text:
Our data, coupled with previous characterizations of the dimensional aspects of these words, will allow researchers to control for or manipulate stimulus properties in accordance with both dimensional and discrete emotional views, and provide an avenue for further integration of these two perspectives. Our data have been archived at www.psychonomic.org/archive/.},
author = {Stevenson, Ryan A. and Mikels, Joseph A. and James, Thomas W.},
doi = {10.3758/BF03192999},
isbn = {1554-351X},
issn = {1554351X},
journal = {Behavior Research Methods},
number = {4},
pages = {1020--1024},
pmid = {18183921},
title = {{Characterization of the Affective Norms for English Words by discrete emotional categories}},
volume = {39},
year = {2007}
}
@article{Stevenson2008,
abstract = {Although there are many well-characterized affective visual stimuli sets available to researchers, there are few auditory sets available. Those auditory sets that are available have been characterized primarily according to one of two major theories of affect: dimensional or categorical. Current trends have attempted to utilize both theories to more fully understand emotional processing. As such, stimuli that have been thoroughly characterized according to both of these approaches are exceptionally useful. In an effort to provide researchers with such a stimuli set, we collected descriptive data on the International Affective Digitized Sounds (IADS), identifying which discrete categorical emotions are elicited by each sound. The IADS is a database of 111 sounds characterized along the affective dimensions of valence, arousal, and dominance. Our data complement these characterizations of the IADS, allowing researchers to control for or manipulate stimulus properties in accordance with both theories of affect, providing an avenue for further integration of these perspectives. Related materials may be downloaded from the Psychonomic Society Web archive at www.psychonomic.org/archive.},
author = {Stevenson, Ryan A. and James, Thomas W.},
doi = {10.3758/BRM.40.1.315},
isbn = {1554-351X$\backslash$r1554-3528},
issn = {1554351X},
journal = {Behavior Research Methods},
number = {1},
pages = {315--321},
pmid = {18411555},
title = {{Affective auditory stimuli: Characterization of the International Affective Digitized Sounds (IADS) by discrete emotional categories}},
volume = {40},
year = {2008}
}
@article{Anderson1965,
abstract = {Word associations to each of the 26 letters of the alphabet were obtained under procedures of single association or continued associations for both upper- and lower-case letters. The results showed a significant relationship between m values and measures of frequency of letters, preferences for letters, and vocal reaction time to letters. The data also showed that m values for each letter were stable within a session. Analyses of the most frequent associations showed a high degree of consistency among the common associations for the single and continued instructional procedures and upper- and lower-case stimulus presentations of the letters. {\textcopyright} 1965 Academic Press Inc. All rights reserved.},
author = {Anderson, Nancy S.},
doi = {10.1016/S0022-5371(65)80055-X},
issn = {00225371},
journal = {Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior},
number = {6},
pages = {541--545},
title = {{Word associations to individual letters}},
volume = {4},
year = {1965}
}
@article{Storkel2010,
abstract = {An online calculator was developed (www.bncdnet.ku.edu/cml/info{\_}ccc.vi) to compute phonotactic probability--the likelihood of occurrence of a sound sequence--and neighborhood density--the number of phonologically similar words--on the basis of child corpora of American English (Kolson, 1960; Moe, Hopkins, {\&} Rush, 1982) and to compare its results to those of an adult calculator. Phonotactic probability and neighborhood density were computed for a set of 380 nouns (Fenson et al., 1993) using both the child and adult corpora. The child and adult raw values were significantly correlated. However, significant differences were detected. Specifically, child phonotactic probability was higher than adult phonotactic probability, especially for high-probability words, and child neighborhood density was lower than adult neighborhood density, especially for words with high-density neighborhoods. These differences were reduced or eliminated when relative measures (i.e., z scores) were used. Suggestions are offered regarding which values to use in future research.},
archivePrefix = {arXiv},
arxivId = {NIHMS150003},
author = {Storkel, Holly L. and Hoover, Jill R.},
doi = {10.3758/BRM.42.2.497},
eprint = {NIHMS150003},
isbn = {1554-3528 (Electronic)$\backslash$n1554-351X (Linking)},
issn = {1554351X},
journal = {Behavior Research Methods},
number = {2},
pages = {497--506},
pmid = {20479181},
title = {{An online calculator to compute phonotactic probability and neighborhood density on the basis of child corpora of spoken American English}},
volume = {42},
year = {2010}
}
@article{Syssau2009,
abstract = {The present study provides a French child database containing a large corpus of words (N = 600) that were rated on emotional valence (positive, neutral, and negative) by French children differing in both age (5, 7, and 9 years old) and sex (girls and boys). Good response reliability was observed in each of the three age groups. The results showed some age differences in the children's ratings. With increasing age, the percentage of words rated positive decreased, whereas the percentage of neutral words increased and the percentage of negative words remained stable. Our study did not reveal marked differences across sex groups. The database compiled here should become a useful tool for experimental studies in which verbal material is used with children. It would be worthwhile in future research to study how children process emotional words and also to control the emotional variable in the same way as other linguistic variables in the experimental design. The norms from this study may be downloaded from brm.psychonomic-journals.org/content/supplemental.},
author = {Syssau, Arielle and Monnier, Catherine},
doi = {10.3758/BRM.41.1.213},
isbn = {1554-351X},
issn = {1554351X},
journal = {Behavior Research Methods},
number = {1},
pages = {213--219},
pmid = {19182142},
title = {{Children's emotional norms for 600 French words}},
volume = {41},
year = {2009}
}
@article{Tillotson2008,
abstract = {Body-object interaction (BOI) assesses the ease with which a human body can physically interact with a word's referent. Recent research has shown that BOI influences visual word recognition processes in such a way that responses to high-BOI words (e.g., couch) are faster and less error prone than responses to low-BOI words (e.g., cliff). Importantly, the high-BOI words and the low-BOI words that were used in those studies were matched on imageability. In the present study, we collected BOI ratings for a large set of words. BOI ratings, on a 1-7 scale, were obtained for 1,618 monosyllabic nouns. These ratings allowed us to test the generalizability of BOI effects to a large set of items, and they should be useful to researchers who are interested in manipulating or controlling for the effects of BOI. The body-object interaction ratings for this study may be downloaded from the Psychonomic Society's Archive of Norms, Stimuli, and Data, www.psychonomic.org/archive.},
author = {Tillotson, Sherri M. and Siakaluk, Paul D. and Pexman, Penny M.},
doi = {10.3758/BRM.40.4.1075},
isbn = {1554-351X},
issn = {1554351X},
journal = {Behavior Research Methods},
number = {4},
pages = {1075--1078},
pmid = {19001398},
title = {{Body-object interaction ratings for 1,618 monosyllabic nouns}},
volume = {40},
year = {2008}
}
@article{Rogic2013,
abstract = {The aim of the present study was to provide normative data for the Croatian language using 346 visually presented objects (Cycowicz, Friedman, Rothstein, {\&} Snodgrass Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 65:171-237, 1997; Roach, Schwartz, Martin, Grewal, {\&} Brecher Clinical Aphasiology 24:121-133, 1996; Snodgrass {\&} Vanderwart Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory 6:174-215, 1980). Picture naming was standardized according to seven variables: naming latency, name agreement, familiarity, visual complexity, word length, number of syllables, and word frequency. The descriptive statistics and correlation pattern of the variables collected in the present study were consistent with normative studies in other languages. These normative data for pictorial stimuli named by young healthy Croatian native speakers will be useful in studies of perception, language, and memory, as well as for preoperative and intraoperative mapping of speech and language brain areas.},
author = {Rogi{\'{c}}, Maja and Jeron{\v{c}}i{\'{c}}, Ana and Bo{\v{s}}njak, Marija and Sedlar, Ana and Hren, Darko and Deletis, Vedran},
doi = {10.3758/s13428-012-0308-8},
isbn = {1554-351X},
issn = {1554351X},
journal = {Behavior Research Methods},
keywords = {Croatian,Familiarity,Name agreement,Naming latency,Number of syllables,Visual complexity,Visual object naming,Visually presented objects,Word frequency,Word length},
number = {4},
pages = {1144--1158},
pmid = {23344740},
title = {{A visual object naming task standardized for the Croatian language: A tool for research and clinical practice}},
volume = {45},
year = {2013}
}
@article{Rosch1975,
abstract = {Conducted 9 experiments with a total of 663 undergraduates using the technique of priming to study the nature of the cognitive representation generated by superordinate semantic category names. In Exp I, norms for the internal structure of 10 categories were collected. In Exps II, III, and IV, internal structure was found to affect the perceptual encoding of physically identical pairs of stimuli, facilitating responses to physically identical good members and hindering responses to identical poor members of a category. Exps V and VI showed that the category name did not generate a physical code (e.g., lines or angles), but rather affected perception of the stimuli at the level of meaning. Exps VII and VIII showed that while the representation of the category name which affected perception contained a depth meaning common to words and pictures which enabled Ss to prepare for either stimulus form within 700 msec, selective reduction of the interval between prime and stimulus below 700 msec revealed differentiation of the coding of meaning in preparation for actual perception. Exp IX suggested that good examples of semantic categories are not physiologically determined, as the effects of the internal structure of semantic categories on priming (unlike the effects for color categories) could be eliminated by long practice.},
author = {Rosch, Eleanor},
doi = {10.1037/0096-3445.104.3.192},
isbn = {0096-3445$\backslash$r1939-2222},
issn = {00963445},
journal = {Journal of Experimental Psychology: General},
keywords = {priming technique application, cognitive represent},
number = {3},
pages = {192--233},
pmid = {21132847},
title = {{Cognitive representations of semantic categories}},
volume = {104},
year = {1975}
}
@article{Silverstein1968,
abstract = {Ratings of pleasantness (PL) on a 7-point scale and of association value (a′) on a 5-point scale are reported for 101 two-syllable nouns. The ratings were obtained from two samples of 100 women each and two samples of 100 men each. Sizable differences were obtained between words on both scales. For women and men respectively, PL and a′ were correlated .570 and .585; PL and printed frequency were correlated .233 and .207; frequency and a′ were correlated .533 and .764. Women's and men's ratings correlated .973 for PL and .899 for a′. {\textcopyright} 1969 Academic Press Inc. All rights reserved.},
author = {Silverstein, Albert and Dienstbier, Richard A.},
doi = {10.1016/S0022-5371(68)80168-9},
issn = {00225371},
journal = {Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior},
number = {1},
pages = {81--86},
title = {{Rated pleasantness and association value of 101 English nouns}},
volume = {7},
year = {1968}
}
@article{Ric2013,
abstract = {Newly measured rating norms provide a database of emotion-related dimensions for 524 French trait words. Measures include valence, approach/avoidance tendencies associated with the trait, possessor- and other-relevance of the trait, and discrete emotions conveyed by the trait (i.e., anger, disgust, fear, happiness, and sadness). The normative data were obtained from 328 participants and were revealed to be stable across samples and gender. These data go beyond a dimensional structure and consider more fine-grained descriptions such as the categorical emotions, as well as the perspective of the evaluator conveyed by the traits. They should thus be particularly useful for researchers interested in emotion or in the emotional dimension of cognition, action, or personality. The database is available as supplementary material.},
archivePrefix = {arXiv},
arxivId = {arXiv:1011.1669v3},
author = {Ric, Fran{\c{c}}ois and Alexopoulos, Theodore and Muller, Dominique and Aub{\'{e}}, Beno{\^{i}}te},
doi = {10.3758/s13428-012-0276-z},
eprint = {arXiv:1011.1669v3},
isbn = {9788578110796},
issn = {1554351X},
journal = {Behavior Research Methods},
keywords = {Discrete emotion,Normative data,Trait words,Type of valence},
number = {2},
pages = {414--421},
pmid = {25246403},
title = {{Emotional norms for 524 French personality trait words}},
volume = {45},
year = {2013}
}
@article{Simpson2013,
abstract = {Indicators of letter visual similarity have been used for controlling the design of empirical and neuropsychological studies and for rigorously determining the factors that underlie reading ability and literacy acquisition. Additionally, these letter similarity/confusability matrices have been useful for studies examining more general aspects of human cognition, such as perception. Despite many letter visual-similarity matrices being available, they all have two serious limitations if they are to be used by researchers in the reading domain: (1) They have been constructed using atypical reading data obtained from speeded reading-aloud tasks and/or under degraded presentation conditions; (2) they only include letters from the English alphabet. Although some letter visual-similarity matrices have been constructed using data gathered from normal reading conditions, these either are based on old fonts, which may not resemble the letters found in modern print, or were never published. For the first time, this article presents a comprehensive letter visual-similarity/confusability matrix that has been constructed based on untimed responses to clearly presented upper- and lowercase letters that are present in many languages that use Latin-based alphabets, including Catalan, Dutch, English, French, Galician, German, Italian, Portuguese, and Spanish. Such a matrix will be useful for researchers interested in the processes underpinning reading and literacy acquisition.},
author = {Simpson, Ian C. and Mousikou, Petroula and Montoya, Juan Manuel and Defior, Sylvia},
doi = {10.3758/s13428-012-0271-4},
isbn = {1342801202},
issn = {1554351X},
journal = {Behavior Research Methods},
keywords = {Latin alphabets,Letter visual-similarity/confusability matrix,Literacy acquisition,Reading},
number = {2},
pages = {431--439},
pmid = {23055176},
title = {{A letter visual-similarity matrix for Latin-based alphabets}},
volume = {45},
year = {2013}
}
@article{Bonneau-Maynard1991,
