, modern, industrial societies, where transactions are impersonal, there is widespread scope for opportunistic behaviour (Bardhan and Udry, 1999). Transactions (and therefore production) costs may be very high without institutional structures that curtail such behaviour, such as the enforcement of property rights and the rule of law, the provision of limited liability, the guarantee of contracts, patent protection and so on.With low transaction costs, firms and markets can concentrate on the job of investment in the knowledge that property rights are secure.
There is no one set of institutions that will suit all countries, but there is a consensus among
development economists that at least five main types of market-supporting institutions are necessary, if not sufficient, conditions for rapid economic progress (see Rodrik, 2000, 2008; Rodrik and Subramanian, 2008).
• property rights and legally binding contracts: market-creating institutions
• regulatory institutions: market-regulating institutions
• institutions for macroeconomic stability: market-stabilizing institutions
• social insurance institutions: market-legitimizing institutions
• institutions of conflict management: market-legitimizing institutions
Rodrik (2000) highlights the following institutional arrangements that are conspicuously absent
in poor countries:
• a clearly defined system of property rights
• a regulatory apparatus curbing the worst forms of fraud, anti-competitive behaviour and moral
• a moderately cohesive society exhibiting trust and social cooperation
• social and political institutions that mitigate risk and manage social conflict
• the rule of law and clean government
These five main prerequisites of a sound institutional structure for economic development are
described briefly below.
Property rights and legally binding contracts. These are important because agents lack the
incentive to invest and innovate if they do not have control over the return on the assets they
accumulate. Intellectual property rights are particularly important to encourage invention. Control
is more important than ownership. Formal property rights do not mean very much if there are not control rights; but control rights can spur entrepreneurial activity without clearly defined property rights (witness China).
Regulatory institutions.Markets fail if there is fraud or anti-competitive behaviour. Regulatory
institutions are needed if markets are to function properly. When markets are liberalized, a regulatory framework is also required to avoid the consequences of risky behaviour, such as financial crises if the banking system is not properly regulated (as the world economy witnessed in 2008).
Institutions to compensate for capital market imperfections and coordination failures must also
be an integral part of a ‘regulatory’ framework for promoting innovation and growth. A good
example of this is the way the state intervened to promote industrial development in Korea and
Taiwan in the 1960s and 1970s. All successful economies have an array of regulatory institutions
that oversee different markets such as the product market, financial markets and the labour market.
Developing countries may need more regulatory institutions because market failures are more
pervasive than in developed countries.
Institutions for macroeconomic stability. Monetary and fiscal policy institutions are necessary
to provide an enabling environment in which private investment can flourish. Market economies are not self-regulating, and macroeconomic instability creates risk and uncertainty. The minimization of risk is vital if entrepreneurs are to take informed, long-term investment decisions.
Financial markets are inherently unstable, which can have damaging real effects, and they
need careful supervision. A central bank, a responsible banking system and fiscal prudence are all
important ingredients of macroeconomic stability.
Social insurance institutions. These are necessary if individuals are to accept change. In rural,
peasant societies on the margins of subsistence, change may spell disaster, but progress (particularlyin agriculture) requires willingness to take risks. Insurance against unemployment, crop
failures and price fluctuations for agricultural commodities are all important if traditional agriculture
is to be transformed. Economic reforms of any type, particularly in the process of liberalizing
markets, will meet resistance if not enough attention is paid to creating social security institutions
to protect the vulnerable. Social stability and cohesion within a market economy in the process
of structural change requires social insurance and safety nets.
Institutions of conflictmanagement.Many developing countries have deep ethnic, tribal and
religious divisions. Social conflict damages economies because it diverts resources from directly
productive activities, and creates uncertainty, which deters investment. To minimize conflict
requires a full range of institutions – the rule of law, a fair legal system, a political voice for minority
groups – which make it clear that the potential winners of social conflict will not benefit and
potential losers will be properly safeguarded.
The question is, how are good institutions acquired? Because of history and the diversity ofcountries, there is no one unique set of institutions that can be prescribed for every country:
‘there is no single mapping between the market and the set of non-market institutions required
to sustain it’ (Rodrik, 2000). Rodrik likens institutions to technical progress that allows countries to
transform inputs into higher levels of output, shifting outwards a country’s production possibility
frontier. But technological blueprints that operate well in one context may not be appropriate in another – and so it is with institutions. A ‘market economy’ cannot simply be transposed from one country to another, at least without some adaptation. As Rodrik and Subramanian (2008) put it: ‘there is growing evidence that desirable institutional arrangements have a large element of context specificity arising from differences in historical trajectories, geography, political economy and other initial conditions; . institutional innovations do not necessarily travel well’. Nor is it easy to bring about institutional change. There is a collective action problem that limits potential gainers from bringing about change in opposition to vested interests (Bardhan and Udry, 1999).
One is the free-rider problem about sharing the cost of change; the other isthe bargaining problem relating to sharing the potential benefits of change. It can be difficult for potential gainers to compensate potential losers, as in the case of land reform for example. In these circumstances, the state has a role to play in fostering institutional change and development without destroying markets, or allowing itself to be influenced by special interest groups or corrupted by rent-seeking behaviour on the part of politicians and bureaucrats.
Rodrik (2000) argues forcefully that ‘institutions need to be developed locally, relying on hands-on experience, local knowledge and experimentation’. Some institutional blueprints for some specific purposes may be borrowed (e.g. forms of financial regulation) because they are straightforward to implement and save costs, but others need to be built from scratch. Building from the ‘bottom up’ requires participatory political institutions that can use and assess local knowledge, so that the institutions created have consent and legitimacy. Institutions imposed from the ‘top down’ usually fail. Rodrik finds an association across countries between democratic political structures and economic success; but other studies are more agnostic.
Measuring institutions and the debate on institutions versus geography
To do serious empirical work on the impact of institutions on growth and development requires
a measure of institutional development. But some care needs to be taken because if measures of
institutional quality are used, a correlation with economic performance is almost certain to be
found because the measures themselves are partly a function of the stage of development and
economic success. Institutional measures are required which are devoid of ‘quality’. The statistical
way of putting the same point is that the institutional variables used should be strictly exogenous;
but we know in practice that institutional development is partly a function of growth and development
itself, making many institutional variables endogenous. To cope with this difficulty one can either find instruments to proxy for present-day institutions (see below), or take the initial (or base) level of institutions as the independent variable, rather than the contemporaneous level.
There are also other econometric difficulties in determining the impact of institutions.Many institutional variables are highly correlated with one another, so it is difficult to measure the separate
influence of each, and many institutionalmeasures are ordinal (they simply rank countries) rather
than cardinal, which means that they do not measure the magnitude of the difference in the institutional variables between one country and another.
Several different measures of institutions have been used in empirical work:
• An aggregate governance index, which is an average of six measures of institutions developed by Kaufman et al. (1999). These measures include (1) voice and accountability – the extent to which citizens can choose their government and enjoy political rights, civil liberties and an independent press; (2) political stability and absence of violence – the likelihood that the government will not be overthrown by unconstitutional or violent means; (3) government effectiveness – the quality of public service delivery and competence and political independence of the civil service; (4) regulatory burden – the relative absence of government controls on goods markets, banking systems and international trade; (5) rule of law – the protection of persons and property against violence and theft, independent and effective judges, and contract enforcement; and (6) freedom from graft – public power is not abused for private gain or corruption. Each of these measures can be taken individually.
• A measure of property rights and risk of expropriation using the International Country Risk Guide (ICRG) and Business Environmental Risk Intelligence (BERI). These indices are used by Keefer and Knack (1995). The ICRG index includes a measure of expropriation risk, rule of law, repudiation of contracts by governments, corruption in government and quality of bureaucracy. The BERI index includes contract enforceability, nationalization potential and bureaucratic delays.
• An index of democracy, political rights and civil liberties, e.g. the Freedom House Index of
Political Rights and Civil Liberties (Gastil, 1983, 1986).
• Political instability as measured by the number of revolutions and coups, and by the number
of assassinations (Barro, 1991).
• An index of corruption (Transparency International)
• Economic freedom (Heritage Foundation)
• An index of social division, e.g. ethnic diversity
Apart from Rodrik, the other foremost modern exponents of the view that institutions are of
primary importance in understanding the development process, and why some countries are rich
today and others poor, are Acemoglu et al. (2001, 2002). Acemoglu (2008) himself identifies three
important characteristics of good institutions:
• The enforcement of property rights and the rule of law, so that individuals have the incentive
to save, invest and take risks (as argued above)
• Constraints on those in positions of power so that they cannot expropriate the resources of a
country for their own benefit
• Equal opportunities for all, so that everyone has the incentive to better themselves and to
participate productively in society.
