text:
@article{holley2004,
  title = {Fishing Strategy Development under Changing Conditions: Examples from the {{French}} Offshore Fleet Fishing in the {{North Atlantic}}},
  volume = {61},
  issn = {1054-3139},
  shorttitle = {Fishing Strategy Development under Changing Conditions},
  abstract = {Abstract.  A typology is presented for the French offshore fleet fishing in the North Atlantic. The investigation was carried out separately for all years betwe},
  language = {en},
  number = {8},
  journal = {ICES Journal of Marine Science},
  doi = {10.1016/j.icesjms.2004.08.010},
  author = {Holley, Jean-Fran{\c c}ois and Marchal, Paul},
  month = jan,
  year = {2004},
  pages = {1410-1431}
}

@article{froese,
  title = {A New Approach for Estimating Stock Status from Length Frequency Data},
  abstract = {Abstract.  This study presents a new method (LBB) for the analysis of length frequency data from commercial catches. LBB works for species that grow throughout},
  language = {en},
  journal = {ICES Journal of Marine Science},
  doi = {10.1093/icesjms/fsy078},
  author = {Froese, Rainer and Winker, Henning and Coro, Gianpaolo and Demirel, Nazli and Tsikliras, Athanassios C. and Dimarchopoulou, Donna and Scarcella, Giuseppe and Probst, Wolfgang Nikolaus and Dureuil, Manuel and Pauly, Daniel}
}

@article{carozza2017,
  title = {Formulation, {{General Features}} and {{Global Calibration}} of a {{Bioenergetically}}-{{Constrained Fishery Model}}},
  volume = {12},
  issn = {1932-6203},
  abstract = {Human exploitation of marine resources is profoundly altering marine ecosystems, while climate change is expected to further impact commercially-harvested fish and other species. Although the global fishery is a highly complex system with many unpredictable aspects, the bioenergetic limits on fish production and the response of fishing effort to profit are both relatively tractable, and are sure to play important roles. Here we describe a generalized, coupled biological-economic model of the global marine fishery that represents both of these aspects in a unified framework, the BiOeconomic mArine Trophic Size-spectrum (BOATS) model. BOATS predicts fish production according to size spectra as a function of net primary production and temperature, and dynamically determines harvest spectra from the biomass density and interactive, prognostic fishing effort. Within this framework, the equilibrium fish biomass is determined by the economic forcings of catchability, ex-vessel price and cost per unit effort, while the peak harvest depends on the ecosystem parameters. Comparison of a large ensemble of idealized simulations with observational databases, focusing on historical biomass and peak harvests, allows us to narrow the range of several uncertain ecosystem parameters, rule out most parameter combinations, and select an optimal ensemble of model variants. Compared to the prior distributions, model variants with lower values of the mortality rate, trophic efficiency, and allometric constant agree better with observations. For most acceptable parameter combinations, natural mortality rates are more strongly affected by temperature than growth rates, suggesting different sensitivities of these processes to climate change. These results highlight the utility of adopting large-scale, aggregated data constraints to reduce model parameter uncertainties and to better predict the response of fisheries to human behaviour and climate change.},
  language = {en},
  number = {1},
  journal = {PLOS ONE},
  doi = {10.1371/journal.pone.0169763},
  author = {Carozza, David A. and Bianchi, Daniele and Galbraith, Eric D.},
  month = jan,
  year = {2017},
  keywords = {Marine ecosystems,Marine fish,Biomass (ecology),Boats,Death rates,Fish biology,Fish physiology,Monte Carlo method},
  pages = {e0169763}
}

@article{fahrig2003,
  title = {Effects of {{Habitat Fragmentation}} on {{Biodiversity}}},
  volume = {34},
  issn = {1543-592X},
  abstract = {The literature on effects of habitat fragmentation on biodiversity is huge. It is also very diverse, with different authors measuring fragmentation in different ways and, as a consequence, drawing different conclusions regarding both the magnitude and direction of its effects. Habitat fragmentation is usually defined as a landscape-scale process involving both habitat loss and the breaking apart of habitat. Results of empirical studies of habitat fragmentation are often difficult to interpret because (a) many researchers measure fragmentation at the patch scale, not the landscape scale and (b) most researchers measure fragmentation in ways that do not distinguish between habitat loss and habitat fragmentation per se, i.e., the breaking apart of habitat after controlling for habitat loss. Empirical studies to date suggest that habitat loss has large, consistently negative effects on biodiversity. Habitat fragmentation per se has much weaker effects on biodiversity that are at least as likely to be positive as negative. Therefore, to correctly interpret the influence of habitat fragmentation on biodiversity, the effects of these two components of fragmentation must be measured independently. More studies of the independent effects of habitat loss and fragmentation per se are needed to determine the factors that lead to positive versus negative effects of fragmentation per se. I suggest that the term "fragmentation" should be reserved for the breaking apart of habitat, independent of habitat loss.},
  journal = {Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics},
  author = {Fahrig, Lenore},
  year = {2003},
  pages = {487-515}
}

@article{harrison1999,
  title = {Habitat Fragmentation and Large-Scale Conservation: What Do We Know for Sure?},
  volume = {22},
  issn = {1600-0587},
  shorttitle = {Habitat Fragmentation and Large-Scale Conservation},
  abstract = {We review the ecological effects of habitat fragmentation, comparing the theoretical approaches that have been taken to understanding it with the existing evidence from empirical studies. Theory has emphasized the spatial aspects of fragmentation and the role of dispersal among patches, and has generated interesting predictions such as a nonlinear relationship between the amount of remaining habitat and the probability of species persistence. However, while the few available large-scale empirical studies of fragmentation all tend to show that it has major effects, these documented effects tend to be relatively simple ones such as the degradation of habitat quality within fragments. There is good reason to be cautious of any claim that corridors or the spatial configuration of remaining habitat can compensate for the overall loss of habitat. This is an invited Minireview on the occasion of the 50th anniversary of the Nordic Ecological Society Oikos.},
  language = {en},
  number = {3},
  journal = {Ecography},
  doi = {10.1111/j.1600-0587.1999.tb00496.x},
  author = {Harrison, Susan and Bruna, Emilio},
  month = jun,
  year = {1999},
  pages = {225-232}
}

@article{chetkiewicz2006,
  title = {Corridors for {{Conservation}}: {{Integrating Pattern}} and {{Process}}},
  volume = {37},
  issn = {1543-592X},
  shorttitle = {Corridors for {{Conservation}}},
  abstract = {Corridors are commonly used to connect fragments of wildlife habitat, yet the identification of conservation corridors typically neglects processes of habitat selection and movement for target organisms. Instead, corridor designs often are based on binary patterns of habitat suitability. New technologies and analytical tools make it possible to better integrate landscape patterns with behavioral processes. We show how resource selection functions can be used to describe habitat suitability with continuous and multivariable metrics and review methods by which animal movement can be quantified, analyzed, and modeled. We then show how the processes of habitat selection and movement can be integrated with landscape features using least-cost paths, graph theory, and step selection functions. These tools offer new ways to design, implement, and study corridors as landscape linkages more objectively and holistically.},
  journal = {Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics},
  author = {Chetkiewicz, Cheryl-Lesley B. and St. Clair, Colleen Cassady and Boyce, Mark S.},
  year = {2006},
  pages = {317-342}
}

@article{claudet2008,
  title = {Marine Reserves: Size and Age Do Matter},
  volume = {11},
  issn = {1461-0248},
  shorttitle = {Marine Reserves},
  abstract = {Marine reserves are widely used throughout the world to prevent overfishing and conserve biodiversity, but uncertainties remain about their optimal design. The effects of marine reserves are heterogeneous. Despite theoretical findings, empirical studies have previously found no effect of size on the effectiveness of marine reserves in protecting commercial fish stocks. Using 58 datasets from 19 European marine reserves, we show that reserve size and age do matter: Increasing the size of the no-take zone increases the density of commercial fishes within the reserve compared with outside; whereas the size of the buffer zone has the opposite effect. Moreover, positive effects of marine reserve on commercial fish species and species richness are linked to the time elapsed since the establishment of the protection scheme. The reserve size-dependency of the response to protection has strong implications for the spatial management of coastal areas because marine reserves are used for spatial zoning.},
  language = {en},
  number = {5},
  journal = {Ecology Letters},
  doi = {10.1111/j.1461-0248.2008.01166.x},
  author = {Claudet, Joachim and Osenberg, Craig W. and {Benedetti-Cecchi}, Lisandro and Domenici, Paolo and {Garc{\'i}a-Charton}, Jos{\'e}-Antonio and {P{\'e}rez-Ruzafa}, {\'A}ngel and Badalamenti, Fabio and {Bayle-Sempere}, Just and Brito, Alberto and Bulleri, Fabio and Culioli, Jean-Michel and Dimech, Mark and Falc{\'o}n, Jes{\'u}s M. and Guala, Ivan and Milazzo, Marco and {S{\'a}nchez-Meca}, Julio and Somerfield, Paul J. and Stobart, Ben and Vandeperre, Fr{\'e}d{\'e}ric and Valle, Carlos and Planes, Serge},
  month = may,
  year = {2008},
  keywords = {Asymmetrical analysis of variance,coastal marine ecosystems,commercial species,fish assemblages,heterogeneity,marine protected area,marine reserve age,marine reserve design,marine reserve network,marine reserve size,weighted meta-analysis},
  pages = {481-489}
}

@article{russ2008,
  title = {Rapid Increase in Fish Numbers Follows Creation of World's Largest Marine Reserve Network},
  volume = {18},
  issn = {0960-9822},
  abstract = {Summary
No-take marine reserves (NTMRs) are much advocated as a solution to managing marine ecosystems, protecting exploited species and restoring natural states of biodiversity [1,2]. Increasingly, it is becoming clear that effective marine conservation and management at ecosystem and regional scales requires extensive networks of NTMRs [1,2]. The world's largest network of such reserves was established on Australia's Great Barrier Reef (GBR) in 2004. Closing such a large area to all fishing has been socially and politically controversial, making it imperative that the effectiveness of this new reserve network be assessed. Here we report evidence, first, that the densities of the major target species of the GBR reef line fisheries were significantly higher in the new NTMRs, compared with fished sites, in just two years; and second, that the positive differences were consistent for multiple marine reserves over an unprecedented spatial scale (\>1,000 km).},
  number = {12},
  journal = {Current Biology},
  doi = {10.1016/j.cub.2008.04.016},
  author = {Russ, Garry R. and Cheal, Alistair J. and Dolman, Andrew M. and Emslie, Michael J. and Evans, Richard D. and Miller, Ian and Sweatman, Hugh and Williamson, David H.},
  month = jun,
  year = {2008},
  pages = {R514-R515}
}

@article{roberts2001,
  title = {Effects of {{Marine Reserves}} on {{Adjacent Fisheries}}},
  volume = {294},
  issn = {0036-8075, 1095-9203},
  abstract = {Marine reserves have been widely promoted as conservation and fishery management tools. There are robust demonstrations of conservation benefits, but fishery benefits remain controversial. We show that marine reserves in Florida (United States) and St. Lucia have enhanced adjacent fisheries. Within 5 years of creation, a network of five small reserves in St. Lucia increased adjacent catches of artisanal fishers by between 46 and 90\%, depending on the type of gear the fishers used. In Florida, reserve zones in the Merritt Island National Wildlife Refuge have supplied increasing numbers of world record\textendash{}sized fish to adjacent recreational fisheries since the 1970s. Our study confirms theoretical predictions that marine reserves can play a key role in supporting fisheries.},
  language = {en},
  number = {5548},
  journal = {Science},
  doi = {10.1126/science.294.5548.1920},
  author = {Roberts, Callum M. and Bohnsack, James A. and Gell, Fiona and Hawkins, Julie P. and Goodridge, Renata},
  month = nov,
  year = {2001},
  pages = {1920-1923},
  pmid = {11729316}
}

@article{guidetti2007,
  title = {Community-Wide Effects of Marine Reserves in the {{Mediterranean Sea}}},
  issn = {0171-8630},
  abstract = {We investigated the community-wide effects of no-take marine reserves at the regional scale in the Mediterranean Sea. Reserves had general positive effects of protection on fish targeted by fishing, and variable effects on non-target species. Differences in the structure of fish assemblages (in terms of abundance of species and trophic groups) were greater between geographic locations than when compared among all protected and adjacent fished areas at the regional scale. These results suggest that the assemblage-wide response to protection at the species level may be spatially idiosyncratic, as a function of local factors. However, the functional (trophic group) response of the fish assemblages to protection appears to be more general. Response of fish assemblages to protection was significantly related to reserve age (i.e. duration of protection) only when evaluated at functional level, whereas reserve size did not appear to influence fish assemblages at either species or functional level. Reserves can enhance trophic cascades and ecological shifts once the density of fish predators of sea urchins reaches a density threshold of about 15 adult sea breams (Diplodus sargus and D. vulgaris, the most important sea urchin predators) per 100 m2. These non-linearities in the community-wide effect of reserves suggest that caution is needed in simplistically treating reserves and unprotected areas as 2 experimental treatments in ecological studies.},
  language = {eng},
  author = {Guidetti, P. and Sala, Enric},
  month = apr,
  year = {2007}
}

@book{macarthur2015,
  title = {Theory of {{Island Biogeography}}. ({{MPB}}-1)},
  isbn = {978-1-4008-7536-8},
  abstract = {The book description for "Theory of Island Biogeography. (MPB-1)" is currently unavailable.},
  language = {en},
  publisher = {{Princeton University Press}},
  author = {MacArthur, Robert H. and Wilson, Edward O.},
  month = dec,
  year = {2015},
  keywords = {Science / Life Sciences / Biology,Science / Life Sciences / Ecology}
}

