|Numéro de publication||US2577815 A|
|Type de publication||Octroi|
|Date de publication||11 déc. 1951|
|Date de dépôt||15 déc. 1949|
|Date de priorité||27 févr. 1946|
|Numéro de publication||US 2577815 A, US 2577815A, US-A-2577815, US2577815 A, US2577815A|
|Inventeurs||Caldecourt Victor J, Peterson Eugene W, Saunderson Jason L|
|Cessionnaire d'origine||Dow Chemical Co|
|Exporter la citation||BiBTeX, EndNote, RefMan|
|Citations de brevets (4), Référencé par (24), Classifications (7)|
|Liens externes: USPTO, Cession USPTO, Espacenet|
Dec.-11, 1951 J. L. SAUNDERSON ETAL 7,8
PHOTOELECTRIC INSTRUMENT FOR DIRECT SPECTROCHEMICAL 7 ANALYSIS BY THE INTERNAL STANDARD METHOD Original Filed Feb. 27, 1946 5 Sheets-Sheet l n W Z M nm m e w r SJ 6 e 5 o -R w d .Rt RE I a P i L m i e a z W J V E -N MN kNmXQQQ W HW\NN I /WN m %N BER 1951 J. L. SAUNDERSON mm. ,3 5
PHOTOELECTRIC INSTRUMENT FOR DIRECT SPECTROCHEMICAL M ANALYSIS BY THE INTERNAL STANDARD METHOD Original Filed Feb'. 27, 1946 5 Sheets-Sheet 2 Sp ec/ra/ /in@ Jason L. 80unans0n my 5 Vic/0r J Ca/a ecourf E aye/7e W. Peferson v.1. 1,, S AUNDERSON ET AL 2,577,815 PHOTOELECTRIC' INSTRUMENT FOR DIRECT SPECTROCHEMICAL Dec. 11, 1951 ANALYSISBY THE INTERNAL STANDARD METHOD Original Filed Feb. 27, 1946 5 Sheets-Sheet 3 X5035 W QBQ Vic/0r J Ca/a ecour/ Eqyene W Pe/erson Dec. 11, 1951 J. L. SAUN'DERSON ETAL 2,577,815
, PHOTOELECTRIC INSTRUMENT FOR DIRECT SPECTROCHEMICAL ANALYSIS BY THE INTERNAL STANDARD METHOD Original Filed Feb. 27, 1946 5 Sheets$heet 4 ower 65 line 64 66 65 7'0 spark source To background ska/fer and/e verJ/ng re/ay:
To mas/er 3/: u//er To .s/ror/ing re/ays To re Cara er mo/or re/oy To measuring re/ay: 7'0 /e0 back re/ag 7'0 recor d'ng ,o ens From power pack From re/rence Jasan L. 60unaers0n V/c/ar-J Ca/oeaour/ E 1.19am? Ml Pe/ergson Dec. 11, 1951 J. 1.. ,Js'AuNDzRsoN ET AL Y 2,577,815 PHOTOELECTRIC INSTRUMENT FOR DIRECT. SPECTROCHEMICAL ANALYSISBY THE INTERNAL STKNDARD METHOD Original Filed Feb. 27, 4946 -5 Sheets-Sheet 5 Q QG $6 $6 m6 N6 QNQWN Wmwm W /6 M yan i SQ w bm m 8 Q saw \v m me kw w m wmwk nmQiNQEQQEQQ \G mmG S V 1 m M Mam m Q9 Patented Dec. 11, 1951 PHOTOELECTRIC INSTRUMENT FOB DI- RECT SPECTROCHEMICAL ANALYSIS BY THE INTERNAL STANDARD METHOD Jason L.' Saunderson, Victor J. Caldecourt, and
Eugene W. Peterson, Midland, Mich., assignors to The Dow .Chemical Company, Midland, Mich., a corporation of Delaware Original application February 27, 1946, Serial No.
Divided and this application December 15, 1949, Serial No. 133,181
This invention relates to a direct-reading or phototelectric spectrometer for use in spectrochemical analysis. It concerns improvements both in the optical system and in the electrical measuring circuits of such an instrument.
This application is a division of our co-pending application Serial No. 650,676, filed February 27, 1946.
Quantitative spectrochemical analysis by the internal standard method, an exceedingly valuable tool for the metallurgical industries, has heretofore been carried out almost entirely by photographic means, such as those described, for example, in U. S. Patents 1,979,964 and 2,043,053. This method, while of broad usefulness, is, for routine process control, disadvantageous in that a considerable period of time, at least several minutes and often much longer, elapses between the exposure of the photographic plate and its development and interpretation.
It has been appreciated that a considerably greater rapidity of analysis might be realized if the spectral lines to be compared, instead of being recorded photographically, were focused on separate photocells, the relative outputs of which could then be measured electrically. However, the photoelectric spectrometers which have been proposed leave much to be desired in the way of simplicity of operation, as well as in mattersof inherent accuracy and of stability in the presence of vibration and ordinary environmental changes.
-It is therefore an object of the invention to provide an improved direct-reading spectrometer which may be made fully automatic and which is usually capable of giving complete analyses for as many elements as desired in a period of less than one minute. Another object is to provide an instrument of this character which may be operated continuously over long periods by nontechnical personnel and yet exhibit an inherent accurancy equal to or exceeding that obtained with the spectrograph. A further object is to provide a spectrometer in which the relative accuracy of analysis for any given element is essentially constant over wide ranges of concentration of that element.
Another object of the invention is to provide an instrument embodying improved electrical means for integrating and comparing the relative outputs of two or more photocells when each is exposed to light of continuously varying intensity. Additional objects are to provide optical means for compensating for background radiation which may be received by a photocell together with a desired spectral line and electrical means for balancing out the dark current of the cell. A further obiect'is to provide an improved circuit for determining'the electric charge imposed by a photocell on a condenser, such circuit including a highly stable direct-current electrontube amplifier.
Still other objects and advantages of the invention will be apparent from the description to follow, which is made with reference to the accompanying drawings, in which Fig. 1 is a simplified diagram illustrating the inter-relation of the essential elements of the apparatus;
Fig. 2 is a horizontal section through the photocell compartment of the spectrometer, showing the arrangement of the optical elements;
Fig. 3 is a sketch illustrating the centering of a spectral line in an exit slit of the spectrometer, the line being shown enlarged with respect to the width of the slit;
Fig. 4 is a similar sketch illustrating the positioning of a spectral line in an exit slit when a background compensating prism is used;
Fig. 5 is a sketch showing the details of another slit arrangement for compensating for background spectral radiation;
Fig. 6 is a horizontal section through a photocell and its diffuser;
Fig. 7 is a diagram of the electrical measuring and recording circuits of the apparatus;
Fig. 8 is a circuit diagram of the automatic tim ing system of the spectrometer;
Fig. 9 is a detailed circuit diagram of one of analysis of the PRINCIPLE 1 In the apparatus of the invention, light produced by sparking electrodes of the sample to be analyzed is resolved by a spectrometer which focuses characteristics spectral lines of the'reference and unknown elements on sensitive photocells, causing the fiow of minute photocurrents. The varying intensities of the lines during the sparking period are integrated by storing the cor-- respondingly varying photocurrents in condensers. After the sparking period, these stored charges are compared by allowing the condensers to discharge through similar resistances and measuring the difference in the times required for such discharges to take place. Electron-tube amplifiers follow the course of the condenser discharges and acuate relays which operate a recorder, the indications of which can be calibrated directly in terms of the analysis of the sample being sparked.
SIMPLIFIED DIAGRAM The essential elements of the new apparatus may be explained with reference to the simplified diagram of Fig. l.
The material to be analyzed is formed into electrodes H which are caused to spark by connecting them across a high voltage source II. Light from this spark is focused by a lens it through an electrically-opened normally-closed master shutter 14 onto the entrance slit ll of a spectrometer it. The entering light falls on a concave grating H, which forms images of the slit along the Rowland circle, the positions of these spectral lines being dependent on the wavelengths present in the light. Exit slits II are located along the circle in positions to allow passage of selected lines corresponding to the internal reference element and the element being analyzed for in the electrodes I I. These selected lines are focused by lenses is on the sensitive elements of electron multiplier photocells It, the operating potentials of which are supplied by a hi h voltage source 2|.
During sparking of the electrodes, the spectral line falling on each photocell causes a 'corresponding fiow of current, which is stored in a condenser 22 connected in the circuit through a two-way switch 24. Later, the relative magnitudes of the charges thus accumulated are measured by connnecting each condenser across its individual discharging resistor 23 by throwing the two-way switches 24. when these switches are thrown, the falling potentials of the condensers are followed by electron-tube direct-current amplifiers 25 in the output circuits of which are voltage-responsive relays 28 and 21 with their output terminals in series. The relay 2! in the circuit corresponding to the spectral line of the unknown element is of the normally-closed type, while the relay 21 in the circuit of the reference element is normally open. Whenever operation of the amplifiers holds the contacts of both relays closed at the same time, the pen circuit ll of a moving-tape recorder 28 is energized by a source III, causing a mark to appear on the tap In practice, it is necessary to choose the reference spectral line, or to design the circuits, so that during sparking the reference condenser reaches a higher potential than the other condensers. The relays and amplifiers are adjusted so that the relays are actuated whenever the potentials across the condensers exceed a predetermined low value, conveniently about 1.0 volt.
In making an analysis, the switches 14 are set to connect the photocells to their condensers, and the sample to be analyzed is sparked. The resulting spectral lines falling on the photocells a cause photocurrents which charge the condensers 22 at rates proportional to the intensities of the incident lines. After the sparking period, the switches 24 are thrown simultaneously, whereupon the condensers I! begin to discharge through their resistors 23. As soon as the switches close, the amplifiers ll detect condenser voltages well over the predetermined low value,
