text:
@misc{1001,
	author = {ABB},
	title = {Pantograph UP - The reliable and fast charging overnight and on route charger},
	year = 2019,
	url = {https://search.abb.com/library/Download.aspx?DocumentID=9AKK107991A4055&LanguageCode=en&DocumentPartId=&Action=Launch},
	urldate = {2021-06-18}
}
@misc{1002,
	author = {Albrecht Uwe and others},
	title = {Kraftstoffstdie},
	year = 2013,
	file = {../_static/resources/Kraftstoffstudie.pdf}
}
@misc{1003,
	author = {ASTRA},
	title = {Bundesamt f{\"{u}}r Strassen (ASTRA)},
	year = 2021,
	url = {https://www.astra.admin.ch/astra/de/home.html},
	urldate = {2021-07-06}
}
@misc{1004,
	author = {BAFU},
	title = {mobitool-Faktoren v2.1 - mobitool},
	year = 2020,
	url = {https://www.mobitool.ch/de/tools/mobitool-faktoren-v2-1-25.html},
	urldate = {2021-06-18}
}
@misc{1005,
	author = {BatteryUniversity},
	title = {BU-216: Summary Table of Lithium-based Batteries - Battery University},
	year = 2021,
	url = {https://batteryuniversity.com/article/bu-216-summary-table-of-lithium-based-batteries},
	urldate = {2021-06-17}
}
@misc{1006,
	author = {Bauer Christian and others},
	title = {Electricity Storage and Hydrogen: Technologies, Costs and Environmental Burdens},
	year = 2021
}
@article{1007,
	author = {Beddows, David C.S. and Harrison, Roy M.},
	title = {PM10 and PM2.5 emission factors for non-exhaust particles from road vehicles: Dependence upon vehicle mass and implications for battery electric vehicles},
	year = 2021,
	month = {Jan},
	journal = {Atmospheric Environment},
	publisher = {Pergamon},
	volume = 244,
	pages = 117886,
	doi = {10.1016/J.ATMOSENV.2020.117886},
	issn = {1352-2310},
	abstract = {Governments around the world are legislating to end the sale of conventionally fuelled (gasoline and diesel) internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEV) and it is assumed that battery-electric vehicles (BEV) will take their place. It has been suggested that due to their increased weight, non-exhaust emissions of particles from BEV may exceed all particle emissions, including exhaust, from an ICEV. This paper examines the vehicle weight-dependence of PM10 and PM2.5 emissions from abrasion (brake, tyre and road surface wear) and road dust resuspension and generates a comparison of the two vehicle types. The outcome is critically dependent upon the extent of regenerative braking relative to use of friction brakes on the BEV, but overall there will be only modest changes to the total local emissions of particles from a passenger car built to current emissions standards.},
	keywords = {Electric vehicle,Non-exhaust,Regenerative braking,Vehicle emissions}
}
@article{1008,
	author = {Benitez Alicia and others},
	title = {Ecological assessment of fuel cell electric vehicles with special focus on type IV carbon fiber hydrogen tank},
	year = 2021,
	month = {Jan},
	journal = {Journal of Cleaner Production},
	publisher = {Elsevier Ltd},
	volume = 278,
	pages = 123277,
	doi = {10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.123277},
	issn = {09596526},
	abstract = {Fuel cell electric vehicles promise to be a viable technical option for using surplus energy produced by renewables, and in turn, help the transport sector to reduce environmental impacts. However, the technology is still under development and, for some components, the environmental performance is uncertain, e.g. the hydrogen storage tank. Manufacturers produce hydrogen tanks consisting of carbon composite materials because of their mechanical properties. Yet, the production of carbon fibers involves complex and energy-intensive processes. Therefore, this study addresses a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of a fuel cell electric vehicle (FCEV) and focuses on the manufacturing process of the hydrogen storage tank and carbon fibers needed for its production. This study suggests that the tank is important for climate change, ionizing radiation and fossil depletion, but less relevant for toxic-related environmental indicators. The evaluation of the future scenario suggested an improvement in the environmental performance of the tank, especially regarding climate change by 46%, namely 5.6 t CO2-Eq versus 3.0 t CO2-Eq, and human toxicity by 75%, namely 2.7 t 1, 4-DCB-Eq versus 0.7 t 1, 4-DCB-Eq per tank for current and future conditions, respectively. Finally, for a lifetime mileage of 150,000 km, the fuel cell electric vehicle is responsible for 15 kg CO2-Eq/100 km in the current scenario and 9 kg CO2-Eq/100 km in the future scenario, respectively.},
	keywords = {Carbon fiber,Fuel cell electric vehicle (FCEV),High-pressure hydrogen tank,Life cycle assessment (LCA)}
}
@misc{1009,
	author = {Bundesamt f{\"{u}}r Umwelt BAFU},
	title = {Faktenblatt CO2-Emissionsfaktoren des Treibhausgasinventars der Schweiz. Faktenblatt},
	year = 2022,
	month = {Jan},
	url = {https://www.bafu.admin.ch/dam/bafu/de/dokumente/klima/fachinfo%2Ddaten/CO2%5FEmissionsfaktoren%5FTHG%5FInventar.pdf.download.pdf/Faktenblatt%5FCO2%2DEmissionsfaktoren%5F01%2D2022%5FDE.pdff},
}
@article{1010,
	author = {Candelaresi Daniele and others},
	title = {Comparative life cycle assessment of hydrogen-fuelled passenger cars},
	year = 2021,
	month = {Feb},
	journal = {International Journal of Hydrogen Energy},
	publisher = {Pergamon},
	doi = {10.1016/J.IJHYDENE.2021.01.034},
	issn = {0360-3199},
	abstract = {In order to achieve gradual but timely decarbonisation of the transport sector, it is essential to evaluate which types of vehicles provide a suitable environmental performance while allowing the use of hydrogen as a fuel. This work compares the environmental life-cycle performance of three different passenger cars fuelled by hydrogen: a fuel cell electric vehicle, an internal combustion engine car, and a hybrid electric vehicle. Besides, two vehicles that use hydrogen in a mixture with natural gas or gasoline were considered. In all cases, hydrogen produced by wind power electrolysis was assumed. The resultant life-cycle profiles were benchmarked against those of a compressed natural gas car and a hybrid electric vehicle fed with natural gas. Vehicle infrastructure was identified as the main source of environmental burdens. Nevertheless, the three pure hydrogen vehicles were all found to be excellent decarbonisation solutions, whereas vehicles that use hydrogen mixed with natural gas or gasoline represent good opportunities to encourage the use of hydrogen in the short term while reducing emissions compared to ordinary vehicles.},
	keywords = {Fuel cell electric vehicle,Hybrid electric vehicle,Hydrogen engine,Hythane,Sustainable mobility,Wind electrolysis}
}
@article{1011,
   author = {Petr Chlebis and others},
   abstract = {This paper describes a comparison of standard and fast charging methods used in the field of electric vehicles and also comparison of their efficiency in terms of electrical energy consumption. The comparison was performed on three-phase buck converter, which was designed for EV's fast charging station. The results were obtained by both mathematical and simulation methods. The laboratory model of entire physical application, which will be further used for simulation results verification, is being built in these days. © 2014 ADVANCES IN ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING.},
   doi = {10.15598/AEEE.V12I2.975},
   issn = {18043119},
   issue = {2},
   journal = {Advances in Electrical and Electronic Engineering},
   keywords = {Battery charging,Electric vehicle,Fast charging station,Power losses,Three-phase buck converter},
   pages = {111-116},
   publisher = {VSB-Technical University of Ostrava},
   title = {Comparison of standard and fast charging methods for electric vehicles},
   volume = {12},
   year = 2014,
}
@article{1012,
	author = {Cox Brian and others},
	title = {Life Cycle Environmental and Cost Comparison of Current and Future Passenger Cars under Different Energy Scenarios},
	year = 2020,
	journal = {Applied Energy2}
}
@misc{1013,
	author = {Cox Brian and others},
	title = {Umweltauswirkungen von Fahrzeugen im urbanen Kontext Schlussbericht},
	year = 2020,
	url = {https://www.infras.ch/media/filer_public/3f/d9/3fd90a17-3874-425e-8a45-91e6a7d2328a/umweltauswirkungen_von_fahrzeugen_im_urbanen_kontext_schlussbericht.pdf}
}
@article{1014,
	author = {Cox, Brian L. and Mutel, Christopher L.},
	title = {The environmental and cost performance of current and future motorcycles},
	year = 2018,
	month = {Feb},
	journal = {Applied Energy},
	publisher = {Elsevier},
	volume = 212,
	pages = {1013--1024},
	doi = {10.1016/J.APENERGY.2017.12.100},
	issn = {0306-2619},
	abstract = {This work presents an integrative approach to environmental and cost assessment of current and future motorcycle technologies for four motorcycle size categories, three powertrain types, and a variety of fuel supply chains. We consider conventional gasoline (ICEV), battery electric (BEV) and fuel cell electric (FCEV) motorcycles with production years from 1990 to 2030. Motorcycle energy consumption is modelled based on the world harmonized motorcycle test cycle and calibrated with data measured from existing motorcycles. We model the potential future performance of motorcycles by adapting the model input parameters according to historic trends and future component performance predictions. We find that smaller motorcycles have much better environmental performance than larger motorcycles, though this is mostly due to the fact that larger motorcycles have different driving patterns: urban driving is found to have much lower environmental impact per kilometer than highway driving. Current BEV are found to have similar ownership costs to ICEV. They also have reduced climate change potential by roughly 60% when they are powered by electricity from natural gas, 80% when powered by renewables, and they still offer advantages over conventional motorcycles when charged with electricity from hard coal. Next generation BEV are found to have similar environmental performance advantages, though with a definite cost advantage. FCEV climate change reduction potential is found to depend strongly on the source of the hydrogen fuel, with climate benefits being substantial with hydrogen originating from renewable energy sources. Future cost competitiveness of FCEVs is linked closely to the development of fuel cell costs.},
	keywords = {Life cycle assessment,Mobility,Scooter,Transport,Two wheeler}
}
@article{1015,
	author = {Cucurachi Stefano and others},
	title = {Noise footprint from personal land-based mobility},
	year = 2019,
	month = {Oct},
	journal = {Journal of Industrial Ecology},
	volume = 23,
	number = 5,
	pages = {1028--1038},
	doi = {10.1111/jiec.12837},
	issn = 15309290,
	url = {https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/jiec.12837},
	abstract = {A large part of the world population is exposed to noise levels that are unhealthy. Yet noise is often neglected when impact assessment studies are conducted and when policy interventions are designed. In this study, we provide a way to calculate the noise footprint of citizens directly determined by their use of private and public transport on land. The study combines the results of the large transport simulation model MATSim applied to Switzerland, with a noise characterization model, N-LCA, developed in the context of life cycle assessment. MATSim results allow tracking the use of private and public transportation by agents in the model. The results after characterization provide a consumption-based noise footprint, thus the total noise and impacts that are caused by the private mobility demand of the citizens of Switzerland. Our results confirm that road transportation is the largest contributor to the total noise footprint of land-based mobility. We also included a scenario with a full transition to an electrified car fleet, which showed the potential for the reduction of impacts, particularly in urban areas, by about 55% as compared to the modeled regime with combustion engines.},
	keywords = {agent-based modeling,industrial ecology,life cycle assessment,noise,private mobility demand,transportation}
}
@article{1016,
	author = {Dai Qiang and others},
	title = {Life Cycle Analysis of Lithium-Ion Batteries for Automotive Applications},
	year = 2019,
	month = {Jun},
	journal = {Batteries},
	publisher = {MDPI Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute},
	volume = 5,
	number = 2,
	pages = 48,
	doi = {10.3390/batteries5020048},
	issn = 23130105,
	url = {https://mdpi.com/journal/batteries},
	abstract = {In light of the increasing penetration of electric vehicles (EVs) in the global vehicle market, understanding the environmental impacts of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) that characterize the EVs is key to sustainable EV deployment. This study analyzes the cradle-to-gate total energy use, greenhouse gas emissions, SOx, NOx, PM10 emissions, and water consumption associated with current industrial production of lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC) batteries, with the battery life cycle analysis (LCA) module in the Greenhouse Gases, Regulated Emissions, and Energy Use in Transportation (GREET) model, which was recently updated with primary data collected from large-scale commercial battery material producers and automotive LIB manufacturers. The results show that active cathode material, aluminum, and energy use for cell production are the major contributors to the energy and environmental impacts of NMC batteries. However, this study also notes that the impacts could change significantly, depending on where in the world the battery is produced, and where the materials are sourced. In an effort to harmonize existing LCAs of automotive LIBs and guide future research, this study also lays out differences in life cycle inventories (LCIs) for key battery materials among existing LIB LCA studies, and identifies knowledge gaps.},
	keywords = {Emissions,Energy use,Life cycle analysis,Lithium-ion batteries,Water consumption}
}
@misc{1017,
	author = {Daimler Trucks},
	title = {Daimler Trucks North America},
	url = {https://northamerica.daimlertruck.com/},
}

@article{1018,
	author = {Del Duce Andrea and others},
	title = {Electric passenger car transport and passenger car life cycle inventories in ecoinvent version 3},
	year = 2016,
	month = {Sep},
	journal = {International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment},
	publisher = {Springer Verlag},
	volume = 21,
	number = 9,
	pages = {1314--1326},
	doi = {10.1007/s11367-014-0792-4},
	issn = 16147502,
	url = {https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11367-014-0792-4},
	abstract = {Purpose: Due to the large environmental challenges posed by the transport sector, reliable and state-of-the art data for its life cycle assessment is essential for enabling a successful transition towards more sustainable systems. In this paper, the new electric passenger car transport and vehicle datasets, which have been developed for ecoinvent version 3, are presented. Methods: The new datasets have been developed with a strong modular approach, defining a hierarchy of datasets corresponding to various technical components in the vehicle. A vehicle is therefore modelled by linking together the various component datasets. Also, parameters and mathematical formulas have been introduced in order to define the amount of exchanges in the datasets through common transport and vehicle characteristics. This supports users in the choice of the amount of exchanges and enhances the transparency of the dataset. Results: The new transport dataset describes the transport over 1km with a battery electric passenger car taking into account the vehicle production and end of life, the energy consumption due to the use phase, non-exhaust emissions, maintenance and road infrastructure. The dataset has been developed and is suitable for a compact class vehicle. Conclusions: A new electric passenger car transport dataset has been developed for version 3 of the ecoinvent database which exploits modularisation and parameters with the aim of facilitating users in adapting the data to their specific needs. Apart from the direct use of the transport dataset for background data, the various datasets for the different components can also be used as building blocks for virtual vehicles.},