@article{naughton-treves2005,
  title = {The {{Role}} of {{Protected Areas}} in {{Conserving Biodiversity}} and {{Sustaining Local Livelihoods}}},
  volume = {30},
  abstract = {The world's system of protected areas has grown exponentially over the past 25 years, particularly in developing countries where biodiversity is greatest. Concurrently, the mission of protected areas has expanded from biodiversity conservation to improving human welfare. The result is a shift in favor of protected areas allowing local resource use. Given the multiple purposes of many protected areas, measuring effectiveness is difficult. Our review of 49 tropical protected areas shows that parks are generally effective at curtailing deforestation within their boundaries. But deforestation in surrounding areas is isolating protected areas. Many initiatives now aim to link protected areas to local socioeconomic development. Some of these initiatives have been successful, but in general expectations need to be tempered regarding the capacity of protected areas to alleviate poverty. Greater attention must also be paid to the broader policy context of biodiversity loss, poverty, and unsustainable land use in developing countries.},
  number = {1},
  journal = {Annual Review of Environment and Resources},
  doi = {10.1146/annurev.energy.30.050504.164507},
  author = {{Naughton-Treves}, Lisa and Holland, Margaret Buck and Brandon, Katrina},
  year = {2005},
  keywords = {conservation and development,deforestation,national parks,tropics},
  pages = {219-252}
}

@article{rouget2006,
  title = {Designing {{Large}}-{{Scale Conservation Corridors}} for {{Pattern}} and {{Process}}},
  volume = {20},
  issn = {1523-1739},
  abstract = {Abstract:\hspace{0.6em}  A major challenge for conservation assessments is to identify priority areas that incorporate biological patterns and processes. Because large-scale processes are mostly oriented along environmental gradients, we propose to accommodate them by designing regional-scale corridors to capture these gradients. Based on systematic conservation planning principles such as representation and persistence, we identified large tracts of untransformed land (i.e., conservation corridors) for conservation that would achieve biodiversity targets for pattern and process in the Subtropical Thicket Biome of South Africa. We combined least-cost path analysis with a target-driven algorithm to identify the best option for capturing key environmental gradients while considering biodiversity targets and conservation opportunities and constraints. We identified seven conservation corridors on the basis of subtropical thicket representation, habitat transformation and degradation, wildlife suitability, irreplaceability of vegetation types, protected area networks, and future land-use pressures. These conservation corridors covered 21.1\% of the planning region (ranging from 600 to 5200 km2) and successfully achieved targets for biological processes and to a lesser extent for vegetation types. The corridors we identified are intended to promote the persistence of ecological processes (gradients and fixed processes) and fulfill half of the biodiversity pattern target. We compared the conservation corridors with a simplified corridor design consisting of a fixed-width buffer along major rivers. Conservation corridors outperformed river buffers in seven out of eight criteria. Our corridor design can provide a tool for quantifying trade-offs between various criteria (biodiversity pattern and process, implementation constraints and opportunities). A land-use management model was developed to facilitate implementation of conservation actions within these corridors.},
  language = {en},
  number = {2},
  journal = {Conservation Biology},
  doi = {10.1111/j.1523-1739.2006.00297.x},
  author = {Rouget, Mathieu and Cowling, Richard M. and Lombard, Amanda T. and Knight, Andrew T. and Kerley, Graham I.h.},
  month = apr,
  year = {2006},
  keywords = {biological processes,conectividad del paisaje,conservation implementation,Conservation planning,implementación de medidas de conservación,landscape connectivity,landscape linkages,planificación de conservación,procesos biológicos,vínculos entre paisajes},
  pages = {549-561}
}

@article{soule1999,
  title = {Conserving Nature at Regional and Continental Scales\textemdash{}a Scientific Program for {{North America}}},
  volume = {49},
  issn = {0006-3568, 1525-3244},
  language = {en},
  number = {10},
  journal = {BioScience},
  doi = {10.2307/1313572},
  author = {Soul{\'e}, Michael E. and Terborgh, John},
  month = jan,
  year = {1999},
  pages = {809-817}
}

@article{lizaso2000,
  title = {Density Dependence in Marine Protected Populations: A Review},
  volume = {27},
  shorttitle = {Density Dependence in Marine Protected Populations},
  number = {02},
  journal = {Environmental conservation},
  author = {Lizaso, JL S{\'a}nchez and Goni, R. and Renones, O. and Charton, JA Garcia and Galzin, Ren{\'e} and Bayle, J. T. and Jerez, P. Sanchez and Ruzafa, A. Perez and Ramos, A. A.},
  year = {2000},
  pages = {144--158}
}

@article{leslie2003,
  title = {Using {{Siting Algorithms}} in the {{Design}} of {{Marine Reserve Networks}}},
  volume = {13},
  issn = {1939-5582},
  abstract = {Using benthic habitat data from the Florida Keys (USA), we demonstrate how siting algorithms can help identify potential networks of marine reserves that comprehensively represent target habitat types. We applied a flexible optimization tool\textemdash{}simulated annealing\textemdash{}to represent a fixed proportion of different marine habitat types within a geographic area. We investigated the relative influence of spatial information, planning-unit size, detail of habitat classification, and magnitude of the overall conservation goal on the resulting network scenarios. With this method, we were able to identify many adequate reserve systems that met the conservation goals, e.g., representing at least 20\% of each conservation target (i.e., habitat type) while fulfilling the overall aim of minimizing the system area and perimeter. One of the most useful types of information provided by this siting algorithm comes from an ``irreplaceability analysis,'' which is a count of the number of times unique planning units were included in reserve system scenarios. This analysis indicated that many different combinations of sites produced networks that met the conservation goals. While individual 1-km2 areas were fairly interchangeable, the irreplaceability analysis highlighted larger areas within the planning region that were chosen consistently to meet the goals incorporated into the algorithm. Additionally, we found that reserve systems designed with a high degree of spatial clustering tended to have considerably less perimeter and larger overall areas in reserve\textemdash{}a configuration that may be preferable particularly for sociopolitical reasons. This exercise illustrates the value of using the simulated annealing algorithm to help site marine reserves: the approach makes efficient use of available resources, can be used interactively by conservation decision makers, and offers biologically suitable alternative networks from which an effective system of marine reserves can be crafted.},
  language = {en},
  number = {sp1},
  journal = {Ecological Applications},
  doi = {10.1890/1051-0761(2003)013[0185:USAITD]2.0.CO;2},
  author = {Leslie, Heather and Ruckelshaus, Mary and Ball, Ian R. and Andelman, Sandy and Possingham, Hugh P.},
  month = feb,
  year = {2003},
  keywords = {Conservation planning,Florida Keys,habitat diversity,Marine reserves,optimization,representative,reserve selection,simulated annealing,siting algorithms,spatial clustering},
  pages = {185-198}
}

@article{roberts2003,
  title = {Ecological {{Criteria For Evaluating Candidate Sites For Marine Reserves}}},
  volume = {13},
  issn = {1051-0761},
  abstract = {Several schemes have been developed to help select the locations of marine reserves. All of them combine social, economic, and biological criteria, and few offer any guidance as to how to prioritize among the criteria identified. This can imply that the relative weights given to different criteria are unimportant. Where two sites are of equal value ecologically, then socioeconomic criteria should dominate the choice of which should be protected. However, in many cases, socioeconomic criteria are given equal or greater weight than ecological considerations in the choice of sites. This can lead to selection of reserves with little biological value that fail to meet many of the desired objectives. To avoid such a possibility, we develop a series of criteria that allow preliminary evaluation of candidate sites according to their relative biological values in advance of the application of socioeconomic criteria. We include criteria that, while not strictly biological, have a strong influence on the species present or ecological processes. Our scheme enables sites to be assessed according to their biodiversity, the processes which underpin that diversity, and the processes that support fisheries and provide a spectrum of other services important to people. Criteria that capture biodiversity values include biogeographic representation, habitat representation and heterogeneity, and presence of species or populations of special interest (e.g., threatened species). Criteria that capture sustainability of biodiversity and fishery values include the size of reserves necessary to protect viable habitats, presence of exploitable species, vulnerable life stages, connectivity among reserves, links among ecosystems, and provision of ecosystem services to people. Criteria measuring human and natural threats enable candidate sites to be eliminated from consideration if risks are too great, but also help prioritize among sites where threats can be mitigated by protection. While our criteria can be applied to the design of reserve networks, they also enable choice of single reserves to be made in the context of the attributes of existing protected areas. The overall goal of our scheme is to promote the development of reserve networks that will maintain biodiversity and ecosystem functioning at large scales. The values of ecosystem goods and services for people ultimately depend on meeting this objective.},
  number = {sp1},
  journal = {Ecological Applications},
  doi = {10.1890/1051-0761(2003)013[0199:ECFECS]2.0.CO;2},
  author = {Roberts, Callum M. and Andelman, Sandy and Branch, George and Bustamante, Rodrigo H. and Carlos Castilla, Juan and Dugan, Jenifer and Halpern, Benjamin S. and Lafferty, Kevin D. and Leslie, Heather and Lubchenco, Jane and McArdle, Deborah and Possingham, Hugh P. and Ruckelshaus, Mary and Warner, Robert R.},
  month = feb,
  year = {2003},
  keywords = {fisheries management,biodiversity conservation,ecosystem functioning,ecosystem services,marine reserve selection,reserve evaluation criteria,reserve networks},
  pages = {199-214}
}

@article{botsford2003,
  title = {Principles for the {{Design}} of {{Marine Reserves}}},
  volume = {13},
  issn = {1939-5582},
  abstract = {The theory underlying the design of marine reserves, whether the goal is to preserve biodiversity or to manage fisheries, is still in its infancy. For both of these goals, there is a need for general principles on which to base marine reserve design, and because of the paucity of empirical experience, these principles must be based on models. However, most of the theoretical studies to date have been specific to a single situation, with few attempts to deduce general principles. Here we attempt to distill existing results into general principles useful to designers of marine reserves. To answer the question of how fishery management using reserves compares to conventional management, we provide two principles: (1) the effect of reserves on yield per recruit is similar to increasing the age of first capture, and (2) the effect of reserves on yield is similar to reducing effort. Another two principles answer the question of how to design reserve configurations so that species with movement in various stages will be sustainable: (3) higher juvenile and adult movement lowers sustainability of reserves for biodiversity, but an intermediate level of adult movement is required for reserves for fishery management, and (4) longer larval dispersal distance requires larger reserves for sustainability. These principles provide general guidelines for design, and attention to them will allow more rapid progress in future modeling studies. Whether populations or communities will persist under any specific reserve design is uncertain, and we suggest ways of dealing with that uncertainty.},
  language = {en},
  number = {sp1},
  journal = {Ecological Applications},
  doi = {10.1890/1051-0761(2003)013[0025:PFTDOM]2.0.CO;2},
  author = {Botsford, Louis W. and Micheli, Fiorenza and Hastings, Alan},
  month = feb,
  year = {2003},
  keywords = {Fisheries,Marine reserves,conservation,dispersal,models},
  pages = {25-31}
}

@article{botsford2008,
  title = {Connectivity, Sustainability, and Yield: Bridging the Gap between Conventional Fisheries Management and Marine Protected Areas},
  volume = {19},
  issn = {0960-3166, 1573-5184},
  shorttitle = {Connectivity, Sustainability, and Yield},
  abstract = {A substantial shift toward use of marine protected areas (MPAs) for conservation and fisheries management is currently underway. This shift to explicit spatial management presents new challenges and uncertainties for ecologists and resource managers. In particular, the potential for MPAs to change population sustainability, fishery yield, and ecosystem properties depends on the poorly understood consequences of three critical forms of connectivity over space: larval dispersal, juvenile and adult swimming, and movement of fishermen. Conventional fishery management describes the dynamics and current status of fish populations, with increasing recent emphasis on sustainability, often through reference points that reflect individual replacement. These compare lifetime egg production (LEP) to a critical replacement threshold (CRT) whose value is uncertain. Sustainability of spatially distributed populations also depends on individual replacement, but through all possible paths created by larval dispersal and LEP at each location. Model calculations of spatial replacement considering larval connectivity alone indicate sustainability and yield depend on species dispersal distance and the distribution of LEP created by species habitat distribution and fishing mortality. Adding MPAs creates areas with high LEP, increasing sustainability, but not necessarily yield. Generally, short distance dispersers will persist in almost all MPAs, while sustainability of long distance dispersers requires a specific density of MPAs along the coast. The value of that density also depends on the uncertain CRT, as well as fishing rate. MPAs can increase yield in areas with previously low LEP but for short distance dispersers, high yields will require many small MPAs. The paucity of information on larval dispersal distances, especially in cases with strong advection, renders these projections uncertain. Adding juvenile and adult movement to these calculations reduces LEP near the edges in MPAs, if movement is within a home-range, but more broadly over space if movement is diffusive. Adding movement of fishermen shifts effort on the basis of anticipated revenues and fishing costs, leading to lower LEP near ports, for example. Our evolving understanding of connectivity in spatial management could form the basis for a new, spatially oriented replacement reference point for sustainability, with associated new uncertainties.},
  language = {en},
  number = {1},
  journal = {Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries},
  doi = {10.1007/s11160-008-9092-z},
  author = {Botsford, Louis W. and Brumbaugh, Daniel R. and Grimes, Churchill and Kellner, Julie B. and Largier, John and O'Farrell, Michael R. and Ralston, Stephen and Soulanille, Elaine and Wespestad, Vidar},
  month = aug,
  year = {2008},
  keywords = {fisheries management,dispersal,Connectivity,Freshwater \& Marine Ecology,home range,marine reserve,Metapopulation,Zoology},
  pages = {69-95}
}

@article{carr2003,
  title = {Comparing {{Marine}} and {{Terrestrial Ecosystems}}: {{Implications}} for the {{Design}} of {{Coastal Marine Reserves}}},
  volume = {13},
  issn = {1939-5582},
  shorttitle = {Comparing {{Marine}} and {{Terrestrial Ecosystems}}},
  abstract = {Concepts and theory for the design and application of terrestrial reserves is based on our understanding of environmental, ecological, and evolutionary processes responsible for biological diversity and sustainability of terrestrial ecosystems and how humans have influenced these processes. How well this terrestrial-based theory can be applied toward the design and application of reserves in the coastal marine environment depends, in part, on the degree of similarity between these systems. Several marked differences in ecological and evolutionary processes exist between marine and terrestrial ecosystems as ramifications of fundamental differences in their physical environments (i.e., the relative prevalence of air and water) and contemporary patterns of human impacts. Most notably, the great extent and rate of dispersal of nutrients, materials, holoplanktonic organisms, and reproductive propagules of benthic organisms expand scales of connectivity among nearshore communities and ecosystems. Consequently, the ``openness'' of marine populations, communities, and ecosystems probably has marked influences on their spatial, genetic, and trophic structures and dynamics in ways experienced by only some terrestrial species. Such differences appear to be particularly significant for the kinds of organisms most exploited and targeted for protection in coastal marine ecosystems (fishes and macroinvertebrates). These and other differences imply some unique design criteria and application of reserves in the marine environment. In explaining the implications of these differences for marine reserve design and application, we identify many of the environmental and ecological processes and design criteria necessary for consideration in the development of the analytical approaches developed elsewhere in this Special Issue.},
  language = {en},
  number = {sp1},
  journal = {Ecological Applications},
  doi = {10.1890/1051-0761(2003)013[0090:CMATEI]2.0.CO;2},
  author = {Carr, Mark H. and Neigel, Joseph E. and Estes, James A. and Andelman, Sandy and Warner, Robert R. and Largier, John L.},
  month = feb,
  year = {2003},
  keywords = {Fisheries,Marine reserves,marine conservation,Marine protected areas,reserve network design},
  pages = {90-107}
}

