text:
Special Issue entitled SI: Prediction and Attention.},
  journaltitle = {Brain Research},
  shortjournal = {Brain Research},
  series = {Predictive and {{Attentive Processing}} in {{Perception}} and {{Action}}},
  urldate = {2015-12-01},
  date = {2015-11-11},
  pages = {97-107},
  keywords = {Predictability,expectation,Continuity illusion,Human event-related potential (ERP),P50},
  author = {Bendixen, Alexandra and Duwe, Susann and Reiche, Martin},
  file = {D\:\\Sauve\\Zotero\\storage\\USRTRTHF\\Bendixen et al. - 2015 - Noise occlusion in discrete tone sequences as a to.pdf;D\:\\Sauve\\Zotero\\storage\\3WD63H4B\\S0006899315005272.html}
}

@article{horvathActionrelatedAuditoryERP2015,
  title = {Action-Related Auditory {{ERP}} Attenuation: {{Paradigms}} and Hypotheses},
  volume = {1626},
  issn = {0006-8993},
  url = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006899315002735},
  doi = {10.1016/j.brainres.2015.03.038},
  shorttitle = {Action-Related Auditory {{ERP}} Attenuation},
  abstract = {A number studies have shown that the auditory N1 event-related potential (ERP) is attenuated when elicited by self-induced or self-generated sounds. Because N1 is a correlate of auditory feature- and event-detection, it was generally assumed that N1-attenuation reflected the cancellation of auditory re-afference, enabled by the internal forward modeling of the predictable sensory consequences of the given action. Focusing on paradigms utilizing non-speech actions, the present review summarizes recent progress on action-related auditory attenuation. Following a critical analysis of the most widely used, contingent paradigm, two further hypotheses on the possible causes of action-related auditory ERP attenuation are presented. The attention hypotheses suggest that auditory ERP attenuation is brought about by a temporary division of attention between the action and the auditory stimulation. The pre-activation hypothesis suggests that the attenuation is caused by the activation of a sensory template during the initiation of the action, which interferes with the incoming stimulation. Although each hypothesis can account for a number of findings, none of them can accommodate the whole spectrum of results. It is suggested that a better understanding of auditory ERP attenuation phenomena could be achieved by systematic investigations of the types of actions, the degree of action–effect contingency, and the temporal characteristics of action–effect contingency representation-buildup and -deactivation.

This article is part of a Special Issue entitled SI: Prediction and Attention.},
  journaltitle = {Brain Research},
  shortjournal = {Brain Research},
  series = {Predictive and {{Attentive Processing}} in {{Perception}} and {{Action}}},
  urldate = {2015-12-01},
  date = {2015-11-11},
  pages = {54-65},
  keywords = {Attention,Prediction,HEARING,Event-related potentials (ERP),Forward modeling},
  author = {Horváth, János},
  file = {D\:\\Sauve\\Zotero\\storage\\E3FNS5MB\\Horváth - 2015 - Action-related auditory ERP attenuation Paradigms.pdf;D\:\\Sauve\\Zotero\\storage\\6WUE6FB6\\S0006899315002735.html}
}

@article{gregoriouOscillatorySynchronyMechanism2015,
  title = {Oscillatory Synchrony as a Mechanism of Attentional Processing},
  volume = {1626},
  issn = {0006-8993},
  url = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006899315000840},
  doi = {10.1016/j.brainres.2015.02.004},
  abstract = {The question of how the brain selects which stimuli in our visual field will be given priority to enter into perception, to guide our actions and to form our memories has been a matter of intense research in studies of visual attention. Work in humans and animal models has revealed an extended network of areas involved in the control and maintenance of attention. For many years, imaging studies in humans constituted the main source of a systems level approach, while electrophysiological recordings in non-human primates provided insight into the cellular mechanisms of visual attention. Recent technological advances and the development of sophisticated analytical tools have allowed us to bridge the gap between the two approaches and assess how neuronal ensembles across a distributed network of areas interact in visual attention tasks. A growing body of evidence suggests that oscillatory synchrony plays a crucial role in the selective communication of neuronal populations that encode the attended stimuli. Here, we discuss data from theoretical and electrophysiological studies, with more emphasis on findings from humans and non-human primates that point to the relevance of oscillatory activity and synchrony for attentional processing and behavior. These findings suggest that oscillatory synchrony in specific frequencies reflects the biophysical properties of specific cell types and local circuits and allows the brain to dynamically switch between different spatio-temporal patterns of activity to achieve flexible integration and selective routing of information along selected neuronal populations according to behavioral demands.

This article is part of a Special Issue entitled SI: Prediction and Attention.},
  journaltitle = {Brain Research},
  shortjournal = {Brain Research},
  series = {Predictive and {{Attentive Processing}} in {{Perception}} and {{Action}}},
  urldate = {2015-12-01},
  date = {2015-11-11},
  pages = {165-182},
  keywords = {Attention,synchrony,Alpha,Beta,Gamma,Interareal communication,Oscillations},
  author = {Gregoriou, Georgia G and Paneri, Sofia and Sapountzis, Panagiotis},
  file = {D\:\\Sauve\\Zotero\\storage\\8T2QU5NE\\Gregoriou et al. - 2015 - Oscillatory synchrony as a mechanism of attentiona.pdf;D\:\\Sauve\\Zotero\\storage\\TWX8V48B\\S0006899315000840.html}
}

@article{bauerAuditoryDynamicAttending2015,
  title = {The Auditory Dynamic Attending Theory Revisited: {{A}} Closer Look at the Pitch Comparison Task},
  volume = {1626},
  issn = {0006-8993},
  url = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006899315003285},
  doi = {10.1016/j.brainres.2015.04.032},
  shorttitle = {The Auditory Dynamic Attending Theory Revisited},
  abstract = {The dynamic attending theory as originally proposed by Jones, 1976. Psychol. Rev. 83(5), 323–355 posits that tone sequences presented at a regular rhythm entrain attentional oscillations and thereby facilitate the processing of sounds presented in phase with this rhythm. The increased interest in neural correlates of dynamic attending requires robust behavioral indicators of the phenomenon. Here we aimed to replicate and complement the most prominent experimental implementation of dynamic attending (Jones et al., 2002. Psychol. Sci. 13(4), 313–319). The paradigm uses a pitch comparison task in which two tones, the initial and the last of a longer series, have to be compared. In-between the two, distractor tones with variable pitch are presented, at a regular pace. A comparison tone presented in phase with the entrained rhythm is hypothesized to lead to better behavioral performance. Aiming for a conceptual replication, four different variations of the original paradigm were created which were followed by an exact replication attempt. Across all five experiments, only 40 of the 140 tested participants showed the hypothesized pattern of an inverted U-shaped profile in task accuracy, and the group average effects did not replicate the pattern reported by Jones et al., 2002. Psychol. Sci. 13(4), 313–319 in any of the five experiments. However, clear evidence for a relationship between musicality and overall behavioral performance was found. This study casts doubt on the suitability of the pitch comparison task for demonstrating auditory dynamic attending. We discuss alternative tasks that have been shown to support dynamic attending theory, thus lending themselves more readily to studying its neural correlates.

This article is part of a Special Issue entitled SI: Prediction and Attention.},
  journaltitle = {Brain Research},
  shortjournal = {Brain Research},
  series = {Predictive and {{Attentive Processing}} in {{Perception}} and {{Action}}},
  urldate = {2015-12-01},
  date = {2015-11-11},
  pages = {198-210},
  keywords = {Replication,Entrainment,Musicality,Temporal expectation},
  author = {Bauer, Anna-Katharina R. and Jaeger, Manuela and Thorne, Jeremy D. and Bendixen, Alexandra and Debener, Stefan},
  file = {D\:\\Sauve\\Zotero\\storage\\3ZNUZ42G\\Bauer et al. - 2015 - The auditory dynamic attending theory revisited A.pdf;D\:\\Sauve\\Zotero\\storage\\ABWWEZKJ\\S0006899315003285.html}
}

@article{parmentierSemanticAftermathDistraction2015,
  title = {The Semantic Aftermath of Distraction by Deviant Sounds: {{Crosstalk}} Interference Is Mediated by the Predictability of Semantic Congruency},
  volume = {1626},
  issn = {0006-8993},
  url = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006899315000542},
  doi = {10.1016/j.brainres.2015.01.034},
  shorttitle = {The Semantic Aftermath of Distraction by Deviant Sounds},
  abstract = {Rare changes in a stream of otherwise repeated task-irrelevant sounds break through selective attention and disrupt performance in an unrelated visual task. This deviance distraction effect emerges because deviant sounds violate the cognitive system’s predictions. In this study we sought to examine whether predictability also mediate the so-called semantic effect whereby behavioral performance suffers from the clash between the involuntary semantic evaluation of irrelevant sounds and the voluntary processing of visual targets (e.g., when participants must categorize a right visual arrow following the presentation of the deviant sound “left”). By manipulating the conditional probabilities of the congruent and incongruent deviant sounds in a left/right arrow categorization task, we elicited implicit predictions about the upcoming target and related response. We observed a linear increase of the semantic effect with the proportion of congruent deviant trials (i.e., as deviant sounds increasingly predicted congruent targets). We conclude that deviant sounds affect response times based on a combination of crosstalk interference and two types of prediction violations: stimulus violations (violations of predictions regarding the identity of upcoming irrelevant sounds) and semantic violations (violations of predictions regarding the target afforded by deviant sounds). We report a three-parameter model that captures all key features of the observed RTs. Overall, our results fit with the view that the brain builds forward models of the environment in order to optimize cognitive processing and that control of one’s attention and actions is called upon when predictions are violated.

This article is part of a Special Issue entitled SI: Prediction and Attention.},
  journaltitle = {Brain Research},
  shortjournal = {Brain Research},
  series = {Predictive and {{Attentive Processing}} in {{Perception}} and {{Action}}},
  urldate = {2015-12-01},
  date = {2015-11-11},
  pages = {247-257},
  keywords = {Prediction,Distraction,AUDITORY attention,Deviant sounds,Oddball task},
  author = {Parmentier, Fabrice B. R. and Kefauver, Miriam},
  file = {D\:\\Sauve\\Zotero\\storage\\QGBM5S69\\Parmentier and Kefauver - 2015 - The semantic aftermath of distraction by deviant s.pdf;D\:\\Sauve\\Zotero\\storage\\27FMX7DR\\S0006899315000542.html}
}

@article{huettigFourCentralQuestions2015,
  title = {Four Central Questions about Prediction in Language Processing},
  volume = {1626},
  issn = {0006-8993},
  url = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006899315001146},
  doi = {10.1016/j.brainres.2015.02.014},
  abstract = {The notion that prediction is a fundamental principle of human information processing has been en vogue over recent years. The investigation of language processing may be particularly illuminating for testing this claim. Linguists traditionally have argued prediction plays only a minor role during language understanding because of the vast possibilities available to the language user as each word is encountered. In the present review I consider four central questions of anticipatory language processing: Why (i.e. what is the function of prediction in language processing)? What (i.e. what are the cues used to predict up-coming linguistic information and what type of representations are predicted)? How (what mechanisms are involved in predictive language processing and what is the role of possible mediating factors such as working memory)? When (i.e. do individuals always predict up-coming input during language processing)? I propose that prediction occurs via a set of diverse PACS (production-, association-, combinatorial-, and simulation-based prediction) mechanisms which are minimally required for a comprehensive account of predictive language processing. Models of anticipatory language processing must be revised to take multiple mechanisms, mediating factors, and situational context into account. Finally, I conjecture that the evidence considered here is consistent with the notion that prediction is an important aspect but not a fundamental principle of language processing.

This article is part of a Special Issue entitled SI: Prediction and Attention.},
  journaltitle = {Brain Research},
  shortjournal = {Brain Research},
  series = {Predictive and {{Attentive Processing}} in {{Perception}} and {{Action}}},
  urldate = {2015-12-01},
  date = {2015-11-11},
  pages = {118-135},
  keywords = {Prediction,Language processing},
  author = {Huettig, Falk},
  file = {D\:\\Sauve\\Zotero\\storage\\R8HH47FG\\Huettig - 2015 - Four central questions about prediction in languag.pdf;D\:\\Sauve\\Zotero\\storage\\G6RQHBHH\\S0006899315001146.html}
}

@article{stekelenburgPredictiveCodingVisual2015,
  title = {Predictive Coding of Visual–Auditory and Motor-Auditory Events: {{An}} Electrophysiological Study},
  volume = {1626},
  issn = {0006-8993},
  url = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006899315000566},
  doi = {10.1016/j.brainres.2015.01.036},
  shorttitle = {Predictive Coding of Visual–Auditory and Motor-Auditory Events},
  abstract = {The amplitude of auditory components of the event-related potential (ERP) is attenuated when sounds are self-generated compared to externally generated sounds. This effect has been ascribed to internal forward modals predicting the sensory consequences of one’s own motor actions. Auditory potentials are also attenuated when a sound is accompanied by a video of anticipatory visual motion that reliably predicts the sound. Here, we investigated whether the neural underpinnings of prediction of upcoming auditory stimuli are similar for motor-auditory (MA) and visual–auditory (VA) events using a stimulus omission paradigm. In the MA condition, a finger tap triggered the sound of a handclap whereas in the VA condition the same sound was accompanied by a video showing the handclap. In both conditions, the auditory stimulus was omitted in either 50\% or 12\% of the trials. These auditory omissions induced early and mid-latency ERP components (oN1 and oN2, presumably reflecting prediction and prediction error), and subsequent higher-order error evaluation processes. The oN1 and oN2 of MA and VA were alike in amplitude, topography, and neural sources despite that the origin of the prediction stems from different brain areas (motor versus visual cortex). This suggests that MA and VA predictions activate a sensory template of the sound in auditory cortex.

