text:
@article{charney_geostrophic_1971,
	title = {Geostrophic {Turbulence}},
	volume = {28},
	issn = {0022-4928, 1520-0469},
	doi = {10.1175/1520-0469(1971)028<1087:GT>2.0.CO;2},
	number = {6},
	urldate = {2014-02-03},
	journal = {Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences},
	author = {Charney, J. G.},
	month = sep,
	year = {1971},
	pages = {1087--1095},
	file = {AMS Journals Online - Geostrophic Turbulence:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/4E37K28G/1520-0469(1971)0281087GT2.0.html:text/html;Charney - 1971 - Geostrophic Turbulence.pdf:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/VZWGIUEZ/Charney - 1971 - Geostrophic Turbulence.pdf:application/pdf}
}

@article{mackinnon_climate_2017,
	title = {Climate {Process} {Team} on {Internal} {Wave}–{Driven} {Ocean} {Mixing}},
	volume = {98},
	issn = {0003-0007},
	doi = {10.1175/BAMS-D-16-0030.1},
	abstract = {Diapycnal mixing plays a primary role in the thermodynamic balance of the ocean and, consequently, in oceanic heat and carbon uptake and storage. Though observed mixing rates are on average consistent with values required by inverse models, recent attention has focused on the dramatic spatial variability, spanning several orders of magnitude, of mixing rates in both the upper and deep ocean. Away from ocean boundaries, the spatiotemporal patterns of mixing are largely driven by the geography of generation, propagation, and dissipation of internal waves, which supply much of the power for turbulent mixing. Over the last 5 years and under the auspices of U.S. Climate Variability and Predictability Program (CLIVAR), a National Science Foundation (NSF)- and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)-supported Climate Process Team has been engaged in developing, implementing, and testing dynamics-based parameterizations for internal wave–driven turbulent mixing in global ocean models. The work has primarily focused on turbulence 1) near sites of internal tide generation, 2) in the upper ocean related to wind-generated near inertial motions, 3) due to internal lee waves generated by low-frequency mesoscale flows over topography, and 4) at ocean margins. Here, we review recent progress, describe the tools developed, and discuss future directions.},
	number = {11},
	urldate = {2017-12-04},
	journal = {Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society},
	author = {MacKinnon, J. A. and Zhao, Z. and Whalen, C. B. and Waterhouse, A. F. and Trossman, D. S. and Sun, O. M. and St. Laurent, L. C. and Simmons, H. L. and Polzin, K. and Pinkel, R. and Pickering, A. and Norton, N. J. and Nash, J. D. and Musgrave, R. and Merchant, L. M. and Melet, A. V. and Mater, B. and Legg, S. and Large, W. G. and Kunze, E. and Klymak, J. M. and Jochum, M. and Jayne, S. R. and Hallberg, R. W. and Griffies, S. M. and Diggs, S. and Danabasoglu, G. and Chassignet, E. P. and Buijsman, M. C. and Bryan, F. O. and Briegleb, B. P. and Barna, A. and Arbic, B. K. and Ansong, J. K. and Alford, M. H.},
	month = mar,
	year = {2017},
	pages = {2429--2454},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/JDGMTWP5/MacKinnon et al. - 2017 - Climate Process Team on Internal Wave–Driven Ocean.pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/J6RT46WR/BAMS-D-16-0030.html:text/html}
}

@article{rainville_propagation_2013,
	title = {Propagation of internal tides generated near {Luzon} {Strait}: {Observations} from autonomous gliders},
	volume = {118},
	issn = {2169-9291},
	shorttitle = {Propagation of internal tides generated near {Luzon} {Strait}},
	doi = {10.1002/jgrc.20293},
	abstract = {The vertical isopycnal displacements associated with internal waves generated by the barotropic tidal currents in the vicinity of Luzon Strait are estimated using measurements collected by autonomous underwater gliders. Nearly 23,000 profiles from Seagliders and Spray gliders, collected during 29 different missions since 2007, are used to estimate the amplitude and phase of the linear semidiurnal and diurnal internal waves in this energetic region, particularly in the previously poorly sampled area near the eastern ridge and on the Pacific side of Luzon Strait. The mean and variability of the internal wave field in the upper 1000 m of the water column are described. The phase progression of internal waves as they propagate away from their generation sites is captured directly. The glider-based observations are used to map the mode-1 semidiurnal and diurnal internal wave fields, providing the baroclinic energy flux over a roughly 600 km × 800 km region based strictly on in situ observations.},
	language = {en},
	number = {9},
	urldate = {2017-10-17},
	journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans},
	author = {Rainville, L. and Lee, C. M. and Rudnick, D. L. and Yang, K.-C.},
	month = sep,
	year = {2013},
	keywords = {4520 Eddies and mesoscale processes, 4512 Currents, 4544 Internal and inertial waves, 4594 Instruments and techniques, gliders, Internal tides, internal waves, Luzon Strait, tides, internal tides},
	pages = {4125--4138},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/K7FVE7QX/Rainville et al. - 2013 - Propagation of internal tides generated near Luzon.pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/FSABEF27/abstract.html:text/html}
}

@article{cho_horizontal_2001,
	title = {Horizontal velocity structure functions in the upper troposphere and lower stratosphere: 1. {Observations}},
	volume = {106},
	issn = {2156-2202},
	shorttitle = {Horizontal velocity structure functions in the upper troposphere and lower stratosphere},
	doi = {10.1029/2000JD900814},
	abstract = {We compute horizontal velocity structure functions using quasiglobal data accumulated by specially equipped commercial aircraft on 7630 flights from August 1994 to December 1997. Using the ozone concentration measurements, we classify the results as tropospheric or stratospheric. We further divide the results into four absolute latitude bands. For separation distance r between 10 and 100 km, the lower stratospheric diagonal third-order structure functions are proportional to negative r. This implies a downscale energy cascade, and we estimate the mean energy dissipation rate to be 〈ε〉 ≈ 6 × 10−5 m2 s−3. For r between 300 and 1500 km, a positive r3 dependence was visible for the polar stratospheric data. This may be the result of a two-dimensional (2D) turbulence downscale enstrophy cascade, and we estimate the average enstrophy flux to be Πω ≈ 2 × 10−15 s−3 and the energy spectral constant to be κ ≈ 2. The negative sign of these third-order functions at mesoscales in both the upper troposphere and lower stratosphere provide no support for an inverse energy cascade 2D turbulence. At scales above ∼100 km, the second-order structure functions increase with latitude in the troposphere and decrease with latitude in the stratosphere. The off-diagonal third-order functions in the stratosphere show a remarkably clean negative r2 dependency from 10 to 1000 km in scale.},
	language = {en},
	number = {D10},
	urldate = {2017-10-17},
	journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres},
	author = {Cho, J. Y. N. and Lindborg, E.},
	month = may,
	year = {2001},
	keywords = {3329 Meteorology and Atmospheric Dynamics: Mesoscale meteorology, 3334 Meteorology and Atmospheric Dynamics: Middle atmosphere dynamics, 3379 Meteorology and Atmospheric Dynamics: Turbulence, 3384 Meteorology and Atmospheric Dynamics: Waves and tides},
	pages = {10223--10232},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/NIPFBSEQ/Cho et Lindborg - 2001 - Horizontal velocity structure functions in the upp.pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/JBH95BAW/abstract.html:text/html}
}

@article{garrett_space-time_1972,
	title = {Space-{Time} scales of internal waves},
	volume = {3},
	issn = {0016-7991},
	doi = {10.1080/03091927208236082},
	abstract = {We have contrived a model E(αω) α μ−1ω−p+1(ω 2−ω i 2)−+ for the distribution of internal wave energy in horizontal wavenumber, frequency-space, with wavenumber α extending to some upper limit μ(ω) α ω r-1 (ω 2−ω i 2)½, and frequency ω extending from the inertial frequency ω i to the local Väisälä frequency n(y). The spectrum is portrayed as an equivalent continuum to which the modal structure (if it exists) is not vital. We assume horizontal isotropy, E(α, ω) = 2παE(α1, α2, ω), with α1, α2 designating components of α. Certain moments of E(α1, α2, ω) can be derived from observations. (i) Moored (or freely floating) devices measuring horizontal current u(t), vertical displacement η(t),…, yield the frequency spectra F (u,η,…)(ω) = ∫∫ (U 2, Z 2,…)E(α1, ∞2, ω) dα1 dα2, where U, Z,… are the appropriate wave functions. (ii) Similarly towed measurements give the wavenumber spectrum F (…)(α1) = ∫∫… dα2 dω. (iii) Moored measurements horizontally separated by X yield the coherence spectrum R(X, ω) which is related to the horizontal cosine transform ∫∫ E(α1, α2 ω) cos α1 Xdα1 dα1. (iv) Moored measurements vertically separated by Y yield R(Y, ω) and (v) towed measurements vertically separated yield R(Y, α1), and these are related to similar vertical Fourier transforms. Away from inertial frequencies, our model E(α, ω) α ω −p-r for α ≦ μ ω ω r, yields F(ω) ∞ ω −p, F(α1) ∞ α1 −q, with q = (p + r − 1)/r. The observed moored and towed spectra suggest p and q between 5/3 and 2, yielding r between 2/3 and 3/2, inconsistent with a value of r = 2 derived from Webster's measurements of moored vertical coherence. We ascribe Webster's result to the oceanic fine-structure. Our choice (p, q, r) = (2, 2, 1) is then not inconsistent with existing evidence. The spectrum is E(∞, ω) ∞ ω −1(ω 2−ω i 2 −1, and the α-bandwith μ ∞ (ω 2−ω i 2)+ is equivalent to about 20 modes. Finally, we consider the frequency-of-encounter spectra F([sgrave]) at any towing speed S, approaching F(ω) as S ≦ S o, and F(α1) for α1 = [sgrave]/S as S ≧ S o, where S o = 0(1 km/h) is the relevant Doppler velocity scale.},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2017-10-17},
	journal = {Geophysical Fluid Dynamics},
	author = {Garrett, C. and Munk, W.},
	month = jan,
	year = {1972},
	pages = {225--264},
	file = {Snapshot:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/85BQTUV6/03091927208236082.html:text/html}
}

@article{ray_m2_2015,
	title = {M2 {Internal} {Tides} and {Their} {Observed} {Wavenumber} {Spectra} from {Satellite} {Altimetry}},
	volume = {46},
	issn = {0022-3670},
	doi = {10.1175/JPO-D-15-0065.1},
	abstract = {A near-global chart of surface elevations associated with the stationary M2 internal tide is empirically constructed from multimission satellite altimeter data. An advantage of a strictly empirical mapping approach is that results are independent of assumptions about ocean wave dynamics and, in fact, can be used to test such assumptions. A disadvantage is that present-day altimeter coverage is only marginally adequate to support mapping such short-wavelength features. Moreover, predominantly north–south ground-track orientations and contamination from nontidal oceanographic variability can lead to deficiencies in mapped tides. Independent data from Cryosphere Satellite-2 (CryoSat-2) and other altimeters are used to test the solutions and show positive reduction in variance except in regions of large mesoscale variability. The tidal fields are subjected to two-dimensional wavenumber spectral analysis, which allows for the construction of an empirical map of modal wavelengths. Mode-1 wavelengths show good agreement with theoretical wavelengths calculated from the ocean’s mean stratification, with a few localized exceptions (e.g., Tasman Sea). Mode-2 waves are detectable in much of the ocean, with wavelengths in reasonable agreement with theoretical expectations, but their spectral signatures grow too weak to map in some regions.},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2017-10-16},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Ray, R. D. and Zaron, E. D.},
	month = oct,
	year = {2015},
	pages = {3--22},
	file = {Snapshot:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/WCJFGRBB/JPO-D-15-0065.html:text/html}
}

@article{balwada_scale_2016,
	title = {Scale {Dependent} {Distribution} of {Kinetic} {Energy} from {Surface} {Drifters} in the {Gulf} of {Mexico}: {Scale} {Dep}. {Dist}. of {KE} from {Surface} {Drifters} in the {GOM}},
	volume = {43},
	shorttitle = {Scale {Dependent} {Distribution} of {Kinetic} {Energy} from {Surface} {Drifters} in the {Gulf} of {Mexico}},
	doi = {10.1002/2016GL069405},
	abstract = {The scale dependent distribution of kinetic energy is probed at the surface in the Gulf of Mexico using surface drifters from the Grand Lagrangian Deployment (GLAD) experiment. The second order velocity structure function and its decomposition into rotational and divergent components are examined. The results reveal that the divergent component, compared to the rotational component, dominates at scales below 5 km, and the pattern is reversed at larger scales. The divergent component has a slope near 2/3 below 5 km, similar to an energy cascade range (k − 5/3). The third order velocity structure function at scales below 5km is negative and implies a forward cascade of energy to smaller scales. The rotational component has a steeper slope, roughly 1.5, from scales of 5km up to the deformation radius. This is similar to a 2D enstrophy cascade, although the slope is shallower than the predicted 2. There is a brief 2/3 range from the deformation radius to 200 km, suggestive of a 2D inverse cascade.},
	journal = {Geophysical Research Letters},
	author = {Balwada, D. and Lacasce, J. and Speer, K. G.},
	month = sep,
	year = {2016},
	file = {Snapshot:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/88A5S7ZT/308273476_Scale_Dependent_Distribution_of_Kinetic_Energy_from_Surface_Drifters_in_the_Gulf_of_M.html:text/html}
}