@article{palumbi2001,
  title = {The Ecology of Marine Protected Areas},
  volume = {9},
  journal = {Marine community ecology},
  author = {Palumbi, Stephen R.},
  year = {2001},
  pages = {509--530}
}

@article{roberts2001a,
  title = {Designing Marine Reserve Networks Why Small, Isolated Protected Areas Are Not Enough},
  volume = {2},
  number = {3},
  journal = {Conservation in Practice},
  author = {Roberts, Callum M. and Halpern, Benjamin and Palumbi, Stephen R. and Warner, Robert R.},
  year = {2001},
  pages = {10--17}
}

@article{hastings2003,
  title = {Comparing {{Designs Of Marine Reserves For Fisheries And For Biodiversity}}},
  volume = {13},
  issn = {1051-0761},
  abstract = {We compare and contrast the design of networks of marine reserves for two different, commonly stated goals: (1) maintaining high yield in fisheries and (2) conserving biodiversity, in an idealized setting using simple models. The models describe larval dispersal over a system of evenly spaced reserves of equal size, assuming sedentary adults. We initially demonstrate that, since populations in reserve systems can be sustained either by covering a minimal fraction of the coast with small reserves or by covering a smaller fraction of the coast with few large reserves, cost considerations dictate that the conservation goal would be best met by reserves as large as practically possible. In contrast, the fisheries goal of maximizing yield requires maximizing larval export outside of reserves, which we show means that reserves should be as small as practically possible. Meeting the fisheries goal is ultimately more costly because it suggests a larger area of the coastline should be in reserves, but it also improves on conservation goals by enhancing sustainability for species dispersing longer distances.},
  number = {sp1},
  journal = {Ecological Applications},
  doi = {10.1890/1051-0761(2003)013[0065:CDOMRF]2.0.CO;2},
  author = {Hastings, Alan and Botsford, Louis W.},
  month = feb,
  year = {2003},
  keywords = {Fisheries,Marine reserves,conservation,dispersal,models,biodiversity},
  pages = {65-70}
}

@article{allison2003,
  title = {Ensuring {{Persistence}} of {{Marine Reserves}}: {{Catastrophes Require Adopting}} an {{Insurance Factor}}},
  volume = {13},
  issn = {1939-5582},
  shorttitle = {Ensuring {{Persistence}} of {{Marine Reserves}}},
  abstract = {When viewed across long temporal and large spatial scales, severe disturbances in marine ecosystems are not uncommon. Events such as hurricanes, oil spills, disease outbreaks, hypoxic events, harmful algal blooms, and coral bleaching can cause massive mortality and dramatic habitat effects on local or even regional scales. Although designers of marine reserves might assume low risk from such events over the short term, catastrophes are quite probable over the long term and must be considered for successful implementation of reserves. A simple way to increase performance of a reserve network is to incorporate into the reserve design a mechanism for calculating how much additional area would be required to buffer the reserve against effects of catastrophes. In this paper, we develop a method to determine this ``insurance factor'': a multiplier to calculate the additional reserve area necessary to ensure that functional goals of reserves will be met within a given ``catastrophe regime.'' We document and analyze the characteristics of two relatively well-studied types of disturbances: oil spills and hurricanes. We examine historical data to characterize catastrophe regimes within which reserves must function and use these regimes to illustrate the application of the insurance factor. This tool can be applied to any reserve design for which goals are defined by a quantifiable measure, such as a fraction of shoreline, that is necessary to accomplish a particular function. In the absence of such quantitative measures, the concept of additional area as insurance against catastrophes may still be useful.},
  language = {en},
  number = {sp1},
  journal = {Ecological Applications},
  doi = {10.1890/1051-0761(2003)013[0008:EPOMRC]2.0.CO;2},
  author = {Allison, Gary W. and Gaines, Steven D. and Lubchenco, Jane and Possingham, Hugh P.},
  month = feb,
  year = {2003},
  keywords = {Marine reserves,disturbance,hurricane,oil spill,rare events},
  pages = {8-24}
}

@article{gaines2003,
  title = {Avoiding {{Current Oversights}} in {{Marine Reserve Design}}},
  volume = {13},
  issn = {1939-5582},
  abstract = {The pun in the above title reflects two points. First, marine life cycles commonly include a dispersive juvenile stage that is moved about by ocean currents. This stage often is the predominant, or only, means of dispersal that connects spatially disjunct populations. As a consequence, details of dispersal likely play a critical role in determining the effectiveness of marine reserves as a management and conservation tool. Curiously, however (and this is the second point of the title), although dozens of models for marine reserves now exist, few actually account explicitly for larval dispersal. Moreover, those that do include dispersal, do so almost exclusively by considering it to be a nondirectional spreading process (diffusion), ignoring the effects of directional transport by currents (advection). Here we develop a population dynamical model for marine organisms with relatively sedentary adults whose larvae are transported in a simple flow field with both diffusive spreading and directional characteristics. We find that advection can play a dominant role in determining the effectiveness of different reserve configurations. Two of the most important consequences are: (1) with strong currents, multiple reserves can be markedly more effective than single reserves of equivalent total size; and (2) in the presence of strong currents, reserves can significantly outperform traditional, effort-based management strategies in terms of fisheries yield, and do so with less risk. These results suggest that successful reserve design may require considerable new efforts to examine explicitly the role of dispersal of young.},
  language = {en},
  number = {sp1},
  journal = {Ecological Applications},
  doi = {10.1890/1051-0761(2003)013[0032:ACOIMR]2.0.CO;2},
  author = {Gaines, Steven D. and Gaylord, Brian and Largier, John L.},
  month = feb,
  year = {2003},
  keywords = {Population dynamics,Marine reserves,advection,extinction,fishery yield,larval dispersal,Model,ocean currents,Persistence},
  pages = {32-46}
}

@article{lubchenco2003,
  title = {Plugging a {{Hole}} in the {{Ocean}}: {{The Emerging Science}} of {{Marine Reserves1}}},
  volume = {13},
  issn = {1939-5582},
  shorttitle = {Plugging a {{Hole}} in the {{Ocean}}},
  language = {en},
  number = {sp1},
  journal = {Ecological Applications},
  doi = {10.1890/1051-0761(2003)013[0003:PAHITO]2.0.CO;2},
  author = {Lubchenco, Jane and Palumbi, Stephen R. and Gaines, Steven D. and Andelman, Sandy},
  month = feb,
  year = {2003},
  pages = {3-7}
}

@article{margules2000,
  title = {Systematic Conservation Planning},
  volume = {405},
  copyright = {\textcopyright{} 2000 Nature Publishing Group},
  issn = {0028-0836},
  abstract = {The realization of conservation goals requires strategies for managing whole landscapes including areas allocated to both production and protection. Reserves alone are not adequate for nature conservation but they are the cornerstone on which regional strategies are built. Reserves have two main roles. They should sample or represent the biodiversity of each region and they should separate this biodiversity from processes that threaten its persistence. Existing reserve systems throughout the world contain a biased sample of biodiversity, usually that of remote places and other areas that are unsuitable for commercial activities. A more systematic approach to locating and designing reserves has been evolving and this approach will need to be implemented if a large proportion of today's biodiversity is to exist in a future of increasing numbers of people and their demands on natural resources.},
  language = {en},
  number = {6783},
  journal = {Nature},
  doi = {10.1038/35012251},
  author = {Margules, C. R. and Pressey, R. L.},
  month = may,
  year = {2000},
  pages = {243-253}
}

@article{hannah2008,
  title = {Protected {{Areas}} and {{Climate Change}}},
  volume = {1134},
  copyright = {\textcopyright{} 2008 New York Academy of Sciences},
  issn = {1749-6632},
  abstract = {The study of protected areas and climate change has now spanned two decades. Pioneering work in the late 1980s recognized the potential implications of shifting species range boundaries for static protected areas. Many early recommendations for protected area design were general, emphasizing larger protected areas, buffer zones, and connectivity between reserves. There were limited practical tests of these suggestions. Development of modeling and conservation planning methods in the 1990s allowed more rigorous testing of concepts of reserve and connectivity function in a changing climate. These studies have shown decreasing species representation in existing reserves due to climate change, and the ability of new protected areas to help slow loss of representation in mid-century scenarios. Connectivity on protected area periphery seems more effective than corridors linking protected areas. However, corridors serving other purposes, such as large carnivore movement, may be useful for accommodating species range shifts as well. Assisted migration and ex situ management strategies to complement protected areas are being explored. Finally, in scenarios of the latter half of the century, protected areas and connectivity become increasingly expensive and decreasingly effective, indicating the importance of reducing human-induced climate change.},
  language = {en},
  number = {1},
  journal = {Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences},
  doi = {10.1196/annals.1439.009},
  author = {Hannah, Lee},
  month = jun,
  year = {2008},
  keywords = {protected areas,climate change,Connectivity,biodiversity,assisted migration,reserves},
  pages = {201-212}
}

@article{chape2005,
  title = {Measuring the Extent and Effectiveness of Protected Areas as an Indicator for Meeting Global Biodiversity Targets},
  volume = {360},
  copyright = {\textcopyright{} 2005 The Royal Society},
  issn = {0962-8436, 1471-2970},
  abstract = {There are now over 100 000 protected areas worldwide, covering over 12\% of the Earth's land surface. These areas represent one of the most significant human resource use allocations on the planet. The importance of protected areas is reflected in their widely accepted role as an indicator for global targets and environmental assessments.
However, measuring the number and extent of protected areas only provides a unidimensional indicator of political commitment to biodiversity conservation. Data on the geographic location and spatial extent of protected areas will not provide information on a key determinant for meeting global biodiversity targets: `effectiveness' in conserving biodiversity. Although tools are being devised to assess management effectiveness, there is no globally accepted metric.
Nevertheless, the numerical, spatial and geographic attributes of protected areas can be further enhanced by investigation of the biodiversity coverage of these protected areas, using species, habitats or biogeographic classifications.
This paper reviews the current global extent of protected areas in terms of geopolitical and habitat coverage, and considers their value as a global indicator of conservation action or response. The paper discusses the role of the World Database on Protected Areas and collection and quality control issues, and identifies areas for improvement, including how conservation effectiveness indicators may be included in the database to improve the value of protected areas data as an indicator for meeting global biodiversity targets.},
  language = {en},
  number = {1454},
  journal = {Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences},
  doi = {10.1098/rstb.2004.1592},
  author = {Chape, S. and Harrison, J. and Spalding, M. and Lysenko, I.},
  month = feb,
  year = {2005},
  pages = {443-455},
  pmid = {15814356}
}

@article{seo2009,
  title = {Scale Effects in Species Distribution Models: Implications for Conservation Planning under Climate Change},
  volume = {5},
  copyright = {\textcopyright{} 2008 The Royal Society},
  issn = {1744-9561, 1744-957X},
  shorttitle = {Scale Effects in Species Distribution Models},
  abstract = {Predictions of future species' ranges under climate change are needed for conservation planning, for which species distribution models (SDMs) are widely used. However, global climate model-based (GCM) output grids can bias the area identified as suitable when these are used as SDM predictor variables, because GCM outputs, typically at least 50\texttimes{}50 km, are biologically coarse. We tested the assumption that species ranges can be equally well portrayed in SDMs operating on base data of different grid sizes by comparing SDM performance statistics and area selected by four SDMs run at seven grid sizes, for nine species of contrasting range size. Area selected was disproportionately larger for SDMs run on larger grid sizes, indicating a cut-off point above which model results were less reliable. Up to 2.89 times more species range area was selected by SDMs operating on grids above 50\texttimes{}50 km, compared to SDMs operating at 1 km2. Spatial congruence between areas selected as range also diverged as grid size increased, particularly for species with ranges between 20 000 and 90 000 km2. These results indicate the need for caution when using such data to plan future protected areas, because an overly large predicted range could lead to inappropriate reserve location selection.},
  language = {en},
  number = {1},
  journal = {Biology Letters},
  doi = {10.1098/rsbl.2008.0476},
  author = {Seo, Changwan and Thorne, James H. and Hannah, Lee and Thuiller, Wilfried},
  month = feb,
  year = {2009},
  pages = {39-43},
  pmid = {18986960}
}

@article{palumbi2003,
  title = {Population {{Genetics}}, {{Demographic Connectivity}}, and the {{Design}} of {{Marine Reserves}}},
  volume = {13},
  issn = {1939-5582},
  abstract = {Genetic analyses of marine population structure often find only slight geographic differentiation in species with high dispersal potential. Interpreting the significance of this slight genetic signal has been difficult because even mild genetic structure implies very limited demographic exchange between populations, but slight differentiation could also be due to sampling error. Examination of genetic isolation by distance, in which close populations are more similar than distant ones, has the potential to increase confidence in the significance of slight genetic differentiation. Simulations of one-dimensional stepping stone populations with particular larval dispersal regimes shows that isolation by distance is most obvious when comparing populations separated by 2\textendash{}5 times the mean larval dispersal distance. Available data on fish and invertebrates can be calibrated with this simulation approach and suggest mean dispersal distances of 25\textendash{}150 km. Design of marine reserve systems requires an understanding of larval transport in and out of reserves, whether reserves will be self-seeding, whether they will accumulate recruits from surrounding exploited areas, and whether reserve networks can exchange recruits. Direct measurements of mean larval dispersal are needed to understand connectivity in a reserve system, but such measurements are extremely difficult. Genetic patterns of isolation by distance have the potential to add to direct measurement of larval dispersal distance and can help set the appropriate geographic scales on which marine reserve systems will function well.},
  language = {en},
  number = {sp1},
  journal = {Ecological Applications},
  doi = {10.1890/1051-0761(2003)013[0146:PGDCAT]2.0.CO;2},
  author = {Palumbi, Stephen R.},
  month = feb,
  year = {2003},
  keywords = {dispersal,Connectivity,isolation by distance,larvae,population structure},
  pages = {146-158}
}