This article is part of a Special Issue entitled SI: Prediction and Attention.},
  journaltitle = {Brain Research},
  shortjournal = {Brain Research},
  series = {Predictive and {{Attentive Processing}} in {{Perception}} and {{Action}}},
  urldate = {2015-12-01},
  date = {2015-11-11},
  pages = {88-96},
  keywords = {predictive coding,event-related potentials,Motor–auditory,Stimulus omission,Visual–auditory},
  author = {Stekelenburg, Jeroen J. and Vroomen, Jean},
  file = {D\:\\Sauve\\Zotero\\storage\\X7WDS89T\\Stekelenburg and Vroomen - 2015 - Predictive coding of visual–auditory and motor-aud.pdf;D\:\\Sauve\\Zotero\\storage\\X8WWRKXE\\S0006899315000566.html}
}

@article{vargheseEvidenceAttentionalState2015,
  title = {Evidence against Attentional State Modulating Scalp-Recorded Auditory Brainstem Steady-State Responses},
  volume = {1626},
  issn = {0006-8993},
  url = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S000689931500520X},
  doi = {10.1016/j.brainres.2015.06.038},
  abstract = {Auditory brainstem responses (ABRs) and their steady-state counterpart (subcortical steady-state responses, SSSRs) are generally thought to be insensitive to cognitive demands. However, a handful of studies report that SSSRs are modulated depending on the subject׳s focus of attention, either towards or away from an auditory stimulus. Here, we explored whether attentional focus affects the envelope-following response (EFR), which is a particular kind of SSSR, and if so, whether the effects are specific to which sound elements in a sound mixture a subject is attending (selective auditory attentional modulation), specific to attended sensory input (inter-modal attentional modulation), or insensitive to attentional focus. We compared the strength of EFR-stimulus phase locking in human listeners under various tasks: listening to a monaural stimulus, selectively attending to a particular ear during dichotic stimulus presentation, and attending to visual stimuli while ignoring dichotic auditory inputs. We observed no systematic changes in the EFR across experimental manipulations, even though cortical EEG revealed attention-related modulations of alpha activity during the task. We conclude that attentional effects, if any, on human subcortical representation of sounds cannot be observed robustly using EFRs.

This article is part of a Special Issue entitled SI: Prediction and Attention.},
  journaltitle = {Brain Research},
  shortjournal = {Brain Research},
  series = {Predictive and {{Attentive Processing}} in {{Perception}} and {{Action}}},
  urldate = {2015-12-01},
  date = {2015-11-11},
  pages = {146-164},
  keywords = {Attention,auditory processing,Envelope-following response,FFR,Frequency-following response},
  author = {Varghese, Leonard and Bharadwaj, Hari M. and Shinn-Cunningham, Barbara G.},
  file = {D\:\\Sauve\\Zotero\\storage\\B2WNBJ8E\\Varghese et al. - 2015 - Evidence against attentional state modulating scal.pdf;D\:\\Sauve\\Zotero\\storage\\DX3CP6R5\\S000689931500520X.html}
}

@article{freyNotDifferentAll2015,
  title = {Not so Different after All: {{The}} Same Oscillatory Processes Support Different Types of Attention},
  volume = {1626},
  issn = {0006-8993},
  url = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006899315001171},
  doi = {10.1016/j.brainres.2015.02.017},
  shorttitle = {Not so Different after All},
  abstract = {Scientific research from the last two decades has provided a vast amount of evidence that brain oscillations reflect physiological activity enabling diverse cognitive processes. The goal of this review is to give a broad empirical and conceptual overview of how ongoing oscillatory activity may support attention processes. Keeping in mind that definitions of cognitive constructs like attention are prone to being blurry and ambiguous, the present review focuses mainly on the neural correlates of ‘top-down’ attention deployment. In particular, we will discuss modulations of (ongoing) oscillatory activity during spatial, temporal, selective, and internal attention. Across these seemingly distinct attentional domains, we will summarize studies showing the involvement of two oscillatory processes observed during attention deployment: power modulations mainly in the alpha band, and phase modulations in lower frequency bands.

This article is part of a Special Issue entitled SI: Prediction and Attention.},
  journaltitle = {Brain Research},
  shortjournal = {Brain Research},
  series = {Predictive and {{Attentive Processing}} in {{Perception}} and {{Action}}},
  urldate = {2015-12-01},
  date = {2015-11-11},
  pages = {183-197},
  keywords = {Attention,Alpha,Entrainment,Phase reset,Power},
  author = {Frey, Julia Natascha and Ruhnau, Philipp and Weisz, Nathan},
  file = {D\:\\Sauve\\Zotero\\storage\\9AJGQKF2\\Frey et al. - 2015 - Not so different after all The same oscillatory p.pdf;D\:\\Sauve\\Zotero\\storage\\6TTJH7CM\\S0006899315001171.html}
}

@article{horvathSimultaneouslyActivePreattentive2001,
  langid = {english},
  title = {Simultaneously Active Pre-Attentive Representations of Local and Global Rules for Sound Sequences in the Human Brain},
  volume = {12},
  issn = {0926-6410},
  abstract = {Regular sequences of sounds (i.e., non-random) can usually be described by several, equally valid rules. Rules allowing extrapolation from one sound to the next are termed local rules, those that define relations between temporally non-adjacent sounds are termed global rules. The aim of the present study was to determine whether both local and global rules can be simultaneously extracted from a sound sequence even when attention is directed away from the auditory stimuli. The pre-attentive representation of a sequence of two alternating tones (differing only in frequency) was investigated using the mismatch negativity (MMN) auditory event-related potential. Both local- and global-rule violations of tone alternation elicited the MMN component while subjects ignored the auditory stimuli. This finding suggests that (a) pre-attentive auditory processes can extract both local and global rules from sound sequences, and (b) that several regularity representations of a sound sequence are simultaneously maintained during the pre-attentive phase of auditory stimulus processing.},
  number = {1},
  journaltitle = {Brain Research. Cognitive Brain Research},
  shortjournal = {Brain Res Cogn Brain Res},
  date = {2001-08},
  pages = {131-144},
  keywords = {Attention,brain,electroencephalography,Memory,Acoustic Stimulation,humans,Adult,Female,Male,Evoked Potentials; Auditory,Adolescent},
  author = {Horváth, J. and Czigler, I. and Sussman, E. and Winkler, I.},
  eprinttype = {pmid},
  eprint = {11489616}
}

@article{bregmanAuditoryStreamingCumulative1978,
  title = {Auditory {{Streaming}} Is {{Cumulative}}},
  volume = {4},
  number = {3},
  journaltitle = {Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance},
  date = {1978},
  pages = {380-387},
  author = {{Bregman}}
}

@inproceedings{sauves.EffectMusicalTraining2014,
  location = {{Seoul, Korea}},
  title = {The {{Effect}} of {{Musical Training}} on {{Auditory Grouping}}},
  eventtitle = {{{ICMPC}} 13},
  booktitle = {Proceedings of the {{ICMPC}}-{{APSCOM}} 2014 {{Joint Conference}}},
  date = {2014},
  pages = {293-296},
  author = {{Sauvé, S.} and {Stewart, L.} and {Pearce, M.T.}},
  editor = {Kyoung Song, M.}
}

@inproceedings{gillardj.ImprovingEfficacyAuditory2012,
  location = {{Atlanta, GA.}},
  title = {Improving the Efficacy of Auditory Alarms in Medical Devices by Exploring the Effect of Amplitude Envelope on Learning and Retention.},
  eventtitle = {International {{Conference}} on {{Auditory Display}}},
  booktitle = {Proceedings of the {{International Conference}} on {{Auditory Display}}},
  date = {2012},
  pages = {240-241},
  author = {{Gillard, J.} and {Schutz, M.}}
}

@article{esberReconcilingInfluencePredictiveness2011,
  langid = {english},
  title = {Reconciling the Influence of Predictiveness and Uncertainty on Stimulus Salience: A Model of Attention in Associative Learning},
  volume = {278},
  issn = {0962-8452, 1471-2954},
  url = {http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/278/1718/2553},
  doi = {10.1098/rspb.2011.0836},
  shorttitle = {Reconciling the Influence of Predictiveness and Uncertainty on Stimulus Salience},
  abstract = {Theories of selective attention in associative learning posit that the salience of a cue will be high if the cue is the best available predictor of reinforcement (high predictiveness). In contrast, a different class of attentional theory stipulates that the salience of a cue will be high if the cue is an inaccurate predictor of reinforcement (high uncertainty). Evidence in support of these seemingly contradictory propositions has led to: (i) the development of hybrid attentional models that assume the coexistence of separate, predictiveness-driven and uncertainty-driven mechanisms of changes in cue salience; and (ii) a surge of interest in identifying the neural circuits underpinning these mechanisms. Here, we put forward a formal attentional model of learning that reconciles the roles of predictiveness and uncertainty in salience modification. The issues discussed are relevant to psychologists, behavioural neuroscientists and neuroeconomists investigating the roles of predictiveness and uncertainty in behaviour.},
  number = {1718},
  journaltitle = {Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences},
  urldate = {2015-09-30},
  date = {2011-09-07},
  pages = {2553-2561},
  author = {Esber, Guillem R. and Haselgrove, Mark},
  file = {D\:\\Sauve\\Zotero\\storage\\N42A6EDP\\Esber and Haselgrove - 2011 - Reconciling the influence of predictiveness and un.pdf;D\:\\Sauve\\Zotero\\storage\\452NHRRZ\\2553.html},
  eprinttype = {pmid},
  eprint = {21653585}
}

@article{ModelingAttentionAssociative,
  title = {Modeling Attention in Associative Learning: {{Two}} Processes or One? - {{Springer}}},
  url = {http://link.springer.com/article/10.3758/s13420-012-0084-4/fulltext.html},
  doi = {10.3758/s13420-012-0084-4},
  shorttitle = {Modeling Attention in Associative Learning},
  urldate = {2015-09-30},
  file = {D\:\\Sauve\\Zotero\\storage\\53AQBE8U\\fulltext.html}
}

@article{larsonMusicalForcesMelodic2004,
  eprinttype = {jstor},
  eprint = {10.1525/mp.2004.21.4.457},
  title = {Musical {{Forces}} and {{Melodic Expectations}}: {{Comparing Computer Models}} and {{Experimental Results}}},
  volume = {21},
  issn = {0730-7829},
  doi = {10.1525/mp.2004.21.4.457},
  shorttitle = {Musical {{Forces}} and {{Melodic Expectations}}},
  abstract = {Recent work on "musical forces" asserts that experienced listeners of tonal music not only talk about music in terms used to describe physical motion, but actually experience musical motion as if it were shaped by quantifiable analogues of physical gravity, magnetism, and inertia. This article presents a theory of melodic expectation based on that assertion, describes two computer models of aspects of that theory, and finds strong support for that theory in comparisons of the behavior of those models with the behavior of participants in several experiments. The following summary statement of the theory is explained and illustrated in the article: Experienced listeners of tonal music expect completions in which the musical forces of gravity, magnetism, and inertia control operations on alphabets in hierarchies of embellishment whose stepwise displacements of auralized traces create simple closed shapes. A "single-level" computer program models the operation of these musical forces on a single level of musical structure. Given a melodic beginning in a certain key, the model not only produces almost the same responses as experimental participants, but it also rates them in a similar way; the computer model gives higher ratings to responses that participants sing more often. In fact, the completions generated by this model match note-for-note the entire completions sung by participants in several psychological studies as often as the completions of any one of those participants matches those of the other participants. A "multilevel" computer program models the operation of these musical forces on multiple hierarchical levels. When the multilevel model is given a melodic beginning and a hierarchical description of its embellishment structure (i.e., a Schenkerian analysis of it), the model produces responses that reflect the operation of musical forces on all the levels of that hierarchical structure. Statistical analyses of the results of a number of experiments test hypotheses arising from the computer models' algorithm (S. Larson, 1993a) for the interaction of musical forces as well as from F. Lerdahl's similar (1996) algorithm. Further statistical analysis contrasts the explanatory power of the theory of musical forces with that of E. Narmour's (1990, 1992) implication-realization model. The striking agreement between computer-generated responses and experimental results suggests that the theory captures some important aspects of melodic expectation. Furthermore, the fact that these data can be modeled well by the interaction of constantly acting but contextually determined musical forces gives support to the idea that we experience musical motions metaphorically in terms of our experience of physical motions.},
  number = {4},
  journaltitle = {Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal},
  shortjournal = {Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal},
  date = {2004-06-01},
  pages = {457-498},
  author = {Larson, Stephen},
  file = {D\:\\Sauve\\Zotero\\storage\\XCN898KE\\McAdams - 2004 - Musical Forces and Melodic Expectations Comparing.pdf}
}