@article{rudnick_high-frequency_2013,
	title = {High-frequency internal waves near the {Luzon} {Strait} observed by underwater gliders},
	volume = {118},
	issn = {2169-9291},
	doi = {10.1002/jgrc.20083},
	abstract = {Tidal flow through the Luzon Strait produces large internal waves that propagate westward into the South China Sea and eastward into the Pacific. Underwater gliders gathered sustained observations of internal waves during seven overlapping missions from April 2007 through July 2008. A particular focus is the high-frequency internal waves, where the operational definition of high involves periods shorter than a glider profile taking 3–6 h. Internal wave vertical velocity is estimated from measurements of pressure and glider orientation through two methods: (1) use of a model of glider flight balancing buoyancy and drag along the glider path and (2) high-pass filtering of the observed glider vertical velocity. By combining high-frequency vertical velocities from glider flight with low-frequency estimates from isopycnal depth variations between dives, a spectrum covering five decades of frequency is constructed. A map of the standard deviation of vertical velocity over the survey area shows a decay from the Luzon Strait into the Pacific. The growth of high-frequency vertical velocity with propagation into the South China Sea is observed through two 2-week time series stations. The largest observed vertical velocities are greater than 0.2 m s−1 and are associated with displacements approaching 200 m. The high-frequency waves are observed at regular intervals of 1 day as they ride on diurnal tidal internal waves generated in the Strait.},
	language = {en},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2017-10-16},
	journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans},
	author = {Rudnick, D. L. and Shaun Johnston, T. M. and Sherman, J. T.},
	month = feb,
	year = {2013},
	keywords = {4544 Internal and inertial waves, 4594 Instruments and techniques, internal waves, underwater gliders, vertical velocity},
	pages = {774--784},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/VG4WPI3J/Rudnick et al. - 2013 - High-frequency internal waves near the Luzon Strai.pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/EN6FV8Z8/abstract.html:text/html}
}

@article{todd_high-frequency_2017,
	title = {High-frequency internal waves and thick bottom mixed layers observed by gliders in the {Gulf} {Stream}},
	volume = {44},
	issn = {1944-8007},
	doi = {10.1002/2017GL072580},
	abstract = {Autonomous underwater gliders are conducting high-resolution surveys within the Gulf Stream along the U.S. East Coast. Glider surveys reveal two mechanisms by which energy is extracted from the Gulf Stream as it flows over the Blake Plateau, a portion of the outer continental shelf between Florida and North Carolina where bottom depths are less than 1000 m. Internal waves with vertical velocities exceeding 0.1 m s−1 and frequencies just below the local buoyancy frequency are routinely found over the Blake Plateau, particularly near the Charleston Bump, a prominent topographic feature. These waves are likely internal lee waves generated by the subinertial Gulf Stream flow over the irregular bathymetry of the outer continental shelf. Bottom mixed layers with O(100) m thickness are also frequently encountered; these thick bottom mixed layers likely form in the lee of topography due to enhanced turbulence generated by O(1) m s−1 near-bottom flows.},
	language = {en},
	number = {12},
	urldate = {2017-10-16},
	journal = {Geophysical Research Letters},
	author = {Todd, R. E.},
	month = jun,
	year = {2017},
	keywords = {glider, 4544 Internal and inertial waves, 4564 Tsunamis and storm surges, 4576 Western boundary currents, 9325 Atlantic Ocean, bottom mixed layer, Gulf Stream, lee wave},
	pages = {2017GL072580},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/K82A3DH2/Todd - 2017 - High-frequency internal waves and thick bottom mix.pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/A454W8P6/abstract.html:text/html}
}

@article{qiu_source_2009,
	title = {Source of the 70-{Day} {Mesoscale} {Eddy} {Variability} in the {Coral} {Sea} and the {North} {Fiji} {Basin}},
	volume = {39},
	issn = {0022-3670},
	doi = {10.1175/2008JPO3988.1},
	abstract = {Large-amplitude sea surface height (SSH) variations with a wave period of 70 days and a wavelength of about 700 km are detected in the Coral Sea centered along ∼16°S and in the North Fiji Basin along ∼18°S. These mesoscale eddy signals have a well-defined annual cycle with a maximum in December/January and a minimum in May/June. As the southeasterly trades intercept the island mountains of Vanuatu and Fiji, they generate localized wind stress curl dipoles, which in turn induce the eastward-flowing Coral Sea Countercurrent (CSCC) and Fiji Basin Countercurrent (FBCC) in the Coral Sea and the North Fiji Basin, respectively. The high eddy variability band along 16°S is hypothesized in this study as resulting from barotropic instability due to the lateral shear between the eastward-flowing CSCC and its neighboring westward-flowing North Caledonian and North Vanuatu jets (NCJ and NVJ). Based on stability analyses on the background NCJ–CSCC–NVJ system, it is found that the most unstable mode of the system has an equivalent barotropic structure and is insensitive to the specification of the background flow’s vertical shear. This barotropic instability hypothesis is also supported by observations; specifically, the Reynolds stresses inferred from the observed SSH data are tilted against the meridional shear of the background NCJ–CSCC–NVJ flow. As the intensity of the NCJ–CSCC–NVJ shear fluctuates with the season, the growth rate of instability changes, resulting in seasonal amplitude modulations in the observed 70-day eddy signals.},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2016-12-08},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Qiu, Bo and Chen, Shuiming and Kessler, William S.},
	year = {2009},
	pages = {404--420},
	file = {Qiu et al. - 2009 - Source of the 70-Day Mesoscale Eddy Variability in.pdf:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/5K9DV72B/Qiu et al. - 2009 - Source of the 70-Day Mesoscale Eddy Variability in.pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/ZTCG6TH9/2008JPO3988.html:text/html}
}

@article{mccaffrey_estimates_2015,
	title = {Estimates of {Ocean} {Macroturbulence}: {Structure} {Function} and {Spectral} {Slope} from {Argo} {Profiling} {Floats}},
	volume = {45},
	issn = {00223670},
	shorttitle = {Estimates of {Ocean} {Macroturbulence}},
	doi = {10.1175/JPO-D-14-0023.1},
	abstract = {The Argo profiling float network has repeatedly sampled much of the World Ocean. This study uses Argo temperature and salinity data to form the tracer structure function of ocean variability at the macroscale (10-1000 km, mesoscale and above). Here, second-order temperature and salinity structure functions over horizontal separations are calculated along either pressure or potential density surfaces, which allows analysis of both active and passive tracer structure functions. Using Argo data, a map of global variance is created from the climatological average and each datum. When turbulence is homogeneous, the structure function slope from Argo can be related to the wavenumber spectrum slope in ocean temperature or salinity variability. This first application of structure function techniques to Argo data gives physically meaningful results based on bootstrapped confidence intervals, showing geographical dependence of the structure functions with slopes near ⅔ on average, independent of depth.},
	number = {7},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {McCaffrey, K. and Fox-Kemper, B. and Forget, G.},
	month = jul,
	year = {2015},
	keywords = {BOOTSTRAPPING (Statistics), climatology, OCEAN salinity, OCEAN turbulence, WAVENUMBER},
	pages = {1773--1793},
	file = {McCaffrey et al. - 2015 - Estimates of Ocean Macroturbulence Structure Func.pdf:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/RTDWQBKT/McCaffrey et al. - 2015 - Estimates of Ocean Macroturbulence Structure Func.pdf:application/pdf}
}

@book{salmon_lectures_1998,
	title = {Lectures on {Geophysical} {Fluid} {Dynamics}},
	isbn = {978-0-19-510808-8},
	abstract = {offers an introduction to several topics in theoretical geophysical fluid dynamics, including the theory of large-scale ocean circulation, geostrophic turbulence, and Hamiltonian fluid dynamics. The book is based on an introductory course in dynamical oceanography offered to first-year graduate students at Scripps Institution of Oceanography. Each chapter is a self-contained introduction ti its particular subject, and makes few specific references to other chapters. Chapters 1 examines the relationship between the molecular and continuum models of the fluid, and between the Eulerian and Lagrangian descriptions of the latter. Ch.2 is a broad introduction to the fluid dynamics of rotating, stratified flows. Ch.3 adddresses large-scale ocean circulation. Chs.4,5 and 6 discuss the theory of turbulence, including elementary ideas based on vorticity laws (Ch.4), statistical turbulence theory (Ch.5), and the applications of these ideas to quasigeostrophic flows in the Earth's oceans and atmosphere (Ch.6). Ch.7 surveys Hamiltonoian fluid dynamics, including the interaction between waves and currents, and "balanced" approximations to nearly geostrophic flow. Overall, the emphasis is on physical ideas rather than mathematical techniques. Readers are assumed to have had an elementary introduction to fluid mechanics, to know advanced calculus through partial differential equations, and to be familiar with the elementary ideas about linear waves, including the concept of group velocity.},
	publisher = {OUP USA},
	author = {Salmon, R.},
	month = may,
	year = {1998},
	keywords = {Academic, Professional, \& General, Earth Sciences, Hydrology \& The Hydrosphere}
}

@article{callies_interpreting_2013,
	title = {Interpreting {Energy} and {Tracer} {Spectra} of {Upper}-{Ocean} {Turbulence} in the {Submesoscale} {Range} (1–200 km)},
	volume = {43},
	issn = {0022-3670},
	doi = {10.1175/JPO-D-13-063.1},
	abstract = {Submesoscale (1–200 km) wavenumber spectra of kinetic and potential energy and tracer variance are obtained from in situ observations in the Gulf Stream region and in the eastern subtropical North Pacific. In the Gulf Stream region, steep kinetic energy spectra at scales between 200 and 20 km are consistent with predictions of interior quasigeostrophic–turbulence theory, both in the mixed layer and in the thermocline. At scales below 20 km, the spectra flatten out, consistent with a growing contribution of internal-wave energy at small scales. In the subtropical North Pacific, the energy spectra are flatter and inconsistent with predictions of interior quasigeostrophic–turbulence theory. The observed spectra and their dependence on depth are also inconsistent with predictions of surface quasigeostrophic–turbulence theory for the observed ocean stratification. It appears that unbalanced motions, most likely internal tides at large scales and the internal-wave continuum at small scales, dominate the energy spectrum throughout the submesoscale range. Spectra of temperature variance along density surfaces, which are not affected by internal tides, are also inconsistent with predictions of geostrophic-turbulence theories. Reasons for this inconsistency could be the injection of energy in the submesoscale range by small-scale baroclinic instabilities or modifications of the spectra by coupling between surface and interior dynamics or by ageostrophic frontal effects.},
	number = {11},
	urldate = {2014-09-30},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Callies, J. and Ferrari, R.},
	month = aug,
	year = {2013},
	keywords = {Circulation/ Dynamics, eddies, Ocean dynamics, internal waves, Turbulence, Fronts},
	pages = {2456--2474},
	file = {Callies et Ferrari - 2013 - Interpreting Energy and Tracer Spectra of Upper-Oc.pdf:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/IDIP578C/Callies et Ferrari - 2013 - Interpreting Energy and Tracer Spectra of Upper-Oc.pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/GUK4VRT6/JPO-D-13-063.html:text/html}
}

@book{vallis_atmospheric_2006,
	title = {Atmospheric and {Oceanic} {Fluid} {Dynamics}},
	publisher = {Cambridge University Press},
	author = {Vallis, G. K.},
	year = {2006},
	file = {Vallis - 2006 - Atmospheric and Oceanic Fluid Dynamics.pdf:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/4SD2RHIE/Vallis - 2006 - Atmospheric and Oceanic Fluid Dynamics.pdf:application/pdf}
}

@article{fu_transition_2013,
	title = {On the {Transition} from {Profile} {Altimeter} to {Swath} {Altimeter} for {Observing} {Global} {Ocean} {Surface} {Topography}},
	volume = {31},
	issn = {0739-0572},
	doi = {10.1175/JTECH-D-13-00109.1},
	abstract = {Conventional radar altimeter makes measurement of sea surface height (SSH) in one-dimensional profiles along the ground tracks of a satellite. Such profiles are combined via various mapping techniques to construct two-dimensional SSH maps, providing a valuable data record over the past two decades for studying the global ocean circulation and sea level change. However, the spatial resolution of the SSH is limited by both coarse sampling across the satellite tracks and the instrument error in the profile measurements. A new satellite mission based on radar interferometry offers the capability of making high-resolution wide-swath measurement of SSH. This mission is called Surface Water and Ocean Topography (SWOT), which will demonstrate the application of swath altimeter to both oceanography and land hydrology. This paper presents a brief introduction to the design of SWOT, its performance specification for SSH, and the anticipated spatial resolution and coverage, demonstrating the promise of SWOT for fundamental advancement in observing SSH. A main objective of the paper is to address issues in the anticipated transition of conventional profile altimetry to swath altimetry in the future—in particular, the need for consistency of the new observing system with the old for extending the existing data record into the future. A viable approach is to carry a profile altimeter in the SWOT payload to provide calibration and validation of the new measurement against the old at large scales. This is the baseline design of SWOT. The unique advantages of the approach are discussed in the context of a new standard for observing the global SSH in the future.},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2015-08-10},
	journal = {Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology},
	author = {Fu, L.-L. and Ubelmann, C.},
	month = oct,
	year = {2013},
	keywords = {Satellite observations, Altimetry, Remote sensing, Radars/Radar observations},
	pages = {560--568},
	file = {Fu et Ubelmann - 2013 - On the Transition from Profile Altimeter to Swath .pdf:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/SV5P3U3B/Fu et Ubelmann - 2013 - On the Transition from Profile Altimeter to Swath .pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/S3GH9QQM/JTECH-D-13-00109.html:text/html}
}