@article{hannah2007,
  title = {Protected Area Needs in a Changing Climate},
  volume = {5},
  issn = {1540-9309},
  abstract = {Range shifts due to climate change may cause species to move out of protected areas. Climate change could therefore result in species range dynamics that reduce the relevance of current fixed protected areas in future conservation strategies. Here, we apply species distribution modeling and conservation planning tools in three regions (Mexico, the Cape Floristic Region of South Africa, and Western Europe) to examine the need for additional protected areas in light of anticipated species range shifts caused by climate change. We set species representation targets and assessed the area required to meet those targets in the present and in the future, under a moderate climate change scenario. Our findings indicate that protected areas can be an important conservation strategy in such a scenario, and that early action may be both more effective and less costly than inaction or delayed action. According to our projections, costs may vary among regions and none of the three areas studied will fully meet all conservation targets, even under a moderate climate change scenario. This suggests that limiting climate change is an essential complement to adding protected areas for conservation of biodiversity.},
  language = {en},
  number = {3},
  journal = {Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment},
  doi = {10.1890/1540-9295(2007)5[131:PANIAC]2.0.CO;2},
  author = {Hannah, Lee and Midgley, Guy and Andelman, Sandy and Ara{\'u}jo, Miguel and Hughes, Greg and {Martinez-Meyer}, Enrique and Pearson, Richard and Williams, Paul},
  month = apr,
  year = {2007},
  pages = {131-138}
}

@article{gleason2010,
  title = {Science-Based and Stakeholder-Driven Marine Protected Area Network Planning: {{A}} Successful Case Study from North Central {{California}}},
  volume = {53},
  issn = {0964-5691},
  shorttitle = {Science-Based and Stakeholder-Driven Marine Protected Area Network Planning},
  abstract = {The planning process for California's Marine Life Protection Act in north central California represents a case study in the design of a regional component of a statewide network of marine protected areas (MPAs) for improved ecosystem protection. We describe enabling factors, such as a legislative mandate, political will, and adequate capacity and funding that fostered a successful planning process. We identify strategic principles that guided the design of a transparent public planning process that delivered regional MPA network proposals, which both met science guidelines and achieved a high level of support among stakeholders. We also describe key decision support elements (spatial data, planning tools, and scientific evaluation) that were essential for designing, evaluating, and refining alternative MPA network proposals and for informing decision-makers.},
  number = {2},
  journal = {Ocean \& Coastal Management},
  doi = {10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2009.12.001},
  author = {Gleason, Mary and McCreary, Scott and {Miller-Henson}, Melissa and Ugoretz, John and Fox, Evan and Merrifield, Matt and McClintock, Will and Serpa, Paulo and Hoffman, Kathryn},
  month = feb,
  year = {2010},
  pages = {52-68}
}

@article{planes2009,
  title = {Larval Dispersal Connects Fish Populations in a Network of Marine Protected Areas},
  volume = {106},
  issn = {0027-8424, 1091-6490},
  abstract = {Networks of no-take marine protected areas (MPAs) have been widely advocated for the conservation of marine biodiversity. But for MPA networks to be successful in protecting marine populations, individual MPAs must be self-sustaining or adequately connected to other MPAs via dispersal. For marine species with a dispersive larval stage, populations within MPAs require either the return of settlement-stage larvae to their natal reserve or connectivity among reserves at the spatial scales at which MPA networks are implemented. To date, larvae have not been tracked when dispersing from one MPA to another, and the relative magnitude of local retention and connectivity among MPAs remains unknown. Here we use DNA parentage analysis to provide the first direct estimates of connectivity of a marine fish, the orange clownfish (Amphiprion percula), in a proposed network of marine reserves in Kimbe Bay, Papua New Guinea. Approximately 40\% of A. percula larvae settling into anemones in an island MPA at 2 different times were derived from parents resident in the reserve. We also located juveniles spawned by Kimbe Island residents that had dispersed as far as 35 km to other proposed MPAs, the longest distance that marine larvae have been directly tracked. These dispersers accounted for up to 10\% of the recruitment in the adjacent MPAs. Our findings suggest that MPA networks can function to sustain resident populations both by local replenishment and through larval dispersal from other reserves. More generally, DNA parentage analysis provides a direct method for measuring larval dispersal for other marine organisms.},
  language = {en},
  number = {14},
  journal = {Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences},
  doi = {10.1073/pnas.0808007106},
  author = {Planes, Serge and Jones, Geoffrey P. and Thorrold, Simon R.},
  month = jul,
  year = {2009},
  keywords = {Connectivity,Amphiprion percula,parentage analyses,self-recruitment},
  pages = {5693-5697},
  pmid = {19307588}
}

@article{almany2009,
  title = {Connectivity, Biodiversity Conservation and the Design of Marine Reserve Networks for Coral Reefs},
  volume = {28},
  issn = {0722-4028, 1432-0975},
  abstract = {Networks of no-take reserves are important for protecting coral reef biodiversity from climate change and other human impacts. Ensuring that reserve populations are connected to each other and non-reserve populations by larval dispersal allows for recovery from disturbance and is a key aspect of resilience. In general, connectivity between reserves should increase as the distance between them decreases. However, enhancing connectivity may often tradeoff against a network's ability to representatively sample the system's natural variability. This ``representation'' objective is typically measured in terms of species richness or diversity of habitats, but has other important elements (e.g., minimizing the risk that multiple reserves will be impacted by catastrophic events). Such representation objectives tend to be better achieved as reserves become more widely spaced. Thus, optimizing the location, size and spacing of reserves requires both an understanding of larval dispersal and explicit consideration of how well the network represents the broader system; indeed the lack of an integrated theory for optimizing tradeoffs between connectivity and representation objectives has inhibited the incorporation of connectivity into reserve selection algorithms. This article addresses these issues by (1) updating general recommendations for the location, size and spacing of reserves based on emerging data on larval dispersal in corals and reef fishes, and on considerations for maintaining genetic diversity; (2) using a spatial analysis of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park to examine potential tradeoffs between connectivity and representation of biodiversity and (3) describing a framework for incorporating environmental fluctuations into the conceptualization of the tradeoff between connectivity and representation, and that expresses both in a common, demographically meaningful currency, thus making optimization possible.},
  language = {en},
  number = {2},
  journal = {Coral Reefs},
  doi = {10.1007/s00338-009-0484-x},
  author = {Almany, G. R. and Connolly, S. R. and Heath, D. D. and Hogan, J. D. and Jones, G. P. and McCook, L. J. and Mills, M. and Pressey, R. L. and Williamson, D. H.},
  month = mar,
  year = {2009},
  keywords = {Great Barrier Reef,marine protected area,Conservation planning,Freshwater \& Marine Ecology,larval dispersal,Oceanography,Resilience,Risk-spreading},
  pages = {339-351}
}

@article{berumen2012,
  title = {Persistence of Self-Recruitment and Patterns of Larval Connectivity in a Marine Protected Area Network},
  volume = {2},
  issn = {2045-7758},
  abstract = {The use of marine protected area (MPA) networks to sustain fisheries and conserve biodiversity is predicated on two critical yet rarely tested assumptions. Individual MPAs must produce sufficient larvae that settle within that reserve's boundaries to maintain local populations while simultaneously supplying larvae to other MPA nodes in the network that might otherwise suffer local extinction. Here, we use genetic parentage analysis to demonstrate that patterns of self-recruitment of two reef fishes (Amphiprion percula and Chaetodon vagabundus) in an MPA in Kimbe Bay, Papua New Guinea, were remarkably consistent over several years. However, dispersal from this reserve to two other nodes in an MPA network varied between species and through time. The stability of our estimates of self-recruitment suggests that even small MPAs may be self-sustaining. However, our results caution against applying optimization strategies to MPA network design without accounting for variable connectivity among species and over time.},
  language = {en},
  number = {2},
  journal = {Ecology and Evolution},
  doi = {10.1002/ece3.208},
  author = {Berumen, Michael L. and Almany, Glenn R. and Planes, Serge and Jones, Geoffrey P. and {Saenz-Agudelo}, Pablo and Thorrold, Simon R.},
  month = feb,
  year = {2012},
  keywords = {Connectivity,Marine protected areas,larval dispersal,Amphiprion percula,self-recruitment,Chaetodon vagabundus,microsatellite parentage analysis},
  pages = {444-452}
}

@article{minor2010,
  title = {A {{Multiscale Network Analysis}} of {{Protected}}-{{Area Connectivity}} for {{Mammals}} in the {{United States}}},
  volume = {24},
  copyright = {\textcopyright{}2010 Society for Conservation Biology},
  issn = {1523-1739},
  abstract = {Abstract:\hspace{0.6em}Protected areas must be close, or connected, enough to allow for the preservation of large-scale ecological and evolutionary processes, such as gene flow, migration, and range shifts in response to climate change. Nevertheless, it is unknown whether the network of protected areas in the United States is connected in a way that will preserve biodiversity over large temporal and spatial scales. It is also unclear whether protected-area networks that function for larger species will function for smaller species. We assessed the connectivity of protected areas in the three largest biomes in the United States. With methods from graph theory\textemdash{}a branch of mathematics that deals with connectivity and flow\textemdash{}we identified and measured networks of protected areas for three different groups of mammals. We also examined the value of using umbrella species (typically large-bodied, far-ranging mammals) in designing large-scale networks of protected areas. Although the total amount of protected land varied greatly among biomes in the United States, overall connectivity did not. In general, protected-area networks were well connected for large mammals but not for smaller mammals. Additionally, it was not possible to predict connectivity for small mammals on the basis of connectivity for large mammals, which suggests the umbrella species approach may not be an appropriate design strategy for conservation networks intended to protect many species. Our findings indicate different strategies should be used to increase the likelihood of persistence for different groups of species. Strategic linkages of existing lands should be a conservation priority for smaller mammals, whereas conservation of larger mammals would benefit most from the protection of more land.},
  language = {en},
  number = {6},
  journal = {Conservation Biology},
  doi = {10.1111/j.1523-1739.2010.01558.x},
  author = {Minor, Emily S. and Lookingbill, Todd R.},
  month = dec,
  year = {2010},
  keywords = {conservation,dispersal,biodiversity,biodiversidad,conservación,diseño de reservas,dispersión,especie paraguas,graph theory,reserve design,teoría de grafos,umbrella species},
  pages = {1549-1558}
}

@article{mcleod2009,
  title = {Designing Marine Protected Area Networks to Address the Impacts of Climate Change},
  volume = {7},
  issn = {1540-9309},
  abstract = {Principles for designing marine protected area (MPA) networks that address social, economic, and biological criteria are well established in the scientific literature. Climate change represents a new and serious threat to marine ecosystems, but, to date, few studies have specifically considered how to design MPA networks to be resilient to this emerging threat. Here, we compile the best available information on MPA network design and supplement it with specific recommendations for building resilience into these networks. We provide guidance on size, spacing, shape, risk spreading (representation and replication), critical areas, connectivity, and maintaining ecosystem function to help MPA planners and managers design MPA networks that are more robust in the face of climate-change impacts.},
  language = {en},
  number = {7},
  journal = {Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment},
  doi = {10.1890/070211},
  author = {McLeod, Elizabeth and Salm, Rodney and Green, Alison and Almany, Jeanine},
  month = sep,
  year = {2009},
  pages = {362-370}
}

@article{grafton2010,
  title = {Maximum Economic Yield},
  volume = {54},
  copyright = {\textcopyright{} 2010 The Authors. Journal compilation \textcopyright{} 2010 Australian Agricultural and Resource Economics Society Inc. and Blackwell Publishing Asia Pty Ltd},
  issn = {1467-8489},
  abstract = {Analytical results for steady-state values of the biomass that maximises the sum of inter-temporal economic profits (dynamic bMEY) are derived in terms of a generalised harvesting function. The conditions under which dynamic bMEY exceeds the biomass that maximises the sustained yield (bMSY) are evaluated under a range of conditions including when the discount rate exceeds the intrinsic growth rate, with a variable stock effect, technological change, and from an increase in the cost per unit of effort. The findings show that dynamic bMSY provides both a sustainable and profitable management target under a wide range of parameter values.},
  language = {en},
  number = {3},
  journal = {Australian Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics},
  doi = {10.1111/j.1467-8489.2010.00492.x},
  author = {Grafton, R. Quentin and Kompas, Tom and Chu, Long and Che, Nhu},
  month = jul,
  year = {2010},
  keywords = {Maximum economic yield,Fisheries economics,stock effect},
  pages = {273-280}
}

@article{jacobsen2014,
  title = {A Global Synthesis of the Economic Multiplier Effects of Marine Sectors},
  volume = {44},
  issn = {0308-597X},
  abstract = {As competition for use of the ocean increases, coastal managers must consider the economic impacts of competing marine sectors in decision-making processes. To capture the full extent of the economic impacts of marine industries, multiplier values can be used to estimate the sum of direct, indirect, and induced effects on associated industries. This study provides a global synthesis of multiplier effects on four economic indicators of eight marine sectors in regions of varying size and development status. The average multiplier was 1.82, indicating that every dollar generated by a direct marine industry leads to an additional 82 cents generated by associated industries. The industry of offshore energy and the economic indicator of revenue had the largest multiplier effects. No significant difference was found between multiplier values in developed and developing regions, and weak correlations were found between multiplier value and region size. This synthesis offers the first global view of the economic multiplier effects of marine industries and can serve as a tool to support city- to country-level marine industry development decisions throughout the world, especially where similar data are not available.},
  journal = {Marine Policy},
  doi = {10.1016/j.marpol.2013.09.019},
  author = {Jacobsen, Kelsey I. and Lester, Sarah E. and Halpern, Benjamin S.},
  month = feb,
  year = {2014},
  keywords = {Coastal management,Economic impact,Impact analysis,Marine spatial planning,Multiplier effect,Ocean industry},
  pages = {273-278}
}