@article{alluriExploringPerceptualAcoustical2010,
  eprinttype = {jstor},
  eprint = {10.1525/mp.2010.27.3.223},
  title = {Exploring {{Perceptual}} and {{Acoustical Correlates}} of {{Polyphonic Timbre}}},
  volume = {27},
  issn = {0730-7829},
  doi = {10.1525/mp.2010.27.3.223},
  abstract = {POLYPHONIC TIMBRE HAS BEEN DEMONSTRATED TO BE an important element for computational categorization according to genre, style, mood, and emotions, but its perceptual constituents have received less attention. The work presented here comprises two experiments, Experiment 1, to devise a framework of subjective rating scales for quantifying the perceptual qualities of polyphonic timbre and Experiment 2, to rate short excerpts of Indian popular music and correlate them with computationally extracted acoustic features. A factor analysis of the ratings suggested three perceptual dimensions: Activity, Brightness, and Fullness. The present findings imply that there may be regularities and patterns in the way people perceive polyphonic timbre. Furthermore, the perceptual dimensions can be predicted relatively well by the regression models. Spectrotemporal modulations were found to be most relevant, while the well known polyphonic timbre descriptors, the Mel-Frequency Cepstral Coefficients, did not contribute significantly to any of the perceptual dimensions.},
  number = {3},
  journaltitle = {Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal},
  shortjournal = {Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal},
  date = {2010-02-01},
  pages = {223-242},
  keywords = {Auditory Perception,Music,timbre,acoustics,music perception,modeling,Perception,emotions,style,acoustic features,activity,bipolar scales,brightness,computational analysis,Emotional States,fullness,genre,mood,polyphonic timbre},
  author = {Alluri, Vinoo and Toiviainen, Petri},
  file = {D\:\\Sauve\\Zotero\\storage\\QNAHSCEV\\Alluri and Toiviainen - 2010 - Exploring Perceptual and Acoustical Correlates of .pdf}
}

@article{alluriEffectEnculturationSemantic2012,
  eprinttype = {jstor},
  eprint = {10.1525/mp.2012.29.3.297},
  title = {Effect of {{Enculturation}} on the {{Semantic}} and {{Acoustic Correlates}} of {{Polyphonic Timbre}}},
  volume = {29},
  issn = {0730-7829},
  doi = {10.1525/mp.2012.29.3.297},
  abstract = {polyphonic timbre perception was investigated in a cross-cultural context wherein Indian and Western nonmusicians rated short Indian and Western popular music excerpts (1.5 s, n = 200) on eight bipolar scales. Intrinsic dimensionality estimation revealed a higher number of perceptual dimensions in the timbre space for music from one's own culture. Factor analyses of Indian and Western participants' ratings resulted in highly similar factor solutions. The acoustic features that predicted the perceptual dimensions were similar across the two participant groups. Furthermore, both the perceptual dimensions and their acoustic correlates matched closely with the results of a previous study performed using Western musicians as participants. Regression analyses revealed relatively well performing models for the perceptual dimensions. The models displayed relatively high cross-validation performance. The findings suggest the presence of universal patterns in polyphonic timbre perception while demonstrating the increase of dimensionality of timbre space as a result of enculturation.},
  number = {3},
  journaltitle = {Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal},
  shortjournal = {Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal},
  date = {2012-02-01},
  pages = {297-310},
  keywords = {Music,timbre,acoustics,music perception,pitch perception,SEMANTICS,Cross Cultural Differences,enculturation,Indian & Western nonmusicians,Indian & Western popular music excerpts,polyphonic timbre perception,semantic & acoustic correlates,South Asian Cultural Groups},
  author = {Alluri, Vinoo and Toiviainen, Petri},
  file = {D\:\\Sauve\\Zotero\\storage\\R2XK7BQI\\Alluri and Toiviainen - 2012 - Effect of Enculturation on the Semantic and Acoust.pdf}
}

@article{eerolaTimbreAffectDimensions2012,
  eprinttype = {jstor},
  eprint = {10.1525/mp.2012.30.1.49},
  title = {Timbre and {{Affect Dimensions}}: {{Evidence}} from {{Affect}} and {{Similarity Ratings}} and {{Acoustic Correlates}} of {{Isolated Instrument Sounds}}},
  volume = {30},
  issn = {0730-7829},
  doi = {10.1525/mp.2012.30.1.49},
  shorttitle = {Timbre and {{Affect Dimensions}}},
  abstract = {considerable effort has been made towards understanding how acoustic and structural features contribute to emotional expression in music, but relatively little attention has been paid to the role of timbre in this process. Our aim was to investigate the role of timbre in the perception of affect dimensions in isolated musical sounds, by way of three behavioral experiments. In Experiment 1, participants evaluated perceived affects of 110 instrument sounds that were equal in duration, pitch, and dynamics using a three-dimensional affect model (valence, energy arousal, and tension arousal) and preference and emotional intensity. In Experiment 2, an emotional dissimilarity task was applied to a subset of the instrument sounds used in Experiment 1 to better reveal the underlying affect structure. In Experiment 3, the perceived affect dimensions as well as preference and intensity of a new set of 105 instrument sounds were rated by participants. These sounds were also uniform in pitch, duration, and playback dynamics but contained systematic manipulations in the dynamics of sound production, articulation, and ratio of high-frequency to low-frequency energy. The affect dimensions for all the experiments were then explained in terms of the three kinds of acoustic features extracted: spectral (e.g., ratio of high-frequency to low-frequency energy), temporal (e.g., attack slope), and spectro-temporal (e.g., spectral flux). High agreement among the participants' ratings across the experiments suggested that even isolated instrument sounds contain cues that indicate affective expression, and these are recognized as such by the listeners. A dominant portion (50-57\%) of the two dimensions of affect (valence and energy arousal) could be predicted by linear combinations of few acoustic features such as ratio of high-frequency to low-frequency energy, attack slope, and spectral regularity. Links between these features and those observed in the vocal expression of affects and other sound phenomena are discussed.},
  number = {1},
  journaltitle = {Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal},
  shortjournal = {Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal},
  date = {2012-09-01},
  pages = {49-70},
  keywords = {emotion,Pitch (Frequency),Auditory Stimulation,timbre,acoustics,music perception,Musical Instruments,pitch,acoustic correlates,instrument sound},
  author = {Eerola, Tuomas and Ferrer, Rafael and Alluri, Vinoo},
  file = {D\:\\Sauve\\Zotero\\storage\\I884EH93\\Eerola et al. - 2012 - Timbre and Affect Dimensions Evidence from Affect.pdf}
}

@article{temperleyProbabilisticModelsMelodic2014,
  eprinttype = {jstor},
  eprint = {10.1525/mp.2014.32.1.85},
  title = {Probabilistic {{Models}} of {{Melodic Interval}}},
  volume = {32},
  issn = {0730-7829},
  doi = {10.1525/mp.2014.32.1.85},
  abstract = {Two probabilistic models of melodic interval are compared. In the Markov model, the “interval probability” of a note is defined by the corpus frequency of its melodic interval (the interval to the previous note), conditioned on the previous one or two intervals; in the Gaussian model, the interval probability is a simple mathematical function of the size of the note’s melodic interval and its position in relation to the range of the melody. In both models, this interval probability is then multiplied by the probability of the note’s scale degree to yield its actual probability. The two models were tested on four corpora of tonal melodies using cross-entropy. The Markov model yielded a somewhat lower (better) cross-entropy than the Gaussian model, but is also much more complex, requiring far more parameters. The models were also tested on melodic expectation data, and on their ability to predict the distribution of intervals in a corpus. Possible ways of improving the models are discussed, as well as their broader implications for music cognition.},
  number = {1},
  journaltitle = {Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal},
  shortjournal = {Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal},
  date = {2014-09-01},
  pages = {85-99},
  keywords = {cognition,melody,model,expectation,music perception,Expectations,Models,corpus research,cross-entropy,Markov models,Probability},
  author = {Temperley, David},
  file = {D\:\\Sauve\\Zotero\\storage\\Q56HVU5H\\Temperley - 2014 - Probabilistic Models of Melodic Interval.pdf}
}

@article{witekEffectsPolyphonicContext2014,
  eprinttype = {jstor},
  eprint = {10.1525/mp.2014.32.2.201},
  title = {Effects of {{Polyphonic Context}}, {{Instrumentation}}, and {{Metrical Location}} on {{Syncopation}} in {{Music}}},
  volume = {32},
  issn = {0730-7829},
  abstract = {In music, the rhythms of different instruments are often syncopated against each other to create tension. Existing perceptual theories of syncopation cannot adequately model such kinds of syncopation since they assume monophony. This study investigates the effects of polyphonic context, instrumentation and metrical location on the salience of syncopations. Musicians and nonmusicians were asked to tap along to rhythmic patterns of a drum kit and rate their stability; in these patterns, syncopations occurred among different numbers of streams, with different instrumentation and at different metrical locations. The results revealed that the stability of syncopations depends on all these factors and music training, in variously interacting ways. It is proposed that listeners’ experiences of syncopations are shaped by polyphonic and instrumental configuration, metrical structure, and individual music training, and a number of possible mechanisms are considered, including the rhythms’ acoustic properties, ecological associations, statistical learning, and timbral differentiation.},
  number = {2},
  journaltitle = {Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal},
  shortjournal = {Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal},
  date = {2014-12-01},
  pages = {201-217},
  keywords = {Auditory Perception,Music,rhythm,timbre,polyphony,Rhythm,meter,Instrumentality,instrumentation,syncopation},
  author = {Witek, Maria A. G. and Clarke, Eric F. and Kringelbach, Morten L. and Vuust, Peter},
  file = {D\:\\Sauve\\Zotero\\storage\\NKQCPWTW\\Witek et al. - 2014 - Effects of Polyphonic Context, Instrumentation, an.pdf}
}

@article{huronVirtuousVexatiousAge2013,
  eprinttype = {jstor},
  eprint = {10.1525/mp.2013.31.1.4},
  title = {On the {{Virtuous}} and the {{Vexatious}} in an {{Age}} of {{Big Data}}},
  volume = {31},
  issn = {0730-7829},
  doi = {10.1525/mp.2013.31.1.4},
  number = {1},
  journaltitle = {Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal},
  shortjournal = {Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal},
  date = {2013-09-01},
  pages = {4-9},
  keywords = {Music,big data,computer use,Computers,Data Collection,Data Processing,Databases,Internet,large data sets,methodology,music research,Sample Size},
  author = {Huron, David},
  file = {D\:\\Sauve\\Zotero\\storage\\NUKSPIDC\\Huron - 2013 - On the Virtuous and the Vexatious in an Age of Big.pdf}
}

@article{princeTonalMetricHierarchyCorpus2014,
  eprinttype = {jstor},
  eprint = {10.1525/mp.2014.31.3.254},
  title = {The {{Tonal}}-{{Metric Hierarchy}}: {{A Corpus Analysis}}},
  volume = {31},
  issn = {0730-7829},
  doi = {10.1525/mp.2014.31.3.254},
  shorttitle = {The {{Tonal}}-{{Metric Hierarchy}}},
  abstract = {Despite the plethora of research on the role of tonality and meter in music perception, there is little work on how these fundamental properties function together. The most basic question is whether the two hierarchical structures are correlated – that is, do metrically stable positions in the measure preferentially feature tonally stable pitches, and do tonally stable pitches occur more often than not at metrically stable locations? To answer this question, we analyzed a corpus of compositions by Bach, Mozart, Beethoven, and Chopin, tabulating the frequency of occurrence of each of the 12 pitch classes at all possible temporal positions in the bar. There was a reliable relation between the tonal and metric hierarchies, such that tonally stable pitch classes and metrically stable temporal positions co-occurred beyond their simple joint probability. Further, the pitch class distribution at stable metric temporal positions agreed more with the tonal hierarchy than at less metrically stable locations. This tonal-metric hierarchy was largely consistent across composers, time signatures, and modes. The existence, profile, and constancy of the tonal-metric hierarchy is relevant to several areas of music cognition research, including pitch-time integration, statistical learning, and global effects of tonality.},
  number = {3},
  journaltitle = {Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal},
  shortjournal = {Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal},
  date = {2014-02-01},
  pages = {254-270},
  keywords = {cognition,Music,Theories,Pitch (Frequency),Pitch Discrimination,melody,rhythm,corpus,music perception,Rhythm,tonality,music cognition,History,music meter,pitch time integration theory},
  author = {Prince, Jon B. and Schmuckler, Mark A.},
  file = {D\:\\Sauve\\Zotero\\storage\\NKB9MQSQ\\Prince and Schmuckler - 2014 - The Tonal-Metric Hierarchy A Corpus Analysis.pdf}
}

@article{cambouropoulosMusicalParallelismMelodic2006,
  eprinttype = {jstor},
  eprint = {10.1525/mp.2006.23.3.249},
  title = {Musical {{Parallelism}} and {{Melodic Segmentation}}},
  volume = {23},
  issn = {0730-7829},
  doi = {10.1525/mp.2006.23.3.249},
  number = {3},
  journaltitle = {Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal},
  shortjournal = {Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal},
  date = {2006-02-01},
  pages = {249-268},
  keywords = {Music,music perception,computational model,Algorithms,grouping processes,melodic segmentation,musical parallelism},
  author = {Cambouropoulos, Emilios},
  file = {D\:\\Sauve\\Zotero\\storage\\GAVVCNC3\\Cambouropoulos - 2006 - Musical Parallelism and Melodic Segmentation.pdf}
}

@article{londonExamplesComplexMeters1995,
  eprinttype = {jstor},
  eprint = {40285685},
  title = {Some {{Examples}} of {{Complex Meters}} and {{Their Implications}} for {{Models}} of {{Metric Perception}}},
  volume = {13},
  issn = {0730-7829},
  doi = {10.2307/40285685},
  abstract = {A music-theoretic discussion of metric structure. Describing a musical passage as "metric" usually implies that one can hear in it an isochronous series of beats and that these beats are hierarchically structured. In some cases, however, one cannot infer a wholly isochronous metric structure from the durations present on the musical surface. In particular, there may be some meters where the beat level of the metric hierarchy consists of a nonisochronous series of durations; these cases are referred to as complex meters, A number of these complex metric structures are presented and discussed. The implications of these structures for various models of metric perception are then considered, with particular reference to their implications for the entrainment model proposed by Jones and Boltz (1989). It is proposed that such meters must be accounted for under an additive rather than multiplicative formalism. The paper concludes with some considerations of how entrainment to complex meters might be tested, as well as the ways in which experiments that focus on complex meters might provide insights into other aspects of temporal perception.},
  number = {1},
  journaltitle = {Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal},
  shortjournal = {Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal},
  date = {1995-10-01},
  pages = {59-77},
  author = {London, Justin},
  file = {D\:\\Sauve\\Zotero\\storage\\STUG9EPX\\London - 1995 - Some Examples of Complex Meters and Their Implicat.pdf}
}