abstract = {With a view to designing a speaker-independent large vocabulary recognition system, we evaluate a vector quantization approach for speaker adaptation. Only one speaker (the reference speaker) pronounces the application vocabulary. He also pronounces a small vocabulary called the adaptation vocabulary. Each new speaker then merely pronounces the adaptation vocabulary. We have compared two adaptation methods, establishing a correspondence between the codebooks of the reference and the new speakers, on a 20-speaker database with a 104-word application vocabulary. Method I uses a transposed codebook to represent the new speaker during the recognition process, whereas Method II uses a codebook which is obtained by clustering analysis on the NS's pronunciation of the adaptation vocabulary. The adaptation vocabulary contains 136 words. Comparison of the performance of the two methods shows that a new speaker's codebook is not necessary to represent the new speaker. Consequently we have used the first method to perform tests with a 5000-word application vocabulary, and a 4-speaker database. The adaptation is still efficient (the mean improvement is about 14{\%}), even if the relative improvement is 30{\%} compared to 56{\%} obtained in the 104-word application experiment. Further experiments show that the recognition accuracy can be improved by increasing the adaptation vocabulary size and the codebook size. {\textcopyright} 1991.},
author = {Bonneau-Maynard, H.},
doi = {10.1016/0167-6393(91)90049-Y},
issn = {01676393},
journal = {Speech Communication},
keywords = {Vector quantization,dynamic time warping,speaker adaptation},
number = {5-6},
pages = {463--469},
title = {{Vector quantization for speaker adaptation: Results on a 5000-word database}},
volume = {10},
year = {1991}
}
@article{Oussalah2013,
abstract = {The substantial increase of social networks and their combination with mobile devices make rigorous analysis of the outcomes of such system of paramount importance for intelligence gathering and decision making purposes. Since the introduction of Twitter system in 2006, tweeting emerged as an efficient open social network that attracted interest from various research/commercial and military communities. This paper investigates the current software architecture of Twitter system and put forward a new architecture dedicated for semantic and spatial analysis of Twitter data. Especially, Twitter Streaming API was used as a basis for tweet collection data stored in MySQL like database. While Lucene system together with WordNet lexical database linked to advanced natural language processing and PostGIS platform were used to ensure semantic and spatial analysis of the collected data. A functional diversity approach was implemented to enforce fault tolerance for the data collection part where its performances were evaluated through comparison with alternative approaches. The proposal enables the discovery of spatial patterns within geo-located Twitter and can provide the user or operator with useful unforeseen elements. {\textcopyright} 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.},
author = {Oussalah, M. and Bhat, F. and Challis, K. and Schnier, T.},
doi = {10.1016/j.knosys.2012.07.017},
isbn = {0950-7051},
issn = {09507051},
journal = {Knowledge-Based Systems},
keywords = {Data mining,Semantic analysis,Social network,Software architecture,Tweet},
pages = {105--120},
title = {{A software architecture for Twitter collection, search and geolocation services}},
volume = {37},
year = {2013}
}
@article{Pompeia2001,
abstract = {The present article provides normative measures for 400 pictured objects (Cycowicz et al., 1997) viewed by Portuguese speaking Brazilian University students and 5-7 year-old children. Name agreement, familiarity and visual complexity ratings were obtained. These variables have been shown to be important for the selection of adequate stimuli for cognitive studies. Children's name agreement was lower than that of adults. The children also failed to provide adequate modal names for 103 concepts, rated drawings as less familiar and less complex, and chose shorter names for pictures. The differences in ratings between adults and children were higher than those observed in the literature employing smaller picture sets. The pattern of correlations among measures observed in the present study was consistent with previous reports, supporting the usefulness of the 400 picture set as a tool for cognitive research in different cultures and ages.},
author = {Pomp{\'{e}}ia, Sabine and Miranda, M{\^{o}}nica Carolina and Bueno, Orlando Francisco Amodeo},
doi = {10.1590/S0004-282X2001000300004},
issn = {0004282X},
journal = {Arquivos de Neuro-Psiquiatria},
keywords = {Children, adults,Familiarity,Naming,Picture,Visual complexity},
number = {2 B},
pages = {330--337},
pmid = {11460174},
title = {{A set of 400 pictures standardised for Portuguese: Norms for name agreement, familiarity and visual complexity for children and adults}},
volume = {59},
year = {2001}
}
@article{Walley1992,
abstract = {This study was concerned with the impact of stimulus familiarity on young children's ability to recognize spoken words and make explicit judgments about them. In Experiment 1, 5-year-olds made age-of-acquisition (AOA) estimates for a set of words that were very similar to estimates made by older children and adults. In Experiment 2, young children's picture recognition, mispronunciation detection, and vocabulary monitoring performance all varied systematically with these AOA estimates and with a stimulus-type (intact-mispronounced) manipulation. Subjective AOA estimates (whether from children or from adults) proved to be a better predictor of performance than did two objective familiarity measures and subjective imageability. These results point to considerable metalexical knowledge on the part of young children or explicit sensitivity regarding their own vocabulary knowledge. In addition, the results lend some support to the notion that actual AOA contributes to subjective AOA estimates.},
author = {Walley, Amanda C. and Metsala, Jamie L.},
doi = {10.3758/BF03197166},
isbn = {0090-502X (Print)$\backslash$r0090-502X (Linking)},
issn = {0090502X},
journal = {Memory {\&} Cognition},
number = {2},
pages = {171--182},
pmid = {1565015},
title = {{Young children's age-of-acquisition estimates for spoken words}},
volume = {20},
year = {1992}
}
@article{Warriner2013,
abstract = {Information about the affective meanings of words is used by researchers working on emotions and moods, word recognition and memory, and text-based sentiment analysis. Three components of emotions are traditionally distinguished: valence (the pleasantness of a stimulus), arousal (the intensity of emotion provoked by a stimulus), and dominance (the degree of control exerted by a stimulus). Thus far, nearly all research has been based on the ANEW norms collected by Bradley and Lang (1999) for 1,034 words. We extended that database to nearly 14,000 English lemmas, providing researchers with a much richer source of information, including gender, age, and educational differences in emotion norms. As an example of the new possibilities, we included stimuli from nearly all of the category norms (e.g., types of diseases, occupations, and taboo words) collected by Van Overschelde, Rawson, and Dunlosky (Journal of Memory and Language 50:289-335, 2004), making it possible to include affect in studies of semantic memory.},
author = {Warriner, Amy Beth and Kuperman, Victor and Brysbaert, Marc},
doi = {10.3758/s13428-012-0314-x},
isbn = {1554-351X},
issn = {1554351X},
journal = {Behavior Research Methods},
keywords = {Age differences,Crowdsourcing,Emotion,Gender differences,Semantics},
number = {4},
pages = {1191--1207},
pmid = {23404613},
title = {{Norms of valence, arousal, and dominance for 13,915 English lemmas}},
volume = {45},
year = {2013}
}
@article{Xue2009,
abstract = {We report work on adding semantic role labels to the Chinese Treebank, a corpus already annotated with phrase structures. The work involves locating all verbs and their nominalizations in the corpus, and semi-automatically adding semantic role labels to their arguments, which are constituents in a parse tree. Although the same procedure is followed, different issues arise in the annotation of verbs and nominalized predicates. For verbs, identifying their arguments is generally straightforward given their syntactic structure in the Chinese Treebank as they tend to occupy well-defined syntactic positions. Our discussion focuses on the syntactic variations in the realization of the arguments as well as our approach to annotating dislocated and discontinuous arguments. In comparison, identifying the arguments for nominalized predicates is more challenging and we discuss criteria and procedures for distinguishing arguments from non-arguments. In particular we focus on the role of support verbs as well as the relevance of event/result distinctions in the annotation of the predicate-argument structure of nominalized predicates. We also present our approach to taking advantage of the syntactic structure in the Chinese Treebank to bootstrap the predicate-argument structure annotation of verbs. Finally, we discuss the creation of a lexical database of frame files and its role in guiding predicate-argument annotation. Procedures for ensuring annotation consistency and inter-annotator agreement evaluation results are also presented.},
author = {Xue, Nianwen and Palmer, Martha},
doi = {10.1017/S1351324908004865},
issn = {13513249},
journal = {Natural Language Engineering},
number = {1},
pages = {143--172},
title = {{Adding semantic roles to the Chinese Treebank}},
volume = {15},
year = {2009}
}
@article{Zhao2009,
abstract = {A Web-based database is developed to provide psycholinguists with a large-scale phonological representation system for all Mandarin Chinese monosyllables. The construction of the system is based on the slot-based phonological pattern generator (PatPho), with an adequate consideration of the language-specific features of the Chinese phonology. Users can retrieve the relevant phonological representations through an interactive query system on the Web. The query outcomes can be saved in a number of formats, such as Excel spreadsheets, for further analyses. This representation system can be used for a variety of purposes--in particular, connectionist language modeling and, more generally, the study of Chinese phonology.},
author = {Zhao, Xiaowei and Li, Ping},
doi = {10.3758/BRM.41.2.575},
isbn = {1554-351X},
issn = {1554351X},
journal = {Behavior Research Methods},
number = {2},
pages = {575--583},
pmid = {19363200},
title = {{An online database of phonological representations for Mandarin Chinese}},
volume = {41},
year = {2009}
}
@article{Mou1981,
abstract = {An experiment was conducted to investigate the effect of phonemic or graphemic similarity on recoding of Chinese words. The introduction of acoustic and visual similarity within the list using a retroactive interference design for memory of items showed that both intralist variables were factors causing reduction in recall, with acoustic similarity being more detrimental to short-term retention. An auditory interference task was also shown to have a more severe effect than a visual interference task. Results suggested that dual encoding processes are involved in reading and remembering Chinese.},
author = {Mou, Lien Chong and Anderson, Nancy S.},
doi = {10.3758/BF03333732},
issn = {00905054},
journal = {Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society},
number = {6},
pages = {255--258},
title = {{Graphemic and phonemic codings of Chinese characters in short-term retention}},
volume = {17},
year = {1981}
}
@article{Thompson2009,
abstract = {The internal validity of several types of experiments in experimental psychology and neuroscience depends in part on the possibility of controlling or manipulating critical lexical variables such as word frequency of occurrence. Two ways of estimating this variable are (1) objective frequency counts and (2) subjective ratings of word frequency. Each method produces estimates that generally agree (i.e., they are highly correlated) but that disagree substantially concerning the relative frequency of a number of words. To investigate this issue more closely, the global and local agreement of subjective frequency estimates was examined in detail for a pool of 6,202 words drawn from the OMNILEX database of French words (Desrochers, 2006; www.omnilex.uottawa.ca). The results indicated that objective and subjective frequencies are strongly correlated, subjective frequencies share a significant amount of bias variance with other lexical characteristics (e.g., imageability), and the codeterminants of subjective frequency are in an antagonistic relationship with one another. The implications of these results for the selection of lexical stimuli are discussed, and multiple variables to aid in item selection are reported. Supplemental materials for this study may be downloaded from brm.psychonomic-journals.org/content/supplemental.},
author = {Thompson, Glenn L. and Desrochers, Alain},
doi = {10.3758/BRM.41.2.452},
issn = {1554351X},
journal = {Behavior Research Methods},
number = {2},
pages = {452--471},
pmid = {19363186},
title = {{Corroborating biased indicators: Global and local agreement among objective and subjective estimates of printed word frequency}},
volume = {41},
year = {2009}
}
@article{Stadler1999,
abstract = {Roediger and McDermott (1995) induced false recall and false recognition for words that were not presented in lists. They had subjects study 24 lists of 15 words that were associates of a common word (called the critical target or critical lure) that was not presented in the list. False recall and false recognition of the critical target occurred frequently in response to these lists. The purpose of the current work was to provide a set of normative data for the lists Roediger and McDermott used and for 12 others developed more recently. We tested false recall and false recognition for critical targets from 36 lists. Despite the fact that all lists were constructed to produce false remembering, the diversity in their effectiveness was large--60{\%} or more of subjects falsely recalled window and sleep following the appropriate lists, and false recognition for these items was greater than 80{\%}. However, the list generated from king led to 10{\%} false recall and 27{\%} false recognition. Possible reasons for these wide differences in effectiveness of the lists are discussed. These norms serve as a useful benchmark for designing experiments about false recall and false recognition in this paradigm.},
author = {Stadler, Michael A. and Roediger, Henry L. and McDermott, Kathleen B.},
doi = {10.3758/BF03211543},
isbn = {0090-502X},
issn = {0090502X},
journal = {Memory and Cognition},
number = {3},
pages = {494--500},
pmid = {10355238},
title = {{Norms for word lists that create false memories}},
volume = {27},
year = {1999}
}
@article{Townsend1971,
