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ContentsThe CIMA Learning System xviiAcknowledgements xviiHow to use the CIMA Learning System xviiGuide to the Icons used within this Text xviiiStudy technique xviiiPaper F1 – Financial Operations xxi1 Principles of Business Taxation – Introduction 1Learning Outcomes 3Learning aims 31.1 Introduction 31.2 Taxation as a source of government revenue 41.3 Principles of taxation 41.3.1 Canons of taxation 41.3.2 The American Institute of Certiﬁed Public Accountants’ (AICPA)statement – Guiding Principles of Good Tax Policy:A Framework for Evaluating Tax Proposals 51.4 Basic tax terminology 51.4.1 Direct taxes 51.4.2 Indirect taxes 61.4.3 Incidence 61.4.4 Taxable person 61.4.5 Competent jurisdiction 61.4.6 Hypothecation 71.4.7 Withholding responsibilities 71.4.8 Tax rate structure 71.4.9 The tax gap 81.5 Tax bases and classiﬁcation of taxes 81.6 Sources of tax rules 91.7 Summary 9Revision Questions 11Solutions to Revision Questions 132 Direct Taxes on Company Proﬁts and Gains 15Learning Outcome 172.1 Introduction 17iii
FINANCIAL OPERATIONS F1ivCONTENTS2.2 The corporate tax base 182.2.1 Schedular systems of corporate taxation 182.2.2 Classiﬁcation of income 192.2.3 Expenditure 202.2.4 Capital gains 232.3 Nominal corporate tax rates 242.4 The interaction of the corporate tax system with the personal tax system 242.4.1 Classical system 252.4.2 Imputation system 252.4.3 Partial imputation system 252.4.4 Split rate systems 252.4.5 Examples to illustrate the difference between traditional andimputation systems 262.5 Rules recharacterising interest as dividends 262.6 Treatment of losses 272.6.1 Trading losses 272.6.2 Capital losses 272.6.3 Cessation of business 282.7 Principles of relief for foreign taxes 282.8 The concept of tax consolidation 282.8.1 Capital losses and tax groups 292.9 Summary 29Revision Questions 31Solutions to Revision Questions 353 Indirect Taxes and Employee Taxation 37Learning Outcomes 393.1 Introduction 393.2 Indirect taxes collected by the entity 403.2.1 Unit taxes and ad valorem taxes 403.3 Consumption taxes 403.3.1 Single-stage sales taxes 403.3.2 Multi-stage sales taxes 403.4 Value-added tax 413.4.1 Transactions liable to VAT 423.5 Indirect taxes paid by the entity 433.5.1 Excise duties 433.5.2 Property taxes 443.5.3 Wealth taxes 443.6 Employee taxation 453.6.1 The employee as a separate taxable person subject to a personalincome tax regime 453.6.2 Social security contributions 463.6.3 Other payroll taxes 463.7 Use of employer reporting and withholding to ensure compliance andassist tax collection 46
vFINANCIAL OPERATIONSCONTENTS3.8 Example of the tax regime information given in the exam 473.9 Summary 47Revision Questions 49Solutions to Revision Questions 534 Administration of Taxation 57Learning Outcomes 594.1 Introduction 594.2 The need for record-keeping and record retention 604.2.1 Corporate income tax 604.2.2 Sales tax or VAT 604.2.3 Overseas subsidiaries 614.2.4 Employee taxes and social security 614.3 The need for deadlines for reporting (ﬁling returns) and tax payments 614.4 Types of powers of tax authorities to ensure compliance with tax rules 624.4.1 Power to review and query ﬁled returns 624.4.2 Power to request special reports or returns 624.4.3 Power to examine records (generally extending back some years) 634.4.4 Powers of entry and search 634.4.5 Exchange of information with tax authorities in otherjurisdictions 634.5 Tax avoidance and tax evasion 634.5.1 Tax evasion 644.5.2 Tax avoidance 644.5.3 Statutory general anti-avoidance provisions and case law regimes 644.6 Forum on tax administration 654.7 International tax dialogue 654.8 Summary 66Revision Questions 67Solutions to Revision Questions 695 International Taxation 71Learning Outcomes 735.1 Introduction 735.2 The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development(OECD) – Model tax convention 735.3 The concept of corporate residence 745.3.1 Place of control and central management of an entity 745.3.2 Place of incorporation 745.3.3 Place of control and place of incorporation 745.4 The OECD Articles of the model convention with respect to taxes onincome and on capital 755.5 Withholding tax 755.6 Underlying tax 765.7 Means of establishing a taxable presence in another country 765.7.1 Subsidiary 765.7.2 Branch 77
FINANCIAL OPERATIONS F1viCONTENTS5.8 Double taxation treaties 775.8.1 The OECD model tax convention 785.9 Summary 78Revision Questions 79Solutions to Revision Questions 836 Taxation in Financial Statements 85Learning Outcome 876.1 Introduction 876.2 Calculation of current tax 886.3 Accounting for current tax 886.4 Calculation of deferred tax 896.4.1 Introduction to deferred tax 896.4.2 Timing difference approach 906.4.3 Temporary difference approach 916.4.4 Deferred tax assets 936.4.5 Tax losses 936.5 Accounting for deferred tax 946.6 Income tax charge 956.7 Disclosure 966.8 Summary 96Revision Questions 97Solutions to Revision Questions 1017 The IASC and the Standard-Setting Process 105Learning Outcomes 107Learning aims 1077.1 The need for regulation of ﬁnancial statements 1087.2 Variation from country to country 1087.2.1 Sources of ﬁnance and capital markets 1087.2.2 The political system 1087.2.3 Entity ownership 1097.2.4 Cultural differences 1097.3 Harmonisation versus standardisation 1097.3.1 The need for harmonisation of accounting standards 1097.4 Elements that might be expected in a regulatory framework forpublished accounts 1107.4.1 Local law that applies to entities 1107.4.2 Locally adopted accounting standards 1117.4.3 Local stock exchange requirements 1117.4.4 International body requirements 1117.4.5 International accounting standards 1117.4.6 Locally developed or international conceptual framework foraccounting 1117.5 Generally accepted accounting practice (GAAP) 111
viiFINANCIAL OPERATIONSCONTENTS7.6 The International Accounting Standards Committee Foundation(IASC Foundation) 1127.6.1 Structure of the IASC Foundation 1137.6.2 IASC Foundation 1137.6.3 The International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) 1147.6.4 The International Financial Reporting InterpretationsCommittee (IFRIC) 1147.6.5 The Standards Advisory Council (SAC) 1157.7 Objectives of the IASC Foundation 1157.8 The International Organisation of Securities Commissions (IOSCO) 1157.9 Local regulatory bodies 1167.9.1 Convergence activities 1167.9.2 International reaction 1167.10 The standard-setting process 1177.10.1 Development of a standard 1177.10.2 Other aspects of due process 1187.10.3 Co-ordination with national standard-setting 1187.10.4 Benchmark treatments and allowed alternatives 1187.11 Ways in which IFRS’s are used by countries 1187.11.1 Adoption as local GAAP 1197.11.2 Model for local GAAP 1197.11.3 Persuasive inﬂuence in formulating local GAAP 1197.11.4 Local GAAP developed with little or no reference to IFRS’s 1197.12 Summary 119Revision Questions 121Solutions to Revision Questions 1258 Regulatory Framework 129Learning Outcome 1318.1 Introduction 1318.2 The development of the Framework 1328.2.1 Purpose of the Framework 1328.2.2 Status of the Framework 1328.2.3 Scope of the Framework 1328.3 The Framework 1338.3.1 The objective of ﬁnancial statements 1338.3.2 Underlying assumptions 1338.3.3 The qualitative characteristics of ﬁnancial information 1348.3.4 The elements of ﬁnancial statements 1358.3.5 Recognition of the elements of ﬁnancial statements 1368.3.6 Measurement of the elements of ﬁnancial statements 1368.3.7 Concepts of capital and capital maintenance 1368.4 Usefulness of a conceptual Framework 1378.5 The IASB’s Framework and the standard-setting process 1388.6 Summary 138Revision Questions 139Solutions to Revision Questions 143
FINANCIAL OPERATIONS F1viiiCONTENTS9 The Role of the External Auditor 147Learning Outcome 1499.1 External audit 1499.1.1 The purpose of an audit 1499.1.2 The auditor’s duties 1509.1.3 The powers of auditors 1519.1.4 The audit process 1519.2 The audit report 1529.2.1 A closer look at the report 1549.3 Modiﬁed audit reports 1569.3.1 Materiality 1579.3.2 The wording of a modiﬁed audit report 1589.3.3 Independent auditor’s report showing qualiﬁed opinion 1599.3.4 Independant auditor’s report-adverse opinion 1609.4 Summary 161Revision Questions 163Solutions to Revision Questions 16710 CIMA Code of Ethics for Professional Accountants 171Learning Outcomes 17310.1 Fundamental principles of the code 17310.1.1 Integrity 17310.1.2 Objectivity 17410.1.3 Professional competence and due care 17410.1.4 Conﬁdentiality 17510.2 Section 220 of CIMA’s code of conduct preparation and reportingof information 17611 Published Financial Statements 179Learning Outcome 181Learning aims 18111.1 Introduction 18111.2 General requirements 18211.2.1 Purpose of ﬁnancial statements 18211.2.2 Responsibility for ﬁnancial statements 18311.2.3 Components of ﬁnancial statements 18311.2.4 Fair presentation and compliance with IFRSs 18311.2.5 Other requirements affecting the preparation of ﬁnancialstatements 18411.3 The statement of ﬁnancial position 18511.3.1 Specimen statement of ﬁnancial position 18511.3.2 Information to be presented in the statement of ﬁnancialposition 18611.3.3 Information to be presented either in the statement ofﬁnancial position or in the notes 18711.3.4 Share capital and reserves disclosures 18811.3.5 The current/non-current distinction 188
ixFINANCIAL OPERATIONSCONTENTS11.3.6 Current assets 18911.3.7 Current liabilities 18911.4 The statement of comprehensive income 18911.4.1 Information to be presented in the statement ofcomprehensive income 19011.4.2 Specimen statements of comprehensive income 19011.4.3 Information to be presented either in the statement ofcomprehensive income or in the notes 19211.5 Changes in equity 19411.5.1 Format for the statement of changes in equity 19411.6 Notes to ﬁnancial statements 19511.6.1 Accounting policies 19611.7 An illustrative question 19611.8 Summary 201Revision Questions 203Solutions to Revision Questions 20912 Reporting Financial Performance 215Learning Outcome 21712.1 Introduction 21712.2 IAS 18 Revenue Recognition 21812.2.1 Introduction 21812.2.2 Sale of goods 21812.2.3 Rendering of services 21812.2.4 Interest, royalties and dividends 21812.2.5 Disclosure requirements 21812.3 Proﬁt or loss for the period 21912.3.1 Extraordinary items 21912.3.2 Proﬁt or loss from ordinary activities 21912.4 Deﬁnitions – Accounting policies, accounting estimates and errors 22012.5 Changes in accounting policies 22012.5.1 Treatment and disclosure 22012.6 Changes in accounting estimates 22212.7 Errors 22212.7.1 Treatment and disclosure 22312.8 Discontinuing operations 22412.8.1 Objective 22412.8.2 Deﬁnition of a discontinued operation 22512.8.3 Measurement of a non-current asset (or disposal group)held for sale 22612.8.4 Presentation and disclosure 22612.9 International ﬁnancial reporting standard 8 Operating Segments(IFRS 8) 23012.9.1 IFRS 8 Operating Segments – core principle 23012.9.2 Deﬁnition of operating segment 23112.9.3 Reportable segments 23112.9.4 Segment accounting policies 23112.9.5 Disclosure 232