@article{radvanskyTimbreRelianceNonmusicians1995,
  eprinttype = {jstor},
  eprint = {40285691},
  title = {Timbre {{Reliance}} in {{Nonmusicians}}' and {{Musicians}}' {{Memory}} for {{Melodies}}},
  volume = {13},
  issn = {0730-7829},
  doi = {10.2307/40285691},
  abstract = {This paper reports two experiments that test WolpertV (1990) claim that musicians and nonmusicians differ in their memory for melodies because nonmusicians' memory performance reflects a greater use of the timbre dimension to make recognition decisions. In both experiments, listeners were asked to identify which of two test melodies, a target and a distractor, was heard previously. On one half of the trials, the target melody was in the same timbre as the original, and the distractor was in a different timbre. For the other half of the trials, the distractor melody was in the same timbre as the original, and the target melody was in a different timbre. In her earlier study, Wolpert found that nonmusicians' memory for melodies was affected by timbre changes, whereas musicians' memory was not. In the present experiments, we controlled for instruction clarity and brought listener performance down from near perfect. As a result, it was found that timbre changes differentially affected neither musicians' nor nonmusicians' memory for melodies.},
  number = {2},
  journaltitle = {Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal},
  shortjournal = {Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal},
  date = {1995-12-01},
  pages = {127-140},
  author = {Radvansky, Gabriel A. and Fleming, Kevin J. and Simmons, Julie A.},
  file = {D\:\\Sauve\\Zotero\\storage\\CKH9FRG7\\Radvansky et al. - 1995 - Timbre Reliance in Nonmusicians' and Musicians' Me.pdf}
}

@article{vosParallelProcessingKeyFindingModel1996,
  eprinttype = {jstor},
  eprint = {40285717},
  title = {A {{Parallel}}-{{Processing Key}}-{{Finding Model}}},
  volume = {14},
  issn = {0730-7829},
  doi = {10.2307/40285717},
  abstract = {A model of key finding is presented for single-voiced pieces of tonal music. Each tone is input as a pitch class and a duration. The model makes a parallel search for the key in the scalar and chordal domains, taking into account primacy and memory constraints. The model has been tested for a range of tonal music including the fugue subjects of J. S. Bach's Wohltemperierte Klavier (WTK). The notated key was usually found after a few processing steps and from then on remained stable— but was still sensitive to modulation. The performance of the parallel-processing model was compared with the performance of key-finding models previously proposed by Krumhansl and Schmuckler and by Longuet-Higgins and Steedman. The comparison showed that the new model's most distinctive features, implementation of parallel key search in the scalar and chordal domains, as well as the implementation of search-restricting factors, primacy and memory, make the new model a powerful and plausible alternative to the other models. Subsequently, the parallel-processing model's perceptual plausibility has been tested in two experiments, in which 20 musically well-trained subjects had to produce the key(s) of eight WTK fugue themes (Experiment 1) and to rate the key transparency for seven contrapuntal variations of the A minor subject of J. S. Bach's Kunst der Fuge (Experiment 2). A substantial concordance between listeners' judgments and the key inferences produced by the model was found in both experiments. Conceptual limitations, such as the model's disregard for the potential impact of recency on key finding and for expectations from functional implications of tone order, are discussed. Potential extensions of the model are suggested, as well as ideas for further perceptual studies in which the model might be tested in a more advanced manner than in the present study.},
  number = {2},
  journaltitle = {Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal},
  shortjournal = {Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal},
  date = {1996-12-01},
  pages = {185-223},
  author = {Vos, Piet G. and Geenen, Erwin W. Van},
  file = {D\:\\Sauve\\Zotero\\storage\\AGRDKFZZ\\Vos and Geenen - 1996 - A Parallel-Processing Key-Finding Model.pdf}
}

@article{deliegeMusicalSchemataRealTime1996,
  eprinttype = {jstor},
  eprint = {40285715},
  title = {Musical {{Schemata}} in {{Real}}-{{Time Listening}} to a {{Piece}} of {{Music}}},
  volume = {14},
  issn = {0730-7829},
  doi = {10.2307/40285715},
  abstract = {A series of experiments investigated cognitive processes involved in listening to a piece of music, focusing in particular on the abstraction of surface features (here referred to as cues). Subjects listened to an unfamiliar piece in a familiar musical idiom, and their sensitivities to aspects of the just-heard piece were used to elucidate the nature of their representations of the piece in recent memory. The study also sought to assess the capacities of subjects to use any declarative knowledge of aspects of tonal structure that they possessed in organizing musical material. Three experiments made use of different procedures to address these issues, using either a single short tonal piece—Schubert's Valse sentimentale, D. 779, op. 50, no. 6—or a variant of this. The first two experiments used nonmusician subjects and examined (1) the cues abstracted in listening to the piece and (2) subjects' ability to identify the temporal location of segments of the piece after listening. The third experiment explored the constructional abilities of musician and nonmusician subjects, requiring them to create a coherent piece by ordering the segments that made up the original piece. The results of these experiments indicated that although the abilities of musicians differed from those of nonmusicians, both groups of subjects exhibited a weaker sensitivity to features of musical structure than to cues abstracted from the musical surface.},
  number = {2},
  journaltitle = {Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal},
  shortjournal = {Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal},
  date = {1996-12-01},
  pages = {117-159},
  author = {Deliège, Iréne and Mélen, Marc and Stammers, Diana and Cross, Ian},
  file = {D\:\\Sauve\\Zotero\\storage\\TKUUAN5X\\Deliège et al. - 1996 - Musical Schemata in Real-Time Listening to a Piece.pdf}
}

@article{tekmanInteractionsPerceivedIntensity1997,
  eprinttype = {jstor},
  eprint = {40285722},
  title = {Interactions of {{Perceived Intensity}}, {{Duration}}, and {{Pitch}} in {{Pure Tone Sequences}}},
  volume = {14},
  issn = {0730-7829},
  doi = {10.2307/40285722},
  abstract = {If one dimension of sound is manipulated in a way that suggests a particular rhythmic organization, does perception of other dimensions change in ways that are consistent with the same rhythmic organization? When subjects were asked to judge or adjust intensities of tones, rhythmic manipulations of pitch structure changed the perception of intensity. When subjects were asked to judge timing, rhythmic manipulations of intensity had a similar effect. Timing manipulations did not have an effect on judgments of pitch. The results indicate that temporal structure as a whole is more accessible than the individual physical manipulations that give rise to that structure. It may be concluded that the temporal structure itself, rather than pitches, intensities, and durations in isolation, is a perceptual object.},
  number = {3},
  journaltitle = {Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal},
  shortjournal = {Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal},
  date = {1997-04-01},
  pages = {281-294},
  author = {Tekman, Hasan Gürkan},
  file = {D\:\\Sauve\\Zotero\\storage\\NGA3VFMC\\Tekman - 1997 - Interactions of Perceived Intensity, Duration, and.pdf}
}

@article{schellenbergSimplifyingImplicationRealizationModel1997,
  eprinttype = {jstor},
  eprint = {40285723},
  title = {Simplifying the {{Implication}}-{{Realization Model}} of {{Melodic Expectancy}}},
  volume = {14},
  issn = {0730-7829},
  doi = {10.2307/40285723},
  abstract = {Results from previous investigations indicate that the implication-realization (I-R) model (Narmour, 1990) of expectancy in melody may be overspecified and more complex than necessary. Indeed, Schellenberg's (1996) revised model, with two fewer predictor variables, improved predictive accuracy compared with the original model. A reanalysis of data reported by Cuddy and Lunney (1995) provided similar results. When the principles of the I-R model were submitted to a principal- components analysis, a solution containing three orthogonal (uncorrelated) factors retained the accuracy of the model but was inferior to the revised model. A separate principal-components analysis of the predictors of the revised model yielded a two-factor solution that did not compromise the revised model's predictive power. Consequently, an even simpler model of melodic expectancy was derived. These results provide further evidence that redundancy in the I-R model can be eliminated without loss of predictive accuracy.},
  number = {3},
  journaltitle = {Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal},
  shortjournal = {Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal},
  date = {1997-04-01},
  pages = {295-318},
  author = {Schellenberg, E. Glenn},
  file = {D\:\\Sauve\\Zotero\\storage\\3KDUQNAG\\Schellenberg - 1997 - Simplifying the Implication-Realization Model of M.pdf}
}

@article{hantzNeuralResponsesMelodic1997,
  eprinttype = {jstor},
  eprint = {40285739},
  title = {Neural {{Responses}} to {{Melodic}} and {{Harmonic Closure}}: {{An Event}}-{{Related}}-{{Potential Study}}},
  volume = {15},
  issn = {0730-7829},
  doi = {10.2307/40285739},
  shorttitle = {Neural {{Responses}} to {{Melodic}} and {{Harmonic Closure}}},
  abstract = {The event-related evoked potential (ERP) responses to sentence endings that either confirm or violate syntactic/semantic constraints have been extensively studied. Very little is known, however, about the corresponding situation with respect to music. The current study investigates the brain- wave (ERP) responses to perceived phrase closure. ERPs are a potentially valid measure of how language-like or uniquely musical the perception of phrase closure is. In our study, highly trained musicians (N= 16) judged whether or not novel musical phrases were closed (melodically or harmonically). Three stimulus series consisted of seven- note tunes with four possible endings: closed (tonic note or tonic chord), open/ diatonic (dominant chord or a member thereof), open/ chromatic (a chromatic note or chord outside the key of the melody), or open/white noise (a nonmusical control). One series included melodies alone, a second series included melodies harmonized, and a third series included melodies in which the melodic contexts were disrupted rather than the endings. In the recorded ERPs, a statistically significant negative drift in the waveforms occurred over the course of the context series, indicating anticipation of closure. The drift-corrected poststimulus waveforms for all series were subjected to a principal components analysis/analysis of variance. Two subject variables were also considered: sex and absolute pitch. All four stimulus types elicited identifiable responses. The waveform peaks for the four stimulus types are clearly differentiated by principal component analysis scores to two components: one with a maximum value at 273 ms and one with a maximum value at 471 ms. Taking the closed endings as the expected "standard," the waveforms for the two types of musical deviant endings were significantly below the standard at 273 ms and above the standard at 471 ms. The amount of negativity was proportional to the amount of deviance of the ending. The positive peak in the closed condition and the reduced peak in the open/diatonic condition are contrary to the normal inverse relationship between peak size and stimulus probability; the former agrees with peaks found in response to syntactic closure in language. Significant, though isolated, interactions involving both sex and absolute pitch also emerged.},
  number = {1},
  journaltitle = {Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal},
  shortjournal = {Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal},
  date = {1997-10-01},
  pages = {69-98},
  author = {Hantz, Edwin C. and Kreilick, Kelley G. and Kananen, William and Swartz, Kenneth P.},
  file = {D\:\\Sauve\\Zotero\\storage\\6MBMUZ36\\Hantz et al. - 1997 - Neural Responses to Melodic and Harmonic Closure .pdf}
}

@article{tillmannEffectsGlobalLocal1998,
  eprinttype = {jstor},
  eprint = {40285780},
  title = {Effects of {{Global}} and {{Local Contexts}} on {{Harmonic Expectancy}}},
  volume = {16},
  issn = {0730-7829},
  doi = {10.2307/40285780},
  abstract = {Several psycholinguistic studies have investigated the influence of local and global semantic contexts on word processing. The first aim of the present study was to examine local and global level contributions to harmonic priming. The second was to test a spreading-activation account of harmonic context effects (Bharucha, 1987). The expectations for the last chord (the target) of eight-chord sequences were varied by simultaneously manipulating the harmonic relationship of the target to the first six chords (global context) and to the seventh chord (local context). Human performances demonstrated that harmonic expectancies are derived from both the global and local levels of musical structure. Bharucha's connectionist model provides a possible account of local and global context effects. In isochronous chord sequences, harmonic priming seems to result from activation spreading via a schematic knowledge of tonal hierarchies.},
  number = {1},
  journaltitle = {Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal},
  shortjournal = {Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal},
  date = {1998-10-01},
  pages = {99-117},
  author = {Tillmann, B. and Bigand, E. and Pineau, M.},
  file = {D\:\\Sauve\\Zotero\\storage\\PQN95TQG\\Tillmann et al. - 1998 - Effects of Global and Local Contexts on Harmonic E.pdf}
}

@book{lemanMusicGestaltComputing1997,
  location = {{Berlin ; New York}},
  title = {Music, Gestalt, and Computing: Studies in Cognitive and Systematic Musicology},
  isbn = {0-387-55034-8},
  shorttitle = {Music, Gestalt, and Computing},
  series = {({{Lecture}} Notes in Computer Science ; 1317 {{Lecture}} Notes in Artifical Intelligence)},
  publisher = {{Springer-Verlag}},
  date = {1997},
  editora = {Leman, Marc},
  editoratype = {collaborator},
  note = {Physical descrip: ix 521 p. + 1 CD-ROM ; cm
General Note: Includes indexes
LC subject term: Logic, Symbolic and mathematical
LC subject term: Logic programming
LC subject term: Artificial intelligence}
}