@article{kelly_western_2010,
	title = {Western {Boundary} {Currents} and {Frontal} {Air}–{Sea} {Interaction}: {Gulf} {Stream} and {Kuroshio} {Extension}},
	volume = {23},
	issn = {0894-8755},
	shorttitle = {Western {Boundary} {Currents} and {Frontal} {Air}–{Sea} {Interaction}},
	url = {http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/2010JCLI3346.1},
	doi = {10.1175/2010JCLI3346.1},
	abstract = {In the Northern Hemisphere midlatitude western boundary current (WBC) systems there is a complex interaction between dynamics and thermodynamics and between atmosphere and ocean. Their potential contribution to the climate system motivated major parallel field programs in both the North Pacific [Kuroshio Extension System Study (KESS)] and the North Atlantic [Climate Variability and Predictability (CLIVAR) Mode Water Dynamics Experiment (CLIMODE)], and preliminary observations and analyses from these programs highlight that complexity. The Gulf Stream (GS) in the North Atlantic and the Kuroshio Extension (KE) in the North Pacific have broad similarities, as subtropical gyre WBCs, but they also have significant differences, which affect the regional air–sea exchange processes and their larger-scale interactions. The 15-yr satellite altimeter data record, which provides a rich source of information, is combined here with the longer historical record from in situ data to describe and compare the current systems. While many important similarities have been noted on the dynamic and thermodynamic aspects of the time-varying GS and KE, some not-so-subtle differences exist in current variability, mode water properties, and recirculation gyre structure. This paper provides a comprehensive comparison of these two current systems from both dynamical and thermodynamical perspectives with the goal of developing and evaluating hypotheses about the physics underlying the observed differences, and exploring the WBC’s potential to influence midlatitude sea–air interaction. Differences between the GS and KE systems offer opportunities to compare the dominant processes and thereby to advance understanding of their role in the climate system.},
	number = {21},
	urldate = {2015-08-08},
	journal = {Journal of Climate},
	author = {Kelly, K. A. and Small, R. Justin and Samelson, R. M. and Qiu, B. and Joyce, T. M. and Kwon, Y.-O. and Cronin, M. F.},
	month = mar,
	year = {2010},
	keywords = {Satellite observations, climate variability, North Pacific Ocean, Boundary currents, Air-sea interaction},
	pages = {5644--5667},
	file = {Kelly et al. - 2010 - Western Boundary Currents and Frontal Air–Sea Inte.pdf:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/VUPXW7T8/Kelly et al. - 2010 - Western Boundary Currents and Frontal Air–Sea Inte.pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/4CIREFTZ/2010JCLI3346.html:text/html}
}

@article{holte_new_2009,
	title = {A {New} {Algorithm} for {Finding} {Mixed} {Layer} {Depths} with {Applications} to {Argo} {Data} and {Subantarctic} {Mode} {Water} {Formation}},
	volume = {26},
	issn = {0739-0572},
	doi = {10.1175/2009JTECHO543.1},
	abstract = {A new hybrid method for finding the mixed layer depth (MLD) of individual ocean profiles models the general shape of each profile, searches for physical features in the profile, and calculates threshold and gradient MLDs to assemble a suite of possible MLD values. It then analyzes the patterns in the suite to select a final MLD estimate. The new algorithm is provided in online supplemental materials. Developed using profiles from all oceans, the algorithm is compared to threshold methods that use the C. de Boyer Montégut et al. criteria and to gradient methods using 13 601 Argo profiles from the southeast Pacific and southwest Atlantic Oceans. In general, the threshold methods find deeper MLDs than the new algorithm and the gradient methods produce more anomalous MLDs than the new algorithm. When constrained to using only temperature profiles, the algorithm offers a clear improvement over the temperature threshold and gradient methods; the new temperature algorithm MLDs more closely approximate the density algorithm MLDs than the temperature threshold and gradient MLDs. The algorithm is applied to profiles from a formation region of Subantarctic Mode Water (SAMW) and Antarctic Intermediate Water (AAIW). The density algorithm finds that the deepest MLDs in this region routinely reach 500 dbar and occur north of the A. H. Orsi et al. mean Subantarctic Front in the southeastern Pacific Ocean. The deepest MLDs typically occur in August and September and are congruent with the subsurface salinity minimum, a signature of AAIW.},
	number = {9},
	urldate = {2018-07-27},
	journal = {Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology},
	author = {Holte, J. and Talley, L.},
	month = sep,
	year = {2009},
	pages = {1920--1939},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/UBTKVHWS/Holte et Talley - 2009 - A New Algorithm for Finding Mixed Layer Depths wit.pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/RX8F2V3S/2009JTECHO543.html:text/html}
}

@article{holte_argo_2017,
	title = {An {Argo} mixed layer climatology and database},
	volume = {44},
	copyright = {©2017. American Geophysical Union. All Rights Reserved.},
	issn = {1944-8007},
	doi = {10.1002/2017GL073426},
	abstract = {A global climatology and database of mixed layer properties are computed from nearly 1,250,000 Argo profiles. The climatology is calculated with both a hybrid algorithm for detecting the mixed layer depth (MLD) and a standard threshold method. The climatology provides accurate information about the depth, properties, extent, and seasonal patterns of global mixed layers. The individual profile results in the database can be used to construct time series of mixed layer properties in specific regions of interest. The climatology and database are available online at http://mixedlayer.ucsd.edu. The MLDs calculated by the hybrid algorithm are shallower and generally more accurate than those of the threshold method, particularly in regions of deep winter mixed layers; the new climatology differs the most from existing mixed layer climatologies in these regions. Examples are presented from the Labrador and Irminger Seas, the Southern Ocean, and the North Atlantic Ocean near the Gulf Stream. In these regions the threshold method tends to overestimate winter MLDs by approximately 10\% compared to the algorithm.},
	language = {en},
	number = {11},
	urldate = {2018-07-27},
	journal = {Geophysical Research Letters},
	author = {Holte, J. and Talley, L. D. and Gilson, J. and Roemmich, D.},
	month = jun,
	year = {2017},
	keywords = {climatology, Argo, global, mixed layer},
	pages = {5618--5626},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/69RGFUM7/Holte et al. - An Argo mixed layer climatology and database.pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/3KMX4GHV/2017GL073426.html:text/html}
}

@article{roemmich_20042008_2009,
	title = {The 2004–2008 mean and annual cycle of temperature, salinity, and steric height in the global ocean from the {Argo} {Program}},
	volume = {82},
	issn = {0079-6611},
	doi = {10.1016/j.pocean.2009.03.004},
	abstract = {The Argo Program has achieved 5years of global coverage, growing from a very sparse global array of 1000 profiling floats in early 2004 to more than 3000 instruments from late 2007 to the present. Using nearly 350,000 temperature and salinity profiles, we constructed an upper-ocean climatology and monthly anomaly fields for the 5-year era, 2004–2008. A basic description of the modern upper ocean based entirely on Argo data is presented here, to provide a baseline for comparison with past datasets and with ongoing Argo data, to test the adequacy of Argo sampling of large-scale variability, and to examine the consistency of the Argo dataset with related ocean observations from other programs. The Argo 5-year mean is compared to the World Ocean Atlas, highlighting the middle and high latitudes of the southern hemisphere as a region of strong multi-decadal warming and freshening. Moreover the region is one where Argo data have contributed an enormous increment to historical sampling, and where more Argo floats are needed for documenting large-scale variability. Globally, the Argo-era ocean is warmer than the historical climatology at nearly all depths, by an increasing amount toward the sea surface; it is saltier in the surface layer and fresher at intermediate levels. Annual cycles in temperature and salinity are compared, again to WOA01, and to the National Oceanography Center air–sea flux climatology, the Reynolds SST product, and AVISO satellite altimetric height. These products are consistent with Argo data on hemispheric and global scales, but show regional differences that may either point to systematic errors in the datasets or their syntheses, to physical processes, or to temporal variability. The present work is viewed as an initial step toward integrating Argo and other climate-relevant global ocean datasets.},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2018-07-27},
	journal = {Progress in Oceanography},
	author = {Roemmich, D. and Gilson, J.},
	month = aug,
	year = {2009},
	pages = {81--100},
	file = {Roemmich et Gilson - 2009 - The 2004–2008 mean and annual cycle of temperature.pdf:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/FDKNGP97/Roemmich et Gilson - 2009 - The 2004–2008 mean and annual cycle of temperature.pdf:application/pdf;ScienceDirect Snapshot:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/5BT6DNEH/S0079661109000160.html:text/html}
}

@article{alory_french_2015,
	title = {The {French} contribution to the voluntary observing ships network of sea surface salinity},
	volume = {105},
	issn = {0967-0637},
	doi = {10.1016/j.dsr.2015.08.005},
	abstract = {Sea Surface Salinity (SSS) is an essential climate variable that requires long term in situ observation. The French SSS Observation Service (SSS-OS) manages a network of Voluntary Observing Ships equipped with thermosalinographs (TSG). The network is global though more concentrated in the tropical Pacific and North Atlantic oceanic basins. The acquisition system is autonomous with real time transmission and is regularly serviced at harbor calls. There are distinct real time and delayed time processing chains. Real time processing includes automatic alerts to detect potential instrument problems, in case raw data are outside of climatic limits, and graphical monitoring tools. Delayed time processing relies on a dedicated software for attribution of data quality flags by visual inspection, and correction of TSG time series by comparison with daily water samples and collocated Argo data. A method for optimizing the automatic attribution of quality flags in real time, based on testing different thresholds for data deviation from climatology and retroactively comparing the resulting flags to delayed time flags, is presented. The SSS-OS real time data feed the Coriolis operational oceanography database, while the research-quality delayed time data can be extracted for selected time and geographical ranges through a graphical web interface. Delayed time data have been also combined with other SSS data sources to produce gridded files for the Pacific and Atlantic oceans. A short review of the research activities conducted with such data is given. It includes observation-based process-oriented and climate studies from regional to global scale as well as studies where in situ SSS is used for calibration/validation of models, coral proxies or satellite data.},
	urldate = {2018-07-25},
	journal = {Deep Sea Research Part I: Oceanographic Research Papers},
	author = {Alory, G. and Delcroix, T. and Téchiné, P. and Diverrès, D. and Varillon, D. and Cravatte, S. and Gouriou, Y. and Grelet, J. and Jacquin, S. and Kestenare, E. and Maes, C. and Morrow, R. and Perrier, J. and Reverdin, G. and Roubaud, F.},
	month = nov,
	year = {2015},
	keywords = {Ocean observation, Sea surface salinity, Voluntary observing ships},
	pages = {1--18},
	file = {ScienceDirect Full Text PDF:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/37MVR3ED/Alory et al. - 2015 - The French contribution to the voluntary observing.pdf:application/pdf;ScienceDirect Snapshot:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/RZZU75PK/S0967063715001417.html:text/html}
}

@article{kolodziejczyk_observation_2015,
	title = {Observation of the surface horizontal thermohaline variability at mesoscale to submesoscale in the north-eastern subtropical {Atlantic} {Ocean}},
	volume = {120},
	copyright = {© 2015. American Geophysical Union. All Rights Reserved.},
	issn = {2169-9291},
	doi = {10.1002/2014JC010455},
	abstract = {The seasonal variability of the surface horizontal thermohaline structure is investigated in the north-eastern Atlantic Surface Salinity Maximum (SSM) at length scales from five to hundreds of kilometers, i.e., at submesoscale to mesoscale. The near-surface temperature and salinity data from merchant ship thermosalinograph (TSG) transects across the Atlantic are used to compute the horizontal temperature, salinity and density fluctuations, and the density ratio. During late winter in the north-eastern SSM, thermohaline compensation is observed for wavelengths from 5 km to more than 200 km; in spite of large and sharp surface thermohaline fronts, a weak density surface horizontal gradient is observed. Temperature and salinity exhibit an energetic spectra in k−2 slope scale between 20–100 km scale and a steeper slope at shorter wavelengths, while density spectra exhibit lower energy level with a clear k−3 slope below 20 km, consistent with interior quasigeostrophic turbulence. During summer in the north-eastern SSM, salinity and temperature gradients are no longer compensated due to strong atmospheric heating of the upper ocean. In comparison with winter, the surface density spectrum is enhanced with a flatter slope between k−2 and k−1 between 5 and 20 km.},
	language = {en},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2018-07-13},
	journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans},
	author = {Kolodziejczyk, N. and Reverdin, G. and Boutin, J. and Hernandez, O.},
	month = apr,
	year = {2015},
	keywords = {density-compensation, in situ observations, mesoscale to submesoscale, QG turbulence, subtropical North Atlantic, surface thermohaline variability},
	pages = {2588--2600},
	file = {Kolodziejczyk et al. - Observation of the surface horizontal thermohaline.pdf:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/VFJXZURF/Kolodziejczyk et al. - Observation of the surface horizontal thermohaline.pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/Z4BJB7JK/2014JC010455.html:text/html}
}