@article{christensen2010,
  title = {Mey = {{Msy}}},
  volume = {11},
  copyright = {\textcopyright{} 2009 Blackwell Publishing Ltd},
  issn = {1467-2979},
  abstract = {It has been generally accepted for more than half a century that the fishing sector stood to gain from managing fisheries at the effort level producing maximum economic yield (MEY) rather than at the higher effort level producing maximum sustainable yield (MSY). However, the acceptance is built on evaluating only the revenue and cost structure for the fishing fleet, not for the overall fishing sector including processing, distribution and marketing of fish products. Considering these links of the fish value chain moves the MEY-level closer to, but slightly below the MSY-level. For society as a whole, this means that MSY is the more appropriate target reference level.},
  language = {en},
  number = {1},
  journal = {Fish and Fisheries},
  doi = {10.1111/j.1467-2979.2009.00341.x},
  author = {Christensen, Villy},
  month = mar,
  year = {2010},
  keywords = {Fishing sector,maximum economic yield (MEY),maximum sustainable yield (MSY),value chain approach},
  pages = {105-110}
}

@book{walters2004,
  title = {Fisheries Ecology and Management},
  publisher = {{Princeton University Press}},
  author = {Walters, Carl J. and Martell, Steven JD},
  year = {2004}
}

@article{clark1991,
  title = {Groundfish {{Exploitation Rates Based}} on {{Life History Parameters}}},
  volume = {48},
  issn = {0706-652X},
  abstract = {The problem considered is how to choose a fixed exploitation rate that will provide a high yield at low risk, when the investigator has no knowledge of the yield curve or the spawner\textendash{}recruit relationship of the stock. Commonly employed expedients are F0.1 and F\hspace{0.6em}=\hspace{0.6em}M, but these have little empirical or theoretical support. Calculations made with a range of life history parameter values typical of demersal fish and a range of realistic spawner-recruit relationships show that yield will be at least 75\% of maximum sustainable yield so long as the spawning biomass is maintained in the range of about 20\textendash{}60\% of the unfished level, regardless of the form of the spawner\textendash{}recruit relationship. A relative spawning biomass in this range can be achieved by choosing a fishing mortality rate that will reduce the spawning biomass per recruit to about 35\% of the unfished level. This is the level of fishing mortality that maximizes the minimum yield among all of the spawner\textendash{}recruit relationships considered ("maximin yield" r..., Cet article traite du choix d'un taux d'exploitation fixe permettant d'obtenir un rendement {\'e}lev{\'e} tout en minimisant les risques quand on ne conna{\^i}t pas la courbe de rendement ou la relation reproducteurs\textendash{}recrues du stock. On utilise souvent les valeurs F0,1 et F\hspace{0.6em}=\hspace{0.6em}M, mais les fondements th{\'e}oriques et empiriques de ces solutions sont faibles. Des calculs fond{\'e}s sur diff{\'e}rentes valeurs typiques des param{\`e}tres du cycle vital des poissons de fond et sur diff{\'e}rentes relations reproducteurs\textendash{}recrues r{\'e}alistes montrent que le rendement sera d'au moins 75\% du rendement maximal soutenu dans la mesure o{\`u} la biomasse des reproducteurs est maintenue entre 20 et 60\% de celle qui existerait si le stock n'{\'e}tait pas exploit{\'e} et ce, quelle que soit le type de relation reproducteurs\textendash{}recrues. On peut obtenir une biomasse relative de reproducteurs de cet ordre en choisissant un taux de mortalit{\'e} due {\`a} la p{\^e}che r{\'e}duisant la biomasse de reproducteurs par recrue {\`a} environ 35\% de celle existant en l'absence d'exploitation. Parmi...},
  number = {5},
  journal = {Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences},
  doi = {10.1139/f91-088},
  author = {Clark, William G.},
  month = may,
  year = {1991},
  pages = {734-750}
}

@article{stier2016,
  title = {Ecosystem Context and Historical Contingency in Apex Predator Recoveries},
  volume = {2},
  copyright = {Copyright \textcopyright{} 2016, The Authors. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial license, which permits use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, so long as the resultant use is not for commercial advantage and provided the original work is properly cited.},
  issn = {2375-2548},
  abstract = {Habitat loss, overexploitation, and numerous other stressors have caused global declines in apex predators. This ``trophic downgrading'' has generated widespread concern because of the fundamental role that apex predators can play in ecosystem functioning, disease regulation, and biodiversity maintenance. In attempts to combat declines, managers have conducted reintroductions, imposed stricter harvest regulations, and implemented protected areas. We suggest that full recovery of viable apex predator populations is currently the exception rather than the rule. We argue that, in addition to well-known considerations, such as continued exploitation and slow life histories, there are several underappreciated factors that complicate predator recoveries. These factors include three challenges. First, a priori identification of the suite of trophic interactions, such as resource limitation and competition that will influence recovery can be difficult. Second, defining and accomplishing predator recovery in the context of a dynamic ecosystem requires an appreciation of the timing of recovery, which can determine the relative density of apex predators and other predators and therefore affect competitive outcomes. Third, successful recovery programs require designing adaptive sequences of management strategies that embrace key environmental and species interactions as they emerge. Consideration of recent research on food web modules, alternative stable states, and community assembly offer important insights for predator recovery efforts and restoration ecology more generally. Foremost among these is the importance of a social-ecological perspective in facilitating a long-lasting predator restoration while avoiding unintended consequences.
Variable life histories, species interactions, and historical contingency underlie why some predators recover and others do not.
Variable life histories, species interactions, and historical contingency underlie why some predators recover and others do not.},
  language = {en},
  number = {5},
  journal = {Science Advances},
  doi = {10.1126/sciadv.1501769},
  author = {Stier, Adrian C. and Samhouri, Jameal F. and Novak, Mark and Marshall, Kristin N. and Ward, Eric J. and Holt, Robert D. and Levin, Phillip S.},
  month = may,
  year = {2016},
  pages = {e1501769}
}

@article{cushing1976,
  title = {In Praise of {{Petersen}}},
  volume = {36},
  issn = {1054-3139, 1095-9289},
  abstract = {C. G. J. Petersen distinguished between his ``growth'' theory and the then current ``propagation'' theory when accounting for the reduction in catches (and sizes) of flatfish in the Kattegat during the late eighties and early nineties of the last century. There is a current distinction between growth overfishing and recruitment overfishing, to which Petersen's earlier contribution is highly relevant. Therefore it was worth recalling how he came to this conclusion and what was the climate of opinion on these problems at that time. His methods are worth exposition in themselves and serve a strongly didactic purpose at the present time.},
  language = {en},
  number = {3},
  journal = {Journal du Conseil},
  doi = {10.1093/icesjms/36.3.277},
  author = {Cushing, D. H.},
  month = jan,
  year = {1976},
  pages = {277-281}
}

@article{beddington2007,
  title = {Current {{Problems}} in the {{Management}} of {{Marine Fisheries}}},
  volume = {316},
  copyright = {American Association for the Advancement of Science},
  issn = {0036-8075, 1095-9203},
  abstract = {The public perception of fisheries is that they are in crisis and have been for some time. Numerous scientific and popular articles have pointed to the failures of fisheries management that have caused this crisis. These are widely accepted to be overcapacity in fishing fleets, a failure to take the ecosystem effects of fishing into account, and a failure to enforce unpalatable but necessary reductions in fishing effort on fishing fleets and communities. However, the claims of some analysts that there is an inevitable decline in the status of fisheries is, we believe, incorrect. There have been successes in fisheries management, and we argue that the tools for appropriate management exist. Unfortunately, they have not been implemented widely. Our analysis suggests that management authorities need to develop legally enforceable and tested harvest strategies, coupled with appropriate rights-based incentives to the fishing community, for the future of fisheries to be better than their past.},
  language = {en},
  number = {5832},
  journal = {Science},
  doi = {10.1126/science.1137362},
  author = {Beddington, J. R. and Agnew, D. J. and Clark, C. W.},
  month = jun,
  year = {2007},
  pages = {1713-1716},
  pmid = {17588923}
}

@article{caddy1999,
  title = {Fisheries Management in the Twenty-First Century: Will New Paradigms Apply?},
  volume = {9},
  issn = {0960-3166, 1573-5184},
  shorttitle = {Fisheries Management in the Twenty-First Century},
  abstract = {The last decade has seen growing concern at the uncertain effectiveness of most fisheries assessment and management approaches as reflected by trends in global landing statistics published by FAO. These imply full exploitation of the majority of fishery resources and a serious overcapitalization of fleets at the global level. Projected increases in demand, future prices for fisheries products, and impacts of growing world populations on the ecosystem all require an urgent search for improved management frameworks. Improved management of fisheries requires, first, an understanding of the axioms and working assumptions underlying the current approaches and how these evolved in response to regional or local conditions and target species. This should promote integration of methodologies which better reflect local situations and can be expressed in the form of one or more working paradigms. These paradigms should incorporate ecosystem considerations, including environmental fluctuations and socio-economic factors. They should not assume that current production levels are independent of natural fluctuations and human impacts and should recognize the dangers of maintaining open access to marine resources throughout their seasonal cycle, life history and distribution range. `Wide-use' management paradigms incorporating explicit user rights, participatory management and inputs from a variety of disciplines and stakeholders are becoming popular, but must operate within a hierarchy of pre-negotiated responses to pre-specified limit reference points so that social and economic options are not lost because conservation issues have not been given precedence. Academic and research institutions could aid the management process by more participation, by promoting interdisciplinary teamwork with stakeholders and by breaking down excessive specialization and regionalization within fisheries studies. On the management side, the key elements for improving the situation seem to be consultative management frameworks that explicitly incorporate `watchdog' functions and implement `precautionary' approaches to management. Risk-averse strategies are appropriate but, given the high level of uncertainty that managers face with natural systems, `fail-safe' management with redundancy, both in the data sources they rely on for fishery performance and in the management measures applied, seem appropriate. For near-shore resources, governments could consider partly devolving management responsibility to appropriate levels in society, involving coastal communities, individual use rights and other vehicles for allocating access. Changing emphasis of modern technology from fisheries exploitation to improved management will be one aspect of successful future management systems, perhaps incorporating geotemporally defined access rights to near-shore and shelf resources. Recent international agreements, including the formal ratification of the Law of the Sea, show that governments are prepared for more ecologically appropriate approaches. The key stake of the fisheries industry in sustainable fisheries development needs supporting, particularly for developing countries, now the major source of aquatic marine products. High priorities for management of marine resources are rebuilding depleted resources and restoring habitats, with concern for maintaining genetic and ecological diversity. There will be a need to consider impacts of global trade on conservation of resources for future generations, if proper management is to be maintained in the face of growing demand. International agreements of relevance to future management paradigms which are compatible with the Law of the Sea Convention (and each other), include Agenda 21 of UNCED, the Biodiversity Convention, the UN Agreement on Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks, the Compliance Agreement and the FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries. Such agreements, ratified or now open for signature, provide a comprehensive basis for future `customary law' that can assist authorities in constructing appropriate management frameworks. Current concern remains with application of these agreements in international waters, where limited access as required for proper management still has not been established.},
  language = {en},
  number = {1},
  journal = {Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries},
  doi = {10.1023/A:1008829909601},
  author = {Caddy, J. F.},
  month = mar,
  year = {1999},
  keywords = {Zoology,alternative paradigms,fishery assessment and management,future perspectives,Hydrobiology,international agreements},
  pages = {1-43}
}

@article{hilborn2002,
  title = {The {{Dark Side}} of {{Reference Points}}},
  volume = {70},
  abstract = {The United States and many other countries have developed sets of standard reference points that can be used to determine allowable harvests. Here I explore some of the problems that have arisen in this practice, including (1) uncertainties in current stock biomass and virgin stock biomass as applied in reference point formula, (2) the inappropriateness of reference points applied to species for which they were not derived, (3) the tendency of reference-point use to produce an environment in which stock-assessment scientists rarely evaluate alternative management policies, and (4) the role of concern about reference points as a displacement activity for scientists that keeps them from working on more significant problems in fisheries management. I suggest that alternative, data-based, rather than model-based, approaches to setting quotas should be preferred. I consider the true meaning of the precautionary approach and the trend toward neglect of the purpose of a fishery\textemdash{}to produce social and economic benefits to society; it is those benefits that need protection. Finally, I suggest that the key to successful fisheries management is not better science, better reference points, or more precautionary approaches but rather implementing systems of marine governance that provide incentives for individual fishermen, scientists, and managers to make decisions in their own interest that contribute to societal goals.},
  number = {2},
  journal = {Bulletin of Marine Science},
  author = {Hilborn, Ray},
  month = mar,
  year = {2002},
  pages = {403-408}
}

@article{sissenwine1987,
  title = {An {{Alternative Perspective}} on {{Recruitment Overfishing}} and {{Biological Reference Points}}},
  volume = {44},
  issn = {0706-652X},
  abstract = {Biological reference points are used to guide fisheries management decisions. The reference points most often used are expressed in terms of fishing mortality rate (F). Fmsy relates to the maximization of sustainable yield. In principle, it is a most useful reference point, but in practice it is difficult to estimate. Fmax and F0.1 relate to certain levels of yield per recruit and are easily estimated, but they ignore conservation of the resource. Recruitment overfishing has usually been understood to occur when a population has been fished down to a point where recruitment is substantially reduced or fails. It has not been used as a basis for a biological reference point because the definition is vague and cannot be readily related to fishing mortality. Levels of spawning biomass below which recruitment seems to be reduced have been used, but their determination from available data is usually difficult and controversial. We propose an alternative definition of recruitment overfishing in terms of the leve..., Les gestionnaires utilisent des points de r{\'e}f{\'e}rence biologique pour prendre des d{\'e}cisions sur la gestion des p{\^e}ches. Les points de r{\'e}f{\'e}rence les plus souvent utilis{\'e}s sont exprim{\'e}s en taux de mortalit{\'e} par p{\^e}che (F). Le Frms exprime la maximalisation du rendement soutenu. En principe, c'est un point de r{\'e}f{\'e}rence tr{\`e}s utile mais en pratique, il est difficile {\`a} estimer. Les Fmax et F0,1 expriment certains niveaux de rendement par recrue et sont facilement d{\'e}termin{\'e}s quoiqu'ils ne tiennent pas compte de la conservation de la ressource. Une surp{\^e}che au d{\'e}triment du recrutement a g{\'e}n{\'e}ralement lieu quand une population est exploit{\'e}e jusqu'au point o{\`u} le recrutement est nettement r{\'e}duit ou inexistant. Ce facteur n'a pas {\'e}t{\'e} utilis{\'e} comme base pour un point de r{\'e}f{\'e}rence biologique parce que sa d{\'e}finition est vague et qu'il ne peut pas {\^e}tre facilement transform{\'e} en niveau de mortalit{\'e} par p{\^e}che. On s'est servi des niveaux de la biomasse g{\'e}nitrice au-dessous desquels le recrutement semble {\^e}tre r{\'e}duit, mais la d{\'e}ter...},
  number = {4},
  journal = {Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences},
  doi = {10.1139/f87-110},
  author = {Sissenwine, M. P. and Shepherd, J. G.},
  month = apr,
  year = {1987},
  pages = {913-918}
}