Acemoglu and his colleagues believe that the fundamental cause of differences in the levels of
development across countries of the world lies in differences in the evolution of institutions (in
particular, property rights), which has historical roots, and that it is possible to find an exogenous
cause of variations in institutions today that is unrelated to the level of development itself (or
geography); namely the way in which colonizers settled in countries in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. This is determined by the mortality rates of soldiers, sailors and missionaries in
various parts of the world.
The model of institutional development proposed by Acemoglu et al. (2001) is that (potential)
settler mortality determined the degree of settlement, the degree of settlement determined the
type of early institutions, and that early institutions have determined current institutions and can
explain current economic performance. In other words, mortality rates in countries during early
colonial times can be used for predicting institutions and the level of per capita income across
Let us consider the theory in more detail, and then some of the evidence. The model is based
on three basic premises. First, there were different colonization policies which created different
types of institutions. At one extreme, in some countries (mainly in Africa) ‘extractive states’ were
created with the main purpose of transferring as many resources as possible from the colony.
Private property rights were not established and colonizers did not settle in large numbers. At the
other extreme, in countries such as the USA and Australia, Europeans settled in large numbers and
tried to replicate European institutions with a strong emphasis on private property, and checking
the power of elites – political and vested interests. The second premise is that the colonization
strategy depended to a large extent on the feasibility of settlement, and particularly the incidence
of disease and mortality. Thirdly, the institutions created during the colonial period persisted after
the colonies became independent.
The authors present a mass of evidence of how mortality rates affected the willingness to
settle in the various colonies, and how the presence or absence of European settlers was a key
determinant of the form colonization took. A great deal of historical evidence is also presented
that the control structures set up during the colonial period in the ‘extractive states’ that were
not settled, such as in Africa and parts of Latin America, have persisted to this day, while the
institutions of protecting private property rights, and law and order that were established in settler
countries such as Australia, Canada, the USA, Hong Kong and Singapore, have also persisted.
The measure of institutions today, used by Acemoglu et al., is a ‘risk expropriation’ index first
used by Keefer and Knack (1995).1 The index goes from 0 (lowest protection of property rights)
to 10 (highest), measured for each country for each year. They test their model using 64 former
colonies for which there are data on settler mortality in the nineteenth century, current protection against expropriation risk, and living standards for the period 1985–95. Using simple two-variable regressions shows: (1) a strong negative correlation between per capita income (PCY) today and settler mortality rates per 1,000 of population; (2) a strong positive relation between PCY and protection against expropriation risk today (the correlation coefficient exceeds 50 per cent), and (3) that the settler mortality rate explains 25 per cent of the variation in the expropriation risk index.When the endogeneity of the expropriation risk index (as the measure of institutional quality) is instrumented by the settler–mortality variable, a significant negative effect on the current level of per capita income of countries is found, even controlling for other variables that might be correlated with settler mortality such as the identity of the colonial power, natural resource endowments, soil quality, religion, temperature and humidity. In fact, the authors dismiss the effect of geography altogether (see below).
Moreover, the strong results are not dependent on the heavily settled countries with good institutions, such as the USA, Canada, Australia and New Zealand, nor if African countries are excluded from the sample.When a dummy variable for Africa is used in the equation, it is not statistically significant, which leads the authors to conclude that Africa is poor not because of geography but because of poor institutions, inherited from the past because the colonial powers established ‘extractive states’. In a separate analysis, Acemoglu et al. (2002) try to support their theory by showing how the fortunes of countries between the sixteenth century and the present have changed because of ‘institutional reversal’. It is a fact that those countries that were relatively rich in 1500 are now relatively poor, and vice versa, and this is attributed to the two different types of institutional structures discussed above that were imposed on countries during colonial times. Economic prosperity in 1500 is measured by the rate of urbanization and population density. With either measure there is a negative relation between prosperity in 1500 and the level of PCY today. The explanation given is that in previously poor areas European colonialism led to the development of institutions of private property because the regions were sparsely populated, which enabled Europeans to settle in large numbers and develop new institutions to the benefit of all. By contrast, in previously prosperous areas, already more densely populated with powerful ruling elites, colonizers found it easier andmore profitable to maintain or introduce extractive institutions. There was a ready workforce available and taxation was relatively easy. Besides, in the more densely populated regions there was more disease, and mortality rates were higher. The reversal of relative incomes took place in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, with societies with good institutions taking advantage of the opportunity to industrialize: ‘the interaction between institutions and the opportunity to industrialise during the 19th century played a central role in the long-run development of the former colonies’ (Acemoglu et al., 2002). The authors find a negative relation between measures
of prosperity in 1500 and the risk of expropriation (insecure property rights) today. Some basic
econometric results are: (i) a 10 percentage point lower rate of urbanization in 1500 is associated
with double the level of PCY today, and (ii) a 10 per cent higher population density in 1500 is
associated with a 4 per cent lower PCY today.
The authors again dismiss the role of geography because geography is a ‘constant’ and predicts
the persistence of economic outcomes. If geography is themost important factor in development,
the most (least) prosperous areas prior to colonization should have continued to be the most
(least) prosperous, but this is not the case. Geography cannot explain the reversal of fortunes. The
authors recognize what they call a ‘sophisticated version’ of the geography hypothesis; that certain
geographic characteristics that were inimical to successful economic performance in 1500 became
less important later on when new crops and new technologies made temperate zones more productive than the more prosperous tropical zones (where civilization started), and transport costs
fell. But they argue that there is no evidence that the reversal of economic fortunes between
sets of countries in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries were associated with agriculture or
a more favourable transport environment. Reversal was most closely related to industrialization.
The authors conclude: ‘if you want to understand why a country is poor today, you have to look
at institutions rather than its geography’. But institutions and geography cannot be separated so easily. Geography, and its effects on disease, affects the type of colonization and therefore the character of institutions. Acemoglu (2008) effectively concedes this when he says ‘geographic factors also likely influenced the institutions that Europeans introduced’. Rodrik et al. (2004) (see also Rodrik and Subramanian, 2008) attempt to tackle this issue empirically. They estimate a series of regressions relating the income levels of countries to measures of geography, institutions (and also the degree of economic integration), taking account of the endogeneity of institutions. Institutional development ismeasured by a composite indicator of the strength of property rights and the rule of law. They reach the conclusion that: Quality of institutions is the only positive and significant determinant of income levels. Once institutions are controlled for, integration has no direct effect on income, while geography has but weak direct effects.
These results are very robust. Rodrik et al. (2004) claim that the quality of institutions overrides everything else, but also concede, like Acemoglu, that ‘geography has a strong indirect effect through institutions byinfluencing their quality’. Thus, geography may be the ultimate determinant after all!
In fact, Sachs (2008) points out that the incidence of malaria itself is enough to account for the negative relation between the mortality rates of British soldiers in various parts of the world in the nineteenth century and low levels of per capita income today. Sachs is critical of the almost exclusive emphasis on institutions in explaining differences in economic performance between
countries, as if nothing else matters: ‘the barriers to economic development in the poorest countries
today are more complex than institutional shortcomings . both institutions and resource endowments are critical, not just one or the other’.
Another critic is Bardhan (2005b), who argues that there are other institutions that matter besides property rights and the rule of law, particularly coordinating institutions to overcome coordination failures which are endemic in poor countries and require institutions to cope with them. They would remain important even if property rights were secure. In Bardhan’s view, ‘this preoccupation of the literature with the institutions of security and property rights, often to the exclusion of other important institutions, severely limits our understanding of the development process’. Bardhan doubts whether the mortality rate of colonial settlers really captures the major historical forces that determined the economic and social structure of colonies.
Think of the differences between countries today all with similar disease environments, such as Brazil, India or the Congo in Africa, let alone the countries that were never colonized, such as
Ethiopia and Thailand. Countries had a history before colonization: Bardhan calls this state antiquity, a term that refers to whether a country had a unified state structure or not. By this criterion,
Asia ranks higher than Latin America and Africa, and in the latter, as a result of colonial rule, the post-colonial state was often incongruent with the pre-colonial political structures and geographic
boundaries. This has been a major source of political turmoil and instability. In statistical analysis, Bardhan finds the state antiquity variable a significant determinant of differences in per capita income today (as well as settler mortality rates).
The role of democracy
Apart from the institutions versus geography debate, most empirical work on the role of institutions
in economic development has been conducted on political instability and on the impact of
political structures and the role of democracy. The challenge for any government, whatever its
structure, is to provide leadership in resolving collective action problems (Bardhan, 1993), which
means a commitment to formulating and implementing development policies in the interests of