@article{toiviainenTimbreSimilarityConvergence1998,
  eprinttype = {jstor},
  eprint = {40285788},
  title = {Timbre {{Similarity}}: {{Convergence}} of {{Neural}}, {{Behavioral}}, and {{Computational Approaches}}},
  volume = {16},
  issn = {0730-7829},
  doi = {10.2307/40285788},
  shorttitle = {Timbre {{Similarity}}},
  abstract = {The present study compared the degree of similarity of timbre representations as observed with brain recordings, behavioral studies, and computer simulations. To this end, the electrical brain activity of subjects was recorded while they were repetitively presented with five sounds differing in timbre. Subjects read simultaneously so that their attention was not focused on the sounds. The brain activity was quantified in terms of a change-specific mismatch negativity component. Thereafter, the subjects were asked to judge the similarity of all pairs along a five-step scale. A computer simulation was made by first training a Kohonen self-organizing map with a large set of instrumental sounds. The map was then tested with the experimental stimuli, and the distance between the most active artificial neurons was measured. The results of these methods were highly similar, suggesting that timbre representations reflected in behavioral measures correspond to neural activity, both as measured directly and as simulated in self-organizing neural network models.},
  number = {2},
  journaltitle = {Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal},
  shortjournal = {Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal},
  date = {1998-12-01},
  pages = {223-241},
  author = {Toiviainen, Petri and Tervaniemi, Mari and Louhivuori, Jukka and Saher, Marieke and Huotilainen, Minna and Näätänen, Risto},
  file = {D\:\\Sauve\\Zotero\\storage\\FFI5TDEZ\\Toiviainen et al. - 1998 - Timbre Similarity Convergence of Neural, Behavior.pdf}
}

@article{kendallPerceptualAcousticalFeatures1999,
  eprinttype = {jstor},
  eprint = {40285796},
  title = {Perceptual and {{Acoustical Features}} of {{Natural}} and {{Synthetic Orchestral Instrument Tones}}},
  volume = {16},
  issn = {0730-7829},
  doi = {10.2307/40285796},
  abstract = {Four experiments were conducted to explore the timbres of natural, continuant orchestral instruments with emulation based on sampling, frequency modulation ( FM) synthesis, and a hybrid consisting of sampling and synthesis techniques combined. Identification of instruments using verbal labels was significantly better for the natural and sampling- based signals than for either FM synthesis or the hybrid technique, a result also found for aural categorization. Perceptual scaling of timbral similarities demonstrated great consistency across a series of independent variables, including musical training, monophonic and stereo presentation, and long versus short signal durations. The first dimension of the classical multidimensional scaling (CMDS) solutions mapped onto long- time- average spectral centroid. The second dimension mapped onto a measure of spectral variability. Little evidence was found for the mapping of attack time or signal duration onto either dimension. A third dimension separated most natural instruments from their emulated counterparts. Experiments using verbal attribute ratings confirmed the correlation of spectral centroid, the first dimension of the perceptual space, and ratings of nasality; the second dimension correlated with spectral variability and modestly correlated with ratings of rich, brilliant, and tremulous. Mismatches of spectral distribution and variability resulted in poor emulations of the natural instruments. Results suggest that further study of centroid and time-variant psychophysical properties is warranted.},
  number = {3},
  journaltitle = {Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal},
  shortjournal = {Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal},
  date = {1999-04-01},
  pages = {327-363},
  author = {Kendall, Roger A. and Carterette, Edward C. and Hajda, John M.},
  file = {D\:\\Sauve\\Zotero\\storage\\JARPH72E\\Kendall et al. - 1999 - Perceptual and Acoustical Features of Natural and .pdf}
}

@article{temperleyWhatKeyKey1999,
  eprinttype = {jstor},
  eprint = {40285812},
  title = {What's {{Key}} for {{Key}}? {{The Krumhansl}}-{{Schmuckler Key}}-{{Finding Algorithm Reconsidered}}},
  volume = {17},
  issn = {0730-7829},
  doi = {10.2307/40285812},
  shorttitle = {What's {{Key}} for {{Key}}?},
  abstract = {This study examines the Krumhansl-Schmuckler key-finding model, in which the distribution of pitch classes in a piece is compared with an ideal distribution or "key profile" for each key. Several changes are proposed. First, the formula used for the matching process is somewhat simplified. Second, alternative values are proposed for the key profiles themselves. Third, rather than summing the durations of all events of each pitch class, the revised model divides the piece into short segments and labels each pitch class as present or absent in each segment. Fourth, a mechanism for modulation is proposed; a penalty is imposed for changing key from one segment to the next. An implementation of this model was subjected to two tests. First, the model was tested on the fugue subjects from Bach's Well-Tempered Clavier; the model's performance on this corpus is compared with the performances of other models. Second, the model was tested on a corpus of excerpts from the Kostka and Payne harmony textbook (as analyzed by Kostka). Several problems with the modified algorithm are discussed, concerning the rate of modulation, the role of harmony in key finding, and the role of pitch "spellings." The model is also compared with Huron and Parncutt's exponential decay model. The tests presented here suggest that the key-profile model, with the modifications proposed, can provide a highly successful approach to key finding.},
  number = {1},
  journaltitle = {Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal},
  shortjournal = {Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal},
  date = {1999-10-01},
  pages = {65-100},
  author = {Temperley, David},
  file = {D\:\\Sauve\\Zotero\\storage\\QK37TED8\\Temperley - 1999 - What's Key for Key The Krumhansl-Schmuckler Key-F.pdf}
}

@article{krumhanslMelodicExpectationFinnish1999,
  eprinttype = {jstor},
  eprint = {40285890},
  title = {Melodic {{Expectation}} in {{Finnish Spiritual Folk Hymns}}: {{Convergence}} of {{Statistical}}, {{Behavioral}}, and {{Computational Approaches}}},
  volume = {17},
  issn = {0730-7829},
  doi = {10.2307/40285890},
  shorttitle = {Melodic {{Expectation}} in {{Finnish Spiritual Folk Hymns}}},
  abstract = {This study of Finnish spiritual folk hymns combined three approaches to understanding melodic expectation. The first approach was a statistical style analysis of a representative corpus of 18 hymns, which determined the relative frequencies of tone onsets and two- and three-tone transitions. The second approach was a behavioral experiment in which listeners, either familiar (experts) or unfamiliar (nonexperts) with the hymns, made judgments about melodic continuations. The third approach simulated melodic expectation with neural network models of the self-organizing map (SOM) type (Kohonen, 1997). One model was trained on a corpus of Finnish folk songs and Lutheran hymns (Finnish SOM), while another was trained with the hymn contexts used in the experiment with the correct continuation tone (Hymn SOM). The three approaches converged on the following conclusions: (1) Listeners appear to be sensitive to the distributions of tones and tone transitions in music, (2) The nonexperts' responses more strongly reflected the general distribution of tones, whereas the experts' responses more strongly reflected the tone transitions and the correct continuations, (3) The SOMs produced results similar to listeners and also appeared sensitive to the distributions of tones and tone transitions, (4) The Hymn SOM correlated more strongly with the experts' judgments than the Finnish SOM, and (5) the principles of the implication-realization model (Narmour, 1990) were weighted similarly by the behavioral data and the Hymn SOM. /// Tässä suomalaisia hengellisiä kansansävelmiä käsittelevässä tutkimuksessa pyrittiin selvittämään melodisia odotuksia kolmen tutkimusmenetelmän avulla. Ensimmäinen menetelmä oli kyseistä tyyliä edustavien 18 sävelmän tilastollinen analyysi, jossa määritelteltiin sävelkorkeuksien sekä kahden ja kolmen sävelen siirtymien tilastolliset jakaumat. Toinen menetelmä oli behavioraalinen koe, jossa kuulijat arvioivat sävelmien jatkoja. Kuulijat jakaantuivat kahteen ryhmään: sävelmät tunteviin (asiantuntijoihin) ja sävelmiä tuntemattomiin (ei-asiantuntijoihin). Kolmannessa menetelmässä simuloitiin melodisia odotuksia itsejärjestäytyvään karttaan (Kohonen, 1997) perustuvalla keinotekoisella hermoverkkomallilla. Ensimmäiselle mallille opetettiin joukko suomalaisia kansanlauluja ja luterilaisia virsiä (suomalainen verkko), toiselle kokeessa käytettyjä hengellisiä kansansävelmiä (hengellinen verkko). Käytetyt menetelmät tuottivat yhteneviä tuloksia ja antoivat aihetta seuraaviin johtopäätöksiin: (1) kuulijat näyttävät olevan vastaanottavaisia musiikin säveljakaumille ja sävelsiirtymille, (2) ei-asiantuntijoiden vastaukset noudattivat enemmän sävelten yleistä jakaumaa, kun taas asiantuntijoiden vastaukset heijastivat enemmän sävelsiirtymiä ja sävelmien oikeita jatkoja, (3) hermoverkot tuottivat tuloksia, jotka olivat samankaltaisia kuulijoiden arvioiden kanssa ja jotka noudattivat sävelten ja sävelsiirtymien jakaumia, (4) hengellisen verkon tulokset korreloivat suomalaisen verkon tuloksia voimakkaammin asiantuntijoiden arvioiden kanssa, ja (5) behavioraaliset tulokset ja hengellinen verkko painottavat implikaatio-realisaatio-mallin (Narmour, 1990) periaatteita samalla tavalla.},
  number = {2},
  journaltitle = {Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal},
  shortjournal = {Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal},
  date = {1999-12-01},
  pages = {151-195},
  author = {Krumhansl, Carol L. and Louhivuori, Jukka and Toiviainen, Petri and Järvinen, Topi and Eerola, Tuomas},
  file = {D\:\\Sauve\\Zotero\\storage\\GV8P5MBB\\Krumhansl et al. - 1999 - Melodic Expectation in Finnish Spiritual Folk Hymn.pdf}
}

@article{narmourMusicExpectationCognitive2000,
  eprinttype = {jstor},
  eprint = {40285821},
  title = {Music {{Expectation}} by {{Cognitive Rule}}-{{Mapping}}},
  volume = {17},
  issn = {0730-7829},
  doi = {10.2307/40285821},
  abstract = {Iterative rules appear everywhere in music cognition, creating strong expectations. Consequently, denial of rule projection becomes an important compositional strategy, generating numerous possibilities for musical affect. Other rules enter the musical aesthetic through reflexive game playing. Still other kinds are completely constructivist in nature and may be uncongenial to cognition, requiring much training to be recognized, if at all. Cognitive rules are frequently found in contexts of varied repetition (AA), but they are not necessarily bounded by stylistic similarity. Indeed, rules may be especially relevant in the processing of unfamiliar contexts (AB), where only abstract coding is available. There are many kinds of deduction in music cognition. Typical examples include melodic sequence, partial melodic sequence, and alternating melodic sequence (which produces streaming). These types may coexist in the musical fabric, involving the invocation of both simultaneous and nested rules. Intervallic expansion and reduction in melody also involve higherorder abstractions. Various mirrored forms in music entail rule-mapping as well, although these may be more difficult to perceive than their analogous visual symmetries. Listeners can likewise deduce additivity and subtractivity at work in harmony, tempo, texture, pace, and dynamics. Rhythmic augmentation and diminution, by contrast, rely on multiplication and division. The examples suggest numerous hypotheses for experimental research.},
  number = {3},
  journaltitle = {Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal},
  shortjournal = {Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal},
  date = {2000-04-01},
  pages = {329-398},
  author = {Narmour, Eugene},
  file = {D\:\\Sauve\\Zotero\\storage\\GBZTWKGS\\Narmour - 2000 - Music Expectation by Cognitive Rule-Mapping.pdf}
}

@article{jonesTemporalAspectsStimulusDriven2002,
  langid = {english},
  title = {Temporal {{Aspects}} of {{Stimulus}}-{{Driven Attending}} in {{Dynamic Arrays}}},
  volume = {13},
  issn = {0956-7976, 1467-9280},
  url = {http://pss.sagepub.com/content/13/4/313},
  doi = {10.1111/1467-9280.00458},
  abstract = {Auditory sequences of tones were used to examine a form of stimulus-driven attending that involves temporal expectancies and is influenced by stimulus rhythm. Three experiments examined the influence of sequence timing on comparative pitch judgments of two tones (standard, comparison) separated by interpolated pitches. In two of the experiments, interpolated tones were regularly timed, with onset times of comparison tones varied relative to this rhythm. Listeners were most accurate judging the pitch of rhythmically expected tones and least accurate with very unexpected ones. This effect persisted over time, but disappeared when the rhythm of interpolated tones was either missing or irregular.},
  number = {4},
  journaltitle = {Psychological Science},
  shortjournal = {Psychological Science},
  urldate = {2016-06-13},
  date = {2002-07-01},
  pages = {313-319},
  author = {Jones, Mari Riess and Moynihan, Heather and MacKenzie, Noah and Puente, Jennifer},
  file = {D\:\\Sauve\\Zotero\\storage\\WGZ6W39S\\313.html},
  eprinttype = {pmid},
  eprint = {12137133}
}

@article{largeDynamicsAttendingHow1999,
  title = {The Dynamics of Attending: {{How}} People Track Time-Varying Events},
  volume = {106},
  issn = {1939-1471(Electronic);0033-295X(Print)},
  doi = {10.1037/0033-295X.106.1.119},
  shorttitle = {The Dynamics of Attending},
  abstract = {A theory of attentional dynamics is proposed and aimed at explaining how listeners respond to systematic change in everyday events while retaining a general sense of their rhythmic structure. The approach describes attending as the behavior of internal oscillations, called attending rhythms, that are capable of entraining to external events and targeting attentional energy to expected points in time. A mathematical formulation of the theory describes internal oscillations that focus pulses of attending energy and interact in various ways to enable attentional tracking of events with complex rhythms. This approach provides reliable predictions about the role of attending to event time structure in rhythmical events that modulate in rate, as demonstrated in 3 listening experiments.},
  number = {1},
  journaltitle = {Psychological Review},
  date = {1999},
  pages = {119-159},
  keywords = {Theories,*Attention,*Human Biological Rhythms,*Mathematical Modeling,*Pattern Discrimination,*Time Perception},
  author = {Large, Edward W. and Jones, Mari Riess}
}