@article{mace1994,
  title = {Relationships between {{Common Biological Reference Points Used}} as {{Thresholds}} and {{Targets}} of {{Fisheries Management Strategies}}},
  volume = {51},
  issn = {0706-652X},
  abstract = {Relationships between various biological reference points (BRPs) used to define thresholds and targets of fisheries management strategies were examined for a range of combinations of life history characteristics. Rank orderings of the selected BRPs were strongly influenced by the degree of density dependence in the underlying spawning\textendash{}recruitment (S\textendash{}R) relationship. The validity of F0.1, Fmax, F20\% (the fishing mortality at which spawning per recruit is 20\% of the maximum), and other reference fishing mortality rates as approximations to Fmsy or as thresholds of overfishing is highly dependent on life history characteristics, particular the degree of density dependence in the S\textendash{}R relationship. It is recommended that F40\% be adopted as a target fishing mortality rate when the S\textendash{}R relationship is unknown and that threshold levels of biomass be related to the estimated or assumed degree of density dependence in the S\textendash{}R relationship. Two new methods of calculating threshold biomass levels are suggested as alt..., Nous avons examin{\'e} les relations entre divers points de r{\'e}f{\'e}rence biologique (PRB) servant {\`a} d{\'e}finir les seuils et les cibles des strat{\'e}gies de gestion des p{\^e}ches pour une gamme diverse de combinaisons de caract{\'e}ristiques biologiques. Les ordres de classement des PRB choisis {\'e}taient fortement influenc{\'e}s par le degr{\'e} de d{\'e}pendance par rapport {\`a} la densit{\'e} dans le rapport des g{\'e}niteurs aux recrues pos{\'e} au d{\'e}part. La validit{\'e} de F0.1, Fmax, F20\% (la mortalit{\'e} par p{\^e}che {\`a} laquelle le rapport g{\'e}niteurs-recrues est de 20\% du maximum) et d'autres taux de mortalit{\'e} par p{\^e}che, servant de r{\'e}f{\'e}rence comme approximations de Frms ou comme seuils de la surp{\^e}che, d{\'e}pend fortement des caract{\'e}ristiques du cycle biologique, et particuli{\`e}rement du degr{\'e} de d{\'e}pendance par rapport {\`a} la densit{\'e} dans le rapport g{\'e}niteurs-recrues. Il est recommand{\'e} d'adopter comme taux cible de mortalit{\'e} par p{\^e}che F40\% lorsqu'on ne conna{\^i}t par le rapport g{\'e}niteurs-recrues, et de mettre en rapport les niveaux seuils de la biomasse avec les degr{\'e}s...},
  number = {1},
  journal = {Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences},
  doi = {10.1139/f94-013},
  author = {Mace, Pamela M.},
  month = jan,
  year = {1994},
  pages = {110-122}
}

@article{holt1998,
  title = {Fifty {{Years On}}},
  volume = {8},
  issn = {0960-3166, 1573-5184},
  abstract = {The `traditional' approach to providing fisheries management advice through assembly of a population model, estimation of its parameters, identification of `optima' and calculation of sustainable catch limits is briefly summarised, and its failures noted. An alternative approach, developed first by the Scientific Committee of the International Whaling Commission (IWC) is described. This involves the use of stochastic population models to generate `data' which are then used in computer simulations of the performances of alternative algorithms for catch limits which do not aim at `optima' but which satisfy particular sets of management objectives as defined by the management authority.},
  language = {en},
  number = {3},
  journal = {Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries},
  doi = {10.1023/A:1008808804372},
  author = {Holt, Sidney J.},
  month = sep,
  year = {1998},
  keywords = {Population dynamics,Zoology,Hydrobiology,fisheries regulation,simulations,whaling},
  pages = {357-366}
}

@article{myers1998,
  title = {When {{Do Environment}}\textendash{}Recruitment {{Correlations Work}}?},
  volume = {8},
  issn = {0960-3166, 1573-5184},
  abstract = {I review the role of environmental variability in the survival of juvenile fish and shellfish by examining the success of previously published environment\textendash{}recruitment correlations when tested with new data. The proportion of published correlations that have been verified upon retest is low. There is one generalization that stands out: correlations for populations at the limit of a species' geographical range have often remained statistically significant when re-examined. An examination of environment\textendash{}recruitment correlations that were reviewed 13 years ago by Shepherd and co-workers shows that only 1 out of 47 reviewed studies is currently used in the estimation of recruitment in routine assessments. The results suggest that future progress will require testing general hypotheses using data from many populations.},
  language = {en},
  number = {3},
  journal = {Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries},
  doi = {10.1023/A:1008828730759},
  author = {Myers, Ransom A.},
  month = sep,
  year = {1998},
  keywords = {Fish,recruitment,meta-analysis,Zoology,Hydrobiology,correlation,Environment,Variability},
  pages = {285-305}
}

@article{myers1995,
  title = {Population Dynamics of Exploited Fish Stocks at Low Population Levels},
  volume = {269},
  number = {5227},
  journal = {Science},
  author = {Myers, R. A. and Barrowman, N. J. and Hutchings, J. A. and Rosenberg, A. A.},
  year = {1995},
  pages = {1106}
}

@article{myers1999,
  title = {Maximum Reproductive Rate of Fish at Low Population Sizes},
  volume = {56},
  issn = {0706-652X},
  abstract = {We examine a database of over 700 spawner-recruitment series to search for parameters that are constant, or nearly so, at the level of a species or above. We find that the number of spawners produced per spawner each year at low populations, i.e., the maximum annual reproductive rate, is relatively constant within species and that there is relatively little variation among species. This quantity can be interpreted as a standardized slope at the origin of a spawner-recruitment function. We employ variance components models that assume that the log of the standardized slope at the origin is a normal random variable. This approach allows improved estimates of spawner-recruitment parameters, estimation of empirical prior distributions for Bayesian analysis, estimation of the biological limits of fishing, calculation of the maximum sustainable yield, and impact assessment of dams and pollution., Nous {\'e}tudions une base de donn{\'e}es comptant plus de 700 s{\'e}ries g{\'e}niteur-recrutement {\`a} la recherche de param{\`e}tres qui sont constants, ou presque, au niveau de l'esp{\`e}ce ou {\`a} un niveau hi{\'e}rarchique sup{\'e}rieur. Nous avons trouv{\'e} que le nombre de g{\'e}niteurs produits par g{\'e}niteur chaque ann{\'e}e dans des populations peu abondantes, c'est-{\`a}-dire le taux de reproduction annuel maximal, est relativement constant dans une esp{\`e}ce, et qu'il y a peu de variation d'une esp{\`e}ce {\`a} l'autre. Cette valeur peut {\^e}tre interpr{\'e}t{\'e}e comme une pente normalis{\'e}e {\`a} l'origine d'une fonction g{\'e}niteur-recrutement. Nous avons recours {\`a} des mod{\`e}les de composantes de la variance selon lesquels le log de la pente normalis{\'e}e {\`a} l'origine est une variable al{\'e}atoire normale. Cette approche permet d'obtenir de meilleures estimations des param{\`e}tres du rapport g{\'e}niteur-recrutement, une estimation des donn{\'e}es empiriques avant les r{\'e}partitions pour l'analyse bayesienne, une estimation des limites biologiques de la p{\^e}che, un calcul de la production maximale...},
  number = {12},
  journal = {Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences},
  doi = {10.1139/f99-201},
  author = {Myers, Ransom A and Bowen, Keith G and Barrowman, Nicholas J},
  month = dec,
  year = {1999},
  pages = {2404-2419}
}

@article{myers1994,
  title = {In Search of Thresholds for Recruitment Overfishing},
  volume = {51},
  issn = {1054-3139, 1095-9289},
  abstract = {In this study we consider the problem of estimating, for management purposes, a minimum biomass reference level at which recruitment to a fish stock is seriously reduced. We take an empirical, comparative approach to the problem by examining observations on a wide range of fish stocks. Eight methods for estimating spawning stock biomass thresholds for recruitment overfishing are investigated. Their behaviour is tested using stock and recruitment data for 72 finfish populations, each with at least 20 years of data. We considered three classes of thresholds defined by: (1) the stock size corresponding to 50\% of the maximum predicted average recruitment; (2) the minimum stock size that would produce a good year class when environmental conditions are favourable; and (3) the stock size corresponding to 20\% of various estimates of virgin stock size. The estimators of the first type are generally preferable because they are easily understood, relatively robust if only data at low stock sizes are available, and almost always result in higher levels of recruitment above the threshold.},
  language = {en},
  number = {2},
  journal = {ICES Journal of Marine Science: Journal du Conseil},
  doi = {10.1006/jmsc.1994.1020},
  author = {Myers, R. A. and Rosenberg, A. A. and Mace, P. M. and Barrowman, N. and Restrepo, V. R.},
  month = jan,
  year = {1994},
  keywords = {Beverton-Holt curve,Ricker curve,Shepherd curve,spawning stock biomass},
  pages = {191-205}
}

@article{murawski2000,
  title = {Definitions of Overfishing from an Ecosystem Perspective},
  volume = {57},
  issn = {1054-3139, 1095-9289},
  abstract = {Ecosystem considerations may be incorporated into fisheries management by modifying existing overfishing paradigms or by developing new approaches to account for ecosystem structure and function in relation to harvesting. Although existing concepts of overfishing have a strong theoretical basis for evaluating policy choices and much practical use, they do not provide direct guidance on issues such as biodiversity, serial depletion, habitat degradation, and changes in the food web caused by fishing. There is, however, little basis for defining optimum fishing by using related metrics such as diversity indices, slopes of size or diversity spectra, or average trophic level of the catch, and these may produce ambiguous results. If ecosystem-based overfishing concepts are to assume a greater role in management, unambiguous, quantifiable, and predictive measures of ecosystem state and flux must be developed to index: (1) biomass and production by the ecosystem and relationships among its parts, (2) diversity at different levels of organization, (3) patterns of resource variability, and (4) social and economic benefits. Ecosystem considerations do not need to substitute for existing overfishing concepts. Instead, they should be used to evaluate and modify primary management guidance for important fisheries and species. In practice, they emphasize the need to manage fishing capacity, supported by broader use of technical measures such as marine protected areas and gear restrictions.},
  language = {en},
  number = {3},
  journal = {ICES Journal of Marine Science: Journal du Conseil},
  doi = {10.1006/jmsc.2000.0738},
  author = {Murawski, Steven A.},
  month = jan,
  year = {2000},
  keywords = {fisheries management,biodiversity,ecosystem overfishing,habitat effects of fishing,serial depletion,trophic impacts of fishing},
  pages = {649-658}
}

@book{smith1994,
  title = {Scaling Fisheries: The Science of Measuring the Effects of Fishing, 1855-1955},
  shorttitle = {Scaling Fisheries},
  publisher = {{Cambridge University Press}},
  author = {Smith, Tim D.},
  year = {1994}
}

@article{halpern2009,
  title = {Spillover from Marine Reserves and the Replenishment of Fished Stocks},
  volume = {36},
  issn = {1469-4387},
  abstract = {SUMMARYNo-take marine reserves are widely recognized as an effective conservation tool for protecting marine resources. Despite considerable empirical evidence that abundance and biomass of fished species increase within marine reserve boundaries, the potential for reserves to provide fisheries and conservation benefits to adjacent waters remains heavily debated. This paper uses statistical and population models to evaluate published empirical data on adult spillover from marine reserves and shows that spillover is a common phenomenon for species that respond positively to reserve protection, but at relatively small scales, detectable on average up to 800 m from reserve boundaries. At these small scales, local fisheries around reserves were likely unsustainable in 12 of 14 cases without the reserve, and spillover partially or fully offsets losses in catch due to reserve closure in the other two cases. For reserves to play a role in sustaining and replenishing larger-scale fished stocks, networks of reserves may be necessary, but as few exist this is difficult to evaluate. The results suggest reserves can simultaneously meet conservation objectives and benefit local fisheries adjacent to their boundaries.},
  number = {04},
  journal = {Environmental Conservation},
  doi = {10.1017/S0376892910000032},
  author = {Halpern, Benjamin S. and Lester, Sarah E. and Kellner, Julie B.},
  month = dec,
  year = {2009},
  pages = {268--276}
}

@article{card1992,
  title = {Using {{Regional Variation}} in {{Wages}} to {{Measure}} the {{Effects}} of the {{Federal Minimum Wage}}},
  volume = {46},
  issn = {0019-7939, 2162-271X},
  abstract = {The imposition of a national minimum wage standard provides a natural experiment in which the ``treatment effect'' varies across states depending on the fraction of workers initially earning less than the new minimum. The author exploits this fact to evaluate the effect of the April 1990 increase in the federal minimum wage on teenagers' wages, employment, and school enrollment. Comparisons of grouped and individual state data confirm that the rise in the minimum wage increased teenagers' wages. There is no evidence of corresponding losses in teenage employment or changes in teenage school enrollment.},
  language = {en},
  number = {1},
  journal = {Industrial \& Labor Relations Review},
  doi = {10.1177/001979399204600103},
  author = {Card, David},
  month = oct,
  year = {1992},
  pages = {22-37}
}