	file = {::},
	keywords = {Ecoinvent,Electric mobility,Electric vehicles,Life cycle assessment,Sustainable transportation systems}
}
@misc{1019,
	author = {Dornoff Jan and others},
	title = {On The Way To "Real World" CO2 Values: The European Passenger Car Market In Its First Year After Introducing The WLTP},
	year = 2020,
	month = {May},
	url = {https://theicct.org/publication/on-the-way-to-real-world-co2-values-the-european-passenger-car-market-in-its-first-year-after-introducing-the-wltp/},
	keywords = {CO2 emissions,Passenger vehicles,Real-world CO2,WTLP-NEDC correlation,fuel efficiency}
}
@article{1020,
	author = {Ducker Frontier},
	title = {Aluminum Content in European Passenger Cars},
	year = 2019,
	journal = {European Aluminium},
	pages = 13,
	url = {https://www.european-aluminium.eu/},
}
@misc{1021,
	author = {Enerdata},
	title = {Change in distance travelled by car | ODYSSEE-MURE},
	year = 2018,
	url = {https://www.odyssee-mure.eu/publications/efficiency-by-sector/transport/distance-travelled-by-car.html},
	urldate = {2021-07-22}
}
@misc{1022,
	author = {Eudy Leslie and others},
	title = {American Fuel Cell Bus Project Evaluation : Third Report},
	url = {https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy17osti/67209.pdf},
   	year = 2011,
	abstract = {This report presents results of the American Fuel Cell Bus (AFCB) Project, a demonstration of fuel cell electric buses operating in the Coachella Valley area of California. The prototype AFCB was developed as part of the Federal Transit Administration's (FTA's) National Fuel Cell Bus Program. Through the non-profit consortia CALSTART, a team led by SunLine Transit Agency and BAE Systems developed a new fuel cell electric bus for demonstration. SunLine added two more AFCBs to its fleet in 2014 and another in 2015. FTA and the AFCB project team are collaborating with the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) and DOE's National Renewable Energy Laboratory to evaluate the buses in revenue service. This report summarizes the performance results for the buses through June 2015.},
	keywords = {AFCB,NFCBP,NREL/TP-5400-64344,September 2015,SunLine,fuel cell,fuel cell electric bus,hybrid,hydrogen,transit,zero-emission}
}
@misc{1023,
	author = {Eudy, Leslie and Post, Matthew},
	title = {Fuel Cell Buses in U.S. Transit Fleets: Current Status 2020},
	year = 2020,
	url = {https://afdc.energy.gov/files/u/publication/fc_bus_status_2020.pdf},
}
@misc{1024,
	author = {European Commission},
	title = {Vehicle Energy Consumption calculation TOol - VECTO},
	year = 2018,
	booktitle = {Climate Action},
	url = {https://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/transport/vehicles/vecto_en},
	urldate = {2020-09-15}
}
@misc{1025,
	author = {European Commission},
	title = {Monitoring of CO2 emissions from passenger cars – Regulation (EU) 2019/631 — European Environment Agency},
	year = 2021,
	url = {https://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/data/co2-cars-emission-19},
	urldate = {2021-06-17}
}
@misc{1026,
	author = {European Commission},
	title = {EUR-Lex - 32019R1242 - EN - EUR-Lex},
	year = 2020,
	url = {https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex%3A32019R1242},
	urldate = {2021-11-17}
}
@book{1027,
	author = {European Commission},
	title = {The European Green Deal},
	year = 2019,
	publisher = {COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT},
	address = {THE EUROPEAN COUNCIL, THE COUNCIL, THE EUROPEAN ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COMMITTEE AND THE COMMITTEE OF THE REGIONS. Brussels}
}
@misc{1028,
	author = {European Environment Agency},
	title = {Air pollutant emission inventory guidebook 2019},
	year = 2019,
	url = {https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/emep-eea-guidebook-2019/part-b-sectoral-guidance-chapters/1-energy/1-a-combustion/1-a-3-b-i/view},
	urldate = {2020-11-02}
}
@misc{1029,
	author = {Eurostat},
	title = {Electricity production, consumption and market overview - Statistics Explained},
	year = 2017,
	booktitle = {Eurostat},
	url = {https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title=Electricity_production,_consumption_and_market_overview},
	abstract = {This article describes the electricity market in the European Union (EU) with an analysis of electricity production/generation (the two terms are used synonymously) according to a range of different energy sources. It also provides information concerning electricity consumption by households and concludes with statistics on the level of market liberalisation (as measured by the share of the largest generator) within electricity markets.}
}
@misc{1030,
	author = {Federal Statistical Office},
	title = {Transport infrastructure and vehicles},
	url = {https://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/en/home/statistics/mobility-transport/transport-infrastructure-vehicles.html},
	urldate = {2021-07-06}
}
@misc{1031,
	author = {FOEN},
	title = {Refrigerants},
	year = 2022,
	url = {https://www.bafu.admin.ch/bafu/en/home/topics/chemicals/info-specialists/chemicals--regulations-and-procedures/refrigerants.html},
	urldate = {2022-09-12}
}
@misc{1032,
	author = {Frischknecht Rolf and others},
	title = {Overview and Methodology Data v2.0 (2007)},
	year = 2007,
	url = {https://ecoinvent.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/200712_frischknecht_jungbluth_overview_methodology_ecoinvent2.pdf},

}
@misc{1033,
	author = {FSO and ARE},
	title = {Mobility and transport microcensus (MTMC).},
	year = 2017,
	url = {https://www.are.admin.ch/are/en/home/mobility/data/mtmc.html}
}
@article{1034,
	author = {G{\"{o}}hlich Dietmar and others},
	title = {Design of urban electric bus systems},
	year = 2018,
	journal = {Design Science},
	publisher = {Cambridge University Press},
	volume = 4,
	doi = {10.1017/dsj.2018.10},
	issn = 20534701,
	url = {http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/},
	abstract = {Many public transport authorities have a great interest in introducing zero-emission electric buses. However, the transformation process from diesel to electric bus systems opens up a vast design space which seems prohibitive for a systematic decision making process. We present a holistic design methodology to identify the 'most suitable system solution' under given strategic and operational requirements. The relevant vehicle technologies and charging systems are analysed and structured using a morphological matrix. A modular simulation model is introduced which takes technical and operational aspects into account. The model can be used to determine a feasible electric bus system. The technology selection is based on a detailed economic analysis which is conducted by means of a total cost of ownership (TCO) model. To cope with uncertainties in forecasting, a stochastic modelling of critical input parameters is applied and three different future scenarios are evaluated. The applicability of the model was verified in a pilot project in Berlin and the methodology was applied to a realistic operational scenario. Our results indicate that electric bus systems are technically feasible and can become economically competitive from the year 2025 under the conditions examined.},
	keywords = {battery and charging technologies,bus system simulation model,economic analysis,technology selection,total cost of ownership,urban electric bus systems}
}
@article{1035,
   abstract = {Within the context of carbon dioxide (CO2) utilization there is an increasing interest in using CO2 as a resource to produce sustainable liquid hydrocarbon fuels. When these fuels are produced by solely using solar energy they are labeled as solar fuels. In the recent discourse on solar fuels intuitive arguments are used to support the prospects of these fuels. This paper takes a quantitative approach to investigate some of the claims made in this discussion. We analyze the life cycle performance of various classes of solar fuel processes using different primary energy and CO 2 sources. We compare their efficacy with respect to carbon mitigation with ubiquitous fossil-based fuels and conclude that producing liquid hydrocarbon fuels starting from CO2 by using existing technologies requires much more energy than existing fuels. An improvement in life cycle CO2 emissions is only found when solar energy and atmospheric CO 2 are used. Producing fuels from CO2 is a very long-term niche at best, not the panacea suggested in the recent public discourse. © 2014 American Chemical Society.},
   author = {Coen Van Der Giesen and others},
   doi = {10.1021/ES500191G},
   issn = {15205851},
   issue = {12},
   journal = {Environmental Science and Technology},
   month = {Jun},
   pages = {7111-7121},
   pmid = {24832016},
   publisher = {American Chemical Society},
   title = {Energy and climate impacts of producing synthetic hydrocarbon fuels from CO2},
   volume = {48},
   url = {https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/es500191g},
   year = {2014},
}
@misc{1036,
	author = {Guida, Umberto and Abdulah, Aida},
	title = {ZeEUS eBus Report #2 - An updated overview of electric buses in Europe},
	year = 2017,
	pages = 179,
	url = {https://zeeus.eu/uploads/publications/documents/zeeus-ebus-report-2.pdf},
	abstract = {Profound changes in how we enjoy mobility are under way. Traditional approaches are being trans-formed through shared mobility services and easier shifts between transport modes. Technology and societal needs continue to drive change. Digitalisation, automation and alternative energy sources are challenging traditional features and creating new opportunities linked with resource efficiency and the collaborative and circular economy. However, such changes can also be disruptive. While they create new jobs, they can also make others obsolete. They call for new skills, good working conditions and need anticipation, adaptation and investment. Transport needs to develop along a more sustainable path. With the COP21 Paris Climate agreement, efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions are becoming even more urgent. An energy-efficient, de-carbonised transport sector is needed. An ambitious climate policy is integral part of Energy Union with a target of at least 27 percent share of renewable energy consumed in the EU in 2030. Decarbonisation requires the development of technologies. The Commission is pushing forward the electrification of all modes of transport – road, rail, air and sea – using clean, renewable energy sourc-es. Electrification of transport is one of the key technologies that will support progress towards im-proved energy efficiency, greater use of renewable energy and lower CO 2 emissions targets.},
}
@article{1037,
	author = {Guo Shuman and others},
	title = {Effect of Adding Biodiesel to Diesel on the Physical and Chemical Properties and Engine Performance of Fuel Blends},
	year = 2016,
	month = {feb},
	journal = {Journal of Biobased Materials and Bioenergy},
	publisher = {American Scientific Publishers},
	volume = 10,
	number = 1,
	pages = {34--43},
	doi = {10.1166/JBMB.2016.1566},
	issn = 15566579,
	abstract = {In this study, the physical and chemical properties of biodiesel (from waste cooking oil) and diesel fuel blends (B10, B20, B30, B40, B50, B60, B70, B80 and B90) were analysed. With increasing biodiesel volume fraction, density, 50% volume fraction distillation temperature, kinematic viscosity, cetane number, closed cup flash point and copper corrosiveness were increased, and lower heating value (LHV) was decreased. Three fuel blends (B10, B20 and B30) with good properties were selected to evaluate the engine's performance and emissions on an unmodified diesel engine test bench. The results show that the engine's power was decreased when adding biodiesel. Brake specific fuel consumption was higher with the fuel blends than with diesel, apart from B10, which showed lower brake specific energy consumption. Compared to diesel, hydrocarbon (HC) and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions, as well as smoke opacity, reduced significantly with the fuel blends whilst mono-nitrogen oxides (NOx) and carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions increased. Biodiesel from cooking oil is a good fuel additive for diesel, but should not to be used at a high content because of its increased 50% distillation temperature, density, kinematic viscosity and copper corrosiveness and decreased LHV. It is beneficial to use blend fuels at the appropriate content because their exhaust emissions have a positive effect on reducing the emissions of HC and CO, as well as smoke opacity.},
	keywords = {BIODIESEL,CHEMICAL PROPERTIES,DIESEL,EMISSIONS,FUEL BLENDS,PHYSICAL}
}
@misc{1038,
	author = {Halleux, Vivienne},
	title = {New EU Regulatory Framework for Batteries - Setting Sustainability Requirements},
	year = 2021,
	url = {https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/BRIE/2021/689337/EPRS_BRI%282021%29689337_EN.pdf}
}
@article{1039,
	author = {Christoph Hank and others},
   	doi = {10.1039/C9SE00658C},
   	issn = {2398-4902},
   	issue = 11,
   	journal = {Sustainable Energy & Fuels},
   	month = {Oct},
   	pages = {3219-3233},
   	publisher = {The Royal Society of Chemistry},
   	title = {Comparative well-to-wheel life cycle assessment of OME3–5 synfuel production via the power-to-liquid pathway},
   	volume = 3,
   	url = {https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlehtml/2019/se/c9se00658c},
   	year = 2019,
	abstract = {Oxymethylene Dimethyl Ethers (OMEs) are promising diesel fuel alternatives and interesting solvents for various industrial applications. In this report, a well-to-wheel life cycle assessment of short OME oligomers as produced via a Power-to-Liquid (PtL) pathway has been conducted. Variations in electricity and carbon dioxide supply as well as the hardware demand for the PtL plant components (e.g. PEM water electrolysis, carbon capturing, and 36 kta OME plant capacity) have been considered. Conventional diesel fuel is used as the comparative benchmark. In scenarios with a high share of renewable electricity well-to-wheel greenhouse gas emission for OME3–5 fuel is advantageous compared to fossil diesel. For the best case, well-to-wheel greenhouse gas emissions can be reduced by 86%, corresponding to 29 g(CO2eq) km−1 (OME3–5-fuel) compared to 209 g(CO2eq) km−1 (diesel fuel). However, these results are highly sensitive to the applied method with regard to system multifunctionality. A sensitivity analysis indicates that input electricity at ∼50 g(CO2eq) kWhel−1 enables well-to-wheel greenhouse gas emissions of <100 g(CO2eq) km−1. For other environmental impact categories, acidification, eutrophication, respiratory effects, photochemical ozone creation and resource depletion exceed significantly the fossil fuel reference. A high share of these impacts can be assigned to electricity production, either through direct electricity consumption in the PtL system or during upstream production of hardware components. The presented results and discussion demonstrate the necessity for global defossilisation including material efficient manufacturing of renewable energy plants which remains mandatory for synfuel production addressing a wide range of environmental impact categories. Furthermore, PtL production concerning well-to-wheel greenhouse gas emissions could be beneficial even in Germany if dedicated renewable energy capacities are considered. However, operation of large-scale PtL plants will predominantly be conducted in countries with high renewable energy potential, resulting in low levelized cost of electricity and high full load hours.},