@article{wahr_deformation_1985,
	title = {Deformation induced by polar motion},
	volume = {90},
	copyright = {Copyright 1985 by the American Geophysical Union.},
	issn = {2156-2202},
	doi = {10.1029/JB090iB11p09363},
	abstract = {Variations in the geocentric position of the earth's rotation axis (polar motion) cause deformation within the earth. We estimate the effects of this deformation on radial and horizontal positions of points on the earth's surface, on baseline lengths between those points, and on surface gravity. The effects of the oceans and of the earth's anelasticity on this deformation are found to be negligible. Peak-to-peak variations in radial motion are typically 10–20 mm over a year. Horizontal displacements are less than 7–8 mm. Variations in baseline length can be as large as 30–40 mm. Variations of up to 13 μGal in surface gravity are possible. These numbers are all small enough that they can probably not be used to learn about the earth. However, they are large enough to affect noticeably present high-quality geodetic observations.},
	language = {en},
	number = {B11},
	urldate = {2018-07-25},
	journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth},
	author = {Wahr, J. M.},
	month = sep,
	year = {1985},
	pages = {9363--9368},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/FWCRYMFQ/Wahr - Deformation induced by polar motion.pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/FSM5338N/JB090iB11p09363.html:text/html}
}

@article{cartwright_corrected_1973,
	title = {Corrected {Tables} of {Tidal} {Harmonics}},
	volume = {33},
	issn = {0956-540X},
	doi = {10.1111/j.1365-246X.1973.tb03420.x},
	abstract = {Summary.  A small error in the computations of Cartwright \& Tayler has been corrected, resulting in improved tables of the time harmonics of the principal t},
	language = {en},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2018-07-25},
	journal = {Geophysical Journal International},
	author = {Cartwright, D. E. and Edden, A. C.},
	month = sep,
	year = {1973},
	pages = {253--264},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/9MHFMF3W/Cartwright et Edden - 1973 - Corrected Tables of Tidal Harmonics.pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/L8BCLZBA/610602.html:text/html}
}

@article{cole_seasonal_2010,
	title = {Seasonal evolution of upper-ocean horizontal structure and the remnant mixed layer},
	volume = {115},
	copyright = {Copyright 2010 by the American Geophysical Union.},
	issn = {2156-2202},
	doi = {10.1029/2009JC005654},
	abstract = {We discuss the seasonal evolution of upper-ocean thermohaline structure at small horizontal scales. The upper 350 m of a 1000 km long section in the subtropical North Pacific was observed in winter, spring, and summer with 3–14 km horizontal resolution. Four vertical regions had distinct density and salinity structure: the mixed layer, remnant mixed layer, high-stratification layer, and permanent thermocline. The remnant mixed layer consists of water from the winter mixed layer left over after restratification. The remnant mixed layer was most similar to the mixed layer in winter and spring, and most similar to the high-stratification layer below in summer. The high-stratification layer had elevated stratification that varied seasonally. The permanent thermocline varied little seasonally and was horizontally and vertically uniform in comparison. In all seasons, density ratios showed that mixed-layer θ-S differences tended to compensate in density with the strongest tendency toward compensation in winter. Density ratios were temperature dominated in the remnant mixed layer consistent with salt-fingering. Salinity anomalies were largest at the surface and decayed with depth in all seasons. Spectra of isopycnal depth and θ-S anomalies along isopycnals are compared between the three seasons and four vertical layers. Isopycnal depth variance at 30–46 km wavelengths decreased from winter to spring to summer by a factor of 2–10 in stratified regions. By treating salinity anomalies as a tracer, the effective isopycnal diffusivity in the remnant mixed layer was estimated to be 1.4 m2 s−1 over 30–46 km wavelengths.},
	language = {en},
	number = {C4},
	urldate = {2018-07-13},
	journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans},
	author = {Cole, S. T. and Rudnick, D. L. and Colosi, J. A.},
	year = {2010},
	keywords = {horizontal structure, thermohaline structure, upper ocean},
	file = {Cole et al. - Seasonal evolution of upper-ocean horizontal struc.pdf:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/4FD3CRGC/Cole et al. - Seasonal evolution of upper-ocean horizontal struc.pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/R9Q2JDAA/2009JC005654.html:text/html}
}

@article{rudnick_compensation_1999,
	title = {Compensation of {Horizontal} {Temperature} and {Salinity} {Gradients} in the {Ocean} {Mixed} {Layer}},
	volume = {283},
	issn = {0036-8075, 1095-9203},
	doi = {10.1126/science.283.5401.526},
	abstract = {Establishment of the temperature-salinity relationship in the ocean has concerned oceanographers for decades because of its importance for understanding ocean circulation. High-resolution measurements in the ocean mixed layer are used to show that temperature and salinity gradients on horizontal scales of 20 meters to 10 kilometers tend to compensate in their effect on density. These observations support the notion of a horizontal mixing in the mixed layer that depends on density gradient.},
	language = {en},
	number = {5401},
	urldate = {2018-07-13},
	journal = {Science},
	author = {Rudnick, Daniel L. and Ferrari, R.},
	month = jan,
	year = {1999},
	pmid = {9915697},
	pages = {526--529},
	file = {Rudnick et Ferrari - 1999 - Compensation of Horizontal Temperature and Salinit.pdf:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/EJ83D88K/Rudnick et Ferrari - 1999 - Compensation of Horizontal Temperature and Salinit.pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/TMD7MZ66/526.html:text/html}
}

@article{klein_three-dimensional_1998,
	title = {Three-dimensional stirring of thermohaline fronts},
	volume = {56},
	doi = {10.1357/002224098765213595},
	abstract = {This study investigates the stirring of the thermohaline anomalies in a fully turbulent quasigeostrophic stratified flow. Temperature and salinity fields are permanently forced at large scales and are related to density by a linear equation of state. We show, using some inherent properties of quasi-geostrophic turbulence, that the 3-D ageostrophic circulation is the key dynamical characteristic that governs the strength and the spatial distribution of small-scale thermohaline fronts that are strongly density compensated. The numerical simulations well illustrate the formation by the mesoscale eddy field of sharp thermohaline fronts that are mainly located in the saddle regions and around the eddy cores and have a weak signature on the density field. One important aspect revealed by the numerical results is that the thermohaline anomalies experience not only a direct horizontal cascade but also a significant vertical cascade. One consequence of this 3-D cascade is that the ultimate mixing of the thermohaline anomalies will not be necessarily maximum at the depth where the large-scale temperature and salinity anomalies are maximum. Some analytical arguments allow us to identify some of the mechanisms that drive this 3-D cascade.},
	language = {en},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2018-07-13},
	journal = {Journal of Marine Research},
	author = {Klein, P. and Treguier, A.-M. and Hua, B. L.},
	month = may,
	year = {1998},
	pages = {589--612(24)},
	file = {Snapshot:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/FBSTMJN3/art00002.html:text/html}
}

@article{cole_spatial_2012,
	title = {The spatial distribution and annual cycle of upper ocean thermohaline structure},
	volume = {117},
	copyright = {Copyright 2012 by the American Geophysical Union},
	issn = {2156-2202},
	doi = {10.1029/2011JC007033},
	abstract = {Observations of the spatial distribution and persistence of thermohaline structure are presented, and show how advection and diffusion affect a passive tracer. More than two years of underwater glider observations in the central subtropical North Pacific showed thermohaline variability over horizontal scales from 5 to 1300 km. Thermohaline fluctuations along isopycnals (spice fluctuations) were elevated in layers throughout the water column with the largest fluctuations near the surface and subtropical frontal regions. Fluctuations were uncorrelated between the layers but stirred by the same velocity field. Spice variance had local extrema in the vertical because of differences in source water properties and the influence of neighboring water masses. Spice variance spanned about three orders of magnitude along deeper isopycnals with larger variance where different water masses met and where velocity and vorticity variance were elevated. Horizontal wave number spectra of spice had slopes of −2 everywhere in the upper 1000 m. Submesoscale spice fluctuations had slopes in physical space near the ratio of the Coriolis parameter to the buoyancy frequency (f/N), consistent with predictions of quasi-geostrophic theory. In the mixed layer, thermohaline structure had a significant annual cycle with smaller interannual differences. Thermohaline fluctuations left behind during restratification and isolated from the mixed layer decayed with time because of diffusion along isopycnals. Horizontal diffusivity estimates in the remnant mixed layer were 0.4 m2 s−1 at 15–28 km wavelengths and 0.9 m2 s−1 at 35–45 km wavelengths.},
	language = {en},
	number = {C2},
	urldate = {2018-07-02},
	journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans},
	author = {Cole, S. T. and Rudnick, D. L.},
	month = feb,
	year = {2012},
	keywords = {thermohaline structure, diffusion, mixing, spice, stirring},
	file = {Cole et Rudnick - The spatial distribution and annual cycle of upper.pdf:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/5ELZ7SJR/Cole et Rudnick - The spatial distribution and annual cycle of upper.pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/3WTCZHWR/2011JC007033.html:text/html}
}

@article{qiu_seasonality_2018,
	title = {Seasonality in {Transition} {Scale} from {Balanced} to {Unbalanced} {Motions} in the {World} {Ocean}},
	volume = {48},
	issn = {0022-3670},
	doi = {10.1175/JPO-D-17-0169.1},
	abstract = {The transition scale Lt from balanced geostrophic motions to unbalanced wave motions, including near-inertial flows, internal tides, and inertia–gravity wave continuum, is explored using the output from a global 1/48° horizontal resolution Massachusetts Institute of Technology general circulation model (MITgcm) simulation. Defined as the wavelength with equal balanced and unbalanced motion kinetic energy (KE) spectral density, Lt is detected to be geographically highly inhomogeneous: it falls below 40 km in the western boundary current and Antarctic Circumpolar Current regions, increases to 40–100 km in the interior subtropical and subpolar gyres, and exceeds, in general, 200 km in the tropical oceans. With the exception of the Pacific and Indian sectors of the Southern Ocean, the seasonal KE fluctuations of the surface balanced and unbalanced motions are out of phase because of the occurrence of mixed layer instability in winter and trapping of unbalanced motion KE in shallow mixed layer in summer. The combined effect of these seasonal changes renders Lt to be 20 km during winter in 80\% of the Northern Hemisphere oceans between 25° and 45°N and all of the Southern Hemisphere oceans south of 25°S. The transition scale’s geographical and seasonal changes are highly relevant to the forthcoming Surface Water and Ocean Topography (SWOT) mission. To improve the detection of balanced submesoscale signals from SWOT, especially in the tropical oceans, efforts to remove stationary internal tidal signals are called for.},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2018-04-12},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Qiu, B. and Chen, S. and Klein, P. and Wang, J. and Torres, H. and Fu, L.-L. and Menemenlis, D.},
	month = jan,
	year = {2018},
	pages = {591--605},
	file = {Qiu et al. - 2018 - Seasonality in Transition Scale from Balanced to U.pdf:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/A8WCPJVQ/Qiu et al. - 2018 - Seasonality in Transition Scale from Balanced to U.pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/ASVRE767/JPO-D-17-0169.html:text/html}
}

@article{levy_bringing_2012,
	title = {Bringing physics to life at the submesoscale},
	volume = {39},
	issn = {0094-8276},
	doi = {10.1029/2012GL052756},
	abstract = {A common dynamical paradigm is that turbulence in the upper ocean is dominated by three classes of motion: mesoscale geostrophic eddies, internal waves and microscale three?dimensional turbulence. Close to the ocean surface, however, a fourth class of turbulent motion is important: submesoscale frontal dynamics. These have a horizontal scale of O(1?10) km, a vertical scale of O(100) m, and a time scale of O(1) day. Here we review the physical?chemical?biological dynamics of submesoscale features, and discuss strategies for sampling them. Submesoscale fronts arise dynamically through nonlinear instabilities of the mesoscale currents. They are ephemeral, lasting only a few days after they are formed. Strong submesoscale vertical velocities can drive episodic nutrient pulses to the euphotic zone, and subduct organic carbon into the ocean's interior. The reduction of vertical mixing at submesoscale fronts can locally increase the mean time that photosynthetic organisms spend in the well?lit euphotic layer and promote primary production. Horizontal stirring can create intense patchiness in planktonic species. Submesoscale dynamics therefore can change not only primary and export production, but also the structure and the functioning of the planktonic ecosystem. Because of their short time and space scales, sampling of submesoscale features requires new technologies and approaches. This paper presents a critical overview of current knowledge to focus attention and hopefully interest on the pressing scientific questions concerning these dynamics.},
	number = {14},
	urldate = {2018-04-11},
	journal = {Geophysical Research Letters},
	author = {Lévy, M. and Ferrari, R. and Franks, S. P. J. and Martin, A. P. and Rivière, P.},
	month = jul,
	year = {2012},
	keywords = {ecosystems, phytoplankton, submesoscale},
	file = {Lévy M. et al. - 2012 - Bringing physics to life at the submesoscale.pdf:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/CEHJGFVN/Lévy M. et al. - 2012 - Bringing physics to life at the submesoscale.pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/78ZM2XFI/2012GL052756.html:text/html}
}