FINANCIAL OPERATIONS F1xCONTENTS12.9.6 Reconciliations 23312.9.7 Information about geographical areas 23412.9.8 Information about major customers 23412.10 Main differences between IAS 14 Segment Reporting and IFRS 8Operating Segments 23512.11 Summary 236Revision Questions 237Solutions to Revision Questions 24313 Statement of Cash Flows 249Learning Outcome 25113.1 Introduction 25113.2 Objective of IAS 7 Statement of Cash Flows 25213.3 Statement of cash ﬂows format 25213.3.1 Cash ﬂows from operating activities 25313.3.2 Cash ﬂows from investing activities 25513.3.3 Cash ﬂows from ﬁnancing activities 25513.3.4 Increase (or decrease) in cash and cash equivalentsduring period 25513.4 A worked example 25613.4.1 Worked example 25613.4.2 Cash ﬂow from operations 25813.4.3 Cash ﬂows from investing activities 26113.4.4 Cash ﬂows from ﬁnancing activities 26213.4.5 The statement of cash ﬂows 26213.5 Interpreting a statement of cash ﬂows 26313.6 Summary 263Revision Questions 265Solutions to Revision Questions 27314 Accounting for Investments in Subsidiary’sand Associates 281Learning Outcome 28314.1 Introduction 28314.2 Accounting for investments 28314.3 Investment in associates 28414.4 Investment in subsidiaries 28414.4.1 The principle of control 28414.4.2 The requirement to prepare consolidated ﬁnancial statements 28614.4.3 Exclusion from preparing consolidated accounts 28614.4.4 Goodwill 28614.4.5 IFRS 3 Business combinations 28714.4.6 Fair values in acquisition accounting 28714.5 Summary 290Revision Questions 291Solutions to Revision Questions 293
xiFINANCIAL OPERATIONSCONTENTS15 The Consolidated Statement of Financial Position 295Learning Outcome 29715.1 Introduction 29715.2 Applying the principles of consolidation: the consolidated statementof ﬁnancial position 29715.2.1 Goodwill 30015.2.2 Bargain purchases 30215.3 The elimination of intragroup balances 30215.4 Intra-group loans and preference shares 30415.5 The treatment of unrealised proﬁts on assets bought from groupcompanies 30415.6 Adjustments for fair value at the date of acquisition 30715.7 Summary 309Revision Questions 311Solutions to Revision Questions 31716 The Consolidated Statements of ComprehensiveIncome 321Learning Outcomes 32316.1 Introduction 32316.2 Basic principles 32316.3 Intra-group trading 32416.4 Summary 326Revision Questions 327Solutions to Revision Questions 32917 Associates 331Learning Outcome 33317.1 Introduction 33317.2 Accounting for associates 33417.2.1 Equity accounting 33417.3 Fair values and accounting policies 33717.4 Summary 337Revision Questions 339Solutions to Revision Questions 34118 Non-current Tangible Asset Standards 343Learning Outcome 34518.1 IAS 16 Property, Plant and Equipment 34518.1.1 Objective 34518.2 Revision of some deﬁnitions in IAS 16 34518.2.1 Property, plant and equipment 34618.2.2 Carrying amount 34618.2.3 Cost 34618.2.4 Depreciable amount 346
FINANCIAL OPERATIONS F1xiiCONTENTS18.2.5 Depreciation 34618.2.6 Fair value 34618.2.7 Impairment loss 34618.2.8 Recoverable amount 34618.2.9 Residual value 34618.2.10 Useful life 34618.3 Recognition 34718.3.1 Elements of cost 34718.3.2 Self-constructed assets 34718.3.3 Recognising parts of an asset as separate assets 34718.4 Measurement 34718.4.1 Cost model 34818.4.2 Revaluation model 34818.5 Subsequent expenditure 34818.6 Accounting for depreciation 34818.6.1 Review of useful life 34918.6.2 Depreciation method 35018.7 Retirements and disposals 35018.8 Revaluation of assets 35118.8.1 Revaluation surplus 35118.8.2 Revaluation deﬁcits 35218.8.3 Disposal of a revalued asset 35218.9 Disclosure requirements 35418.10 IAS 23 Borrowing Costs (revised 2007) 35418.10.1 Introduction 35418.10.2 Borrowing costs – accounting treatment 35418.10.3 Interest rate 35418.10.4 Period of capitalisation 35418.10.5 Disclosure 35518.11 Available for sale ﬁnancial assets 35518.12 Summary 355Revision Questions 357Solutions to Revision Questions 36319 Accounting for Leases 367Learning Outcome 36919.1 Introduction 36919.2 Key deﬁnitions 37019.3 Characteristics of leases 37019.3.1 Finance leases 37019.3.2 Operating leases 37119.3.3 Leases of land and buildings 37119.4 Accounting for operating leases 37219.4.1 Rent-free period 37219.4.2 Cashback incentives 37319.5 Disclosures for operating leases 37319.6 Accounting for ﬁnance leases 374
xiiiFINANCIAL OPERATIONSCONTENTS19.7 Calculating the implied interest on ﬁnance leases 37619.7.1 In advance/in arrears 38019.8 Disclosures for ﬁnance leases 38119.9 Summary 383Revision Questions 385Solutions to Revision Questions 38920 Inventories and Construction Contracts 397Learning Outcome 39920.1 Introduction 39920.2 IAS 2 Inventories 40020.2.1 Deﬁnition of inventories 40020.2.2 Measurement 40020.2.3 Determining cost 40020.2.4 Costs not included in cost of inventory 40020.2.5 Allocation of overheads 40120.2.6 Calculation of costs 40220.2.7 Allowed alternative method 40220.2.8 Disclosures for inventories 40220.3 IAS 11 Construction Contracts 40220.3.1 General principle 40220.3.2 Accounting treatment 40320.3.3 Sales revenue 40420.3.4 Recognisable contract proﬁts 40520.3.5 Expected contract losses 40620.3.6 Uncertain outcome 40720.3.7 Inventories 40820.3.8 Receivables 40920.3.9 Payables 40920.3.10 Provisions for foreseeable losses 41020.3.11 Disclosure requirements 41020.3.12 Illustrations from IAS 11 41020.3.13 A comprehensive example 41420.4 Summary 416Revision Questions 417Solutions to Revision Questions 42321 Non-current Intangible Assets 427Learning Outcome 42921.1 Introduction 42921.1.1 Objective of IAS 38 Intangible Assets 42921.1.2 Recognition and initial measurement 43021.1.3 Internally generated goodwill 43021.1.4 Internally generated intangible asset 43121.1.5 Subsequent expenditure 43221.1.6 Subsequent measurement 433
FINANCIAL OPERATIONS F1xivCONTENTS21.1.7 Amortisation 43321.1.8 Impairment losses 43421.1.9 Retirements and disposals 43421.1.10 Disclosure 43421.2 Purchased goodwill 43521.2.1 Purchased goodwill – recognition and measurement 43521.2.2 Negative purchased goodwill 43521.3 IAS 36 Impairment of Assets 43621.3.1 Introduction 43621.3.2 Procedures to check for impairment 43621.3.3 Recognition and measurement of an impairment loss 43621.4 Disclosure of impairments 43921.5 Summary 439Revision Questions 441Solutions to Revision Questions 44722 Share Capital Transactions 453Learning Outcome 45522.1 Introduction 45522.2 IAS 1 requirements 45622.2.1 Interests of shareholders 45622.2.2 Disclosures 45622.3 Different classes of shares 45722.4 IAS 32 Financial Instruments – Presentation 45822.5 Issue of shares 45922.5.1 Process 45922.5.2 Accounting for the issue of shares 46022.5.3 Share issue costs, redemption costs and dividends 46422.5.4 Redeemable shares 46422.5.5 Convertible debt 46522.6 Bonus issues 46522.6.1 Process 46522.6.2 Accounting for a bonus issue 46622.7 Accounting for a rights issue 46722.8 Accounting for treasury shares 46722.9 The purchase and redemption of shares 46822.9.1 Purchases out of distributable proﬁts 46922.10 Summary 471Revision Questions 473Solutions to Revision Questions 47723 Recognition and Disclosure of Other SigniﬁcantAccounting Transactions 481Learning Outcome 48323.1 Introduction 483
xvFINANCIAL OPERATIONSCONTENTS23.2 IAS 10 Events After the Reporting Period 48423.2.1 Introduction 48423.2.2 Deﬁnitions 48423.2.3 Adjusting events 48423.2.4 Non-adjusting events 48523.3 Proposed dividends 48523.4 Going concern 48523.5 Disclosure requirements of IAS 10 48623.6 IAS 37 Provisions, Contingent Liabilities and Contingent Assets 48623.6.1 Introduction 48623.6.2 Provisions 48623.6.3 Measurement of provisions 48723.6.4 Provision for decommissioning costs 48723.6.5 Provision for warranties 48723.7 Contingent liabilities and contingent assets 48823.8 Problems with IAS 37 as regards contingencies 48923.9 Related party disclosures 48923.10 Deﬁnitions 49023.10.1 Exclusions 49023.11 Disclosure 49123.11.1 Disclosure of control 49123.11.2 Disclosure of transactions and balances 49123.11.3 Examples of related party transactions 49223.12 Summary 492Revision Questions 493Solutions to Revision Questions 499Preparing for the Examination 503Revision technique 505Planning 505Getting down to work 506Tips for the ﬁnal revision phase 506Exam Q & As 507Index 509
xviiThe CIMALearning SystemAcknowledgementsEvery effort has been made to contact the holders of copyright material, but if any herehave been inadvertently overlooked, the publishers will be pleased to make the necessaryarrangements at the ﬁrst opportunity.We would also like to thank Mike Rogers for his invaluable contribution as the revieweralso Tom Rolfe author of previous editions of this text.How to use the CIMA Learning SystemThis Financial Operations Learning Systems has been devised as a resource for studentsattempting to pass their CIMA exams, and provides:● a detailed explanation of all syllabus areas;● extensive ‘practical’ materials, including readings from relevant journals;● generous question practice, together with full solutions;● an exam preparation section, complete with exam standard questions and solutions.This Learning System has been designed with the needs of home-study and distance-learningcandidates in mind. Such students require full coverage of the syllabus topics, and alsothe facility to undertake extensive question practice. However, the Learning System is alsoideal for fully taught courses.The main body of the text is divided into a number of chapters, each of which is organ-ised in the following pattern:● Detailed learning outcomes. These outcomes are expected after your studies of the chap-ters are complete. You should assimilate these before beginning detailed work on thechapter, so that you can appreciate where your studies are leading.● Step-by-step topic coverage. This is the heart of each chapter, containing detailed explana-tory text supported where appropriate by worked examples and exercises. You shouldwork carefully through this section, ensuring that you understand the material beingexplained and can tackle the examples and exercises successfully. Remember that inmany cases knowledge is cumulative: if you fail to digest the earlier material thoroughly,you may struggle to understand later chapters.● Readings and activities. Most chapters are illustrated by more practical elements, suchas relevant journal articles or other readings, together with comments and questionsdesigned to stimulate discussion.● Question practice. The test of how well you have learned the material is your ability to tackleexam-standard questions. Make a serious attempt at producing your own answers, butat this stage don’t be too concerned about attempting the questions in exam conditions.