}

@misc{1040,
	author = {Hill Nikolas and others},
	title = {Light weighting as a means of improving Heavy Duty Vehicles' energy efficiency and overall CO2 emissions},
	year = 2015,
	booktitle = {Report for DG Climate Action},
	number = 1,
	pages = 199,
	isbn = 1235753522,
	url = {https://climate.ec.europa.eu/system/files/2017-03/hdv_lightweighting_en.pdf},
	keywords = {co2,energy efficiency and overall,improving heavy duty vehicles,light weighting as a,means of}
}
@article{1041,
	author = {Hottle Troy and others},
	title = {Critical factors affecting life cycle assessments of material choice for vehicle mass reduction},
	year = 2017,
	month = {Oct},
	journal = {Transportation research. Part D, Transport and environment},
	publisher = {NIH Public Access},
	volume = 56,
	pages = 241,
	doi = {10.1016/J.TRD.2017.08.010},
	pmid = 30828256
}
@misc{1042,
	author = {Hua Thanh and others},
	title = {Technical Assessment of Compressed Hydrogen Storage Tank Systems for Automotive Applications},
	year = 2010,
	url = {https://www1.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/pdfs/compressedtank_storage.pdf},
}
@misc{1043,
	author = {ICCT},
	title = {A global comparison of the life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions of combustion engine and electric passenger cars},
	year = 2021,
	pages = 10,
	url = {https://theicct.org/publications/global-LCA-passenger-cars-jul2021}
}
@misc{1044,
	author = {Infras; Prognos; TEP Energy;},
	title = {Analyse des schweizerischen Energieverbrauchs 2000 - 2014 nach Verwendungszwecken},
	year = 2015,
	booktitle = {Bfe},
	pages = 81,
	abstract = {Ex-Post-Analyse des schweizerischen Energieverbrauchs der Jahre 2000 bis 2014 im Bereich private Haushalte, Industrie, Dienstleistungen, Landwirtschaft und Verkehr},
	keywords = {Energy consumption switzerland},
	url = {https://pubdb.bfe.admin.ch/de/publication/download/10260},
}
@misc{1045,
	author = {International Energy Agency (IEA)},
	title = {Extended world energy balances},
	year = 2021,
	doi = {https://doi.org/10.1787/data-00513-en},
	url = {https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/energy/data/iea-world-energy-statistics-and-balances/extended-world-energy-balances_data-00513-en}
}
@misc{1046,
	author = {Kurtz Jennifer and others},
	title = {Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle Durability and Fuel Cell Performance},
	year = 2018,
	url = {https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy19osti/73011.pdf},
}
@misc{1047,
	author = {Lc-inventories},
	title = {UVEK-{\"{O}}kobilanzdatenbestand 2018},
	year = 2018,
	url = {http://www.lc-inventories.ch/}
}
@misc{1048,
	author = {Leuenberger, Marianne and Frischknecht, Rolf},
	title = {Life Cycle Assessment of Two Wheel Vehicles},
	year = 2010,
	booktitle = {Imprint},
	volume = 2,
	pages = {1--30},
	url = {http://esu-services.ch/fileadmin/download/leuenberger-2010-TwoWheelVehicles.pdf},
	abstract = {offizieller EcoInvent-Report},
	keywords = {ecoinvent}
}
@article{1049,
	author = {Mark, Kane},
	title = {BYD's New Blade Battery Set to Redefine EV safety Standards},
	year = 2020,
	journal = {INSIDEEVs},
	pages = {1--2},
	url = {https://insideevs.com/news/427640/byd-shown-blade-battery-factory-chongqing/},
	abstract = {Today, BYD officially announced the launch of the Blade Battery, a development set to mitigate concerns about battery safety in electric vehicles. At an online launch event themed “The Blade Battery – Unsheathed to Safeguard the World”, Wang Chuanfu, BYD Chairman and President, said that the Blade Battery reflects BYD's{\ldots}}
}
@misc{1050,
	author = {Meszler Dan and others},
	title = {EUROPEAN HEAVY-DUTY VEHICLES: COST-EFFECTIVENESS OF FUEL-EFFICIENCY TECHNOLOGIES FOR LONG-HAUL TRACTOR-TRAILERS IN THE 2025-2030 TIMEFRAME},
	year = 2018,
	month = {Jan},
	url = {https://theicct.org/publication/eu-hdvs-cost-effectiveness-of-fuel-efficiency-technologies-for-long%E2%80%91haul-tractor%E2%80%91trailers-in-the-2025%E2%80%912030-timeframe/},
}
@article{1051,
	author = {Miotti Marco and others},
	title = {Integrated environmental and economic assessment of current and future fuel cell vehicles},
	year = 2017,
	month = {Jan},
	journal = {International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment},
	publisher = {Springer Verlag},
	volume = 22,
	number = 1,
	pages = {94--110},
	doi = {10.1007/s11367-015-0986-4},
	issn = 16147502,
	url = {https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11367-015-0986-4},
	abstract = {Purpose: Light-duty vehicles contribute considerably to global greenhouse gas emissions. Fuel cell vehicles (FCVs) may play a key role in mitigating these emissions without facing the same limitations in range and refueling time as battery electric vehicles (BEVs). In this study, we assess the environmental impacts and costs of a polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell system (FCS) for use in light-duty FCVs and integrate these results into a comparative evaluation between FCVs, BEVs, and internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs). Methods: We conduct a detailed life cycle assessment (LCA) and cost assessment for the current state of the technology and two future scenarios for technological development. We compile a detailed and consistent inventory for the FCS by systematically disassembling and integrating information found in cost studies. For the vehicle-level comparison, we use models to ensure that vehicle size, performance, and fuel consumption are unbiased between vehicle types and consistent with the scenarios for technological development. Results and discussion: Our results show that FCVs can decrease life cycle greenhouse gas emissions by 50% compared to gasoline ICEVs if hydrogen is produced from renewable electricity, thus exhibiting similar emission levels as BEVs that are charged with the same electricitymix. If hydrogen is produced by natural gas reforming, FCVs are found to offer no greenhouse gas reductions, along with higher impacts in several other environmental impact categories. A major contributor to these impacts is the FCS, in particular the platinum in the catalyst and the carbon fiber in the hydrogen tank. The large amount of carbon fiber used in the tank was also the reason why we found that FCVs may not become fully cost competitive with ICEVs or BEVs, even when substantial technological development and mass production of all components is assumed. Conclusions: We conclude that FCVs only lead to lower greenhouse gas emissions than ICEVs if their fuel is sourced from renewable energy, as is the case with BEVs. FCVs are an attractive alternative to ICEVs in terms of vehicle performance criteria such as range and refueling time. However, the technological challenges associated with reducing other environmental impacts and costs of FCVs seem to be as large, if not larger, than those associated with thecapacity and costs of batteries for BEVs—even when not taking into account the efforts required to build a hydrogen infrastructure network for road transportation.},
	keywords = {Drivetrain technology,Environmental impacts,Greenhouse gas emissions,Life cycle assessment (LCA),Life cycle costing (LCC),PEM fuel cell,Passenger vehicles}
}
@misc{1052,
   author = {Uwe Tietge},
   journal = {International Council on Clean Transportation},
   month = {Nov},
   title = {From laboratory to road international: A comparison of official and real-world fuel consumption and CO2 values for passenger cars in Europe, the United States, China, and Japan - International Council on Clean Transportation},
   url = {https://theicct.org/publication/from-laboratory-to-road-international-a-comparison-of-official-and-real-world-fuel-consumption-and-co2-values-for-passenger-cars-in-europe-the-united-states-china-and-japan/},
   year = 2017
}
@misc{1053,
	author = {Mock, Peter},
	title = {Footprint versus mass: How to best account for weight reduction in the european vehicle CO2 regulation},
	year = 2017,
	booktitle = {ICCT Fact Sheet},
	volume = 2020,
	month = {Oct},
	pages = {1--3},
	url = {https://www.theicct.org/sites/default/files/CO2-reduction-technologies_fact-sheet_10102017_vF.pdf},
	abstract = {When setting new vehicle carbon dioxide (CO 2) or fuel consumption targets, government regulators can decide for either absolute target values (each vehicle model must meet the same target) or relative target values (each vehicle model must meet a specific target, depending on the " utility " of the vehicle). Popular vehicle utility parameters applied by governments worldwide include vehicle mass and size. Using mass as the normalizing parameter allows heavier vehicles to emit more CO 2 and consume more fuel than lighter vehicles. Using size as the parameter allows larger vehicles a less stringent target than smaller vehicles.}
}
@misc{1054,
	author = {Monterey, Gardiner},
	title = {DOE Hydrogen and Fuel Cells Program Record 9013: Energy Requirements for Hydrogen Gas Compression and Liquefaction as Related to Vehicle Storage Needs},
	year = 2009,
	url = {https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/9013_energy_requirements_for_hydrogen_gas_compression.pdf}
}
@article{1055,
	author = {Muhaji and Sutjahjo, D. H.},
	title = {The characteristics of bioethanol fuel made of vegetable raw materials},
	year = 2018,
	journal = {IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering},
	volume = 296,
	number = 1,
	doi = {10.1088/1757-899X/296/1/012019},
	issn = {1757899X},
	abstract = {The aim of this research is to identify the most potential vegetable raw as the material to make a bioethanol fuel as the alternative energy for gasoline. This study used experimental method. The high-level bioethanol was obtained through the process of saccharification, fermentation and stratified distillation. ASTM standards were used as the method of testing the chemical element (D 5501, D 1744, D 1688, D 512, D 2622, D 381), and physical test (D 1613, D 240, D 1298-99, D 445, and D 93). The result of the analysis showed that from the seven bioethanols being studied there is one bioethanol from Saccharum of icinarum linn that has physical and chemical properties close to the standard of bioethanol. Meanwhile, the others only meet some of the physical and chemical properties of the standard bioethanol.},
}
@article{1056,
	author = {Nansai Keisuke and others},
	title = {Life-cycle analysis of charging infrastructure for electric vehicles},
	year = 2001,
	month = {Nov},
	journal = {Applied Energy},
	publisher = {Elsevier BV},
	volume = 70,
	number = 3,
	pages = {251--265},
	doi = {10.1016/S0306-2619(01)00032-0},
	issn = {03062619},
	abstract = {Life-cycle analysis of a charging station for electric vehicles (EVs) was performed in the three phases, that is, production, transportation and installation of the charging equipment, which consists of charger, battery and stand. We chose parking lots on expressways, commercial parking lots in cities, municipal facilities, shopping centers, etc. throughout the country as the charging sites according to the EV charge program in Southern California. Air-pollutant emissions during the transportation phase were calculated based on the emission factors of vehicles, running speed and the transport distance between one factory of the charging equipment and each site. The share of transporting the charging machines in total emissions of CO2, SOx and CO was less than 15% and the production phase was dominant. In case of NOx, the share of transporting them was over 20%. The relation between gasoline vehicle and gas station was applied to estimate the number of EVs using the charging stations through the country, and the contribution of the charging stations to life-cycle emissions of air pollutants from EV was presented. The share of infrastructure in total emissions of CO2 was 16% in our model case. Thus the development of the charging infrastructure almost did not change the advantage of EV compared to gasoline vehicle (GV) in terms of CO2, NON, and CO emissions. But an EV emits more life-cycle SOx than gasoline vehicles (GVs). {\textcopyright} 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.},
	keywords = {Air pollutant,Electric vehicle,Infrastructure,Life cycle analysis}
}
@inproceedings{1057,
	author = {Navidi Thomas and others},
	title = {Analysis of wireless and catenary power transfer systems for electric vehicle range extension on rural highways},
	year = 2016,
	booktitle = {2016 IEEE Power and Energy Conference at Illinois, PECI 2016},
	doi = {10.1109/PECI.2016.7459224},
	isbn = 9781509002610,
	abstract = {This paper analyzes two different transportation electrification charging schemes, i.e., an embedded wireless power transfer system and an overhead catenary wire system, for use in range extension of electric vehicles on rural highways. The efficiency, feasibility, and benefits of the two schemes are examined. Electric vehicles currently lack widespread popularity mainly due to battery limitations, especially for long distance travel. The rural highway charging methods presented here can greatly increase the range of electric vehicles while decreasing battery sizes. Average modeling approaches for power electronics and vehicle usage were developed in MATLAB/Simulink to compare the two systems, each at two power levels. 30 kW and 48 kW were chosen to demonstrate the differences between power levels both capable of maintaining a positive net charge on a dynamic electric vehicle. Component efficiencies, energy transfer levels, and installation percentages for the various models were determined. The models were applied to California highway I-5 to show immense potential savings over gasoline vehicles. It was shown that catenary charging is cheaper and has higher energy transfer than wireless; however, it has difficulty servicing all vehicle types, has visible wires, and requires more maintenance.},
	keywords = {Average modeling,Catenary,Charging,Electric vehicle (EV),Energy storage,Power electronics,Wireless power transfer}
}
@misc{1058,
	author = {Notter Benedikt and others},
	title = {Handbook emission factors for road transport 4.1 Quick reference},
	year = 2019,
	url = {https://www.hbefa.net/e/index.html},
}
@misc{1059,
	author = {Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy},
	title = {Battery500: Progress Update},
	year = 2020,
	url = {https://www.energy.gov/eere/articles/battery500-progress-update},
	urldate = {2022-03-10}
}
@misc{1060,
	author = {Papadimitriou G. and others},
	title = {TRACCS : Transport data collection supporting the quantitative analysis of measures relating to transport and climate change},
	year = 2013,
	pages = {1--244},
	url = {http://traccs.emisia.com},