@article{jonesDynamicAttendingResponses1989,
  title = {Dynamic Attending and Responses to Time},
  volume = {96},
  issn = {1939-1471(Electronic);0033-295X(Print)},
  doi = {10.1037/0033-295X.96.3.459},
  abstract = {A temporally based theory of attending is proposed that assumes that the structure of world events affords different attending modes. Future-oriented attending supports anticipatory behaviors and occurs with highly coherent temporal events. Time judgments, given this attending mode, are influenced by the way an event's ending confirms or violates temporal expectancies. Analytic attending supports other activities (e.g., grouping, counting), and if it occurs with events of low temporal coherence, then time judgments depend on the attending levels involved. A weighted contrast model describes over- and underestimations of event durations. The model applies to comparative duration judgments of equal and unequal time intervals; its rationale extends to temporal productions/extrapolations. Two experiments compare predictions of the contrast model with those derived from other traditional approaches.},
  number = {3},
  journaltitle = {Psychological Review},
  date = {1989},
  pages = {459-491},
  keywords = {Models,*Attention,*Time Estimation},
  author = {Jones, Mari R. and Boltz, Marilyn}
}

@article{trainorEffectsMusicalTraining2003,
  langid = {english},
  title = {Effects of {{Musical Training}} on the {{Auditory Cortex}} in {{Children}}},
  volume = {999},
  issn = {1749-6632},
  url = {http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1196/annals.1284.061/abstract},
  doi = {10.1196/annals.1284.061},
  abstract = {Abstract:  Several studies of the effects of musical experience on sound representations in the auditory cortex are reviewed. Auditory evoked potentials are compared in response to pure tones, violin tones, and piano tones in adult musicians versus nonmusicians as well as in 4- to 5-year-old children who have either had or not had extensive musical experience. In addition, the effects of auditory frequency discrimination training in adult nonmusicians on auditory evoked potentials are examined. It was found that the P2-evoked response is larger in both adult and child musicians than in nonmusicians and that auditory training enhances this component in nonmusician adults. The results suggest that the P2 is particularly neuroplastic and that the effects of musical experience can be seen early in development. They also suggest that although the effects of musical training on cortical representations may be greater if training begins in childhood, the adult brain is also open to change. These results are discussed with respect to potential benefits of early musical training as well as potential benefits of musical experience in aging.},
  number = {1},
  journaltitle = {Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences},
  urldate = {2016-06-12},
  date = {2003-11-01},
  pages = {506-513},
  keywords = {Musicians,plasticity,Development,musical training,Auditory Cortex,Learning,Event-related potential (ERP),children},
  author = {Trainor, Laurel J. and Shahin, Antoine and Roberts, Larry E.},
  file = {D\:\\Sauve\\Zotero\\storage\\ST3Z279S\\abstract.html}
}

@article{trainorAreThereCritical2005,
  langid = {english},
  title = {Are There Critical Periods for Musical Development?},
  volume = {46},
  issn = {1098-2302},
  url = {http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/dev.20059/abstract},
  doi = {10.1002/dev.20059},
  abstract = {A critical period can be defined as a developmental window during which specific experience has a greater effect than at other times. Musical behavior involves many skills, including the basic encoding of pitch and time information, understanding scale and harmonic structure, performance, interpretation, and composition. We review studies of genetics, behavior, and brain structure and function in conjunction with the experiences of auditory deprivation and musical enrichment, and conclude that there is more supporting evidence for critical periods for basic than for more complex aspects of musical pitch acquisition. Much remains unknown about the mechanisms of interaction between genetic and experiential factors that create critical periods, but it is clear that there are multiple pathways for achieving musical expertise. © 2005 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Dev Psychobiol 46: 262–278, 2005.},
  number = {3},
  journaltitle = {Developmental Psychobiology},
  shortjournal = {Dev. Psychobiol.},
  urldate = {2016-06-12},
  date = {2005-04-01},
  pages = {262-278},
  keywords = {musical expertise,auditory deprivation,critical period,musical enrichment,pitch acquisition,spectral structure,tonotopic map},
  author = {Trainor, Laurel J.},
  file = {D\:\\Sauve\\Zotero\\storage\\9S9XF6RJ\\abstract\;jsessionid=510E80CEDDCD7669D95817BF8CAD0221.html}
}

@article{bigandPerceptionMusicalTension1996,
  langid = {english},
  title = {Perception of Musical Tension in Short Chord Sequences: {{The}} Influence of Harmonic Function, Sensory Dissonance, Horizontal Motion, and Musical Training},
  volume = {58},
  issn = {0031-5117, 1532-5962},
  url = {http://link.springer.com/article/10.3758/BF03205482},
  doi = {10.3758/BF03205482},
  shorttitle = {Perception of Musical Tension in Short Chord Sequences},
  abstract = {This study investigates the effect of four variables (tonal hierarchies, sensory chordal consonance, horizontal motion, and musical training) on perceived musical tension. Participants were asked to evaluate the tension created by a chord X in sequences of three chords \{C major → X → C major\} in a C major context key. The X chords could be major or minor triads major-minor seventh, or minor seventh chords built on the 12 notes of the chromatic scale. The data were compared with Krumhansl’s (1990) harmonic hierarchy and with predictions of Lerdahl’s (1988) cognitive theory, Hutchinson and Knopoff’s (1978) and Parncutt’s (1989) sensory-psychoacoustical theories, and the model of horizontal motion defined in the paper. As a main outcome, it appears that judgments of tension arose from a convergence of several cognitive and psychoacoustics influences, whose relative importance varies, depending on musical training.},
  number = {1},
  journaltitle = {Perception \& Psychophysics},
  shortjournal = {Perception \& Psychophysics},
  urldate = {2016-06-12},
  date = {1996-01},
  pages = {125-141},
  keywords = {cognitive psychology},
  author = {Bigand, Emmanuel and Parncutt, Richard and Lerdahl, Fred},
  file = {D\:\\Sauve\\Zotero\\storage\\M7NPBD5N\\Bigand et al. - 1996 - Perception of musical tension in short chord seque.pdf;D\:\\Sauve\\Zotero\\storage\\GRTM9GNR\\BF03205482.html}
}

@article{straitBiologicalImpactAuditory2014,
  langid = {english},
  title = {Biological Impact of Auditory Expertise across the Life Span: Musicians as a Model of Auditory Learning},
  volume = {308},
  issn = {1878-5891},
  doi = {10.1016/j.heares.2013.08.004},
  shorttitle = {Biological Impact of Auditory Expertise across the Life Span},
  abstract = {Experience-dependent characteristics of auditory function, especially with regard to speech-evoked auditory neurophysiology, have garnered increasing attention in recent years. This interest stems from both pragmatic and theoretical concerns as it bears implications for the prevention and remediation of language-based learning impairment in addition to providing insight into mechanisms engendering experience-dependent changes in human sensory function. Musicians provide an attractive model for studying the experience-dependency of auditory processing in humans due to their distinctive neural enhancements compared to nonmusicians. We have only recently begun to address whether these enhancements are observable early in life, during the initial years of music training when the auditory system is under rapid development, as well as later in life, after the onset of the aging process. Here we review neural enhancements in musically trained individuals across the life span in the context of cellular mechanisms that underlie learning, identified in animal models. Musicians' subcortical physiologic enhancements are interpreted according to a cognitive framework for auditory learning, providing a model in which to study mechanisms of experience-dependent changes in human auditory function.},
  journaltitle = {Hearing Research},
  shortjournal = {Hear. Res.},
  date = {2014-02},
  pages = {109-121},
  keywords = {Attention,brain,cognition,Auditory Perception,Music,pitch perception,Acoustic Stimulation,animals,humans,HEARING,Learning,Time Factors,Models; Neurological,Evoked Potentials; Auditory,Age Factors,Gene Expression Regulation,Models; Animal,Synaptic Transmission},
  author = {Strait, Dana L and Kraus, Nina},
  eprinttype = {pmid},
  eprint = {23988583},
  pmcid = {PMC3947192}
}

@article{krausMusicTrainingDevelopment2010,
  langid = {english},
  title = {Music Training for the Development of Auditory Skills},
  volume = {11},
  issn = {1471-003X},
  url = {http://www.nature.com/nrn/journal/v11/n8/full/nrn2882.html},
  doi = {10.1038/nrn2882},
  abstract = {The effects of music training in relation to brain plasticity have caused excitement, evident from the popularity of books on this topic among scientists and the general public. Neuroscience research has shown that music training leads to changes throughout the auditory system that prime musicians for listening challenges beyond music processing. This effect of music training suggests that, akin to physical exercise and its impact on body fitness, music is a resource that tones the brain for auditory fitness. Therefore, the role of music in shaping individual development deserves consideration.},
  number = {8},
  journaltitle = {Nature Reviews Neuroscience},
  shortjournal = {Nat Rev Neurosci},
  urldate = {2016-06-12},
  date = {2010-08},
  pages = {599-605},
  author = {Kraus, Nina and Chandrasekaran, Bharath},
  file = {D\:\\Sauve\\Zotero\\storage\\9BJ28X8V\\nrn2882.html}
}

@article{krausCognitiveFactorsShape2012,
  langid = {english},
  title = {Cognitive Factors Shape Brain Networks for Auditory Skills: Spotlight on Auditory Working Memory},
  volume = {1252},
  issn = {1749-6632},
  doi = {10.1111/j.1749-6632.2012.06463.x},
  shorttitle = {Cognitive Factors Shape Brain Networks for Auditory Skills},
  abstract = {Musicians benefit from real-life advantages, such as a greater ability to hear speech in noise and to remember sounds, although the biological mechanisms driving such advantages remain undetermined. Furthermore, the extent to which these advantages are a consequence of musical training or innate characteristics that predispose a given individual to pursue music training is often debated. Here, we examine biological underpinnings of musicians' auditory advantages and the mediating role of auditory working memory. Results from our laboratory are presented within a framework that emphasizes auditory working memory as a major factor in the neural processing of sound. Within this framework, we provide evidence for music training as a contributing source of these abilities.},
  journaltitle = {Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences},
  shortjournal = {Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci.},
  date = {2012-04},
  pages = {100-107},
  keywords = {brain,cognition,Auditory Perception,Music,Acoustic Stimulation,Auditory Pathways,humans,Adult,Middle Aged,Speech Perception,Memory; Short-Term,Young Adult,Neurosciences,Adolescent,Aged,Child,Nerve Net,Noise,Perceptual Masking},
  author = {Kraus, Nina and Strait, Dana L. and Parbery-Clark, Alexandra},
  eprinttype = {pmid},
  eprint = {22524346},
  pmcid = {PMC3338202}
}

@article{wongMusicalExperienceShapes2007,
  langid = {english},
  title = {Musical Experience Shapes Human Brainstem Encoding of Linguistic Pitch Patterns},
  volume = {10},
  issn = {1097-6256},
  url = {http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v10/n4/abs/nn1872.html},
  doi = {10.1038/nn1872},
  abstract = {Music and speech are very cognitively demanding auditory phenomena generally attributed to cortical rather than subcortical circuitry. We examined brainstem encoding of linguistic pitch and found that musicians show more robust and faithful encoding compared with nonmusicians. These results not only implicate a common subcortical manifestation for two presumed cortical functions, but also a possible reciprocity of corticofugal speech and music tuning, providing neurophysiological explanations for musicians' higher language-learning ability.},
  number = {4},
  journaltitle = {Nature Neuroscience},
  shortjournal = {Nat Neurosci},
  urldate = {2016-06-12},
  date = {2007-04},
  pages = {420-422},
  author = {Wong, Patrick C. M. and Skoe, Erika and Russo, Nicole M. and Dees, Tasha and Kraus, Nina},
  file = {D\:\\Sauve\\Zotero\\storage\\MN7VKDZ9\\nn1872.html}
}

@article{thompsonFastLoudBackground2012,
  langid = {english},
  title = {Fast and Loud Background Music Disrupts Reading Comprehension},
  volume = {40},
  issn = {0305-7356, 1741-3087},
  url = {http://pom.sagepub.com/content/40/6/700},
  doi = {10.1177/0305735611400173},
  abstract = {We examined the effect of background music on reading comprehension. Because the emotional consequences of music listening are affected by changes in tempo and intensity, we manipulated these variables to create four repeated-measures conditions: slow/low, slow/high, fast/low, fast/high. Tempo and intensity manipulations were selected to be psychologically equivalent in magnitude (pilot study 1). In each condition, 25 participants were given four minutes to read a passage, followed by three minutes to answer six multiple-choice questions. Baseline performance was established by having control participants complete the reading task in silence (pilot study 2). A significant tempo by intensity interaction was observed, with comprehension in the fast/high condition falling significantly below baseline. These findings reveal that listening to background instrumental music is most likely to disrupt reading comprehension when the music is fast and loud.},
  number = {6},
  journaltitle = {Psychology of Music},
  shortjournal = {Psychology of Music},
  urldate = {2016-06-11},
  date = {2012-11-01},
  pages = {700-708},
  keywords = {background music,music and cognition,music and reading,reading comprehension},
  author = {Thompson, William Forde and Schellenberg, E. Glenn and Letnic, Adriana Katharine},
  file = {D\:\\Sauve\\Zotero\\storage\\3TCP2DH7\\700.html}
}