abstract = {An earlier article reported extensive analyses of confusion data compiled from group averages (Townsend, 1971). The present study provided for essentially the same analyses with different long-term data obtained with two individuals, the primary intent being to examine the ability of recognition and scaling models to explain data at the individual level (which the recognition models purport to describe) and to compare the confusion characteristics of the English uppercase alphabet between the two Ss and between the individual Ss and the group-averaged data. The choice and overlap models were superior to the all-or-none model in predicting the empirical confusion matrices and tended to explain the data structure in a similar manner. Multidimensional scaling analysis again supported a Euclidean metric and suggested four or five underlying stimulus dimensions. However, as before, there were no overriding intuitively appealing psychological dimensions corresponding to these, and possible reasons are discussed. The choice and overlap models appeared to fit as well or better at the individual level than at the group level and the all-or-none model to fit worse. In the present study, probability correct was fit even better by the all-or-none model than in the group study and replicated the result of being better here than the overlap and choice models. Individuals and the group were consistent in their sensory confusions as represented by similarity parameters in the choice and overlap models but differed in their response biases. A simple measure of physical similarity explained 50{\%} of the variance of the similarity structure in the confusion data.},
author = {Townsend, J. T.},
doi = {10.3758/BF03208950},
issn = {00315117},
journal = {Perception {\&} Psychophysics},
number = {6},
pages = {449--454},
title = {{Alphabetic confusion: A test of models for individuals}},
volume = {9},
year = {1971}
}
@article{Butler1990,
abstract = {o collect normative data on familiar spaces and behaviors of college students, two recall tasks were performed. In Experiment 1, 219 undergraduates recalled spaces where they spend time. In Experiment 2,155 undergraduates recalled the kinds of activities they do in familiar spaces. The norms provided here include 40 spaces and 123 different behaviors. Gender differences and transituational behaviors are also reported.},
author = {Butler, Darrell L. and Biner, Paul M.},
doi = {10.3758/BF03203116},
issn = {07433808},
journal = {Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, {\&} Computers},
number = {1},
pages = {3--12},
title = {{Recall norms of common spaces and activities of college students}},
volume = {22},
year = {1990}
}
@article{Lee2008,
abstract = {This study examined the relationship between language experience and false memory produced by the DRM paradigm. The word lists used in Stadler, et al. (Memory {\&} Cognition, 27, 494-500, 1999) were first translated into Chinese. False recall and false recognition for critical non-presented targets were then tested on a group of Chinese users. The average co-occurrence rate of the list word and the critical word was calculated based on two large Chinese corpuses. List-level analyses revealed that the correlation between the American and Taiwanese participants was significant only in false recognition. More importantly, the co-occurrence rate was significantly correlated with false recall and recognition of Taiwanese participants, and not of American participants. In addition, the backward association strength based on Nelson et al. (The University of South Florida word association, rhyme and word fragment norms, 1999) was significantly correlated with false recall of American participants and not of Taiwanese participants. Results are discussed in terms of the relationship between language experiences and lexical association in creating false memory for word lists.},
author = {Lee, Yuh Shiow and Chiang, Wen Chi and Hung, Hsu Ching},
doi = {10.1007/s10936-007-9058-7},
isbn = {0090-6905},
issn = {00906905},
journal = {Journal of Psycholinguistic Research},
keywords = {Association strength,Cross-culture,False memory,Lexical co-occurrence,List-learning paradigm},
number = {1},
pages = {49--58},
pmid = {17624610},
title = {{Lexical association and false memory for words in two cultures}},
volume = {37},
year = {2008}
}
@article{Alario1999,
abstract = {The present article provides French normative measures for 400 line drawings taken from Cycowicz, Friedman, Rothstein, and Snodgrass (1997), including the 260 line drawings that were normed by Snodgrass and Vanderwart (1980). The pictures have been standardized on the following variables: name agreement, image agreement, familiarity, visual complexity, image variability, and age of acquisition. These normative data also include word frequency values and the first verbal associate (taken from Ferrand {\&} Alario, 1998). The six variables obtained are important because of their potential effect in many fields of psychology, especially the study of cognitive processes such as visual perception, language, and memory.},
author = {Alario, F. X. and Ferrand, L.},
doi = {10.3758/BF03200732},
isbn = {0743-3808},
issn = {07433808},
journal = {Behavior research methods, instruments, {\&} computers : a journal of the Psychonomic Society, Inc},
number = {3},
pages = {531--552},
pmid = {10502875},
title = {{A set of 400 pictures standardized for French: norms for name agreement, image agreement, familiarity, visual complexity, image variability, and age of acquisition.}},
volume = {31},
year = {1999}
}
@article{Christian1978,
abstract = {Forty groups of subjects were given six lists of 25 nouns each for immediate free written recall. A measure of free recall was thereby obtained for each of 900 nouns in the Paivio, Yuille, and Madigan (1968) norms, each noun's measure based on the recall of 32 subjects. First-order correlations showed recall to be correlated with imagery, concreteness, meaningfulness, Thorndike-Lorge frequency, and Ku{\v{e}}ra-Francis frequency. Partial correlations showed meaningfulness to be essentially unrelated to recall and concreteness only moderately related. In contrast to previous comparisons, which were based on smaller ranges of frequency and were more susceptible to list-specific effects, imagery and frequency were found to be approximately equal in their influence on free recall.},
author = {Christian, John and Bickley, William and Tarka, Michael and Clayton, Keith},
doi = {10.3758/BF03197470},
issn = {0090502X},
journal = {Memory {\&} Cognition},
number = {4},
pages = {379--390},
title = {{Measures of free recall of 900 English nouns: Correlations with imagery, concreteness, meaningfulness, and frequency}},
volume = {6},
year = {1978}
}
@article{Alario2004,
abstract = {We report the results of a large-scale picture naming experiment in which we evaluated the potential contribution of nine theoretically relevant factors to naming latencies. The experiment included a large number of items and a large sample of participants. In order to make this experiment as similar as possible to classic picture naming experiments, participants were familiarized with the materials during a training session. Speeded naming latencies were determined by a software key on the basis of the digital recording of the responses. The effects of various variables on these latencies were assessed with multiple regression techniques, using a repeated measures design. The interpretation of the observed effects is discussed in relation to previous studies and current views on lexical access during speech production.},
author = {Alario, F. Xavier and Ferrand, Ludovic and Laganaro, Marina and New, Boris and Frauenfelder, Uli H. and Segui, Juan},
doi = {10.3758/BF03195559},
isbn = {1554-351X},
issn = {07433808},
journal = {Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, and Computers},
number = {1},
pages = {140--155},
pmid = {15190709},
title = {{Predictors of picture naming speed}},
volume = {36},
year = {2004}
}
@article{Briesemeister2011a,
abstract = {Our knowledge about affective processes, especially concerning effects on cognitive demands like word processing, is increasing steadily. Several studies consistently document valence and arousal effects, and although there is some debate on possible interactions and different notions of valence, broad agreement on a two dimensional model of affective space has been achieved. Alternative models like the discrete emotion theory have received little interest in word recognition research so far. Using backward elimination and multiple regression analyses, we show that five discrete emotions (i.e., happiness, disgust, fear, anger and sadness) explain as much variance as two published dimensional models assuming continuous or categorical valence, with the variables happiness, disgust and fear significantly contributing to this account. Moreover, these effects even persist in an experiment with discrete emotion conditions when the stimuli are controlled for emotional valence and arousal levels. We interpret this result as evidence for discrete emotion effects in visual word recognition that cannot be explained by the two dimensional affective space account.},
author = {Briesemeister, Benny B. and Kuchinke, Lars and Jacobs, Arthur M.},
doi = {10.1371/journal.pone.0023743},
isbn = {1932-6203},
issn = {19326203},
journal = {PLoS ONE},
number = {8},
pmid = {21887307},
title = {{Discrete emotion effects on lexical decision response times}},
volume = {6},
year = {2011}
}
@article{Bonin2004,
abstract = {A set of 142 photographs of actions (taken from Fiez {\&} Tranel, 1997) was standardized in French on name agreement, image agreement, conceptual familiarity, visual complexity, imageability, age of acquisition, and duration of the depicted actions. Objective word frequency measures were provided for the infinitive modal forms of the verbs and for the cumulative frequency of the verbal forms associated with the photographs. Statistics on the variables collected for action items were provided and compared with the statistics on the same variables collected for object items. The relationships between these variables were analyzed, and certain comparisons between the current database and other similar published databases of pictures of actions are reported. Spoken and written naming latencies were also collected for the photographs of actions, and multiple regression analyses revealed that name agreement, image agreement, and age of acquisition are the major determinants of action naming speed. Finally, certain analyses were performed to compare object and action naming times. The norms and the spoken and written naming latencies corresponding to the pictures are available on the Internet (http://www.psy.univ-bpclermont.fr/{\~{}}pbonin/pbonin-eng.html) and should be of great use to researchers interested in the processing of actions.},
author = {Bonin, Patrick and Boyer, Bruno and M{\'{e}}ot, Alain and Fayol, Michel and Droit, Sylvie},
doi = {10.3758/BF03195558},
isbn = {0743-3808},
issn = {07433808},
journal = {Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, and Computers},
number = {1},
pages = {127--139},
pmid = {15190708},
title = {{Psycholinguistic norms for action photographs in french and their relationships with spoken and written latencies}},
volume = {36},
year = {2004}
}
@article{Bonin2008,
abstract = {A set of 105 photographs of celebrities has been standardized in French on distinctiveness, proper name agreement, face agreement, age of acquisition (AoA), and subjective frequency. Statistics on the collected variables for photographs are provided. The relationships between these variables have been analyzed. Face naming latencies have also been collected for the photographs of celebrities, and several multiple regression analyses have been carried out on naming latencies and percentages of tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) phenomena. Themain determinants of naming speed included AoA, face agreement, and name agreement. In addition, AoA, together with distinctiveness and face agreement, reliably predicted the percentages of TOTs. The norms, photographs of the celebrities, and spoken naming latencies corresponding to the celebrities are available on the Internet at and should be of great use to researchers interested in the processing of famous people.},
author = {Bonin, Patrick and Perret, Cyril and M{\'{e}}ot, Alain and Ferrand, Ludovic and Mermillod, Martial},
doi = {10.3758/BRM.40.1.137},
issn = {1554351X},
journal = {Behavior Research Methods},
number = {1},
pages = {137--146},
pmid = {18411536},
title = {{Psycholinguistic norms and face naming times for photographs of celebrities in French}},
volume = {40},
year = {2008}
}
@article{Bueno2009,
abstract = {The present methodological note provides categorization norms for 70 semantic categories collected from 200 participants. The categories were mainly derived from a French translation of the Van Overschelde, Rawson, and Dunlosky (2004) inductor terms including a large set of semantic categories. Our study also extends recent French norms (Léger, Boumlak, {\&} Tijus, 2008; Marchal {\&} Nicolas, 2003) and tests their stability. These 70 cat- egories constitute the widest French categorization norms to date and will be of use to studies in the fields of both linguistics and psycholinguistics. A cross-linguistic comparison, with both quantitative and qualitative results, is also performed, which should prove useful for bilingual and/or cross-linguistic studies. The norms collected for all 70 categories are available for download as supplemental materials from http://brm.psychonomic-journals$\backslash$n.org/content/supplemental.},
author = {Bueno, Steve and Megherbi, Hakima},
doi = {10.3758/BRM.41.4.1018},
isbn = {1554-351X},
issn = {1554351X},
journal = {Behavior Research Methods},
number = {4},
pages = {1018--1028},
pmid = {19897810},
title = {{French categorization norms for 70 semantic categories and comparison with Van Overschelde et al.'s (2004) English norms}},
volume = {41},
year = {2009}
}
@misc{Balota2007,
abstract = {The English Lexicon Project is a multiuniversity effort to provide a standardized behavioral and descriptive data set for 40,481 words and 40,481 nonwords. It is available via the Internet at elexicon.wustl.edu. Data from 816 participants across six universities were collected in a lexical decision task (approximately 3400 responses per participant), and data from 444 participants were collected in a speeded naming task (approximately 2500 responses per participant). The present paper describes the motivation for this project, the methods used to collect the data, and the search engine that affords access to the behavioral measures and descriptive lexical statistics for these stimuli.},
author = {Balota, David A. and Yap, Melvtn J. and Cortese, Michael J. and Hutchison, Keith A. and Kessler, Brett and Loftis, Bjorn and Neely, James H. and Nelson, Douglas L. and Simpson, Greg B. and Treiman, Rebecca},
booktitle = {Behavior Research Methods},
doi = {10.3758/BF03193014},
isbn = {1554-351X},
issn = {1554351X},
number = {3},
pages = {445--459},
pmid = {17958156},
title = {{The english lexicon project}},
volume = {39},
year = {2007}
}
@article{Baker2011,
abstract = {The renewed focus of attention on investigating spontaneous speech samples in speech and language research has increased the need for recordings of speech in interactive settings. The DiapixUK task is a new and extended set of picture materials based on the Diapix task by Van Engen et al. (Language and Speech, 53, 510-540, 2010), where two people are recorded while conversing to solve a 'spot the difference' task. The new task materials allow for multiple recordings of the same speaker pairs due to a larger set of picture pairs that have a number of tested features: equal difficulty across all 12 picture pairs, no learning effect of completing more than one picture task and balanced contributions from both speakers. The new materials also provide extra flexibility, making them useful in a wide range of research projects; they are multi-layered electronic images that can be adapted to suit different research needs. This article presents details of the development of the DiapixUK materials, along with data taken from a large corpus of spontaneous speech that are used to demonstrate its new features. Current and potential applications of the task are also discussed.},