	abstract = {This is an internal report in the framework of the project TRACCS. The aim of the report is to describe in detail the methodology followed to produce the final dataset using the initially collected data for road transport. Denmark has been used as a test case example, in order to be followed for all remaining countries. The general steps of the data reconciliation approach are described, including visual checking, gap filling, consistency checking, and QA/QC rules. The proposed methodology results in the production of a final, processed, complete, and consistent dataset for each country.},
	keywords = {QA/QC rules,Road transport,consistency checking,data reconciliation,gap filling}
}
@misc{1061,
	author = {Pl{\"{o}}tz Patrick and others},
	title = {Real-world usage of plug-in hybrid vehicles in Europe: A 2022 update on fuel consumption, electric driving, and CO2 emissions},
	year = 2022,
	url = {https://theicct.org/publication/real-world-phev-use-jun22/}
}
@misc{1062,
	author = {Pl{\"{o}}tz Patrick and others},
	title = {REAL-WORLD USAGE OF PLUG-IN HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLES FUEL CONSUMPTION, ELECTRIC DRIVING, AND CO 2 EMISSIONS},
	year = 2020,
	url = {https://theicct.org/publication/real-world-usage-of-plug-in-hybrid-electric-vehicles-fuel-consumption-electric-driving-and-co2-emissions/},
	keywords = {CO2 emissions,CO2 standards,PHEVs,efficiency standards,plug-in hybrid vehicles}
}
@article{1063,
	author = {Preger Yuliya and others},
	title = {Degradation of Commercial Lithium-Ion Cells as a Function of Chemistry and Cycling Conditions},
	year = 2020,
	month = {Sep},
	journal = {Journal of The Electrochemical Society},
	publisher = {The Electrochemical Society},
	volume = 167,
	number = 12,
	pages = 120532,
	doi = {10.1149/1945-7111/abae37},
	issn = {0013-4651},
	url = {https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1149/1945-7111/abae37},
	abstract = {Energy storage systems with Li-ion batteries are increasingly deployed to maintain a robust and resilient grid and facilitate the integration of renewable energy resources. However, appropriate selection of cells for different applications is difficult due to limited public data comparing the most commonly used off-the-shelf Li-ion chemistries under the same operating conditions. This article details a multi-year cycling study of commercial LiFePO4 (LFP), LiNixCoyAl1−x−yO2 (NCA), and LiNixMnyCo1−x−yO2 (NMC) cells, varying the discharge rate, depth of discharge (DOD), and environment temperature. The capacity and discharge energy retention, as well as the round-trip efficiency, were compared. Even when operated within manufacturer specifications, the range of cycling conditions had a profound effect on cell degradation, with time to reach 80% capacity varying by thousands of hours and cycle counts among cells of each chemistry. The degradation of cells in this study was compared to that of similar cells in previous studies to identify universal trends and to provide a standard deviation for performance. All cycling files have been made publicly available at batteryarchive.org, a recently developed repository for visualization and comparison of battery data, to facilitate future experimental and modeling efforts.},
}
@misc{1064,
	author = {Prognos, A. G. and Tep Energy Gmbh and Infras AG.},
	title = {Energieperspektiven 2050+},
	year = 2021,
	url = {https://www.bfe.admin.ch/bfe/en/home/policy/energy-perspectives-2050-plus.html}
}
@article{1065,
	author = {Qiao Yu and others},
	title = {A 500 Wh/kg Lithium-Metal Cell Based on Anionic Redox},
	year = 2020,
	month = {Jul},
	journal = {Joule},
	publisher = {Cell Press},
	volume = 4,
	number = 7,
	pages = {1445--1458},
	doi = {10.1016/J.JOULE.2020.05.012},
	issn = {2542-4351},
	abstract = {Benefiting from the high-energy-density Li2O-based cathode and ultra-stable ether-based electrolyte system, we report a low-cost and high-energy-density 500 Wh/kg-cell Li-metal pouch cell driven by pure anionic redox activity. The non-superoxo/O2 “safe” charge depth has been extended to 750 mAh/g∼Li2O. Fairly taking the entire cathode mass loading (including inactive components) into calculation, a specific capacity of 477.3 mAh/g can be achieved. The cost/price of cathode catalytic matrix has been efficiently controlled by the employment of low-cost Ni-based catalyst substrate. Benefitting from the electrolyte modification, highly efficient and long-term stable Li-metal cycling guarantees the employment of limited Li metal in full-cell systems, which largely boosts the pouch-cell-level energy density. Finally, by explicitly sharing and analyzing the promoting space of each cell-level parameter in the current pouch-cell system, we want to pass a straightforward message to battery researchers, directing their attention to the development of this promising low-cost and high-energy-density cell system.},
	keywords = {500 Wh/kg lithium-metal battery,Li2O,Li2O/Li2O2 redox reaction,anionic redox,pouch-type cell}
}
@misc{1066,
	author = {QTWW},
	title = {Hydrogen – CNG Tanks & Cylinders | CNG Fuel Systems | Virtual Pipeline},
	year = 2021,
	url = {https://www.qtww.com/product/q-lite-lightest-cng-tanks/},
	urldate = {2021-07-22}
}
@misc{1067,
	author = {Quantum},
	title = {Hydrogen Cylinder General Specifications},
	year = 2019,
	pages = 1,
	url = {http://www.qtww.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/H2-Tank-Specifications-June-2019-All-Tanks-1.pdf},
	urldate = {2021-07-22},
}
@misc{1068,
	author = {Ragon, Pierre-Louis and Rodr{\'{i}}guez, Felipe},
	title = {CO 2 emissions from trucks in the EU: An analysis of the heavy-duty CO 2 standards baseline data},
	year = 2021,
	url = {https://theicct.org/publication/co2-emissions-from-trucks-in-the-eu-an-analysis-of-the-heavy-duty-co2-standards-baseline-data/},
	keywords = {CO2 standards,compliance and enforcement,efficiency,emissions trends,heavy-duty vehicles,manufacturer CO2 targets,vehicle emissions standards}
}
@misc{1069,
	author = {Randacher, Andreas and others},
	title = {HOW TO BUILD AND OPERATE AN EFFICIENT TROLLEYBUS SYSTEM},
	year = 2015,
	url = {http://www.rupprecht-consult.eu/uploads/tx_rupprecht/FINAL_UITP_brochure_trolleybus_DIGITAL_mail.pdf},
}
@misc{1070,
	author = {Rantik, Michail},
	title = {Life cycle assessment of five batteries for electric vehicles under different charging regimes},
	year = 1999,
	url = {http://seeds4green.net/sites/default/files/acv%20batterie%20vehicule%20electrique.pdf},
	abstract = {Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) methodology is used in this study to assess the environmental impact of five candidate batteries for electric vehicles under different conditions of charging. The entire lifetime of a passenger electric vehicle is considered as the basis for all batteries. Five different battery systems are considered. The four of them are electrically recharged - Lead-Acid, Nickel-Cadmium, Nickel-Metal hydride and Sodium-Nickel chloride – whereas one system comprises batteries that are recharged mechanically (Zinc-Air). One specific battery from these five systems is selected. The results are representative of these particular batteries and not of the battery systems to which they belong. The study includes three scenarios, the basic scenario and two fast charging scenarios. The difference between the scenarios is in the phase of the battery's use and involves the charging regimes. Consequently, the other stages of the battery's life are identical in all three scenarios. The basic scenario implies normal overnight charging is used during the entire lifetime of an electric vehicle. In the first fast charging scenario, fast charging is combined with normal charging. The second fast charging scenario involves the exclusive use of fast charging. In both fast charging scenarios the user's behaviour is considered. In this study, it is believed that it is the violation of fast charging rules, set by the battery manufacturer rather than the fast charging technique, that will be critical for the cycle life of the battery. Due to low energy efficiency of the batteries and losses in the charging procedure, the use of energy for operating the electric vehicle seems to be a major contributor to the total environmental impact of the system. Significant resource constraints may prevent mass production of certain batteries or lead to increased prices of others. Use of fast charging increases the number of batteries used during the lifetime of the electric vehicle. It appears though, that it makes little difference if fast charging is used partially or exclusively. The use of recycled materials will reduce the size of the impact.},
}
@article{1071,
	author = {Reuters Staff},
	title = {Japan May Ban Sale of New Gasoline-Powered Vehicles in Mid-2030s: Media},
	year = 2020,
	journal = {Reuters.},
	volume = 2020,
	url = {https://uk.reuters.com/article/us-japan-autos-gasoline/japan-may-ban-sale-of-new-gasoline-powered-vehicles-in-mid-2030s-media-idUKKBN28D044}
}
@article{1072,
	author = {Rottoli Marianna and others},
	title = {Coupling a Detailed Transport Model to the Integrated Assessment Model REMIND},
	year = 2021,
	month = {Mar},
	journal = {Environmental Modeling and Assessment},
	publisher = {Springer Science and Business Media Deutschland GmbH},
	volume = 1,
	pages = 3,
	doi = {10.1007/s10666-021-09760-y},
	issn = 15732967,
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1007/s10666-021-09760-y},
	abstract = {The transport sector is a crucial bottleneck in the decarbonization challenge. To study the sector's decarbonization potential in the wider systems perspective, we couple a large-scale integrated assessment model, Regionalized Model of INvestments and Development (REMIND), to a detailed transport model, Energy Demand Generator-Transport(EDGE-T). This approach allows the analysis of mobility futures in the context of long-term and global energy sector transformations, at a high level of modal and technological granularity and internal consistency. The runtime of the coupled system increases by $\sim$ 15–20% compared with a REMIND standalone application, and first convergence tests are promising. To illustrate the capabilities of our modeling approach, we focus on a reference pathway for Europe. Preliminary results indicate that transport service demands grow in the next decades for both passenger and freight transport. Transport system emissions are expected to decrease in the same time range, due to a shift towards electric drivetrains, advanced vehicles, more efficient modes as well as a slight increase in the share of biofuels.},
	keywords = {Alternative vehicles,Integrated Assessment Model,Models coupling,Transport model}
}
@misc{1073,
	author = {Sacchi Romain and others},
	title = {When, Where and How can the electrification of passenger cars help reduce greenhouse gas emissions?},
	journal = {Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews},
	url = {https://www.psi.ch/en/media/57994/download}
}
@article{1074,
	author = {Sacchi Romain and others},
	title = {Does Size Matter? The Influence of Size, Load Factor, Range Autonomy, and Application Type on the Life Cycle Assessment of Current and Future Medium? The Heavy-Duty Vehicles},
	year = 2021,
	journal = {Environmental Science and Technology},
	publisher = {American Chemical Society},
	doi = {10.1021/acs.est.0c07773},
	issn = 15205851,
	url = {https://pubs.acs.org/doi/full/10.1021/acs.est.0c07773},
	abstract = {The transparent, flexible, and open-source Python library carculator_truck is introduced to perform the life cycle assessment of a series of medium- and heavy-duty trucks across different powertrain types, size classes, fuel pathways, and years in a European context. Unsurprisingly, greenhouse gas emissions per ton-km reduce as size and load factor increase. By 2040, battery and fuel cell electric trucks appear to be promising options to reduce greenhouse gas emissions per ton-km on long distance segments, even where the required range autonomy is high. This requires that various conditions are met, such as improvements at the energy storage level and a drastic reduction of the greenhouse gas intensity of the electricity used for battery charging and hydrogen production. Meanwhile, these options may be considered for urban and regional applications, where they have a competitive advantage thanks to their superior engine efficiency. Finally, these alternative options will have to compete against more mature combustion-based technologies which, despite lower drivetrain efficiencies, are expected to reduce their exhaust emissions via engine improvements, hybridization of their powertrain, as well as the use of biomass-based and synthetic fuels.},
	keywords = {battery,electric,freight,fuel cell,open-source,prospective,tank-to-wheel,transport},
	pmid = 33735568
}
@misc{1075,
	author = {Sacchi, Romain and Bauer, Christian},
	title = {Life-cycle inventories for on-road vehicles},
	year = 2021,
	address = {Villigen},
	url = {https://zenodo.org/record/5720779},
	institution = {Paul Scherrer Institut}
}
@misc{1076,
	author = {Sacchi, Romain},
	title = {romainsacchi/carculator_bus: Life cycle assessment of buses and coaches},
	year = 2021,
	url = {https://github.com/romainsacchi/carculator_bus},
	urldate = {2021-06-17}
}
@misc{1077,
	author = {Scania},
	title = {Plugin-hybrid truck},
	year = 2020,
	url = {https://www.scania.com/group/en/home/products-and-services/trucks/plug-in-hybrid-truck.html}
}
@article{1078,
	author = {Schoemaker, J T},
	title = {Research on the Weight of Buses and Touring Coaches Final Report},
	year = 2007,
	journal = {International Road Transport Union},
	abstract = {When used at full capacity, buses and touring coaches can be driven whilst exceeding the maximum weight limit. This study brings about factual data and evidence about causes for coach overweight. A combination of factors leading to potential overweight have been identified, such as the increased empty weight of vehicles, but also the increase in the average weight of passengers and luggage they carry, due to changes in the demographic and travel patterns, as well as safety and environmental standards. In particular, the average passenger weight was found to be 7 kg higher than the one laid down in the concerned European Directive. The lack of harmonisation between Member States regarding vehicle type approval makes the problem worse; the application of environmental and safety related standards and the installation of comfort features make buses and coaches heavier.},
}
@article{1079,
	author = {Schulte, Jesko and Ny, Henrik},
	title = {Electric road systems: Strategic stepping stone on the way towards sustainable freight transport?},
	year = 2018,
	month = {Apr},
	journal = {Sustainability (Switzerland)},
	publisher = {MDPI AG},
	volume = 10,
	number = 4,
	pages = 1148,
	doi = {10.3390/su10041148},
	issn = 20711050,
	url = {https://mdpi.com/journal/sustainability},
	abstract = {Electrification of the transport sector has been pointed out as a key factor for tackling some of today's main challenges, such as global warming, air pollution, and eco-system degradation. While numerous studies have investigated the potential of electrifying passenger transport, less focus has been on how road freight transport could be powered in a sustainable future. This study looks at Electric Road Systems (ERS) in comparison to the current diesel system. The Framework for Strategic Sustainable Development was used to assess whether ERS could be a stepping stone on the way towards sustainability. Strategic life-cycle assessment was applied, scanning each life-cycle phase for violations against basic sustainability principles. Resulting sustainability "hot spots" were quantified with traditional life-cycle assessment. The results show that, if powered by renewable energy, ERS have a potential to decrease the environmental impact of freight transport considerably. Environmental payback times of less than five years are achievable if freight traffic volumes are sufficiently high. However, some severe violations against sustainability principles were identified. Still, ERS could prove to be a valuable part of the solution, as they drastically decrease the need for large batteries with high cost and sustainability impact, thereby catalyzing electrification and the transition towards sustainable freight transport.},