and actuate both relays 20 and 21, leaving the recorder circuit still open. As discharge of the condensers continues, the falling potential in the condenser corresponding to the unknown element reaches the predetermined low value first, whereupon the relay II is de-actuated and closes. Current at once fiows in the recorder circuit II. making a visual record on the moving tape. When, after an interval of time, the falling potential across the reference condenser also reaches the predetermined value. the relay 21 is deactuated, and the recorder circuit is again broken. As a result of this sequence, the length of the mark on the moving recorder tape is a direct indication of the difference in times of discharge of the reference and the unknown condensers. This difference is a function of the concentration of the unknown element in the sample, as will be evident from the following considerations.
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS Theory where E0 is the initial voltage. E is the voltage after time t, and e is the base of natural logarithms. Considering two condensers of capacities Cu and Cr, having initial voltages Eu and E: and discharging through resistances Ru and Br. the times in and tr required for the condensers to reach a predetermined low voltage E. are. from Equation 1:
(a) ta=Raca 108s Ea/Es (3) tr=Rrcr 108s lr/E'a If the resistances and capacitances are chosen so that their products are equal to some selected value RC. that is. if
(4) RaCa=R1Cr=RC then, by combining Equations 2, 3. and 4, and taking tr-ta=At, it follows that (5) At=RC 108s Er/Ea But the initial voltages Er and Eu on the condensers are proportional to the total charges, and hence also proportional to the integrated intensities Ir and In of the spectral lines. whence. sub
stituting in Equation 5, there appears:
'(6) At=RC log bla-i-constant From spectrochemicai theory, it is known that the ratio of the intensities of the spectral lines of the reference and unknown elements is approximately proportional to the ratio of the concentrations x. and x of these elements. Since the reference element is essentially of constant concentration, it follows from Equation 8 that Aim-RC log. xe+constant gamers From these considerations, then, it is seen that a plot oi At, the difference in times or discharge of the reference and unknown condensers, against the logarithm of Xu, the concentration of the unknown element, is essentially linear.
In the apparatus of Fig. 1, this time diflerence. At, is, as explained, read directly from the length of the mark on the recorder tape. In making analyses, then, the apparatus is first calibrated by determining the length of the recorder mark for several samples in which the element being analyzed for is of known concentration. Then a line drawn through a plot of these lengths against the logarithms of the concentrations of the element gives the desired calibration chart. From this, analyses of unknown samples can be run by simply sparking the sample according to Several important advantages arise from the fact that, in the apparatus of the invention, the quantity actually measured, viz. the difiference in discharge times of two condensers, varies logarithmically with the concentrations to be determined. In the first place, the spectrochemical method in general tends to have an essentially constant relative accuracy for the quantitative determination of an element over wide ranges of concentration. For instance, the absolute error in determining an element'at per cent concentration is roughly about ten times as great as the absolute error at 1.0 per cent concentration. The logarithmic calibration curves of the present apparatus are similar in this respect, in that they may be read with constant relative accuracy over the whole scale. A second advantage, apparent from Equation 7 above, is that the slope of the logarithmic calibration curve is independent of changes in apparatus conditions, since all proportionality factors fall into the constant in the equation. Thus, a change in the sensitivity of a photocell circuit, or dirt in the optical path, will only shift the calibration curve parallel to itself without altering its slope. In consequence, if a change in the apparatus occurs, it is necessary, in order to recalibrate, to run only a single standard sample, to give a At value which, with the constant'known slope, will give the complete new calibration curve.
An additional advantage of the apparatus of the invention is that, although the instantaneous intensities of the spectral lines, and hence also the instantaneous photocurrents, may vary considerably due to flickering of the spark, the condensers, in storing these currents, effect a complete integration over the time of sparking. As a result, when the charges on the condensers are measured, there is obtained an integrated relative intensity value for the two spectral lines which is practically independent of variations in both the total intensity of the spark and the time of sparking. Since this integration is quite similar to that efiected by the photographic plate of a spectrograph, the method of the invention permits use of virtually all the established techniques or the internal standard method so well known in spectrographic analysis.
Background compensation there is, at every wavelength, a certain amount of background radiation. In the apparatus of the invention, some part of this background enters the photocell together with the line on which it is focused. As long as the intensity of the line is high relative to that or the background, the latter is of little consequence. However, when the cell is focused on a line of weak intensity, as, for instance, when analyzing for an element present in low concentration, the background may bea substantial part of the total light incident on the cell. While this circumstance does not render analysis impossible, since the apparatus is calibrated empirically, the relative accuracy of analysis will be reduced, largely because the intensity of the background tends to vary somewhat from sample to sample.
In the invention, this effect of background radiation'may be largely or wholly overcome by an optical system including a shutter which permits repeatedly exposing the photocell first to the desired line together with its background and then to a selected portion of the background alone. At the same time, operation of the electrical circuits is synchronized with the shutter so that the condenser associated with a photocell, while being charged by the cell each time the latter is exposed to the line and background, is also allowed to discharge through the cell each time the latter is exposed to the background only. By making the times of charging and discharging equal, the additive effect of the photocurrent due to the background during charging is nullified by its subtractive efiect during discharging. At the end of the sparking period, then, the condenser charge contains little or no component attributable to the background, and is a function only of the intensity of the desired line.
Dark current compensation The method of background compensation just discussed has the further effect of also compen-' eating for the dark current of the photocells, thereby rendering frequent adjustment of the cell circuits unnecessary. However, an alternative method of dark current compensation may also be desirable, especially for use in those instances where background compensation is not required. Such dark current compensation may be accomplished by connecting a high resistance across the photocell at the time it is charging its condenser, and arranging this circuit so that the current flowing through the resistance exactly equals the dark current. Balancing means for making this adjustment are provided and will be described later.
Direct current amplifier In the present spectrometer, the direct-current amplifiers which follow the discharge of the photocell condensers must have a high gain in order properly to actuate the relays in their output circuits. On the other hand. they must also 7 be accurate and stable, preferably with so little drift that they require adjustment only once or twiceaday. Thisisachieved.accordingtothe invention, by means of two-stage direct-current amplifiers which are provided with feed-back networks to render them highly degenerative and hence stable. .The amplifiers are normally maintained in the degenerative state. However, at the moment of discharging the photocell condensers. the feed-back networks are temporarily broken, converting the amplifiers to a sensitive orhigh gain condition. After the discharge, the feedback circuits are again closed, returning the ampliher to a stable state in which any tendency toward drift is compensated.
DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS are not shown. Adequate descriptions of these elements, as well as methods of preparing the electrodes, are given in J. Opt. Soc. Amer. 34, 104-5 and 116-9 (1944).
Optical details ,The spectrometer housing II and the grating 11 (Fig. 1) are of known type. It is important that the spectrometer be rigid and solidly mounted, and desirable that the housing be maintained at a constant internal temperature, conveniently 90 F., as by a thermostated circulating air heater.
As shown particularly in Fig. 2, the spectrometer exit slits it are formed in thin metal plates II which are adjustably mounted over slots 32 in the spectrometer housing It along its focal curve II in positions to pass the desired spectral lines. In general, the width of an exit slit should be about two times that of the entrance slit for those lines, such as the reference line, on which no background correction is necessary. and about four times on lines on which a correction is to be made.
. If no background correction is needed, as in the case of the line of the reference element, the line is approximately centered in the exit slit ll (Fig. 3). However, when a background correction is made, as in the case of the line of an unknown element, the line is directed through one side of the slit, allowing the background radiation to pass through the other side (Fig. 4). Inthis case, a small prism 3| is centered just behind the slit so as to split the light into two beams, one of which includes the desired line and the other contains only the background. Each of these beams enters the lens I9 and is focused on the photocell 20 (Fig. 2). The purpose of the prism is to separate the two beams sufficiently to allow satisfactory operation of the background compensation mechanism.