THECIMALEARNINGSYSTEMFINANCIAL OPERATIONS F1xviiiIn particular, it is more important to absorb the material thoroughly by completing a fullsolution than to observe the time limits that would apply in the actual exam.● Solutions. Avoid the temptation to merely ‘audit’ the solutions provided. It is an illusionto think that this provides the same beneﬁts as you would gain from a serious attempt ofyour own. However, if you are struggling to get started on a question, you should readthe introductory guidance provided at the beginning of the solution, and then makeyour own attempt before referring back to the full solution.Having worked through the chapters, you are ready to begin your ﬁnal preparations forthe examination. The ﬁnal section of the CIMA Learning System provides you with theguidance you need. It includes the following features:● A brief guide to revision technique.● A note on the format of the examination. You should know what to expect when youtackle the real exam, and in particular the number of questions to attempt, which ques-tions are compulsory and which optional, and so on.● Guidance on how to tackle the examination itself.● A table mapping revision questions to the syllabus learning outcomes allowing you toquickly identify questions by subject area.● Revision questions. These are of exam standard and should be tackled in exam condi-tions, especially as regards the time allocation.● Solutions to the revision questions. As before, these indicate the length and the qualityof solution that would be expected of a well-prepared candidate.If you work conscientiously through this CIMA Learning System according to the guide-lines above, you will be giving yourself an excellent chance of exam success. Good luckwith your studies!Guide to the Icons used within this TextKey term or deﬁnitionEquation to learnExam tip to topic likely to appear in the examExerciseQuestionSolutionComment or NoteStudy techniquePassing exams is partly a matter of intellectual ability, but however accomplished you are inthat respect, you can improve your chances signiﬁcantly by the use of appropriate study andrevision techniques. In this section we brieﬂy outline some tips for effective study during theearlier stages of your approach to the exam. Later in the text we mention some techniquesthat you will ﬁnd useful at the revision stage.
THECIMALEARNINGSYSTEMxixFINANCIAL OPERATIONSPlanningTo begin with, formal planning is essential to get the best return from the time you spendstudying. Estimate how much time you are going to need in total for each subject that youface. Remember that you need to allow time for revision as well as for initial study of thematerial. The amount of notional study time for any subject is the minimum estimatedtime that students will need to achieve the speciﬁed learning outcomes set out earlier inthis chapter. This time includes all appropriate learning activities, for example, face-to-facetuition, private study, directed home study, learning at the workplace, revision time, etc.You may ﬁnd it helpful to read Better exam results by Sam Malone, CIMA Publishing,ISBN: 075066357X. This book will provide you with proven study techniques. Chapterby chapter it covers the building blocks of successful learning and examination techniques.The notional study time for Operational Level – Financial Operations is 200 hours. Notethat the standard amount of notional learning hours attributed to one full-time academicyear of approximately 30 weeks is 1200 hours.By way of example, the notional study time might be made up as follows:HoursFace-to-face study: up to 60Personal study: up to 100‘Other’ study – e.g. learning at the workplace, revision, etc.: up to 40200Note that all study and learning-time recommendations should be used only as a guide-line and are intended as minimum amounts. The amount of time recommended forface-to-face tuition, personal study and/or additional learning will vary according to thetype of course undertaken, prior learning of the student, and the pace at which differentstudents learn.Now split your total time requirement over the weeks between now and the examina-tion. This will give you an idea of how much time you need to devote to study each week.Remember to allow for holidays or other periods during which you will not be able tostudy (e.g. because of seasonal workloads).With your study material before you, decide which chapters you are going to study ineach week, and which weeks you will devote to revision and ﬁnal question practice.Prepare a written schedule summarising the above – and stick to it!The amount of space allocated to a topic in the study material is not a very good guideas to how long it will take you. For example, ‘Financial accounting and reporting’ has aweight of 60 per cent in the syllabus and this is the best guide as to how long you shouldspend on it. It occupies 60 per cent of the main body of the text.It is essential to know your syllabus. As your course progresses you will become morefamiliar with how long it takes to cover topics in sufﬁcient depth. Your timetable may needto be adapted to allocate enough time for the whole syllabus.Tips for effective studying(1) Aim to ﬁnd a quiet and undisturbed location for your study, and plan as far as possibleto use the same period of time each day. Getting into a routine helps to avoid wastingtime. Make sure that you have all the materials you need before you begin, so as tominimise interruptions.
THECIMALEARNINGSYSTEMFINANCIAL OPERATIONS F1xx(2) Store all your materials in one place, so that you don’t waste time searching for itemsaround the house. If you have to pack everything away after each study period, keepthem in a box, or even a suitcase, which won’t be disturbed until the next time.(3) Limit distractions. To make the most effective use of your study periods, you shouldbe able to apply total concentration, so turn off the TV, set your phones to messagemode, and put up your ‘do not disturb’ sign.(4) Your timetable will tell you which topic to study. However, before diving in andbecoming engrossed in the ﬁner points, make sure you have an overall picture of allthe areas that need to be covered by the end of that session. After an hour, allow your-self a short break and move away from your books. With experience, you will learn toassess the pace you need to work at. You should also allow enough time to read rel-evant articles from newspapers and journals, which will supplement your knowledgeand demonstrate a wider perspective.(5) Work carefully through a chapter, making notes as you go. When you have covereda suitable amount of material, vary the pattern by attempting a practice question.Preparing an answer plan is a good habit to get into, while you are both studying andrevising, and also in the examination room. It helps to impose a structure on yoursolutions, and avoids rambling. When you have ﬁnished your attempt, make notes ofany mistakes you made, or any areas that you failed to cover or covered only skimpily.(6) Make notes as you study, and discover the techniques that work best for you. Yournotes may be in the form of lists, bullet points, diagrams, summaries, ‘mind maps’,or the written word, but remember that you will need to refer back to them at a laterdate, so they must be intelligible. If you are on a taught course, make sure you high-light any issues you would like to follow up with your lecturer.(7) Organise your paperwork. There are now numerous paper storage systems available toensure that all your notes, calculations and articles can be effectively ﬁled and easilyretrieved later.
THECIMALEARNINGSYSTEMxxiFINANCIAL OPERATIONSPaper F1 – Financial OperationsSyllabus OverviewThe core objectives of Paper F1 are the preparation of the full ﬁnancial statements fora single company and the principal consolidated ﬁnancial statements for a simple group.Coverage of a wide range of international standards is implicit in these objectives, as speci-ﬁed in the paper’s content. Similarly, understanding the regulatory and ethical context ofﬁnancial reporting, covered in the paper, is vital to ensuring that ﬁnancial statements meetusers’ needs. Principles of taxation are included, not only to support accounting for taxesin ﬁnancial statements, but also as a basis for examining the role of tax in ﬁnancial analy-sis and decision-making within subsequent papers (Paper F2 Financial Management andPaper F3 Financial Strategy).Syllabus StructureThe syllabus comprises the following topics and study weightings:A Principles of Business Taxation 25%B Regulation and Ethics of Financial Reporting 15%C Financial Accounting and Reporting 60%Assessment StrategyThere will be a written examination paper of 3 hours, plus 20 minutes of pre-examinationquestion paper reading time. The examination paper will have the following sections:Section A – 20 marksA variety of compulsory objective test questions, each worth between 2 and 4 marks. Miniscenarios may be given, to which a group of questions relate.Section B – 30 marksSix compulsory short answer questions, each worth 5 marks. A short scenario may begiven, to which some or all questions relate.Section C – 50 marksOne or two compulsory questions. Short scenarios may be given, to which questions relate.
THE CIMA LEARNING SYSTEMFINANCIALOPERATIONSF1xxiiLearning Outcomes and Indicative Syllabus ContentF1 – A. Principles of Business Taxation (25%)Learning OutcomesOn completion of their studies students should be able to:Lead Component Indicative Syllabus Content1. Explain the types of tax that can apply toincorporated businesses, their principles andpotential administrative requirements. (2)(a) identify the principal types of taxation likely to be ofrelevance to an incorporated business in a particularcountry; including direct tax on the company’s tradingproﬁts and capital gains, indirect taxes collected by thecompany, employee taxation and withholding taxes oninternational payments;● Concepts of direct versus indirect taxes, taxableperson and competent jurisdiction. (A)● Types of taxation, including direct tax on thecompany’s trading proﬁts and capital gains,indirect taxes collected by the company,employee taxation and withholding taxes oninternational payments, and their features(e.g. in terms of who ultimately bears the taxcost, withholding responsibilities, principles ofcalculating the tax base). (A, B)● Sources of tax rules (e.g. domestic primarylegislation and court rulings, practice of therelevant taxing authority, supranational bodies,such as the EU in the case of value added/salestax, and international tax treaties). (A, B)● Indirect taxes collected by the company:– In the context of indirect taxes, the distinctionbetween unit taxes (e.g. excise duties based onphysical measures) and ad valorem taxes (e.g.sales tax based on value).(b) describe the features of the principal types of taxationlikely to be of relevance to an incorporated business in aparticular country; (e.g. in terms of who ultimately bearsthe tax cost, withholding responsibilities, principles ofcalculating the tax base);(c) identify and explain key administrative requirements(e.g. record-keeping and record retention rules, ﬁlingand tax payment deadlines) and the possible enquiry andinvestigation powers of taxing authorities associated withthe principal types of taxation likely to be of relevance to anincorporated business;(d) explain the difference in principle between tax avoidanceand tax evasion;(e) illustrate numerically the principles of different types of taxbased on provided information.