	keywords = {E-freight,Electric Road Systems,Electric vehicles,Life-cycle assessment,Strategic Sustainable Development,Sustainable freight transport}
}
@article{1080,
	author = {Schwertner, Michael and Weidmann, Ulrich},
	title = {Comparison of well-to-wheel efficiencies for different drivetrain configurations of transit buses},
	year = 2016,
	journal = {Transportation Research Record},
	volume = 2539,
	pages = {55--64},
	doi = {10.3141/2539-07},
	issn = {03611981},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.3929/ethz-b-000121450},
	abstract = {The transportation sector, especially road transport, must reduce its energy consumption and emissions significantly. This requirement also applies to road-bound public transport, which uses mainly diesel buses. A reasonable measure for reaching this goal is to electrify the vehicle's drivetrain. During the past decade, several alternative technologies have evolved, namely, hybrid electric buses, fuel cell electric buses, and battery electric buses (BEBs). For a comparison of their energy efficiency, both the drivetrain's efficiency and the efficiency of the energy supply must be examined to determine well-to-wheel efficiency. This paper attempted to compare seven drivetrains for urban transit buses: diesel, natural gas, diesel-electric, hybrid electric (series and parallel), fuel cell electric, battery electric, and trolley bus. This comparison will become the main part of a more extensive model that supports decision making in bus procurement processes. The model will be as simple as possible. This factor makes it suitable also for the practitioner's use. Therefore, an analytic approach instead of a simulation tool was used. The model's outcomes were both total and specific energy consumption of four generic bus types operating on a dedicated bus line. The result of the study found that the trolley bus, closely followed by the BEB, was the most efficient, even when the share of renewable energy in electricity generation was low. The possibility to reduce specific energy consumption by increasing the occupation rate is outlined as well.},
	keywords = {Public transportation}
}
@misc{1081,
	author = {ScienceDaily},
	title = {Development of a lithium-air battery with an energy density over 500 wh/kg: One of the world's highest energy densities achieved -- ScienceDaily},
	year = 2022,
	url = {https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2022/01/220120140724.htm},
	urldate = {2022-03-10}
}
@misc{1082,
	author = {Sebastian, Brandie M and Thimons, Mark A},
	title = {Life Cycle Greenhouse Gas and Energy Study of Automotive Lightweighting},
	year = 2017,
	url = {https://shop.steel.org/products/life-cycle-greenhouse-gas-and-energy-study-of-automotive-lightweighting-full-report},
}
@misc{1083,
	author = {SFO},
	title = {Parc de motocycles par caract{\'{e}}ristiques techniques, depuis 1990 - 1990-2020 | Tableau | Office f{\'{e}}d{\'{e}}ral de la statistique},
	year = 2021,
	url = {https://www.bfs.admin.ch/asset/fr/px-x-1103020100_163},
	urldate = {2021-06-17}
}
@misc{1084,
	author = {SFO},
	title = {Passenger transport performance | Federal Statistical Office},
	year = 2021,
	url = {https://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/en/home/statistics/mobility-transport/passenger-transport/performance.html},
	urldate = {2021-06-17}
}
@misc{1085,
	author = {SFO},
	title = {Goods transport | Federal Statistical Office},
	year = 2021,
	url = {https://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/en/home/statistics/mobility-transport/goods-transport.html},
	urldate = {2021-06-17}
}
@misc{1086,
	author = {SFO},
	title = {Bestand der Sachentransportfahrzeuge nach Kanton, Fahrzeugart, Karosserie, Fahrzeugklasse nach EU, Zul{\"{a}}ssiges Gesamtgewicht, Treibstoff, Antrieb und Jahr. PxWeb},
	year = 2021,
	url = {https://www.pxweb.bfs.admin.ch/pxweb/de/px-x-1103020100_133/px-x-1103020100_133/px-x-1103020100_133.px},
	urldate = {2021-07-20}
}
@misc{1087,
	author = {SFO},
	title = {Leistungen nach Fahrzeugart und Gesamtgewicht (Gewerblicher Verkehr und Werkverkehr). Inl{\"{a}}ndische schwere Fahrzeuge - 2019 | Tableau | Office f{\'{e}}d{\'{e}}ral de la statistique},
	year = 2021,
	url = {https://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/fr/home/services/pour-medias.assetdetail.14467910.html},
	urldate = {2021-07-20}
}
@misc{1088,
	author = {SFO},
	title = {Parc de voitures de tourisme par caract{\'{e}}ristiques techniques, depuis 2005 - 2005-2020 | Tableau | Office f{\'{e}}d{\'{e}}ral de la statistique},
	year = 2021,
	url = {https://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/fr/home/statistiques/mobilite-transports/infrastructures-transport-vehicules/vehicules/vehicules-routiers-parc-taux-motorisation.assetdetail.15724843.html},
	urldate = {2021-06-17}
}
@article{1089,
	author = {Simons, Andrew and Bauer, Christian},
	title = {A life-cycle perspective on automotive fuel cells},
	year = 2015,
	month = {Nov},
	journal = {Applied Energy},
	publisher = {Elsevier Ltd},
	volume = 157,
	pages = {884--896},
	doi = {10.1016/j.apenergy.2015.02.049},
	issn = 18729118,
	abstract = {The production and end-of-life (EoL) processes for current and future proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) systems for road passenger vehicle applications were analysed and quantified in the form of life cycle inventories. The current PEMFC technology is characterised by highly sensitive operating conditions and a high system mass. For each core component of PEMFC there are a range of materials under development and the research aimed to identify those considered realistic for a 2020 future scenario and according to commercial goals of achieving higher performance, increased power density, greater stability and a marked reduction of costs. End-of-life scenarios were developed in consideration of the materials at the focus of recovery efforts. The life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) addressed the production and EoL of the fuel cell systems with inclusion of a sensitivity analysis to assess influences on the results from the key fuel cell parameters. The second part to the LCIA assessed the environmental and human health burdens from passenger transport in a fuel cell vehicle (FCV) with comparison between the 2012 and 2020 fuel cell scenarios and referenced to an internal combustion engine vehicle (ICEV) of Euro5 emission standard. It was seen that whilst the drivetrain (and therefore the fuel cell system) is a major contributor to the emissions in all the indicators shown, the hydrogen use (and therefore the efficiency of the fuel cell system and the method of hydrogen production) can have a far greater influence on the environmental performance. Overall, the results show inconclusive environmental benefits for using FCV instead of modern ICEV: a substantial reduction of Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions can only be achieved using hydrogen produced with non-fossil energy resources. However, even such "clean" hydrogen used in FCV will not lead to a reduction of several other environmental burdens from the life cycle perspective within the time frame considered.},
	keywords = {Emissions,Life Cycle Inventory (LCI),Life cycle assessment (LCA),PEM fuel cell,Resource demands}
}
@article{1090,
	author = {Speirs Jamie and others},
	title = {Natural gas fuel and greenhouse gas emissions in trucks and ships},
	year = 2020,
	month = {Jan},
	journal = {Progress in Energy},
	publisher = {IOP Publishing},
	volume = 2,
	number = 1,
	pages = {012002},
	doi = {10.1088/2516-1083/ab56af},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1088/2516-1083/ab56af},
	abstract = {Natural gas is a transport fuel which may help reduce greenhouse gas emissions in shipping and trucks. However, there is some disagreement regarding the potential for natural gas to provide significant improvements relative to current ships and trucks. In 2015, road freight represented $\sim$7% of global energy related CO2 emissions, with international shipping representing $\sim$2.6% of global emissions. These emissions are also expected to grow, with some estimates suggesting road freight emission growing by a third, and shipping emissions growing by between 50% and 250% from 2012 to 2050, making absolute emissions reductions challenging. In addition, reducing emissions in ships and trucks has proved technically difficult given the relatively long distances that ships and trucks travel. This paper documents a systematic review of literature detailing well-to-wheel/wake greenhouse gas emissions and economic costs in moving from diesel and heavy fuel oil to natural gas as a fuel for trucks and ships. The review found a number of important issues for greenhouse gas reduction. First, moderate greenhouse gas reductions of 10% were found when switching to natural gas from heavy fuel oil in shipping when comparing the lowest estimates. Comparing lowest well-to-wheel greenhouse gas emissions estimates for trucks, the benefit of switching to natural gas fuel is approximately a 16% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions. However, these emissions are highly variable, driven particularly by methane emissions in exhaust gas. Given this, in the worst cases natural gas ships and trucks emit more greenhouse gasses than the diesel trucks and heavy fuel oil ships that they would replace. It appears relatively cost effective to switch to natural gas as a transport fuel in ships and trucks. However, the limited emissions reduction potential raises questions for the ongoing role of natural gas to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in line with the challenging greenhouse gas reduction targets emerging in the transport sector.},
}
@article{1091,
	author = {Spielmann, Michael and Scholz, R W},
	title = {Life cycle inventories of transport services},
	year = 2005,
	journal = {The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment},
	volume = 10,
	number = 1,
	pages = {85--94},
	isbn = {0948-3349},
	url = {http://www.ecoinvent.org/},
	abstract = {Background, Goal and Scope. The ecoinvent database is a reference work for life cycle inventory data covering the areas of energy, building materials, metals, chemicals, paper and cardboard, forestry, agriculture, detergents, transport services and waste treatment. Generic inventories are available for freight and passenger transport including air, rail, road, and water transport. The goal of freight transport modelling is to provide background data for transport services, which occur between nearly any two process steps of a product system. This paper presents and discusses the model structure, basic assumptions and results for selected freight transport services. Main Features. Transport services are divided into several datasets referred to as transport components. In addition to vehicle operation (comprising vehicle travel and pre-combusrion), infrastructure processes such as vehicle maintenance, manufacturing and disposal, as well as transport infrastructure construction, operation and disposal, are also modelled. In order to link the various transport components to the functional unit of one tonne kilometre (tkm), so-called demand factors are determined. In the case of transport infrastructure that is not exclusively used by freight transport, allocation is essential. The respective allocation parameters employed for line infrastructure construction/disposal and operation datasets (including land use) are yearly Gross-tonne kilometre performance (Gtkm) and kilometric vehicle/train performance. Results are presented for selected environmental exchanges related to gaseous emissions (climate change gases, nitrogen oxides, and hydrocarbons), heavy metal (zinc and cadmium) emissions to soil and air, as well as BOD (Biological Oxygen Demand), and land use. Particle emissions are further distinguished into fine (PM2.5) and coarse (diameter between 2.5 and 10 mum) particles. The results presented comprise both an intra- and intermodal comparison. Results and Discussions. A comparison of Swiss and European rail transport reveals considerably lower emissions from Swiss rail transport due to the almost exclusive use of hydropower as traction energy. For gaseous emissions, freight transport by water or rail exhibits considerably better performance than road transport (65-92% less gaseous emissions). As far as zinc and cadmium emissions to soil are concerned, water and rail transport produce less than 1% of the emissions resulting from road transport for either pollutant. For zinc and cadmium emissions to air, road transport has the highest emissions; however, the emissions due to water and rail transport range from 2 to 18% of the emission levels arising from road transport. Particle emissions show a more diverse pattern. Whilst fine particle emissions due to water and rail transport are considerably lower than road transport, rail transport with respect to coarse particles performs worse than road transport. Dominance analysis reveals the importance of infrastructure processes. For instance, the NMHC-emissions of infrastructure processes account for 40%, 30% and 50% of emissions for road, rail and barge transport, respectively. For the demand factor of infrastructure operation, a sensitivity analysis of the employed allocation factor was performed, revealing no sensitivity for gaseous emissions and particles. On the other hand, considerable changes in both emission levels and in the ranking of transport modes is observed for land occupation. Finally, we varied selected operation parameters for road transport, resulting in considerable reductions of CO2 and NOx emissions of Lip to 60%. In one extreme case (load factor: 100%), NOx emissions for vehicle operation of a lorry are lower than for inland water transport. Only as a result of the considerably higher NOx emissions occutting in infrastructure processes does road transport score worse than water transport, with the ranking remaining the same as for the generic data presented in ecoinvent 2000. Conclusions and Perspectives. The provided datasets allow for a preliminary screening of the importance of transport processes within a product life cycle. In the cases for which transport processes are identified as sensitive for the overall outcome of certain product life cycle or for transport specific comparisons, the modular structure and transparent documentation of demand factors allows for an easy and transparent integration of more case-specific data for selected transport components.},
	keywords = {Switzerland,ecoinvent,life cycle database,life cycle inventory analysis,modelling,rail,road transport,transport,transport comparison,water transport}
}
@misc{1092,
	author = {Spritmonitor.de},
	title = {Spritverbrauch berechnen und Autokosten verwalten - Spritmonitor.de},
	year = 2021,
	url = {https://www.spritmonitor.de/},
	urldate = {2021-06-17}
}
@misc{1093,
	author = {Stolz P. and others},
	title = {Life Cycle Inventories of Road and Non-Road Transport Services},
	year = 2016,