@article{kigerEffectsMusicInformation1989,
  title = {Effects of Music Information Load on a Reading Comprehension Task},
  volume = {69},
  issn = {1558-688X(Electronic);0031-5125(Print)},
  doi = {10.2466/pms.1989.69.2.531},
  abstract = {Examined the effects of high or low music information-load (MIL) on 54 high school sophomores' reading comprehension while controlling for prior background music/study habits via a pretest questionnaire. Ss who read passages in the presence of low MIL performed significantly better than those who read in silence or with high MIL. The effects of music on comprehension may be explained in terms of an early selection filter model of attention, which contends that information is actively blocked early in processing when it might interfere with higher-order processing. Another explanation of the results may involve the arousal effects of music.},
  number = {2},
  journaltitle = {Perceptual and Motor Skills},
  date = {1989},
  pages = {531-534},
  keywords = {*Auditory Stimulation,*Music,*Reading Comprehension,High School Students},
  author = {Kiger, Derrick M.},
  file = {D\:\\Sauve\\Zotero\\storage\\CVGIXGSF\\1990-13323-001.html}
}

@article{haimsonMathematiciansHaveAverage2011,
  eprinttype = {jstor},
  eprint = {10.1525/mp.2011.29.2.203},
  title = {Do {{Mathematicians Have Above Average Musical Skill}}?},
  volume = {29},
  issn = {0730-7829},
  doi = {10.1525/mp.2011.29.2.203},
  abstract = {Accompanying the view that music training leads to improved mathematical performance is the view that that there is an overlap between the kinds of skills needed for music and mathematics. We examined the popular conception that mathematicians have better music abilities than nonmathematicians. We administered a self-report questionnaire via the internet to assess musicality (music perception and music memory) and musicianship (music performance and music creation). Respondents were doctoral-level members of the American Mathematical Association or the Modern Language Association (i.e., literature and language scholars). The mathematics group did not exhibit higher levels of either musicality or musicianship. Among those reporting high music-performance ability (facility in playing an instrument and/or sight-reading ability), mathematicians did not report significantly greater musicality than did the literature/language scholars. These findings do not lend support to the hypothesis that mathematicians are more musical than people with nonquantitative backgrounds.},
  number = {2},
  journaltitle = {Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal},
  shortjournal = {Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal},
  date = {2011-12-01},
  pages = {203-213},
  keywords = {musical training},
  author = {Haimson, Jennifer and Swain, Deanna and Winner, Ellen},
  file = {D\:\\Sauve\\Zotero\\storage\\E2QZ2UCV\\Haimson et al. - 2011 - Do Mathematicians Have Above Average Musical Skill.pdf}
}

@article{degeMusicLessonsIntelligence2011,
  eprinttype = {jstor},
  eprint = {10.1525/mp.2011.29.2.195},
  title = {Music {{Lessons}} and {{Intelligence}}: {{A Relation Mediated}} by {{Executive Functions}}},
  volume = {29},
  issn = {0730-7829},
  doi = {10.1525/mp.2011.29.2.195},
  shorttitle = {Music {{Lessons}} and {{Intelligence}}},
  abstract = {The present study investigated whether the association between music lessons and intelligence is mediated by executive functions. Intelligence and five different executive functions (set shifting, selective attention, planning, inhibition, and fluency) were assessed in 9- to 12-year-old children with varying amounts of music lessons. Significant associations emerged between music lessons and all of the measures of executive function. Executive functions mediated the association between music lessons and intelligence, with the measures of selective attention and inhibition being the strongest contributors to the mediation effect. Our results suggest that at least part of the association between music lessons and intelligence is explained by the positive influence music lessons have on executive functions, which in turn improve performance on intelligence tests.},
  number = {2},
  journaltitle = {Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal},
  shortjournal = {Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal},
  date = {2011-12-01},
  pages = {195-201},
  keywords = {musical training},
  author = {Degé, Franziska and Kubicek, Claudia and Schwarzer, Gudrun},
  file = {D\:\\Sauve\\Zotero\\storage\\66QAE2XV\\Degé et al. - 2011 - Music Lessons and Intelligence A Relation Mediate.pdf}
}

@article{steeleListeningMozartDoes1997,
  langid = {english},
  title = {Listening to {{Mozart}} Does Not Enhance Backwards Digit Span Performance},
  volume = {84},
  issn = {0031-5125},
  doi = {10.2466/pms.1997.84.3c.1179},
  abstract = {Rauscher, Shaw, and Ky recently reported that exposure to brief periods of music by Mozart produced a temporary increase in performance on tasks taken from the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale-IV. The present study examined whether this effect occurred in performance on a backwards digit span task. In a within-subjects design 36 undergraduates were exposed to 10-min. periods of Mozart music, a recording of rain, or silence. After each stimulus period, undergraduates had three attempts to hear and recall different 9-digit strings in reverse order. No significant differences among treatment conditions were found. There was a significant effect of practice. Results are discussed in terms of the need to isolate the conditions responsible for production of the Mozart effect.},
  issue = {3 Pt 2},
  journaltitle = {Perceptual and Motor Skills},
  shortjournal = {Percept Mot Skills},
  date = {1997-06},
  pages = {1179-1184},
  keywords = {Auditory Perception,Music,Acoustic Stimulation,humans,Female,Male,Memory; Short-Term,Practice (Psychology),SOUND,Intelligence Tests,Mental Recall},
  author = {Steele, K. M. and Ball, T. N. and Runk, R.},
  eprinttype = {pmid},
  eprint = {9229433}
}

@article{chanMusicTrainingImproves1998,
  langid = {english},
  title = {Music Training Improves Verbal Memory},
  volume = {396},
  issn = {0028-0836},
  url = {http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v396/n6707/abs/396128a0.html},
  doi = {10.1038/24075},
  abstract = {Magnetic resonance imaging has shown that the left planum temporale region of the brain is larger in musicians than in non-musicians. If this results from a change in cortical organization,, the left temporal area in musicians might have a better developed cognitive function than the right temporal lobe. Because verbal memory is mediated mainly by the left temporal lobe, and visual memory by the right,, adults with music training should have better verbal, but not visual, memory than adults without such training. Here we show that adults who received music training before the age of 12 have a better memory for spoken words than those who did not. Music training in childhood may therefore have long-term positive effects on verbal memory.},
  number = {6707},
  journaltitle = {Nature},
  shortjournal = {Nature},
  urldate = {2016-06-10},
  date = {1998-11-12},
  pages = {128-128},
  author = {Chan, Agnes S. and Ho, Yim-Chi and Cheung, Mei-Chun},
  file = {D\:\\Sauve\\Zotero\\storage\\35T7WEUF\\396128a0.html}
}

@article{franklinEffectsMusicalTraining2008,
  langid = {english},
  title = {The Effects of Musical Training on Verbal Memory},
  issn = {0305-7356, 1741-3087},
  url = {http://pom.sagepub.com/content/early/2008/04/16/0305735607086044},
  doi = {10.1177/0305735607086044},
  abstract = {A number of studies suggest a link between musical training and general cognitive abilities. Despite some positive results, there is disagreement about which abilities are improved. One line of research leads to the hypothesis that verbal abilities in general, and verbal memory in particular, are related to musical training. In the present article, we review this line of research and present newly collected data comparing trained musicians to non-musicians on a number of tasks that recruit verbal memory. The results showed an advantage for musicians' long-term verbal memory that disappeared when articulatory suppression was introduced. In addition, we found evidence for a greater verbal working memory span in musicians. Together, these results show that musical training may influence verbal working memory and long-term memory, and they suggest that these improved abilities are due to enhanced verbal rehearsal mechanisms in musicians.},
  journaltitle = {Psychology of Music},
  shortjournal = {Psychology of Music},
  urldate = {2016-06-10},
  date = {2008-04-01},
  keywords = {Working memory,articulatory suppression,memory span},
  author = {Franklin, Michael S. and Moore, Katherine Sledge and Yip, Chun-Yu and Jonides, John and Rattray, Katie and Moher, Jeff},
  file = {D\:\\Sauve\\Zotero\\storage\\9ZKUS9V2\\0305735607086044.html}
}

@article{anvariRelationsMusicalSkills2002,
  title = {Relations among Musical Skills, Phonological Processing, and Early Reading Ability in Preschool Children},
  volume = {83},
  issn = {0022-0965},
  url = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022096502001248},
  doi = {10.1016/S0022-0965(02)00124-8},
  abstract = {We examined the relations among phonological awareness, music perception skills, and early reading skills in a population of 100 4- and 5-year-old children. Music skills were found to correlate significantly with both phonological awareness and reading development. Regression analyses indicated that music perception skills contributed unique variance in predicting reading ability, even when variance due to phonological awareness and other cognitive abilities (math, digit span, and vocabulary) had been accounted for. Thus, music perception appears to tap auditory mechanisms related to reading that only partially overlap with those related to phonological awareness, suggesting that both linguistic and nonlinguistic general auditory mechanisms are involved in reading.},
  number = {2},
  journaltitle = {Journal of Experimental Child Psychology},
  shortjournal = {Journal of Experimental Child Psychology},
  urldate = {2016-06-10},
  date = {2002-10},
  pages = {111-130},
  keywords = {Development,Music,Auditory processes,Reading},
  author = {Anvari, Sima H and Trainor, Laurel J and Woodside, Jennifer and Levy, Betty Ann},
  file = {D\:\\Sauve\\Zotero\\storage\\7R6DJ3EZ\\S0022096502001248.html}
}

@article{fiedlerValidationGoldMSIQuestionnaire2015,
  title = {Validation of the {{Gold}}-{{MSI}} Questionnaire to Measure Musical Sophistication of {{German}} Students at Secondary Education Schools.},
  volume = {36},
  url = {http://research.gold.ac.uk/17193/},
  journaltitle = {Musikpädagogische Forschung / Research in Music Education},
  urldate = {2016-06-10},
  date = {2015},
  pages = {199-219},
  author = {Fiedler, D. and Müllensiefen, Daniel},
  file = {D\:\\Sauve\\Zotero\\storage\\79HE8NVF\\17193.html}
}

@article{schaalGoldMSIReplikationUnd2014,
  langid = {english},
  title = {Der {{Gold}}-{{MSI}}: {{Replikation}} Und {{Validierung}} Eines {{Fragebogeninstrumentes}} Zur {{Messung Musikalischer Erfahrenheit}} Anhand Einer Deutschen {{Stichprobe}}},
  volume = {18},
  issn = {1029-8649,},
  url = {http://msx.sagepub.com/content/18/4/423},
  doi = {10.1177/1029864914541851},
  shorttitle = {Der {{Gold}}-{{MSI}}},
  abstract = {The present study introduces the German version of the Gold-MSI inventory, a tool for evaluating self-reported musical abilities and musical expertise. The Gold-MSI is based around the multidimensional construct of Musical Sophistication and builds on the idea that musical expertise cannot only be developed through musical training on an instrument but also through active engagement with music in its many facets. The questionnaire was developed with a very large English sample (Müllensiefen et al., 2014) and comprises musical expertise with five factors as well as the general factor Musical Sophistication. The English Gold-MSI questionnaire was translated into German and evaluated with a German sample (N = 641). Using confirmative factor analysis the underlying factor structure was confirmed. Furthermore, the results show high reliabilities of the five sub-factors as well as the general factor Musical Sophistication (Cronbach’s alpha between .72 and .91.). Additionally, relationships between variables of the socio-economic status and the sub-factors of the Gold-MSI of the German sample are investigated using a structural equation model. The statistical model reveals positive relationships between income and professional status on the one hand and musical training, perceptual abilities and emotional engagement with music on the other hand. The inventory is freely available and is designed to contribute to the refined investigation of musical sophistication and expertise in German speaking countries.},
  number = {4},
  journaltitle = {Musicae Scientiae},
  shortjournal = {Musicae Scientiae},
  urldate = {2016-06-10},
  date = {2014-12-01},
  pages = {423-447},
  keywords = {musical expertise,Gold-MSI questionnaire,musical sophistication,socio-economic status},
  author = {Schaal, Nora K. and Bauer, Anna-Katharina R. and Müllensiefen, Daniel},
  file = {D\:\\Sauve\\Zotero\\storage\\39GDQZQB\\423.html}
}

@article{mcdonaldUsesFunctionsMusic2008,
  langid = {english},
  title = {Uses and {{Functions}} of {{Music}} in {{Congenital Amusia}}},
  volume = {25},
  issn = {0730-7829, 1533-8312},
  url = {http://mp.ucpress.edu/content/25/4/345},
  doi = {10.1525/mp.2008.25.4.345},
  abstract = {THE GOAL OF THIS STUDY WAS TO ASCERTAIN whether deficits in music perception impact upon music appreciation. Likert ratings were gathered from congenital amusics and matched controls concerning the degree to which individuals incorporate music in their everyday lives, are able to achieve certain psychological states through music, and feel positively about music imposed upon them. Those with amusia reported incorporating music into everyday activities to a lesser degree than controls. They also reported experiencing fewer changes in psychological states when listening to music and felt more negatively about imposed music compared to controls. However, the scores of some amusic individuals fell within the control range on these questionnaires, providing some evidence for a developmental dissociation between music perception (impaired) and music appreciation (normal). Potential reasons for this dissociation are discussed.},
  number = {4},
  journaltitle = {Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal},
  urldate = {2016-06-10},
  date = {2008-04-01},
  pages = {345-355},
  keywords = {Music,Perception,appreciation,congenital amusia,everyday listening},
  author = {Mcdonald, Claire and Stewart, Lauren},
  file = {D\:\\Sauve\\Zotero\\storage\\ZFXQP98G\\345.html}
}