This compensation is effected by means of a shutter interposed between the exit slits and the lenses and consisting of a curved metal strip having slits 36 cut in it in positions corresponding to the exit slits and being somewhat wider than the latter. This shutter is mounted to reciprocate in a fixed guide 31, and is moved 8 backandforthbyopposedsolenoidsflwhich are attached to either end. Movement of the shutter is limited by stops it one of which is adjusted so that at the limit of shutter travel in one direction the shutter is in a position to allow free passage of the spectral lines from the exit slits to the lenses and to block the background beam (as shown in Fig. 2). The other limit of travel is such that the shutter is in a position in which, in the case of lines requiring no background compensation, it cuts oil all light to the photocell, and in the case of lines requiring correction, it cuts off the spectral line but allows free passage of the background beam. The shutter is reciprocated by alternately activating the solenoids in synchronism with the photocell condenser reversing circuits, as will be later described.
The exit slits, prisms, shutter mechanism, lenses, and photocells are all mounted rigi ly on the frame of the spectrometer by means not shown, and are enclosed in a light-tight case I. The lenses and prisms are of quartz or other material transparent to ultraviolet light.
An alternative method of background correction, useful when the immediate background of a selected line contains interfering lines, is shown in Fig. 5. In this case, a second exit slit 4| is located near the slit is for the desired line, but in a non-interfering spectral region, and the shutter 35 is adjusted to cut off beams from the two slits alternately. Both beams are, of course, focused on the same photocell. 1
While Figs. 1 and 2 illustrate a spectrometer with onh! two exit slits and photocells, one for the reference element and one for the unknown, it will be appreciated that any desired number of exit slits and photocells may be arranged along the focal curve at positions corresponding to various spectral lines to permit determination of several unknown elements at once, using the same; or more than one, reference spectral line. In such cases, certain of the beams passing through closely adjacent slits may, if desired, be deflected by mirrors before entering their corresponding lenses and photocells, thus avoiding crowding together photocells directly behind the focal curve.
The considerations involved in selecting appropriate spectral lines for any given analysis are similar to those in spectrographic work, except that greater latitude in choosing lines is possible. (See discussion of Saunderson et al. in J. Opt. Soc. Amer. 35, 681 (1945). a paper which also describes the present invention.)
Photocells While any of a number of types of photocells may be employed in the apparatus, optimum results are obtained with phote-emissive tubes, particularly electron multiplier photetubes, such as the 931A, which combine extreme sensitivity with high amplification. These latter phototubes, however, present'a special problem because of the great variationin output occasioned by slight changes in the position of incidence of the spectral line.
Thus, as will be appreciated, from Fig. 1, while the positions of the spectral lines of the elements are fixed, the light beams, after passing the exitslits, move with every motion or fiicker of the spark between the electrodes Ii. The lenses it, in focusing the beams on the photocells III, eliminate the eflfects of motion in the light source except for aberrations resulting from using difquartz plate 42 mounted a short distance in front of the envelope 43 oi the photocell, the space between the plate and the envelope being surrounded by a light shield 44. With this construction, critical positioning 9! the phototubes is not required.
Measuring circuit I The basic electrical measuring circuits of the apparatus may be explained with reference to Fig. 7. For simplicity, the diagram shows only three multiplier phototubes and measuring circuits, for determining the relative intensities of two unknown spectral lines relative to the same internal standard line. In Fig. 7, the timing circuits for actuating the various relays are not shown, and the electron-tube amplifiers are indicated in simplified form. The circuit is shown in its normal position before an analysis is run.
The operating potential for all the electronmultiplier tubes is supplied by a 1000-volt regulated power supply as constructed essentially according to the Miller design (Electronics, November, 1041, p. 29). The 250-volt amplifier power pack 56 is of a similar type.
The dark-current of each phctotube 20 is compensated by a leak circuit in. which the photocell anode ill ,is connected through a high re-- sistance as (1000 megohms) to a potentiometer it (100 volts), one terminal of which is grounded.
During the sample sparking period, the output of each photocell, except for the small darkcurrent compensation. passes in series through a manual test switch 50 and the normally-closed contacts of a relay to its storage condenser 22, the return circuit being through the normally closed contact of a relay 54. Actuation of the relay 54 interposes a standard cell 52 in the return circuit. The polarity of the condenser may be changed by a reversing relay 52, and the condenser is shorted, except during measurements, by another relay 53.
At the end of the sparking period, each condenser may be isolated irom its photocell and connected directly across its discharging resistor 23 by operation of the relay 5|. As this operates, each condenser is connected through a bias cell 55a to the input grid 55 of the corresponding amplifier 25, which in turn actuates a corresponding recorder relay 26 or 21.
Each amplifier 25, which will be more fully described later, comprises two stages and is stabilized by a feedback circuit 56 which may be broken by a relay 51. The magnitude of the amplifier output is indicated visually by an electron-ray tube 58, the ray-control grid of which is connected in the plate circuit of the'second amplifier stage.
The recorder relays 28 and 21 in the amplifier outputs control the recorder pen circuits 28, as
already explained with reference toFig. l. The
recorder, which is conveniently oi the movingtape type described in Patent 2,251,742, is driven by a self-starting synchronous motor 59, the
they have been discharged rapidly, condensers 10 using polystyrene as the dielectric being especially suitable (J. Opt. Soc. Amer. 35, 690 (1945). The electrical magnitudes of thecapacitance of each condenser (0.1 to 1.0 microtarad) and of the resistance 01' each discharging resistor (5 to 50 megohms) are chosen so that their mathematical product is of the order of several seconds and is substantially equal for all condenserresistor pairs in the apparatus, in order to satisfy the mathematical requirements 01 the system, as in Equations 4 and 5 above.
Operation of circuit As long as the relays are in the positions shown in Fig. 7, the input grids 55 of the amplifiers 25 are all maintained at a fixed potential below ground potential determined by the bias cells 55a. With this condition obtaining, the operator first adjusts each amplifier-relay circuit so that each indicator tube 58 or magic eye is just "closed," and so that each recorder relay 26 or 21, though still in the normal position, will be activated whenever the corresponding amplifier input-grid potential is depressed below the aforesaid bias potential.
' With the amplifiers thus normalized, and with the photocells 20 receiving no light, dark current compensation is made. Each test switch 50 is thrown, connecting each photocell directly to its amplifier input grid. At the same time, the feedback relay switches 51 are-opened to place the amplifiers in the high-gain state. ,Each voltage-divider 49 is then adjusted 'until the corresponding indicator tube 58 is again closed." The entire dark current of each photocell is thus balanced out, and fiows through its leak resistance 188. The switches 50 and 5'! are returned to normal positions, and the measuring circuits are ready for use.
In making an analysis with the spectrometer utilizing the measuring circuit of Fig. 7, the sample to be analyzed is first sparked for a few seconds, after which the exposure period is initiated by a timing system later to be described which actuates the master shutter I4 (Fig. 1) and the condenser shorting relays 53 (Fig. '7) at the same instant. The light 01' the spark then enters the spectrometer and the resulting spectral lines fall on the photocells 20, causing photocurrents to flow; the condensers 22, simultaneously unshorted, store these photocurrents throughout the sparking period. As sparking proceeds, the solenoids 38 for reciprocating the background compensation shutter (Fig. 2) and the condenser reversing relays 52 (Fig. 7) are operated in synchronism. Thus, each condenser is alternately charged with photocurrent corresponding to the intensity of the spectral line plus background and discharged for an equal period with photocurrent corresponding to the intensity of the background alone.
When the exposure period has ended, the timing system closes the master shutter ll, cutting oil. all light to the photocells. It simultaneously places the background shutter solenoids 38 and the condenser reversing relays 52 in normal positions, and closes the recorder motor relay 60, setting the recorder roll Si in motion. The condenser measuring relays 5| and 5| and the feedback circuit relay 5! are then actuated simultaneously, connecting the condensers 22 across their discharging resistors 23, isolating the amplifier input grids 55 from ground, connecting the standard cell 62 in circuit, and converting the amplifiers to a high-gain condition. Assuming that the potentials on the charged condensers all 11 exceed in magnitude that of the standard cell. the amplifier input grids it instantly detect potentials below the bias potential, and the amplifiers actuate the recorder relays and 21. The
recorder pen circuits is for the unknown elements remain open, but the circuit for the reference element, involving the relay 21, is at once closed, so that recording begins on this one pen. Then, when the decreasing potentials on the condensers of the unknown elements reach voltages equal in magnitude to that of the standard cell. i. e. when the grids ll reach bias potential,
the relays It are released, and the remaining recorder pen circuits close and cause marking of the recorder tape. As soon as the decreasing potential on the reference element condenser also M l s that of the standard cell, its amplifier deactuates the relay 21, and the pen circuits are again broken, so that all recording stops. The condenser discharge relays II and ll, the condenser shorting relay the amplifier feedback relay I1, and the motor relay it are then all released, placing the circuits in the normal or inactive condition, as in Fig. 7, and returning the amplifiers to the degenerative or self-stabilizing state. The entire apparatus is then ready for another analysis.