	url = {https://treeze.ch/fileadmin/user_upload/downloads/Publications/Case_Studies/Mobility/544-LCI-Rail-Transport-Services-v2.0.pdf},
}
@misc{1094,
	author = {Stylianos Kephalopoulos and others},
	title = {Common Noise Assessment Methods in Europe (CNOSSOS-EU)},
	year = 2012,
	booktitle = {Journal of the American Podiatric Medical Association},
	volume = 122,
	number = 2,
	pages = 180,
	isbn = 9789279252815,
	url = {http://europa.eu/.},
	abstract = {Europe is acting to fight noise pollution. The Environmental Noise Directive (2002/49/EC) requires EU Member States to determine the exposure to environmental noise through strategic noise mapping and elaborate action plans to reduce noise pollution. Since June 2007, EU countries are obliged to produce strategic noise maps for all major roads, railways, airports and agglomerations, on a five‐year basis. These noise maps are used by national competent authorities to identify priorities for action planning and by the European Commission to globally assess noise exposure across the EU. This information also serves to inform the general public about the levels of noise to which they are exposed, and about actions undertaken to reduce noise pollution to a level not harmful to public health and the environment.},
	keywords = {NOISE – adverse effects ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH HEALT}
}
@article{1095,
	author = {Suh In Soo and others},
	title = {Design and experimental analysis of an efficient HVAC (heating, ventilation, air-conditioning) system on an electric bus with dynamic on-road wireless charging},
	year = 2015,
	month = {Mar},
	journal = {Energy},
	publisher = {Elsevier Ltd},
	volume = 81,
	pages = {262--273},
	doi = {10.1016/j.energy.2014.12.038},
	issn = {03605442},
	abstract = {The design, control and experimental verification of an HVAC (heating, ventilation, air-conditioning) system to achieve high operational efficiency for an electric bus equipped with a dynamic wireless charging capability are described in this paper. Target power capacities of the HVAC system have been set as 28kW of cooling and 26kW of heating with a 600V in-vehicle environment with COPs (coefficient of performance) of more than 1.6 for cooling and 2.6 for heating, which are required for customer's comfort. For an efficient HVAC system design, an integrated air-conditioning with a heat pump system is proposed and analyzed to meet the objectives of the HVAC system, incorporating the waste heat recovery from the drive motor, its driver, and other wireless charging electric modules. In addition, a control algorithm for operational energy management, considering the real-time power consumption and the wirelessly delivered power, is also proposed and verified to secure an actual operational energy consumption target. Through the component- and vehicle-level of the experimental performance verification, combined with energy demand dynamic model, the proposed HVAC system is verified experimentally to meet target power capacities and efficiency measures for cooling and heating, which are important to electric buses, especially with dynamic wireless charging capability.},
	keywords = {Driving range,Electrical vehicle,HVAC,High voltage,Wireless charging}
}
@misc{1096,
	author = {Swiss Federal Office for the Environment},
	title = {Switzerland's National Inventory Report 2021},
	year = 2021,
	url = {https://unfccc.int/documents/271462}
}
@article{1097,
	author = {Tabeta, Shunsuke},
	title = {China Plans to Phase out Conventional Gas-Burning Cars by 2035},
	year = 2020,
	journal = {Nikkei Asia},
	volume = 2020,
	url = {https://asia.nikkei.com/Business/Automobiles/China-plans-to-phase-out-conventional-gas-burning-cars-by-2035}
}
@article{1098,
	author = {Terlouw Tom and others},
	title = {Life Cycle Assessment of Direct Air Carbon Capture and Storage with Low-Carbon Energy Sources},
	year = 2021,
	journal = {Environmental Science and Technology},
	volume = 55,
	pages = 16,
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.1c03263},
	unidentified = {11397–411}
}
@article{1099,
	author = {Thiel Christian and others},
	title = {Cost and well-to-wheel implications of the vehicle fleet CO2 emission regulation in the European Union},
	year = 2014,
	month = {May},
	journal = {Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice},
	publisher = {Elsevier Ltd},
	volume = 63,
	pages = {25--42},
	doi = {10.1016/j.tra.2014.02.018},
	issn = {09658564},
	abstract = {In an exploratory study we have analysed what-if-scenarios within this regulatory framework to quantify the costs in attaining the TtW emission targets and possible impacts on the well-to-wheel (WtW) emissions of the EU's new vehicle portfolio. In particular, we analysed the introduction of electric drive vehicles (EDV) and shifts between car segments. We performed the what-if-scenarios on the basis of the monitoring data for CO2 emissions from new passenger cars in the EU that was further reprocessed to achieve a break-down per vehicle segment, enriched with cost information and well-to-tank (WtT) emission data. Our calculations show that under the assumption that there are no significant segment shifts towards smaller vehicles, a minimum share of 11% of EDV would be needed to comply with a stricter CO2 target of 70g/km, as improvements on conventional cars cannot provide sufficient savings. Deploying the EDV allows a cost effective achievement of the regulatory TtW targets, but also leads to higher WtW emissions than the baseline under the assumption that the TtW targets are not overachieved. Public incentives would be necessary to increase the share of EDV in the portfolio. We calculated that the order of magnitude of these incentives would be in the range of scrappage schemes that have been recently witnessed in European countries. {\textcopyright} 2014 Elsevier Ltd.},
	keywords = {Cost effectiveness,What-if-scenarios}
}
@misc{1100,
	author = {Transport & Environment},
	title = {How clean are electric cars?},
	year = 2020,
	month = {Apr},
	pages = {1--33},
	url = {https://www.transportenvironment.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/TEs-EV-life-cycle-analysis-LCA.pdf},
	abstract = {As carmakers rush to reduce CO₂ emissions from their vehicles to comply with EU car regulations in 2020 and 2021, the offer and sales of electric vehicles (EVs) are rapidly growing. In the 2020s, electric car sales will reach the mass market with the total number of EVs on the road expected to increase by more than 30 times across Europe by 2030. This means that 97% of the electric cars that will be on the road in 2030 have not yet been sold (from 1.3 million EVs in the end of 2019 to 44 million in 20301). The arrival of the electric car has brought with it an array of lifecycle analyses estimating CO₂ emissions of electric cars including battery and charging, and comparing those to conventional cars.While many researchers have to rely on outdated data or evidence, some LCAs (or their interpretation) are deliberately misleading. A lot of these rely on outdated data to compare fast developing EVs with mature petrol or diesel technology that has little room for improvement. To bring clarity and transparency to this debate, T&E has produced a comprehensive and forward-looking comparison of electric, diesel and petrol engines in different car sizes for 2020 and 2030. The online tool , published alongside this paper, is based on the latest evidence that shows that an average EU electric car is already close to three times better than an equivalent conventional car today2. Crucially, electric cars will get considerably cleaner in the next few years as the EU economy decarbonises, with average EVs more than four times cleaner than conventional equivalents in 2030.},
}
@misc{1101,
	author = {Transport Environment},
	title = {From Dirty Oil to Clean Batteries},
	year = 2021,
	url = {https://www.transportenvironment.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/2021_02_Battery_raw_materials_report_final.pdf}
}
@misc{1102,
	author = {US Department of Energy},
	title = {Hydrogen Storage Tech Team Roadmap},
	year = 2017,
	url = {https://www.energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2017/08/f36/hstt_roadmap_July2017.pdf},
}
@misc{1103,
	author = {US EPA},
	title = {Emission Factor Documentation for AP-42, Section 13.2.1: Paved Roads. Measurement Policy Group, Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards},
	year = 2011,
	url = {https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2020-10/documents/emission_factor_documentation_for_ap-42_section_13.2.1_paved_roads_.pdf}
}
@article{1104,
	author = {Veps{\"{a}}l{\"{a}}inen Jari and others},
	title = {Computationally efficient model for energy demand prediction of electric city bus in varying operating conditions},
	year = 2019,
	month = {Feb},
	journal = {Energy},
	publisher = {Elsevier Ltd},
	volume = 169,
	pages = {433--443},
	doi = {10.1016/j.energy.2018.12.064},
	issn = {03605442},
	abstract = {The uncertainty of operating conditions such as weather and payload cause variations in the energy demand of electric city buses. Uncertain variation in energy demand is a challenge in the design of charging systems and on-board energy storages. To predict the energy demand, a computationally efficient model is required for real-time applications. We present a novel approach to predict energy demand variation with a wide range of uncertain factors. A factor identification is carried out to recognize the range of variation in the operating conditions. A computationally efficient surrogate model is generated based on a previously developed numerical simulation model. The surrogate model is shown to be 10 000 times faster than the numerical model. The surrogate model output corresponds with the numerical model with less than 1% error. The energy demand of the surrogate model varied from 0.43 to 2.30 kWh/km, which is realistic in comparison to previous studies. Successful sensitivity analysis of the surrogate model revealed the most crucial factors. Uncertainty in temperature, rolling resistance and payload contributed most to the variation in energy demand. Variation in these factors should be taken into account when predicting energy consumption and while planning schedules for a bus network.},
	keywords = {Electric bus,Energy demand,Sensitivity analysis,Simulation,Surrogate modeling,Uncertainty}
}
@misc{1105,
	author = {Veronika Henze},
	title = {China Dominates the Lithium-ion Battery Supply Chain, but Europe is on the Rise},
	year = 2020,
	booktitle = {BloombergNEF},
	url = {https://about.bnef.com/blog/china-dominates-the-lithium-ion-battery-supply-chain-but-europe-is-on-the-rise/},
	urldate = {2021-08-03}
}
@misc{1106,
	author = {Volkswagen, Group},
	title = {Environmental footprint at the VW Group},
	year = 2021,
	url = {https://www.volkswagenag.com/en/news/stories/2019/04/from-the-well-to-the-wheel.html},
	urldate = {2022-04-05}
}
@article{1107,
	author = {Wernet Gregor and others},
	title = {The ecoinvent database version 3 (part I): overview and methodology},
	year = 2016,
	month = {Sep},
	journal = {International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment},
	publisher = {Springer Verlag},
	volume = 21,
	number = 9,
	pages = {1218--1230},
	doi = {10.1007/s11367-016-1087-8},
	issn = 16147502,
	url = {https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11367-016-1087-8},
	abstract = {Purpose: Good background data are an important requirement in LCA. Practitioners generally make use of LCI databases for such data, and the ecoinvent database is the largest transparent unit-process LCI database worldwide. Since its first release in 2003, it has been continuously updated, and version 3 was published in 2013. The release of version 3 introduced several significant methodological and technological improvements, besides a large number of new and updated datasets. The aim was to expand the content of the database, set the foundation for a truly global database, support regionalized LCIA, offer multiple system models, allow for easier integration of data from different regions, and reduce maintenance efforts. This article describes the methodological developments. Methods: Modeling choices and raw data were separated in version 3, which enables the application of different sets of modeling choices, or system models, to the same raw data with little effort. This includes one system model for Consequential LCA. Flow properties were added to all exchanges in the database, giving more information on the inventory and allowing a fast calculation of mass and other balances. With version 3.1, the database is generally water-balanced, and water use and consumption can be determined. Consumption mixes called market datasets were consistently added to the database, and global background data was added, often as an extrapolation from regional data. Results and discussion: In combination with hundreds of new unit processes from regions outside Europe, these changes lead to an improved modeling of global supply chains, and a more realistic distribution of impacts in regionalized LCIA. The new mixes also facilitate further regionalization due to the availability of background data for all regions. Conclusions: With version 3, the ecoinvent database substantially expands the goals and scopes of LCA studies it can support. The new system models allow new, different studies to be performed. Global supply chains and market datasets significantly increase the relevance of the database outside of Europe, and regionalized LCA is supported by the data. Datasets are more transparent, include more information, and support, e.g., water balances. The developments also support easier collaboration with other database initiatives, as demonstrated by a first successful collaboration with a data project in Qu{\'{e}}bec. Version 3 has set the foundation for expanding ecoinvent from a mostly regional into a truly global database and offers many new insights beyond the thousands of new and updated datasets it also introduced.},
	keywords = {Ecoinvent version 3,Life cycle assessment (LCA),Life cycle inventory (LCI) database,Parametrization,Regionalization,System model}
}
@article{1108,
	author = {Weymar, Elisabeth and Finkbeiner, Matthias},
	title = {Statistical analysis of empirical lifetime mileage data for automotive LCA},
	year = 2016,
	month = {Feb},
	journal = {International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment},
	publisher = {Springer Verlag},
	volume = 21,
	number = 2,
	pages = {215--223},
	doi = {10.1007/S11367-015-1020-6},
	issn = 16147502,
	url = {https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11367-015-1020-6},