all the people, to prevent groups going their own separate ways. Democracy can make this more
difficult because politicians can succumb to vested interest groups and take short-term decisions.
On the other hand, dictatorships may have no interest in maximizing total output, and may allocate
resources very inefficiently. Democracy makes life difficult for corrupt elites. In the discussion
of democracy and growth it is also important to distinguish between democracy defined as free,
multi-party elections on the one hand and civil and economic liberties on the other (Alesina and
Perotti, 1994). Some non-democratic regimes in the first sense (e.g. China) give their citizens a lot
of economic rights, and vice versa.
Early work by Barro (1991) measured institutional quality by the number of revolutions and
coups in countries and by the number of political assassinations. A negative relation was found
between these measures and economic growth across a sample of 98 countries, controlling for
other variables (see Chapter 5).
But political instability is not the same as the nature of the political system. Here we shall
highlight two major studies on the role of democracy by Rodrik (2000) and Barro (1996a, 2008).
Rodrik examines data for 90 countries over the period 1970–89, using the Freedom House Index
of Political Rights and Civil Liberties (the Gastil index) as a measure of democracy which ranks
countries on a scale zero to one. He draws four important conclusions:
• democracies deliver more predictable long-run growth rates
• democracies produce greater short-term stability
• democracies handle adverse shocks much better
• democracies promote a fairer distribution of income
Democracies produce better outcomes in these ways because they produce superior institutions
better suited to local conditions. There is little evidence that the average growth rate is higher in
democracies than in more autocratic regimes, but the variance around the average is significantly
lower in democracies. One reason for this is because adjustment to shocks requires managing
social conflict, and democratic institutions are more efficient institutions for conflict management.
Democracies deliver better institutional outcomes because they tend to create more equal
opportunities for people, especially in the fields of health, education and employment opportunity,
which manifests itself in a higher share of wages in national income. In general, therefore,
democracy helps to build better institutions based on local knowledge: ‘participatory and decentralized political systems are the most effective ones we have for processing and aggregating local knowledge. We can think of democracy as a meta-institution for building other good institutions’
(Rodrik, 2000). Barro (2008), on the other hand, is more circumspect about the impact of democracy.
Most agree that democracy tends to follow economic development, rather than precede
it; what is debated is the role of democracy in sustaining development once it has started. Barro
argues that democracy can hamper growth in the early stages of development by the tendency of
majority voting to support programmes that redistribute income from rich to the poor, involving
tax increases and other distortions that reduce incentives. Also, democracies may give in to pressure groups that redistribute resources to themselves; for example agricultural lobbies, defence
contractors and trade unions. On the other hand, and very important, democracy is a check on
corrupt autocracies (dictators). In statistical work that examines the link between democracy and
growth, Barro measures the degree of democracy by the Gastil index of political rights in Gastil’s
publication Freedom in the World (1983, 1986). The definition of political rights is: ‘rights to participate meaningfully in the political process. In a democracy this means the right of all adults to vote and compete for public office, and for elected representatives to have a decisive vote on public
policies.’ Barro’s results suggest that the relationship between democracy and growth across countries is weakly negative, but not statistically significant. The most interesting finding is that there
is evidence of non-linearity; that is, more democracy increases growth when political freedoms
are weak, but depresses growth when a moderate degree of freedom has been achieved (perhaps
because, as said above, democracies give in to pressure groups and engage in more redistribution).
Barro concludes that ‘democracy is not the key to economic growth; advanced Western
countries would contribute more to the welfare of poor nations by exporting their economic
systems, notably property rights and free markets, rather than their political systems, which typically
developed after reasonable standards of living had been attained’. Barro’s conclusion concurs
with that of Alesina and Perotti (1994) in their early survey of the political economy of growth
when they say: ‘growth is influenced not so much by the nature of the political regime (democracy
or dictatorship) as by the stability of the political regime . . . transitions from dictatorship to
democracy, being associated with socio-economic instability, should be typically periods of low
The historical evidence for the now-developed countries, as documented by Chang (2003),
would seem to support this broad conclusion. He considers six categories of institutions as they
were in the developed countries in the nineteenth century – democracy; bureaucracy (including
the judiciary); property rights; corporate governance institutions; financial institutions; and
welfare and labour institutions – and reaches the following conclusion: First, the now-developed
countries did not develop on the basis of democracy. Universal suffrage only came in the twentieth
century. Poor developing countries today are adopting suffrage at much lower levels of
income than in now-developed countries. Second, public offices and the judiciary were historically
corrupt. Appointments were made not on merit, but through class or political connections,
and the judiciary often lacked independence, dispensing justice according to class and race.
Third, property rights, such as contract law, company law, bankruptcy law, tax law and land law
were all lax historically. So, too, were intellectual property rights. Chang remarks with respect
to patents, copyrights and trademarks: ‘the protection fell well short of what is demanded in
developing countries today’. Fourth, in most now-developed countries, modern corporate governance structures emerged after, rather than before, industrial development. There was no proper auditing of companies and no bankruptcy law, and competition laws did not properly exist until the twentieth century. Fifth, banking regulation in the nineteenth century was very perfunctory,
and banks only became professional lending institutions, serving all the people, in the early
twentieth century. Finally, social security institutions to protect against change were virtually
The lessons of history are that many institutions deemed to be important for poor developing
countries today emerged after, not before, economic development was taking place, and it took a
long time for themto emerge in fully fledged form from the time of their perceived need. Chang is
right to conclude, however, that this does not mean ‘the clock should be turned back’; rather, that
institutional development is not the sine qua non of economic development, and institutional
reforms in developing countries should not be imposed from outside, but should be allowed to
evolve naturally, internally.
This would accord with the central conclusion of Rodrik, namely everything we know about
economic growth indicates that large-scale institutional transformation is not so necessary for
getting growth started, but that it is very important for sustaining it. This conclusion is based
on the pioneering research by Hausmann et al. (2005) on ‘growth accelerations’. The secret of
economic success in the early stages of development is to find the ‘binding constraints’ on growth
using ‘growth diagnostics’ (see Chapter 5). This does not require wholesale institutional reform.
• Institutional structures and rules of behaviour are a necessary condition for economic activity
to flourish because incentives and price signals in a market economy cannot function properly
• There are at least five main types of market-supporting institutions that are necessary, if not
sufficient, conditions for rapid economic progress: property rights and legally binding contracts;
regulatory institutions; social insurance institutions; institutions for conflict management, and
institutions to secure macroeconomic stability.
• Poor countries are often characterized by a lack of trust and the rule of law; weak institutions
to mitigate risk and to manage social conflict; no clearly defined system of property rights; an
inadequate regulatory apparatus to curb fraud and anti-competitive behaviour; and a lack of
• Without property rights and the rule of law, the incentive to invest, on which economic growth
ultimately depends, is very weak.
• It is not easy to bring about institutional change. There is a collective action problem which
limits potential gainers from bringing about change in opposition to vested interests, including
the free-rider problem and the bargaining problem of distributing the gains.
• It is not easy to measure institutional development and its impact on economic performance
because institutional development itself is endogenous to economic development. An
exogenous measure of institutions is required.
• Several different measures of institutions have been used in empirical work, such as a measure
of property rights and risk of expropriation; an aggregate governance index; an index
of democracy, political rights and civil liberties; an index of political instability; an index of
corruption; an index of economic freedom, and an index of social division.
• The economists Acemoglu, Johnson and Robinson believe that the fundamental cause of differences in the level of development across countries in the world today is the historical evolution
of institutions, and that in those parts of the world where conditions were harsh, in Africa for example, colonizers created ‘extractive states’ with no firm property rights, while in other
parts (e.g. the USA and Australia) colonizers settled in large numbers and built institutions conducive
to development. Disease and mortality rates in the nineteenth century are taken as an exogenous institutional variable. The role of geography (a constant) is dismissed.
• If geography was the most important factor in development, the most (least) prosperous areas
prior to colonization should have continued to be the most (least) prosperous, but this is not
the case. On the other hand, geography, and its effects on disease and mortality, affected
the type of colonization and therefore the character of institutions. The role of geography is
• Apart from the debate on institutions versus geography, most of the empirical work on the role
of institutions in economic development has been conducted on the influence of democracy
and political stability on economic performance.
• Rodrik finds that democracies deliver more predictable long-run growth rates, produce greater
short-term stability, handle adverse shocks better and promote a fairer distribution of income
than non-democratic states.
• Chang shows, however, that the lessons of history are that many of the institutions that are
argued to be important for developing countries today emerged after, not before, economic
development was taking place – for example, democracy and property rights, contract law,
company law, bankruptcy law and tax law. Hismessage is that institutions should be allowed to
evolve naturally, internally, and not be imposed from outside.