@article{quinn2003,
  title = {Ruminations on the {{Development}} and {{Future}} of {{Population Dynamics Models}} in {{Fisheries}}},
  volume = {16},
  issn = {1939-7445},
  abstract = {ABSTRACT.  I trace the development of fisheries models (i.e., fish population dynamics models of species subject to fisheries) to the 21st century. The first real efforts occurred in the period 1900 1920 with the work of Baranov (the ``Grandfather'' of fisheries population dynamics) and the formation of the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES). The establishment of the science occurred between 1920 1960 with multi-species modeling, age- and size-structure dynamics, and production models. Fundamental work during this time was done by Ricker (the ``Father'' of fisheries population dynamics), Beverton and Holt (the ``Prophets'' of fisheries population dynamics), Chapman, Dickie, DeLury, Graham, Gulland, Leslie, Lotka and Volterra, Russell, Schaefer, and Thompson. During this time, most of the workwas deterministic and mathematical. Between 1960 and 1980, statistical methodology evolved greatly but was separate from mathematical advances for the most part. The development of statistical principles for the estimation of animal abundance was further enhanced by Arnason, Buckland, Burnham and Anderson and White, Cormack, Eberhardt, Jolly, Manly, Pollock, Ricker, Robson, and Seber, among others. Fisheries models evolved in a deterministic setting, with advances in age-structured models (Gulland, Pope, Doubleday), surplus production models (Pella, Tomlin-son, Schnute, Fletcher, Hilborn), growth models, bioeconomic models (C. Clark) and management control models (Hilborn, Walters). The period 1980 2000 was the Golden Age. The integration between mathematics and statistics occurred when likelihood and least squares techniques were formally combined with mathematical models of population change. The number of fisheries modelers grew exponentially during this time, resulting in a concomitant increase in publications. A major advance in the 1990s has been the development of Bayesian and time series methods, which have allowed explicit specification of uncertainty. Currently, theory allows realistic modeling of age- and size-structured populations, migratory populations and harvesting strategies. These models routinely incorporate measurement error, process error (stochasticity) and time variation. But data needs often overwhelm the performance of models, and greater demands are being placed on models to answer complex questions. There has been poor communication between fisheries and ecological modelers, between fisheries researchers and statisticians, and among fisheries researchers in different geographic locales. Future models will need to deal better with habitat and spatial concerns, genetics, multispecies interactions, environmental factors, effects of harvesting on the ecosystem, model misspecification and so-cioeconomic concerns. Meta-analysis, retrospective analysis and operating models are some modern approaches for dealing with uncertainty and providing for sustainable fisheries. However, I fear that current attacks on single-species models and management may result in rejection of these advances and an attempt to substitute a less scientific approach.},
  language = {en},
  number = {4},
  journal = {Natural Resource Modeling},
  doi = {10.1111/j.1939-7445.2003.tb00119.x},
  author = {Quinn, Terrance J.},
  month = dec,
  year = {2003},
  keywords = {fisheries management,fish population dynamics,fisheries model,History,population model,single-species model},
  pages = {341-392}
}

@article{johannes1978,
  title = {Traditional {{Marine Conservation Methods}} in {{Oceania}} and {{Their Demise}}},
  volume = {9},
  number = {1},
  journal = {Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics},
  doi = {10.1146/annurev.es.09.110178.002025},
  author = {Johannes, R E},
  year = {1978},
  pages = {349-364}
}

@article{worm2009,
  title = {Rebuilding Global Fisheries},
  volume = {325},
  number = {5940},
  journal = {science},
  author = {Worm, B. and Hilborn, R. and Baum, J. K and Branch, T. A and Collie, J. S and Costello, C. and Fogarty, M. J and Fulton, E. A and Hutchings, J. A and Jennings, S. and {others}},
  year = {2009},
  pages = {578}
}

@article{arnason2009,
  title = {The Sunken Billions: {{The}} Economic Justification for Fisheries Reform},
  shorttitle = {The Sunken Billions},
  journal = {The World Bank},
  author = {Arnason, R. and Kelleher, K. and Willmann, R.},
  year = {2009}
}

@article{hardin1968,
  title = {The {{Tragedy}} of the {{Commons}}},
  volume = {162},
  issn = {0036-8075, 1095-9203},
  abstract = {The population problem has no technical solution; it requires a fundamental extension in morality.},
  language = {en},
  number = {3859},
  journal = {Science},
  doi = {10.1126/science.162.3859.1243},
  author = {Hardin, Garrett},
  month = dec,
  year = {1968},
  pages = {1243-1248}
}

@article{lester2009,
  title = {Biological Effects within No-Take Marine Reserves: A Global Synthesis},
  volume = {384},
  shorttitle = {Biological Effects within No-Take Marine Reserves},
  journal = {Marine Ecology Progress Series},
  author = {Lester, S.E. and Halpern, B.S. and {Grorud-Colvert}, K. and Lubchenco, J. and Ruttenberg, B.I. and Gaines, S.D. and Airam{\'e}, S. and Warner, R.R.},
  year = {2009},
  pages = {33--46}
}

@article{botsford2001,
  title = {Dependence of Sustainability on the Configuration of Marine Reserves and Larval Dispersal Distance},
  volume = {4},
  issn = {1461-023X, 1461-0248},
  number = {2},
  journal = {Ecology Letters},
  doi = {10.1046/j.1461-0248.2001.00208.x},
  author = {Botsford and Hastings and Gaines},
  month = mar,
  year = {2001},
  pages = {144-150}
}

@article{kinlan2005,
  title = {Propagule Dispersal and the Scales of Marine Community Process},
  volume = {11},
  issn = {1472-4642},
  abstract = {Benthic marine organisms are characterized by a bipartite life history in which populations of sedentary adults are connected by oceanic transport of planktonic propagules. In contrast with the terrestrial case, where `long distance dispersal' (LDD) has traditionally been viewed as a process involving rare events, this creates the possibility for large numbers of offspring to travel far relative to the spatial scale of adult populations. As a result, the concept of LDD must be examined carefully when applied in a marine context. Any measure of LDD requires reference to an explicit `local' scale, often defined in terms of adult population demography, habitat patchiness, or the average dispersal distance. Terms such as `open' and `closed' are relative, and should be used with caution, especially when compared across different taxa and systems. We use recently synthesized data on marine propagule dispersal potential and the spread of marine invasive species to draw inferences about average and maximum effective dispersal distances for marine taxa. Foremost, our results indicate that dispersal occurs at a wide range of scales in marine communities. The nonrandom distribution of these scales among community members has implications for marine community dynamics, and for the implementation of marine conservation efforts. Second, in agreement with theoretical results, our data illustrate that average and extreme dispersal scales do not necessarily covary. This further confounds simple classifications of `short' and `long' dispersers, because different ecological processes (e.g. range expansion vs. population replenishment) depend on different aspects of the dispersal pattern (e.g. extremes vs. average). Our findings argue for a more rigorous quantitative view of scale in the study of marine dispersal processes, where relative terms such as `short' and `long', `open' and `closed', `retained' and `exported' are defined only in conjunction with explicit definitions of the scale and process of interest. This shift in perspective represents an important step towards unifying theoretical and empirical studies of dispersal processes in marine and terrestrial systems.},
  language = {en},
  number = {2},
  journal = {Diversity and Distributions},
  doi = {10.1111/j.1366-9516.2005.00158.x},
  author = {Kinlan, Brian P. and Gaines, Steven D. and Lester, Sarah E.},
  month = mar,
  year = {2005},
  keywords = {marine conservation,Biological invasions,dispersal kernel,invasive spread,larval retention,long-distance dispersal,pelagic larval duration,spatial ecology},
  pages = {139-148}
}

@article{hilborn2010,
  title = {Pretty {{Good Yield}} and Exploited Fishes},
  volume = {34},
  issn = {0308-597X},
  abstract = {While much of traditional fisheries theory has concentrated on maximum or optimum yield, the reality of fisheries management is that biomass yield is only one of the several indicators of fisheries performance, and desired outcomes generally only need to provide something near the maximum possible yield. A range of policies are explored to find those that produce ``Pretty Good Yield'' defined as sustainable yield at least 80\% of the maximum sustainable yield. Such yields are generally obtained over a broad range of stock sizes (20\textendash{}50\% of unfished stock abundance), and this range is not sensitive to the population's basic life history parameters such as natural mortality rate, somatic growth rate, or age at maturity. The most important biological parameter determining this range is the intensity of recruitment compensation. Meta-analysis shows compensation is usually strong and there is reasonably little yield lost at what are now widely accepted definitions of overfishing or risk for most stocks. Similarly, maintaining stocks at 50\% of unfished stock abundance for ecological or economic reasons results in little expected loss of yield.},
  number = {1},
  journal = {Marine Policy},
  doi = {10.1016/j.marpol.2009.04.013},
  author = {Hilborn, Ray},
  month = jan,
  year = {2010},
  keywords = {overfishing,meta-analysis,maximum sustainable yield,Recruitment compensation,steepness},
  pages = {193-196}
}

@article{sumaila2012,
  title = {Benefits of {{Rebuilding Global Marine Fisheries Outweigh Costs}}},
  volume = {7},
  abstract = {Global marine fisheries are currently underperforming, largely due to overfishing. An analysis of global databases finds that resource rent net of subsidies from rebuilt world fisheries could increase from the current negative US\$13 billion to positive US\$54 billion per year, resulting in a net gain of US\$600 to US\$1,400 billion in present value over fifty years after rebuilding. To realize this gain, governments need to implement a rebuilding program at a cost of about US\$203 (US\$130\textendash{}US\$292) billion in present value. We estimate that it would take just 12 years after rebuilding begins for the benefits to surpass the cost. Even without accounting for the potential boost to recreational fisheries, and ignoring ancillary and non-market values that would likely increase, the potential benefits of rebuilding global fisheries far outweigh the costs.},
  number = {7},
  journal = {PLoS ONE},
  doi = {10.1371/journal.pone.0040542},
  author = {Sumaila, Ussif Rashid and Cheung, William and Dyck, Andrew and Gueye, Kamal and Huang, Ling and Lam, Vicky and Pauly, Daniel and Srinivasan, Thara and Swartz, Wilf and Watson, Reginald and Zeller, Dirk},
  month = jul,
  year = {2012},
  pages = {e40542}
}

@article{gaines2010,
  title = {Designing {{Marine Reserve Networks}} for {{Both Conservation}} and {{Fisheries Management}}},
  volume = {107},
  issn = {0027-8424, 1091-6490},
  abstract = {Marine protected areas (MPAs) that exclude fishing have been shown repeatedly to enhance the abundance, size, and diversity of species. These benefits, however, mean little to most marine species, because individual protected areas typically are small. To meet the larger-scale conservation challenges facing ocean ecosystems, several nations are expanding the benefits of individual protected areas by building networks of protected areas. Doing so successfully requires a detailed understanding of the ecological and physical characteristics of ocean ecosystems and the responses of humans to spatial closures. There has been enormous scientific interest in these topics, and frameworks for the design of MPA networks for meeting conservation and fishery management goals are emerging. Persistent in the literature is the perception of an inherent tradeoff between achieving conservation and fishery goals. Through a synthetic analysis across these conservation and bioeconomic studies, we construct guidelines for MPA network design that reduce or eliminate this tradeoff. We present size, spacing, location, and configuration guidelines for designing networks that simultaneously can enhance biological conservation and reduce fishery costs or even increase fishery yields and profits. Indeed, in some settings, a well-designed MPA network is critical to the optimal harvest strategy. When reserves benefit fisheries, the optimal area in reserves is moderately large (mode {$\approx$}30\%). Assessing network design principals is limited currently by the absence of empirical data from large-scale networks. Emerging networks will soon rectify this constraint.},
  language = {en},
  number = {43},
  journal = {Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences},
  doi = {10.1073/pnas.0906473107},
  author = {Gaines, Steven D. and White, Crow and Carr, Mark H. and Palumbi, Stephen R.},
  month = oct,
  year = {2010},
  keywords = {biodiversity,sustainability,fishery profit,ocean policy},
  pages = {18286-18293}
}

@article{white2010,
  title = {Ocean Currents Help Explain Population Genetic Structure},
  issn = {0962-8452, 1471-2954},
  abstract = {Management and conservation can be greatly informed by considering explicitly how environmental factors influence population genetic structure. Using simulated larval dispersal estimates based on ocean current observations, we demonstrate how explicit consideration of frequency of exchange of larvae among sites via ocean advection can fundamentally change the interpretation of empirical population genetic structuring as compared with conventional spatial genetic analyses. Both frequency of larval exchange and empirical genetic difference were uncorrelated with Euclidean distance between sites. When transformed into relative oceanographic distances and integrated into a genetic isolation-by-distance framework, however, the frequency of larval exchange explained nearly 50 per cent of the variance in empirical genetic differences among sites over scales of tens of kilometres. Explanatory power was strongest when we considered effects of multiple generations of larval dispersal via intermediary locations on the long-term probability of exchange between sites. Our results uncover meaningful spatial patterning to population genetic structuring that corresponds with ocean circulation. This study advances our ability to interpret population structure from complex genetic data characteristic of high gene flow species, validates recent advances in oceanographic approaches for assessing larval dispersal and represents a novel approach to characterize population connectivity at small spatial scales germane to conservation and fisheries management.},
  language = {en},
  journal = {Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences},
  doi = {10.1098/rspb.2009.2214},
  author = {White, Crow and Selkoe, Kimberly A. and Watson, James and Siegel, David A. and Zacherl, Danielle C. and Toonen, Robert J.},
  month = feb,
  year = {2010},
  keywords = {dispersal,isolation by distance,derived oceanographic distance,pelagic larvae,seascape genetics},
  pages = {rspb20092214},
  pmid = {20133354}
}

@article{gaines2010a,
  title = {Evolving Science of Marine Reserves: {{New}} Developments and Emerging Research Frontiers},
  volume = {107},
  issn = {0027-8424, 1091-6490},
  shorttitle = {Evolving Science of Marine Reserves},
  abstract = {The field of marine reserve science has matured greatly over the last decade, moving beyond studies of single reserves and beyond perspectives from single disciplines. This Special Feature exemplifies recent advances in marine reserve research, showing insights gained from synthetic studies of reserve networks, long-term changes within reserves, integration of social and ecological science research, and balance between reserve design for conservation as well as fishery and other commercial objectives. This rich body of research helps to inform conservation planning for marine ecosystems but also poses new challenges for further study, including how to best design integrated fisheries management and conservation systems, how to effectively evaluate the performance of entire reserve networks, and how to examine the complex coupling between ecological and socioeconomic responses to reserve networks.},
  language = {en},
  number = {43},
  journal = {Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences},
  doi = {10.1073/pnas.1002098107},
  author = {Gaines, Steven D. and Lester, Sarah E. and {Grorud-Colvert}, Kirsten and Costello, Christopher and Pollnac, Richard},
  month = oct,
  year = {2010},
  keywords = {Fisheries,conservation,Marine protected areas,ecosystem-based management,marine resource management},
  pages = {18251-18255},
  pmid = {20978212}
}