@article{su_ocean_2018,
	title = {Ocean submesoscales as a key component of the global heat budget},
	volume = {9},
	copyright = {2018 The Author(s)},
	issn = {2041-1723},
	doi = {10.1038/s41467-018-02983-w},
	abstract = {Oceanic motions associated with horizontal scales smaller than 50 km remain unresolved in climate models. Here the authors show that motions in this scale range are critical to the global transport of heat between the ocean interior and the atmosphere, and are thus a key component of the Earth’s climate.},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2018-04-12},
	journal = {Nature Communications},
	author = {Su, Z. and Wang, J. and Klein, P. and Thompson, A. F. and Menemenlis, D.},
	month = feb,
	year = {2018},
	pages = {775},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/IIH95UJ7/Su et al. - 2018 - Ocean submesoscales as a key component of the glob.pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/UU3H8ZCA/s41467-018-02983-w.html:text/html}
}

@article{boccaletti_mixed_2007,
	title = {Mixed {Layer} {Instabilities} and {Restratification}},
	volume = {37},
	issn = {0022-3670},
	doi = {10.1175/JPO3101.1},
	abstract = {The restratification of the oceanic surface mixed layer that results from lateral gradients in the surface density field is studied. The lateral gradients are shown to be unstable to ageostrophic baroclinic instabilities and slump from the horizontal to the vertical. These instabilities, which are referred to as mixed layer instabilities (MLIs), differ from instabilities in the ocean interior because of the weak surface stratification. Spatial scales are O(1–10) km, and growth time scales are on the order of a day. Linear stability analysis and fully nonlinear simulations are used to study MLIs and their impact on mixed layer restratification. The main result is that MLIs are a leading-order process in the ML heat budget acting to constantly restratify the surface ocean. Climate and regional ocean models do not resolve the scales associated with MLIs and are likely to underestimate the rate of ML restratification and consequently suffer from a bias in sea surface temperatures and ML depths. In a forthcoming paper, the authors discuss a parameterization scheme to include the effect of MLIs in ocean models.},
	number = {9},
	urldate = {2018-04-12},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Boccaletti, G. and Ferrari, R. and Fox-Kemper, B.},
	month = sep,
	year = {2007},
	pages = {2228--2250},
	file = {Boccaletti et al. - 2007 - Mixed Layer Instabilities and Restratification.pdf:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/C7DYZWMM/Boccaletti et al. - 2007 - Mixed Layer Instabilities and Restratification.pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/THAFQEBX/JPO3101.html:text/html}
}

@article{mahadevan_impact_2016,
	title = {The {Impact} of {Submesoscale} {Physics} on {Primary} {Productivity} of {Plankton}},
	volume = {8},
	issn = {1941-0611},
	doi = {10.1146/annurev-marine-010814-015912},
	abstract = {Life in the ocean relies on the photosynthetic production of phytoplankton, which is influenced by the availability of light and nutrients that are modulated by a host of physical processes. Submesoscale processes are particularly relevant to phytoplankton productivity because the timescales on which they act are similar to those of phytoplankton growth. Their dynamics are associated with strong vorticity and strain rates that occur on lateral scales of 0.1-10 km. They can support vertical velocities as large as 100 m d(-1) and play a crucial role in transporting nutrients into the sunlit ocean for phytoplankton production. In regimes with deep surface mixed layers, submesoscale instabilities can cause stratification within days, thereby increasing light exposure for phytoplankton trapped close to the surface. These instabilities help to create and maintain localized environments that favor the growth of phytoplankton, contribute to productivity, and cause enormous heterogeneity in the abundance of phytoplankton, which has implications for interactions within the ecosystem.},
	language = {eng},
	journal = {Annual Review of Marine Science},
	author = {Mahadevan, A.},
	year = {2016},
	pmid = {26394203},
	keywords = {eddies, mixed layer, phytoplankton, submesoscale, Ecosystem, nutrients, Oceans and Seas, Photosynthesis, Phytoplankton, primary production, Seawater},
	pages = {161--184}
}

@article{qiu_submesoscale_2017,
	title = {Submesoscale transition from geostrophic flows to internal waves in the northwestern {Pacific} upper ocean},
	volume = {8},
	copyright = {2017 Nature Publishing Group},
	issn = {2041-1723},
	doi = {10.1038/ncomms14055},
	abstract = {With radar interferometry, the next-generation Surface Water and Ocean Topography satellite mission will improve the measured sea surface height resolution down to 15 km, allowing us to investigate for the first time the global upper ocean variability at the submesoscale range. Here, by analysing shipboard Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler measurements along 137°E in the northwest Pacific of 2004–2016, we show that the observed upper ocean velocities are comprised of balanced geostrophic flows and unbalanced internal waves. The transition length scale, Lt, separating these two motions, is found to depend strongly on the energy level of local mesoscale eddy variability. In the eddy-abundant western boundary current region of Kuroshio, Lt can be shorter than 15 km, whereas Lt exceeds 200 km along the path of relatively stable North Equatorial Current. Judicious separation between the geostrophic and internal wave signals represents both a challenge and an opportunity for the Surface Water and Ocean Topography mission.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2018-04-11},
	journal = {Nature Communications},
	author = {Qiu, B. and Nakano, T. and Chen, S. and Klein, P.},
	month = jan,
	year = {2017},
	pages = {14055},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/YH4FTHSX/Qiu et al. - 2017 - Submesoscale transition from geostrophic flows to .pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/S25CJY89/ncomms14055.html:text/html}
}

@article{rocha_mesoscale_2015,
	title = {Mesoscale to {Submesoscale} {Wavenumber} {Spectra} in {Drake} {Passage}},
	volume = {46},
	issn = {0022-3670},
	doi = {10.1175/JPO-D-15-0087.1},
	abstract = {This study discusses the upper-ocean (0–200 m) horizontal wavenumber spectra in the Drake Passage from 13 yr of shipboard ADCP measurements, altimeter data, and a high-resolution numerical simulation. At scales between 10 and 200 km, the ADCP kinetic energy spectra approximately follow a k−3 power law. The observed flows are more energetic at the surface, but the shape of the kinetic energy spectra is independent of depth. These characteristics resemble predictions of isotropic interior quasigeostrophic turbulence. The ratio of across-track to along-track kinetic energy spectra, however, significantly departs from the expectation of isotropic interior quasigeostrophic turbulence. The inconsistency is dramatic at scales smaller than 40 km. A Helmholtz decomposition of the ADCP spectra and analyses of synthetic and numerical model data show that horizontally divergent, ageostrophic flows account for the discrepancy between the observed spectra and predictions of isotropic interior quasigeostrophic turbulence. In Drake Passage, ageostrophic motions appear to be dominated by inertia–gravity waves and account for about half of the near-surface kinetic energy at scales between 10 and 40 km. Model results indicate that ageostrophic flows imprint on the sea surface, accounting for about half of the sea surface height variance between 10 and 40 km.},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2018-04-11},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Rocha, C. B. and Chereskin, T. K. and Gille, S. T. and Menemenlis, D.},
	month = dec,
	year = {2015},
	pages = {601--620},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/JX2RX2VL/Rocha et al. - 2015 - Mesoscale to Submesoscale Wavenumber Spectra in Dr.pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/2WZKM5VY/JPO-D-15-0087.html:text/html}
}

@article{mcwilliams_submesoscale_2016,
	title = {Submesoscale currents in the ocean},
	volume = {472},
	copyright = {© 2016 The Authors.. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/Published by the Royal Society under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/, which permits unrestricted use, provided the original author and source are credited.},
	issn = {1364-5021, 1471-2946},
	doi = {10.1098/rspa.2016.0117},
	abstract = {This article is a perspective on the recently discovered realm of submesoscale currents in the ocean. They are intermediate-scale flow structures in the form of density fronts and filaments, topographic wakes and persistent coherent vortices at the surface and throughout the interior. They are created from mesoscale eddies and strong currents, and they provide a dynamical conduit for energy transfer towards microscale dissipation and diapycnal mixing. Consideration is given to their generation mechanisms, instabilities, life cycles, disruption of approximately diagnostic force balance (e.g. geostrophy), turbulent cascades, internal-wave interactions, and transport and dispersion of materials. At a fundamental level, more questions remain than answers, implicating a programme for further research.},
	language = {en},
	number = {2189},
	urldate = {2018-04-09},
	journal = {Proc. R. Soc. A},
	author = {McWilliams, J. C.},
	month = may,
	year = {2016},
	pages = {20160117},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/Q4CRV7ZG/McWilliams - 2016 - Submesoscale currents in the ocean.pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/7BUQQ5LH/20160117.html:text/html}
}

@article{babiano_structure_1985,
	title = {Structure {Functions} and {Dispersion} {Laws} in {Two}-{Dimensional} {Turbulence}},
	volume = {42},
	issn = {0022-4928},
	doi = {10.1175/1520-0469(1985)042<0941:SFADLI>2.0.CO;2},
	abstract = {The classical phenomenological relations between dispersion laws, second-order structure functions and energy spectra are reexamined from a more quantitative standpoint. It is shown that when a nonlocal energy spectrum (steeper than k−3) is substituted into the relation giving structure functions or dispersion laws, an infrared divergence occurs so that the structure functions or dispersion laws at inertial-range separation are not dominated by contributions from the inertial range spectrum; they saturate and become independent of spectral steepness. It follows that the spectral steepness of real flows in the enstrophy inertial range must be extremely difficult to estimate from correlation or dispersion measurements alone. This might explain why the existence of steep spectra, speculated on the basis of numerical modeling, has not been confirmed by real flow measurements.},
	number = {9},
	urldate = {2018-03-29},
	journal = {Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences},
	author = {Babiano, A. and Basdevant, C. and Sadourny, R.},
	month = may,
	year = {1985},
	pages = {941--949},
	file = {Babiano et al. - 1985 - Structure Functions and Dispersion Laws in Two-Dim.pdf:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/55F77529/Babiano et al. - 1985 - Structure Functions and Dispersion Laws in Two-Dim.pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/DAKX54SD/1520-0469(1985)0420941SFADLI2.0.html:text/html}
}

@article{bennett_relative_1984,
	title = {Relative {Dispersion}: {Local} and {Nonlocal} {Dynamics}},
	volume = {41},
	issn = {0022-4928},
	shorttitle = {Relative {Dispersion}},
	doi = {10.1175/1520-0469(1984)041<1881:RDLAND>2.0.CO;2},
	abstract = {Observations of relative dispersion statistics for stratospheric balloons, including velocity structure functions, relative diffusivities and separation kurtoses, are shown to be consistent with nonlocal dynamics rather than local, self-similar dynamics.},
	number = {11},
	urldate = {2018-03-29},
	journal = {Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences},
	author = {Bennett, A. F.},
	month = jun,
	year = {1984},
	pages = {1881--1886},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/VSW3AF3G/Bennett - 1984 - Relative Dispersion Local and Nonlocal Dynamics.pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/GVC5CGF9/1520-0469(1984)0411881RDLAND2.0.html:text/html}
}

@article{lindborg_horizontal_2001,
	title = {Horizontal velocity structure functions in the upper troposphere and lower stratosphere: 2. {Theoretical} considerations},
	volume = {106},
	issn = {0148-0227},
	shorttitle = {Horizontal velocity structure functions in the upper troposphere and lower stratosphere},
	doi = {10.1029/2000JD900815},
	abstract = {The Kolmogorov equation for the third?order velocity structure function is derived for atmospheric mesoscale motions on an f plane. A possible solution is a negative third?order structure function, varying linearly with separation distance and mean dissipation, just as in three?dimensional turbulence, but with another scaling constant. On the basis of the analysis and the observed stratospheric third?order structure function, it is argued that there is a forward energy cascade in the mesoscale range of atmospheric motions. The off?diagonal part of the general tensor equation is also studied. In this equation there is an explicit Coriolis term that may be crucial for the understanding of the kinetic energy spectrum at scales larger than 100 km.},
	number = {D10},
	urldate = {2018-03-29},
	journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres},
	author = {Lindborg, E. and Cho, J. Y. N.},
	month = may,
	year = {2001},
	pages = {10233--10241},
	file = {Lindborg et Cho, J. Y. N. - 2001 - Horizontal velocity structure functions in the upp.pdf:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/UZAQM44Q/Lindborg et Cho, J. Y. N. - 2001 - Horizontal velocity structure functions in the upp.pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/TQMHW9K9/2000JD900815.html:text/html}
}