	abstract = {Purpose: Innovative fuel efficiency technologies as for example electrification and lightweight materials typically lead to a shift of emissions from the use phase to the production phase of a vehicle. Whether the efforts of applying sophisticated fuel saving technologies pay back in environmental terms over the products' lifetime depends directly on the lifetime mileage assumed. Currently, different “educated guess” values of industry associations and car manufacturers ranging from 150,000 to 300,000km are applied in automotive life cycle assessment (LCA). This study improves the database for LCA practitioners in the automotive industry by statistically determining empirical lifetime mileage values for different types of passenger cars. Methods: The analysis of different data sets of a sample of more than 800,000 vehicles in Germany is performed by using statistical techniques. Firstly, survival analysis is used to describe the typical lifetime of passenger cars by using the Weibull distribution. Secondly, regression analysis is used to describe the progression of mileage during the course of a car's life. The analysis differentiates eight different segments from urban small cars (A000) over midsized cars (A00, A0, A, B, C, D) to ultra luxury cars (E) as well as Otto and diesel engines. Results and discussions: The results show varying lifetimes and mileages of passenger cars depending on the engine type and vehicle segment. Many decisions on innovative automotive technologies are independent from the engine type. In this case, the recommendation of the authors is to differentiate between three different groups of segments (A00/A0, A/B, C) with mileages going from 170,000 over 200,000 to 230,000km. There might even be cases where the usage of a segment-specific value is not recommended. In such cases, the average value of the obtained results of 200,000km appears as feasible choice. Even though the primary data are from Germany only, it is assumed that the results obtained in this study can be used as a proxy estimate for the geographical area of Europe. Conclusions: The results of this paper can be used as default values for LCA practitioners performing automotive LCAs as they provide evidence-based values of passenger cars' lifetimes and mileages in a disaggregated way. The previously often used assumption of 150,000km based on educated guess represents an underestimated value and should be replaced by the data obtained in this study. Using the proposed lifetime mileage data improves the validity and representativeness of automotive LCAs in Europe.},
	keywords = {Automotive,End-of-life,LCA,Lifetime,Mileage,Passenger car,Weibull distribution}
}
@article{1109,
	author = {Wolff Sebastian and others},
	title = {Scalable life-cycle inventory for heavy-duty vehicle production},
	year = 2020,
	journal = {Sustainability (Switzerland)},
	volume = 12,
	number = 13,
	doi = {10.3390/su12135396},
	issn = 20711050,
	abstract = {The transportation sector needs to significantly lower greenhouse gas emissions. European manufacturers in particular must develop new vehicles and powertrains to comply with recent regulations and avoid fines for exceeding CO2 emissions. To answer the question regarding which powertrain concept provides the best option to lower the environmental impacts, it is necessary to evaluate all vehicle life-cycle phases. Different system boundaries and scopes of the current state of science complicate a holistic impact assessment. This paper presents a scaleable life-cycle inventory (LCI) for heavy-duty trucks and powertrains components. We combine primary and secondary data to compile a component-based inventory and apply it to internal combustion engine (ICE), hybrid and battery electric vehicles (BEV). The vehicles are configured with regard to their powertrain topology and the components are scaled according to weight models. The resulting material compositions are modeled with LCA software to obtain global warming potential and primary energy demand. Especially for BEV, decisions in product development strongly influence the vehicle's environmental impact. Our results show that the lithium-ion battery must be considered the most critical component for electrified powertrain concepts. Furthermore, the results highlight the importance of considering the vehicle production phase.},
	keywords = {Environment,Heavy-duty,Life-cycle engineering,Life-cycle inventory,Powertrain,Sustainability,Truck}
}
@article{1110,
	author = {World Steel Association},
	title = {STEEL IN THE CIRCULAR ECONOMY A life cycle perspective},
	year = 2015,
	journal = {Worldsteel Asscociation},
	pages = 16,
	url = {https://worldsteel.org/en/dam/jcr:00892d89%2D551e%2D42d9%2Dae68%2Dabdbd3b507a1/Steel%2Bin%2Bthe%2Bcircular%2Beconomy%2B%2D%2BA%2Blife%2Bcycle%2Bperspective.pdf},
}
@article{1111,
	author = {Wulf Christina and others},
	title = {Life Cycle Assessment of Hydrogen Transport and Distribution Options},
	year = 2018,
	month = {Oct},
	journal = {Journal of Cleaner Production},
	volume = 199,
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.07.180},
	unidentified = {431–43}
}
@misc{1112,
	author = {Xiao, Maya},
	title = {China's Electric Bus Market Dominance Driving Demand for Lithium-Iron-Phosphate Batteries |Interact Analysis},
	year = 2019,
	url = {https://www.interactanalysis.com/chinas-electric-bus-market-dominance-driving-demand-for-lithium-iron-phosphate-batteries/},
	urldate = {2021-06-18}
}
@misc{1113,
	author = {Xinhua},
	title = {China's CATL unveils cell-to-pack battery platform},
	year = 2019,
	url = {http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2019-09/13/c_138389934.htm},
	urldate = {2021-11-14}
}
@article{1114,
	author = {Yang Xiao-Guang and others},
	title = {Thermally modulated lithium iron phosphate batteries for mass-market electric vehicles},
	year = 2021,
	month = {Jan},
	journal = {Nature Energy 2021 6:2},
	publisher = {Nature Publishing Group},
	volume = 6,
	number = 2,
	pages = {176--185},
	doi = {10.1038/s41560-020-00757-7},
	issn = {2058-7546},
	url = {https://www.nature.com/articles/s41560-020-00757-7},
	abstract = {The pursuit of energy density has driven electric vehicle (EV) batteries from using lithium iron phosphate (LFP) cathodes in early days to ternary layered oxides increasingly rich in nickel; however, it is impossible to forgo the LFP battery due to its unsurpassed safety, as well as its low cost and cobalt-free nature. Here we demonstrate a thermally modulated LFP battery to offer an adequate cruise range per charge that is extendable by 10 min recharge in all climates, essentially guaranteeing EVs that are free of range anxiety. Such a thermally modulated LFP battery designed to operate at a working temperature around 60 °C in any ambient condition promises to be a well-rounded powertrain for mass-market EVs. Furthermore, we reveal that the limited working time at the high temperature presents an opportunity to use graphite of low surface areas, thereby prospectively prolonging the EV lifespan to greater than two million miles. Ternary layered oxides dominate the current automobile batteries but suffer from material scarcity and operational safety. Here the authors report that, when operating at around 60 °C, a low-cost lithium iron phosphate-based battery exhibits ultra-safe, fast rechargeable and long-lasting properties.},
	keywords = {Batteries,Electrochemistry,Mechanical engineering}
}
@article{1115,
	author = {Zhang Xiaojin and others},
	title = {Life Cycle Assessment of Power-to-Gas: Approaches, System Variations and Their Environmental Implications},
	year = 2017,
	month = {Mar},
	journal = {Applied Energy},
	volume = 190,
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2016.12.098},
	pages = {326–338}
}
@misc{1116,
	author = {Yihao Xie and others},
	journal = {The International Council On Clean Transportation},
	month = {Apr},
	title = {Diesel sulfur content impacts on Euro VI soot-free vehicles: Considerations for emerging markets - International Council on Clean Transportation},
	url = {https://theicct.org/publication/diesel-sulfur-content-impacts-on-euro-vi-soot-free-vehicles-considerations-for-emerging-markets/},
	year = 2020
}
@article{1117,
	abstract = {Air quality improvement in Los Angeles, California is reviewed with an emphasis on aspects that may inform air quality policy formulation in developing cities. In the mid-twentieth century the air quality in Los Angeles was degraded to an extent comparable to the worst found in developing cities today; ozone exceeded 600 ppb and annual average particulate matter <10 μm reached ~150 mg∙m–3. Today's air quality is much better due to very effective emission controls; e.g., modern automobiles emit about 1% of the hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide emitted by vehicles of 50 years ago. An overview is given of the emission control efforts in Los Angeles and their impact on ambient concentrations of primary and secondary pollutants; the costs and health benefits of these controls are briefly summarized. Today's developing cities have new challenges that are discussed: the effects of regional pollution transport are much greater in countries with very high population densities; often very large current populations must be supplied with goods and services even while economic development and air quality concerns are addressed; and many of currently developing cities are located in or close to the tropics where photochemical processing of pollution is expected to be more rapid than at higher latitudes. The air quality issues of Beijing are briefly compared and contrasted with those of Los Angeles, and the opportunities for co-benefits for climate and air quality improvement are pointed out.},
	author = {David D. Parrish and others},
	doi = {10.1007/S11783-016-0859-5},
	issn = {2095-221X},
	issue = {5},
	journal = {Frontiers of Environmental Science & Engineering 2016 10:5},
	keywords = {Environment,general},
	month = {Aug},
	pages = {1-13},
	publisher = {Springer},
	title = {Air quality improvement in Los Angeles—perspectives for developing cities},
	volume = {10},
	url = {https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11783-016-0859-5},
	year = 2016
}
@misc{1118,
	author = {Joshua Miller and Lingzhi Jin},
	journal = {The International Council On Clean Transportation},
	month = {Sep},
	title = {Global progress toward soot-free diesel vehicles in 2019 - International Council on Clean Transportation},
	url = {https://theicct.org/publication/global-progress-toward-soot-free-diesel-vehicles-in-2019/},
	year = 2019
}
@article{1119,
	abstract = {The CNOSSOS-EU method is recommended in Europe for environmental noise prediction. In regards to road traffic, it includes vehicle noise emission models implicitly referring to internal combustion vehicles. The development of electrically driven vehicles calls for the future consideration of these vehicles in prediction models. On the basis of experimental data, the study reported in this paper proposes a noise emission model for extending CNOSSOS-EU to light electric vehicles. Correction terms to be applied to the propulsion noise component are determined. Investigations on a sample of tyres with good rolling resistance performance, which is a main tyre selection criterion on these vehicles, indicated that no correction is required for the rolling noise component. Differences between the noise emission from conventional vehicles and electric vehicles are discussed for several road surfaces. Owing to the limited vehicle sample as well as transitional statements, this new model for electric vehicles running at constant speed over 20km/h should be considered as a first step towards the definition of this vehicle technology in CNOSSOS-EU.},
	author = {Marie Agnès Pallas and others},
	doi = {10.1016/J.APACOUST.2016.06.012},
	issn = {0003-682X},
	journal = {Applied Acoustics},
	keywords = {CNOSSOS-EU,Electric vehicle,Noise prediction,Propulsion noise,Rolling noise,Tyre label,Vehicle noise},
	month = {Dec},
	pages = {89-101},
	publisher = {Elsevier},
	title = {Towards a model for electric vehicle noise emission in the European prediction method CNOSSOS-EU},
	volume = {113},
	year = 2016,
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apacoust.2016.06.012},
}
@misc{1120,
	author = {ENTSO-E},
	journal = {ENTSO-E},
	month = {Nov},
	title = {Ten-Year Network Development Plan (TYNDP) 2020 - European Network of Transmission System Operators for Electricity },
	url = {https://eepublicdownloads.blob.core.windows.net/public-cdn-container/tyndp-documents/TYNDP2020/Foropinion/TYNDP2020_Main_Report.pdf},
	year = 2020,
}
@article{1121,
	abstract = {Prospective Life Cycle Assessment (pLCA) is useful to evaluate the environmental performance of current and emerging technologies in the future. Yet, as energy systems and industries are rapidly shifting towards cleaner means of production, pLCA requires an inventory database that encapsulates the expected changes in technologies and the environment at a given point in time, following specific socio-techno-economic pathways. To this end, this study introduces premise, a tool to streamline the generation of prospective inventory databases for pLCA by integrating scenarios generated by Integrated Assessment Models (IAM). More precisely, premise applies a number of transformations on energy-intensive activities found in the inventory database ecoinvent according to projections provided by the IAM. Unsurprisingly, the study shows that, within a given socio-economic narrative, the climate change mitigation target chosen affects the performance of nearly all activities in the database. This is illustrated by focusing on the effects observed on a few activities, such as systems for direct air capture of CO2, lithium-ion batteries, electricity and clinker production as well as freight transport by road, in relation to the applied sector-based transformation and the chosen climate change mitigation target. This work also discusses the limitations and challenges faced when coupling IAM and LCA databases and what improvements are to be brought in to further facilitate the development of pLCA.},
	author = {Romain Sacchi and others},
	doi = {10.1016/J.RSER.2022.112311},
	issn = {1364-0321},
	journal = {Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews},
	keywords = {Emerging technology,Integrated assessment model,Life cycle assessment,Prospective scenario},
	month = {May},
	pages = {112311},
	publisher = {Pergamon},
	title = {PRospective EnvironMental Impact asSEment (premise): A streamlined approach to producing databases for prospective life cycle assessment using integrated assessment models},
	volume = {160},
	year = 2022,
	url = {https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S136403212200226X},
}
@misc{1122,
	author = {Francesco Cozzolino},
	month = {Dec},
	title = {Life Cycle Assessment of Biofuels in EU/CH},
	url = {https://www.psi.ch/sites/default/files/2019-09/Cozzolino_377125_%20Research%20Project%20Report.pdf},
	year = 2018
}
@article{1123,
	abstract = {In the presented work, we performed an integrated
	techno-environmental assessment of hydrogen production from woody biomass
	gasification, combined with CO2 capture and storage (CCS). We have included
	three different types of gasification technologies for syngas production. CO2
	is captured from the syngas with conventional amine-based technology. Based
	on our integrated approach linking detailed process simulation with Life Cycle
	Assessment, we are able to quantify benefits and potential trade-offs of a wide
	range of process configurations from both technical and environmental perspectives
	in a consistent way. We have also performed a comparative evaluation of
	hydrogen use in fuel cell electric vehicles (passenger cars and freight
	trucks), to investigate the role of hydrogen in decarbonizing the transport
	sector.},
	author = {Cristina Antonini and others},
	doi = {10.26434/CHEMRXIV.13213553.V1},
	keywords = {Hydrogen from wood,carbon capture and storage,hydrogen mobility,low-carbon hydrogen,wood gasification},
	month = {Nov},
	title = {Hydrogen from Wood Gasification with CCS - a Technoenvironmental Analysis of Production and Use as Transport Fuel},
	url = {https://chemrxiv.org/engage/chemrxiv/article-details/60c751ff567dfe7891ec5b7c},
	journal = {ChemRxiv - Cambridge University Press},
	year = 2020
}
@article{1124,