author = {Baker, Rachel and Hazan, Valerie},
doi = {10.3758/s13428-011-0075-y},
isbn = {1554351X (ISSN)},
issn = {1554351X},
journal = {Behavior Research Methods},
keywords = {Speech corpora,Spontaneous speech,Test design},
number = {3},
pages = {761--770},
pmid = {21424185},
title = {{DiapixUK: Task materials for the elicitation of multiple spontaneous speech dialogs}},
volume = {43},
year = {2011}
}
@article{Craig1979,
abstract = {Data from an experiment on recognition of tactually presented upper case letters was used to make a confusion matrix like that made by G. C. Gilmore et al (1979) with visually presented letters. The significant product-moment correlation (.88) between the 2 matrices suggests that similar processes are involved in the 2 modalities and that visual models should not rely too heavily on uniquely visual mechanisms. (6 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)},
author = {Craig, James C.},
doi = {10.3758/BF03204167},
issn = {00315117},
journal = {Perception {\&} Psychophysics},
number = {5},
pages = {409--411},
pmid = {693255},
title = {{A Confusion matrix for tactually presented letters}},
volume = {26},
year = {1979}
}
@article{Arcuri2001,
abstract = {In 1980, Bloom and Fischler published a paper describing a set of sentence contexts (SCs) and their cloze probabilities (CPs). This material has subsequently been employed in numerous studies of linguistic processing. We sought to define the completion words and their CPs for Bloom and Fischler's sentences in an inner-city British population in order to establish reliable norms for subsequent studies in the U.K. One hundred and fifty incomplete SCs were presented to 73 volunteers. The CPs for each of the words used to complete the SCs were computed. We then compared the CPs from our sample with those from Bloom and Fischler. There were significant differences between CPs from each sample in 14{\%} of the SCs analyzed (p {\textless} .01). Our data suggest that studies employing SCs and CPs may require locally defined norms if the test population differs substantially from the original one. The consequences of employing SCs and CPs to study linguistic processing without normalization are discussed.},
author = {Arcuri, Silvia M. and Rabe-Hesketh, Sophia and Morris, Robin G. and McGuire, Philip K.},
doi = {10.3758/BF03195350},
isbn = {0743-3808 (Print)$\backslash$r0743-3808 (Linking)},
issn = {07433808},
journal = {Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, and Computers},
number = {1},
pages = {80--90},
pmid = {11296723},
title = {{Regional variation of cloze probabilities for sentence contexts}},
volume = {33},
year = {2001}
}
@article{Ames2005,
abstract = {A Web-based coding application was designed to improve coding efficiency and to provide a systematic means of evaluating responses to open-ended assessments. The system was developed for use by multiple raters to assign open-ended responses to predetermined categories. The application provides a software environment for efficiently supervising the work of coders and evaluating the quality of the coding by (1) systematically presenting open-ended responses to coders, (2) tracking each coder's categorized responses, and (3) assessing interrater consistency at any time in order to identify coders in need of further training. In addition, the application can be set to automatically assign repeated responses to categories previously identified as appropriate for those responses. To evaluate the efficacy of the coding application and to determine the statistical reliability of coding open-ended data within this application, we examined data from two empirical studies. The results demonstrated substantial interrater agreement on items assigned to various categories across free and controlled association tasks. Overall, this new coding application provides a feasible method of reliably coding open-ended data and makes the task of coding these data more manageable. [PUBLICATION ABSTRACT]},
author = {Ames, S. L. and Gallaher, P. E. and Sun, P. and Pearce, S. and Zogg, J. B. and Houska, B. R. and Leigh, B. C. and Stacy, A. W.},
doi = {10.3758/BF03192716},
issn = {1554351X},
journal = {Behavior Research Methods},
number = {3},
pages = {470--479},
title = {{A Web-based program for coding open-ended response protocols}},
volume = {37},
year = {2005}
}
@article{Townsend1971a,
abstract = {A study was undertaken to acquire a confusion matrix of the entire upper-case English alphabet with a simple nonserifed font under tachistoscopic conditions. This was accomplished with two experimental conditions, one with blank poststimulus field and one with noisy poststimulus field, for six Ss run 650 trials each. Three mathematical models of recognition, two based on the concept of a finite number of sensory states and one being the choice model, were compared in their ability to predict the confusion matrix after their parameters were estimated from functions of the data. In order to ascertain the facility with which estimates of similarity among the letters could lead to a psychological space containing the letters, $\eta$ ij, the similarity parameter of the choice model was input to an ordinally based multidimensional scaling program. Finally, correlation coefficients were computed among parameters of the models, the scaled space, and a crude measure of physical similarity. Briefly, the results were: (1) the finite-state model that assumed stimulus similarity (the overlap activation model) and the choice model predicted the confusion-matrix entries about equally well in terms of a sum-of-squared deviations criterion and better than the all-or-none activation model, which assumed only a perfect perception or random-guessing state following a stimulus presentation; (2) the parts of the confusion matrix that fit best varied with the particular model, and this finding was related to the models; (3) the best scaling result in terms of a goodness-of-fit measure was obtained with the blank poststimulus field condition, with a technique allowing different distances for tied similarity values, and with the Euclidean as opposed to the city-block metric; and (4) there was agreement among the models in terms of the way in which the models reflected sensory and response bias structure in the data, and in the way in which a single model measured these attributes across experimental conditions, as well as agreement among similarity ami distance measures with physical Similarity. {\textcopyright} 1971 Psychonomic Society, Inc.},
author = {Townsend, J. T.},
doi = {10.3758/BF03213026},
isbn = {0031-5117},
issn = {00315117},
journal = {Perception {\&} Psychophysics},
number = {1},
pages = {40--50},
title = {{Theoretical analysis of an alphabetic confusion matrix}},
volume = {9},
year = {1971}
}
@article{Barenboym2010,
abstract = {In Experiment 1, separate samples rated nouns on danger, using either an online survey or the same survey in person. In Experiment 2, a single sample rated words on familiarity, using both methods. Women's in-person and online ratings correlated significantly better than men's. In-person ratings correlated significantly better with existing norms in 4 of 8 instances. There were significant effects of condition on mean ratings and completion times. Ratings from participants who withdrew from the experiment correlated significantly less well with existing norms than did ratings from those who completed the whole experiment, in 12 of 16 instances. Analysis of existing data showed that a different statistical conclusion is reached depending on whether in-person or online ratings are used. Furthermore, the categorization of 17.9{\%} (Experiment 1) and 5.3{\%} (Experiment 2) of the items as high or low depends on which ratings are used. Ratings gathered in person and online cannot be freely substituted.},
author = {Barenboym, Diana A. and Wurm, Lee H. and Cano, Annmarie},
doi = {10.3758/BRM.42.1.273},
isbn = {1554-351X},
issn = {1554351X},
journal = {Behavior Research Methods},
number = {1},
pages = {273--285},
pmid = {20160306},
title = {{A comparison of stimulus ratings made online and in person: Gender and method effects}},
volume = {42},
year = {2010}
}
@article{Saberi2004,
abstract = {A digital signal-processing (DSP) technique for rapid generation of complex auditory motion stimuli based on dynamic linear changes in interaural delay is described. In this technique, a pair of complementary discrete Fourier transforms (DFTs) for which the component spacing in one series is different than that of the other is used. The appeal of this technique is its wide applicability, since it can generate real-time motion stimuli of any velocity and starting interaural delay for complex broadband or filtered noise waveforms and nonstationary sounds such as speech, music, and other natural sounds.},
author = {Saberi, Kourosh},
doi = {10.3758/BF03206538},
isbn = {0743-3808 (Print)$\backslash$r0743-3808 (Linking)},
issn = {07433808},
journal = {Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, and Computers},
number = {4},
pages = {585--589},
pmid = {15641403},
title = {{Fast fourier-based DSP algorithm for auditory motion experiments}},
volume = {36},
year = {2004}
}
@article{Loomis1982,
abstract = {Confusion matrices were compiled for uppercase letters and for braille characters presented to observers in two ways: as raised touch stimuli and as visual stimuli that had been optically filtered of their higher spatial frequencies. These and other existing matrices were subjected to a number of analyses, including the choice model and hierarchical clustering. The strong similarity of the visual and tactile matrices from this study lends additional support to the claim that visual recognition of low-pass filtered characters, to a first approximation, can be taken as a model of tactile recognition of small two-dimensional raised patterns. Besides this, the analysis questions the widely held assumption that response bias contributes significantly to the stimulus-response contingencies in a character-recognition task.},
author = {Loomis, Jack M.},
doi = {10.3758/BF03206199},
isbn = {0031-5117},
issn = {00315117},
journal = {Perception {\&} Psychophysics},
number = {1},
pages = {41--52},
pmid = {7070936},
title = {{Analysis of tactile and visual confusion matrices}},
volume = {31},
year = {1982}
}
@article{Loomis1974,
abstract = {Block capital letters were displayed to experienced and inexperienced Ss, using a 20 x 20 matrix of vibratory tactors placed against the back. In two separate experiments, a total of five modes of stimulus presentation. three of them employing a linear scanning slit, were studied. The poorest method, stationary flashing of the letter, allows performance that is well above chance, implying that a purely spatial presentation does convey information. Performance is improved when the letter is moved horizontally across the display. The best performance is achieved when the amount of simultaneous stimulation is limited by using a linear scanning slit. In one method, the letter moves behind a stationary slit, with the result that its horizontal dimension is portrayed only in time. In the other two methods, the scanning slit moves across the stationary letter, portraying the letter both in time and in space. The results of all five display modes indicate that Ss can use whichever representation, spatial or temporal, is available, although patternings which most closely approximate sequential tracing by a single moving point lead to the highest recognition accuracy. We interpret these results in terms of the limited spatial resolution of the cutaneous sense. While the perception of a letter presented in either full-field condition is limited by the spatial resolution, the best measure being the two-point limen, the perception of a letter traced sequentially is limited by the localization acuity of the cutaneous sense, the best measure being the "error of localization," which is known to be considerably smaller than the two-point limen. Inasmuch as the slit methods of presentation are a compromise between simultaneous and sequential display, letter-recognition accuracy ia better with slit presentation than with the corresponding full-field mode of display.},
author = {Loomis, Jack M.},
doi = {10.3758/BF03203960},
issn = {00315117},
journal = {Perception {\&} Psychophysics},
number = {2},
pages = {401--408},
title = {{Tactile letter recognition under different modes of stimulus presentation}},
volume = {16},
year = {1974}
}
@article{Boles1989,
abstract = {A full upper- and lowercase visual similarity matrix is presented for a standard set of com- puter characters, implemented on the Apple-Psych system. The 2,704 (52 × 52) letter pairs were rated by 12 subjects each. From the ratings, generation and veridical similarity values are derived, and they are tabled for use in research on mixed-case letter matching. In addition, the results of multidimensional scaling and cluster analyses are presented, which give complementary, simplified descriptions of the data.},
author = {Boles, David B. and Clifford, John E.},
doi = {10.3758/BF03210580},
isbn = {0743-3808},
issn = {07433808},
journal = {Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, {\&} Computers},
number = {6},
pages = {579--586},
title = {{An upper- and lowercase alphabetic similarity matrix, with derived generation similarity values}},
volume = {21},
year = {1989}
}
@article{Ankerstein2009,
abstract = {In this article, we present 84 nonobjects we created by using the colored object pictures from Rossion and Pourtois (2004). These nonobjects were explored on a number of measures, including object resemblance, visual complexity, and an object decision task (ODT). Object resemblance for nonobjects is a construct comparable to the "word-likeness" of phonotactically legal pseudowords. The nonobjects were rated as possible objects, showing similarity to real objects. Visual complexity ratings for objects and nonobjects were comparable. In the ODT, response times (RTs) were significantly longer for nonobjects than for real-object pictures. This RT difference is analogous to the word advantage, or lexicality effect, found in lexical decision tasks, in which responses for words are generally faster than those for nonwords. This nonobject set is freely available and has the advantage of having a companion set of real-object pictures. The nonobjects are available in color and in grayscale from brm.psychonomic-journals.org/content/supplemental.},
author = {Ankerstein, Carrie A. and Varley, Rosemary A. and Cowell, Patricia E.},
doi = {10.3758/BRM.41.1.172},
isbn = {1554-351X (Print)},
issn = {1554351X},
journal = {Behavior Research Methods},
number = {1},
pages = {172--176},
pmid = {19182137},
title = {{A new set of 84 colored nonobjects}},
volume = {41},
year = {2009}
}
@article{DeBruijn1999,
abstract = {The ESPbase provides a tool for storing symbols and icons along with information about their characteristics. Information about a wide range of symbol characteristics is included on the database to facilitate the selection of symbol sets for research and design. The database includes information about the graphical characteristics and functions of symbols. It also includes ratings of symbol concreteness, complexity, familiarity, and meaningfulness. Symbols and icons can be accessed on the basis of each of these characteristics or any combination of characteristics. This makes it easier to select symbols on the basis of usability and design requirements. It also means that symbols can be easily selected for research while controlling their characteristics on a number of dimensions.},