domain: sociology


Madikeri: Even as the entire Kodagu district continues to reel under natural calamities caused by rain fury, the Army has stepped up the rescue and relief operations in the district.
The Army, along with National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) and Police personnel continued the rescue operation on Saturday, evacuating several residents stranded in high altitude terrains.
The army has rescued stranded residents of Makkandur, Mukkodlu, Devastur, Kalum, Meghatalu, Hebbattageri and Mandalapatti villages, which have lost communication with the rest of the world.
The Army personnel, comprising 60 soldiers from Dogra Regiment and 73 technical staff of the Indian army, walked by foot through the terrains for nearly 10 kms as trucks could not travel through the difficult terrains. The personnel used all their expertise in rescuing stranded people at Makkandur amidst floods and pounding rains.
Meanwhile, nearly 300 stranded people have taken shelter at MLC Veena Achaiah’s residence at Mukkodlu, about 350 persons in the residences of former ZP President Ravi Kushalappa and Hanchettira Manu Muddappa and 100 persons at a shop in Soorlabbi village, it is learnt.
The Army is making all out efforts to rescue stranded people in hilly terrains.
Meanwhile, a team of doctors from neighbouring districts of Mysuru and Hassan have arrived in the district and is attending to the medical needs of stranded people.
Meanwhile, one Gilbert has gone missing after a house collapsed at Katakeri in Madikeri Taluk on Saturday. Two other occupants of the house — Stella and Hallis who sustained injuries, have been rushed to K.R. Hospital in Mysuru. Even as rescue operations has gained momentum, there was let up in the rains in the district last morning, bringing some sort of relief to the people.
But the people are scared to travel as a majority of the roads have been badly affected by landslides and road collapse resulting in rescue personnel finding it difficult to reach the people in distress.


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These cold crab dip recipes are easy to make and will be a favorite amongst your guests. There are many different variations and types out there, which is why we have included a few, like Cold Horseradish Crab Dip, Cold Cocktail Sauce Crab Dip and Artichoke Crab Dip along with serving ideas and suggestions, for you to choose from.
There are many fantastic recipes for tortilla cream cheese appetizers, also known as tortilla pinwheels or tortilla roll-ups, which are always well received by guests and devoured quickly. These cream cheese tortilla appetizers are an easy to make cold appetizer and can often be made ahead of time for easy preparation.
Antipasto, an Italian tradition which translates literally as “before the meal” is typically known for referring to a mix of olives, cured meats, cheeses, peppers, and other foods that is often served before dinner along with wine. This Antipasto Platter Appetizer recipe is simple enough for casual get togethers yet elegant enough to be considered a gourmet appetizer for formal events.
This 7 layer Mexican dip recipe, often also called 7 layer taco dip, is a classic appetizer to serve, especially for casual gatherings such as birthday parties, sports parties, graduation parties, and more. Find out the 7 key ingredients used to make this delicious cold appetizer that is easy to make and perfect for casual gatherings and settings.
Learning how to make chocolate tuxedo strawberries will enable you to create a tasty and visually appealing snack for any party or event you may be hosting. We show you how to make some very elegant and gourmet tuxedo chocolate strawberries to serve as an appetizer at your next event. They are especially popular for things such as Valentine’s Day as well as weddings and other formal and special occasions.

domain: food


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Doctor insights on:
Doctor Eye Pains Topamax
Is indicated to treat epilepsy, but mainly a second line or adjunctive agent, and also useful to prevent migraine headaches. Has several adverse effects including: kidney stones, narrow angle glaucoma, metabolic acidosis, heatstroke in kids, paresthesias, slowing of speech and cognition, drowsiness. ...Read more
I have had a H/A everyday since last Thurs. Sometimes 2x a day. Today I had 3 HA episodes at work at diff times. Unilateral on the right side behind eye. I take 25mg topamax 2x a day. Please Help!
No: Family doctors, neurologists or pain doctors can prescribe it if you need it. ...Read more
Is topamax an inhibitor or inducer or cyp2c19? Weak or not, i'd still like to know. Thank you kind doctors.
Weak inhibitor: Topamax is a weak inhibitor of the cyp2c19 enzyme. This enzyme is responsible for the metabolism of several drugs including Phenytoin (dilantin). Therefore, the concomitant use of Dilantin and topamax may be associated with increased Dilantin levels. This is probably more evident with topamax doses that exceed 200 mg/day. I hope this helps! ...Read more
I see in reading some of these posts about the side effects and how they will substitute gabapentin for topamax what if your doctors have you on both?
I have been taking 25mg of Topamax for the last month and a half - my doctor and I just decided that we should take me off, but he failed to tell me if I need to cut the pills and taper off or not - should I be concerned? Should I stop cold turkey or cut
My doctor prescribed topamax for bipolar 2 insomnia. I read on your site that topamax causes insomnia. I already have chronic difficult insomnia
My doctor prescribed topamax for my migraine. I took 2 tablets (25mg each) stop it now bec of tingling effect.Will it affect if i want to conceive?
Side effect: You are manifesting one of the more troublesome ; common side effects which cause people to stop taking topamax and that is the tingling sensations or neuropathy. In your case, it seems to be happening at a low-dose but in any event if you're trying to conceive then i recommend you tell your doctor first so they may safely prescribe other medications for your headaches. ...Read moreSee 1 more doctor answer
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domain: medical


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Setting up a grocery and a social café to support people with intellectual disabilities enter the job market and gain their independence.
Projects & Practice
The construction of a treetop path that enhances visitors’ experience in one of the oldest oak forests in Europe.
Building a reservoir to catch runoff water and provide protection against floods in a vulnerable area.
A community centre used support from the rural development programme to enhance its services and premises in order not to exclude people with Dementia.
A sports club used RDP support to renovate its facilities and offer a space that contributes to the integration of immigrants in the local society.
A project that aimed to mobilise society, build inter-generational cooperation and promote the region’s culinary tradition as means to preserve its cultural heritage.
A family farm specialised on wine production used RDP support to acquire a new tractor and in this way improve its productivity and competitiveness.
A project addressing the Water Framework Directive, by restoring the natural flow of a stream, while preserving the local cultural heritage and protecting from floods.
An organic mountain farm uses indigenous breeds to produce high-quality meat, while preserving the local environment and genetic resources.
A Technical Assistance project about empowering local and regional actors to work more effectively with rural communities in order to revitalise these areas.