@article{lindborg_helmholtz_2015,
	title = {A {Helmholtz} decomposition of structure functions and spectra calculated from aircraft data},
	volume = {762},
	issn = {0022-1120, 1469-7645},
	doi = {10.1017/jfm.2014.685},
	abstract = {Abstract
Longitudinal and transverse structure functions,

\$D\_\{ll\}={\textbackslash}langle \{{\textbackslash}it{\textbackslash}delta\}u\_\{l\}\{{\textbackslash}it{\textbackslash}delta\}u\_\{l\}{\textbackslash}rangle\$

 and

\$D\_\{tt\}={\textbackslash}langle \{{\textbackslash}it{\textbackslash}delta\}u\_\{t\}\{{\textbackslash}it{\textbackslash}delta\}u\_\{t\}{\textbackslash}rangle\$

, can be calculated from aircraft data. Here,

\$\{{\textbackslash}it{\textbackslash}delta\}\$

 denotes the increment between two points separated by a distance

\$r\$

,

\$u\_\{l\}\$

 and

\$u\_\{t\}\$

 the velocity components parallel and perpendicular to the aircraft track respectively and

\${\textbackslash}langle {\textbackslash},{\textbackslash}rangle\$

 an average. Assuming statistical axisymmetry and making a Helmholtz decomposition of the horizontal velocity,

\${\textbackslash}boldsymbol\{u\}={\textbackslash}boldsymbol\{u\}\_\{r\}+{\textbackslash}boldsymbol\{u\}\_\{d\}\$

, where

\${\textbackslash}boldsymbol\{u\}\_\{r\}\$

 is the rotational and

\${\textbackslash}boldsymbol\{u\}\_\{d\}\$

 the divergent component of the velocity, we derive expressions relating the structure functions

\$D\_\{rr\}={\textbackslash}langle \{{\textbackslash}it{\textbackslash}delta\}{\textbackslash}boldsymbol\{u\}\_\{r\}{\textbackslash}boldsymbol\{{\textbackslash}cdot \}\{{\textbackslash}it{\textbackslash}delta\}{\textbackslash}boldsymbol\{u\}\_\{r\}{\textbackslash}rangle\$

 and

\$D\_\{dd\}={\textbackslash}langle \{{\textbackslash}it{\textbackslash}delta\}{\textbackslash}boldsymbol\{u\}\_\{d\}{\textbackslash}boldsymbol\{{\textbackslash}cdot \}\{{\textbackslash}it{\textbackslash}delta\}{\textbackslash}boldsymbol\{u\}\_\{d\}{\textbackslash}rangle\$

 to

\$D\_\{ll\}\$

 and

\$D\_\{tt\}\$

. Corresponding expressions are also derived in spectral space. The decomposition is applied to structure functions calculated from aircraft data. In the lower stratosphere,

\$D\_\{rr\}\$

 and

\$D\_\{dd\}\$

 both show a nice

\$r{\textasciicircum}\{2/3\}\$

 -dependence for

\$r{\textbackslash}in [2,20]{\textbackslash} {\textbackslash}text\{km\}\$

. In this range, the ratio between rotational and divergent energy is a little larger than unity, excluding gravity waves as the principal agent behind the observations. In the upper troposphere,

\$D\_\{rr\}\$

 and

\$D\_\{dd\}\$

 show no clean

\$r{\textasciicircum}\{2/3\}\$

-dependence, although the overall slope of

\$D\_\{dd\}\$

 is close to

 \$2/3\$

 for

\$r{\textbackslash}in [2,400]{\textbackslash} {\textbackslash}text\{km\}\$

. The ratio between rotational and divergent energy is approximately three for

\$r{\textless}100{\textbackslash} {\textbackslash}text\{km\}\$

, excluding gravity waves also in this case. We argue that the possible errors in the decomposition at scales of the order of 10 km are marginal.},
	urldate = {2017-10-17},
	journal = {Journal of Fluid Mechanics},
	author = {Lindborg, E.},
	month = jan,
	year = {2015},
	keywords = {atmospheric flows, Meteorology, stratified flows},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/9PXTVHK5/Lindborg - 2015 - A Helmholtz decomposition of structure functions a.pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/T7HG5CZC/3C79E14E396650DCFB51B43D843A9091.html:text/html}
}

@article{buhler_wavevortex_2014,
	title = {Wave–vortex decomposition of one-dimensional ship-track data},
	volume = {756},
	issn = {0022-1120, 1469-7645},
	doi = {10.1017/jfm.2014.488},
	abstract = {We present a simple two-step method by which one-dimensional spectra of horizontal velocity and buoyancy measured along a ship track can be decomposed into a wave component consisting of inertia–gravity waves and a vortex component consisting of a horizontal flow in geostrophic balance. The method requires certain assumptions for the data regarding stationarity, homogeneity, and horizontal isotropy. In the first step an exact Helmholtz decomposition of the horizontal velocity spectra into rotational and divergent components is performed and in the second step an energy equipartition property of hydrostatic inertia–gravity waves is exploited that allows a diagnosis of the wave energy spectrum solely from the observed horizontal velocities. The observed buoyancy spectrum can then be used to compute the residual vortex energy spectrum. Further wave–vortex decompositions of the observed fields are possible if additional information about the frequency content of the waves is available. We illustrate the method on two recent oceanic data sets from the North Pacific and the Gulf Stream. Notably, both steps in our new method might be of broader use in the theoretical and observational study of atmosphere and ocean fluid dynamics.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2018-03-28},
	journal = {Journal of Fluid Mechanics},
	author = {Bühler, O. and Callies, J. and Ferrari, R.},
	month = oct,
	year = {2014},
	keywords = {quasi-geostrophic flows, internal waves, ocean processes},
	pages = {1007--1026},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/K9Z2EP2V/Bühler et al. - 2014 - Wave–vortex decomposition of one-dimensional ship-.pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/578ILA35/98FC78897B330B3BF229A8EEDCFB9B8A.html:text/html}
}

@article{thompson_open-ocean_2016,
	title = {Open-{Ocean} {Submesoscale} {Motions}: {A} {Full} {Seasonal} {Cycle} of {Mixed} {Layer} {Instabilities} from {Gliders}},
	volume = {46},
	issn = {0022-3670},
	shorttitle = {Open-{Ocean} {Submesoscale} {Motions}},
	doi = {10.1175/JPO-D-15-0170.1},
	abstract = {The importance of submesoscale instabilities, particularly mixed layer baroclinic instability and symmetric instability, on upper-ocean mixing and energetics is well documented in regions of strong, persistent fronts such as the Kuroshio and the Gulf Stream. Less attention has been devoted to studying submesoscale flows in the open ocean, far from long-term, mean geostrophic fronts, characteristic of a large proportion of the global ocean. This study presents a year-long, submesoscale-resolving time series of near-surface buoyancy gradients, potential vorticity, and instability characteristics, collected by ocean gliders, that provides insight into open-ocean submesoscale dynamics over a full annual cycle. The gliders continuously sampled a 225 km2 region in the subtropical northeast Atlantic, measuring temperature, salinity, and pressure along 292 short ({\textasciitilde}20 km) hydrographic sections. Glider observations show a seasonal cycle in near-surface stratification. Throughout the fall (September–November), the mixed layer deepens, predominantly through gravitational instability, indicating that surface cooling dominates submesoscale restratification processes. During winter (December–March), mixed layer depths are more variable, and estimates of the balanced Richardson number, which measures the relative importance of lateral and vertical buoyancy gradients, depict conditions favorable to symmetric instability. The importance of mixed layer instabilities on the restratification of the mixed layer, as compared with surface heating and cooling, shows that submesoscale processes can reverse the sign of an equivalent heat flux up to 25\% of the time during winter. These results demonstrate that the open-ocean mixed layer hosts various forced and unforced instabilities, which become more prevalent during winter, and emphasize that accurate parameterizations of submesoscale processes are needed throughout the ocean.},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2018-03-27},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Thompson, A. F. and Lazar, A. and Buckingham, C. and Naveira Garabato, A. C. and Damerell, G. M. and Heywood, K. J.},
	month = feb,
	year = {2016},
	pages = {1285--1307},
	file = {Snapshot:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/XGWBHNB7/JPO-D-15-0170.html:text/html;Thompson et al. - 2016 - Open-Ocean Submesoscale Motions A Full Seasonal C.pdf:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/L3GHPR5E/Thompson et al. - 2016 - Open-Ocean Submesoscale Motions A Full Seasonal C.pdf:application/pdf}
}

@article{cravatte_regional_2015,
	title = {Regional circulation around {New} {Caledonia} from two decades of observations},
	volume = {148},
	issn = {09247963},
	doi = {10.1016/j.jmarsys.2015.03.004},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2016-09-05},
	journal = {Journal of Marine Systems},
	author = {Cravatte, S. and Kestenare, E. and Eldin, G. and Ganachaud, A. and Lefèvre, J. and Marin, F. and Menkes, C. and Aucan, J.},
	month = aug,
	year = {2015},
	pages = {249--271},
	file = {Cravatte et al. - 2015 - Regional circulation around New Caledonia from two.pdf:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/9P5UHXK7/Cravatte et al. - 2015 - Regional circulation around New Caledonia from two.pdf:application/pdf}
}

@article{kraichnan_inertial_1967,
	title = {Inertial {Ranges} in {Two} {Dimensional} {Turbulence}},
	volume = {10},
	issn = {0031-9171},
	doi = {10.1063/1.1762301},
	number = {7},
	urldate = {2015-06-24},
	journal = {Physics of Fluids},
	author = {Kraichnan, R. H.},
	month = jul,
	year = {1967},
	pages = {1417--1423},
	file = {Snapshot:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/8VGA83C8/1.html:text/html}
}

@article{kolmogorov_dissipation_1941,
	title = {Dissipation of {Energy} in {Locally} {Isotropic} {Turbulence}},
	volume = {32},
	issn = {0002-3264},
	abstract = {Not Available},
	urldate = {2015-11-03},
	journal = {Akademiia Nauk SSSR Doklady},
	author = {Kolmogorov, A. N.},
	year = {1941},
	pages = {16}
}

@article{qiu_seasonal_2004,
	title = {Seasonal {Modulations} in the {Eddy} {Field} of the {South} {Pacific} {Ocean}},
	volume = {34},
	issn = {0022-3670},
	doi = {10.1175/1520-0485(2004)034<1515:SMITEF>2.0.CO;2},
	abstract = {Decade-long satellite altimeter data from the Ocean Topography Experiment (TOPEX)/Poseidon and European Remote Sensing Satellite-1 and-2 (ERS-1/2) missions are analyzed to investigate the eddy signals in the South Pacific Ocean. High–eddy kinetic energy (EKE) bands with well-defined annual cycles are detected along the eastward-flowing surface currents of the South Tropical Countercurrent (STCC) between 21°–29°S and the South Equatorial Countercurrent (SECC) centered near 9°S. Overriding the westward-flowing South Equatorial Current (SEC), the STCC layer has the sign of its mean potential vorticity gradient opposite to that in the SEC layer, subjecting the vertically sheared STCC–SEC system to baroclinic instability. In austral winter, the STCC–SEC system is baroclinically more unstable than in other seasons because of the large vertical shear and weak stratification. This seasonal variation in the intensity of baroclinic instability is responsible for the seasonal modulation of the STCC's EKE field with a November–December maximum and a June–July minimum. The large deformation radius in the low-latitude SECC region, on the other hand, prevents the vertically sheared SECC–SEC system from becoming baroclinically unstable. With the broad, westward-flowing SEC weakening the stabilizing planetary β effect, the high EKE level observed along the SECC is found to result from the barotropic instability associated with the horizontal shear of the SECC–SEC system. Together with an analysis of energetics, it is shown that the seasonal variation in the intensity of barotropic instability accounts for the seasonal modulation of the SECC's EKE field, with a maximum in April and a minimum in August.},
	number = {7},
	urldate = {2015-06-05},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Qiu, B. and Chen, S.},
	year = {2004},
	pages = {1515--1527},
	file = {Qiu et Chen - 2004 - Seasonal Modulations in the Eddy Field of the Sout.pdf:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/2IX4P26B/Qiu et Chen - 2004 - Seasonal Modulations in the Eddy Field of the Sout.pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/BBZ9SFX5/1520-0485(2004)0341515SMITEF2.0.html:text/html}
}