	abstract = {This study presents an integrated techno-environmental assessment of hydrogen production from natural gas and biomethane, combined with CO2 capture and storage (CCS). We have included steam methane reforming (SMR) and autothermal reforming (ATR) for syngas production. CO2 is captured from the syngas with a novel vacuum pressure swing adsorption (VPSA) process, that combines hydrogen purification and CO2 separation in one cycle. As comparison, we have included cases with conventional amine-based technology. We have extended standard attributional Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) following ISO standards with a detailed carbon balance of the biogas production process (via digestion) and its by-products. The results show that the life-cycle greenhouse gas (GHG) performance of the VPSA and amine-based CO2 capture technologies is very similar as a result of comparable energy consumption. The configuration with the highest plant-wide CO2 capture rate (almost 100% of produced CO2 captured) is autothermal reforming with a two-stage water-gas shift and VPSA CO2 capture – because the latter has an inherently high CO2 capture rate of 98% or more for the investigated syngas. Depending on the configuration, the addition of CCS to natural gas reforming-based hydrogen production reduces its life-cycle Global Warming Potential by 45–85 percent, while the other environmental life-cycle impacts slightly increase. This brings natural gas-based hydrogen on par with renewable electricity-based hydrogen regarding impacts on climate change. When biomethane is used instead of natural gas, our study shows potential for net negative greenhouse gas emissions, i.e. the net removal of CO2 over the life cycle of biowaste-based hydrogen production. In the special case where the biogas digestate is used as agricultural fertiliser, and where a substantial amount of the carbon in the digestate remains in the soil, the biowaste-based hydrogen reaches net-negative life cycle greenhouse gas emissions even without the application of CCS. Addition of CCS to biomethane-based hydrogen production leads to net-negative emissions in all investigated cases.},
	author = {Cristina Antonini and others},
	doi = {10.1039/D0SE00222D},
	isbn = {11/17/20227:5},
	issn = {2398-4902},
	issue = {6},
	journal = {Sustainable Energy & Fuels},
	month = {Jun},
	pages = {2967-2986},
	publisher = {The Royal Society of Chemistry},
	title = {Hydrogen production from natural gas and biomethane with carbon capture and storage – A techno-environmental analysis},
	volume = {4},
	url = {https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlehtml/2020/se/d0se00222d},
	year = 2020
}
@article{1125,
	abstract = {Electricity generation from renewable sources is increasing and will grow further in the future. Since some of this renewable electricity is intermittent and cannot always be consumed when it is generated, options for matching energy demand and supply are needed. Besides electricity storage, coupling the electricity and gas sectors by converting renewable electricity to hydrogen through water electrolysis can be considered a promising option. With CO2 obtained from various sources, hydrogen can further be reacted to produce methane to facilitate large scale gas storage. Among “Power-to-methane” systems, there are a few pathways designed to utilize the CO2 from biogas. However, studies that quantify life cycle greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of such systems are limited, yet are an essential basis when comparing such systems with other alternatives regarding decarbonisation of the energy system. This study therefore focuses on addressing this research gap by providing transparent life cycle inventories and analyses and investigating the life cycle GHG emissions of biogas upgrading, methanation with CO2 from biogas upgrading, and direct biogas methanation. These systems are compared with other fuels in the mobility sector. The analysis also provides an estimate of the potential of such systems to reduce GHG emissions on a country level by considering the availability of biomass and the required amount of renewable electricity. In addition, the results are compared with those of power-to-methane pathways using other CO2 sources and literature values. Our analysis shows that using biomethane as vehicle fuel produced by the systems investigated could provide GHG emission reductions of 27–62% compared to conventional natural gas passenger vehicles or 41–70% compared to petrol vehicles. Although the limited resources of suitable biomass will be a constraint to the widespread deployment of power-to-methane systems using biogenic carbon, the available potential should be used, since it represents an attractive option for reduction of GHG emissions in a future energy system with large amounts of intermittent renewable power generation.},
	author = {Xiaojin Zhang and others},
	doi = {10.1039/C9SE00986H},
	issn = {2398-4902},
	issue = {3},
	journal = {Sustainable Energy & Fuels},
	month = {Mar},
	pages = {1427-1436},
	publisher = {The Royal Society of Chemistry},
	title = {Life cycle assessment of power-to-gas with biogas as the carbon source},
	volume = {4},
	url = {https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlehtml/2020/se/c9se00986h},
	year = 2020
	}
@misc{1126,
	author = {Whiteside James and Finn-Foley Dan},
	journal = {Greentech Media},
	month = {Nov},
	title = {Supply Chain Looms as Serious Threat to Batteries' Green Reputation},
	url = {https://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/graphite-the-biggest-threat-to-batteries-green-reputation},
	year = 2019
}
@article{1127,
	abstract = {The production of battery materials has been identified as the main contributor to the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of lithium-ion batteries for automotive applications. Graphite manufacturing is characterized by energy intense production processes (including extraction), mainly being operated in China with low energy prices and a relatively high GHG emission intensity of electricity generation. Industrial scale primary data related to the production of battery materials lacks transparency and remains scarce in general. In particular, life cycle inventory datasets related to the extraction, refining and coating of graphite as anode material for lithium-ion batteries are incomplete, out of date and hardly representative for today's battery applications. Nevertheless, primary life cycle inventory data of battery materials like graphite, produced on an industrial scale are crucial for a robust evaluation of batteries for electric vehicles, material sourcing and development of robust decarbonization strategies. This paper addresses this issue by first providing a comprehensive overview of the existing graphite datasets and their original sources, and outlining the reasons for wide variations of reported environmental impact results. Furthermore, this paper aims at closing existing data gaps by providing transparent primary data from a Chinese graphite producer from 2019 and assessing the environmental impacts (cradle-to-gate) in form of a life cycle assessment (LCA) for a vertically integrated graphite production. The life cycle inventory covers material, water, energy flows and direct emissions associated with the production of natural graphite anode material for an automotive battery application and associated transport activities along the supply chain. The results of the LCA show that the production of 1000 kg of natural graphite anode material has a global warming potential (GWP) of approximately 9616 kg CO2eq. The subsequent uncertainty analysis in the form of a Monte-Carlo-Analysis with 10000 runs reveals that the 95% confidence interval is in the range between 9297 and 9940 kg CO2eq. This value is more than four times higher than the reported GWP of battery-grade graphite in the ecoinvent database version 3.7.1.},
	author = {Philipp Engels and Felipe Cerdas and others},
	doi = {10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2022.130474},
	issn = {0959-6526},
	journal = {Journal of Cleaner Production},
	keywords = {Anode material,Environmental analysis,Graphite,LCA,Lithium-ion batteries,Monte-Carlo-analysis},
	month = {Feb},
	pages = {130474},
	publisher = {Elsevier},
	title = {Life cycle assessment of natural graphite production for lithium-ion battery anodes based on industrial primary data},
	volume = {336},
	year = 2022,
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2022.130474}
}
@article{1128,
	abstract = {In moving towards a more sustainable society, hydrogen fueled polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cell technology is seen as a great opportunity to reduce the environmental impact of the transport sector. However, decision makers have the challenge of understanding the real environmental consequences of producing fuel cell vehicles (FCVs) compared to alternative green cars, such as battery electric vehicles (BEVs). and more conventional internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs). In this work, we presented a comprehensive life cycle assessment (LCA) of a FCV focused on its manufacturing phase and compared with the production of a BEV and an ICEV. For the manufacturing phase, the FCV inventories started from the catalyst layer to the glider, including the hydrogen tank. A sensitivity analysis on some of the key components of the fuel cell stack and the FC system (such as balance-of-plant and hydrogen tank) was carried out to account for different assumptions on materials and inventory models. The production process of the fuel cell vehicle showed a higher environmental impact compared to the production of the other two vehicles power sources. This is mainly due to the hydrogen tank and the fuel cell stack. However, by combining the results of the sensitivity analysis for each component - a best-case scenario showed that there is the potential for a 25% reduction in the climate change impact category for the FCV compared to a baseline FCV scenario. Reducing the environmental impact associated with the manufacture of fuel cell vehicles represents an important challenge. The entire life cycle has also been considered and the manufacturing, use and disposal of FCV, electric vehicle and conventional diesel vehicle were compared. Overall, the ICEV showed the highest GWP and this was mainly due to the use phase and the fossil carbon emissions associated to the use of diesel.},
	author = {Sara Evangelisti and others},
	doi = {10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2016.11.159},
	issn = {0959-6526},
	journal = {Journal of Cleaner Production},
	keywords = {Catalyst,Fuel cell vehicles,Hydrogen tank,Life cycle assessment,Manufacturing,PEM},
	month = {Jan},
	pages = {4339-4355},
	publisher = {Elsevier},
	title = {Life cycle assessment of a polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell system for passenger vehicles},
	volume = {142},
	year = 2017,
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.11.159}
}
@misc{1129,
	author = {QTWW},
	title = {Hydrogen – CNG Fuel Systems | Virtual Pipeline},
	year = 2021,
	url = {https://www.qtww.com/product/q-rail-cng-fuel-system/},
	urldate = {2021-07-22}
}
@article{1130,
	abstract = {The future environmental impacts of battery electric vehicles (EVs) are very important given their expected dominance in future transport systems. Previous studies have shown these impacts to be highly uncertain, though a detailed treatment of this uncertainty is still lacking. We help to fill this gap by using Monte Carlo and global sensitivity analysis to quantify parametric uncertainty and also consider two additional factors that have not yet been addressed in the field. First, we include changes to driving patterns due to the introduction of autonomous and connected vehicles. Second, we deeply integrate scenario results from the IMAGE integrated assessment model into our life cycle database to include the impacts of changes to the electricity sector on the environmental burdens of producing and recharging future EVs. Future EVs are expected to have 45-78% lower climate change impacts than current EVs. Electricity used for charging is the largest source of variability in results, though vehicle size, lifetime, driving patterns, and battery size also strongly contribute to variability. We also show that it is imperative to consider changes to the electricity sector when calculating upstream impacts of EVs, as without this, results could be overestimated by up to 75%.},
	author = {Brian Cox and others},
	doi = {10.1021/ACS.EST.8B00261},
	issn = {15205851},
	issue = {8},
	journal = {Environmental Science and Technology},
	month = {Apr},
	pages = {4989-4995},
	pmid = {29570287},
	publisher = {American Chemical Society},
	title = {Uncertain Environmental Footprint of Current and Future Battery Electric Vehicles},
	volume = {52},
	url = {https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/acs.est.8b00261},
	year = 2018,
}
@misc{1131,
	author = {European Environment Agency},
	title = {Monitoring of CO2 emissions from passenger cars - Regulation (EC) No 443/2009 - European Environment Agency 2019},
	year = 2019,
	url = {https://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/data/co2-cars-emission-16},
}
@misc{1132,
	author = {Christian Bauer and others },
	title = {Opportunities and challenges for electric mobility: an interdisciplinary assessment of passenger vehicles},
	url = {https://www.researchgate.net/publication/311396512%5FOpportunities%5Fand%5Fchallenges%5Ffor%5Felectric%5Fmobility%5Fan%5Finterdisciplinary%5Fassessment%5Fof%5Fpassenger%5Fvehicles},
	month = {Nov},
	year = 2016,
}
@article{1133,
title = {Estimation of tank-to-wheel efficiency functions based on type approval data},
journal = {Applied Energy},
volume = {276},
pages = {115463},
year = {2020},
issn = {0306-2619},
doi = {https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2020.115463},
url = {https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0306261920309752},
author = {Odd André Hjelkrem and Petter Arnesen and Torstein {Aarseth Bø} and Rebecka Snefuglli Sondell},
keywords = {Tank-to-wheel efficiency, Statistical estimation, Transport modelling},
abstract = {The representation of tank-to-wheel efficiency is for many modelling purposes simplified to a constant value. However, the relationship between tank-to-wheel efficiency and operational properties is not necessarily constant. As a result, situations with both favorable and unfavorable driving conditions will not be adequately represented in instruments for decision making. In this paper, we address this issue by estimating tank-to-wheel efficiency functions customized for use in transport and traffic modelling applications. The functions are estimated by sum of squares on aggregated data, with two different seed functions from a theoretical basis. The level of detail in the estimated functions provide more complexity for evaluations of transport systems in terms of energy and fuel usage, while avoiding too complex modelling of internal engine processes or vehicle specific type parameters. Data sets from vehicle type approval tests are used for the estimation process, and validation tests suggest that a tank-to-wheel efficiency function outperforms a constant value.}
}
@article{1134,
title = {JEC Well-to-Wheels report v5: Well-to-Wheels analysis of future automotive fuels and powertrains
in the European context},
journal = {EUR 30284 EN, JRC Technical reports},
year = {2020},
issn = {0306-2619},
authors = {Prussi, M., Yugo, M., De Prada, L., Padella, M., Edwards, R.},
}

repository: romainsacchi/carculator

repo_name: romainsacchi/carculator

gha_language: Python