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Bedrooms 3, Sleeps 6
|Mika-Gale||Self Catering||Flexible||3||6||3||Double futon and 2 single pullout beds|
Mika-Gale is a beautiful, restored longere situated in a peaceful, rural setting near the villages of Ploerdut, Lignol and Guemene-sur-Scorff.
Whether you just want to get away from it all, enjoy beautiful scenery, relax on golden beaches, visit the many historical towns around the area, or wish to have a full activity holiday, Mika-Gale is the ideal base.
It is surrounded by rolling green hills and quiet wooded valleys that have been carved out by the areas three rivers, the Ellé, the Scorff and the Aer.
There is an extensive network of footpaths in the local area which traverse across open countryside and densly wooded hills and valleys.
It's an ideal location for walking, running, cycling, bird watching, photography, drawing, painting and relaxing.
The local area abounds with monuments, churches, chapels and historic medieval villages where time seems to have stood still.
Ploerdut village is 3 km away and is situated around a beautiful 15th century church. It has a boulangerie, pizzeria, two bars, one with a lunch time restaurant, and a small grocery store. Here is also the local doctors, dentist and pharmacy.
Your nearest large supermarket is situated in Guemene-sur-Scorff which is 7 km away.
The property owners live and work abroad permanently but this is their French country home and they visit regularly at holiday time to wind down and escape from the busy lives they lead. Because it's their home you can expect it to be furnished and appointed to a high standard.
You enter the property the spacious entrance porch at Mika-Gale and there's the beautiful open plan kitchen and dining room.
The kitchen is very well equipped with a range oven and extractor hood, dish washer, washing machine, tumble dryer, two fridge freezers and all the usual electrical appliances you would expect. There are also hot-plates, a fondue set, electric whisks and mixers and plenty of saucepans, casserole dishes and utensils.
At the center of the kitchen is an attractive island for food preparation. There is also a toaster and microwave.
To your right is a cloak room with clothes line and airer.
As you walk through into the dining area you will find a large pine dining table and chairs. A high chair is available for babies.
There's a dresser in this room which holds all the house hold crockery.
In the dining area there are picnic baskets, thermos flasks and cool boxes
for our guests to use. There are plenty of ice blocks in the freezer.
The spacious living room has a very efficient wood burner, large coffee table, side tables and two very comfy sofas one armchair. There's also a fully reclining electric armchair for extra relaxation available.
There are two large, well stocked book cases which also has some games and lots of DVD's and CD's.
There are two desks, a TV, DVD and Sky box with all the free UK freeveiw channels and free WiFi.
Double patio doors lead into the garden.
The room is very comfortable with beamed ceilings and is tastefully decorated.
There are two large double bedrooms at either end of the house. In the middle is our twin bedroom.
All three bedrooms are bright and have beamed, vaulted ceilings and have plenty of wardrobes and drawers.
All three bedrooms has its own en-suite shower room with toilet and wash basin.
All the bedrooms has its own en suite all with shower, toilet and wash basin.
There is also and one downstairs toilet with wash basin at the end of the kitchen
There is full central heating throughout the house and a very efficient wood burner in the lounge to cosy up in front of during colder months
TV and DVD
Free WiFi Internet connection
UK freeview channels via Sky satellite
Book and DVD library
The property sits in three acres of private, secluded gardens. The large garden is ideal for children with plenty of safe and open ares to run, play and explore .It also has a small orchard with apple and pear trees. There are also hazel-nut sweet chestnut and walnut trees for our Autumn guests to enjoy the windfall produce.
The lawn and seating area at the front of the property is a real sun trap and there are sun loungers at your disposal and a large wooden table and chairs with parasol.
There's also a Weber BBQ with utensils provided for alfresco dining.
From the well kept gardens and lawns at the front of the property there's a large meadow leading to a small woodland and a stream for you to explore.
Private on site parking
The gite is not wheel chair accessible
For those guests bringing their own bikes or kayaks we can offer a secure storage area on site.
We also have one double futon and one fold-up single bed so could accommodate extra guests if required.
Mika-Gale is a beautiful, restored longere owned by Michael and Karen Dobbie-Hunter who are global citizens and love rural France. Their work means that they live abroad permanently but use their holiday time to re-charge energy levels and relax when they come home to their beautiful house in Brittany. Mika-Gale has been managed for the last 5 years by Jerry and Gina Isaacs who take great pride in the presentation of the house and look after the property as if it were their own.
|Year property purchased||2010|
|Why this location?||It's a beautiful rural, tranquil part of Brittany but centrally located and near to many interesting places with beautiful quiet beaches to swim, sunbathe, surf or just relax and build sandcastles just 40 minutes away. You can use it as a base to explore the fantastic tourist sites, towns and cites of Brittany, take walks or cycle the canals, walk in and around the forests and many lakes all across this superb region of France.|
|Unique benefits of property||Privacy, seclusion and quietness are very important to us but also the opportunity to visit the historic towns and the amazing beaches. The house is not just a holiday gite, it is our home and is furnished and equipped to a high standard.|
Within a short drive lies the pretty town of Guemene sur Scorff famous for it's connection to the Rohan families
We have provided an information pack with recommendations of restaurants, markets, places of interest. As there are far to many others to list the tourist information office in Guemene and Pontivy have additional information
Brittany is a land of festivals, legends, myths, and megaliths. Enjoy the wonderful variety of foods, and the Breton speciality seafood. The Morbihan region is one of the most varied departments in France, with prehistoric monuments and historical towns, beautiful estuaries, creeks and little fishing ports.
It boasts fine old chateaux, glorious sandy beaches and islands along the coast and around the Gulf of Morbihan.
So many charming towns to explore! Auray and Vannes are a must with their medieval timber frame houses, cobbled streets, water front restaurants and bars.
Josselin is a splendid fortified town which sits astride the canal. Its medieval castle is still lived in by members of the legendary Rohan family.
Le Faouët is named after the beech trees that mark the pretty, rural, hilly area around it. Its centre piece is its beautiful 17thC covered market place. Its glorious outlying chapels also made painters flock to it, as is recalled in the museum.
Pont-Aven down on the coast is best known for its association with the post-Impressionist painter Paul Gauguin. This attractive town also has some lovely riverside walks.
We often go to Pontivy, Napoleonville, with its medieval old quarter well worth wandering through and along its canal. Quimperle is a delightful old town, also on a river, in fact the confluence of three rivers! Inland and only 30 mins is the beautiful Lac du Guerledan. Lovely walks and picnic spots and a restaurant. if you have a canoe or small boat, you can launch it here.
This region of southern Brittany offers a warmer sunnier climate than the north and is definitely a department with something for everyone.
The coast is only 45 mins away and there are numerous small sandy beaches to explore, long expanses of golden sand stretching from Larmor Plage to Guidel Plage, and many smaller beaches and inlets. A few of our favourites are Le Poldou, Raguennes, and Carnac with its world famous standing stones
We had a lovely 2 week stay at Mika-Gale. The house was very comfortable, spacious, clean and relaxing. The garden is absolutely huge with plenty of space and our children really enjoyed exploring every nook and cranny!
Jerry and Gina are very helpful and accommodating hosts without being intrusive and the welcome basket and fresh eggs from their chickens were a lovely touch.
The property is very remote with only a few properties nearby, which adds to the peace and quiet we were looking forward to. The nearest village is a 5 minute drive but we were more than happy to discover Brittany and drive further afield to explore more. Within an hours drive you would be at the beach or a big French town.
At the cottage there is an accurate information book providing the days for the French markets nearby and recommended restaurants, which was helpful.
All in all, I would not hesitate in recommending Mika-Gale. We have been holidaying in France for the last 5 years and this cottage has by far been the best. Merci beaucoup!
We loved and would recommend it to everyone. We all had a wonderful time.
Bedrooms 3, Sleeps 6
Bedrooms 4, Sleeps 8
Bedrooms 4, Sleeps 8
Bedrooms 4, Sleeps 8, Ratings 5 7.7/10
Bedrooms 4, Sleeps 7, Ratings 13 9.9/10
Bedrooms 3, Sleeps 6
Bedrooms 3, Sleeps 5
Bedrooms 2, Sleeps 6, Ratings 1 10/10
Bedrooms 4, Sleeps 8
Bedrooms 2, Sleeps 5, Ratings 6 9.9/10

domain: travel


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Economic Development Board
We are dedicated to helping your business to succeed. Whether you are a small start-up or established company looking to grow, the EDB offers a range of direct services to help your business every step of the way. Find out more about how to start, grow, or relocate your business to Sonoma County.
March 21, 2014
Sonoma County led the North Bay in year-over-year job growth in February, while unemployment rates across the North Bay were largely unchanged or a few tenths of a percentage point lower after a seasonal uptick in January, according to state figures released Friday.
March 18, 2014
Sonoma County’s economy is poised to further recover through 2015, bolstered by national growth that will spur gains in tourism and the wine industry, while additional support will come from a growing life sciences cluster and a stronger housing market, according a new report on the local economy.
March 17, 2014
It’s set to be busy a season for retail construction in the North Bay, with several hundred thousand square feet of retail space nearing completion or about to go into construction in Windsor, Santa Rosa, Petaluma and Napa.
- More News
Sonoma County is a great place to call home. With nationally-recognized companies such as Medtronic, Marmot, La Tortilla Factory, CamelBak, Kendall Jackson, Agilent, and Amy’s Kitchen, Sonoma County offers one of the lowest costs of doing business in the San Francisco Bay Area. Along with its scenic beauty, outdoor pursuits, and a relaxed pace of life, it’s no wonder that Sonoma County is a great place to locate a business.
Need assistance in launching your business? For quick and useful information, check out “ Ten Steps to Starting your Business in Sonoma County
”. You can also contact our Business Assistance Hotline
at (707) 565-7589
for help in navigating the licensing and permitting process.
Need help in expanding your business? Contact our Business Assistance Team
to to connect you with vital county resources to jumpstart your business. Whether you are in startup mode or are looking to grow your existing business, check out these FREE business development tools.
We know that there is a lot to learn when it comes to planning for the financial health of your business.
Learn about financing options
The EDB offers several programs to assist in your business operations and employee recruitment.
Lower your business costs and get recognized for being green through the Sonoma Green Business Program
Do you want to improve employee productivity? Recruit and retain the best employees? Become a certified healthy business through iWork Well Sonoma County
Are you a business owner and want to know how the new Affordable Care Act will affect your business? Here's a quick list of what you need to know.
Your business may be eligible for certain tax savings and incentives through the State of California. Detail can be found at The Governor’s Office of Business and Economic Development: “California Economic Development Initiative”
Spotlights growth opportunities for craft brewery, distillery and cidery businesses in Sonoma County.
The 2013 International Trade Guide provides information for small businesses owners who are considering expanding their businesses internationally.