THECIMALEARNINGSYSTEMxxiiiFINANCIALOPERATIONS– The mechanism of value added/sales taxes,in which businesses are liable for tax on theiroutputs less credits for tax paid on theirinputs, including the concepts of exemptionand variation in tax rates depending on thetype of output and disallowance of inputcredits for exempt outputs. (B)● Employee taxation:– The employee as a separate taxable personsubject to a personal income tax regime.– Use of employer reporting and withholdingto ensure compliance and assist taxcollection. (B)● The need for record-keeping and recordretention that may be additional to that requiredfor ﬁnancial accounting purposes. (C)● The need for deadlines for reporting (ﬁlingreturns) and tax payments. (C)● Types of powers of tax authorities to ensurecompliance with tax rules:– Power to review and query ﬁled returns.– Power to request special reports or returns.– Power to examine records (generally extendingback some years).– Powers of entry and search.– Exchange of information with tax authoritiesin other jurisdictions. (C)(Continued)
THE CIMA LEARNING SYSTEMFINANCIALOPERATIONSF1xxivF1 – A. Principles of Business Taxation (25%) (continued)Learning OutcomesOn completion of their studies students should be able to:Lead Component Indicative Syllabus Content● The distinction between tax avoidance and taxevasion, and how these vary among jurisdictions(including the difference between the use ofstatutory general anti-avoidance provisions andcase law based regimes). (D)2. Explain fundamental concepts ininternational taxation of incorporatedbusinesses.(a) identify situations in which foreign tax obligations(reporting and liability) could arise and methods forrelieving foreign tax;● International taxation:– The concept of corporate residence and thevariation in rules for its determination acrossjurisdictions (e.g. place of incorporation versusplace of management).– Types of payments on which withholdingtax may be required (especially interest,dividends, royalties and capital gains accruingto non-residents).– Means of establishing a taxable presence inanother country (local company and branch).– The effect of double tax treaties (based on theOECD Model Convention) on the above (e.g.reduction of withholding tax rates, provisionsfor deﬁning a permanent establishment). (A, B)(b) describe and explain sources of tax rules and explain theimportance of jurisdiction.3. Prepare corporate income tax calculationsbased on a given simple set of rules. (3)(a) prepare corporate income tax calculations based on a givensimple set of rules.● Direct taxes on company proﬁts and gains:– The principle of non-deductibility ofdividends and systems of taxation deﬁnedaccording to the treatment of dividends in thehands of the shareholder (e.g. classical, partialimputation and imputation).
THECIMALEARNINGSYSTEMxxvFINANCIALOPERATIONS– The distinction between accounting andtaxable proﬁts in absolute terms (e.g.disallowable expenditure on revenue account,such as entertaining, and on capital account,such as formation and acquisition costs) andin terms of timing (e.g. deduction on a paidbasis).– The concept of tax depreciation replacingbook depreciation in the tax computationand its calculation based on the pooling ofassets by their classes, including balancingadjustments on the disposal of assets.– The nature of rules recharacterising interestpayments as dividends (e.g. where interest isbased on proﬁtability).– Potential for variation in rules for calculatingthe tax base dependent on the nature orsource of the income (schedular systems).– The need for rules dealing with the relief oflosses.– Principles of relief for foreign taxes byexemption, deduction and credit.– The concept of tax consolidation (e.g. forrelief of losses and deferral of capital gains onasset transfers within a group).4. Explain and apply the accounting rulescontained in IAS 12 for current anddeferred taxation, including calculation ofdeferred tax based on a given set of rules. (3)(a) explain and apply the accounting rules contained in IAS 12for current and deferred taxation, including calculation ofdeferred tax based on a given set of rules. (3)● Accounting treatment of taxation and disclosurerequirements under IAS 12.
THE CIMA LEARNING SYSTEMFINANCIALOPERATIONSF1xxviF1 – B. Regulation and Ethics of Financial Reporting (15%)Learning OutcomesOn completion of their studies students should be able to:Lead Component Indicative Syllabus Content1. Explain the need for and methods of regulatingaccounting and ﬁnancial reporting. (2)(a) explain the need for regulation of published accountsand the concept that regulatory regimes vary fromcountry to country;(b) explain potential elements that might be expected in anational regulatory framework for published accounts;(c) describe the role and structure of the InternationalAccounting Standards Board (IASB) and theInternational Organisation of Securities Commissions(IOSCO);(d) describe and explain the meaning of given features orparts of the IASB’s Framework for the Presentation andPreparation of Financial Statements;(e) describe the process leading to the promulgation of anIFRS;● The need for regulation of accounts. (A)● Elements in a regulatory framework for publishedaccounts (e.g. company law, local GAAP, reviewof accounts by public bodies). (B)● GAAP based on prescriptive versus principles-based standards. (B)● The role and structure of the IASB andIOSCO. (C)● The IASB’s Framework for the Presentation andPreparation of Financial Statements. (D)● The process leading to the promulgation of astandard practice. (E)● Ways in which IFRSs are used: adoption as localGAAP, model for local GAAP, persuasive inﬂuencein formulating local GAAP. (F)
THECIMALEARNINGSYSTEMxxviiFINANCIALOPERATIONS(f) describe ways in which IFRSs can interact with localregulatory frameworks;(g) explain in general terms, the role of the externalauditor, the elements of the audit report and types ofqualiﬁcation of that report.● The powers and duties of the external auditors,the audit report and its qualiﬁcation foraccounting statements not in accordance withbest practice. (G)2. Explain the role of ethics in accounting andﬁnancial reporting, and apply the CIMA Codein given hypothetical circumstances (3) applythe provisions of the CIMA Code of Ethics forProfessional Accountants, in given hypotheticalcircumstances.(a) explain the importance of the exercise of ethicalprinciples in reporting and assessing information;(b) describe the sources of ethical codes for those involvedin the reporting or taxation affairs of an organisation,including the external auditors;(c) apply the provisions of the CIMA Code of Ethics forProfessional Accountants of particular relevance tothe information reporting, assurance and tax-relatedactivities of the accountant.● Ethical requirements of the professionalaccountant in reporting and assessinginformation (the fundamental principles). (A)● Sources of ethical codes (IFAC, professionalbodies, employing organisations, social/religious/personal sources). (B)● Provisions of the CIMA Code of Ethics forProfessional Accountants of particular relevanceto information reporting, assurance and tax-related activities (especially section 220 andPart C). (C)
THE CIMA LEARNING SYSTEMFINANCIALOPERATIONSF1xxviiiF1 – C. Financial Accounting and Reporting (60%)Learning OutcomesOn completion of their studies students should be able to:Lead Component Indicative Syllabus Content1. Prepare the full ﬁnancial statements of a singlecompany and the consolidated statements ofﬁnancial position and comprehensive incomefor a group (in relatively straightforwardcircumstances). (3)(a) prepare a complete set of ﬁnancial statements, as speciﬁedin IAS 1(revised), in a form suitable for publication for asingle company;(b) explain and apply the conditions required for anundertaking to be a subsidiary or an associate of anothercompany;(c) prepare the consolidated statement of ﬁnancial position(balance sheet) and statement of comprehensiveincome for a group of companies in a form suitable forpublication for a group of companies comprising directlyheld interests in one or more fully-controlled subsidiariesand associates (such interests having been acquired at thebeginning of an accounting period);(d) explain and apply the concepts of fair value at the pointof acquisition, identiﬁability of assets and liabilities, andrecognition of goodwill.● Preparation of the ﬁnancial statements of a singlecompany, as speciﬁed in IAS 1 (revised), includingthe statement of changes in equity.(IAS 1(revised)) (A)● Preparation of the statement of cash ﬂows(IAS 7). (A)● Preparation of the consolidated statement ofﬁnancial position (balance sheet) and statementof comprehensive income where: interests aredirectly held by the acquirer (parent) company;any subsidiary is fully controlled; and all interestswere acquired at the beginning of an accountingperiod. (IFRS 3 and IAS 27, to the extent that theirprovisions are relevant to the speciﬁed learningoutcomes). (B, C, D)2. Explain and apply international standardsdealing with a range of matters and items. (3)(a) explain and apply the accounting rules contained inIFRSs and IASs dealing with reporting performance,non-current assets, including their impairment, andinventories, disclosure of related parties to a business,construction contracts (and related ﬁnancing costs), post-balance sheet events, provisions, contingencies, and leases(lessee only);(b) explain and apply the accounting rules contained inIFRSs and IASs governing share capital transactions;● Reporting performance: recognition of revenue,measurement of proﬁt or loss, prior period items,discontinuing operations and segment reporting(IAS 1(revised), 8 & 18, IFRS 5 & 8). (A)● Property, Plant and Equipment (IAS 16): thecalculation of depreciation and the effect ofrevaluations, changes to economic useful life, repairs,improvements and disposals. (A)
THECIMALEARNINGSYSTEMxxixFINANCIALOPERATIONSexplain and apply the principles of the accounting rulescontained in IFRSs and IASs dealing with disclosure ofrelated parties to a business, construction contracts (andrelated ﬁnancing costs), post-balance sheet events, provisions,contingencies, and leases (lessee only).● Research and development costs (IAS 38): criteriafor capitalisation. (A)● Intangible Assets (IAS 38) and goodwill:recognition, valuation, amortisation. (A)● Impairment of Assets (IAS 36) and Non-CurrentAssets Held for Sale (IFRS 5) and their effects on theabove. (A)● Inventories (IAS 2). (A)● Issue and redemption of shares, including treatmentof share issue and redemption costs (IAS 32 & 39),the share premium account, the accounting formaintenance of capital arising from the purchase bya company of its own shares. (B)● The disclosure of related parties to a business (IAS24). (A)● Construction contracts and related ﬁnancingcosts (IAS 11 & 23): determination of cost, netrealisable value, the inclusion of overheads and themeasurement of proﬁt on uncompletedcontracts. (A)● Post-balance sheet events (IAS 10). (A)● Provisions and contingencies (IAS 37). (A)● Leases (IAS 17) – Distinguishing operating fromﬁnance leases and the concept of substance overform (from the Framework); accounting for leases inthe books of the lessee. (A)● Issue and redemption of shares, including treatmentof share issue and redemption costs (IAS 32 & 39),the share premium account, the accounting formaintenance of capital arising from the purchase bya company of its own shares. (B)