Timing system The details of the timing mechanism for initiating the operating impulses for the various relays in the measuring and spark circuits of the direct-reading spectrometer are shown in Fig. 8. The controlling elements of the mechanism are two timers and a series of cam-operated switches, togetherwith several relays. The cams rotate continuously when the spectrometer is in use, while the other elements function only in a predetermined sequence each time the "start" switch is operated to make an analysis.
In the circuit of Fig. 8, which is shown in its normal or inactive condition, the current is drawn from a line source 0, the return circuit bein in all cases through ground. The current first flows through a normally closed cut-out relay M to the "start" switch ,and from there to the coil of a self-locking normally-open starting relay This starting relay, when closed, supplies current through a line I] to operate the spectrometer spark source l2, and also to actuate a first timer switch 6.. This latter is set to allow the elapse of several seconds for the electrode spark to stabilize itself before starting the condenser charging cycle.
When the timer switch ll closes to start the spark exposure period, potential is supplied from the line It to the start cam switch as, the cam of which is mounted on a shaft It turned continuously by a geared synchronous motor II at a slow rate, conveniently once very two seconds. As soon as this cam switch it closes, the control impulse fiows through a lead 12 to the coil of a multi-contact self-locking starting relay l3.
- When this starting relay is actuated. power flows 1! supply circuit II and the lead It to the relay I. operating the spectrometer recorder motor ll (Fig. 7). The entire system of Fig. 8 then remains in this condition until'the exposure period is ended by operation of the second timer ll.
As soon as this second timer switch I! closes. current fiows' from a power supply lead I2- lIa-lib to energize a quick-closing delayedrelease control relay 88, which in turn actuates the coil of a multi-contact stopping relay ll. When this latter relay II is energized, it connects the power supply lead ll-OIc-"c to the coil of the control relay 0, thus locking both the control and the stopping relays in the actuated position. This same actuation of the stopping relay it also connects the power line I to the power supply circuit ll for the recorder motor. which circuit is connected by a Jumper it to the lead II for the condenser shorting relays. thus preventing the latter from being deactuated. Likewise, actuation of the stopping relay ll closes a circuit ll connecting the stop cam switch IT with the ground side of the coil of the starter relay II. Thus, as soon as the stop cam rotates to close the switch 01, the latter shorts out the coil of the starter relay II, deactuating the latter. The starter relay II at once drops out, breaking the power supply lead 14 to the master shutter It, thus terminating the exposure period, and also allowing the timer It to reset.
This dropping out also connects the power supply circuit 00 to the lead 0| to the recorder motor relay (Fig. 7),, starting the motor 59.
This same current supplied to the recorder lead It also flows through a lead II to the coil of the cut-out relay l4, actuating it and breaking the power supply to the locked starting relay N. This latter then opens, shutting oil the power supply to the spark source I! and the first timer switch ll, allowing the latter to reset.
The current in the recorder motor lead It is also transferred by the lead 88 and a second lead I! to the measuring cam switch so, which, when it rotates into closed position, energizes the coil of a multi-contact self-locking measuring relay 9|. This latter, on closing, connects power from the source lead I! to leads 92 for the condenser measuring relays II and II, and the amplifier feedback relays I! (Fig. 7), thus starting the measuring cycle of the instrument. This closing of the measuring relay II also breaks the connection between the power lead I! and the lead 82a, but it is simultaneously re-established by the closing of auxiliary contacts on the reference amplifier recording relay 21, which is actuated by its amplifier at the same instant that the measuring cycle begins, as already explained with reference to Fig. 7.
When the measuring cycle is completed, the reference amplifier releases its relay 21, thus breaking the power supply to the power lead Ila-82c and de-energizing the coil of the control relay II. This delayed-release-relay is set to remain closed a few seconds to allow the recorder motor time to run out extra tape, after which the relay opens. When it opens, the stopping relay I4 is thus deactuated, and shuts of! the power to the recorder motor leads I0 and II. stopping the motor and de-energizing both the cut-off relay N and the measuring relay OI, returning all the circuits to the normal state ready 7 for the next analysis.
As shown in Fig. 8, the cams of the starting switch it and the stopping switch I! provide only momentary closing of their respective circuits, and are set so that they'operate simultaneously. The reversing cam switches 16 close their circuits alternately, each circuit remaining closed for one half revolution of the camshaft. The particular reversing cam which holds the background shutter in position to transmit the spectral lines is timed to close simultaneously with the start and the stop cams. The cam of the measuring switch 90, which likewise closes its circuit only momentarily, is set to lag the stop cam by an appreciable interval, such as onefourth of a revolution, to allow the recorder motor time to reach speed before the measuring cycle begins.
The circuits of Fig. 8 render operation of the spectrometer entirely automatic. .Thus, the operator, after inserting the electrodes to be analyzed into their holders, merely pushes the start button 65. The spark' across the electrodes is at once turned on. Then, after a warmup interval determined by the timer 68, the
\ master shutter on the spectrometer inlet and the condenser charging circuits operate as soon as the starting cam 69 permits. The background shutter remains in position to pass the spectral lines for a full second until moved by the reversing cam, after which the shutter reciprocates at one-second intervals. When the second timer l9 indicates that the condenser charging period should end, the stop cam 81 closes the master shutter and turns off the spark source, both at the end of the next background exposure of the shutter, this proper timing to insure an equal number of line and background" exposures being maintained by the action of the stop cam 8?; independent of the setting of the second timer. As soon as the charging period has ended, the recorder motor starts up. After a halfsecond interval fixed by the measuring cam 90, during which the motor reaches its speed, the measuring cycle is initiated, control of all circuits is transferred to the reference amplifier I relay 2?, and the making of a record on the recorder tape begins. When all condensers are discharged to the predetermined low potential, the recorder motor continues to run out tape for a brief interval set by the delayed-release relay 83, to give enough space to permit the tape to be torn ofi easily, after which all circuits return to their normal state ready for another analysis. The entire operation, which requires thirty to forty seconds to complete an analytical record ready to be interpreted, is thus fully automatic. Errors due to the human element are practically eliminated, and a permanent record, available for checking at any time, is made.
Amplifier A circuit diagram of the direct-current amplifier 25 used in following the falling potentials on the photocell condensers of the spectrometer is given in Fig. 9.
As shown, the first stage of the amplifier consists of a high gain pentode 93 with low screen and plate voltages, e. g. a 6J7 or 606, so that the input resistance will be hi h. This first stage is 81, and a third stage or vpentode 98, e. g. a 6J7, the plate of which is coupled to the second grid of the first stage. The feedback circuit may be broken by the feedback relay switch 51. The terminal of the switch 51 connected through the battery 91 to the control grid of the third stage is also connected to a condenser 99, conveniently .of about 1.0 microfarad capacity, the other side of the condenser being connected to the cathode of the third stage.
As long as the feedback circuit is closed, the amplifier is in a low gain, highly stable state and exhibits little drift. At the same time, the condenser 99 acquires a charge consistent with the balance in the system. Then, when the feedback circuit is opened by the relay 5'! in response to the timing system of the spectrometer, the amplifier is converted to a high gain condition for the measuring period. However, during this period, the condenser 99 tends to retain its charge. preventing the third stage grid potential from changing appreciably during the high-gain period. Thus, when the relay 51 is again closed at the end of the measuring period, the amplifier is returned to the original stable condition. The amplifier of Fig. 9, by virtue of the action of the condenser 99 and the feedback circuit, remains balanced almost indefinitely, and requires adjustment of the voltage-divider 96 perhaps only once aweek while in continuous use.
INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS Fig. 10 illustrates a typical length of the recorder tape of the direct-reading spectrometer direct-coupled to the second stage 94, comprising 1 two triodes in one envelope, e. g, a 6SN'I, operated at conventional voltages and connected to stabilize the plate current. The output of this stage is supplied to the recording pen relay 26, as previously described. The amplifier is rendered highly stable by a feed-back circuit comprising neon glow lamps 95, a voltage-divider 96, battery containing the record of a single analysis of a magnesium-base alloy. The particular record shown was obtained with a spectrometer utilizing eight photocells and gives the analysis of each of seven elements relative to magnesium as the internal reference standard.