domain: finance


Dan DiDio On DC's Future
Batman, Final Crisis, Superman, Green Lantern, Wonder Woman and the third weekly series - Trinity.
That's right, the core storyline of Trinity will be run by just two creators.
We had plenty of questions about the new series, which features Superman, Batman and Wonder Woman in leading roles, and we figured DC Executive Editor Dan DiDio was the man to give us some answers.
Read on as we dig into Trinity specifics as well as talk about Final Crisis and upcoming plans for the Big Three outside of this new weekly series.
DC fans have a lot to be excited about.
Note: The first image in this feature is concept art done by Mark Bagley, released by DC Comics. The rest of the images here are from various upcoming DC books from March and April.
IGN Comics: So let's jump right into the big issue on everyone's mind these days. Can you tell us about Trinity?
Dan DiDio As foolish as we are, we've decided to try and go with another weekly series again. And as we did from 52 to Countdown and now into Trinity, we want to change the focus and style of the story we told. With 52, it was a weekly series about the world without Superman, Batman and Wonder Woman. In that series we moved in actual time and filled in a missing year where those three characters disappeared from the DC Universe. In Countdown, what we did was we showed the wide scope of the DC Universe, and all the different aspects - not just in our world but also across the Multiverse and the multiple incarnations of our characters.
Now, with our third series, we've decided to really focus on our three main characters – Superman, Batman and Wonder Woman – their importance to the DC Universe, but more importantly, how essential they are to everything that goes into the DC Universe and how much comes from them. We're going to go into their histories, we're going to go into their stories currently, and see what effect they'll have on the DC Universe in the future.
IGN Comics: And Kurt Busiek and Mark Bagley are the main creative team?
DiDio: Like we said, we changed the way we worked again. The way the series works is these will be standard 22-page comics, with the lead stories as 12 pages done by the same team, Kurt Busiek and Mark Bagley on all 52 issues.
IGN Comics: And the other ten pages?
DiDio: The other ten pages will be back-up stories with rotating characters – both characters that are new to the DC Universe and existing. Those stories will be co-plotted by Kurt and written by Fabian Nicieza. And the art will be handled by rotating artists, but a couple of the lead artists we have involved are people like Tom Derenick and Scott McDaniel.
IGN Comics: During 52, you talked a lot about the machinery involved in turning out a weekly series, and you tweaked it considerably going into Countdown. Besides the differences you've talked about already, how have you changed the machinery behind Trinity?
DiDio: When we first did 52, we had four writers writing every issue, and they worked like a jam group or a band, with all four of them contributing to every issue. And then what we did with the second series, because there was problems along the way there, we set up another system where we had a head writer [Paul Dini] who was assigning out stories to the writers working on the individual issues. Again, it set up some things that worked very smoothly, but also a different set of problems. With this, we decided to harass just one single person in Kurt Busiek, and what we've done is that we feel there's cohesiveness of story in working with one single writer on this on the front run of stories, which is essential because it's such a wide spanning story and it flows so smoothly that we believe only one person should be able to tell it. And that person is Kurt.


It’s widely expected that Apple will introduce new iPhones next month, but before September gets underway, a new report claims to have more information on Apple’s upcoming smartphones.
Apple will launch three new iPhone models that use a design similar to the iPhone X, according to a report from Bloomberg. The largest model, codenamed D33, will have a 6.5-inch OLED display and design with a glass back and stainless steel edges like on the iPhone X. Also said to be included are dual rear cameras and the ability to view content in apps side-by-side.
The existing iPhone X will reportedly get an upgrade, too, to a new version codenamed D32. Both D32 and D33 will allegedly have improved processing speed and camera performance. Apple may also offer versions with dual SIM card slots in some parts of the globe.
Rounding out the trio is a more affordable iPhone codenamed N84. This model will reportedly look like the iPhone X, but have a 6.1-inch LCD screen with aluminum edges rather than stainless steel. It’ll also come with different colors on the back of the phone.
Apple is said to have changed its naming for these new iPhone models several times. One possibility that’s reportedly being considered is “iPhone Xs”. Apple has also allegedly considered dropping the “Plus” branding that it’s used for its larger iPhone models in recent years.
Today’s report also contains info on a couple of other new Apple products. The new Apple Watch models are said to look similar to the current versions, complete with similar overall size so that existing Apple Watch straps will work. The big change with the new Apple Watch models is that they’ll allegedly have larger screens that go nearly edge-to-edge.
And then there are the new iPad models. Apple is said to be planning new iPad Pro devices with 11-inch and 12.9-inch screens and slimmer bezels. These devices will allegedly ditch the home button and fingerprint reader and use Face ID and gesture navigation, like the iPhone X.


Question about Chevrolet 2500
04 chevy 2500HD with 6.0 LS style motor. When turning the ignition key to the crank motor (start) position, I get a quick click sound then dash lights, interior lights shut down as if a fuse has blown. Then within a few minutes dash lights, radio, and interior lights work again (as if there is a heat related circuit braker). I can try to crank/start the motor and the process starts over again. I could not find a blown fuse for ingition and/or starter. Looked and the main under dash hub fuse in the engine compartment was ok. No blown fuses that I know of. Is there a fusible link and/or circuit braker for the keyed crank/start position? or may this be a problem with my ignition starter relay switch?
Make sure battery has a full charge and battery connections all good. Any fuses in the diagram, test for voltage, some are hot all the time, some go hot with the key on.
Use a digital multimeter across battery posts, everything off, the generic spec for a full charge is around 12.6 volts. Leave the leads hooked up to battery, have a helper turn key to crank, how far does it drop? In my opinion it shouldn't drop much under 10 volts, I wouldn't argue with 9.6 volts.
Posted on Mar 28, 2017
Doing starter circuit testing is the way to find bad connections or bad cables etc...Using a volt meter !
Starter Voltage Drop Plus you need to know what happens when you turn that key an all the parts that are involved in the starting of that vehicle . Starter relay's , transmission range switch , PCM .
How to voltage drop test starter motor circuit
Posted on Mar 28, 2017
a 6ya expert can help you resolve that issue over the phone in a minute or two.
Best thing about this new service is that you are never placed on hold and get to talk to real repairmen in the US.
the service is completely free and covers almost anything you can think of.(from cars to computers, handyman, and even drones)
click here to download the app (for users in the US for now) and get all the help you need.
Posted on Jan 02, 2017
ON the fuse box cover.
IS there a especification for the funtion of the fuse. or the number of the location of the fuse.
If you can give me, I can try help you. as more I can.
Thank you for use fixya.
Posted on Jul 24, 2008
SOURCE: 2003 Chevy S10 won't start
Are you sure its the starter? did you try it in neutral? could be park neutral switch, or ignition switch, or if its a standard shift maybe it has a switch on clutch that it has to be depressed to start and its bad. As far as jump starting you cross the maine or big post on starter to small or little post on starter to do that, on a v6 starter it on the right side under exhaust manafold, and i think its on the same side on a 4 cyl.
Posted on Feb 10, 2009
Low voltage will cause the problem you are having,get the battery charged,and then have the alternator checked for the correct out put,13.65 to 14.25 if it is not in this range give or take a couple of volts,replace it,I would have the battery replaced also,so you won`t have the problem again.Have a shop replace the battery,if you do it yourself,the memory could be erased if certain measures are not performed.
Posted on Nov 14, 2009
Testimonial: "appreciate the help, will try it in the morning when I can get a battery"
SOURCE: 1998 Chevy Malibu : Won't Start
I would check the fuel pump turn key on do not start or turn engine over just until dash lights up and you should hear a grunt sound come from back seat area if you do not hear this grunt your fuel pump is not working.Also if you have a check engine light on you should have your can scaned with a OBD 2 scan tool to retreve and faults the cars computer might be undrer going.
Posted on Dec 24, 2009
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All North American CR-Vs come equipped with a 5-speed automatic transmission.
Does the Honda CR-V have a CVT transmission?
Introduced in 2012, the fourth-generation Honda CR-V received a facelift in 2015 and gained Honda’s new and cleaner burning Earth Dreams engine and a continuously variable transmission (CVT). All models are powered by a 2.4-liter, four-cylinder engine making 185 horsepower paired with the CVT.
Does 2021 Honda CRV have CVT transmission?
The 2021 Honda CR-V comes in four trims: LX, EX, EX-L, and Touring. All models come standard with a turbocharged four-cylinder engine, a continuously variable automatic transmission (CVT), and front-wheel drive.
What kind of transmission do Honda CRV have?
Honda CR-V comes with 5-speed automatic transmission.
Do Honda CRV have transmission problems?
Honda TSBs indicate that multiple CR-V automatic transmission models suffer from “harsh” shifting and acceleration problems. The primary cause of the CR-Vs’ shifting problems is transaxle leakage. TSBs also state that shifting problems may result in acceleration problems, including noise and vibration.
Which CRV has CVT?
2012-2016 Honda CR-V (4th Generation)
For the 2015 model year, Honda introduced a continuously variable transmission (CVT), along with an improved suspension, superior handling, and better sound insulation.
Is automatic better than CVT?
Depending on the vehicle and the driver, a CVT can provide a smoother driving experience when comparing it to a traditional automatic. According to Carfax, one of the most significant advantages to having a CVT is that they are often more fuel-efficient than a regular automatic.
Are Honda CVT transmissions bad?
Yes, Honda’s CVT is reliable. Continuously variable transmission provides smoother ride, fuel efficiency and efficient use of power from engine. so in terms of these it’s better than automatic and manual transmission. Now CVTs in Honda and Toyota hybrids have been strong performers.
What’s wrong with the 2021 Honda CRV?
Structure, electrical system and engine issues among the top complaints received by the NHTSA from vehicle owners. The 2021 Honda CR-V is an SUV that has gained a lot of attention. … In fact, this model struggles with the electrical system, engine and structure, leaving it with many disappointed owners.
Is the Honda CVT transmission any good?
The goods news here is that Honda makes some of the most reliable CVTs on the market today. Few owners have made complaints on Honda CVT reliability issues. It’s especially jarring compared to the problematic CVTs that Nissan has in their cars.
Is Honda CR-V CVT transmission reliable?
Honda’s CVT transmissions are pretty much bulletproof and they are one of the best on the market. There were not many reports of these transmissions failing all of a sudden except a small recall that was reported in 2015 when the production was started.
Does a 2020 Honda CR-V have a CVT transmission?
The engine in the 2020 Honda CR-V is a 1.5L inline 4-cylinder turbo. Coupled with this engine is a continuously variable transmission (CVT). Drivers can take advantage of a maximum of 190 horsepower at 5,600 RPM. Torque can reach 179 lb-ft at 2,000 RPM.
Does the 2015 Honda CR-V have a CVT transmission?
The last word in functional, utilitarian crossovers will now move even further towards the middle of the road, as the Honda CR-V adopts a CVT for its mid-cycle refresh. Replacing the outdated 5-speed automatic, the CVT gearbox is, by our own EIC’s admission, a fantastic transmission.
What goes wrong with Honda CR-V?
Other common complaints of the Honda CR-V 2011 are problems with the clutch, faulty air conditioning compressors, and premature tire wear. Leaking steering fluid is also a common complaint in this model. One of the most hazardous problems reported is with the airbags.
What year Honda CRV have transmission problems?
Owners of the model year 2007-2010 Honda CR-V also have several complaints regarding the transmission. Examples are that the transmission is faulty and the vehicle shudders in low gears, the vehicle will not shift out of park, and the vehicle stalls and accelerates and decelerates on its own.
How much does it cost to replace a Honda CR-V transmission?
Honda CRV Transmission Cost
The cost of a new Honda CRV transmission could be over $3,500 depending on the car, however, transmission services such as fluid changes and a transmission fluid flush are considerably less expensive, in some cases costing less than $150.