31LEARNING OUTCOMESAfter completing this chapter you should be able to:᭤ describe the features of the principal types of taxation likely to be of relevance to anincorporated business in a particular country (e.g. in terms of who ultimately bearsthe tax cost, withholding responsibilities, and principles of calculating the tax base);᭤ describe sources of tax rules and explain the importance of jurisdiction.Learning aimsThe learning aim of this part of the syllabus is that students should be able to ‘describe thetypes of business taxation rules and requirements likely to affect an entity (in respect ofitself and its employees)’.The topics covered in this chapter are as follows:● concepts of direct versus indirect taxes, taxable person and competent jurisdiction;● sources of tax rules.1.1 IntroductionPrinciples of business tax account for 25 per cent of the Financial Operations syllabusand therefore 25 per cent of the examination paper. In the ﬁrst six chapters of this textwe will cover general principles of taxation. General principles should apply in mostcountries and are not speciﬁc to any one country. In your studies you can use examplesof general principles drawn from a ‘benchmark’ tax regime (e.g. the UK, the USA, etc.) oran appropriate local tax regime. This text mainly refers to the UK tax system, but any systemcould be used to illustrate general principles.Principles ofBusiness Taxation –Introduction
STUDY MATERIAL F14PRINCIPLESOFBUSINESSTAXATION–INTRODUCTIONIn the ﬁrst part of this chapter, we will consider general principles of taxation, basic taxterminology and the classiﬁcation of taxes. The chapter will then conclude with a consid-eration of the sources of tax rules in a country.1.2 Taxation as a source of government revenueIt has been said that ‘what the government gives it must ﬁrst take away’. The economicresources available to society are limited, so an increase in a government’s expenditure willmean a reduction in the spending capacity of the private sector. Taxation is the main meansby which a government raises revenue to meet its expenditure. Taxation may also be usedby a government as a means of inﬂuencing economic decisions or controlling the economy;in this way taxation will also reﬂect prevailing social values and priorities in a country. Thischaracteristic helps explain why no two countries’ tax systems will be identical in everyrespect and it also explains why governments continually change their tax systems.Revenue raised from taxation is needed to ﬁnance government expenditure on itemssuch as the health service, retirement pensions, unemployment beneﬁt and other socialbeneﬁts, education, ﬁnancing government borrowing (interest on government stocks), etc.1.3 Principles of taxationNo tax system is perfect, but an ‘ideal’ system should conform to certain principles if it isto achieve its objectives without producing negative effects.1.3.1 Canons of taxationIn 1776 Adam Smith in his book The Wealth of Nations proposed that a ‘good’ tax shouldhave the following characteristics:● Equity. It should be fair to different individuals and should reﬂect a person’s ability to pay.● Certainty. It should not be arbitrary, it should be certain.● Convenience. It should be convenient in terms of timing and payment.● Efﬁciency. It should be administratively efﬁcient with a relatively small cost of collectionas a proportion of the revenue raised. It should not cause economic distortion by affect-ing the behaviour of taxpayers.These principles still apply today; in a modern tax system the three major principles oftaxation are:1. Efﬁciency. A tax should be easy and cheap to collect. It is in pursuit of this objectivethat so much tax is collected ‘at source’, by deduction from income as it arises. The UKPAYE (pay-as-you-earn) tax on salaries and wages is an example.Knowledge of speciﬁc tax regimes is NOT REQUIRED and details of anyspeciﬁc tax regime will NOT be examined. The exam paper will include a taxregime of a relevant country. The tax regime will provide all the information, includ-ing tax rates, required to prepare the answer for any tax computation questions. Anexample of a tax regime can be found in Chapter 3.
5FINANCIAL OPERATIONSPRINCIPLESOFBUSINESSTAXATION–INTRODUCTION2. Equity. It is important that tax should be fairly levied as between one taxpayer and another.For example, in the UK, tax legislation is often complex, both to reduce the opportunitiesto avoid the tax and to promote fairness, although this is not always achieved.3. Economic effects must be considered. The ways in which tax is collected can have profoundeconomic effects which must be taken into account when formulating a tax policy.Tax reliefs can stimulate one sector, while the imposition of a heavy tax can stiﬂe another.For example, special allowances for capital expenditure may encourage investment in industry,while imposing heavy taxes on cigarettes and alcoholic drink may operate to discourage sales.1.3.2 The American Institute of Certified PublicAccountants’ (AICPA) statement – GuidingPrinciples of Good Tax Policy: A Frameworkfor Evaluating Tax ProposalsThe AICPA’s Guiding Principles of Good Tax Policy: A Framework for Evaluating TaxProposals lists ten principles for determining if an existing tax or a proposal to modify atax rule follows good tax policy. The framework also recognises that it is not always pos-sible to incorporate all ten principles into tax systems and that some balancing is needed.The ten principles are:1. equity and fairness,2. transparency and visibility,3. certainty,4. convenience of payment,5. economy in collection,6. simplicity,7. appropriate government revenues,8. minimum tax gap,9. neutrality,10. economic growth and efﬁciency.Most of these are included in Section 1.3.1; those that need additional explanation are:● Appropriate government revenues. The tax system should enable the government to deter-mine how much tax revenue is likely to be collected and when.● Minimum tax gap. The tax gap is the difference between the amount of tax owed and theamount of tax collected. A tax should be structured to minimise non-compliance.1.4 Basic tax terminologyThis section explains some basic taxation terms that are used in the followingchapters and that you need to understand and possibly use to answer questionsin the examination.1.4.1 Direct taxesA direct tax is one that falls directly on the person or entity who is expected to pay it.For example, the UK corporation tax is a direct tax. The formal incidence and effective
STUDY MATERIAL F16PRINCIPLESOFBUSINESSTAXATION–INTRODUCTIONincidence of a direct tax are usually the same, although in some situations if it is knownin advance that tax will have to be paid, it may be possible to charge a higher rate for thework so that the tax due will be covered.A direct tax is levied on an individual or entity, so it can be designed to take accountof certain individual or entity circumstances, for example, family size, ﬁnancial commit-ments, level of investment in non-current assets, etc.1.4.2 Indirect taxesAn indirect tax is one that is levied on one part of the economy with the intention that itwill be passed on to another. For example, in the UK, value-added tax (VAT) is levied onall businesses involved with the production and distribution of a good for a ﬁnal customer.In most cases the VAT will be added to the ﬁnal price paid by the customer.As an indirect tax is not levied on the eventual payer of the tax, it cannot be related tothe individual circumstances of that taxpayer.1.4.3 IncidenceThe incidence of tax refers to the distribution of the tax burden. The incidence of a tax ison the person who actually pays it. For example, the incidence of an income tax is on thetaxpayer as it is the taxpayer who is assessed and pays the tax.Incidence can be split into two elements:1. Formal incidence. The person or entity who has direct contact with the tax authorities.For example, the formal incidence of a sales tax (or VAT) will be on the entity makingthe sale. It is the entity making the sale that must account for the transaction and paythe tax collected to the revenue collection authorities.2. Effective (or actual) incidence. The person or entity who ends up bearing the cost of thetax as they cannot pass it on to someone else. If a sales tax is added to the selling price,it is passed on to the customer and it is actually the customer who ends up paying thetax. The effective incidence is on the customer.1.4.4 Taxable personA taxable person is the person accountable for the payment of a tax. Tax is levied on thetaxable person who is responsible for its payment. For example, in the UK, traders have toregister for VAT as a taxable person; they can then charge VAT to customers and recoverthe VAT paid to their suppliers (see Chapter 3 for more details on VAT).1.4.5 Competent jurisdictionJurisdiction can be interpreted as meaning power. The tax authority must have the legalpower to assess and collect taxes. Taxation is either the sole responsibility of the centralgovernment or the combined responsibility of the central government and local authoritieswithin a country. The responsible authorities will pass one or more taxation laws. The pri-mary characteristic of any law is that it is enforceable by sanction (i.e. ﬁne, imprisonment,etc.). An unenforceable law will be ignored. Before a court can order enforcement, it mustbe competent to hear and determine the alleged non-compliance with the law.
7FINANCIAL OPERATIONSPRINCIPLESOFBUSINESSTAXATION–INTRODUCTIONFor example, the UK legislation is applicable to UK subjects and non-UK subjects whoby entering the UK, whether for a long or short time, have made themselves subject to theUK jurisdiction. UK statutes apply within the UK as jurisdiction is territorial.For an entity to be subject to tax in a country, it must ﬁrst be proved to be withinthat country’s legal power to apply its tax rules to the entity. The competent jurisdiction istherefore the country whose tax laws apply to the entity.The basis of jurisdiction can vary between countries, making it difﬁcult to determine andcollect taxes from multinational entities (see Chapter 5 for a discussion of the jurisdictionof multinational entities).1.4.6 HypothecationHypothecation means that the products of certain taxes are devoted to speciﬁc types ofexpenditures. For example, a tax on motor vehicles could be hypothecated (devotedentirely) to expenditure on building and maintaining roads. Earmarking is an informalhypothecation of taxes. Hypothecation is unpopular with Chancellors/Ministers of Financeas it considerably reduces their choices in public expenditure decisions.1.4.7 Withholding responsibilitiesPersons or entities paying various types of income to persons or entities abroad are usuallyrequired by the law of a country to deduct tax from the income before making a payment.The tax deducted is called withholding tax and it is the responsibility of the person orentity making the payment to correctly deduct it. The person or entity making the deduc-tion is responsible for paying the tax deducted to the tax authorities and preparing thecorrect documents to properly account for it (see Section 5.5 for more detail on withhold-ing taxes).1.4.8 Tax rate structureDirect taxes are assessed on individuals, so it is possible to set tax rates that cause marginaland average rates of tax to change according to the size of the individual’s tax base. Thegovernment’s political objectives and current social objectives determine the level of taxand the way rates vary with income. The three possibilities are:1. progressive taxes, which take an increasing proportion of income as the income rises;2. proportional taxes, which take the same proportion of income as income rises;3. regressive taxes, which take a decreasing proportion of income as income rises.Example of rate structures:A earns $95,000 proﬁt for the year.B earns $42,000 proﬁt for the year.In country 1 the tax on proﬁts is 20 per cent on all earned proﬁts.In country 2 the tax on proﬁts is 0 per cent on the ﬁrst $20,000; 10 per cent onamounts between $20,001 and $50,000; and 30 per cent on amounts over $50,001.