author = {{De Bruijn}, Oscar and McDougall, Sin{\'{e}} and Curry, Martin B.},
doi = {10.3758/BF03200729},
issn = {07433808},
journal = {Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, and Computers},
number = {3},
pages = {479--486},
pmid = {10502872},
title = {{ESPbase: A Microsoft Access tool for selecting symbol and icon sets for usability}},
volume = {31},
year = {1999}
}
@article{Verfaillie1995,
abstract = {A set of full-color images of objects is described for use in experiments investigating the effects of in-depth rotation on the identification of three-dimensional objects. The corpus contains up to 11 perspective views of 70 nameable objects. We also provide ratings of the "goodness" of each view, based on Thurstonian scaling of subjects' preferences in a paired-comparison experiment. An exploratory cluster analysis on the scaling solutions indicates that the amount of information available in a given view generally is the major determinant of the goodness of the view. For instance, objects with an elongated front-back axis tend to cluster together, and the front and back views of these objects, which do not reveal the object's major surfaces and features, are evaluated as the worst views.},
author = {Verfaillie, Karl and Boutsen, Luc},
doi = {10.3758/BF03205454},
issn = {00315117},
journal = {Perception {\&} Psychophysics},
number = {7},
pages = {925--961},
pmid = {8532498},
title = {{A corpus of 714 full-color images of depth-rotated objects}},
volume = {57},
year = {1995}
}
@article{Azuma1996,
abstract = {Examined familiarity and relatedness among homograph meanings, particularly subordinate meanings, for 110 common English words. 160 undergraduates completed a meaning collection task, and the number of meanings provided for words varied widely. In a familiarity rating task, 42 Ss rated each meaning on its familiarity. Familiarity ratings were more sensitive than meaning collection to knowledge of subordinate meanings. In a comparison task, 125 Ss made relatedness judgments for all meaning pairs within each word. Results provide a database of complex relationships among word meanings that can be used to investigate the effects of relatedness and other semantic variables. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2000 APA, all rights reserved)},
author = {Azuma, Tamiko},
doi = {10.3758/BF03203645},
isbn = {0743-3808},
issn = {07433808},
journal = {Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, {\&} Computers},
number = {1},
pages = {109--124},
title = {{Familiarity and relatedness of word meanings: Ratings for 110 homographs}},
volume = {28},
year = {1996}
}
@article{Snodgrass1996,
abstract = {We present new Spanish norms for object familiarity and rated age of acquisition for 140 pictures taken from Snodgrass and Vanderwart (1980), together with data on visual complexity, image agreement, name agreement, word length (in syllables and phonemes), and five measures of word frequency. The pictures were presented to a group of 64 Spanish subjects, and oral naming latencies were recorded. In a multiple regression analysis, age of acquisition, object familiarity, name agreement, word frequency, and word length made significant independent contributions to predicting naming latency.},
author = {Snodgrass, Joan Gay and Yuditsky, Tanya},
doi = {10.3758/BF03200540},
isbn = {1554-351X},
issn = {07433808},
journal = {Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, and Computers},
number = {4},
pages = {516--536},
pmid = {10633980},
title = {{Naming times for the Snodgrass and Vanderwart pictures}},
volume = {28},
year = {1996}
}
@article{Wilson1988,
abstract = {The MRCmachine-usable dictionary contains 150,837 words and up 26 linguistic and psycholin- guistic attributes for each. The attributes are from sources that are publicly available but are difficult to obtain and structure into a single dictionary, Three utility programs are described that permit the selection of words defined by a set of specified attribute values and the selection of attribute values for a set of specified words. These programs permit the construction of word sets for psycholinguistic experiments that control for the attributes specified in the dictionary. The dictionary may also be of use to researchers in artificial intelligence and computer science who require psychological and linguistic descriptions of words.},
author = {Wilson, Michael},
doi = {10.3758/BF03202594},
isbn = {0743-3808},
issn = {07433808},
journal = {Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, {\&} Computers},
number = {1},
pages = {6--10},
title = {{MRC psycholinguistic database: Machine-usable dictionary, version 2.00}},
volume = {20},
year = {1988}
}
@article{DeWinter2004,
abstract = {We summarize five studies of our large-scale research program, in which we examined aspects of contour-based object identification and segmentation, and we report on the stimuli we used, the norms and data we collected, and the software tools we developed. The stimuli were outlines derived from the standard set of line drawings of everyday objects by Snodgrass and Vanderwart (1980). We used contour curvature as a major variable in all the studies. The total number of 1,500 participants produced very solid, normative identification rates of silhouettes and contours, straight-line versions, and fragmented versions, and quite reliable benchmark data about saliency of points and object segmentation into parts. We also developed several software tools to generate stimuli and to analyze the data in nonstandard ways. Our stimuli, norms and data, and software tools have great potential for further exploration of factors influencing contour-based object identification, and are also useful for researchers in many different disciplines (including computer vision) on a wide variety of research topics (e.g., priming, agnosia, perceptual organization, and picture naming). The full set of norms, data, and stimuli may be downloaded from www.psychonomic.org/archive/.},
author = {{De Winter}, Joeri and Wagemans, Johan},
doi = {10.3758/BF03206541},
isbn = {0743-3808},
issn = {07433808},
journal = {Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, and Computers},
number = {4},
pages = {604--624},
pmid = {15641406},
title = {{Contour-based object identification and segmentation: Stimuli, norms and data, and software tools}},
volume = {36},
year = {2004}
}
@article{Bullinaria2007,
abstract = {The idea that at least some aspects of word meaning can be induced from patterns of word co-occurrence is becoming increasingly popular. However, there is less agreement about the precise computations involved, and the appropriate tests to distinguish between the various possibilities. It is important that the effect of the relevant design choices and parameter values are understood if psychological models using these methods are to be reliably evaluated and compared. In this article, we present a systematic exploration of the principal computational possibilities for formulating and validating representations of word meanings from word co-occurrence statistics. We find that, once we have identified the best procedures, a very simple approach is surprisingly successful and robust over a range of psychologically relevant evaluation measures.},
author = {Bullinaria, John A. and Levy, Joseph P.},
doi = {10.3758/BF03193020},
issn = {1554-351X},
journal = {Behavior Research Methods},
keywords = {Data Interpretation,Humans,Models,Psychological,Semantics,Statistical,Vocabulary},
month = {aug},
number = {3},
pages = {510--526},
pmid = {17958162},
title = {{Extracting semantic representations from word co-occurrence statistics: A computational study}},
url = {http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17958162 http://www.springerlink.com/index/10.3758/BF03193020},
volume = {39},
year = {2007}
}
@article{Yoon2004,
abstract = {The present study presents normative measures for 260 line drawings of everyday objects, found in Snodgrass and Vanderwart (1980), viewed by individuals in China and the United States. Within each cultural group, name agreement, concept agreement, and familiarity measures were obtained separately for younger adults and older adults. For a subset of 57 pictures (22{\%}), there was equivalence in both name agreement and concept agreement, and for an additional subset of 29 pictures (11{\%}), there was nonequivalent name agreement but equivalent concept agreement, across all culture-by-age groups. The data indicate substantial differences across culture-by-age groups in name agreement percentages and number of distinct name responses provided. We discovered significant differences between older and younger American adults in both name agreement percentages (67 pictures, or 26{\%}) and concept agreement percentages (44 pictures, or 17{\%}). Written naming responses collected for the entire set of Snodgrass and Vanderwart pictures showed shifts in both naming and concept agreement percentages over the intervening decades: Although correlations in name agreement were strong (r = .71, p {\textless} .001) between our younger American samples and those of Snodgrass and Vanderwart, name agreement percentages have changed for a substantial proportion (33{\%}) of the 260 pictures; moreover, 63{\%} of the stimuli for which Snodgrass and Vanderwart reported concept agreement now appear to differ. We provide comprehensive comparison statistics and tests for both the present study and prior ones, finding differences across numerous item-level measures. The corpus of data suggests that substantial differences in all measures can be found across age as well as culture, so that unequivocal conclusions with respect to cross-cultural or age-related differences in cognition can be made only when appropriate stimuli are selected for studies. Data for all 260 pictures, for each of the four groups, and all supporting materials and tests are freely archived at http://agingmind.cns.uiuc.edu/Pict{\_}Norms. The full set of these norms may be downloaded from www.psychonomic.org/archive/.},
author = {Yoon, Carolyn and Feinberg, Fred and Luo, Ting and Hedden, Trey and Gutchess, Angela Hall and Chen, Hiu Ying Mary and Mikels, Joseph A. and Jiao, Shulan and Park, Denise C.},
doi = {10.3758/BF03206545},
isbn = {0743-3808 (Print)},
issn = {07433808},
journal = {Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, and Computers},
number = {4},
pages = {639--649},
pmid = {15641410},
title = {{A cross-culturally standardized set of pictures for younger and older adults: American and Chinese norms for name agreement, concept agreement, and familiarity}},
volume = {36},
year = {2004}
}
@article{Prior2007,
abstract = {We present a set of translation norms for 670 English and 760 Spanish nouns, verbs and class ambiguous items that varied in their lexical properties in both languages, collected from 80 bilingual participants. Half of the words in each language received more than a single translation across participants. Cue word frequency and imageability were both negatively correlated with number of translations. Word class predicted number of translations: Nouns had fewer translations than did verbs, which had fewer translations than class-ambiguous items. The translation probability of specific responses was positively correlated with target word frequency and imageability, and with its form overlap with the cue word. Translation choice was modulated by L2 proficiency: Less proficient bilinguals tended to produce lower probability translations than more proficient bilinguals, but only in forward translation, from Ll to L2. These findings highlight the importance of translation ambiguity as a factor influencing bilingual representation and performance. The norms can also provide an important resource to assist researchers in the selection of experimental materials for studies of bilingual and monolingual language performance. These norms may be downloaded from www.psychonomic.org/archive.},
author = {Prior, Anat and Macwhinney, Brian and Kroll, Judith F.},
doi = {10.3758/BF03193001},
isbn = {1554-351X},
issn = {1554351X},
journal = {Behavior Research Methods},
number = {4},
pages = {1029--1038},
pmid = {18183923},
title = {{Translation norms for English and Spanish: The role of lexical variables, word class, and L2 proficiency in negotiating translation ambiguity}},
volume = {39},
year = {2007}
}
@article{Conley1999,
abstract = {Few tools for research in proper names have been available--specifically, there is no large-scale corpus of proper names. Two corpora of proper names were constructed, one based on U.S. phone book listings, the other derived from a database of Usenet text. Name frequencies from both corpora were compared with human subjects' reaction times (RTs) to the proper names in a naming task. Regression analysis showed that the Usenet frequencies contributed to predictions of human RT, whereas phone book frequencies did not. In addition, semantic neighborhood density measures derived from the HAL corpus were compared with the subjects' RTs and found to be a better predictor of RT than was frequency in either corpus. These new corpora are freely available on line for download. Potentials for these corpora range from using the names as stimuli in experiments to using the corpus data in software applications.},
author = {Conley, Patrick and Burgess, Curt and Hage, Dotty},
doi = {10.3758/BF03207713},
issn = {07433808},
journal = {Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, and Computers},
number = {2},
pages = {215--219},
pmid = {10495803},
title = {{Large-scale databases of proper names}},
volume = {31},
year = {1999}
}
@article{Zechmeister1975,
abstract = {Obtained ratings from 703 undergraduates for a sample of 192 surnames selected randomly from a large metropolitan area phone book. Measures of reliability and the intercorrelations among the various measures indicate that the present information may be useful for investigations of learning and remembering names. While certain unique aspects of name stimuli may have important advantages for researchers of verbal processes, the present ratings should also prove useful to personality and social psychologists when names are of interest. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2016 APA, all rights reserved)},
author = {Zechmeister, Eugene B. and King, Joseph and Gude, Chris and Opera-nadi, Bernadette},
doi = {10.3758/BF03201625},
issn = {1554351X},
journal = {Behavior Research Methods {\&} Instrumentation},
number = {6},
pages = {531--533},
title = {{Ratings of frequency, familiarity, orthographic distinctiveness and pronunciability for 192 surnames}},
volume = {7},
year = {1975}
}
@inproceedings{Price2006,
abstract = {Four hundred forty-eight children 3-12 years of age generated category exemplars for 33 distinct categories. The percentage of the participants reporting each exemplar, the percentage of the participants reporting each exemplar first, the percentage of the participants reporting each exemplar across age groups (3-5 years, 6-8 years, and 9-12 years), and the mean rank of each exemplar are presented. A full version of the 29 category norms may be downloaded from www.psychonomic.org/archive.},
author = {Price, Heather L. and Connolly, Deborah A.},
booktitle = {Behavior Research Methods},
doi = {10.3758/BF03192808},
isbn = {1554-351X (Print)},
issn = {1554351X},
number = {3},
pages = {529--531},
pmid = {17186764},
title = {{BatMon II: Children's category norms for 33 categories}},
volume = {38},
year = {2006}
}
@article{Shapiro1970,