ABB hails motor drives’ world impact on energy savings
March 27, 2015 - According to ABB, the “unsung heroes of the energy world” are motor drives, which act like an accelerator pedal that speeds up or slows down a vehicle in proportion to driving conditions.
March 27, 2015 By Renée Francoeur
The installed base of drives “save energy and keep CO2 emissions out of the atmosphere” because they are regulated “so precisely” and because motors are the “major consumers of energy produced for industry,” said the company.
ABB tallied what the company’s drives saved the globe in 2014; in energy consumption, the installed base saved 445 TWh. This is equivalent to what 110 million households use in energy—when each home consumes, on average, 4,000 kWh annually, said ABB, noting that average is from 2005, the year for which the latest statistics are available.
“If that amount of energy would have been generated by fossil-fuel-powered electricity plants, these drives reduced CO2 emissions by 370 million tons,” claimed the company.
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domain: game


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There's nothing like a good book and the African American Writers Book Discussion Group (AAWBDG) reads one each month. This club has been reading and discussing books written by black authors for more than 20 years. Membership is open to all adults (age 18 and older) and meets 7 p.m. on the third Thursday of the month, mostly at the Topeka and Shawnee County Public Library, 1515 SW 10th Avenue. Click here to reserve books from the library. Contact Vince Omni, 785-213-0138 or firstname.lastname@example.org, for more information.
"Citizen" by Claudia Rankine
7 p.m. Thursday, September 15, 2016
Claudia Rankine's bold new book recounts mounting racial aggressions in ongoing encounters in twenty-first-century daily life and in the media. Some of these encounters are slights, seeming slips of the tongue, and some are intentional offensives in the classroom, at the supermarket, at home, on the tennis court with Serena Williams and the soccer field with Zinedine Zidane, online, on TV-everywhere, all the time. The accumulative stresses come to bear on a person's ability to speak, perform, and stay alive. Our addressability is tied to the state of our belonging, Rankine argues, as are our assumptions and expectations of citizenship. In essay, image, and poetry, Citizen is a powerful testament to the individual and collective effects of racism in our contemporary, often named "post-race" society.
Reserve a copy of this book through the Topeka and Shawnee County Public Library.

domain: library


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How do we measure our lives? In seconds past, in accomplishments in our careers, how much money we have accumulated (lost that one), by our children, by just surviving? I guess it’s up to each one of us individually to decide how we will measure our own life. Another question some people ponder is… If you could do it over again would you make the same decisions? This is a tough one. Maybe some decisions I would and some I wouldn’t. Like a certain job I chose I might have not taken it as an example.
Another way you can put this, is do you have any regrets? I think no matter how you lived your life or what decisions you made there will always be some regret. I mean no one lives the perfect life. By no means am I considering my life done, but at periodic times I think we all do some reflection. I could second guess myself on almost all my decisions except for one. Marisia my wife was one of the best decisions I have made in my life. On her birthday I am writing this to proclaim to the world that on this one aspect of my life I did choose the right person. Is it perfect no, but it was the right decision for me, I needed her more than I think she needed me. As a person, deep down I think she improved me, changed me for the better and what ever I have accomplished in my life I do owe to her.
So being the strong male of the species that is not suppose to show emotion or shall I say hide my feelings, this is my attempt to put it out there for all to see! For all to know that without this woman I am nothing, in fact they say the “two shall be one,” well I think I was 40% and she was at least 60% (maybe more) of the one!
So I guess I measure my life by how succesful I was in finding the right partner.
Thank you Marisia!

domain: literature


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SILCHAR, May 9 � The Silchar Rongali Bihu Sammelan will celebrate Rongali Bihu here at the Deshbhakta Tarun Ram Phukan HS School on May 10 and 11.
Jiten Medhi, working president of the Sammelan said that the celebrations will not only add on to the festive spirits, but will also be an endeavour to lessen the divide between the two Valleys. Elaborating on the celebrations, Medhi said there will be a cultural rally which will be flagged off from the school. It will snake its way across the main streets of Silchar town before culminating at the school. Also there will be various competitions like Mou Kunwari, Bihu Husori and cultural events followed by the prize distribution ceremony. He said that local artistes and invited guest artistes from Barak Valley will perform cultural items on the opening day.
On the following day, seven eminent personalities will be felicitated by the Sammelan. Also, a souvenir will be released followed by an attractive cultural programme. Famed artistes Nisha and Nupur, besides guest artistes from Guwahati are scheduled to perform along with Nataraj Bihu group of Guwahati, Medhi informed. The working president therefore urged people from all walks of life to attend the celebrations in order to make it a grand success.