STUDY MATERIAL F18How much tax would A and B be subject to in each of the countries?Total tax Effective tax rate TypeCountry 1A $95,000 ϫ 20% $19,000 20% ProportionalB $42,000 ϫ 20% $8,400 20% ProportionalCountry 2A ($30,000 ϫ 10%) ϩ($45,000 ϫ 30%)$16,500 17.4% ProgressiveB $22,000 ϫ 10% $2,200 5.2% ProgressiveIndirect taxes cannot normally be progressive on the individual as they are eitherassessed on:● the number of goods (excise duty) or● the value (VAT) of the goods.These taxes can only be progressive or regressive on the individual if different rates of taxare charged on different goods. For example, if higher rates of tax are charged on goodsthat tend to be bought by those on higher incomes, the indirect tax could be said to beprogressive.1.4.9 The tax gapThe tax gap is the difference between actual tax revenue received and the amount that wouldhave been received had 100 per cent of the amount due been collected. Tax authorities aimto minimise the tax gap by collecting as high a proportion of the tax due as possible.1.5 Tax bases and classification of taxesA tax base is something that is liable to tax. Taxes can be classiﬁed by tax base, that is, bywhat is being taxed. Taxes may be based on:● income – for example, income taxes and taxes on an entity’s proﬁts;● capital or wealth – for example, taxes on capital gains and taxes on inherited wealth;● consumption – for example, excise duties and sales taxes/VAT.For example, in the USA, the Federal government taxes income as its main source of rev-enue. State governments use taxes on income and consumption, while local governmentsrely almost entirely on taxing property and wealth.A more detailed classiﬁcation of taxes is that used by the Organisation for EconomicCooperation and Development (OECD 1976): taxes are grouped into categories similar tothose above and then each group is sub-divided into more detailed headings.The OECD classiﬁcations are used to assist when comparing one country with another.For example:2000 Taxes on income, proﬁts and capital gains2100 Paid by households and institutions2110 On income and proﬁts2120 On capital gains2200 Paid by corporate enterprises2210 On income and proﬁts2220 On capital gainsPRINCIPLESOFBUSINESSTAXATION–INTRODUCTION
9FINANCIAL OPERATIONSPRINCIPLESOFBUSINESSTAXATION–INTRODUCTIONYou can access the full OECD classiﬁcation on the OECD website at http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/20/39/35589632.pdf the full OECD classiﬁcation is to be found at annexe 1of the document.You do not need to learn the full OECD classiﬁcation, but you must knowthe main categories of tax.1.6 Sources of tax rulesThe nature of tax rules vary considerably from one country to another; however, it is pos-sible to categorise the sources and inﬂuences on those rules. Within any country the bal-ance between each source will be different, but in most countries the same elements will bepresent to a greater or lesser extent. The main sources of tax rules in a country are usuallyas follows:● All tax systems are based on domestic primary legislation either at the central govern-ment level or at the local authority level or both. In some countries the legislation is verydetailed and speciﬁc, setting out every possible item of income and expense. In othercountries the legislation is less detailed and is supplemented by court rulings or case law.● The practice of the relevant taxing authority will create precedents which will be fol-lowed in the future. Tax authorities sometimes issue guidelines or interpretations whichare aimed at clarifying the taxation legislation.● Supranational bodies may issue directives which the government of a country has toinclude in the legislation, for example, European Union (EU) directives on VAT.● International tax treaties signed with other states are also a source of tax rules as theagreements often vary from the country’s own tax regulations.1.7 SummaryThis introductory chapter sets out general tax principles, basic terminology, classiﬁcationmodels for taxation and sources of tax rules. You need to learn these deﬁnitions and beprepared to use them to answer questions in the examination.
11Revision Questions1Question 1Which of the following is NOT one of Adam Smith’s characteristics of a good tax?(A) Equity(B) Certainty(C) Simplicity(D) Efﬁciency (2 marks)Question 2In no more than 15 words deﬁne ‘incidence of tax’. (2 marks)Question 3An indirect tax is a tax that:(A) is levied directly on an individual(B) is based on earnings of an individual(C) is paid indirectly to the tax authorities(D) is levied on one person with the intention that it is passed on to another (2 marks)Question 4List the three main tax bases used in developed countries. (2 marks)Question 5Which of the following is not usually a source of tax rules in a country?(A) Domestic primary legislation(B) International tax treaties(C) The practice of the tax authorities(D) International law (2 marks)
Question 6With reference to an entity paying tax, which of the following is the best deﬁnition of‘competent jurisdiction’:(A) The country whose laws apply to the entity(B) Any country where the entity has operations(C) Any country where the entity has an ofﬁce(D) Any country where the entity has employees (2 marks)Question 7The effective incidence of a tax is(A) the date the tax is actually paid(B) the person or entity who ﬁnally bears the cost of the tax(C) the date the tax assessment is issued(D) the person or entity receiving the tax assessment (2 marks)Question 8An entity sells furniture and adds a sales tax to the selling price of all products sold.A customer purchasing furniture from the entity has to pay the cost of the furnitureplus the sales tax.The customer therefore bears the cost of the sales tax.This is referred to as(A) formal incidence(B) indirect incidence(C) effective incidence(D) direct incidence (2 marks)Question 9BM has a taxable proﬁt of $30,000 and receives a tax assessment of $3,000.BV has a taxable proﬁt of $60,000 and receives a tax assessment of $7,500.BM and BV are resident in the same tax jurisdiction.This tax could be said to be(A) a progressive tax(B) a regressive tax(C) a direct tax(D) a proportional tax (2 marks)REVISION QUESTIONS F112PRINCIPLESOFBUSINESSTAXATION–INTRODUCTION
131Solutions toRevision QuestionsSolution 1The correct answer is (C), see Section 1.3.1.Solution 2The incidence of a tax is the person who actually pays it. See Section 1.4.3.Solution 3The correct answer is (D), see Section 1.4.2.Solution 4The tax bases are:● Income● Capital or wealth● ConsumptionSee Section 1.5.Solution 5The correct answer is (D), see Section 1.6.Solution 6The correct answer is (A), see Section 1.4.5.Solution 7The correct answer is (B), see Section 1.4.3.
Solution 8The correct answer is (C), see Section 1.4.3.Solution 9The correct answer is (A), see Section 1.4.8.SOLUTIONS TO REVISION QUESTIONS F114PRINCIPLESOFBUSINESSTAXATION–INTRODUCTION
172LEARNING OUTCOMEAfter completing this chapter you should be able to:᭤ prepare corporate income tax calculations based on a given simple set of rules.Note: To fully complete this learning outcome, Chapters 2 and 3 must be completed.The topics covered in this chapter are as follows:● Direct taxes on entity proﬁts and gains:– the principle of non-deductibility of dividends and systems of taxation deﬁnedaccording to the treatment of dividends in the hands of the shareholder (e.g. classical,partial imputation and imputation);– the distinction between accounting and taxable proﬁts in absolute terms (e.g. disallowableexpenditure on revenue account, such as entertaining, and on capital account, such asformation and acquisition costs) and in terms of timing (e.g. deduction on a paid basis);– the concept of tax depreciation replacing book depreciation in the tax computationbased on the pooling of assets by their classes, including balancing adjustments on thedisposal of assets;– the nature of rules recharacterising interest payments as dividends;– potential for variation in rules for calculating the tax base dependent on the nature orsource of the income (schedular systems);– the need for rules dealing with the relief of losses;– the concept of tax consolidation (e.g. for relief of losses and deferral of capital gains onasset transfers.2.1 IntroductionIn the ﬁrst part of this chapter, we will consider the corporate tax base and some of thegeneral principles applied to the determination of taxable proﬁts. We will examinethe concept of trading income and the adjustments to income and expenditure that areDirect Taxes onCompany Profitsand Gains
STUDY MATERIAL F118DIRECTTAXESONCOMPANYPROFITSANDGAINSrequired to calculate taxable trading income. We will then discuss capital gains and reliefavailable to entities for their capital gains. This chapter then examines different corporateincome tax systems that can be used in a country and then looks at the treatment of lossesand their application to groups of entities.Direct taxation on entities can be referred to using a number of different terms, forexample, corporate income tax, income tax and corporation tax are all used. In this chap-ter, for consistency, we will refer to all these direct taxes on entities as corporate incometax, except examples which directly refer to the UK corporation tax.2.2 The corporate tax baseIncome arising from all sources is usually included in an entity’s tax base, whether:● earnings from trading and other activities;● gains from disposal of investments and assets;● other non-business income.Internationally, there are large differences in the deﬁnition of taxable income and thereforelarge differences in the tax base between countries. In some countries, such as Germanyand France, taxable income is closely linked to the accounting proﬁt shown in the incomestatement. Taxable proﬁt therefore varies with the particular accounting rules used in thecountry. The accounting rules may also be driven to a large extent by the taxation laws. Incountries such as the USA and the UK, there are substantial differences between account-ing proﬁts and taxable income, although the nature of the differences varies from countryto country or even year to year.In all countries, income is based on the accounting proﬁt shown in an entity’s ﬁnancialstatements, computed using generally accepted accounting practice in a particular coun-try. In order to calculate taxable proﬁt some adjustments are usually required by statute,although the type and number of adjustments will vary by country. These adjustments cangive rise to deferred taxation (see Chapter 6 for a discussion on deferred taxation). The fol-lowing sections cover the revenue and expenditure that can and cannot be included.2.2.1 Schedular systems of corporate taxationAs stated above, it is common practice for countries to include all of an entity’s earningsin their corporate income tax computations. An entity may receive income from severalsources:● trading proﬁt● capital gains● interest received● rent received● patent royalties● other sources.If all earnings are treated in the same way, there is little need to separate them whencomputing the tax charge for the year. However, some governments want more controlover what is and is not taxed and at what rate. This is achieved by using a number ofschedules for the tax calculations. Each schedule will relate to a speciﬁc type of income and
19FINANCIAL OPERATIONSDIRECTTAXESONCOMPANYPROFITSANDGAINSwill have speciﬁc rules that deﬁne how income should be measured and what expenditurewill be allowed (if any). There may be a separate rate of tax applicable to each schedule.In the UK corporation tax system, the main headings are referred to as ‘Schedules’, andsome of the Schedules are divided into ‘Cases’. Each schedule/case has its own speciﬁcrules for calculating the taxable income. After the taxable income for each schedule/casehas been calculated, a total taxable income is prepared by adding all the schedule/case tax-able incomes together. The entity’s capital gains are then added on to give the total taxableproﬁt for the period. The UK schedules and cases relevant for company taxation are:UK Corporation tax schedulesSchedule A Income from land and propertySchedule DCase I Proﬁts of a trade or businessCase III Interest, etc., receivableCase V Dividends received from foreign companiesCase VI Any income not chargeable under another Schedule or CaseOther items included in an entity’s total proﬁt for corporation tax purposes:Capital gainsSurpluses on disposal of intangible assetsWe will ﬁrst consider income from a trade or business then capital gains.2.2.2 Classification of incomeIn computing an entity’s corporate income tax liability, the ﬁrst step is to take the entity’sincome statement and compute taxable proﬁts. If the tax system uses a schedular system,then separate ﬁgures for each category will need to be calculated by examining the entity’sincome statement and allocating incomes and expenditures to each tax category.In arriving at the trading proﬁt to be included in the entity’s total taxable proﬁt, cer-tain expenses charged in the income statement have to be disallowed because they are notdeductible for tax purposes. It is also necessary to remove any non-trading income that istaxable under other categories and capital gains. We need to calculate:● What moneys received or receivable are taxable as trading income?● What moneys expended or expendable can be deducted from those receipts?As stated above, income is generally based on the proﬁt shown in the entity ﬁnancial state-ments, computed on generally accepted accounting practice. For example, in the UK, therequirement is that the proﬁt of a trade, profession or vocation must be computed on anaccounting basis which gives a true and fair view.The statement of comprehensive income is then adjusted for tax purposes because notevery item received is a taxable receipt of the trade, profession or vocation. Nor is everyitem of expenditure an allowable deduction for tax purposes. We will ﬁrst consider receiptsthen deductions.IncomeIncome could be either a proﬁt or gain of the trade. A proﬁt is income, whereas a gainis capital in nature. Most countries make a clear distinction between capital gains and
STUDY MATERIAL F120DIRECTTAXESONCOMPANYPROFITSANDGAINSrevenue proﬁts for tax purposes with, for example, capital gains tax and income tax. Anyitem credited to the income statement must be examined to determine if it is revenue orcapital in nature. The questions that need to be asked are:(a) Does the income arise directly from the trade?(b) Is it a revenue or capital receipt?(c) Is it a part of the proﬁts of the year under review or of some other year?(d) Is it taxable under any other category? For example, rents.● Non-trading receipts are usually treated separately for tax purposes.● Capital receipts will be dealt with under capital gains tax rules.● If the receipt relates to other years, it will probably be taxed in that year.● Receipts taxable under other categories are deducted from income and dealt withunder the rules relating to the other categories.2.2.3 ExpenditureThe starting point for determining the proﬁts or gains of a trade is the proﬁt per ﬁnan-cial statements. An item of expenditure or other debit to the income statement will be anallowable deduction in arriving at the trading proﬁt, provided that either:● it is revenue and not capital expenditure and is not prohibited by any provisions in thetax statute; or● it is not speciﬁcally disallowed by the tax legislation.We will consider expenditure under the following three sub-headings:1. depreciation2. disallowable expenditure3. allowable expenditure.DepreciationDepreciation is by far the most common item of capital debited in the statement of com-prehensive income. A deduction in respect of depreciation is a deduction that is related tothe capital assets of the business and is therefore never allowable.Depreciation provided in accounts is replaced by a standard deduction available formost, but generally not all, types of capital expenditure. The reason for this adjustmentis that taxpayers can adopt a range of different depreciation rates and accounting policies.A standard deduction common to all taxpayers is fairer for tax purposes, and can also beused to provide investment incentives for businesses; generous allowances can be used toencourage capital expenditure on speciﬁc types of asset or in speciﬁc areas of the country.The standard deduction is usually referred to as tax depreciation or (as in the UK) capitalallowances.The main categories of expenditure qualifying for tax depreciation are usually:● plant and machinery (broadly deﬁned to include vehicles, computers, etc.);● buildings.Although buildings, plant and machinery are the main types of asset that all countriesallow for tax depreciation, any non-current asset could be included, for example, researchand development of a capital nature is allowable for capital allowances in the UK.