In making 'the analysis, the recorder was set to move the tape at a convenient speed, in this case 1.0 inch per second, the duration of the measuring period being about 12 seconds. The recorded line of each element on he tape is made by a pen associated with the photocell, amplifier, and relay corresponding to that element, as already set forth in detail. When the spectrometer reaches its measuring cycle, the recorder first starts the tape moving (from right to left, Fig. 10). Then, as soon as discharge of all condensers begins, the line for magnesium, the reference element, starts to appear. When the potential of the discharging reference condenser reaches that of the standard cell, drawing of all lines ceases and the recorder then stops. The length of the magnesium recorded line thus is a measure of the integrated intensity of the magnesium reference spectral line. The lengths of the other recorder lines are measures of the intensities of the spectral lines of the unknown elements relative to magnesium, and hence measures of the concentrations of those elements, as explained previously.
Fig. 11 is a typical calibration curve forthe unknown element aluminum. The curve was obtained empirically by determining the lengths of the recorder lines observed in sparking electrodes of several different magnesium alloys of known aluminum contents.
For convenience in reading the recorder lines. this calibration curve (Fig. 11) may be projected onto a straight scale (Fig. 12) which is marked 01! to correspond to the aluminum contents as given by the calibration curve. Then, to observe armors the per cent aluminum. as shown by the recorder tape, it is necessary merely to place this prolected calibration scale beside the aluminum re-' corded line, with the zero point of the scale opposite the end of the recorded line, and to read oi! the per cent aluminum from the scale at a point opposite the other end of the recorder line. Similar calibration scales for the other elements shown on the recorder tape may be prepared in like manner, and are used in the same way.
In the event that the calibration curve of an element shifts parallel to itself, due to changes within the optical or electrical-systems of the instrument, it is necessary merely to change the position of the zero point of the projected scale a compensating amount, the magnitude of which may be readily determined byanalyzing a single sample of known analysis. In actual practice, a known sample is run every few hours, and the zero points on the calibration scales of all elements corrected accordingly. In general, the correction thus observed remain exceedingly small,
even over periods of many weeks.
It will be appreciated that the foregoing specification is descriptive, rather than strictly limitatlve, of the present invention, and that numerous variations of the detailed constructions shown are possible without departing from the spirit of the invention, as defined in the claims.
In this specification and claims, the term unknown elementmeans an element the concentration of which is to be determined in the sample being analyzed and the term "reference element" means an element of known concentration in the sample which is being used as an internal standard for the analysis.
What is claimed is:
1. In a direct-reading spectrometer having an exit. slit for a selected spectral line, an electron multiplier photocell for observing the intensity of the line during an exposure period, and'a condenser connected to the output of the cell: a prism mounted at the exit slit in position to divide light passing therethrough into two beams, one beam consisting of the spectral line together with adjacent spectral background and the other consisting of background only, a lens for focusing both beams on the photocell, a shutter between the prism and the photocell provided with means for repeatedly alternating its position at brief equal intervals to cut 01! first one beam and then the other, switching means for repeatedly reversing the polarity of the condenser relative to the photocell in synchronlsm with the alternations of the shutter, the polarities being such that the condenser is charged by the photocell when the shutter is in position to admit the beam containing the spectral line, and means operative after the exposure period for indicating the charge on the condenser.
2. A direct-reading spectrometer for analysis by the internal standard method comprising, in combination with a spark source and a spectrometer: photocells for observing the intensities of the spectral lines of unknown and reference elements; individual condensers for storing the outputs of the photocells during an exposure period;
at brief equal intervals to cut off first one of the beams to each cell and then the other; reversing a master shutter for initiating and terminating the exposure of the photocells to the spectral lines; optical means for focusing on each cell switches for repeatedly reversing the polarity of each condenser relative to its photocell in synchronism with the alternations of the compensating shutter, the polarities being such that the condenser is charged by the photocell when the shutterisinpositiontoadmitthebeam containing the spectral line; and means operative after the exposure for comparing the charges stored in the condensers.
3. In a direct-reading spectrometer comprising a photocell for observing the intensity of a selected spectral line during an exposure period. and a condenser connecwd to the output of the cell, the combination therewith of optical means for focusing on the cell two separate beams, one beam consisting of the spectral line together with its adjacent spectral background and the other consisting of background only, shutter means for alternately interrupting the two beams at brief equal intervals during the exposure period, switching means for ,irepeatedly reversing the polarity of the condenser relative to the photocell in synchronism with the alternations of the shutter. and means operative after the exposure period for indicating the charge on the condenser.
4. In a direct-reading spectrometer comprising a photocell for observing the intensity of a spectral line during an exposure period, and a condenser connected to the output of the cell, the combination therewith of alternating shutter means for repeatedly interrupting and re-establishing at brief intervals of equal length during the exposure period the optical path by which the cell observes the spectral line. switching means for repeatedly reversing the polarity of the condenser relative to the photocell in synchronism with the said alternations of the shutter means. and means operative after the exposure period for indicating the charge on the condenser.
JASON L. BAUNDERSON. VICTOR J. CALDECOURT. EUGENE W. PETERSON.
REFERENCES CITED The following references are of record in the file of this patent:
UNITED STATES PATENTS Number Name Date 1,956,590 Pressler May 1, 1934 2,411,741 Michaelson Nov. 26, 1946 2,436,104 Fisher et al Feb. 17, 1948 FOREIGN PATENTS Number Country Date 144,986 Austria Mar. 25, 1936 OTIER REFERENCES Publication-Long et a1.: Testing Shutter Speeds with the Photo-Electric Cell, page 423 of the Photographic Journal, London, August 1934. (Copy in U. 8. Patent Ofiice Library.)
|Brevet cité||Date de dépôt||Date de publication||Déposant||Titre|
|US1956590 *||18 avr. 1931||1 mai 1934||Radio Patents Corp||Photo-electric tube|
|US2411741 *||13 déc. 1939||26 nov. 1946||Gen Electric||Color matching apparatus|
|US2436104 *||11 mai 1944||17 févr. 1948||Fisher Scientific Co||Photoelectric apparatus for spectrographic analysis|
|AT144986B *||Titre non disponible|
|Brevet citant||Date de dépôt||Date de publication||Déposant||Titre|
|US2706928 *||6 janv. 1951||26 avr. 1955||Lee Foundation For Nutritional||Spectrophotometric apparatus|
|US2855820 *||10 juin 1955||14 oct. 1958||Cons Electrodynamics Corp||Method of spectroscopic gas analysis|
|US2869364 *||27 janv. 1953||20 janv. 1959||Ayres James N||Apparatus and method for nondestructive testing of initiators|
|US2972929 *||18 nov. 1952||28 févr. 1961||Northrop Corp||Automatic recording photometer|
|US2999206 *||3 oct. 1958||5 sept. 1961||Baird Atomic Inc||Method and apparatus for measuring the ratio of electric potentials|
|US3004465 *||19 sept. 1956||17 oct. 1961||White Dev Corp||Apparatus for reducing effect of scattered light in monochromators|
|US3024692 *||12 juin 1958||13 mars 1962||Technicon Instr||Chart readers and comparators and method of translating light transmittance values of colorimeter recordings into concentration values|
|US3030854 *||28 mai 1957||24 avr. 1962||Renault||Apparatus for the direct analysis of spectral lines|
|US3067332 *||9 sept. 1960||4 déc. 1962||Renault||Devices for the chemical analysis of materials by means of photocells and by the spectral method|
|US3102155 *||16 févr. 1955||27 août 1963||Technicon Instr||Background compensation for spectrometers used in quantitative spectrochemical studies|
|US3144551 *||28 mars 1960||11 août 1964||Atomic Energy Authority Uk||Beryllium monitor means utilizing an electric arc and spectrum analyzer|
|US3289777 *||7 déc. 1964||6 déc. 1966||Toledo Scale Corp||Reading system|
|US3298275 *||19 avr. 1965||17 janv. 1967||Cons Electrodynamics Corp||Comparison signal circuit for measuring intensity of spectral lines|
|US3439760 *||15 oct. 1963||22 avr. 1969||Hobart Corp||Automatic printing price scale with photoelectric encoder including range and motion detectors|
|US3504978 *||3 févr. 1966||7 avr. 1970||Shimadzu Corp||Plural beam spectrophotometer with a diffusion plate between each cell and detector|
|US3533696 *||8 juil. 1966||13 oct. 1970||Optische Ind De Oude Delft Nv||Laser range finder including a light diffusing element|
|US4074936 *||10 mars 1976||21 févr. 1978||Klockner-Werke Ag||Method and apparatus for analyzing a composition of an alloy|
|US5513002 *||17 mars 1994||30 avr. 1996||The A.R.T. Group, Inc.||Optical corona monitoring system|
|US5550629 *||7 juin 1995||27 août 1996||A R T Group Inc||Method and apparatus for optically monitoring an electrical generator|
|US5552880 *||7 juin 1995||3 sept. 1996||A R T Group Inc||Optical radiation probe|
|US5764823 *||27 juin 1997||9 juin 1998||A R T Group Inc||Optical switch for isolating multiple fiber optic strands|
|US5886783 *||27 juin 1997||23 mars 1999||Shapanus; Vincent F.||Apparatus for isolating light signals from adjacent fiber optical strands|
|DE1142711B *||6 nov. 1957||24 janv. 1963||Arpad Bardocz||Verfahren und Einrichtung zur Spektralanalyse mit zeitlich aufgeloesten Spektren ausFunkenentladungen|
|DE1216580B *||18 déc. 1958||12 mai 1966||Renault||Apparat fuer die chemische Analyse von Werkstoffen im Spektralverfahren|
|Classification aux États-Unis||356/306, 250/232, 356/307|
|Classification internationale||G01J3/36, G01J3/30|