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BEERY VMI Beery-Buktenica Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration– Sixth Edition Starter Kit Ages: 2 through Testing Time: Purpose. The Beery-Buktenica Test, also known as Developmental Test of Visual -Motor Integration or VMI, is designed to identify deficits in visual perception. Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration – 6 (VMI-6) (Beery VMI). Authors: Keith E. Beery, PhD / Norman A. Buktenica / Natasha A. Beery, MS.
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Open in a separate window. Can be used by preschool and kindergarten teachers as well as parents.
Handwriting capacity in children newly diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. The Beery VMI helps assess the extent to which individuals can integrate their visual and motor abilities. Adult norms, collected inare based on a sample of 1, individuals from 19 to years of age. As culture-free, non-verbal assessment, the Beery VMI is useful with individuals of diverse environmental, educational, and linguistic backgrounds.
Institutional review board approval was obtained, as well as consent from the parents of all participants. Occupational Therapy International131— The sixth edition of this highly acclaimed test measures visual—motor integration in children and adults. The Short Format and Full Format tests present drawings of geometric forms arranged in order of increasing difficulty that the individual is asked to copy.
More than activities for teachers to use with children from visual-mltor through developmenfal 6. Go to the Teaching Materials page.
Show my email publicly. While test visual-jotor has not changed, the child and adult test forms have been combined, making the VMI more convenient for clinicians who work with people of all ages.
Discriminant validity of the Developmental Test of Visual—Motor Integration in relation to children with handwriting dysfunction. See also Cognitive development ; Fine motor skills. Adult norms, collected inare based on a sample of 1, individuals from 19 to years of age. We thank the therapists and teachers who supported the implementation of the study in their schools.
They noted changes in handwriting, but no significant change in VMI scores. The item Short Form was used in this study because it is designed for use with children ages 2—7 yr.
Beery-Buktenica Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration, Sixth Edition, The
There is no media. Published online Jun Standard scores, percentiles, age equivalents Scoring Options: A raw score based on the number of correct copies is converted based on norms for each age group, and results are reported as converted scores and percentiles.
My Book of Letters and Numbers – Provides exercises for use with students in the second semester of kindergarten. The MHA is norm referenced for the second half of first grade and all of second grade; therefore, it was administered to only the first and second graders in this study. Have a question or need some help? Factors that relate to good and poor handwriting. It also reports recent medical and neuropsychological applications of the VMI.
Includes paper-and-pencil exercises focusing on alphanumeric skills. VMI “My Book of Shapes” paper-and-pencil exercises that provide a foundation for learning number and letter shapes.
Brusilovskiy, in press, OTJR: This modification was desired because the premise of the intervention was the primacy of letter berry-buktenica in legibility. Two well-established handwriting measures and the VMI were administered pre- and postintervention. Procedures Institutional review board approval was obtained, as well as consent from the parents of all participants.
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Support Center Support Center. The Beery VMI was standardized on a national sample of 1, individuals age 2 to twst years and 1, adults agesand has proven reliability and validity. Off Massachusetts, students were randomized by classroom assignment to either a treatment or a nontreatment control group by simple random selection. Cognition —The act or process of knowing or perceiving.
Individual administration is recommended for the supplemental tests. They were most likely not practicing and copying shapes. More successful testing is achieved when deve,opmental preparatory steps are taken. Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences 2nd ed. The THS—R is a comprehensive handwriting assessment standardized for administration to children ages 6—18 yr. Motor coordination MC —Related to movement of parts of the body, particularly the use of the hands and coordination of eye-hand motion.
Copy of The Beery-Buktenica Developmental Test by J Brunner on Prezi
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The Beery-Buktenica visual-motor integration test is a neuropsychological test that analyzes visual construction skills. Motor learning theory emphasizes the need for consistent practice for permanent learning to take place and for a skill such as handwriting or shape copying to become automatic Poole, Similarly, independent-samples t tests show beerybuktenica the changes on the VMI from the preintervention time point to the postintervention time point were also not significantly different in the experimental and control groups.
By Age Range 0 to 5 years 6 to 12 years 13 to 18 years 19 years and up. WPS Authors Meet our distinguished researchers and authors.

domain: psychology


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Highlights From Violet Starring Sutton Foster at New York City Center’s Encores! Off-Center
New York City Center presented Jeanine Tesori and Brian Crawley’s Violet as the second show in its new Off-Broadway program Encores! Off-Center. The one-night-only concert production featured Sutton Foster in the title role and Joshua Henry and Van Hughes as two young soldiers who befriend and become fascinated with her on a bus trip through the south at the dawn of the Civil Rights era. Violet’s limited run at Playwrights Horizons in 1997 garnered an Obie Award, a Drama Critics' Circle Award for Best Musical and a Lucille Lortel Award for Outstanding Musical. Here the cast performs tunes “Surprised,” “On My Way,” “Let It Sing” and more. Read the Playbill story.
Holed up in a seedy motel on the edge of the Mojave Desert, two former lovers unpack the deep secrets and dark desires of their tangled relationship, passionately tearing each other apart. Led by director Daniel Aukin (Back Back Back at MTC, 4,000 Miles), Tony winner Nina Arianda (Venus in Fur at MTC, Born Yesterday) and Sam Rockwell (A Behanding in Spokane, The Way Way Back) bring an explosive intensity to Sam Shepard’s (Buried Child, True West) landmark myth of the new Wild West.

domain: artistic


Rep. Norm Johnson, R-Yakima, talks about the anti-tax initiative, I-1366, charter schools, and legislation he sponsored to allow four-day class schedules.
Rep. Norm Johnson talked with KLCK about legislation on public disclosure and critical access hospitals.
State Representative Dave Hayes, a longtime law enforcement officer, is calling for the state to tighten the firearm offender registry law.
On this week’s Capitol Report, Rep. Shelly Short, R-Addy, discusses a procedural motion on the House Floor to pass a constitutional amendment that would require a supermajority approval of the... ...
Rep. Terry Nealey talks about environmental regulations and legislation concerning carbon. "Carbon," he said, is a problem, but we can't take a sledgehammer to it."
Rep. Kevin Parker, R-Spokane, talked with Rick Rydell at KXLY. Parker, who can be at turns intense and focused as well as congenial and witty, earned a tinny rim shot from Rydell... ...
Rep. Joe Schmick discusses a procedural motion on the House Floor to pass a constitutional amendment on tax protection.
Keeping Washington green is becoming a full-time job for lawmakers in Olympia. One legislator, Rep. Jesse Young of Gig Harbor, is targeting greenhouse gas emissions.
Johnson: Jesse Young is a Republican from Gig Harbor. He says out-of-control top down management may be damaging the classroom environment. Young: “One more directive, one more directive, one more directive, and now all... ...


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Boy George Claims His Biopic 'Entertaining But Lacking'
Boy George was left unimpressed by a new biopic of his life - the former Culture Club star has branded the BBC drama "lacking" and "badly written". The singer was a consultant for "Worried About The Boy", a dramatization of the singer's early years in the band, which aired last weekend in the U.K.
But the flamboyant star wasn't won over by the show, and has taken to his Twitter page to reveal his opinions of the one-off drama. In a series of posts, he writes, "Verdict, beautifully shot & styled but badly written, it lacks heart and soul! It's what happens when straight blokes write about p**fs, one dimensional but great drag! I'm glad the doc was made... it was entertaining but lacking!"
Beside made into film, Boy George's memoirs has previously been documented in autobiographies titled "Take It Like a Man" and "Straight".
- Miley Cyrus and Katy Perry Go Door to Door for Hillary Clinton at College Dorms
- Watch: Lady GaGa Performs 'Joanne' Songs on 'SNL'
- Tom Hanks Plays 'Black Jeopardy' as Donald Trump's Supporter on 'SNL'
- Bob Dylan Called 'Arrogant' for Ignoring Nobel Prize Win
- 'Doctor Strange' Star Tilda Swinton Wants Her Own Marvel Movie
- Jay-Z Makes History as Nominee for 2017 Songwriters Hall of Fame
- Police Called to Larsa and Scottie Pippen's House Before Divorce Announcement
- Did Madonna Just Clap Back at Lady GaGa With This Meme?

domain: celebrity


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Professional Handmade Watercolour
Deep warm amber, fantastic for all sorts of Autumn scenes, can be made transparent or deep depending on the amount of water used.
Our process starts by using only the finest hand-picked Kordofan Gum Arabic Lumps and carefully blending with distilled water, this mixture is left for a few weeks until fully dissolved, we then strain this mixture through unbleached Muslin bags to remove any impurities like straw and sand which is naturally found on the gum when it falls onto the ground from the Acacia tree
Once fully strained we then add in the vegetable glycerine, a touch of biocide and gently blend using one of our mixers to ensure a smooth, fluid consistency
Once made this base mix then undergoes two weeks of quality control testing to ensure the highest possible quality
We then take the finished base mix and carefully mix in the dry pigment power(s) and any other auxiliary materials required to achieve the best possible dispersion of the pigment
Once the pigment is fully “wetted out” into a paste we carefully run this over our triple roll mill with ceramic rollers (we use ceramic rollers as metal rollers can adversely affect some pigments)
After the first run over the mill a sample of the paint is then run over our Hegman Gauge to test the fineness of the grind, we use this method to ensure the pigment has the same particle size as the previous batch, if not we run the paint over the mill again and again until we reach the desired grind
We then test viscosity, density and finally paint out a swatch of the colour against the original finalised paint test swatches
The final paint is then left for a further 2 weeks as part of our quality control process before being hand filled into our tubes, pots or pans and finally labelled
Using distilled water with all our watercolours to keep each pigment at its purest form
Please feel free to message us with any questions you may have
Our watercolours are perfect for artists of all experiences from beginners to advanced who value high-quality materials
Pigment: Synthetic Iron Oxide & Azo Metal Complex Yellow
Pigment c.i number: P.R 101 & P.Y 150
I have not yet had a proper chance to use this but i have swatched it and played with on an experimental painting i am trying.
not really a painting but lots of paint experiments i am trying
This i have been able to use as a tree trunk but also washed over the wet sand colour and then used buttercup yellow wash and the sand look great.
Lovely quality pigment, smooth and rich, as expected. It falls somewhere between the DS range Aussie Red Gold and English Red Ochre but seems to have slightly more radiance and better laying quality.
I love this colour its depth is beautiful. It seems like a richer version of Burnt Sienna . It’s a new essential colour in my repertoire.
this is an excellent warm colour which I am going to use for autumn land scapes and experiement with other colour mixes and will be an excellent versitile colour for my new limited pallette
Beautiful colour, the more you add water the more it changes colour. I love these paints
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domain: hobby