@article{zaron_mapping_2017,
	title = {Mapping the nonstationary internal tide with satellite altimetry},
	volume = {122},
	copyright = {© 2016. American Geophysical Union. All Rights Reserved.},
	issn = {2169-9291},
	doi = {10.1002/2016JC012487},
	abstract = {Temporal variability of the internal tide has been inferred from the 23 year long combined records of the TOPEX/Poseidon, Jason-1, and Jason-2 satellite altimeters by combining harmonic analysis with an analysis of along-track wavenumber spectra of sea-surface height (SSH). Conventional harmonic analysis is first applied to estimate and remove the stationary components of the tide at each point along the reference ground tracks. The wavenumber spectrum of the residual SSH is then computed, and the variance in a neighborhood around the wavenumber of the mode-1 baroclinic M2 tide is interpreted as the sum of noise, broadband nontidal processes, and the nonstationary tide. At many sites a bump in the spectrum associated with the internal tide is noted, and an empirical model for the noise and nontidal processes is used to estimate the nonstationary semidiurnal tidal variance. The results indicate a spatially inhomogeneous pattern of tidal variability. Nonstationary tides are larger than stationary tides throughout much of the equatorial Pacific and Indian Oceans.},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2018-09-14},
	journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans},
	author = {Zaron, E. D.},
	month = jan,
	year = {2017},
	keywords = {altimetry, internal tide, nonstationary tide, SWOT},
	pages = {539--554},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/RWYPVTP8/Zaron - 2017 - Mapping the nonstationary internal tide with satel.pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/3CK5NMND/2016JC012487.html:text/html}
}

@article{zhao_global_2017,
	title = {The {Global} {Mode}-1 {S}2 {Internal} {Tide}},
	volume = {122},
	copyright = {© 2017. American Geophysical Union. All Rights Reserved.},
	issn = {2169-9291},
	doi = {10.1002/2017JC013112},
	abstract = {The global mode-1 S2 internal tide is observed using sea surface height (SSH) measurements from four satellite altimeters: TOPEX/Poseidon, Jason-1, Jason-2, and Geosat Follow-On. Plane wave analysis is employed to extract three mode-1 S2 internal tidal waves in any given 250 km by 250 km window, which are temporally coherent over a 20 year period from 1992 to 2012. Depth-integrated energy and flux of the S2 internal tide are calculated from the SSH amplitude and a conversion function built from climatological hydrographic profiles in the World Ocean Atlas 2013. The results show that the S2 and M2 internal tides have similar spatial patterns. Both S2 and M2 internal tides originate at major topographic features and propagate over long distances. The S2 internal tidal beams are generally shorter, likely because the relatively weaker S2 internal tide is easily overwhelmed by nontidal noise. The northbound S2 and M2 internal tides from the Hawaiian Ridge are observed to travel over 3500 km across the Northeast Pacific. The globally integrated energy of the mode-1 S2 internal tide is 7.8 PJ (1 PJ = 1015 J), about 20\% that of M2 (36.4 PJ). The histogram of S2 to M2 SSH ratios peaks at 0.4, consistent with the square root of their energy ratio. In terms of SSH, S2 is greater than M2 in 10\% of the global ocean and ≥50\% of M2 in about half of the global ocean.},
	language = {en},
	number = {11},
	urldate = {2018-09-14},
	journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans},
	author = {Zhao, Z.},
	month = nov,
	year = {2017},
	keywords = {coastal altimetry, interannual variability, Sicily channel, surface circulation, transport estimates},
	pages = {8794--8812},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/P7MGPUKW/Zhao - 2017 - The Global Mode-1 S2 Internal Tide.pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/I7PWCIRJ/2017JC013112.html:text/html}
}

@article{hodges_horizontal_2006,
	title = {Horizontal variability in chlorophyll fluorescence and potential temperature},
	volume = {53},
	issn = {0967-0637},
	doi = {10.1016/j.dsr.2006.06.006},
	abstract = {Chlorophyll fluorescence and temperature were measured with a horizontal resolution of 4m on two isopycnals and two isobars along a 1000km meridional transect in the eastern North Pacific. Probability density functions (PDFs) of the magnitude of fluctuations in temperature and fluorescence are compared at each of a large range of length scales. While they are nearly identical at larger scales, the shapes of the PDFs of fluorescence and temperature differ significantly at small scales (∼1km and less). This difference may indicate that at these scales, temperature and fluorescence distributions are controlled by distinct mechanisms. By comparing the phase of wavelet transforms of each of these two tracers, the tendency for temperature and fluorescence gradients to line up is investigated over a large range of spatial scales. At horizontal length scales of order 10km and larger, the wavelet phase difference between temperature and fluorescence tends to be close to 0° or 180°—that is, the gradients tend to align, either in phase or 180° out of phase. At smaller scales, the distribution of phase difference on isopycnals is uniform—there is no tendency for gradients to coincide. Simple stirring models demonstrate that the locations of enhanced gradients in all tracers would be expected to coincide where the strain has been greatest. However, the directions of enhanced gradients formed in this way may be either parallel or antiparallel, depending on initial conditions and on the direction of the strain. These analyses suggest the horizontal distributions of temperature and fluorescence at large scales were both governed by advective processes. At intermediate scales, of order 1–10km, a renovating wave model suggests that gradient alignment could be destroyed by turbulent diffusion or by rapid local phytoplankton growth.},
	number = {9},
	urldate = {2018-09-14},
	journal = {Deep Sea Research Part I: Oceanographic Research Papers},
	author = {Hodges, B. A. and Rudnick, D. L.},
	month = sep,
	year = {2006},
	keywords = {Mixing, Chlorophyll, Stirring, Upper ocean},
	pages = {1460--1482},
	file = {ScienceDirect Full Text PDF:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/W6J7ULIP/Hodges and Rudnick - 2006 - Horizontal variability in chlorophyll fluorescence.pdf:application/pdf;ScienceDirect Snapshot:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/XENVIDWI/S0967063706001919.html:text/html}
}

@incollection{munk_internal_1981,
	edition = {The MIT Press},
	title = {Internal waves and small-scale processes},
	booktitle = {Evolution of {Physical} {Oceanography}},
	publisher = {B.A Warren and C. Wunsch},
	author = {Munk, W.},
	year = {1981},
	pages = {264--290}
}

@article{webb_ratio_1964,
	title = {Ratio of spectrum and structure-function constants in the inertial subrange},
	volume = {90},
	copyright = {Copyright © 1964 Royal Meteorological Society},
	issn = {1477-870X},
	doi = {10.1002/qj.49709038520},
	language = {en},
	number = {385},
	urldate = {2018-10-15},
	journal = {Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society},
	author = {Webb, E. K.},
	month = jul,
	year = {1964},
	pages = {344--346},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/FKGBYAI5/Webb - 1964 - Ratio of spectrum and structure-function constants.pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/BCRIFZND/qj.html:text/html}
}

@article{obukhov_structure_1949,
	title = {Structure of the temperature field in turbulent flow},
	volume = {13},
	abstract = {The mean square of the temperature difference at two points is used as the characteristic parameter of the temperature field. The dependence of this quantity on the distance between the points of observation is determined experimentally. The order of magnitude of the characteristic parameters of the field of temperature fluctuations in the atmosphere is evaluated.},
	journal = {Izv. Akad. Nauk S.S.S.R, Ser. Geograf. Geofiz.},
	author = {Obukhov, A. M.},
	year = {1949},
	pages = {58--69}
}

@article{corrsin_spectrum_1951,
	title = {On the {Spectrum} of {Isotropic} {Temperature} {Fluctuations} in an {Isotropic} {Turbulence}},
	volume = {22},
	issn = {0021-8979},
	doi = {10.1063/1.1699986},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2018-10-24},
	journal = {Journal of Applied Physics},
	author = {Corrsin, S.},
	month = apr,
	year = {1951},
	pages = {469--473},
	file = {Snapshot:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/9NK8T35H/1.html:text/html}
}

@article{hoskins_atmospheric_1972,
	title = {Atmospheric {Frontogenesis} {Models}: {Mathematical} {Formulation} and {Solution}},
	volume = {29},
	issn = {0022-4928},
	shorttitle = {Atmospheric {Frontogenesis} {Models}},
	doi = {10.1175/1520-0469(1972)029<0011:AFMMFA>2.0.CO;2},
	abstract = {The approximation of geostrophic balance across a front is studied. Making this approximation, an analytic approach is made to a frontogenesis model based on the classic horizontal deformation field. Kelvin's circulation theorem suggests the introduction of a new independent variable in the cross-front direction. The problem is solved exactly for a Boussinesq, uniform potential vorticity fluid. Non-Boussinesq, non-uniform potential vorticity, latent heat, and surface friction effects are all studied. Using a two-region fluid we model the effects of confluence near the tropopause. A similar approach is made to the appearance of fronts in the finite-amplitude development of the simplest Eady wave; this is also solved analytically. Based on the surface fronts produced by these models, we give a general model of a strong surface front. There is a tendency to form discontinuities in a finite time.},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences},
	author = {Hoskins, B. J. and Bretherton, F. P.},
	month = jan,
	year = {1972},
	pages = {11--37},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/H5MRREAQ/Hoskins and Bretherton - 1972 - Atmospheric Frontogenesis Models Mathematical For.pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/LQ62YNRP/1520-0469(1972)0290011AFMMFA2.0.html:text/html}
}

@article{boyd_energy_1992,
	title = {The {Energy} {Spectrum} of {Fronts}: {Time} {Evolution} of {Shocks} in {Burgers} {Equation}},
	volume = {49},
	issn = {0022-4928},
	shorttitle = {The {Energy} {Spectrum} of {Fronts}},
	doi = {10.1175/1520-0469(1992)049<0128:TESOFT>2.0.CO;2},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences},
	author = {Boyd, J. P.},
	month = jan,
	year = {1992},
	pages = {128--139},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/IMT8AX8B/Boyd - 1992 - The Energy Spectrum of Fronts Time Evolution of S.pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/NWGSZUW7/1520-0469(1992)0490128TESOFT2.0.html:text/html}
}

@article{lindborg_energy_2006,
	title = {The energy cascade in a strongly stratified fluid},
	volume = {550},
	issn = {1469-7645, 0022-1120},
	doi = {10.1017/S0022112005008128},
	abstract = {A cascade hypothesis for a strongly stratified fluid is developed on the basis of the Boussinesq equations. According to this hypothesis, kinetic and potential energy are transferred from large to small scales in a highly anisotropic turbulent cascade. A relation for the ratio, lv/lh l\_\{v\}/l\_\{h\} , between the vertical and horizontal length scale is derived, showing how this ratio decreases with increased stratification. Similarity expressions are formulated for the horizontal and vertical spectra of kinetic and potential energy. A series of box simulations of the Boussinesq equations are carried out and a good agreement between the proposed hypothesis and the simulations is seen. The simulations with strongest stratification give horizontal kinetic and potential energy spectra of the form EKh=C1ϵK2/3kh−5/3 E\_\{K\_\{h\}\} {\textbackslash},\{=\}{\textbackslash}, C\_\{1\} {\textbackslash}epsilon\_\{K\}{\textasciicircum}\{2/3\} k\_\{h\}{\textasciicircum}\{-5/3\}  and EPh=C2ϵPkh−5/3/ϵK1/3 E\_\{P\_\{h\}\} {\textbackslash},\{=\}{\textbackslash}, C\_\{2\} {\textbackslash}epsilon\_\{P\} k\_\{h\}{\textasciicircum}\{-5/3\}/{\textbackslash}epsilon\_\{K\}{\textasciicircum}\{1/3\} , where kh k\_\{h\}  is the horizontal wavenumber, ϵK {\textbackslash}epsilon\_\{K\}  and ϵP {\textbackslash}epsilon\_\{P\}  are the dissipation of kinetic and potential energy, respectively, and C1 C\_\{1\}  and C2 C\_\{2\}  are two constants. Within the given numerical accuracy, it is found that these two constants have the same value: C1≈C2=0.51±0.02 C\_\{1\} {\textbackslash}approx C\_\{2\} {\textbackslash},\{=\}{\textbackslash}, 0.51 {\textbackslash}pm 0.02 .},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2019-01-02},
	journal = {Journal of Fluid Mechanics},
	author = {Lindborg, E.},
	month = mar,
	year = {2006},
	pages = {207--242},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/GXA8HCAM/Lindborg - 2006 - The energy cascade in a strongly stratified fluid.pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/5EW9825Z/40CFC86F42AA14B8A7A29BB457D9A8D9.html:text/html}
}

@article{sasaki_ssh_2012,
	title = {{SSH} {Wavenumber} {Spectra} in the {North} {Pacific} from a {High}-{Resolution} {Realistic} {Simulation}},
	volume = {42},
	issn = {0022-3670},
	doi = {10.1175/JPO-D-11-0180.1},
	abstract = {Following recent studies based on altimetric data, this paper analyses the spectral characteristics of the sea surface height (SSH) using a new realistic simulation of the North Pacific Ocean with high resolution ( in the horizontal and 100 vertical levels). This simulation resolves smaller scales (down to ≈10 km) than altimetric data (limited to 70 km because of the noise level). In high eddy kinetic energy (EKE) regions (as in the western part), SSH spectral slope almost follows a k−4 (with k the wavenumber) or slightly steeper law in agreement with altimeter studies. The new result is that, unlike altimeter studies, such a k−4 slope is also observed in low EKE regions (as in the eastern part). In these regions, this slope mostly concerns scales not well resolved by altimetric data. Such k−4 SSH spectral slopes are weaker from what is expected from quasigeostrophic turbulence theory but closer to surface quasigeostrophic (SQG) turbulence theory. The consequence is that the small scales concerned by these spectral slopes, in particular in low EKE regions, may significantly affect the larger ones because of the inverse kinetic energy cascade. These results need to be confirmed using a longer numerical integration. They also need to be corroborated by high-resolution observations.},
	number = {7},
	urldate = {2019-03-27},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Sasaki, H. and Klein, P.},
	month = may,
	year = {2012},
	pages = {1233--1241},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/QQT224MZ/Sasaki and Klein - 2012 - SSH Wavenumber Spectra in the North Pacific from a.pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/FLUUVJBW/JPO-D-11-0180.html:text/html}
}