abstract = {Obtained normative data from undergraduates for instances of 100 conceptual categories different from those in the Connecticut category norms from a study by B. H. Cohen, W. A. Bousfield, and G. A. Whitmarsh. Ss were instructed to provide the 1st 4 items that they thought of as representative members of a category. 200 Ss responded to 50 of the categories and another 200 Ss to the other 50 categories. The total frequencies of each response to each category are presented in ranked order, and the frequencies are also presented by sex. The norms extend the number and kinds of categories available for research on category clustering and other conceptual processes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2016 APA, all rights reserved)},
author = {Shapiro, S. I. and Palermo, D. S.},
journal = {Psychonomic Monograph Supplements},
number = {11},
pages = {107--127},
title = {{Conceptual organization and class membership: Normative data for representatives of 100 categories}},
volume = {3},
year = {1970}
}
@article{Protopapas2009,
abstract = {Orthographic transparency refers to the systematicity in the mapping between orthographic letter sequences and phonological phoneme sequences in both directions, for reading and spelling. Measures of transparency previously used in the analysis of orthographies of other languages include regularity, consistency, and entropy. However, previous reports have typically been hampered by severe restrictions, such as using only monosyllables or only word-initial phonemes. Greek is sufficiently transparent to allow complete sequential alignment between graphemes and phonemes, therefore permitting full analyses at both letter and grapheme levels, using every word in its entirety. Here, we report multiple alternative measures of transparency, using both type and token counts, and compare these with estimates for other languages. We discuss the problems stemming from restricted analysis sets and the implications for psycholinguistic experimentation and computational modeling of reading and spelling.},
author = {Protopapas, Athanassios and Vlahou, Eleni L.},
doi = {10.3758/BRM.41.4.991},
isbn = {1554-351X},
issn = {1554351X},
journal = {Behavior Research Methods},
number = {4},
pages = {991--1008},
pmid = {19897808},
title = {{A comparative quantitative analysis of Greek orthographic transparency}},
volume = {41},
year = {2009}
}
@article{Plant2011,
abstract = {The aim of the present study was to expand the scope of category norm and typicality data to include verbs for use when investigating semantic memory in fields such as linguistics, psychology, and aphasiology. Two experiments were conducted. In the first, participants were asked to list verbs within 10 semantic categories (e.g. breaking, cleaning, cooking, etc.) and 10 noun categories (e.g. animals, fruit, tools, etc.). In the second experiment, participants were asked to rate the typicality of verbs within 8 of the previously investigated verb categories. Although participants listed fewer verbs in verb categories than nouns in noun categories, the overall patterns with regard to correlation analyses between production frequency, mean rank of responses, lexical frequency, and typicality were consistent with those observed in noun categories. These patterns are also consistent with those observed in previous research. Potential similarities and differences between nouns and verbs, as well as future applications of such data, are discussed.},
author = {Plant, Christopher and Webster, Janet and Whitworth, Anne},
doi = {10.3758/s13428-010-0051-y},
isbn = {1554-351X},
issn = {1554351X},
journal = {Behavior Research Methods},
keywords = {Actions,Categorisation,Semantic memory,Typicality,Verbs},
number = {2},
pages = {424--440},
pmid = {21298568},
title = {{Category norm data and relationships with lexical frequency and typicality within verb semantic categories}},
volume = {43},
year = {2011}
}
@article{Morrow2005,
abstract = {Attributes associated with concept representations, such as familiarity, typicality, and age of acquisition, have been shown to be important influences on lexical-semantic processing. In most previous studies of healthy and pathological aging, these attributes are not equated for younger and older adults separately on the stimuli used. In this study, normative data were collected to test whether there exist any age differences in these attributes. The results demonstrate that the ratings given by younger and older adults on natural and manmade category items correlated positively. However, age differences were also apparent, whereby older adults provided higher ratings overall than younger adults. Suggestions and hypotheses are presented to explain this pattern of age differences, which relate to how category concepts may be represented by healthy younger and older adults. Also, the possible implications for these differential age ratings on lexical-semantic processing are discussed. The age differences apparent in this study demonstrate the need to consider age-appropriate normative ratings in the selection of stimuli for use in lexical-semantic processing studies of aging, and the normative data presented provide a means of equating category stimuli. The complete list of all the means is available at www.psychonomic.org/archive.},
author = {Morrow, Lorna I. and {Frances Duffy}, M.},
doi = {10.3758/BF03192731},
isbn = {1554-351X (Print)$\backslash$r1554-351X (Linking)},
issn = {1554351X},
journal = {Behavior Research Methods},
number = {4},
pages = {608--625},
pmid = {16629293},
title = {{The representation of ontological category concepts as affected by healthy aging: Normative data and theoretical implications}},
volume = {37},
year = {2005}
}
@article{Snodgrass1992,
abstract = {The set of names corresponding to the pictures from Snodgrass and Vanderwart (1980) were screen fragmented by means of a series of procedures implemented in Microsoft QuickBasic on a Macintosh microcomputer. Words were screen fragmented by deleting blocks of pixels from their images rather than by deleting individual letters. The screen-fragmentation procedure is particularly useful for the present set of words, in which a large proportion ofthe names of the pictures are short (fewer than five letters). The screen-fragmentation procedure can produce any number of fragmentation levels. In the present implementation, eight levels of fragmented images were produced, to correspond to the eight levels available for the Snodgrass and Vanderwart pictures.},
author = {Snodgrass, Joan Gay and Poster, Meredith},
doi = {10.3758/BF03203463},
issn = {07433808},
journal = {Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, {\&} Computers},
number = {1},
pages = {1--15},
title = {{Visual-word recognition thresholds for screen-fragmented names of the Snodgrass and Vanderwart pictures}},
volume = {24},
year = {1992}
}
@article{Boutsen1998,
abstract = {The present study examines the effect of the goodness of view on the minimal exposure time required to recognize depth-rotated objects. In a previous study, Verfaillie and Boutsen (1995) derived scales of goodness of view, using a new corpus of images of depth-rotated objects. In the present experiment, a subset of this corpus (five views of 56 objects) is used to determine the recognition exposure time for each view, by increasing exposure time across successive presentations until the object is recognized. The results indicate that, for two thirds of the objects, good views are recognized more frequently and have lower recognition exposure times than bad views.},
author = {Boutsen, Luc and Lamberts, Koen and Verfaillie, Karl},
issn = {0031-5117},
journal = {Perception And Psychophysics},
number = {5},
pages = {900--907},
pmid = {9682613},
title = {{Recognition times of different views of 56 depth-rotated objects: a note concerning Verfaillie and Boutsen (1995).}},
url = {http://eprints.aston.ac.uk/9850/},
volume = {60},
year = {1998}
}
@article{Twilley1994,
abstract = {For many models oflexical ambiguity resolution, relative frequency of the different meanings of homographs (words with more than one meaning) is crucial. Although several homograph as-sociation norms have been published in the past, none has involved a large number of subjects responding to a large number of homographs, and most homograph norming studies are now at least a decade old. In Experiment 1, associations to 566 homographs were collected from an aver-age of 192 subjects per homograph. Frequency of occurrence for the three most common mean-ings is reported, along with the corresponding associates, and a measure of the overall ambiguity of each homograph. Homographs whose meanings differed in part of speech were more ambigu-ous overall than homographs whose different meanings belonged to a single grammatical class. Homographs whose pronunciation depended on meaning (heterophones) were no more ambigu-ous than nonheterophones, and word frequency was unrelated to overall ambiguity. Estimates of homograph balance across different norming studies were compared, and homographs with two meanings of approximately equal relative meaning frequency (balanced homographs) and homographs with one clearly dominant meaning (polarized homographs) were identified. In Ex-periment 2, reliability of meaning categorizations was measured for a subset of the homographs in the first experiment. Meaning categorizations were shown to be highly reliable across raters. Homographs are words that have more than one mean-ing but share the same orthography. They most often also share phonology (e.g., a dog's bark vs. a tree's bark; a fireplace poker vs. a poker game), but a few English homographs have distinct phonologies for their different meanings. For these heterophonic homographs, pronun-ciation depends on meaning; examples are "bass" (fish vs. guitar) and "wind" (gale vs. to coil). Contrary to in-tuition, homographs are not an obscure class of linguistic items. Rather, homographs could be considered impor-tant topics of study solely because of their abundance in English. Britton (1978) found that 44 {\%} of a random sam-ple of English words had more than one meaning, and that 85 {\%} of a sample of high-frequency English words},
author = {Twilley, Leslie C. and Dixon, Peter and Taylor, Dean and Clark, Karen},
doi = {10.3758/BF03202766},
isbn = {0090-502X (Print)$\backslash$r0090-502X (Linking)},
issn = {0090502X},
journal = {Memory {\&} Cognition},
number = {1},
pages = {111--126},
pmid = {8035680},
title = {{University of Alberta norms of relative meaning frequency for 566 homographs}},
volume = {22},
year = {1994}
}
@article{Wollen1980,
abstract = {The purpose of this research was to establish norms for the relative frequency of use of
the different meaning of common homographs (words that have one spelling but two or more
distinctly different meanings) and to present ratings of the concreteness-abstractness of those
meanings. A total of 108 subjects wrote a phrase or sentence using each of 120 homographs
that were presented at a 15.5-sec rate. For each homograph, norms are provided indicating
the relative frequency with which each meaning was used by men and by women. In addition,
four judges rated the concreteness-abstractness of each meaning. These ratings are also
provided, as are the means of the overall concreteness for each homograph.},
author = {Wollen, Keith A. and Cox, Steven D. and Coahran, Margaret M. and Shea, Daniel S. and Kirby, Robert F.},
doi = {10.3758/BF03208319},
issn = {1554351X},
journal = {Behavior Research Methods {\&} Instrumentation},
number = {1},
pages = {8--15},
title = {{Frequency of occurrence and concreteness ratings of homograph meanings}},
volume = {12},
year = {1980}
}
@article{Gorfein1982,
abstract = {Four continuous word associations to each of 107 homographs were obtained from 50 male and 50 female undergraduates. Included in the word sample were 12 nonhomophonic homographs (heterophones). The data were analyzed to derive two indexes. A dominance score was defined on the basis of the frequency that a particular meaning was associated to each homograph. A stability score was a measure of the likelihood that the continuous associations were consistent with the first associate. Norms were provided for these measures. Comparison of heterophones to homophones indicates that the former are significantly more stable.},
author = {Gorfein, David S. and Viviani, Jeanne M. and Leddo, John},
doi = {10.3758/BF03197654},
isbn = {1532-5946},
issn = {0090502X},
journal = {Memory {\&} Cognition},
number = {5},
pages = {503--509},
pmid = {7176912},
title = {{Norms as a tool for the study of homography}},
volume = {10},
year = {1982}
}
@article{Nelson1980,
abstract = {Norms were collected to determine the relative dominance of different meanings of homo- graphic words. Forty-six subjects wrote down the first word that came to mind for each of 320 homographs. Each homograph, the number of times each meaning was given, and the specific associates are made available. In addition, correlations with other norms are presented.},
author = {Nelson, Douglas L. and McEvoy, Cathy L. and Walling, John R. and Wheeler, Joseph W.},
doi = {10.3758/BF03208320},
isbn = {0005-7878},
issn = {1554351X},
journal = {Behavior Research Methods {\&} Instrumentation},
number = {1},
pages = {16--37},
title = {{The University of South Florida homograph norms}},
volume = {12},
year = {1980}
}
@article{Ashcraft1978,
abstract = {Abstract A description is presented of normative data for property responses to 121 words— 17 category labels, three typical and three atypical members of each category , and the words “plant” and “animal.” The production frequency of properties is considered a ... $\backslash$n},
author = {Ashcraft, Mark H.},
doi = {10.3758/BF03197450},
isbn = {0090-502X},
issn = {0090-502X},
journal = {Memory {\&} Cognition},
month = {may},
number = {3},
pages = {227--232},
title = {{Property norms for typical and atypical items from 17 categories: A description and discussion}},
url = {http://www.springerlink.com/index/10.3758/BF03197450},
volume = {6},
year = {1978}
}
@article{Winograd1974,
abstract = {Describes 2 experiments with a total of 203 introductory psychology undergraduates. Exp I compared recognition memory for 2 types of homographs. For balanced homographs, there are 2 relatively equiprobable semantic encodings; for polarized homographs, there is 1 dominant encoding. It was predicted, on the basis of encoding variability theory, that recognition would be superior for polarized homographs; however, the opposite outcome was obtained and replicated at 2 retention intervals. In Exp II, successive word association tests were administered at 2 intertest intervals. The semantically scored responses support the assumption of greater variability of semantic encodings for the balanced homographs. A retrieval strategy of semantic recoding is proposed to account for the better recognition of balanced homographs.},
author = {Winograd, Eugene and Geis, Mary F.},
doi = {10.1037/h0036386},
issn = {00221015},
journal = {Journal of Experimental Psychology},
keywords = {encoding variability i,study-test interval length},
number = {6},
pages = {1061--1068},
title = {{Semantic encoding and recognition memory: A test of encoding variability theory}},
volume = {102},
year = {1974}
}
@article{Bjorklund1983,
abstract = {Category typicality norms from 12 natural language categories are presented for kindergarten, third-grade, sixth-grade, and college students. Subjects first selected examples of familiar word concepts and rated them on a 3-point scale in terms of category typicality. Age differences in the percentage of items included as category members were found primarily for the less typical items, with inclusion rates varying as a function of both age and typicality level. The absolute level of typicality judgments increased with age, although correlations between the children's and college students' ratings were generally significant for all three children's groups, with average correlations increasing somewhat with age. It was suggested that the rating data would be useful to developmental investigators interested in children's processing of category information.},