@article{szuwalski2013,
  title = {Fisheries Management for Regime-Based Ecosystems: A Management Strategy Evaluation for the Snow Crab Fishery in the Eastern {{Bering Sea}}},
  volume = {70},
  issn = {1054-3139, 1095-9289},
  shorttitle = {Fisheries Management for Regime-Based Ecosystems},
  abstract = {Szuwalski, C., and Punt A. E. 2013. Fisheries management for regime-based ecosystems: a management strategy evaluation for the snow crab fishery in the eastern Bering Sea. \textendash{} ICES Journal of Marine Science, 70: 955\textendash{}967. Regime shifts are a prominent feature of the physical environment of some ecosystems and have the potential to influence stock productivity. However, few management strategies or harvest control rules (HCRs) consider the possibility of changes in stock productivity. A management strategy evaluation is conducted for the snow crab (Chionoecetes opilio) fishery in the eastern Bering Sea, an ecosystem influenced by regime shifts. Operating models that project recruitment as a single average (i.e. the current basis for management advice), regime-based with no relationship between recruitment and spawning biomass, and regime-based with control of recruitment oscillating between environmental conditions and spawning biomass are considered. An HCR that accounts for shifts in recruitment regime is compared with the status quo HCR for each operating model. The regime-based HCR increases yield and decreases variability in yield at the cost of a higher probability of overfishing in regime-based systems. However, the regime-based HCR slightly decreases yield (no change in variability) and increases the probability of overfishing in non-regime-based systems. Identifying changes in productivity that are definitely driven by environmental regime rather than fishing pressure is the largest difficulty in implementing these rules.},
  language = {en},
  number = {5},
  journal = {ICES Journal of Marine Science: Journal du Conseil},
  doi = {10.1093/icesjms/fss182},
  author = {Szuwalski, Cody S. and Punt, Andr{\'e} E.},
  month = jan,
  year = {2013},
  keywords = {Stock assessment,Management strategy evaluation,Regime shifts,Snow crab,eastern Bering Sea},
  pages = {955-967}
}

@article{hordyk2014,
  title = {A Novel Length-Based Empirical Estimation Method of Spawning Potential Ratio ({{SPR}}), and Tests of Its Performance, for Small-Scale, Data-Poor Fisheries},
  issn = {1054-3139, 1095-9289},
  abstract = {Hordyk, A., Ono, K., Valencia, S., Loneragan, N., and Prince, J. A novel length-based empirical estimation method of spawning potential ratio (SPR), and tests of its performance, for small-scale, data-poor fisheries. \textendash{} ICES Journal of Marine Science, doi:10.1093/icesjms/fsu004. The spawning potential ratio (SPR) is a well-established biological reference point, and estimates of SPR could be used to inform management decisions for data-poor fisheries. Simulations were used to investigate the utility of the length-based model (LB-SPR) developed in Hordyk et al. (this issue. Some explorations of the life history ratios to describe length composition, spawning-per-recruit, and the spawning potential ratio. ICES Journal of Marine Science) to estimate the SPR of a stock directly from the size composition of the catch. This was done by (i) testing some of the main assumptions of the LB-SPR model, including recruitment variability and dome-shaped selectivity, (ii) examining the sensitivity of the model to error in the input parameters, and (iii) completing an initial empirical test for the LB-SPR model by applying it to data from a well-studied species. The method uses maximum likelihood methods to find the values of relative fishing mortality (F/M) and selectivity-at-length that minimize the difference between the observed and the expected length composition of the catch, and calculates the resulting SPR. When parameterized with the correct input parameters, the LB-SPR model returned accurate estimates of F/M and SPR. With high variability in annual recruitment, the estimates of SPR became increasingly unreliable. The usefulness of the LB-SPR method was tested empirically by comparing the results predicted by the method with those for a well-described species with known length and age composition data. The results from this comparison suggest that the LB-SPR method has potential to provide a tool for the cost-effective assessment of data-poor fisheries. However, the model is sensitive to non-equilibrium dynamics, and requires accurate estimates of the three parameters (M/k, L{$\infty$}, and CVL{$\infty$}). Care must be taken to evaluate the validity of the assumptions and the biological parameters when the model is applied to data-poor fisheries.},
  language = {en},
  journal = {ICES Journal of Marine Science: Journal du Conseil},
  doi = {10.1093/icesjms/fsu004},
  author = {Hordyk, Adrian and Ono, Kotaro and Valencia, Sarah and Loneragan, Neil and Prince, Jeremy},
  month = feb,
  year = {2014},
  keywords = {Beverton–Holt Invariants,cost-effective,fish growth,life-history ratios,size composition},
  pages = {fsu004}
}

@article{mace2001,
  title = {A New Role for {{MSY}} in Single-Species and Ecosystem Approaches to Fisheries Stock Assessment and Management},
  volume = {2},
  copyright = {Blackwell Science Ltd},
  issn = {1467-2979},
  abstract = {In 1977, Peter Larkin published his now-famous paper, `An epitaph for the concept of maximum sustained yield'. Larkin criticized the concept of single-species maximum sustained yield (MSY) for many reasons, including the possibility that it may not guard against recruitment failure, and the impossibility of maximising sustainable yields for all species simultaneously. However, in recent years, there has been a fundamental change in the perception of the fishing mortality associated with MSY (FMSY) as a limit to be avoided rather than a target that can routinely be exceeded. The concept of FMSY as a limit is embodied in several United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) agreements and guidelines, and has now been incorporated into the US Magnuson\textendash{}Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act. As a result, the United States now requires the development of overfishing definitions based on biological reference points that treat the FMSY as a limit reference point and must also define a lower limit on biomass below which rebuilding plans with strict time horizons must be developed. This represents a major paradigm shift from the previously mandated (but often unachieved) objective to simply maintain fishing mortalities at levels below those associated with recruitment overfishing. In many cases, it requires substantial reductions in current fishing mortality levels. Therefore, the necessity of the new paradigm is continually questioned. This paper draws on examples from several fisheries, but specifically focuses on the recent US experience illustrating the practical difficulties of reducing fishing mortality to levels below those corresponding to MSY. However, several studies suggest that even more substantial reductions in fishing mortality may be necessary if ecosystem considerations, such as multispecies interactions, maintenance of biodiversity and genetic diversity, and reduction of bycatch and waste, are taken into account. The pros and cons of moving beyond single-species assessment and management are discussed. A US plan for improving stock assessments indicates that even a `basic' objective such as `adequate baseline monitoring of all managed species' may be extremely costly. Thus, the suggestion of Larkin (1983, 1997) that the costs of research and management should not exceed 10\textendash{}20\% of the landed value of the catch may preclude comprehensive ecosystem management. More importantly, neither single-species nor ecosystem-based fisheries management is likely to improve appreciably unless levels of fishing capacity are aligned with resource productivity, as is currently being promoted by FAO and several individual nations.},
  language = {en},
  number = {1},
  journal = {Fish and Fisheries},
  doi = {10.1046/j.1467-2979.2001.00033.x},
  author = {{Mace}},
  month = mar,
  year = {2001},
  keywords = {fisheries management,maximum sustainable yield,ecosystem approaches,biological reference points,fish stock assessments,precautionary approaches},
  pages = {2-32}
}

@article{ricard2012,
  title = {Examining the Knowledge Base and Status of Commercially Exploited Marine Species with the {{RAM Legacy Stock Assessment Database}}},
  volume = {13},
  copyright = {\textcopyright{} 2011 Blackwell Publishing Ltd},
  issn = {1467-2979},
  abstract = {Meta-analyses of stock assessments can provide novel insight into marine population dynamics and the status of fished species, but the world's main stock assessment database (the Myers Stock-Recruitment Database) is now outdated. To facilitate new analyses, we developed a new database, the RAM Legacy Stock Assessment Database, for commercially exploited marine fishes and invertebrates. Time series of total biomass, spawner biomass, recruits, fishing mortality and catch/landings form the core of the database. Assessments were assembled from 21 national and international management agencies for a total of 331 stocks (295 fish stocks representing 46 families and 36 invertebrate stocks representing 12 families), including nine of the world's 10 largest fisheries. Stock assessments were available from 27 large marine ecosystems, the Caspian Sea and four High Seas regions, and include the Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, Arctic and Antarctic Oceans. Most assessments came from the USA, Europe, Canada, New Zealand and Australia. Assessed marine stocks represent a small proportion of harvested fish taxa (16\%), and an even smaller proportion of marine fish biodiversity (1\%), but provide high-quality data for intensively studied stocks. The database provides new insight into the status of exploited populations: 58\% of stocks with reference points (n~=~214) were estimated to be below the biomass resulting in maximum sustainable yield (BMSY) and 30\% had exploitation levels above the exploitation rate resulting in maximum sustainable yield (UMSY). We anticipate that the database will facilitate new research in population dynamics and fishery management, and we encourage further data contributions from stock assessment scientists.},
  language = {en},
  number = {4},
  journal = {Fish and Fisheries},
  doi = {10.1111/j.1467-2979.2011.00435.x},
  author = {Ricard, Daniel and Minto, C{\'o}il{\'i}n and Jensen, Olaf P and Baum, Julia K},
  month = dec,
  year = {2012},
  keywords = {overfishing,Stock assessment,meta-analysis,Marine fisheries,population dynamics models,relational database},
  pages = {380-398}
}

@article{rassweiler2014,
  title = {Integrating Scientific Guidance into Marine Spatial Planning},
  volume = {281},
  issn = {0962-8452, 1471-2954},
  abstract = {Marine spatial planning (MSP), whereby areas of the ocean are zoned for different uses, has great potential to reduce or eliminate conflicts between competing management goals, but only if strategically applied. The recent literature overwhelmingly agrees that including stakeholders in these planning processes is critical to success; but, given the countless alternative ways even simple spatial regulations can be configured, how likely is it that a stakeholder-driven process will generate plans that deliver on the promise of MSP? Here, we use a spatially explicit, dynamic bioeconomic model to show that stakeholder-generated plans are doomed to fail in the absence of strong scientific guidance. While strategically placed spatial regulations can improve outcomes remarkably, the vast majority of possible plans fail to achieve this potential. Surprisingly, existing scientific rules of thumb do little to improve outcomes. Here, we develop an alternative approach in which models are used to identify efficient plans, which are then modified by stakeholders. Even if stakeholders alter these initial proposals considerably, results hugely outperform plans guided by scientific rules of thumb. Our results underscore the importance of spatially explicit dynamic models for the management of marine resources and illustrate how such models can be harmoniously integrated into a stakeholder-driven MSP process.},
  language = {en},
  number = {1781},
  journal = {Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences},
  doi = {10.1098/rspb.2013.2252},
  author = {Rassweiler, Andrew and Costello, Christopher and Hilborn, Ray and Siegel, David A.},
  month = apr,
  year = {2014},
  keywords = {bioeconomics,reserve design,Marine spatial planning,ecological modelling,marine-protected areas},
  pages = {20132252},
  pmid = {24573841}
}

@article{szuwalski2014,
  title = {Examining Common Assumptions about Recruitment: A Meta-Analysis of Recruitment Dynamics for Worldwide Marine Fisheries},
  copyright = {\textcopyright{} 2014 John Wiley \& Sons Ltd},
  issn = {1467-2979},
  shorttitle = {Examining Common Assumptions about Recruitment},
  abstract = {Assumptions about the future productivity of a stock are necessary to calculate sustainable catches in fisheries management. Fisheries scientists often assume the number of young fish entering a population (recruitment) is related to the biomass of spawning adults and that recruitment dynamics do not change over time. Thus, managers often use a target biomass based on spawning biomass as the basis for calculating sustainable catches. However, we show recruitment and spawning biomass are not positively related over the observed range of stock sizes for 61\% of 224 stocks in the RAM Legacy Stock Assessment Database. Furthermore, 85\% of stocks for which spawning biomass may not drive recruitment dynamics over the observed ranges exhibit shifts in average recruitment, which is often used in proxies for target biomasses. Our results suggest that the environment more strongly influences recruitment than spawning biomass over the observed stock sizes for many stocks. Management often endeavours to maintain stock sizes within the observed ranges, so methods for setting management targets that include changes within an ecosystem may better define the status of some stocks, particularly as climate changes.},
  language = {en},
  journal = {Fish and Fisheries},
  doi = {10.1111/faf.12083},
  author = {Szuwalski, Cody S and {Vert-Pre}, Katyana A and Punt, Andr{\'e} E and Branch, Trevor A and Hilborn, Ray},
  month = jun,
  year = {2014},
  keywords = {Population dynamics,Stock assessment,recruitment,ecosystem-based management,global marine fisheries},
  pages = {n/a-n/a}
}

@article{larkin1977,
  title = {An {{Epitaph}} for the {{Concept}} of {{Maximum Sustained Yield1}}},
  volume = {106},
  number = {1},
  journal = {TRANS. AM, FISH. SOC},
  author = {Larkin, P. A.},
  year = {1977}
}

@article{kay2012,
  title = {Effects of Marine Reserves on {{California}} Spiny Lobster Are Robust and Modified by Fine-Scale Habitat Features and Distance from Reserve Borders},
  volume = {451},
  abstract = {ABSTRACT: Studies of marine reserves often describe mean differences in organism size or abundance inside versus outside reserves, but recent work indicates that these differences are influenced by habitat and proximity of sites to reserve borders. In this study, we measured mean effects of reserves and the influence of distance from reserve borders on the number and size of legal ({$\geq$}82.5 mm carapace length [CL]) California spiny lobster Panulirus interruptus trapped at sites across a reserve network at the Santa Barbara Channel Islands, California, USA. Additionally, we controlled for habitat variability across sites (1) by measuring relative abundance of sublegal adult lobsters (i.e. those not removed through fishing) and (2) through visual SCUBA surveys on which we quantified fine-scale habitat features. Tr

repository: elizabethng/rmarkdown

repo_name: elizabethng/rmarkdown