@article{cuddyMusicalDifficultiesAre2005,
  langid = {english},
  title = {Musical Difficulties Are Rare: A Study of "Tone Deafness" among University Students},
  volume = {1060},
  issn = {0077-8923},
  doi = {10.1196/annals.1360.026},
  shorttitle = {Musical Difficulties Are Rare},
  abstract = {This study was concerned with self-reported "tone deafness" and its possible relationship to congenital amusia. Nearly 17\% of over 2,000 first-year psychology students at Queen's University self-reported tone deafness. Two hundred students were recruited from this pool of students, comprising 100 who reported tone deafness and 100 who reported that they were not tone-deaf (NTD). The study contained two parts. In part 1, participants completed the six tests of the Montreal Battery of Evaluation of Amusia (MBEA) developed by Peretz and collaborators. In part 2, participants completed an extensive questionnaire designed to elicit details about musical experiences, abilities, training, and interests. Twenty-eight questionnaire items allowing a quantitative response were subjected to factor analysis. Four orthogonal components emerged from the analysis. The components reflected self-report of (1) vocal production, (2) music instruction, (3) listening attitudes, and (4) childhood memories of musical environment. Results for each of the MBEA tests and composite scores for all tests were regressed on participants' factor scores. The best and significant predictors of the MBEA scores were factor I and factor II, followed by factor III. Factor scores accounted for a higher percentage of the variance in MBEA composite test results (27\%) than the self-report of tone deafness alone (7\%). The musical difficulties revealed by the MBEA test results for some participants warrant further attention and study. However, an encouraging conclusion from the MBEA results is that many individuals who consider themselves "tone-deaf" may not, in fact, have perceptual difficulties, and these individuals should be supported in any of their efforts to proceed with music enjoyment and instruction.},
  journaltitle = {Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences},
  shortjournal = {Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci.},
  date = {2005-12},
  pages = {311-324},
  keywords = {Music,Pitch Discrimination,pitch perception,Auditory Pathways,humans,Adult,Middle Aged,Female,Male,Models; Neurological,Adolescent,Aged,Perceptual Disorders,Surveys and Questionnaires},
  author = {Cuddy, Lola L. and Balkwill, Laura-Lee and Peretz, Isabelle and Holden, Ronald R.},
  eprinttype = {pmid},
  eprint = {16597781}
}

@article{peretzVarietiesMusicalDisorders2003,
  langid = {english},
  title = {Varieties of {{Musical Disorders}}},
  volume = {999},
  issn = {1749-6632},
  url = {http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1196/annals.1284.006/abstract},
  doi = {10.1196/annals.1284.006},
  abstract = {Abstract:  Multiple disorders of musical abilities can occur after brain damage. Conversely, early brain anomalies or vast brain injuries may sometimes spare ordinary musical skills in individuals who experience severe cognitive losses. To document these incidences, comprehensive behavioral testing is required. We propose to use the Montreal Battery of Evaluation of Amusia (MBEA) because it is arguably the best tool currently available. Over the last decade, this battery was developed and validated in populations with brain damage of various etiologies. Furthermore, the MBEA is theoretically motivated and satisfies important psychometric properties. It is sensitive, normally distributed, reliable on test-retest, and correlates with Gordon's Musical Aptitude Profile, another more widely used battery of tests. To promote its wide usage, the MBEA is now available upon request. In addition, individual MBEA data of 160 normal participants of variable age and education have been made available to all via the internet.},
  number = {1},
  journaltitle = {Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences},
  urldate = {2016-06-10},
  date = {2003-11-01},
  pages = {58-75},
  keywords = {amusia evaluation,disorders of music perception and memory,learning deficits,musical disorders,tests of musical abilities},
  author = {Peretz, Isabelle and Champod, Anne Sophie and Hyde, Krista},
  file = {D\:\\Sauve\\Zotero\\storage\\SHGDT95C\\abstract\;jsessionid=185AA3E92A1A138F74973EF823A20BB0.html}
}

@misc{bentleyBentleyMeasuresMusical1966,
  title = {Bentley Measures of Musical Abilities},
  publisher = {{London: Harrap}},
  date = {1966},
  author = {Bentley, A}
}

@misc{gordonAdvancedMeasuresMusic1989,
  title = {Advanced Measures of Music Audiation},
  publisher = {{Chicago: Riverside Publishing Company}},
  date = {1989},
  author = {Gordon, EE}
}

@misc{seashoreSeashoreMeasuresMusical1960,
  title = {Seashore Measures of Musical Talen},
  publisher = {{New York: The Psychological Corporation}},
  date = {1960},
  author = {Seashore, CE and Lewis, D and Saetveit, JG}
}

@article{bilhartzEffectEarlyMusic1999,
  title = {The {{Effect}} of {{Early Music Training}} on {{Child Cognitive Development}}},
  volume = {20},
  issn = {0193-3973},
  url = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0193397399000337},
  doi = {10.1016/S0193-3973(99)00033-7},
  abstract = {The relationship between participation in a structured music curriculum and cognitive development was studied with 71 4- through 6-year olds. Children were pre- and posttested with six subtests of the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale, fourth edition (SB) and the Young Child Music Skills Assessment (MSA). Approximately one half of the sample participated in a 30-week, 75-minute weekly, parent-involved music curriculum. Statistical analysis showed significant gains for participants receiving music instruction on the MSA and on the SB Bead Memory subtest. Four-order partial correlations analysis found musical treatment influence on Bead Memory scores when the participants were controlled for sex, ethnicity, parental education, and economic class. Treatment also produced higher scores on other SB measurements for select populations. This study suggests a significant correspondence between early music instruction and spatial–temporal reasoning abilities.},
  number = {4},
  journaltitle = {Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology},
  shortjournal = {Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology},
  urldate = {2016-06-09},
  date = {1999-12},
  pages = {615-636},
  author = {Bilhartz, Terry D and Bruhn, Rick A and Olson, Judith E},
  file = {D\:\\Sauve\\Zotero\\storage\\6MK85PVX\\S0193397399000337.html}
}

@article{rauscherClassroomKeyboardInstruction2000,
  title = {Classroom Keyboard Instruction Improves Kindergarten Children’s Spatial-Temporal Performance: {{A}} Field Experiment},
  volume = {15},
  issn = {0885-2006},
  url = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0885200600000508},
  doi = {10.1016/S0885-2006(00)00050-8},
  shorttitle = {Classroom Keyboard Instruction Improves Kindergarten Children’s Spatial-Temporal Performance},
  abstract = {The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of classroom music instruction featuring the keyboard on the spatial-temporal reasoning of kindergarten children. Sixty-two kindergartners were assigned to one of two conditions, keyboard or no music. All children were pretested with two spatial-temporal tasks and one pictorial memory task. The keyboard group was provided with 20-min lessons two times per week in groups of approximately 10 children. Children were then retested at two 4-month intervals. The keyboard group scored significantly higher than the no music group on both spatial-temporal tasks after 4 months of lessons, a difference that was greater in magnitude after 8 months of lessons. Pictorial memory did not differ for the two groups after the lessons. These data support studies that found similar skills enhancements in preschool children, despite vast differences in the setting in which the instruction occurred. The results have strong implications for school administrators and educators.},
  number = {2},
  journaltitle = {Early Childhood Research Quarterly},
  shortjournal = {Early Childhood Research Quarterly},
  urldate = {2016-06-09},
  date = {2000},
  pages = {215-228},
  author = {Rauscher, Frances H and Zupan, Mary Anne},
  file = {D\:\\Sauve\\Zotero\\storage\\ADIQ2M9E\\S0885200600000508.html}
}

@article{hurwitzNonmusicolEffectsKodaly1975,
  langid = {english},
  title = {Nonmusicol {{Effects}} of the {{Kodaly Music Curriculum}} in {{Primary Grade Children}}},
  volume = {8},
  issn = {0022-2194,},
  url = {http://ldx.sagepub.com/content/8/3/167},
  doi = {10.1177/002221947500800310},
  abstract = {This study compares the performances of two matched groups of primary grade children on tasks of temporal and spatial abilities. One group received an intensive exposure to the Kodaly Music Training Program, while the other group did not. The results indicated that the music group performed more effectively on both temporal and spatial tasks than the non-music control group. Sex differences are also reported in which experimental group boys demonstrated a significantly better level of performance than control boys. Comparison with a second control group indicated that children receiving the Kodaly Music Program performed more effectively on reading tests than comparable groups of first graders not receiving this music instruction. This facilitative effect on reading performance was observed beyond the first grade level when the music program was continued.},
  number = {3},
  journaltitle = {Journal of Learning Disabilities},
  shortjournal = {J Learn Disabil},
  urldate = {2016-06-09},
  date = {1975-01-03},
  pages = {167-174},
  author = {Hurwitz, Irving and Wolff, Peter H. and Bortnick, Barrie D. and Kokas, Klara},
  file = {D\:\\Sauve\\Zotero\\storage\\MKDJ25XJ\\167.html}
}

@article{barwickRelationsReadingMusical1989,
  langid = {english},
  title = {Relations {{Between Reading}} and {{Musical Abilities}}},
  volume = {59},
  issn = {2044-8279},
  url = {http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.2044-8279.1989.tb03097.x/abstract},
  doi = {10.1111/j.2044-8279.1989.tb03097.x},
  abstract = {Summary.  In two studies, groups of children with a wide range of reading ability and including a high proportion of poor readers were given Bentley's musical ability battery. Scores on tonal memory and chord analysis were related significantly to reading age with chronological age and IQ partialled out. The implications of these findings for views about component skills involved in reading and listening to music are discussed.},
  number = {2},
  journaltitle = {British Journal of Educational Psychology},
  urldate = {2016-06-09},
  date = {1989-06-01},
  pages = {253-257},
  author = {Barwick, Julia and Valentine, Elizabeth and West, Robert and Wilding, John},
  file = {D\:\\Sauve\\Zotero\\storage\\23ZMDTBG\\abstract\;jsessionid=83A48EE11F581CE5F6D92BD97621AB43.html}
}

@article{phillipsInvestigationRelationshipMusicality1976,
  title = {An Investigation of the Relationship between Musicality and Intelligence},
  volume = {4},
  issn = {1741-3087(Electronic);0305-7356(Print)},
  doi = {10.1177/030573567642003},
  abstract = {Investigated the association of musicality, musical background, and intelligence with social status. Ss were 194 3rd-yr students from 4 junior schools, ranging in status from lower class to upper-middle class. Musical aptitude was assessed by the Wing Standardized Tests of Musical Intelligence (TMI) and the Tests of Rhythmic Ability for Children; intelligence was assessed by the Cognitive Abilities Test (CAT); and a questionnaire was administered to each S in order to determine his/her degree of musical training. Correlations were .61 between TMI and CAT, and .69 between TRA and CAT. Scores on each of the tests decreased progressively from School A to School D, and most of the differences between schools on each test were significant. Division of the Ss into 5 groups of increasing TMI mean scores yielded proportional increases in CAT mean scores. Results show a close relationship between musicality and intelligence which, along with musical background, is associated with social status. (23 ref)},
  number = {2},
  journaltitle = {Psychology of Music},
  date = {1976},
  pages = {16-31},
  keywords = {*Intelligence,*Junior High School Students,*Music Education,*Musical Ability,Socioeconomic Status},
  author = {Phillips, Douglas},
  file = {D\:\\Sauve\\Zotero\\storage\\KZS4J3UQ\\1980-04131-001.html}
}

@article{gromkoEffectMusicTraining1998,
  langid = {english},
  title = {The {{Effect}} of {{Music Training}} on {{Preschoolers}}' {{Spatial}}-{{Temporal Task Performance}}},
  volume = {46},
  issn = {0022-4294, 1945-0095},
  url = {http://jrm.sagepub.com/content/46/2/173},
  doi = {10.2307/3345621},
  abstract = {The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of music training on preschoolers' Performance IQ (Wechsler Preschool and Primary Intelligence Scale-Revised, 1989). Preschoolers in the treatment group (N = 15) met weekly from October 1996 through April 1997. A Mann-Whitney test on Performance IQ (scaled) gain scores by group yielded U = 67, p =.059; a Mann-Whitney test on Performance IQ (raw) gain scores by group yielded U = 65, p =.049. Regressions of IQ gain scores on age showed significantly less gain for older children in the control group (N = 15). A regression analysis showed that the relationship of Performance IQ to age was not significant for the treatment group. Slopes intersected at age 3. For 3-year-olds in this study, an intellectually stimulating environment, per se, results in a gain in the ability to perform spatial-temporal tasks.},
  number = {2},
  journaltitle = {Journal of Research in Music Education},
  shortjournal = {Journal of Research in Music Education},
  urldate = {2016-06-09},
  date = {1998-01-07},
  pages = {173-181},
  author = {Gromko, Joyce Eastlund and Poorman, Allison Smith},
  file = {D\:\\Sauve\\Zotero\\storage\\XFNTZ8CZ\\173.html}
}

@article{hutchinsonCerebellarVolumeMusicians2003,
  langid = {english},
  title = {Cerebellar Volume of Musicians},
  volume = {13},
  issn = {1047-3211},
  abstract = {There is evidence that the cerebellum is involved in motor learning and cognitive function in humans. Animal experiments have found structural changes in the cerebellum in response to long-term motor skill activity. We investigated whether professional keyboard players, who learn specialized motor skills early in life and practice them intensely throughout life, have larger cerebellar volumes than matched non-musicians by analyzing high-resolution T(1)-weighted MR images from a large prospectively acquired database (n = 120). Significantly greater absolute (P = 0.018) and relative (P = 0.006) cerebellar volume but not total brain volume was found in male musicians compared to male non-musicians. Lifelong intensity of practice correlated with relative cerebellar volume in the male musician group (r = 0.595, P = 0.001). In the female group, there was no significant difference noted in volume measurements between musicians and non-musicians. The significant main effect for gender on relative cerebellar volume (F = 10.41, P {$