21FINANCIAL OPERATIONSDIRECTTAXESONCOMPANYPROFITSANDGAINSThe way that depreciation is allowed for tax varies from country to country. All coun-tries allow some form of charge to income for the use of assets. Most countries allow thedeclining balance method of calculating tax depreciation on plant and machinery andthe majority use straight-line method for calculating tax depreciation on buildings (seeChapter 13 for an explanation of the methods of depreciation).In some systems such as the UK, it is not necessary to calculate every asset separately, allassets of a similar type can be ‘pooled’ and treated as one large asset.Incentives granted to encourage capital expenditure are usually in the form of acceler-ated tax depreciation, by allowing depreciation at a higher rate in the early years of theassets useful economic life. This practice is sometimes known as an initial allowance orﬁrst-year allowance. For example, in the UK, small companies can claim 100 per cent ﬁrst-year allowances on some types of asset. Incentives can be used to encourage expenditure onassets generally or to help achieve a government objective, for example, in the UK, expend-iture incurred by any business on the purchase of motor cars with low CO2 emissions willqualify for a 100 per cent ﬁrst-year allowance.When an asset qualifying for tax depreciation is disposed of, a balancing charge or bal-ancing allowance may arise. The total claimed for tax depreciation over the life of the assetmust equal the original cost less sale proceeds. If there is a difference, a balancing adjust-ment will be made in the year of disposal.In your examination you will not be tested on any speciﬁc country’s systemof tax depreciation or depreciation rates. If computation questions are set,the details will be given along with all the tax rates needed to answer the question.The following example illustrates the approach required in questions.Example 2.AHL commenced business on 1 June 2001, making up the ﬁrst accounts for the year to 31 May 2002. The enti-ty’s purchases and sales of ﬁxed assets were as follows:Purchases $2001 1 June Industrial building 260,0001 June Plant 47,0002004 1 June Plant 58,000Sales2004 31 May Plant bought on 1 June 2001 9,500HL qualiﬁes for accelerated ﬁrst-year allowance on the plant at the rate of 50% for the ﬁrst year. The second andsubsequent years will be at 25% on the reducing balance method. The industrial building qualiﬁes for an annualtax depreciation allowance of 5% on the straight-line basis.Calculate HL’s tax depreciation for the years ended 31 May 2002, 2003 and 2004.
STUDY MATERIAL F122DIRECTTAXESONCOMPANYPROFITSANDGAINSSolutionIndustrialbuilding PlantTotal taxdepreciationfor year$ $ $01/06/2001 Purchase 260,000 47,00031/05/2002 First-year allowance (23,500) }Tax depreciation for the year (13,000) } 36,500Balance at 31/05/2002 247,000 23,50031/05/2003 Tax depreciation for the year (13,000) (5,875) 18,875Balance at 31/05/2003 234,000 17,62531/05/2004 Disposal (9,500)Balancing allowance (8,125) }Tax depreciation for the year (13,000) } 21,125Balance at 31/05/2004 221,000 . 001/06/2004 Purchase 58,000This means that in the year to 31 May 2002, HL has a tax allowance for $36,500 tax depreciation. This willbe deducted from HL’s taxable proﬁts before HL’s tax liability is calculated.In the year to 31 May 2003, HL receives an allowance for $18,875 tax depreciation and in the year to 31May 2004, $21,125. This ﬁnal amount includes a balancing allowance for the plant disposed of. The plantdisposed of during the year cost $47,000 in 2001 and then received tax depreciation allowances of $23,500and 5,875 leaving a tax written down balance of $17,625. When the plant was sold, $9,500 was receivedleaving a balance of $8,125 to be written off as a balancing allowance.Disallowable expenditureDisallowable expenditure is expenditure that has been incurred and charged to thestatement of comprehensive income, but is not allowable for tax purposes. The expendituretherefore has to be added back on to the proﬁt for the year to arrive at taxable proﬁts.Any expenditure that is deemed to be capital in nature will not usually be allowableexpenditure when computing trading proﬁts. For example:● Losses on sale of non-current assets (also gains on sale).● Legal, surveyors’ and other fees related to capital matters; for example, new buildings,plant, etc.● Repairs to assets purchased in a run-down condition, only the part attributable to use inthe current trade is allowable.Even if an item of expenditure is revenue expenditure, it may be speciﬁcally prohibitedas a deduction by the tax legislation, for example, in the UK, expenses incurred in enter-taining customers are speciﬁcally disallowed. Speciﬁcally disallowed items will vary fromcountry to country, they also vary within a country from one year to another. The follow-ing items are often speciﬁcally disallowed:● any disbursements or expenses of maintenance of the parties, their families or establish-ments, or any sums expended for any other domestic or private purposes distinct fromthe purposes of the trade, profession or vocation;● any capital withdrawn from the business;● any capital employed in improvements of the premises;● any sum recoverable under an insurance;● any expenditure on entertaining customers;● any annuity or other annual payment (other than interest);
23FINANCIAL OPERATIONSDIRECTTAXESONCOMPANYPROFITSANDGAINS● donations to political parties;● expenses that relate to an earlier year and arose in that earlier year.Allowable expenditureAn item of expenditure or other debit to the income statement can usually be assumed tobe an allowable deduction in arriving at the trading proﬁt unless it is speciﬁcally disallowedby the tax legislation. Examination questions will specify which items of expenditure needto be disallowed.2.2.4 Capital gainsGains arising on the disposal of investments and other assets are not usually covered byincome tax rules and are not included in the trading income. Capital gains tax attemptsto tax those gains made on disposal of various types of investments and other assets. Theassets included in the tax base vary from country to country. For example, in the UK, themost important type of transaction covered by capital gains tax is the sale of listed stocksand shares. The UK also has a large number of assets that are exempted from capital gainstax. The principle is usually that all assets are chargeable unless exempted, but the list ofexemptions can be fairly long. In the UK, exemptions include:● private motor vehicles;● chattels (tangible movable property) sold for less than £6,000;● chattels, which are wasting assets (i.e. those with a life of less than 50 years), for exam-ple, boats, caravans, animals;● qualifying corporate bonds.In addition to exempt assets, there can also be exemptions for certain types of disposals ofassets, for example, in the UK, exempt disposals include:● gifts to a non-proﬁt-making body of land, buildings, works of art and the like, providedthat the gift is for public beneﬁt and public access is allowed;● sale of works of art and the like to approved UK national or local institutions (e.g. artgalleries or museums);● gifts of any type of asset for charitable purposes to an approved charity.In principle, the calculation of the gain or loss on a disposal is simply proceeds of sale lesscost or value at a date speciﬁed in the tax legislation. Additional costs incurred to acquirethe asset, improve it or dispose of it may be allowed to be deducted from the gain. Whenan entity disposes of a depreciable non-current asset, the capital gain or loss is normallycalculated as the difference between the net disposal proceeds and the tax base of the assetat the time of disposal. The tax base is the original cost of the asset less accumulated taxdepreciation to date.In some countries the calculation is based on original cost but a few countries such as theUK allow the original cost to be indexed when calculating the gain. During periods of highinﬂation, a tax on capital gains would be unfair if based on the simple comparison of costand sale proceeds. Some allowance for the effect of inﬂation over the period of ownership isneeded. For example, in the UK, this is done by allowing the cost to be adjusted to currentprices using an index published by the government, the retail price index. The movementin the index over the period of ownership is used to increase the original cost of the asset.Indexation cannot turn a capital gain into a loss, it merely reduces the gain to zero.