text:
Magic Book 2
Once upon a time, there were a young talanted mage Bangassmayer and his charming assistant Dimitria. One day as they were on a journey through the sacred land of Vagerus, they came upon the ancient ruins filled with valuable magical tablets. The knowledge they got from those artifacts was much beyond their expectations.
Release date: 06-01-2013

domain: artistic


text:
In the realm of connected to the internet casinos, where excitement and feat beckon, the Plain Wolf Online Opening stands tall as a attracting journey into the heart of the wilderness. Accompanying its mesmerizing replica, enticing gameplay, and the impressive aura of the arctic, this opening game offers an exhilarating experience that transports performers into a world of frosty landscapes and untamed advantage.
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text:
San Angelo and the Permian Basin is heavily reliant on the oil and gas industry. The purpose of this project is to discover the impact that OPEC’s announcements have on oil stock market returns in the United States and the local region during 2000-2015. Our research hypothesis is that there is a negative correlation between the manipulations and the crude oil returns for this period. Because West Texas relies heavily on the oil sector for community growth, this topic has significant financial and economic implications for this community.
The effects of OPEC’s announcements on stock market returns.
Faculty Mentor Name
Dr. Biqing Huang
Undergraduate Faculty Mentored Research Grant

domain: finance


text:
The Highway Trust Fund, the nation's source of road and bridge funding, went bankrupt in 2008 and has since relied on transfers from the General Fund to supplement fuel taxes. Republican Senators have proposed a new funding source: an EV fee.
“Sponsored by Sen. Deb Fischer (R-Neb.), the Stop EV Freeloading Act is meant to guarantee that electric vehicles support the federal Highway Trust Fund,” reports Transport Topics, a trucking and logistics online publication. “Currently, electric vehicles, or EVs, do not contribute to the fund, which is an account backed by revenue from federal taxes on gas and diesel fuel.”
Per background the senators provided, the bill would require EVs to contribute to the fund through a fee system. This would include a one-time fee of $1,000 on EVs at the point of sale.
“If the Biden administration plans to continue pushing EVs on the American people, the least Congress can do is require EVs to support the upkeep of our nation’s infrastructure,” Fischer, a member of the Commerce Committee on freight policy, said Sept. 25.
The bill, S. 2882, co-sponsored by Sens. Pete Ricketts (Neb.); John Cornyn (Tex.), and Cynthia M. Lummis (Wyo.), all Republicans, includes an exception for plug-in hybrid electric vehicles, such as the Toyota Prius Prime.
“The Highway Trust Fund [HTF] is used to pay for repairs and maintenance on federal highways and right now EVs are contributing to wear and tear on these roads without contributing to this important upkeep,” Lummis said...
In fact, that ‘EV contribution’ may be disproportionate, according to Fischer's press release dated Sep 25 2023:
The average EV is significantly heavier than its gas-powered counterpart because of the weight of large EV batteries. This legislation would require additional investment in the HTF from heavy EVs that can damage the road and increase maintenance costs.
A comparison of one EV to its internal combustion counterpart found that the difference can be 30% to 63% heavier.
“Every car that drives on our federal highways is responsible for paying into the Highway Trust Fund, and electric vehicles should be no exception,” Cornyn emphasized. “This legislation would ensure EVs pay their fair share and can’t cheat the system.”
Status of the Highway Trust Fund
As noted above, the Highway Trust Fund went bust in 2008, surviving on general fund transfers authorized by Congress and signed by presidents since George W. Bush.
“Rather than raise gas taxes, reduce spending, or identify new financing, lawmakers have relied on nearly $155 billion of general revenue transfers [pdf] to close this gap and keep the trust fund solvent,” states a Feb. 3, 2022 blog post from the Committee for a Responsible Federal Budget, a nonpartisan, non-profit organization.
According to the Congressional Research Service [pdf], “[h]istorically, all of the federal highway program and 80% of the public transportation program have been funded with revenues from the Highway Trust Fund (HTF). Revenues supporting the HTF come from a combination of fuel, truck, and tire taxes, but the fuel taxes provide about 85%-90% of the money.”
The Eno Center for Transportation is an authority on the trust fund's insolvency. See Planetizen posts based on their reports:
- The First Highway Trust Fund Bailout, September 11, 2019
- Ten Years of Highway Trust Fund Insolvency, September 11, 2018
Effect of Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act
“In addition to new investments in surface transportation, transit, broadband, energy, water, tax breaks, and other transportation spending, the bipartisan infrastructure law (officially the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act) included a five-year reauthorization of surface transportation programs, also known as a Highway Bill,” states the budget organization's blog.
The infrastructure law plugged the trust fund’s near-term gap through a large $118 billion general revenue transfer, delaying insolvency from 2022 to 2027. But rather than narrowing the long-term structural funding gap, increased highway and transit spending levels authorized under the law will widen the gap.
Planetizen coverage of the transportation reauthorization aspect of the IIJA can be tracked under the tag Surface Transportation Reauthorization Act of 2021.
Related in Planetizen on EVs and the Highway Trust Fund:
- It's Time For A National VMT Fee Policy, August 4, 2021 [Note that such a policy is in the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act: National Mileage Fee Pilot Program Late to Launch, June 29, 2023]
- Federal Lawmakers Target Electric Vehicles in Transportation Reauthorization, July 15, 2019
Hat tip to AASHTO Daily Transportation Update, Oct. 6, 2023.
Indiana Once Again Considering Ban on Dedicated Transit Lanes
The proposed legislation would impact the construction of planned IndyGo Blue Line, the third phase of the city’s bus rapid transit system.
4 Ways to Use AI in Urban Planning and City Design
With the ability to predict trends, engage citizens, enhance resource allocation, and guide decision-making, artificial intelligence has the potential to serve as planners’ very own multi-tool.
LA’s ‘Spongy’ Infrastructure Captured Almost 9 Billion Gallons of Water
The city is turning away from stormwater management practices that shuttle water to the ocean, building infrastructure that collects and directs it underground instead.
How Federal Policy Can Encourage TOD
Tying transit and land acquisition funding together could help produce more housing near transit hubs.
Small Cities at Disadvantage to Win Federal Safe Street Grants
Funding from the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law aimed at making streets safer is being awarded through a competitive grant program, but it’s not going to the communities that need it most, an investigation shows.
Hawai’i Transportation Projects Receive Federal Grants
State officials say they need around $15 billion to mitigate the impacts of rising seas.
City of Grand Forks, North Dakota
HUD's Office of Policy Development and Research
Harvard GSD Executive Education
City of Laramie, Wyoming
Colorado Department of Local Affairs
Lassen County Planning and Building Services
This six-course series explores essential urban design concepts using open source software and equips planners with the tools they need to participate fully in the urban design process.

domain: law


text:
Part of being a top performer is surrounding yourself with other awesome people. Which is why we occasionally include access to private Facebook groups as part of our programs. The discussions in these groups are extremely helpful in helping you succeed. However, we do ask that you remain respectful of others. We reserve the right to remove anyone. It rarely happens, but it's part of our commitment to making our communities great.
Have more questions? Submit a request

domain: sociology


Shatta Wale’s baby-mama and CEO of Michy’s hideout, Michy has reacted to the video which had a lady sleeping with her best friend’s father as revenge for sleeping with her boyfriend.
One lady whose identity is yet to be known blinded by revenge decided to sleep with her best friend’s father just because her best friend in question slept with her boyfriend behind her back.
She made a video whiles in the hotel room with the old man and shared it on social media and the video has since gone viral.
”Adwoa, you slept with my boyfriend, see now am in the hotel room with your father. Honey say Hello… LOL” she said in the video.
Watch the video below:
Michy spotted the video and shared it on her Snapchat handle with the caption as shared below;
Got a news item to share with us or an enquiry/complaint to make? Send an email to [email protected]


text:
RELATIONSHIPS AMENDMENT BILL
Mr HIBBINS (Prahran) — I rise to speak on the Relationships Amendment Bill 2015 and the Greens amendment passed in the upper house that would allow for a ceremony to be conducted in conjunction with the registering of a relationship. We are happy to support the government's changes to our amendment to facilitate the passage of the legislation and its implementation. This is a modest but important initiative in lieu of achieving full marriage equality at the federal level and also a welcome addition for heterosexual couples who choose to register their relationship rather than get married. As has been made clear, the ceremony will be optional when registering a relationship and is not, as in the case of marriage, a mandatory requirement, but it is something that I am sure many couples will wish to take up.
Following the passage of the amendments, the key will now be to ensure that the registrar of births, deaths and marriages does make provision for ceremonies, as it will now be able to do, and to ensure that it happens upon request and that it promotes and communicates that it is available to couples when they register their relationship. I do hope that the Victorian marriage registry on Spring Street will be made available for ceremonies and that it also promotes and communicates this fact.
Recently Australian Marriage Equality put out information comparing where various states were at with their provision for LGBTI equality and same-sex couples, and one of its desired initiatives was having a ceremony conducted in conjunction with registering a relationship. Without that, Victoria is lagging behind a number of other states — namely, I believe Tasmania and the ACT, which have this provision. So the passing of this amendment will be another key step in this state's support for same-sex couples.
I would certainly like to acknowledge members of the government and the opposition and other crossbenchers for their support for our amendment along with my upper house colleague Sue Pennicuik, who raised this in the upper house and who has also brought this amendment before previous Parliaments — also, of course, all those LGBTI advocates who work so tirelessly to achieve equality. I look forward to working together with them and with members of this Parliament to further the cause of LGBTI equality in Victoria.


text:
Critical tech ethics is my call for action to influencers, leaders, policymakers, and educators to help move our society towards centering race, deliberately and intentionally, to tech ethics. For too long, when “ethics” is applied broadly across different kinds of technology, ethics does not address race explicitly, including how diverse forms of technologies have contributed to violence against and the marginalization of communities of color. Across several years of research, I have studied online behavior to evaluate gender and racial biases. I have concluded that a way to improve technologies, including the Internet, is to create a specific type of ethics termed “critical tech ethics” that connects race to ethics related to technology. This article covers guiding theories for discovering critical tech ethical challenges, contemporary examples for illustrating critical tech ethical challenges, and institutional changes across business, education, and civil society actors for teaching critical tech ethics and encouraging the integration of critical tech ethics with undergraduate computer science. Critical tech ethics has been developed with the imperative to help improve society through connecting race to ethics related to technology, so that we may reduce the propagation of racial injustices currently occurring by educational institutions, technology corporations, and civil actors. My aim is to improve racial equity through the development of critical tech ethics as research, teaching, and practice in social norms, higher education, policy making, and civil society.
J. U. Korn, Black nerds, asian activists, and caucasian dogs: Online race-based cultural group identities within Facebook groups, International Journal of Interactive Communication Systems and Technologies, vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 14–25, 2015.
J. U. Korn, Expecting penises in chatroulette: Race, gender, and sexuality in anonymous online spaces, Popular Communication, vol. 15, no. 2, pp. 95–109, 2017.
J. U. Korn, #IfTheyGunnedMeDown: How ethics, gender, and race intersect when researching race and racism on Tumblr, Journal of Digital Social Research, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 41–44, 2019.
A. Denis, Intersectional analysis: A contribution of feminism to sociology, International Sociology, vol. 23, no. 5, pp. 677–694, 2008.
K. Crenshaw, Mapping the margins: Intersectionality, identity politics, and violence against women of color, Stanford Law Review, vol. 43, no. 6, pp. 1241–1299, 1991.
D. Jones, The representation of female athletes in online images of successive Olympic Games, Pacific Journalism Review, vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 108–129, 2006.
D. W. Chambers, Stereotypic images of the scientist: The draw-a-scientist test, Science Education, vol. 67, no. 2, pp. 255–265, 1983.
D. Polan, Professors, Discourse, vol. 16, no. 1, pp. 28–49, 1993.
L. S. Lewis, Students’ images of professors, The Educational Forum, vol. 32, no. 2, pp. 185–190, 1968.
D. D. McFarland, Self-images of law professors: Rethinking the schism in legal education, Journal of Legal Education, vol. 35, no. 2, pp. 232–260, 1985.
C. Fisanick, “They are weighted with authority”: Fat female professors in academic and popular cultures, Feminist Teacher, vol. 17, no. 3, pp. 237–255, 2007.
M. Dagaz and B. Harger, Race, gender, and research: Implications for teaching from depictions of professors in popular film, 1985–2005, Teaching Sociology, vol. 39, no. 3, pp. 274–289, 2011.
N. Gotanda, A critique of ‘our constitution is color-blind’, Stanford Law Review, vol. 44, no. 1, pp. 1–68, 1991.
D. G. Solorzano, Critical race theory, race and gender microaggressions, and the experience of Chicana and Chicago scholars, International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, vol. 11, no. 1, pp. 121–136, 1998.
T. Ebede and A. Papier, Disparities in dermatology educational resources, Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology, vol. 55, no. 4, pp. 687–690, 2006.
K. Kirkpatrick, Battling algorithmic bias: How do we ensure algorithms treat us fairly? Communications of the ACM, vol. 59, no. 10, pp. 16–17, 2016.
The articles published in this open access journal are distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).