@article{le_traon_altimeter_2008,
	title = {Do {Altimeter} {Wavenumber} {Spectra} {Agree} with the {Interior} or {Surface} {Quasigeostrophic} {Theory}?},
	volume = {38},
	issn = {0022-3670},
	doi = {10.1175/2007JPO3806.1},
	abstract = {In high-eddy-energy regions, it is generally assumed that sea level wavenumber spectra compare well with quasigeostrophic (QG) turbulence models and that spectral slopes are close to the expected k−5 law. This issue is revisited here. Sea level wavenumber spectra in the Gulf Stream, Kuroshio, and Agulhas regions are estimated using the most recent altimeter datasets [the Ocean Topography Experiment (TOPEX)/Poseidon, Jason-1, the Environmental Satellite (Envisat), and the Geosat Follow-On]. The authors show that spectral slopes in the mesoscale band are significantly different from a k−5 law, in disagreement with the QG turbulence theory. However, they very closely follow a k−11/3 slope, which indicates that the surface quasigeostrophic theory (SQG) is a much better dynamical framework than the QG turbulence theory to describe the ocean surface dynamics. Because of the specific properties of the SQG theory, these results offer new perspectives for the analysis and interpretation of satellite data.},
	number = {5},
	urldate = {2019-03-27},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Le Traon, P. Y. and Klein, P. and Hua, B. L. and Dibarboure, G.},
	month = may,
	year = {2008},
	pages = {1137--1142},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/EDQ7GQS2/Le Traon et al. - 2008 - Do Altimeter Wavenumber Spectra Agree with the Int.pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/7V4F37QE/2007JPO3806.html:text/html}
}

@article{xu_effects_2012,
	title = {The {Effects} of {Altimeter} {Instrument} {Noise} on the {Estimation} of the {Wavenumber} {Spectrum} of {Sea} {Surface} {Height}},
	volume = {42},
	issn = {0022-3670},
	doi = {10.1175/JPO-D-12-0106.1},
	abstract = {The wavenumber spectrum of sea surface height (SSH) observed by satellite altimetry was analyzed by Xu and Fu. The spectral shape in the wavelength range of 70–250 km was approximated by a power law, representing a regime governed by geostrophic turbulence theories. The effects of altimeter instrument noise were assumed insignificant at wavelengths longer than 70 km. The authors reexamined the assumption in the study. Using nearly simultaneous observations made by Jason-1 and Jason-2 during their cross-calibration phase, this study found that the white noise level of altimetry measurement was best estimated from the spectral values at wavelengths from 25 to 35 km. After removing a white noise level based on such estimate from the SSH spectrum, the spectral slope values changed significantly over most of the oceans. A key finding is that the spectral slopes are generally steeper than k−2 (k is wavenumber) poleward of the 20° latitudes, where flatter spectral slopes in some regions have previously caused problems for dynamic interpretations. The new results indicate that the spectral slopes in the core regions of the major ocean current systems have values between the original geostrophic turbulence theory and the surface quasigeostrophic theory. The near k−4 spectrum suggests that the sea surface height variability at these wavelengths in the high eddy energy regions might be governed by frontogenesis.},
	number = {12},
	urldate = {2019-03-27},
	journal = {Journal of Physical Oceanography},
	author = {Xu, Y. and Fu, L.-L.},
	month = aug,
	year = {2012},
	pages = {2229--2233},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/MXIIMYF8/Xu and Fu - 2012 - The Effects of Altimeter Instrument Noise on the E.pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/PWHHQ9WA/JPO-D-12-0106.html:text/html}
}

@article{li_weakly_2018,
	title = {Weakly or {Strongly} {Nonlinear} {Mesoscale} {Dynamics} {Close} to the {Tropopause}?},
	volume = {75},
	issn = {0022-4928},
	doi = {10.1175/JAS-D-17-0063.1},
	abstract = {Recently, it has been discussed whether the mesoscale energy spectra in the upper troposphere and lower stratosphere are generated by weakly or strongly nonlinear dynamics. A necessary condition for weak nonlinearity is that the Rossby number Ro ≡ {\textbar}ζz{\textbar}/f ≪ 1, where ζz is the vertical vorticity and f is the Coriolis parameter. First, it is shown that Ro can be estimated by integration of the rotational wavenumber energy spectrum Er. Then divergence and rotational energy spectra and their ratio, R ≡ Ed/Er, are calculated from the Measurement of Ozone and Water Vapor by Airbus In-Service Aircraft (MOZAIC) dataset, and it is shown that at least 1000 flight segments are needed to obtain converged results. It is found that R {\textless} 1 in the upper troposphere, ruling out the hypothesis that the spectra are produced by inertia–gravity waves with frequencies larger than f. In the lower stratosphere R is slightly larger than unity. An analysis separating between land and ocean data shows that Ed and temperature spectra have somewhat larger magnitude over land compared to ocean in the upper troposphere—a signature of orographically or convectively forced gravity waves. No such effect is seen in the lower stratosphere. At midlatitudes the Rossby number is on the order of unity and at low latitudes it is larger than unity, indicating that strong nonlinearities are prevalent. Also the temperature spectra, when converted into potential energy spectra, have larger magnitude than predicted by the weakly nonlinear wave hypothesis.},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2019-04-09},
	journal = {Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences},
	author = {Li, Q. and Lindborg, E.},
	month = feb,
	year = {2018},
	pages = {1215--1229},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/WA3LNZSD/Li and Lindborg - 2018 - Weakly or Strongly Nonlinear Mesoscale Dynamics Cl.pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/45HLJP2F/JAS-D-17-0063.html:text/html}
}

@article{bonnefond_benefits_2018,
	title = {The {Benefits} of the {Ka}-{Band} as {Evidenced} from the {SARAL}/{AltiKa} {Altimetric} {Mission}: {Quality} {Assessment} and {Unique} {Characteristics} of {AltiKa} {Data}},
	volume = {10},
	copyright = {http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/},
	shorttitle = {The {Benefits} of the {Ka}-{Band} as {Evidenced} from the {SARAL}/{AltiKa} {Altimetric} {Mission}},
	doi = {10.3390/rs10010083},
	abstract = {The India-France SARAL/AltiKa mission is the first Ka-band altimetric mission dedicated to oceanography. The mission objectives are primarily the observation of the oceanic mesoscales but also include coastal oceanography, global and regional sea level monitoring, data assimilation, and operational oceanography. The mission ended its nominal phase after 3 years in orbit and began a new phase (drifting orbit) in July 2016. The objective of this paper is to provide a state of the art of the achievements of the SARAL/AltiKa mission in terms of quality assessment and unique characteristics of AltiKa data. It shows that the AltiKa data have similar accuracy at the centimeter level in term of absolute water level whatever the method (from local to global) and the type of water surfaces (ocean and lakes). It shows also that beyond the fact that AltiKa data quality meets the expectations and initial mission requirements, the unique characteristics of the altimeter and the Ka-band offer unique contributions in fields that were previously not fully foreseen.},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2019-04-09},
	journal = {Remote Sensing},
	author = {Bonnefond, P. and Verron, J. and Aublanc, J. and Babu, K. N. and Bergé-Nguyen, M. and Cancet, M. and Chaudhary, A. and Crétaux, J.-F. and Frappart, F. and Haines, B. J. and Laurain, O. and Ollivier, A. and Poisson, J.-C. and Prandi, P. and Sharma, R. and Thibaut, P. and Watson, C.},
	month = jan,
	year = {2018},
	keywords = {altimetry, Ka-band, calibration, data processing, validation},
	pages = {83},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/94JL26PW/Bonnefond et al. - 2018 - The Benefits of the Ka-Band as Evidenced from the .pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/8KYM7SE4/83.html:text/html}
}

@article{lindborg_stratified_2007,
	title = {Stratified turbulence forced in rotational and divergent modes},
	volume = {586},
	issn = {1469-7645, 0022-1120},
	doi = {10.1017/S0022112007007082},
	abstract = {We perform numerical box simulations of strongly stratified turbulence. The equations solved are the Boussinesq equations with constant Brunt–Väisälä frequency and forcing either in rotational or divergent modes, or, with another terminology, in vortical or wave modes. In both cases, we observe a forward energy cascade and inertial-range scaling of the horizontal kinetic and potential energy spectra. With forcing in rotational modes, there is approximate equipartition of kinetic energy between rotational and divergent modes in the inertial range. With forcing in divergent modes the results are sensitive to the vertical forcing wavenumber kfv. If kfv is sufficiently large the dynamics is very similar to the dynamics of the simulations which are forced in rotational modes, with approximate equipartition of kinetic energy in rotational and divergent modes in the inertial range. Frequency spectra of rotational, divergent and potential energy are calculated for individual Fourier modes. Waves are present at low horizontal wavenumbers corresponding to the largest scales in the boxes. In the inertial range, the frequency spectra exhibit no distinctive peaks in the internal wave frequency. In modes for which the vertical wavenumber is considerably larger than the horizontal wavenumber, the frequency spectra of rotational and divergent modes fall on top of each other. The simulation results indicate that the dynamics of rotational and divergent modes develop on the same time scale in stratified turbulence. We discuss the relevance of our results to atmospheric and oceanic dynamics. In particular, we review a number of observational reports indicating that stratified turbulence may be a prevalent dynamic process in the ocean at horizontal scales of the order of 10 or 100 m up to several kilometres.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2019-04-09},
	journal = {Journal of Fluid Mechanics},
	author = {Lindborg, E. and Brethouwer, G.},
	month = sep,
	year = {2007},
	pages = {83--108},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/DDXBHCNC/Lindborg and Brethouwer - 2007 - Stratified turbulence forced in rotational and div.pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/SAZG95LT/77610567CEAA21627FC090BFE961C039.html:text/html}
}

@article{chereskin_characterizing_2019,
	title = {Characterizing the {Transition} {From} {Balanced} to {Unbalanced} {Motions} in the {Southern} {California} {Current}},
	volume = {124},
	copyright = {©2019. American Geophysical Union. All Rights Reserved.},
	issn = {2169-9291},
	doi = {10.1029/2018JC014583},
	abstract = {As observations and models improve their resolution of oceanic motions at ever finer horizontal scales, interest has grown in characterizing the transition from the geostrophically balanced flows that dominate at large-scale to submesoscale turbulence and waves that dominate at small scales. In this study we examine the mesoscale-to-submesoscale (100 to 10 km) transition in an eastern boundary current, the southern California Current System (CCS), using repeated acoustic Doppler current profiler transects, sea surface height from high-resolution nadir altimetry and output from a (1/48)° global model simulation. In the CCS, the submesoscale is as energetic as in western boundary current regions, but the mesoscale is much weaker, and as a result the transition lacks the change in kinetic energy (KE) spectral slope observed for western boundary currents. Helmholtz and vortex-wave decompositions of the KE spectra are used to identify balanced and unbalanced contributions. At horizontal scales greater than 70 km, we find that observed KE is dominated by balanced geostrophic motions. At scales from 40 to 10 km, unbalanced contributions such as inertia-gravity waves contribute as much as balanced motions. The model KE transition occurs at longer scales, around 125 km. The altimeter spectra are consistent with acoustic Doppler current profiler/model spectra at scales longer than 70/125 km, respectively. Observed seasonality is weak. Taken together, our results suggest that geostrophic velocities can be diagnosed from sea surface height on scales larger than about 70 km in the southern CCS.},
	language = {en},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2019-06-26},
	journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans},
	author = {Chereskin, T. K. and Rocha, Cesar B. and Gille, Sarah T. and Menemenlis, Dimitris and Passaro, Marcello},
	year = {2019},
	keywords = {internal gravity waves, submesoscale, mesoscale},
	pages = {2088--2109},
	file = {Snapshot:/Users/serazin/Zotero/storage/SKJN6VPV/2018JC014583.html:text/html}
}

@article{keppler_observed_2018,
	title = {Observed {Characteristics} and {Vertical} {Structure} of {Mesoscale} {Eddies} in the {Southwest} {Tropical} {Pacific}},
	volume = {123},
	issn = {2169-9275},
	doi = {10.1002/2017JC013712},
	abstract = {In the Southwest Pacific Ocean, waters transit from the subtropical gyre before being redistributed equatorward and poleward