STUDY MATERIAL F124DIRECTTAXESONCOMPANYPROFITSANDGAINSExample 2.B Indexation of the cost of an assetAn asset, which cost $10,000 in February 1988, was sold in April 2003 for $20,000.Retail price indices were:February 1988 103.7April 2003 180.0The calculation of the chargeable gain will be:$ $Proceeds of sale 20,000Cost 10,000Indexation$10,000 ϫ (180.0 −103.7)/103.7i.e. $10,000 ϫ 0.736 7,360Total allowable cost 17,360Chargeable gain 2,640Rollover reliefWhen an entity sells a business asset, it may give rise to a chargeable capital gain which, inmost countries, will be included in the entity’s corporate income tax calculation. In somecountries, when an asset is replaced by another business asset, it is possible to defer thecharge to tax until the replacement asset is sold. When the replacement asset is sold, anygain arising on that disposal may be deferred. There may be no limit to how often thisdeferral can take place. For example, in the UK, for an entity with a continuous existence,the deferral can be for an indeﬁnite time, provided that the conditions are fulﬁlled. Thisrelief from capital gains tax is sometimes known as rollover relief. Rollover relief allows adeferral of the payment of the corporate income tax on the gain till a later date, providinga cash ﬂow advantage and allowing the corporate income tax to be paid in depreciatedcurrency at a later date.In a few countries rollover relief may also apply to intangible assets.2.3 Nominal corporate tax ratesCorporate income tax rates vary considerably from one country to another. All countrieshave corporate income taxes at the central government level. Some countries have speciallower rates for smaller entities while others have one rate for all entities. In some countriesentities also have to pay taxes to other levels of government, for example, the USA andCanada. Any comparison of tax rates between countries is distorted by the range of treat-ments used for the calculation of tax base.2.4 The interaction of the corporate tax systemwith the personal tax systemDividends are appropriations of proﬁt and are not usually allowed to be deducted fromthe income when calculating taxable proﬁts. When dividends are paid to individual
25FINANCIAL OPERATIONSDIRECTTAXESONCOMPANYPROFITSANDGAINSshareholders, the amount received has already been taxed. If it is then taxed in the handsof the shareholder, it is effectively being taxed twice.The economic effect of corporate taxes depends on the system of corporate income taxused. The four main systems for taxing entity proﬁts that are discussed below are:1. classical system2. imputation system3. partial imputation system4. split rate systems.2.4.1 Classical systemA classical system of corporate income tax does not differentiate between an entity’sretained earnings and its distributed earnings and treats the shareholders as completelyindependent of the entity.Under a classical system, the entity is liable for corporate income tax on all its taxableincome and gains, whether they are distributed or not. The shareholder is liable to incometax on dividends received from the entity and capital gains tax on any taxable gains madeon the disposal of their shares.The classical system is relatively easy to understand and administer, but causes two mainproblems:1. Double taxation of dividends, that is, distributed income is subject to corporate incometax and then to personal income tax.2. A bias against distributing dividends, as distribution causes double taxation; non-distribution will avoid double taxation.2.4.2 Imputation systemUnder imputation systems of corporate income tax, all or a part of the underlyingcorporate income tax on distributions is imputed to the shareholders as a tax credit,therefore avoiding the problem of double taxation of dividends. With systems usingthe full imputation system, all of the underlying corporate income tax is passed to theshareholder as a tax credit. A full imputation system is economically neutral between debtand equity ﬁnance.2.4.3 Partial imputation systemWith systems using the partial imputation system, only a part of the underlying corporateincome tax is passed to the shareholder as a tax credit.2.4.4 Split rate systemsSplit rate systems of corporate income tax distinguish between distributed proﬁts andretained proﬁts and charge a lower rate of corporate income tax on distributed proﬁts soas to avoid the double taxation of dividends. Applying the lower rate for distributed divi-dends can operate under an imputation or classical system.
STUDY MATERIAL F126DIRECTTAXESONCOMPANYPROFITSANDGAINS2.4.5 Examples to illustrate the difference betweentraditional and imputation systemsExample 2.CCountry X uses the classical system for corporate income tax. The entity’s taxable proﬁts are subject to 15% taxand shareholders are subject to income tax at 25% on all dividends received.Country Y uses a full imputation system for corporate income tax. Entity taxable proﬁts are subject to 30%tax. Shareholders receive a tax credit for the full amount of tax paid and are not subject to any further tax ondividends.CT has taxable proﬁts of $100,000 and decides to distribute 50% as dividends.Calculate the total tax paid by CT and the shareholders, assuming that they are resident ﬁrst in country X andthen in Y.Country X $ $Corporate income tax paid by CT 100,000 ϫ 15% 15,000Shareholders total income tax on dividends 50,000 ϫ 25% 12,500Total tax due if resident in country X 27,500Country YCorporate income tax paid by CT 100,000 ϫ 30% 30,000Shareholders total income tax on dividends Nil 0Total tax due if resident in country Y 30,000Example 2.DCountry X and Country Y use the same rates of tax as in Example 2.C.CD has taxable proﬁts of $100,000 and decides to distribute 90% as dividends.Calculate the total tax paid by CD and the shareholders, assuming again that they are resident in eachcountry.Country X $ $Corporate income tax paid by CD 100,000 ϫ 15% 15,000Shareholders total income tax on dividends 90,000 ϫ 25% 22,500Total tax due if resident in country X 37,500Country YTotal tax due if resident in country Y(as Example 1)30,000In conclusion, in countries using the classical system, the total amount of tax paiddepends on the amount of the proﬁt that is paid as a dividend to shareholders. If less proﬁtis distributed to shareholders, less tax is paid. In countries with a full imputation system,the corporate income tax is imputed to the shareholders receiving the dividend, so the totaltax paid is not affected by the level of proﬁts distributed as dividend.2.5 Rules recharacterising interest as dividendsInterest on high-yield debt can cause otherwise proﬁtable entities to have very low taxableincomes. This has caused some governments to consider limiting the amount of interestthat can be charged to proﬁts as an expense. For example, in the USA, certain typesof high-yield debt are limited to the amount that can be set against the entity’s taxableincome. For certain types of debt instrument, where the yield is more than six points above
27FINANCIAL OPERATIONSDIRECTTAXESONCOMPANYPROFITSANDGAINSthe federal rate, the excess will be treated as a dividend. The result is that the issuing entitydoes not receive a tax deduction for the excess interest.2.6 Treatment of lossesTrading and capital losses are usually dealt with separately under the legislation applicableto each.2.6.1 Trading lossesTrading losses are calculated in the same way as trading proﬁts. During the period whena trading loss occurs, the entity cannot claim a tax refund. The main ways of relieving theloss is by setting it off against proﬁts during other periods or transferring it to anothergroup entity (see Section 2.7 below).All countries allow the loss to be set off against future proﬁts, some countries limit thetime that losses can be carried forward while others, such as the UK have no limit on thetime allowed to recover the loss. The methods used to relieve losses can include:(a) Carry-forward of trading loss to offset against future trading income derived from thesame trade.(b) Offset against other income and chargeable gains of the same accounting period.(c) Offset against other income and chargeable gains of one or more previous accountingperiods.(d) Group relief (see Section 2.7).2.6.2 Capital lossesIn principle, capital losses are calculated in the same way as capital gains. Capital losses aresometimes allowed to be deducted from trading income but most countries keep capitallosses completely separate from trading activities. In most countries, capital losses are off-set against chargeable gains of the same accounting period. Any balance of loss is carriedforward to be relieved against the ﬁrst available chargeable gains. For example, in the UK,capital losses can be carried forward without time limit, they cannot be carried back toprevious periods and cannot be set against any other income.Example 2.E To illustrate the treatment of lossesCountry Z has the following tax regulations:ᮂ Taxable proﬁts are subject to tax at 25%.ᮂ Capital gains are added to proﬁts from trading to give taxable proﬁts.ᮂ Trading losses can be carried forward indeﬁnitely but cannot be carried back to previous years.ᮂ Capital gains/losses cannot be offset against trading gains/losses or vice versa.LL started trading in 2002 and has the following proﬁts/lossesTrading proﬁt/(loss) $’000 Capital proﬁt/(loss) $’0002002 (300) 4002003 550 02004 700 (150)

domain: finance


2020 Norwegian Eliteserien – Valerenga vs Haugesund Preview & Prediction
When does Valerenga vs Haugesund kick off? Wednesday 15th July, 2020 – 17:00 (UK)
Where is Valerenga vs Haugesund being played? Intility Arena
Where can I get tickets for Valerenga vs Haugesund? No tickets are available as this match will be played behind closed doors
What TV channel is Valerenga vs Haugesund on in the UK? This match will not be televised live in the UK
Where can I stream Valerenga vs Haugesund in the UK? bet365 customers may be able to stream this match live via their website and you can check their schedule here
Valerenga extended their good start to the season with a 1-0 victory against Mjondalen on Sunday and they go into this match against Haugesund in third place with only one defeat from their opening seven fixtures of the new campaign. Haugesund saw their four-match unbeaten run end with a 3-0 defeat against Molde in their last outing, though a defeat against the defending champions is not a huge cause for concern so it won’t have affected their confidence. The main concern for the visitors is the fact that they have failed to score in their last two outings and have only scored twice in their last four games. Haugesund aren’t showing enough cutting edge in attack to suggest that they can prevent the confident home team from claiming maximum points from this contest.


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The Palma old city and nearby streets are home to countless galleries, old and new, competing to display their valuable acquisitions. Some of them are part of my favourite tour through the city, not only because they enrich its content from a cultural point of view, but because they capture and renew interest in unique buildings that might otherwise go almost unnoticed by the visitor's eye.
But, I find very interesting all those works that we cannot find in a museum but on the street. Some, for example, are sculptures by internationally recognized artists. Others are wall paintings by well-known local artists. However, the city houses many works of urban art of unknown origin, even of a high artistic level.
The amount of good wall paintings by Mallorcan artists in Palma and the surroundings is surprising. Some come out to meet you when you just are looking up.
But it does not end here. For the good observer and curious traveler, any city has routes to be explored with treasures waiting to be discovered. It is not about following or doing what is presented as obvious, but about going out to discover what many of the busy spaces are hiding. And this is where I enjoy the most. And I think in the end, it is a bit contagious ...
Thus, the conversations and practice revolve around multiple themes: art, artists, stories, questions, mysteries or urban legends. The goal is to put the language into practice in multiple different contexts. If you like art or anything related to art in any of its manifestations, this may be a good choice for you, as an experience to add to your Spanish Immersion Programme.
You will find some learning experiences to complete the week-long Spanish Immersion Programme that you could combine only if it is possible to integrate them into the selected programme. The other option is to choose just one theme or concept according to your personal interests.
The rest of the learning experiences are designed with a specific programme or schedule.
The Spanish Immersion Programmes for reduced groups have the same format and the same activities for the group members.
Find the coolest option for you and see you soon!

domain: artistic