The Senegalese, Marema, is declared winner of RFI Discovery Awards 2014 on Monday, 18th November. The lady from Dakar, strongly influenced by the acoustic music of Tracy Chapman, impressed the jury chaired by the Congolese star, Fally Ipupa. The event will fully be talked about in « Couleurs tropicales » program on RFI the following day.
Marema thus succeeds to the Burkinabe rapper, Smarty (his real name, Louis Salif Kiekieta). Composer and interpreter artist, the young half-blood lady is the author of the song, « Femmes d’affaires« , the song that has been making buzz on social networks since a few days.
The young Senegalese artist joins from now on the Ivorian, Tiken Jah Fakoly (2000), the Senegalese, Didier Awadi (2003) or the Malians, Amadou and Mariam already winners of the prestigious title. Marema is announced at the African Music International Fair (SIMA) that will be held from 20th to 22nd November 2014 in Dakar.[youtube]https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bgxQax0niCU[/youtube]
Original text by: Roger ADZAFO


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Kumquat harvest means kumquat marmalade…..
The big tunnel is heated and ventilated and an ideal environment for all our various sized citrus trees to languish in over the winter or maybe just for a few weeks until they are selected for a very nice customer. They don't necessarily have to have such luxurious accomodation as the orange and kumquat trees being the hardiest of the citrus, would cope with a relatively normal UK winter in a sheltered spot but we have to think about the quality of appearence when sending out a tree for mailorder and the tunnel provides a good protection from leaf damaging frosts or even rain drenched pots which are not particularly conducive to being packed in a cardbouard box.
Moving in time coincides with kumquat harvest time and this year the trees are heavily laden with good sized juicy orange fruits, the skins and zest are slightly sweeter than the flesh, which is tangy and sharp. Kumquat (or cumquat) is the ideal fruit for making into marmalade and there are abundant recipes to be found these days as kumquat fruit has moved into the culinary spotlight.
The Kumquat tree (Citrus japonica) strangely native to China not Japan, is evergreen and has a mass of leathery dark leaves, is self fertile and not fussy about pH level in the soil and hardy down to -8C, I would say that is a fairly easy going plant. Our Kumquat trees start from the table top size which are really sweet and make excellent indoor plants or a great gift. We also have a shrub sized trees which produce lots of fruits and then there are the really large trees which are over 10 years old and look instantly magnificent.

domain: agronomy


iMac A1418 late 2013 - white noise from headphone jack
I recently purchased a 2nd hand logicboard for my A1418 iMac from late 2013. Even though the board was claimed to be in fully working condition, there seems to be an unpleasant surprise with the headphone jack/ external audio port.
By plugging in (any) headphones there is only a white noise (which sometimes changes while adjusting the volume over the menu bar of the iMac). Anyway, the internal speakers as well as sound via bluetooth devices work flawlessly,
As I was assuming that it might be due to a faulty headphone jack, I tried to replace it by one from an A1418 Mid 2014 iMac (I think they must be interchangeable?!)- however with no success.
Does anyone have had a similar problem or have a hint were to look next? It is likely to be a hardware problem. I therefore also inspected the logicboard in the area close to the port for the headphone jack for any mechanical damage - at least there is no obvious damage present.
I would be very grateful for any advice ;-)
Thanks a lot!
Cette question est-elle utile ?


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Independents, Democrats join forces in attempt to unseat Republicans.
WASHINGTON — Say this about the 113th Congress: It’s managed to live down to low expectations.
SACRAMENTO, Calif. — Gov. Jerry Brown signed into law several bills designed to boost use of clean-air vehicles in California.
BIRMINGHAM, Ala. — There has only been one prosecution under the Emmett Till Act, even though the law was passed with the promise of $135 million for police work and an army of federal agents to investigate unsolved killings from the civil rights era. Some deaths aren’t even under review bec…
WASHINGTON — A suspenseful election night is one thing, but what if it stretches out for a month? Or into next year?
Election Day may not decide which party wins the Senate majority. Why?
Figuring out how to treat everybody fairly could be a challenge.
The fight to increase Americans' stagnant incomes is growing more serious.
It's accepted wisdom that Americans don't hold Washington in high regard.
What is the greatest overlooked story of the Civil War?
I wasn't 'real person' because I didn’t have mommy and daddy.
Little noticed is that low-income, foster kids benefit from new guidelines.
The meat industry has a serious case of the Mondays.
Need to preserve and protect continuity in our constitutional institutions is critical.
Proposing amendment reveals senators who are eager to regulate speech about themselves.
Regulators can ensure banks operate with enough reserves for their own good.
Also won't endorse GOP nominee for state schools chief.
The power to declare war has been in executive hands almost all along.
PHOENIX — The death of state Sen. Chester Crandell throws this year's race for the seat he held into turmoil.
Appeals court says a state law applying only to Maricopa County is illegal.

domain: news


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March brought us a solar storm severe enough to ruin DX for all of us. The few signals that were on were stateside stations, and even on 40 they had that distorted echo we are used to hearing from exotic places like Mongolia. As I write this, things are back to normal and Russians are coming through S9+ on 20CW. They will continue to do so for many months.
HIGH BANDS: Evening conditions on 10 & 15 (especially 15) are gradually improving. 15 will be at its best in May and early June, with excellent conditions to remote parts of Asia in the evening and during the day. In the evening follow the sunrise peak across Russia and Europe, because 15 will have the characteristics of a nighttime band this time of year. Because 15 is also open in the daytime, a large part of the world is workable just about any time of day. 10 meter openings to Europe will run into the afternoon, with good Asian openings in the evening. Watch for long path openings to Europe around midnight on 10 across a path that is mostly daylight. 20, of course, will be wide open all night. A good time to find African activity is during their "prime time" evening hours. This is mid-afternoon our time, when 20 has a pipeline eastward. After sun-up, long path is routinely open to southern Asia, the Mid-East, Russia, Europe, the Indian Ocean and Africa via the southwest and west. At the same time, you have a short path pipeline via the NNW to SE Asia and sometimes beyond (Antarctica long path.) 20 Meters in the morning is good for exotic DX any day of the week, but Saturdays are best.
LOW BANDS: Activity is down on 40, but the band is good to Europe in the evening and to Asia in the morning. Catch DXpeditions on 80 with the aid of sunrise data.

domain: geography


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After controversy and questions about his recent visit, Bernard Levy tells the story of his entry to Libya, answering several questions, as the French writer and intellectual says that he has entered the country with a valid visa issued in accordance with the rules, and has not been a guest of anyone and has no intention to interfere in the Libyan conflict or stand with any party.
Levy adds in his lengthy narration of the visit that the mistake made by the West was to leave the field open in Libya and elsewhere for Turkey and its Islamic ambitions.
The French writer added that what he did not imagine was the “hellish” reactions to his visit as soon as he informed the Ministry of Interior in Tripoli of plans to prepare reports on the reason for the visit.
Levy described the Minister of the Interior Fathi Bashagha as the best security man in the country and that he is one of few who have expressed their desire to see the European Union and Paris offer a parallel weight to Moscow and Ankara, but such matters need approval by the Head of the Presidential Council, Fayez Al-Sarraj, whom he described as a Turkish agent.
The writer expressed his shock at what he described as “hysteria” on social media and the accusations leveled against him, including his presentation as France’s envoy, war instructor, pro-Israel, and secretly against the Muslim Brotherhood.
The result, as reported by Levy, is that he may have hung a target on his back that represents settling scores within the government between those who wish to replace the militia with a sovereign power and those who derive strength from preserving these militias.
Levy recalled Libya’s recent history nine years ago, saying theg were great times when Western countries refrained from supporting the Gaddafi regime against the Libyan people, saying he returned to Libya hoping to see that thing repeated. He said he would return next time to Benghazi and Derna.
He described what happened to the country as a taste of freedom, and the beaches of Libya are a major part of the future of the Mediterranean, Europe and the West.