author = {Bjorklund, David F. and Thompson, Barbara E. and Ornstein, Peter A.},
doi = {10.3758/BF03203657},
issn = {1554351X},
journal = {Behavior Research Methods {\&} Instrumentation},
number = {3},
pages = {350--356},
title = {{Developmental trends in children's typicality judgments}},
volume = {15},
year = {1983}
}
@article{Gawlick-Grendell1994,
abstract = {Over the past two decades, homographs have been used in psychological experiments aimed at testing a variety of theoretical issues concerning memory and language. Often, such research requires prior knowledge of the dominance relations among various meanings of the homographs. Previously available homograph meaning norms are limited because they are now more than 10 years old, and they have typically reported only the two most dominant meanings even though many homographs have three or more common meanings. This paper presents normative data on 120 homographs from a relatively large, heterogeneous sample of subjects (N = 100). Meaning dominance was assessed by having subjects write the first definition that came to mind for each homograph. Definition responses were grouped by similarity, and the resulting meaning categories were verified against dictionary meaning classifications. The number of distinct meanings varied from two to six for the homographs investigated, and frequency of response is reported for all definition categories. {\textcopyright} 1994 Psychonomic Society, Inc.},
author = {Gawlick-Grendell, Lisa A. and Woltz, Dan J.},
doi = {10.3758/BF03204557},
issn = {07433808},
journal = {Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, {\&} Computers},
number = {1},
pages = {5--25},
title = {{Meaning dominance norms for 120 homographs}},
volume = {26},
year = {1994}
}
@article{Jones1980a,
abstract = {A list of English palindromes that approaches comprehensiveness is given. A stochastic model for the distribution of palindromes within the language is proposed. The model relates frequencies of palindromes and of heteropalindromes (Jones, 1980) as a function of word length. and it is shown to predict accurately the actual numbers of palindromes that occur},
author = {Jones, Gregory V.},
doi = {10.3758/BF03201821},
issn = {1554351X},
journal = {Behavior Research Methods {\&} Instrumentation},
number = {5},
pages = {489--491},
title = {{English palindromes: A distributional model}},
volume = {12},
year = {1980}
}
@article{Olson1971,
abstract = {Ratings of orthographic distinctiveness were obtained for 139 homonym pairs. Mean ratings on a 9-point scale ranged from 7.75 to 2.44. Reliability of the ratings was high (r = .91). In addition, orthographic distinctiveness was found to be independent of disparity in perceived meanings of the separate homonym forms.},
author = {Olson, Gayle A. and Kausler, Donald H.},
doi = {10.3758/BF03209950},
issn = {1554351X},
journal = {Behavior Research Methods {\&} Instrumentation},
number = {6},
pages = {298--299},
title = {{Orthographie distinctiveness of homonyms}},
volume = {3},
year = {1971}
}
@article{Armstrong2012,
abstract = {Words that are homonyms-that is, for which a single written and spoken form is associated with multiple, unrelated interpretations, such as COMPOUND, which can denote an {\textless} enclosure {\textgreater} or a {\textless} composite {\textgreater} meaning-are an invaluable class of items for studying word and discourse comprehension. When using homonyms as stimuli, it is critical to control for the relative frequencies of each interpretation, because this variable can drastically alter the empirical effects of homonymy. Currently, the standard method for estimating these frequencies is based on the classification of free associates generated for a homonym, but this approach is both assumption-laden and resource-demanding. Here, we outline an alternative norming methodology based on explicit ratings of the relative meaning frequencies of dictionary definitions. To evaluate this method, we collected and analyzed data in a norming study involving 544 English homonyms, using the eDom norming software that we developed for this purpose. Dictionary definitions were generally sufficient to exhaustively cover word meanings, and the methods converged on stable norms with fewer data and less effort on the part of the experimenter. The predictive validity of the norms was demonstrated in analyses of lexical decision data from the English Lexicon Project (Balota et al., Behavior Research Methods, 39, 445-459, 2007), and from Armstrong and Plaut (Proceedings of the 33rd Annual Meeting of the Cognitive Science Society, 2223-2228, 2011). On the basis of these results, our norming method obviates relying on the unsubstantiated assumptions involved in estimating relative meaning frequencies on the basis of classification of free associates. Additional details of the norming procedure, the meaning frequency norms, and the source code, standalone binaries, and user manual for the software are available at http://edom.cnbc.cmu.edu .},
author = {Armstrong, Blair C. and Tokowicz, Natasha and Plaut, David C.},
doi = {10.3758/s13428-012-0199-8},
isbn = {1554-3528 (Electronic)$\backslash$r1554-351X (Linking)},
issn = {1554351X},
journal = {Behavior Research Methods},
keywords = {Free associate classification,Homonyms,Homonymy disadvantage,Norming methods,Rating dictionary definitions,Relative meaning frequency,Semantic ambiguity},
number = {4},
pages = {1015--1027},
pmid = {22477438},
title = {{eDom: Norming software and relative meaning frequencies for 544 English homonyms}},
volume = {44},
year = {2012}
}
@misc{White2004,
abstract = {Homophones are words that share phonology but differ in meaning and spelling (e.g., beach, beech). This article presents the results of normative surveys that asked young and older adults to free associate to and rate the dominance of 197 homophones. Although norms exist for young adults on word familiarity and frequency for homophones, these results supplement the literature by (1) reporting the four most frequent responses to visually presented homophones for both young and older adults, and (2) reporting young and older adults' ratings of homophone dominance. Results indicated that young and older adults gave the same first response to 67{\%} of the homophones and rated homophone dominance similarly on 60{\%} of the homophone sets. These results identify a subset of homophones that are preferable for research with young and older adults because of age-related equivalence in free association and dominance ratings. These norms can be downloaded from the Psychonomic Society's Web archive, www.psychonomic.org/archive/.},
author = {White, Katherine K. and Abrams, Lise},
booktitle = {Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, and Computers},
doi = {10.3758/BF03195589},
issn = {07433808},
number = {3},
pages = {408--420},
pmid = {15641431},
title = {{Free associations and dominance ratings of homophones for young and older adults}},
volume = {36},
year = {2004}
}
@article{Scott1969,
abstract = {Mean probabilities of acoustic confusability were computed for 1172 CCC trigrams chosen at random from Witmer?s list of association values, and the results were tabulated. ? 1969, Psychonomic Journals, Inc.. All rights reserved.},
author = {Scott, Denise and Baddeley, A. D.},
doi = {10.3758/BF03332782},
issn = {00333131},
journal = {Psychonomic Science},
number = {4},
pages = {189--190},
title = {{Acoustic confusability values for 1172 CCC trigrams}},
volume = {14},
year = {1969}
}
@article{Rubin1981,
abstract = {First- and second-order approximations to English and orthographic neighbor ratio values are provided for Paivio, Yuille, and Madigan's (1968) 925 nouns. First- and second-order approximations to English are information theory measures of the probability of generating a word on a letter-by-letter basis. The orthographic neighbor ratio is the frequency of a word divided by the sum of the frequencies of all words that can be generated by changing one of its letters. Thus, the orthographic neighbor ratio provides a measure of a sophisticated guessing model in which partial information about a word is obtained and a decision is made on the basis of the relative frequencies of the possible responses. Correlations with existing norms are reported.},
author = {Rubin, David C.},
doi = {10.3758/BF03207956},
issn = {1554351X},
journal = {Behavior Research Methods {\&} Instrumentation},
number = {6},
pages = {713--721},
title = {{First-order approximation to English, second-order approximation to English, and orthographic neighbor ratio norms for 925 nouns}},
volume = {13},
year = {1981}
}
@article{Chaffin1981,
abstract = {Six groups of subjects rated word pairs for the degree to which they exemplified one of six semantic relationships. The relationships that subjects were instructed to rate were antonymy, synonymity, subordination, superordination, coordination, and similarity. Stimulus pairs represented antonyms, synonyms, subordinates, superordinates, and coordinates. The pairs representing each stimulus relationship varied across four levels of typicality, ranging from good examples of the relationship to unrelated pairs. The highest rating in each group was given to the stimulus relationship corresponding to the relationship being judged (e.g., antonyms received the highest rating under antonym judgment instructions). This interaction was strongest for high-typicality pairs and decreased across the levels of typicality. Semantic decision models cannot explain these results unless the models are modified so that decisions are based on relationship similarity, the degree to which a stimulus pair exemplifies the relationship subjects are instructed to judge.},
author = {Chaffin, Roger J.S. and Herrmann, Douglas J.},
doi = {10.3758/BF03333670},
isbn = {0200690450},
issn = {00905054},
journal = {Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society},
number = {2},
pages = {69--72},
title = {{Comprehension of semantic relationships and the generality of categorization models}},
volume = {17},
year = {1981}
}
@article{Posnansky1978,
abstract = {Three hundred and seventy-five children in Grades 2, 3, 4, and 6 were asked to generate instances of 25 different categories within a time period of 1 min per category. Data were tallied so that category instances are ranked as to proportion of subjects making each response at each grade level. Indications of the average number of category instances generated by children at each grade level within each category are provided.},
author = {Posnansky, Carla J.},
doi = {10.3758/BF03205407},
issn = {1554351X},
journal = {Behavior Research Methods {\&} Instrumentation},
number = {6},
pages = {819--832},
title = {{Category norms for verbal items in 25 categories for children in Grades 2-6}},
volume = {10},
year = {1978}
}
@article{Hunt1971,
abstract = {200 male and 200 female undergraduates from a southern university rated the meaningfulness (m') of 84 word categories on a 7-point scale and then subsequently provided 4 instances of each category. The ratings of the category names served as the basis of separate m scales for males, females, and both together. The 84 categories are arranged in decreasing order of overall category-name M. Within each category, the frequency of occurrence of the category instances was also tabulated separately for males, females, and both together. The norms are compared with those of other experiments. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2000 APA, all rights reserved)},
author = {Hunt, Karl P and Hodge, Milton H},
journal = {Psychonomic Monograph Supplements},
keywords = {Classification (Cognitive Process),Meaningfulness,Words (Phonetic Units)},
number = {6},
pages = {97--121},
pmid = {368267},
title = {{Category-Item Frequency and Category-Name Meaningfulness (M'): Taxonomic Norms for 84 Categories}},
volume = {4},
year = {1971}
}
@article{Loess1969,
abstract = {2 samples, totaling 470 undergraduates, were given booklets containing names of common taxonomic categories and wrote 4 examples of each. Data were obtained for 30 categories; for each category, a list was compiled ranking words according to their frequencies of occurrence as responses to the category name. For 1 sample, rank-order correlations were obtained comparing 3 different methods of tallying the data: (a) an unweighted frequency count, (b) a weighted frequency, and (c) the frequency of a word as the 1st or dominant response. Additional correlations were obtained comparing (a) the 2 samples, (b) males and females, and, where applicable, (c) the combined sample and data of W. A. Bousfield, B. H. Cohen, and G. A. Whitmarsh. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2000 APA, all rights reserved)},
author = {Loess, Henry and Brown, Alan and Campbell, John},
journal = {Psychonomic Monograph Supplements},
keywords = {Classification (Cognitive Process),Culture (Anthropological),Psychodiagnostic Typologies,Responses,Statistical Correlation},
number = {7},
pages = {69--86},
pmid = {327920},
title = {{Cultural Norms for Items in 30 Taxonomic Categories}},
volume = {3},
year = {1969}
}
@article{Maridaki-Kassotaki1997,
abstract = {Examined whether a rating-based procedure that has already been used by other investigators can be used for derivation of typicality ratings from children. In Exp 1, 96 kindergartners (aged 4.3-6 yrs) generated typicality for items belonging to each of 4 categories. The same Ss participated in Exp 2, in which they were asked to generate attributes for the members of 4 categories for the benefit of 2 people from another planet who had no knowledge about the particular items. In Exp 3, with 120 university students (aged 19-21.3 yrs), the correspondence between adults' family resemblance and typicality ratings on the same materials was tested. Results show that the procedure cannot be reliably used for this purpose; children rated category items in terms of personal preferences rather than as a function of how representative they considered the items to be of their superordinate category. On the basis of these findings, the authors propose an alternative method based on the family resemblance scores of the category members to derive typicality ratings from young children. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)},
author = {Maridaki-Kassotaki, Katerina},
doi = {10.3758/BF03200590},
isbn = {0743-3808},
issn = {07433808},
journal = {Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, and Computers},
number = {3},
pages = {376--385},
title = {{Are rating-based procedures reliable for derivation of typicality judgments from children?}},
volume = {29},
year = {1997}
}
@article{Uyeda1980,
abstract = {The extent to which an item is a prototypical exemplar of a category has been found to predict several experimental results (e.g.,reaction times in category classification, free and cued recall of lists, release from proactive inhibition in recall). We present prototypicality ratings for 840 words, equally distributed over 28 categories. The categories were taken from Battig and Montague's (1969) normative tables; only those categories that contained "concrete" items in common usage were employed in the study. Intragroup reliability correlations were high for all categories tested, as were the correlations for prototypicality ratings between the present study and that of Rosch (1975). In addition, correlations between prototypicality ratings, production frequencies, and word frequencies of the items are given.},
author = {Uyeda, Katherine M. and Mandler, George},
doi = {10.3758/BF03201848},
isbn = {0605874395},
issn = {1554351X},
journal = {Behavior Research Methods {\&} Instrumentation},
number = {6},
pages = {587--595},
pmid = {649217},
title = {{Prototypicality norms for 28 semantic categories}},
volume = {12},
year = {1980}
}
@article{Gruenenfelder1984,
abstract = {Although the typicality effect has been much studied in the semantic memory literature, typ-icality ratings exist for exemplars from only a very limited number of categories. This lack of ratings frequently limits the range of stimuli that can be used in investigations of the typicality effect. As an aid in stimulus construction, this paper reports typicality ratings of 893 exemplars from 93 different categories.},
author = {Gruenenfelder, Thomas M.},
doi = {10.3758/BF03202461},
issn = {07433808},
journal = {Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, {\&} Computers},
number = {4},
pages = {351--354},
title = {{Typicality ratings for 893 exemplars of 93 categories}},
volume = {16},
year = {1984}
}
@article{Mayzner1965b,
abstract = {PRESENTS TABLES, BASED ON A SAMPLE OF 20,000 ENGLISH WORDS, WHICH SHOW SINGLE-LETTER AND DIGRAM FREQUENCY COUNTS BROKEN DOWN TO ACCOUNT FOR ALL WORD-LENGTH AND LETTER-POSITION COMBINATIONS, FOR WORDS 3-7 LETTERS IN LENGTH. THESE TABLES ARE SIMILAR TO THOSE OF PRATT AND OF UNDERWOOD AND SCHULZ, BUT IN ADDITION ALLOW FOR THE ASSESSMENT OF FREQUENCIES FOR ALL WORD-LENGTH AND LETTER-POSITION VARIATIONS IN THE WORD SAMPLE. THE TABLES MAY BE EMPLOYED TO PROVIDE NORMATIVE FREQUENCY DATA FOR STUDIES IN VERBAL LEARNING AND RETENTION, ANAGRAM PROBLEM SOLVING, WORD RECOGNITION THRESHOLDS, LINGUISTIC ANALYSES, ETC. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)},
author = {Mayzner, M. S. and Tresselt, M. E.},
journal = {Psychonomic Monograph Supplements},
pages = {13--32},
title = {{Tables of single-letter and digram frequency counts for various word-length and letter-position combinations}},
volume = {Vol 1(2)},
year = {1965}
}
@article{Solso1979,
abstract = {The positional frequency and versatility of letters were tabulated for six-, seven-, and eight-letter English words.},
author = {Solso, Robert L.},
doi = {10.3758/BF03205676},
issn = {1554351X},
journal = {Behavior Research Methods {\&} Instrumentation},
number = {3},
pages = {355--358},
title = {{Positional frequency and versatility of letters for six-, seven-, and eight-letter English words}},
volume = {11},
year = {1979}
}
@misc{Cortese2004,
abstract = {Imageability ratings made on a 1-7 scale and reaction times for 3,000 monosyllabic words were obtained from 31 participants. Analyses comparing these ratings to 1,153 common words from Toglia and Battig (1978) indicate that these ratings are valid. Reliability was assessed (alpha = .95). The information obtained in this study adds to that of other normative studies and is useful to researchers interested in manipulating or controlling imageability in word recognition and memory studies. These norms can be downloaded from www.psychonomic.org/archive/.},
author = {Cortese, Michael J. and Fugett, April},
booktitle = {Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, and Computers},
doi = {10.3758/BF03195585},
isbn = {0743-3808, Print},
issn = {07433808},
number = {3},
pages = {384--387},
pmid = {15641427},
title = {{Imageability ratings for 3,000 monosyllabic words}},
volume = {36},
year = {2004}
}
@article{Katz1983,
abstract = {Used 2 techniques to gather data on property dominance and property goodness. Sensory properties of verbally depicted items, such as those of color or shape, were indexed for dominance (frequency of output) and typicality (perceptual goodness). 193 college students were each assigned to 1 of 4 conditions. The most dominant property response was computed for 105 nouns by 1 group. A 2nd group rated these properties for typicality, relative to a constituent property (i.e., given one's idea of yellow, how typically "yellow" were specific items?). A 3rd group produced as many properties as possible for each of 65 nouns. Dominance was computed for all 459 properties so produced. The 4th group rated these 459 properties for typicality relative to the parent noun. A multimethod-multitrait analysis indicated that both typicality and dominance were reliable and that both exhibited convergent and discriminant validity. Typicality measured relative to an ideal property exhibited greater discriminant validity from dominance than when measured relative to the parent noun. Selected uses of these norms in studies of semantic memory, metaphor judgment, and concept identification are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Copyright 1983 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)},
author = {Katz, Albert N.},
doi = {10.3758/BF03203434},
issn = {1554351X},
journal = {Behavior Research Methods {\&} Instrumentation},
number = {1},
pages = {29--38},
title = {{Dominance and typicality norms for properties: Convergent and discriminant validity}},
volume = {15},
year = {1983}
}
@article{Gilhooly1978,
abstract = {To assist research in anagram solving, this paper presents bigram statistics for 205 5-letter words known to form single-solution anagrams. Imagery, concreteness, age-of-acquisition, familiarity, and meaningfulness values for these words have previously been published. The bigram statistics presented here include the bigram rank and GTZERO (a variable involving the number of nonzero entries in the bigram frequency matrix) measures recently devised and tested by G. A. Mendelsohn (1976). ((c) 1999 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)},
author = {Gilhooly, K. J.},
doi = {10.3758/BF03205158},
isbn = {0005-7878},
issn = {1554351X},
journal = {Behavior Research Methods {\&} Instrumentation},
number = {3},
pages = {389--392},
title = {{Bigram statistics for 205 five-letter words having single-solution anagrams}},
volume = {10},
year = {1978}
}
@article{Bennett2011,
abstract = {We collected imageability and body-object interaction (BOI) ratings for 599 multisyllabic nouns. We then examined the effects of these variables on a subset of these items in picture-naming, word-naming, lexical decision, and semantic categorization. Picture-naming latencies were taken from the International Picture-Naming Project database (Szekely, Jacobsen, D'Amico, Devescovi, Andonova, Herron, et al. Journal of Memory and Language, 51, 247-250, 2004), word-naming and lexical decision latencies were taken from the English Lexicon Project database (Balota, Yap, Cortese, Hutchison, Kessler, Loftis, et al. Behavior Research Methods, 39, 445-459, 2007), and we collected semantic categorization latencies. Results from hierarchical multiple regression analyses showed that imageability and BOI separately accounted for unique latency variability in each task, even with several other predictor variables (e.g., print frequency, number of syllables and morphemes, age of acquisition) entered first in the analyses. These ratings should be useful to researchers interested in manipulating or controlling for the effects of imageability and BOI for multisyllabic stimuli in lexical and semantic tasks.},
author = {Bennett, Stephen D.R. and Burnett, A. Nicole and Siakaluk, Paul D. and Pexman, Penny M.},
doi = {10.3758/s13428-011-0117-5},
isbn = {1554-351X},
issn = {1554351X},
journal = {Behavior Research Methods},
keywords = {Embodied cognition,Linguistic conceptual processing},
number = {4},
pages = {1100--1109},
pmid = {21681627},
title = {{Imageability and body-object interaction ratings for 599 multisyllabic nouns}},
volume = {43},
year = {2011}
}
@misc{Clark2004,
abstract = {372 CLARK AND PAIVIO Shoben, 1983), and as theoretical critics questioned the proposed nature of imagery (e.g., Pylyshyn, 1973). Research on item attributes continues to become more sophisticated in a variety of ways, including considera-tion of larger numbers of properties (e.g., Paivio et al., 1989; Rubin, 1980), and serious efforts to model and simulate the effects of stimulus attributes (e.g., Ellis {\&} Lambon Ralph, 2000). Computers have played a central role in both of these developments. The multivariate and simulation studies that might ultimately contribute to the emergence of theoretical models with strong empirical foundations has increased demand for large item pools and increased numbers of properties. The need for a greater number of properties and items follows from the essentially nonexperimental nature of item attribute research. Although researchers may exper-imentally assign different types of materials to different subjects, they generally do not and in some cases cannot experimentally manipulate the property or properties of interest (although such experimental approaches have been used in some cases). Rather, the properties are gen-erally measured in some fashion, and these measures will invariably correlate with other properties that might produce spurious effects or mask the effects of the target attributes. The primary way to address this problem, as in any nonexperimental research, is to identify diverse potentially contaminating constructs, obtain reliable and valid measures, and either control them in the selection of materials or include them in statistical analyses that can accommodate correlated factors (e.g., multiple re-gression, factor analysis, structural equation modeling). In addition to serving this control function, the col-lection of a large number of properties can itself provide information useful in the conceptualization of various item attributes. We can illustrate with one controversial question—the relative importance of frequency and age of acquisition in picture naming and other semantic re-trieval tasks (Morrison {\&} Ellis, 2000). Paivio et al. (1989) obtained picture naming and imagery latencies for a moderate-sized pool of pictures and their most common labels. Information on a wide range of properties, in-cluding age of acquisition, was also obtained. Factor analysis of the results indicated that age of acquisition loaded on several different factors (e.g., familiarity, con-creteness, name length), all of which contributed to pic-ture naming latencies. One interpretation of this result is that age of acquisition is a multidimensional measure that taps a number of distinct properties of words and pictures, hence its superiority to single-component pre-dictors in multiple regression analyses. More specula-tively, one might hypothesize that people rating age of acquisition are actually making judgments of how con-crete, short, and familiar items are, and that children in fact first learn words that tend to be concrete, short, and familiar. Generalization across items provides yet another rea-son to continue the development of item norms for use in cognitive research and theorizing. No single set of norms will ever suffice, because results can depend on the par-ticular pool of items that have been included in the norms. Despite the large corpus of materials on which the Ku{\v{c}}era and Francis (1967) frequency norms are based, for exam-ple, abstract words are still probably overrepresented just because of the types of text that dominate the corpus (e.g., literary and academic materials). It is therefore im-portant to continue to develop additional norms to per-mit evaluation of the generality of findings across di-verse word pools. Another facet of the generalization issue is the possi-bility of generational or cohort differences across ex-tended periods of time. With respect to word familiarity, for example, exposure to and knowledge of particular words might differ today from ratings, like those in the PYM norms, collected during the 1960s. New norms and replication of existing properties allow researchers to de-termine the continuing validity of norms collected years and in some cases decades ago. This article reports two extensions of the PYM norms. Part 1 reports a marked expansion of the number of prop-erties available for the original 925 PYM items, and Part 2 reports an expansion of the number of items for which basic properties are available. We also provide re-sults of factor analyses for both extensions, with the analysis in Part 1 being particularly informative about interrelationships among a diverse collection of word properties.},
author = {Clark, James M. and Paivio, Allan},
booktitle = {Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, and Computers},
doi = {10.3758/BF03195584},
isbn = {0743-3808 U6 - ctx{\_}ver=Z39.88-2004{\&}ctx{\_}enc=info{\%}3Aofi{\%}2Fenc{\%}3AUTF-8{\&}rfr{\_}id=info:sid/summon.serialssolutions.com{\&}rft{\_}val{\_}fmt=info:ofi/fmt:kev:mtx:journal{\&}rft.genre=article{\&}rft.atitle=Extensions+of+the+Paivio{\%}2C+Yuille{\%}2C+and+Madigan+{\%}281968{\%}29+norms{\&}rft.jtitle=Behavior+Research+Methods{\%}2C+Instruments{\%}2C+{\%}26+Computers{\&}rft.au=Clark{\%}2C+James+M{\&}rft.au=Paivio{\%}2C+Allan{\&}rft.date=2004-08-01{\&}rft.pub=Springer-Verlag{\&}rft.issn=0743-3808{\&}rft.volume=36{\&}rft.issue=3{\&}rft.spage=371{\&}rft.epage=383{\&}rft{\_}id=info:doi/10},
issn = {07433808},
number = {3},
pages = {371--383},
pmid = {15641426},
title = {{Extensions of the Paivio, Yuille, and Madigan (1968) norms}},
volume = {36},
year = {2004}
}
@article{Surprenant1999,
abstract = {Ratings of familiarity and pronounceability were obtained for a sample of 199 names and 199 nouns. Frequency and familiarity were more closely related in the proper name pool than the word pool, although the correlation was modest in both cases. Familiarity and pronounceability were highly related for both names and nouns.},
author = {Surprenant, Aim{\'{e}}e M. and Hura, Susan L. and Harper, Mary P. and Jamieson, Leah H. and Long, Glenis and Thede, Scott M. and Rout, Ayasakanta and Hsueh, Tsung Hsiang and Hockema, Stephen A. and Johnson, Michael T. and Srinivasan, Pramila N. and White, Christopher M. and Laflen, J. Brandon},
doi = {10.3758/BF03200740},
issn = {07433808},
journal = {Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, and Computers},
number = {4},
pages = {638--649},
pmid = {10633979},
title = {{Familiarity and pronounceability of nouns and names}},
volume = {31},
year = {1999}
}
@article{Topper1973,
abstract = {Notes that anagram solution time may be affected by bigrams in the solution word. A data base is presented from which solution anagrams may be created based on bigram frequency and versatility.},
author = {Topper, Gene E. and Macey, William H. and Solso, Robert L.},
doi = {10.3758/BF03200121},
issn = {1554351X},
journal = {Behavior Research Methods {\&} Instrumentation},
number = {1},
pages = {51--53},
title = {{Bigram versatility and bigram frequency}},
volume = {5},
year = {1973}
}
@misc{Jones2004,
abstract = {We tabulated upper- and lowercase letter frequency using several large-scale English corpora (approximately 183 million words in total). The results indicate that the relative frequencies for upper- and lowercase letters are not equivalent. We report a letter-naming experiment in which uppercase frequency predicted response time to uppercase letters better than did lowercase frequency. Tables of case-sensitive letter and bigram frequency are provided, including common nonalphabetic characters. Because subjects are sensitive to frequency relationships among letters, we recommend that experimenters use case-sensitive counts when constructing stimuli from letters.},
author = {Jones, Michael N. and Mewhort, D. J.K.},
booktitle = {Behavior Research Methods