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During the war of 1965, on September 17, Indian Air Force planes targeted a Pakistani passenger train, as a result of which 20 passengers were martyred and 48 were injured. 4 tanks were destroyed, in the Sialkot sector, and the Pakistan Army inflicted heavy loss of life and property on the enemy in two-sided attacks, due to which India lost 51 tanks and 14 guns, Pakistan destroyed 442 tanks of India and 17 Captured the tanks in good condition. 25 Cavalry of the Pakistan Army inflicted heavy damage on the enemy and made 2 soldiers prisoners of war. Destroyed 5 tanks due to which the Indian commander had no choice but to order the cavalry rifles to retreat, an NCO of the 25th Cavalry of the Pakistan Army also captured the Indian Centurion tank. On September 17, the planes of the Pakistan Air Force attacked the Samba-Jammu sector and the bases of the Indian Air Force, Balod and Adampura, breaking their back. Blaming India for starting the war, the London newspaper Ewing Star wrote in its report that there is no doubt that India was responsible for starting the war in Asia. Similarly, the international newspaper LEMonde wrote that India has become a victim of diplomatic isolation in this war.
Prime Minister Hamza Abdi inaugurated the National Identity NIRASomalia system in Somalia
The President and Prime Minister of Somalia thanked Pakistan for developing the National Identity System in Somalia in collaboration with NADAR, The NIRASomalia Identity System with the support of NADAR will be a milestone for the progress of ID4Africa, Somalia’s Prime Minister in Mogadishu. Hamza Abdibari inaugurated the National Identity NIRASomalia system in Somalia with the support of NADRA, Somalia’s first national identity conference was held on the occasion of International Identity Day, the identity conference was attended by Pakistan, the European Union, World Bank Group. , United Kingdom, United States, Gulf countries ID4Africa, diplomats, and representatives of various United Nations agencies participated. The Prime Minister of Somalia expressed his heartfelt thanks to the Prime Minister of Pakistan and NADRA for their cooperation in the implementation of Somalia’s national identity system. The Ambassador and other dignitaries appreciated the strong system of NADRA and congratulated the Government of Pakistan and the Government of Somalia for the success. The President of Somalia Hassan M. Sheikh also expressed his sincere gratitude to the Government of Pakistan for social welfare programs, and health It will facilitate effective public service delivery, including maintenance, and electoral processes, thereby improving governance.
Full crackdown of Fesco against electricity thieves and defaulters
On the instructions of the Government of Pakistan and the Ministry of Energy (Power Division), Fesco’s comprehensive crackdown against electricity thieves and defaulters is continuing, the teams of six operation circles of Fesco have arrested another 104 electricity thieves who have been charged more than 216,000. Bills for fines of more than 1 crore 16 lakh have been issued for detection units. Applications have been filed for registration of FI against all electricity thieves by disconnecting their connections. In district Faisalabad, more than 1.129 thousand detection units and more than 4.84 million fines have been imposed on 384 electricity thieves so far. So far, 106 electricity thieves have been given more than 4 lakh 88 thousand detection units and a fine of Rs. So far, more than 2 lakh 65 thousand detection units and 1 crore 24 lakh fine have been imposed on 97 electricity thieves in Bhakkar district. More than 2 lakh 88 thousand detection units and 83 lakh 57 thousand fines were imposed on 107 electricity thieves in Chiniot district. More than 80 thousand detection units and 39 lakh 85 thousand fines were imposed on 31 electricity thieves in Khushab district. In Mianwali district, more than 162 thousand detection units and more than 69 lakh fines were imposed on 87 electricity thieves. In Sargodha district, 126 electricity thieves were given more than 3 lakh 69 detection units and fined 1 crore 52 lakh. More than 2 lakh detection units and more than 76 lakh fines were issued to 69 electricity thieves in the Toba district. In the ongoing special campaign against electricity theft, a total of 1014 electricity thieves have been fined more than 1194 lakh 81 thousand in the name of more than 29 lakh 48 thousand detection units in the Fesco region during eleven days. While 18 electricity thieves have been arrested so far. More than 2 crore 52 lakhs have been recovered from electricity thieves so far while a total of 769 cases have been registered against electricity thieves.
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European Journal of Gynaecological Oncology (EJGO) is published by IMR Press from Volume 40 Issue 1 (2019). Previous articles were published by another publisher on a subscription basis, and they are hosted by IMR Press on imrpress.com as a courtesy and upon agreement with S.O.G.
Urban-rural differences in gynaecological cancer occurrence in a central region of Italy: 1978-1982 and 1998-2002
Differences in gynaecological cancer incidence and mortality in the urban and rural areas of the Umbria region (central Italy) were investigated. All women with primary invasive breast cancers, uterine cervix and uterine corpus, and ovarian cancers diagnosed during the periods 1978-1982 and 1998-2002 were identified and analysed according to place of residence (either urban or rural). Mortality data were supplied by the National Institute of Statistics (ISTAT) for the period 1978 to 1982, whereas for the 1994-2002 period they were supplied by the Regional Nominative Causes of Death Registry (ReNCaM). Incident cases considered were taken from an ad hoc survey for the first period and from the Umbrian Population Cancer Registry database for the second one. For each site the age-adjusted incidence (AAIR) and mortality (AADR) rates were calculated. The expected number of rural cases was obtained from indirect standardisation with urban incidence and mortality rates of several sites. The significance of the observed expected ratios (SIRs for incidence and SMRs for mortality) and the corresponding 95% confidence intervals were based on the Poisson distribution. Urbanisation levels were established following the classification of the Italian Institute of Statistics. For all sites, excluding the ovary during the most recent period, the SIR relative to rural areas was below 1, but the rates were statistically significant only for breast cancer in both periods (SIR 0.81, 95% CI 0.74-0.88 and SIR 0.82, 95% CI 0.77-0.88, respectively) and for cervix uteri in the first period (SIR 0.77, 95% CI 0.59-0.94). The lower breast cancer incidence in the rural area could also be due to lesser compliance with screening procedures which, up until 2002, were not provided in the form of mass-screenings throughout the region by the Regional Health Department. These results underscore the need for continued efforts to provide preventive health services to medically underserved women throughout Umbria, including rural communities. Underutilisation of preventive healthcare services may result in failure to identify healthcare problems that might be successfully managed with medication or lifestyle changes, as well as missed opportunities to prevent potentially life-threatening diseases.

domain: medical


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The First Lady of Nigeria, Senator Oluremi Tinubu, has commended the female national basketball team, D’Tigress, for emerging champions at the 2023 AfroBasket championship in Kigali, Rwanda.
Nigeria have become the first team to win four FIBA Women’s AfroBasket titles in a row over the last four decades, thanks to an 84-74 win over Senegal on Saturday in Kigali, Rwanda.
Senegal clinched the last ticket to the 2023 FIBA Women’s AfroBasket finals after a hard-fought 75-65 win over Mali on Thursday in Kigali.
The American cited “broken promises and unpaid bonuses” as part of the reasons that could lead to his exit.
The game which lived up to its expectation saw the team hold out against a desperate Mali to seal a 73-69 points win.
In his New Year message, Kida congratulated Nigerians for being amongst the chosen to witness a brand new year which will usher in positive results for Nigerian basketball.
The Nigerian lads defeated the Malians by 11-22, 13 -9, 14 -28 and 21 -11.
In a highly-charged semi-final encounter between two West African rivals, Nigeria continued her unbeaten run in the competition with a dominant performance.
The reigning African champions took control of the game from tip-off and running at 10-0 in the first two minutes of the game and ending the first quarter 24-8.
Nigeria is in Group B alongside Mozambique and Angola, with Group A having hosts Cameroon, Cape Verde and Kenya.
The team, which is arriving the venue in batches, will face Angola on September 20, with a top place finish as target.
This followed the September 30th date recently announced by the Federal Ministry of Sports for the Sports Federation elections.
They however have a second chance of qualification for the quarter-finals, with their final group position earning them a quarter-final qualifying fixture on Tuesday.
Emelogu who recorded 18 points from 6 made three pointers from 10 attempts said the licence to shoot gave him the confidence to do what he knows how to do best on the court.
The point guard who last played for Caen BC in the French league said representing one’s country at the international stage is a dream come true for any athlete.
Daniel Utomi who plies his trade with Vichy Clermont in France will be joined by Ikenna Ndugba, Emmanuel Omogbo of Apoel BC of Cyprus and Benjamin Emegolu (Rouen Basket Metrople, France) after days of training in the United States of America
It was reported on Monday that the Associate Head Coach of D’Tigers quit his role with the national team.
The 30th edition of the AfroBasket, men’s basketball continental championship of Africa, is scheduled to take place between 24 August and 5 September 2021 in Kigali, Rwanda’s capital city.
This, she believes, is possible courtesy of right personnel selection and better preparation despite admitting the quality of their group B opponents.
Diogu, who was a member of the team to the London 2012 Olympics, said despite their impeccable 6-0 unbeaten run during the qualifiers, the team is nowhere ready for a busy summer.


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vote bi-partisan, vote legal weed
The 2016 election results made one thing is clear — Americans want legal weed. Nine states voted on recreational cannabis laws. Eight passed.
California, Nevada, Maine and Massachusetts voted in favor of recreational marijuana. North Dakota, Arkansas and Florida said yes to medical marijuana. Montana voters passed laws to loosen medical restrictions. Arizona, the only state to not pass, voted against its recreational law.
Currently, marijuana is legal for recreational use in seven states plus the District of Columbia. Medical marijuana is legal in 28 states. Will California be the tipping point? The Drug Policy Alliance’s Amanda Reiman said ahead of Prop 64’s vote, “it is the death knell for federal prohibition.”
I show my support for legal weed in Chongwear apparel. This white Marilize Legajuana hat starts conversations wherever I go. Wearing a mugshot? Make it Tommy’s and make a statement.
How will new legislation impact current markets? Will the Trump administration stomp out rec weed? Is this an indication of future decriminalization? Only time will tell. One thing is certain, Americans want legal weed, and they’re making voices heard in the voting booth.
*Thanks Erik for helping shoot these photos!